THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edit

ion, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.

SECOND ,

, „ ten ,

, 1777— 1784.

THIRD ,

, ,, eighteen ,

, 1788— 1797.

FOURTH ,

, ,, twenty ,

, 1801 — 1810.

FIFTH ,

, „ twenty ,

, 1815 — 1817.

SIXTH ,

, „ twenty ,

, 1823 — 1824.

SEVENTH ,

, „ twenty-one ,

, 1830 — 1842.

EIGHTH ,

, „ twenty-two ,

1853—1860.

NINTH ,
TENTH ,

, ,, twenty-five ,
, ninth edition and eleven

, 1875—1889.

supplementary volumes,

1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,

, published in twenty-nine volume

s, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the

Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

Allrtgnts rtstwtd

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

A

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VII

CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH to DEMIDOV

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by

The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A.

B. F.

Y.

A.

Bo.*

A.

Ca.

A.

E.B.

A.

E.J.

A.

F. P.

A. 6.

A. Go*
A. H. J. G.

A- H. P.

A. J. B.
A. J. B.*

A* J« £•

A.L.
A. Mw.

Dance (in part).

Honorary Canon of \ Curia Romana;
L Decretals.

j Curve (in part).

Creeds.

i Craig, John; Cranmer;

1 Cromwell, Thomas; Crowley,

Alexander Bell Filson Young.

Formerly Editor of the Outlook. Author of Christopher Columbus; Master-singers;
The Complete Motorist; Wagner Stories; &c.

Auguste Boudinhon, D.D., D.C.L.

Professor of Canon Law in the Catholic University of Paris.
Paris. Editor of the Co-noniste contemporain.

Arthur Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article : Cayley, Arthur.

Rev. Andrew Ewbank Burn, M.A., D.D.

Vicar of Halifax and Prebendary of Lichfield. Author of An Introduction to the -
Creeds and the Te Deum ; Niceta of Remesiana ; &c.

Arthur Ernest Jolliffe, M.A.

Fellow of, and Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer at, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. -{ Continued Fractions.
Senior Mathematical Scholar, 1892.

Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. [ Coverdale* Cox Richard*

Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University ' ' '

of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.
Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c.

Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908). f Crime*

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;\ ri„i_i,!„i««.»
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. |_ Wiminoiogy

Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.) (d. 1905).

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional
History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman
History, 133-70 B.C.

Rev. Arnold Hill Payne, M.A.

Chaplain, Oxford Diocesan Mission to the Deaf and Dumb. Late Normal Fellow,
National Deaf Mute College, Washington, U.S.A. Author of The Mental Develop-
ment of the Orally and Manually taught Deaf; The Pure Oral Method of necessity a
Comparative Failure; &c.

Alfred Joshua Butler, M.A., D.Litt. C

Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. Author -I Copts*
of The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt; The Arab Conquest of Egypt; &c. I.

Arthur John Butler, M.A. (1844-1910). f

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Italian Language J J} an tg
and Literature, University College, London. Author of a prose translation of 1

{

Coornhert.

Consul: Roman.

Deaf and Dumb.

The Coptic Church.

Dante's Divine Comedy; Dante and his Times; &c.

Arthur John Evans, M.A., D.Litt., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.

Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. Keeper of Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 1884-
1908. Hon. Keeper since 1908. Made archaeological discoveries in Crete, 1893;-
excavated the Palace of Knossos. Author of Through Bosnia on Foot; Cretan
Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script ; and other works on archaeology.

Andrew Lang.

See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew.

Allen Mawer, M.A.

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in
English at the University of Sheffield.

Crete: Archaeology and
Ancient History.

Crystal-Gazing.

Danelagh.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

VI

A. M. C.

A. M. CI.

A.N.
A. N.*

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

A.

N. M.

A.

van M.

A.

W. H.*

A.

Wi.

A. W. R.

A. W. W.
C. E*
C. E. N.
C. F. A.

C. F. B.

C. K.

C. K. S.
C. L.
C. PL

C. R. B.

D. C. T.
D. F. T.

D. 6. H.

Agnes Mary Clerke.

See the biographical article: Clerke, A. M.

Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Wilde).

Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources '
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.

Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred.

Rev. Alexander Nairne, M.A.

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis in King's College, London.
Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of St Albans. Fellow of King's College, London.
Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Crosse Scholar, 1886. Author of
The Bible Doctrine of Atonement; &c.

A. N. Monkhouse. J

Member of Editorial Staff of Manchester Guardian. I

Alexander van Millingen, M.A., D.D. f

Professor of History, Robert College, Constantinople. Author of Byzantine Con- -j
stantinople; Constantinople; &c. L

Arthur William Holland. J

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. [

Aneurin Williams, M.A., M.P. f

Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International Co- J
operative Alliance. M.P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years
of Co-partnership at Guise; &c. "-

Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., L.L.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws
of England.

Adolphus William Ward, Litt.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Ward, A. W.

Charles Everitt, A.M., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.

Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Charles Eliot Norton, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Norton, Charles E.

Charles Francis Atkinson. ,,,,„,

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal

TJ* "1* _ \ A..J.1 „f T 1 /.-. ~\f7Zl A ***** n it nit*A f^nlA TTn trnniiv

"Copernicus; Delambre;
. Delisle, J. N.

Curia; Decemviri;
Decurio.

Coot; Cormorant;
Crane; Crossbill;
Crow; Cuckoo; Curlew.

Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Author of Lord \ Coolle -

Dagobert.

Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D. f

Regius Professor of Law and Professor of Political Economy in the University of _j
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International 1
Trade; &c. L

William Charles Mark Kent. f

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Edited the London Sun for twenty-five years; J
the Weekly Register, 1874-1881. Author of The Humour and Pathos of Charles |
Dickens; &c. >-

Clement King Shorter.

Editor of the Sphere. Author of Sixty Years of Victorian Literature; Immortal-
Memories ; The Brontes: Life and Letters ; &c.

H. Caldwell Lipsett.

Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India.
Curzon in India.

Christian Peister, D. es L. .

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author ot
Etude sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende de
Sainte-Odile.

Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of

Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.

David Croal Thomson. .

Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Mans; The Barbizon -
School of Painters ; Life of ' ' Phiz ' ' ; Life of Bewick ; &c.

Donald Francis Tovey. . .

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations; and analyses of many other classical"
works.

David George Hogarth, M.A.

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899-
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athe.ns, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Creatianism and Traducianism,

Cotton (in part).

Constantinople.

Curia Regis.

Co-operation.

Corporal Punishment;
Covenant.

Cumberland, Richard:

Dramatist.

Constellation.

Curtis, George William.

Crimean War;
Cromwell, Oliver (in part)

Decimal Coinage.
Dalling, Lord.

Cowper, William;
Crabbe, George.

Conti, Nicolo de';
Cook, Captain; Dampier;
Daniel of Kiev;
Davis, John.

Corot;
Daubigny.

Contrapuntal Forms;
Counterpoint.

Cyrenaica;
Cyrene.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Vll

D.H.

D. Mn.
E.Br.
£. B. El.

E. B. P.

E. C. Q.
E. F. S.

E. G.
E. Gr.

David Hannay.

E.

Ma.

Ed

1. M.

E.

M. W

E.

Pr.

E. R. B.

E. Tn.
E.V.

F, E. W.

F. G. M. B.

FLu.

F. LI. G.

F. Po.
F. S. P.

(Convoy .(in part) ;
Cordoba, Gonzalo Fernandez do;
Dahlgren, John Adolf.

Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate.
Missionary Society.

Director of the London 1 Cruden, Alexander.

Ernest Barker, M.A. f

Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly 1 Crusades.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I

Edwin Bailey Elliott, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f

Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics and Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. .
Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1896-1898. Author of Algebra of Quantics; &c.

Edward Bagnall Potjlton, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., LL.D.

Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College, .
Oxford. Author of The Colours of Animals; Essays on Evolution; Darwin and the
Original Species; &c.

Edmund Crosby Quiggin, M.A.

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Modern Languages, *
and Monro Lecturer in Celtic.

Edward Fairbrother Strange.

Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of.
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor
of Bell's " Cathedral " Series.

Curve (in part).

Darwin.

Cuchulinn.

Edmund Gosse, LL.D.

See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund.

Delia Quercia.

Conte; Couplet; Cowley;
Crashaw; Criticism;
Daniel, Samuel;
Davenant, Sir William;
Dekker, Edward Douwes.
Corfu (in part) ;
Corinth : Isthmus of;
Cos( in part) ; Crisa ; Daphne;
Delos; Delphi.

Debentures and Debenture
Stock.

Ctesiphon; Cyaxares;
Cyrus; Darius; Deioces;
Demetrius of Bactria.

Constitution of Athens.

Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.

See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.

Edward Manson.

Barrister-at-Law. Joint-editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author of ■
Debentures and Debenture Stock; &c.

Eduard Meyer, D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D., Ph.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des
Alterthums; Forschungen zur alien Geschichte; Geschichte des alien Agyptens; Die
Israeliten und ihreNachbarstamme; &c.

Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, M.A.

Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.

Edgar Prestage. C

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J Corte-Real, Jeronymo;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Cruz e Silva.
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. I

Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A. ["

Formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. Author of House of Seleucus; Jerusalem -j Demetrius of Macedonia.
under the High Priests. L

Rev. Ethelred Leonard Taunton (d.1907).

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England.

Rev. Edmund Venables, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.

Rev. Frederick Edward Warren, M.A., B.D., F.S.A.

Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, 1865-
1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into English and compared with the-
Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals; The Liturgy and Ritual
of the Celtic Church ; &c.

Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

Friedrich Luckwaldt, Ph.D.

Professor of History at the Royal Technical High School, Danzig.
Osterreich und die Anfdnge des Befreiungskriege von 18 13; &c.

Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College,
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute.

Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: Pollock: Family.

Francis Samuel Philbrick, A.M., B.Sc. C

Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member of American -j Cuba.
Historical Association. 1

Cullen, Paul; Curci.
Crypt.

Dedication.

Deira.

Author of -I Dahlmann.

Copts (in part).

Contract.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

F. T. M. Sir Frank Thomas Marzials, K.C.B. -fl)audet.

Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Editor of " Great Writers " Series. |_

F. W. Ha. Frederick William Hasluck, M.A. J .

Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's "l CyziCUS.
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. L

F. W. R.* Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Corundum; Cryolite -

Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. i 7v> m , n („ij' '

President of the Geologists' Association, 1 887-1 889. I ^«ram°K».

G. A. B. George A. Boulenger, F.R.S. f

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British < CyprinodontS.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. L

G. C. B. Gilbert Charles Bourne, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r

Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford. Fellow of Merton College, J Cnral-reefs
Oxford. Author of An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Anatomy of\ " '

Animals; &c.

G. C. C. G. C. Chubb.

i Cytology.

G. C. W. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. r Cooper Alexander*

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J _ c 1 . '

Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 l>°oper, Samuel;
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. (_ Cosway, Richard.

G. F. Z. G. F. Zimmer, A.M.Inst.CE., F.Z.S. J"

Author of Mechanical Handling of Material. \ Conveyors.

G. H. Fo. George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S., F.L.S., Ph.D. f

Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant Professor < Ctenophora.
of Zoology at University College, London. [

G. J. T. George James Turner. f

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forest for the Selden -j County.
Society. (.

G. P. R. Gerald Philip Robinson. I*

President of the Society of Mezzotint Engravers. Mezzotint Engraver to Queen ~\ Cousins, Samuel.
Victoria and to King Edward VII. I

G. Sa. George Saintsbury, L.L.D., Litt.D. j Corneille, Pierre;

See the biographical article: Saintsbury, G. E. B. I Corneille, Thomas.

G. Sn. Grant Showerman, A.M., Ph.D. [Corybantes;

Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J Criobolium*
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of 1 r llr »*„.. p.tu.1.
With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. I ^ ureles > ^YDeie.

G. W. T. Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. f

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old") Damiri.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford, I

H. Br. Henry Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. f

Joint -editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. -I Cynewulf.
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. L

H. B. W. Horace Bolingbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. f

Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. Wollaston J nonhon

Medallist G — 1 ~~* — ' c — •'"<-" A...-U — ~f -rz.- tt:~* ~r n.- /^„-;„„.-„-t a-.-.---*.. ~c 1 j^cuiiou.

London; &c.

Medallist, Geological Society. Author of The History of the Geological Society of I

H. F. G. Hans Friedrich Gadow, M.A., F.R.S., Ph.D. C

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. -I Crocodile.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). I

H. Fr. Henri Frantz. f r . lirh . t

Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts, Paris. \ uouroei.

H. M. W. H. Marshall Ward, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905). r

Formerly Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. President of the J jj Barv
British Mycological Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases ; The Oak ; 1 »ary.

Disease in Plants; &c. I

H. St. Henry Sturt, M.A. J Crusius;

Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; and Personal Idealism. \ Cudworth, R.

H. S. J. Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. r

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J Costume: Aegean, Greek,
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 Etruscan and Roman
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. L

H. Th. Sir Henry Thompson, Bart. f cremation

See the biographical article: Thompson, Sir Henry. \

H. Tr. Sir Henry Trotter, K.C.M.G., C.B. r

Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers. H.B.M. Consul-General for Roumania, J — ,
1894-1906, and British Delegate on the European Commission of the Danube. 1 0* nUDe -
Victoria Medallist, Royal Geographical Society, 1878. [_

H. W. C. D. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. f

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of. All Souls' College, 1895-^ Coutances, Walter Of,
1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. (.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

IX

LA.

J. An.

J.

A.

C.

J.

A.

H.

J.

C.

S.-H

J.

D.

B.

J.

D.

Pr.

J.

E.

B.

J.

Go

.*

J.G.K.

J. H. P.
J. H. M.

J. H. R.
J. HI. R.

J. H. Rs.

J. L. M.

J. Mo.
J. McP.

J.M.M.

J, P. Pe.

J. S. P.

J. T. Be.
J. T. C.

Israel Abrahams, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera-
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.

Joseph Anderson, LL.D.

Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant Secretary
to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892.
Editor of Drummond's Ancient Scottish Weapons; &c.

Crescas;
Delmedigo.

Crannog.

Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G.

See the biographical article: Crowe, Sir J. A.

John Allen Howe, B.Sc.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.

John Castleman Swinburne-Kanham, J.P.

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Hon. Secretary of Cremation Society of England.

James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S.

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe.
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. t

John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, New York.

John Eglinton Bailey.

Author of John Dee and the Steganographia of Trithemius ; Life of Thomas Fuller.

Joseph Grego.

Art Critic. Author of A History of Parliamentary Elections ; A History of Dancing ;
Thomas Rowlandson ; James Gillray ; &c.

John Graham Kerr, M.A., F.R.S.

Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator
in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College,
Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal
Society of Edinburgh, 1904.

John Henry Freese, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

John Henry Middleton, M.A., F.S.A., Litt.D., D.C.L. (1846-1896). 1

Formerly Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, and Art j
Director of the South Kensington Museum. Author of The Engraved Gems of
Classical Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Medieval Times.

John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and*
Pedigree; &c.

John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. _ 1

Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European 1
Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. I

Rev. James Hardy Ropes, D.D. i

Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation, and Dexter J
Lecturer on Bible Literature, Harvard University. Author of The Apostolic Age |
in the Light of Modern Criticism ; &c. |

John Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A. 1

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J
Gladstone Professor of Greek, and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of 1
Liverpool ; and Lecturer on Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. |

Viscount Morley of Blackburn. j

See the biographical article: Morley, Viscount. 1

John Macfarlane. i

Formerly Librarian of the Imperial Library, Calcutta. Author of Library Ad- J

ministration; &c. ]

John Malcolm Mitchell. (

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -j
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. {

Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D. r

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the J
University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1
1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. {

John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. r

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [

John T. Bealby. r

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical -1
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I

Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S. r

Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the"!
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [

f Cranach;
I Cuyp.
f Corallian;
ICornbrash; Culm.

•j Cremation: Statistics.

{Crete: Geography and Statis-
tics; and Modern History.

{

Daniel (in part).
Cryptography.

Cruikshank.
Cyclostomata.

■< Demeter.

Delia Robbia (in part).

Court Baron.

Daru, Count;
Decaen.

Corinthians: Epistles to the.

Cyprus (in part).
Danton.

Damien, Father.
Delian League.

Deir.

Crystallite;
Dacite.

Crimea (in part) ;
Daghestan (in part).

Cuttle-fish.

X

J.V.
IL G. J.

K.S.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

L.D.*
L« J* S«

L.V.*
M. A. C.

M

Ha.

M

N.T.

M

O.B.C

N.

D.M

N.

W. T.

0.

Ba.

0.

J. R. H.

P. A. K.

P. C. Y.

P.G.
P.Gi.

P. G. K.
R. A.*

John Veitch, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Veitch, John.

Kingsley Garland Jayne.

I Cousin, V. (in part).

IGSLEY VjAKLAJNU JAYME. f

Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. J Croatia-SIavonia;
Author of Vasco da Carta and his Successors. 1 Dalmatia.

Kathleen Schlesinger.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c.

Count Lutzow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), D.Ph. (Prague), F.R.G.S.

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. MemDer
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c.
Author of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch ; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture,
Oxford, 1904); The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.

Louis Duchesne.

See the biographical article: Duchesne, L.M.O.

»

Leonard James Spencer, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera-
logical Magazine.

Luigi Villari.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil- -
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town
and Country; Fire and Sword in the Caucasus; &C.

Maurice A. Canney, M.A.

Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly
Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholar, '
Oxford, 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896.

Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa '
bridge Natural History, and papers for various scientific journals.

Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University.
University, 1 905-1 908.

Newton Dennison Mereness, A.M., Ph.D.
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.

Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A.

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.

Oswald Barron, F.S.A.

Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

Osbert John Radcliefe Howarth, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901.
British Association.

Contrafagotto; Cor Anglais;
Cornet {in part);
Cromorne {in part);
Crowd; Cymbals.

Czech.

Damasus.

Copper-glance;
Copper Pyrites;
Covellite; Crocoite;
Crystallography;
Cuprite; Cyanite;
Datolite.

Contarini; Cornaro;

Correnti; Corsini;

Dandolo; Delia Gherardesca.

Daub, Karl.

in Cam--! Cystoflagellata.

-j Demaratus.

r Corfu {in part);
Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham < Corinth {in part) ;

I Cos {in part).

-j Davis, Jefferson {in part).

J Death-warning.

r Costume: Medieval and
-j Modern European;
Icourtenay: Family.

Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.

See the biographical article : Kropotkin, P. A.

Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

Percy Gardner, Litt.D., D.C.L., F.S.A.

See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.

Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University

Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological

Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c.
Paul G. Konody.

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist.

Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
Robert Anchel.

Archivist to the Departement de 1'Eure.

Assistant Secretary of the -i Copenhagen.

r Cossacks;
J Crimea {in part);
IDaghestan {in part).

"Cottington, F. C. Baron;
Coventry, Sir William;
Craven, Earl of;
Cromwell, Oliver {in part);
Cromwell, Richard.

f Daedalus;

1 Demetrius (Sculptor).

D.

David, Gerard.

J Convention, The National;
I Cordeliers, Club of the.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XI

R. A. S. M.

R. B. McK.
R. B. R.

R. H. C.

R. H. L.
R. J. M.
R. L.*

R. N. B.
R. P. S.

R.So.
R. S. C.
R. W. R.

S. A. C.

S. E. B.

S. J. C.

S.Wa.
T.As.

T. A. I.
T. A. J.
T. Ba.

JDekker, Thomas (in part).

Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. J Damascus;

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- t Dead Sea;
ploration Fund. I Decapolis,

Ronald BruNlees McKerrow.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

Rueus Byam Richardson, Ph.D., B.D.

Formerly Director of American School of Classical Studies, Athens. Member of
American Geological Society, British Society of Promotion of Hellenic Studies,
Greek Archaeological Society, &c. Author of History of Greek Sculpture; Vacation
Days in Greece; Greece through the Stereoscope; &c.

Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. f

Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British J Daniel (in Part)
Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author
. of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life ; Book of Jubilees ; &c. I

Robin Humphrey Legge. f

Principal Musical Critic for Daily Telegraph. Author of Annals of the Norwich -s Debussy.

Corinth (in part).

Festivals; &c.

Ronald John McNeill, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette, London.

Formerly Editor of the St James's-

Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of ■
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of
all Lands, &c.

Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).

Formerly Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1 5 13-1900; The First Romanovs, -
1613 to 172$ ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.

R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, .
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

Robert Somers (1822-1891).

Editor of North British Daily Mail, 1849-1859.
lands ; The Southern States since the War.

Conway, Henry Seymour;
Cowper, William C, 1st Earl;
Cromwell, Oliver (in part).

Coyote; Creodonta;
Deer.

Corvinus; Czartoryski;
Damjanich; Deak;
De Geer; De la Gardie;
Demetrius Donskoi;
Demetrius, Fseudo.

Decorated Period.

Author of Letters from the High- -j Corn Laws (in part).

Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.).

Professor of Latin in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin -
of University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Robert William Rogers, D.D., Litt.D., LL.D., Ph.D.

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew Theological Seminary,
Madison, New Jersey. Author of Inscriptions of Sennacherib; History of Babylonia '
and Assyria; The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria; &c.

Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip- '
tions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

Hon. Simeon Eben Baldwin, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale University.
Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the American Bar Association. •
Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut. Author of Modern Political Institutions;
American Railroad Law; &c.

Sydney John Chapman, M.A.

Professor of Political Economy and Dean of the Faculty of Commerce in the Uni-
versity of Manchester. Author of The Lancashire Cotton Industry; The Cotton
Industry and Trade; &c.

Samuel Wadsworth, M.A.

Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple and of Lincoln's Inn. Joint-editor of the 17th -
edition of Davidson's Concise Precedents in Conveyancing.

Thomas Ashby, M.A., DXitt. (Oxon.).

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the"
Imperial German Archaeological Institute.

Cumae (in part).

Cuneiform.

Costume: Ancient, Oriental;
Cush; Dan; David (in part);
Deborah;
Decalogue (in part).

Conveyancing (United States).

Cotton: Marketing and Supply.
Cotton Manufacture.

Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum.
Anthropological Institute.

Conveyancing (in part).

Corflnium; Cori; Cortona;
Cosa; Cosenza; Cremona;
Crotona; Cumae (in part);
Cures.

(Convocation (in part);
Corn Laws (in part) ;
Coroner; Cruelty; Day.

Hon. Sec, Royal J Costume (in part).

. Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P. r Contraband;

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council I ronwnw CV*, v>/i»A-
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of] „..,..* J™ ";„.'.

International Practice and Diplomacy: &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

1 Declaration of Paris.

T.

T.

T.

W.

P.

V.

M.

W

.A.

B.

C.

xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

T.F.C. Theodore Frevlinghuysen Collier, PhJ) _ {Constantinople, Councils of.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. {_■ r

T. K. C. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D. j Cosmogony;

See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K. \ Deluge, The. '

T. M. F. Thomas Macall Fallow, M.A., F.S.A. . (-Coronation;

Editor of the Antiquary, 1895-1899. Author of Memorials of Old Yorkshire; The< Cross and Crucifixion;
Cathedral Churches of Ireland. L Crown and Coronet.

T. Se. Thomas Seccombe. [" . ■

Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. J rnnefuntinn Pavlmriph
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National] ^ on! "» uuue raviovicn.
Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson: &c. I

Sir Travers Twiss, K.C., D.CL., F.R.S. /Consulate of the Sea;

See the biographical article: TwisSj Sir Travers. \ Convocation (in part).

Thomas Willjam Fox, M.Sc.Tech. / Cotton-sDinnine Machinerv

Professor of Textiles, Manchester University. Author of Mechanism of Weaving. \ ™ uon spinning macmnery.

Victor Charles Mahillon. f cornet (in part);

Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of thei Cromorne (in ■hart)

Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern.), r
. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Crousaz, Jean Pierre de;

College* Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Hdut Dauphini; The Range of 1 Dauphine;
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Davos.
. History ;&c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. . t

™ . » ..7 "Y'',, „, . f Cope; Crete (in part) ;

W. A. P. ,,■ Walter Alison Phillips M^A _ J cntaaa: . National, Class and

..,■ Former/y-Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John s College, i n ~ . ,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Official ;

L Dalmatic.

W. B.* William Burton, M.A., F.C.S. f .' s

Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of A Delia Robbia (in part).
: "English StoHeware and Earthenware; &c. [_

William Bell Scott. f Cox, David;

See the biographical article: Scott, William Bell. \ Delaroche.

WiLLiXsT'CifARLES Smith, K.C., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). f

Formerly Sheriff of Ross, Cromarty and Sutherland. Editor of Judicial Review, 1 Dance (in part).
1889-1900. . ' I

W. Cave Thomas. ("

Author of Symmetrical Education; Mural or Monumental Decoration; Revised Theory ■< Cornelius, Peter von.

of Light. ' I

Rt. Rev. William Edward Collins, D.D, r

Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, J _ , r , , .

London. J^ecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The] Cyprus: C#WfC# of.
' . Study of. Ecclesiastical History; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. (_

WilliaU <■ Ernest Henley. J*rw»«,. i„ m ^ t-„„,-^,„-„

See the biographical article: Henley, W.E. j Cooper, James Femmore.

w.

B.

Sc.

w.

C.

S.

w.

c.

T.

w.

E.

Co.

w.

E.

H.

w.

Fr

William Fream, LL.D. (d. 1907). f

Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and! Dairy and Dairy-farming.
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. I

(-Contempt of Court;
W. F. C. William Feilden Craies, M.A. _ Conversion:

Barrister-at- Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. 1 rnctc- rrimmoi i,„.
Editor of Archbold'sCnwirea/P/eadwg (23rd edition). wrara, wimraai LAW,

(_ Damages.

W. G. F. William George Freeman, B.Sc. (London), A.R.C.S. C

Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products. Joint-editor^ Cotton (in part),
oi Science Progress, in the Twentieth Century. '■■'[_

W. L. H. D. Wynfrid Lawrence Henry Duckworth, M.A., M.D., D.Sc. ["

, Lecturer in Physical Anthropology, and Senior Demonstrator of Human Anatomy J rT0 _ 5A _, i_,

in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Jesus. College. Author of Morphology 1 wanlomelr y.

' and Anthropology; &c. {,

W. L.-W. Sir William : Lee-Warner, M.A., K.C.S.I. r

Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Dalhousie 1st MarQUiS
Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie; \ '

Memoirs 'of field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman; &c. I

W. M. William Minto, M.A. Jr^t-i™, ti.->^«> /• * a

See the biographical article : Minto, William. \ Dekker ' ^^^ (»* P art) -

W. M. R. William Michael Rossetti. J Correggio;

See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante G. \ Crivelli, Carlo.

W. P.* Walter Pitt, M.Inst.CE., M.I.M.E. fr

Member of the Committee of International Maritime Conference, I .ondon, &c. "^Cranes.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

X1U

w.

R. E. H

w.

R. S,

w.

T. Ca.

w.

Wr.

w.

W. H.*

w.

W. R.*

William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R S.

Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly Pro-
fessor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin-
Hodgkinson's Practiced Chemistry; &c.

William Robertson Smith, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Smith, W. R.

William Thomas Calman, D.Sc, F.Z.S. f S rab J fc

Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.-; Crayfish;
Author of " Crustacea " in A Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. |_ Crustacea.

Cordite.

' David (in part) ;
Decalogue (in part).

Williston Walker, Ph.D., D.D. .

Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congre-
gational Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin; &c.

Cotton, John.

Hon. William Wirt Henry, M.A. (d. 1900). .,,-•• u . f

Formerly President of the American Historical Association and of the Virginia His- J Davis, Jefferson (in part).
4. :„„i c„„:„*., a,itlini- anrl FHitnr nf the life. Correspondence and Speeches of

torical Society
Patrick Henry

;nr OI Hie siuieuiau nuiui^i jra,ui.iu,.iuu ^..u „. w.~ . ..„....- ,

Author and Editor of the Life, Correspondence and Speeches of

William Walker Rockwell, Lie. Theol.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

J Council.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Constitution and Con-

Corporation.

Cricket. 1

Cyrenaics.

stitutional Law.

Corrupt Practices.

Crocus.

Dacia.

Consul.

Corsica.

Croquet.

Dahomey.

Cookery.

Corvee.

Cruciferae.

Damask.

Coorg.

Costa Rica.

Culdees.

Darfur.

Copper.

Count.

Cumberland.

Deacon.

Coprolites.

Court.

Curling.

Dean.

Copyhold.

Couvade.

Currant.

Death.

Copyright.

Covenanters.

Cursor Mundi.

Debt.

Coral.

Crawford, Earls of.

Cutlery.

Deccan.

Cork.

Creey.

Cycling.

Deism.

Cornell University.

Cretaceous System.

Cycloid.

Delaware.

Cornwall.

Cribbage.

Cynics.

Delirium.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VII

CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH (1779-1831), grand-duke and
cesarevich of Russia, was born at Tsarskoye Selo on the 27 th
of April 1779. Of the sons born to the unfortunate tsar Paul,
Petrovich and his wife Maria Feodorovna, nie princess of Wtirt-
temberg, none more closely resembled his father in bodily
and mental characteristics than did the second, Constantine
Pavlovich. The direction of the boy's upbringing was entirely
in the hands of his grandmother, the empress Catherine II. As
in the case of her eldest grandson (afterwards the emperor
Alexander I.), she regulated every detail of his physical and
mental education; but in accordance with her usual custom
she left the carrying out of her views to the men who were in
her confidence. Count Nicolai Ivanovich Soltikov was supposed
to be the actual tutor, but he too in his turn transferred the
burden to another, only interfering personally on quite excep-
tional occasions, and exercised neither a positive nor a negative
influence upon the character of the exceedingly passionate,
restless and headstrong boy. The only person who really took
him in hand was Cesar La Harpe, who was tutor-in-chief from
1783 to May 1795 and educated both the empress's grandsons.

Like Alexander, Constantine was married by Catherine when
not yet seventeen years of age, a raw and immature boy, and
he made his wife, Juliana of Coburg, intensely miserable. After
a first separation in the year 1799, she went back permanently
to her German home in 1801, the victim of a frivolous intrigue,
in the guilt of which she was herself involved. An attempt made
by Constantine in 1814 to win her back to his hearth and home
broke down on her firm opposition. During the time of this
tragic marriage Constantine's first campaign took place under
the leadership of the great Savorov. The battle of Bassignano
was lost by Constantine's fault, but at Novi he distinguished
himself by such personal bravery that the emperor Paul be-
stowed on him the title of cesarevich, which according to the
fundamental law of the constitution belonged only to the heir
to the throne. Though it cannot be proved that this action of
the tsar denoted any far-reaching plan, it yet shows that Paul
already distrusted the grand-duke Alexander. However that
may be, it is certain that Constantine never tried to secure the
throne. After his father's death he led a wild and disorderly
bachelor life. He abstained from politics, but remained faithful
to his military inclinations, though, indeed, without manifesting
anything more than a preference for the externalities of the
service.

In command of the Guards during the campaign of 1805

VII. 1

Constantine had a share of the responsibility for the unfortunate
turn which events took at the battle of Austerlitz; while in
1807 neither his skill nor his fortune in war showed any improve-
ment. However, after the peace of Tilsit he became an ardent
admirer of the great Corsican and an upholder of the Russo-
French alliance. It was on this account that in political questions
he did not enjoy the confidence of his imperial brother. To the
latter the French alliance had always been merely a means to
an end, and after he had satisfied himself at Erfurt, and later
during the Franco- Austrian War of 1809, that Napoleon like-
wise regarded his relation to Russia only from the point of view
of political advantage, he became convinced that the alliance
must transform itself into a battle of life and death. Such
insight was never attained by Constantine; even in 181 2, after
the fall of Moscow, he pressed for a speedy conclusion of peace
with Napoleon, and, like field-marshal Kutusov, he too opposed
the policy which carried the war across the Russian frontier to
a victorious conclusion upon French soil. During the campaign
he was a boon companion of every commanding-officer. Barclay
de Tolly was twice obliged to send him away from the army.
His share in the battles in Germany and France was insignificant.
At Dresden, on the 26th of August, his military knowledge
failed him at the decisive moment, but at La Fere-Champenoise
he distinguished himself by personal bravery. On the whole he
cut no great figure. In Paris the grand-duke excited public
ridicule by the manifestation of his petty military fads. His
first visit was to the stables, and it was said that he had marching
and drilling even in his private rooms.

In the great political decisions of those days.Constantine took
not the smallest part. His importance in political history dates
only from the moment when the emperor Alexander entrusted
him in Poland with a task which enabled him to concentrate all
the one-sidedness of his talents and all the doggedness of his
nature on a definite object: that of the militarization and
outward discipline of Poland. With this begins the part played
by the grand-duke in history. In the Congress-Poland created
by Alexander he received the post of commander-in-chief of the
forces of the kingdom; to which was added later (1819) the
command of the Lithuanian troops and of those of the Russian
provinces that had formerly belonged to the kingdom of Poland.
In effect he was the actual ruler of the country, and soon became
the most zealous advocate of the separate position of Poland
created by the constitution granted by Alexander. He organized
their army for the Poles, and felt himself more a Pole than a

CONSTANTINE

Russian, especially after his marriage, on the 27th of May 1820,
with a Polish lady, Johanna Grudzinska. Connected with this
was his renunciation of any claim to the Russian succession,
which was formally completed in 1822. It is well known how,
in spite of this, when Alexander I. died on the 1st of December
1825 the grand-duke Nicholas had him proclaimed emperor
in St Petersburg, in connexion with which occurred the famous
revolt of the Russian Liberals, known as the rising of the
Dekabrists. In this crisis Constantine's attitude had been
very correct, far more so than that of his brother, which was
vacillating and uncertain. Under the emperor Nicholas also
Constantine maintained his position in Poland. But differences
soon arose between him and his brother in consequence of the
share taken by the Poles in the Dekabrist conspiracy. Con-
stantine hindered the unveiling of the organized plotting for
independence which had been going on in Poland for many
years, and held obstinately to the belief that the army and the
bureaucracy were loyally devoted to the Russian empire. The
eastern policy of the tsar and the Turkish War of 1828 and 1829
caused a fresh breach between them. It was owing to the opposi-
tion of Constantine that the Polish army took no part in this
war, so that there was in consequence no Russo-Polish comrade-
ship in arms, such as might perhaps have led to a reconciliation
between the two nations.

The insurrection at Warsaw in November 1830 took Con-
stantine completely by surprise. It was owing to his utter failure
to grasp the situation that the Polish regiments passed over to
the revolutionaries; and during the continuance of the revolution
he showed himself as incompetent as he was lacking in judgment.
Every defeat of the Russians appeared to him almost in the
light of a personal gratification: his soldiers were victorious.
The suppression of the revolution he did not live to see. He
died of cholera at Vitebsk on the 27th of June 1831. He was
an impossible man in an impossible situation. On the Russian
imperial throne he would in all probability have been a tyrant
like his father.

See also Karrnovich's The Cesarevich Constantine Pavlovich (2 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1899), (Russian); T. Schiemann's Geschichte Russ-
lands unter Kaiser Nicolaus I. vol. i. (Berlin, 1904); Pusyrevski's
The Russo-Polish War of 1831 (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1890)
(Russian). (T. Se.)

CONSTANTINE, a city of Algeria, capital of the department
of the same name, 54 m. by railway S. by W. of the port of
Philippeville, in 36°22' N., 6° 36' E. Constantine is the residence
of a general commanding a division, of a prefect and other high
officials, is the seat of a bishop, and had a population in 1906
of 46,806, of whom 25,312 were Europeans. The population of
the commune, which includes the suburbs of Constantine, was
58,435. The city occupies a romantic position on a rocky
plateau, cut off on all sides save the west from the surrounding
country by a beautiful ravine, through which the river Rummel
flows. The plateau is 2130 ft. above sea-level, and from 500 to
nearly 1000 ft. above the river bed. The ravine, formed by
the Rummel, through erosion of the limestone, varies greatly in
width — at its narrowest part the cliffs are only 15 ft. apart, at
its broadest the valley is 400 yds. wide. At the N.E. angle of the
city the gorge is spanned by an iron bridge (El-Kantara) built
in 1863, giving access to the railway station, situated on Mansura
hill. A stone bridge built by the Romans, and restored at
various times, suddenly gave way in 1857 and is now in ruins;
it was built on a natural arch, which, 184 ft. above the level of
the river, spans the valley. Along the north-eastern side of
the city the Rummel is spanned in all four times by these natural
stone arches or tunnels. To the north the city is commanded
by the Jebel Mecid, a hill which the French (following the example
of the Romans) have fortified.

Constantine is walled, the extant medieval wall having been
largely constructed out of Roman material. Through the centre
from north to south runs a street (the rue de France) roughly
dividing Constantine into two parts. The place du Palais, in
which are the palace of the governor and the cathedral, and the
kasbah (citadel) are west of the rue de France, as is likewise

the place Negrier, containing the law courts. The native town
lies chiefly in the south-east part of the city. A striking contrast
exists between the Moorish quarter, with its tortuous lanes
and Oriental architecture, and the modern quarter, with its
rectangular streets and wide open squares, frequently bordered
with trees and adorned with fountains. Of the squares the
place de Nemours is the centre of the commercial and social life
of the city. Of the public buildings those dating from before the
French occupation possess chief interest. The palace, built
by Ahmed Pasha, the last bey of Constantine, between 1830
and 1836, is one of the finest specimens of Moorish architecture
of the 19th century. The kasbah, which occupies the northern
corner of the city, dates from Roman times, and preserves in
its more modern portions numerous remains of other Roman
edifices. It is now turned into barracks and a hospital. '. The fine
mosque of Sidi-el-Kattani (or Salah Bey) dates from the close of
the 18th century; that of Suk-er-Rezel, now transformed into a
cathedral,, and called Notre-Dame des Sept Douleurs, was built
about a century earlier. The Great Mosque, or Jamaa-el-Kebir,
occupies the site of what was probably an ancient pantheon.
The mosque Sidi-el-Akhdar has a beautiful minaret nearly
80 ft. high. The museum, housed in the hotel de ville, contains a
fine collection of antiquities, including a famous bronze statuette
of the winged figure of Victory, 23 in. high, discovered in the
kasbah in 1858.

A religious seminary, or medressa, is maintained in connexion
with the Sidi-el-Kattani; and the French support a college and
various minor educational establishments for both Arabic and
European culture. The native industry of Constantine is chiefly
confined to leather goods and woollen fabrics. Some 100,000
burnouses are made annually, the finest partly of wool and
partly of silk. There is also an active trade in embossing or
engraving copper and brass utensils. A considerable trade is
carried on over a large area by means of railway connexion with
Algiers, Bona, Tunis and Biskra, as well as with Philippeville.
The railways, however, have taken away from the city , its
monopoly of the traffic in wheat, though its share in that trade
still amounts to from £400,000 to £480,000 a year.

Constantine, or, as it was orginally called, Cirta or Kirtha,
from the Phoenician word for a city, was in ancient times one
of the most important towns of Numidia, and the residence of
the kings of the Massyli. Under Micipsa (2nd century B.C.)
it reached the height of its prosperity, and was able to furnish
an army of 10,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry, Though it
afterwards declined, it still continued an important military
post, and is frequently mentioned during successive wars-
Caesar having bestowed a part of its territory on his supporter
Sittius, the latter introduced a Roman settlement, and the town
for a time was known as Colonia Sittianorum. In the war of
Maxentius against Alexander, the Numidian usurper, it was laid
in ruins; and on its restoration in a.d. 313 by Constantine it
received the name which it still retains. It was not captured
during the Vandal invasion of Africa, but on the conquest by
the Arabians (7th century) it shared the same fate as the
surrounding country. Successive Arab dynasties looted it,
and many monuments of antiquity suffered (to be finally swept
away by " municipal improvements " under the French regime).
During the 12th century it was still a place of considerable
prosperity; and its commerce was extensive enough to attract
the merchants of Pisa, Genoa and Venice. Frequently taken
and retaken by the Turks, Constantine finally became under
their dominion the seat of a bey, subordinate to the dey of
Algiers. To Salah Bey, who ruled from 1770 to 1792, we owe
most of the existing Moslem buildings. In 1826 Constantine
asserted its independence of the dey of Algiers, and was governed
by Haji Ahmed, the choice of the Kabyles. In 1836 the French
under Marshal Clausel made an unsuccessful attempt to storm
the city, which they attacked by night by way of El-Kantara.
The French suffered heavy loss. In 1837 Marshal Valee
approached the town by the connecting western isthmus,
and succeeded in taking it by assault, though again the French
lost heavily. Ahmed, however, escaped and maintained his

CONSTANTINOPLE

independence in the Aures mountains. He submitted to the
French in 1848 and died in 1850.

CONSTANTINOPLE, the capital of the Turkish empire,
situated in 41 o' 16" N. and 28 58' 14" E. The city stands at
the southern extremity of the Bosporus, upon a hilly promontory
that runs out from the European or western side of the straits
towards the opposite Asiatic bank, as though to stem the rush
of waters from the Black Sea into the Sea of Marmora. Thus
the promontory has the latter sea on the south, and the bay of
the Bosporus, forming the magnificent harbour known as the
Golden Horn, some 4 m. long, on the north. Two streams, the
Cydaris and Barbysus of ancient days, the Ali-Bey-Su and
Kiahat-Hane-Su of modern times, enter the bay at its north-
western end. A small winter stream, named the Lycus, that
flows through the promontory from west to south-east into the
Sea of Marmora, breaks the hilly ground into two great masses, —
a long ridge, divided by cross-valleys into six eminences, over-
hanging the Golden Horn, and a large isolated hill constituting
the south-western portion of the territory. Hence the claim of
Constantinople to be enthroned, like Rome, upon seven hills.
The 1st hill is distinguished by the Seraglio, St Sophia and the
Hippodrome; the 2nd by the column of Constantine and
the mosque Nuri-Osmanieh; the 3rd by the war office, the
Seraskereate Tower and the mosque of Sultan Suleiman; the
4th by the mosque of Sultan Mahommed II., the Conqueror;
the 5th by the mosque of Sultan Selim; the 6th by Tekfour
Serai and the quarter of Egri Kapu; the 7 th by Avret Tash
and the quarter of Psamatia. In Byzantine times the two last
hills were named respectively the hill of Blachernae and the
Xerolophos or dry hill.

History, Architecture and Antiquities. — Constantinople is
famous in history, first as the capital of the Roman empire in
the East for more than eleven centuries (330-1453), and secondly
as the capital of the Ottoman empire since 1453. In respect
of influence over the course of human affairs, its only rivals are
Athens, Rome and Jerusalem. Yet even the gifts of these
rivals to the cause of civilization often bear the image and
superscription of Constantinople upon them. Roman law,
Greek literature, the theology of the Christian church, for
example, are intimately associated with the history of the city
beside the Bosporus.

The city was founded by Constantine the Great, through the
enlargement of the old town of Byzantium, in a.d. 328, and was
inaugurated as a new seat of government on the nth of May,
a.d. 330. To indicate its political dignity, it was named New
Rome, while to perpetuate the fame -of its founder it was styled
Constantinople. The chief patriarch of the Greek church still
signs himself " archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome."
The old name of the place, Byzantium, however, continued
in use. '

The creation of a new capital by Constantine was not an act
of personal caprice or individual judgment. It was the result
of causes long in operation, and had been foreshadowed, forty
years before, in the policy of Diocletian. After the senate and
people of Rome had ceased to be the sovereigns of the Roman
world, and their authority had been vested in the sole person
of the emperor, the eternal city could no longer claim to be the
rightful throne of the state. That honour could henceforth be
conferred upon any place in the Roman world which might suit
the convenience of the emperor, or serve more efficiently the
interests he had to guard. Furthermore, the empire was now
upon its defence. Dreams of conquests and extension had long
been abandoned, and the pressing question of the time was how
to repel the persistent assaults of Persia and the barbarians upon
the frontiers of the realm, and so retain the dominion inherited
from the valour of the past. The size of the empire made it
difficult, if not impossible, to attend to these assaults, or to control
the ambition of successful generals, from one centre. Then the
East had grown in political importance, both as the scene of the
most active life in the state and as the portion of the empire
most exposed to attack. Hence the famous scheme of Diocletian
to divide the burden of government between four colleagues, in

order to secure a better administration of civil and of military
affairs. It Was a scheme, however, that lowered the prestige
of Rome, for it involved four distinct seats of government, among
which, as the event proved, no place was found for the ancient
capital of the Roman world. It also declared the high position
of the East, by the selection of Nicomedia in Asia Minor as the
residence of Diocletian himself. When Constantine, therefore,
established a new seat of government at Byzantium, he adopted
a policy inaugurated before his day as essential to the preserva-
tion of the Roman dominion. He can claim originality only in
his choice of the particular point at which that seat was placed,
and in his recognition of the fact that his alliance with the
Christian church could be best maintained in a new atmosphere.

But whatever view may be taken of the policy which divided
the government of the empire, there can be no dispute as to the
widsom displayed in the selection of the site for a new imperial
throne, " Of all the events of Constantine's life," says Dean
Stanley, " this choice is the most convincing and enduring proof
of his real genius." Situated where Europe and Asia are parted
by a channel never more than 5 m. across, and sometimes
less than half a mile wide, placed at a point commanding the
great waterway between the Mediterranean and the Black
Sea, the position affords immense scope for commercial enterprise
and political action in rich and varied regions of the world. The
least a city in that situation can claim as its appropriate sphere
of influence is the vast domain extending from the Adriatic to
the Persian Gulf, and from the Danube to the eastern Mediter-
ranean. Moreover, the site constituted a natural citadel,
difficult to approach or to invest, and an almost impregnable
refuge in the hour of defeat, within which broken forces might
rally to retrieve disaster. To surround it, an enemy required
to be strong upon both land and sea. Foes advancing through
Asia Minor would have their march arrested, and their blows
kept beyond striking distance, by the moat which the waters
of the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles
combine to form. The narrow straits in which the waterway
connecting the Mediterranean with the Black Sea contracts,
both to the north and to the south of the city, could be rendered
impassable to hostile fleets approaching from either direction,
while on the landward side the line of defence was so short that
it could be strongly fortified, and held against large numbers
by a comparatively small force. Nature, indeed, cannot relieve
men of their duty to be wise and brave, but, in the marvellous
configuration of land and sea about Constantinople, nature has
done her utmost to enable human skill and courage to establish
there the splendid and stable throne of a great empire.

Byzantium, out of which Constantinople sprang, was a small,
well-fortified town, occupying most of the territory comprised
in the two hills nearest the head of the promontory, and in the
level ground at their base. The landward wall started from a
point near the present Stamboul custom-house, and reached the
ridge of the 2nd hill, a little to the east of the point marked by
Chemberli Tash (the column of Constantine). There the principal
gate of the town opened upon the Egnatian road. From that
gate the wall descended towards the Sea of Marmora, touching
the water in the neighbourhood of the Seraglio lighthouse. The
Acropolis, enclosing venerated temples, crowned the summit of
the first hill, where the Seraglio stands. Immediately to the
south of the fortress was the principal market-place of the town,
surrounded by porticoes on its four sides, and hence named the
Tetrastoon. On the southern side of thte square stood the baths
of Zeuxippus, and beyond them, still farther south, lay the
Hippodrome, which Septimius Severus had undertaken to build
but failed to complete. Two theatres, on the eastern slope of
the Acropolis, faced the bright waters of the Marmora, and a
stadium was found on the level tract on the other side of the hill,
close to the Golden Horn. The Strategion, devoted to the
military exercises of the brave little town, stood close to Sirkedji
Iskelessi, and two artificial harbours, the Portus Prosforianus
and the Neorion, indented the shore of the Golden Horn, re-
spectively in front of the ground now occupied by the station of
the Chemins de Fer Orientaux and the Stamboul custom-house.

CONSTANTINOPLE

CONSTANTINOPLE

One Statute Mile

Ancient sites are shown by thick lines

and fettered thus:- Hippodrome Edirn ^.

Wail of Byzantium.., - - ~- -. Ka/wsfc

Watt of Constantine „ *****

Byzantine Walls

w^xiM^zm^mB'i

Professor

A graceful granite column, still erect on the slope above the head
of the promontory, commemorated the victory of Claudius
Gothicua over the Goths at Nissa, a.d. 269. All this furniture
of Byzantium was appropriated for the use of the new capital.

According to Zosimus, the line of the landward walls erected
by Constantine to defend New Rome was drawn at a distance of
nearly 2 m. (15 stadia) to the west of the limits of the old town.
It therefore ran across the promontory from the vicinity of Un
Kapan Kapusi (Porta Platea), at the Stamboul head of the
Inner Bridge, to the neighbourhood of Daud Pasha Kapusi
(Porta S. Aemiliani), on the Marmora, and thus added the 3rd
and 4th hills and portions of the 5th and 7th hills to the territory
of Byzantium. We have two indications of the course of these
walls on the 7th hill. One is found in the name Isa Kapusi (the
Gate of Jesus) attached to a mosque, formerly a Christian church,
situated above the quarter of Psamatia. It perpetuates the
memory of the beautiful gateway which formed the triumphal
entrance into the city of Constantine, and which survived the
original bounds of the new capital as late as 1 508, when it was
overthrown by an earthquake. The other indication is the name
Alti Mermer (the six columns) given to a quarter in the same
neighbourhood. The name is an ignorant translation of Exa-
kionion, the corrupt form of the designation Exokionion, which
belonged in Byzantine days to that quarter because marked by
a column outside the city limits. Hence the Arians, upon their
expulsion from the city by Theodosius I., were allowed to hold

their religious services in the Exokionion, seeing that it was an
extra-mural district. This explains the fact that Arians are
sometimes styled Exokionitae by ecclesiastical historians.
The Constantinian line of fortifications, therefore, ran a little
to the east of the quarter of Alti Mermer. In addition to the
territory enclosed within the limits just described, the suburb
of Sycae or Galata, on the opposite side of the Golden Horn,
and the suburb of Blachernae, on the 6th hill, were regarded
as parts of the city, but stood within their own fortifications.
It was to the ramparts of Constantine that the city owed its
deliverance when attacked by the Goths, after the terrible
defeat of Valens at Adrianople, a.d. 378.

In the opinion of his courtiers, the bounds assigned to New
Rome by Constantine seemed, it is said, too wide, but after
some eighty years they proved too narrow for the population
that had gathered within the city. The barbarians had meantime
also grown more formidable, and this made it necessary to have
stronger fortifications for the capital. Accordingly, in 413, in
the reign of Theodosius II., Anthemius, then praetorian prefect
of the East and regent, enlarged and refortified the cit> by the
erection of the wall which forms the innermost line of defence in
the bulwarks whose picturesque ruins now stretch from the Sea
of Marmora, on the south of Yedi Kuleh (the seven towers),
northwards to the old Byzantine palace of the Porphyrogenitus
(Tekfour Serai) , above the quarter of Egri Kapu. There the new
works joined the walls of the suburb of Blachernae, and thus

CONSTANTINOPLE

protected the city on the west down to the Golden Horn. Some-
what later, in 439, the walls along the Marmora and the Golden
Horn were brought, by the prefect Cyrus, up to the extremities
of the new landward walls, and thus invested the capital in
complete armour. Then also Constantinople attained its final
size. For any subsequent extension of the city limits was
insignificant, and was due to strategic considerations. In 447
the wall of Anthemius was seriously injured by one of those
earthquakes to which the city is liable. The disaster was all
the more grave, as the Huns under Attila were carrying every-
thing before them in the Balkan lands. The desperateness of
the situation, however, roused the government of Theodosius II.,
who was still upon the throne, to put forth the most energetic
efforts to meet the emergency. If we may trust two contem-
porary inscriptions, one Latin, the other Greek, still found on
the gate Yeni Mevlevi Khaneh Kapusi (Porta Rhegium), the
capital was again fully armed, and rendered more secure than
ever, by the prefect Constantine, in less than two months. Not
only was the wall of Anthemius restored, but, at the distance
of 20 yds., another wall was built in front of it, and at the
same distance from this second wall a broad moat was con-
structed with a breastwork along its inner edge. Each wall
was flanked by ninety-six towers. According to some authorities,
the moat was flooded during a siege by opening the aqueducts,
which crossed the moat at intervals and conveyed water into
the city in time of peace. This opinion is extremely doubtful.
But in any case, here was a barricade 190-207 ft. thick, and
100 ft. high, with its several parts rising tier above tier to permit
concerted action, and alive with large bodies of troops ready to
pour, from every coign of vantage, missiles of death — arrows,
stones, Greek fire — upon a foe. It is not strange that these
fortifications defied the assaults of barbarism upon the civilized
life of the world for more than a thousand years. As might be
expected, the walls demanded frequent restoration from time
to time in the course of their long history. Inscriptions upon
them record repairs, for example, under Justin II., Leo the
Isaurian, Basil II., John Palaeologus, and others. Still, the
ramparts extending now from the Marmora to Tekfour Serai
are to all intents and purposes the ruins of the Theodosian walls
of the 5th century.

This is not the case in regard to the other parts of the fortifica-
tions of the city. The walls along the Marmora and the Golden
Horn represent the great restoration of the seaward defences
of the capital carried out by the emperor Theophilus in the 9th
century; while the walls between Tekfour Serai and the Golden
Horn were built long after the reign of Theodosius II., super-
seding the defences of .that quarter of the city in his day, and
relegating them, as traces of their course to the rear of the later
works indicate, to the secondary office of protecting the palace
of Blachernae. In 627 Heraclius built the wall along the west
of the quarter of Aivan Serai, in order to bring the level tract at
the foot of the 6th hill within the city bounds, and shield the
church of Blachernae, which had been exposed to great danger
during the siege of the city by the Avars in that year. In 813
Leo V. the Armenian built the wall which stands in front of the
wall of Heraclius to strengthen that point in view of an expected
attack by the Bulgarians.

The splendid wall, flanked by nine towers, that descends from
the court of Tekfour Serai to the level tract below Egri Kapu,
was built by Manuel Comnenus (1143-1180) for the greater
security of the part of the city in which stood the palace of
Blachernae, then the favourite imperial residence. Lastly,
the portion of the fortifications between the wall of Manuel
and the wall of Heraclius presents too many problems to be
discussed here. Enough to say, that in it we find work belonging
to the times of the Comneni, Isaac Angelus and the Palaeologi.

If we leave out of account the attacks upon the city in the
course of the civil wars between rival parties in the empire, the
fortifications of Constantinople were assailed by the Avars in
627; by the Saracens in 673-677, and again in 718; by the
Bulgarians in 813 and 913; by the forces of the Fourth Crusade
in 1203-1204; by the Turks in 1422 and 1453. The city was

taken in 1204, and became the seat of a Latin empire until 1261,
when it was recovered by the Greeks. On the 29th of May 1453
Constantinople ceased to be the capital of the Roman empire
in the East, and became the capital of the Ottoman dominion.

The most noteworthy points in the circuit of the walls of the
city are the following. (1) The Golden gate, now included in
the Turkish fortress of Yedi Kuleh. It is a triumphal archway,
consisting of three arches, erected in honour of the victory of
Theodosius I. over Maximus in 388, and subsequently incorpor-
ated in the walls of Theodosius II., as the state entrance of the
capital. (2) The gate of Selivria, or of the Pege, through which
Alexius Strategopoulos made his way into the city in 1261, and
brought the Latin empire of Constantinople to an end. (3) The
gate of St Romanus (Top Kapusi), by which, in 1453, Sultan
Mahommed entered Constantinople after the fall of the city
into Turkish hands. (4) The great breach made in the ramparts
crossing the valley of the Lycus, the scene of the severest
fighting in the siege of 1453, where the Turks stormed the city,
and the last Byzantine emperor met his heroic death. (5) The
palace of the Porphyrogenitus,long erroneously identified with the
palace of the Hebdomon, which really stood at Makrikeui. It is
the finest specimen of Byzantine civil architecture left in the city.
(6) The tower of Isaac Angelus and the tower of Anemas, with
the chambers in the body of the wall to the north of them. (7)
The wall of Leo, against which the troops of the Fourth Crusade
came, in 1203, from their camp on the hill opposite the wall, and
delivered their chief attack. (8) The walls protecting the quarter
of Phanar, which the army and fleet of the Fourth Crusade under
the Venetian doge Henrico Dandolo carried in 1204. (9) Yali
Kiosk Kapusi, beside which the southern end of the chain drawn
across the mouth of the harbour during a siege was attached.
(10) The ruins of the palace of Hormisdas, near Chatladi Kapu,
once the residence of Justinian the Great and Theodora. It
was known in later times as the palace of the Bucoleon, and was
the scene of the assassination of Nicephorus Phocas. (n) The
sites of the old harbours between Chatladi Kapu and Daud
Pasha Kapusi. (12) The fine marble tower near the junction
of the walls along the Marmora with the landward walls.

The interior arrangements of the city were largely determined
by the configuration of its site, which falls into three great divi-
sions, — the level ground and slopes looking towards the Sea of
Marmora, the range of hills forming the midland portion of the
promontory, and the slopes and level ground facing the Golden
Horn. In each division a great street ran through the city from
east to west, generally fined with arcades on one side, but with
arcades on both sides when traversing the finer and busier
quarters. The street along the ridge formed the principal
thoroughfare, and was named the Mese (Me<n/), because it ran
through the middle of the city. On reaching the west of the
3rd hill, it divided into two branches, one leading across the 7th
hill to the Golden gate, the other conducting to the church of
the Holy Apostles, and the gate of Charisius (Edirneh Kapusi).
The Mese linked together the great fora of the city, — the Augus-
taion on the south of St Sophia, the forum of Constantine on the
summit of the 2nd hill, the forum of Theodosius I. or of Taurus
on the summit of the 3rd hill, the forum of Amastrianon where the
mosque of Shah Zadeh is situated, the forum of the Bous at Ak
Serai, and the forum of Arcadius or Theodosius II. on the summit
of the 7th hill. This was the route followed on the occasion of
triumphal processions.

Of the edifices and monuments which adorned the fora, only a
slight sketch can be given here. On the north side of the
Augustaion rose the church of St Sophia, the most glorious
cathedral of Eastern Christendom; opposite, on the southern
side of the square, was the Chalce, the great gate of the imperial
palace; on the east was the senate house, with a porch of six
noble columns; to the west, across the Mes6, were the law
courts. In the area of the square stood the Milion, whence dis-
tances from Constantinople were measured, and a lofty column
which bore the equestrian statue of Justinian the Great. There
also was the statue of the empress Eudoxia, famous in the history
of Chrysostom, the pedestal of which is preserved near the church

6

CONSTANTINOPLE

of St Irene. The Augustaion was the heart of the city's ecclesi-
astical and political life. The forum of Constantine was a great
business centre . Its most remarkable monument was the column
of Constantine, built of twelve drums of porphyry and bearing
aloft his statue. Shorn of much of its beauty, the column still
stands to proclaim the enduring influence of the foundation of
the city.

In the forum of Theodosius I. rose a column in his honour,
constructed on the model of the hollow columns of Trajan and
Marcus Aurelius at Rome. There also was the Anemodoulion,
a beautiful pyramidal structure, surmounted by a vane to indicate
the direction of the wind. Close to the forum, if not in it, was the
capitol, in which the university of Constantinople was estab-
lished. The most conspicuous object in the forum of the Bous
was the figure of an ox, in bronze, beside which the bodies of
criminals were sometimes burnt. Another hollow column, the
pedestal of which is now known as Avret Tash, adorned the
forum of Arcadius. A column in honour of the emperor Martian
still stands in the valley of the Lycus, below the mosque of
Sultan Mahommed the Conqueror. Many beautiful statues,
belonging to good periods of Greek and Roman art, decorated
the fora, streets and public buildings of the city, but conflagra-
tions and the vandalism of the Latin and Ottoman conquerors
of Constantinople have robbed the world of those treasures.

The imperial palace, founded by Constantine and extended
by his successors, occupied the territory which lies to the east
of St Sophia and the Hippodrome down to the water's edge.
It consisted of a large number of detached buildings, in grounds
made beautiful with gardens and trees, and commanding magnifi-
cent views over the Sea of Marmora, across to the hills and moun-
tains of the Asiatic coast. The buildings were mainly grouped
in three divisions—the Chalce, the Daphne and the " sacred
palace." Labarte and Paspates have attempted to reconstruct
the palace, taking as their guide the descriptions given of it by
Byzantine writers. The work of Labarte is specially valuable,
but without proper excavations of the site all attempts to
restore the plan of the palace with much accuracy lack a solid
foundation. With the accession of Alexius Comnenus, the palace
of Blachernae, at the north-western corner of the city, became,
the principal residence of the Byzantine court, and was in con-
sequence extended and embellished. It stood in a more retired
position, and was conveniently situated for excursions into
the country and hunting expeditions. Of the palaces outside the
walls, the most frequented were the palace at the Hebdomon,
now Makrikeui, in the early days of the Empire, and the palace
of the Pege, now Balukli, a short distance beyond the gate of
Selivria, in later times. For municipal purposes, the city was
divided, like Rome, into fourteen Regions.

As the seat of the chief prelate of Eastern Chris teRdom,
Constantinople was characterized by a strong theological and:
ecclesiastical temperament. It was full of churches and mona-
steries, enriched with the reputed relics of saints, prophets and
martyrs, which consecrated it a holy city and attracted pilgrims
from every quarter to its shrines. It was the meeting-place of
numerous ecclesiastical councils, some of them ecumenical (see
below, Constantinople, Councils of). It was likewise dis-
tinguished for its numerous charitable institutions. Only some
twenty of the old churches of the city are left. Most of them have
been converted into mosques, but they are valuable monuments
of the art which flourished in New Rome. Among the most
interesting are the following. St John of the Studium (Emir-
Achor Jamissi) is a basilica of the middle of the 5th century,
and the oldest ecclesiastical fabric in the city; it is now, un-
fortunately, almost a complete ruin. SS. Sergius and Bacchus
(Kutchuk Aya Sofia) and St Sophia are erections of Justinian
the Great. The former is an example of a dome placed on an
octagonal structure, and in its general plan is similar to the con-
temporary church of S. Vitale at Ravenna. St Sophia (i.e.
'kyia 2o$i<x, Holy Wisdom) is the glory of Byzantine art, and
one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. St Mary
Diaconissa (Kalender Jamissi) is a fine specimen of the work
of the closing years of the 6th century. St Irene, founded by

Constantine, and repaired by Justinian, is in its present form
mainly a restoration by Leo the Isaurian, in the middle of the 8th
century. St Mary Panachrantos (Fenari Isa Mesjidi) belongs
to the reign of Leo the Wise (886-91 2) . The Myrelaion (Bodrum
Jami) dates from the 10th century. The Pantepoptes (Eski
Imaret Jamissi), the Pantocrator (Zeirek Kilisse Jamissi), and
the body of the church of the Chora (Kahriyeh Jamissi) represent
the age of the Comneni. The Pammacaristos (Fetiyeh Jamissi) ,
St Andrew in Krisei (Khoja Mustapha Jamissi) , the narthexes and
side chapel of the Chora were, at least in their present form,
erected in the times of the Palaeologi. It is difficult to assign
precise dates to SS. Peter and Mark (Khoda Mustapha Jamissi
at Aivan Serai), St Theodosia (Gul Jamissi), St Theodore Tyrone
(Kilisse Jamissi). The beautiful facade of the last is later than
the other portions of the church, which have been assigned
to the 9th or 10th century.

For the thorough study of the church of St Sophia, the reader
must consult the works of Fossati, Salzenburg, Lethaby and
Swainson, and Antoniadi. The present edifice was built by
Justinian the Great, under the direction of Anthemius of Tralles
and his nephew Isidorus of Miletus. It was founded in 532
and dedicated on Christmas Day 538. It replaced two earlier
churches of that name, the first of which was built by Constantius
and burnt down in 404, on the occasion of the exile of Chrysostom,
while the second was erected by Theodosius II. in 415, and
destroyed by fire in the Nika riot of 532. Naturally the church
has undergone repair from time to time. The original dome
fell in 558, as the result of an earthquake, and among the im-
provements introduced in the course of restoration, the dome
was raised 25 ft. higher than before. Repairs are recorded under
Basil I., Basil II., Andronicus III. and Cantacuzene. Since the
Turkish conquest a minaret has been erected at each of the
four exterior angles of the building, and the interior has been
adapted to the requirements of Moslem worship, mainly by the
destruction or concealment of most of the mosaics which adorned
the walls. In 1847-1848, during the reign of Abd-ul-Mejid,
the building was put into a state of thorough repair by the Italian
architect Fossati. Happily the sultan allowed the mosaic figures,
then exposed to view, to be covered with matting before being
plastered over. They may reappear in the changes which the
future will bring.

The exterior appearance of the church is certainly disappoint-
ing, but within it is, beyond all question, one of the most beautiful
creations of human art. On a large scale, and in magnificent
style, it combines the attractive features of a basilica, with all the
glory of an edifice crowned by a dome. We have here a stately
hall, 235 ft. N. and S., by 250 ft. E. -and W., divided by two
piers and eight columns on either hand into nave and aisles,
with an apse at the eastern end and galleries on the three other
sides. Over the central portion of the nave, a square area at
the angles of which stand the four piers, and at a height of 179 ft.
above the floor, spreads a dome, 107 ft. in diameter, and 46
ft. deep, its base pierced by forty arched windows. From the
cornice of the dome stretches eastwards and westwards a semi-
dome, which in its turn rests upon three small semi-domes.
The nave is thus covered completely by a domical canopy,
which, in its ascent, swells larger and larger, mounts higher and
higher, as though a miniature heaven rose overhead. For light-
ness, for grace, for proportion, the effect is unrivalled. The walls
of the building are reveted with marbles of various hues and
patterns, arranged to form beautiful designs, and traces of the
mosaics which joined the marbles in the rich and soft coloration
of the whole interior surface of the building appear at many
points. There are forty columns on the ground floor and sixty
in the galleries, often crowned with beautiful capitals, in which
the monograms of the emperor Justinian and the empress Theo-
dora are inscribed. The eight porphyry columns, placed in pairs
in the four bays at the corners of the nave, belonged originally
to the temple of the sun at Baalbek. They were subsequently
carried to Rome by Aurelian, and at length presented to Justinian
by a lady named Marcia, to be erected in this church " for the
salvation of her soul." The columns of verde antique on either

CONSTANTINOPLE

7

side of the nave are commonly said to have come from the temple
of Diana at Ephesus, but recent authorities regard them as
specially cut for use in the church. The inner narthex of the
church formed a magnificent vestibule 205 ft. long by 26 ft.
wide, reveted with marble slabs and glowing with mosaics.

The citizens of Constantinople found their principal recreation
in the chariot-races held in the Hippodrome, now the At Meidan,
to the west of the mosque of Sultan Ahmed. So much did the
race-course (begun by Severus but completed by Constantine)
enter into the life of the people that it has been styled " the axis
of the Byzantine world." It was not only the scene of amuse-
ment, but on account of its ample accommodation it was also
the arena of much of the political life of the city. The .factions,
which usually contended there in sport, often gathered there
in party strife. There emperors were acclaimed or insulted;
there military triumphs were celebrated; there criminals were
executed, and there martyrs were burned at the stake. Three
monuments remain to mark the line of the Spina, around which
the chariots whirled; an Egyptian obelisk of Thothmes III.,
on a pedestal covered with bas-reliefs representing Theodosius I.,
the empress Galla, and his sons Arcadius and Honorius, pre-
siding at scenes in the Hippodrome; the triple serpent column,
which stood originally at Delphi, to commemorate the victory of
Plataea 479 B.C.; a lofty pile of masonry, built in the form of
an obelisk, and once covered with plates of gilded bronze. Under
the Turkish buildings along the western side of the arena, some
arches against which seats for the spectators were built are still
visible.

The city was supplied with water mainly from two sources;
from the streams immediately to the west, and from the springs
and rain impounded in reservoirs in the forest of Belgrade, to
the north-west, very much on the system followed by the Turks.
The water was conveyed by aqueducts, concealed below the
surface, except when crossing a valley. Within the city the water
was stored in covered cisterns, or in large open reservoirs. The
aqueduct of Justinian, the Crooked aqueduct, in the open country,
and the aqueduct of Valens that spans the Valley between the
4th and 3rd hills of the city, still carry on their beneficent work,
and afford evidence of the attention given to the water-supply
of the capital during the Byzantine period. The cistern of
Arcadius, to the rear of the mosque of Sultan Selim (having,
it has been estimated, a capacity of 6,571,720 cubic ft. of water),
the cistern of Aspar, a short distance to the east of the gate of
Adrianople, and the cistern of Mokius, on the 7th hill, are speci-
mens of the open reservoirs within the city walls. The cistern
of Bin Bir Derek (cistern of Illus) with its 224 columns, each
built up with three shafts, and the cistern Yeri Batan Serai
(Cisterna Basilica) with its 420 columns show what covered
cisterns were, on a grand scale. The latter is still in use. 1

Byzantine Constantinople was a great commercial centre.
To equip it more fully for that purpose, several artificial harbours
were constructed along the southern shore of the city, where
no natural haven existed to accommodate ships coming up the
Sea of Marmora. For the convenience of the imperial court,
there was a small harbour in the bend of the shore to the east
of Chatladi Kapu, known as the harbour of the Bucoleon. To
the west of that gate, on the site of Kadriga Limani (the Port
of the Galley), was the harbour of Julian, or, as it was named
later, the harbour of Sophia (the empress of Justin II.). Traces
of the harbour styled the Kontoscalion are found at Kum Kapu.
To the east of Yeni Kapu stood the harbour of Kaisarius or the
Heptascalon, while to the west of that gate was the harbour
which bore the names of Eleutherius and of Theodosiur I. A
harbour named after the Golden gate stood on the shore to the
south-west of the triumphal gate of the city.

The Modern City. — As the capital of the Ottoman empire,
the aspect of the city changed in many ways. The works of

1 For full information on the subject of the ancient water-supply
see Count A. F. Andreossy, Constantinople et le Bosphore ; Tchikat-
chev, Le Bosphore et Constantinople (2nd ed., Paris, 1865); Forch-
heimer and Strzygowski, Die byzantinischen Wasserbehdlter ; also
article Aqueduct.

art which adorned New Rome gradually disappeared. The
streets, never very wide, became narrower, and the porticoes
along their sides were almost everywhere removed. A multitude
of churches were destroyed, and most of those which survived
were converted into mosques. In race and garb and speech
the population grew largely oriental. One striking alteration
in the appearance of the city was the conversion of the territory
extending from the head of the promontory to within a short
distance of St Sophia into a great park, within which the buildings
constituting the seraglio of the sultans, like those forming the
palace of the Byzantine emperors, were ranged around three
courts, distinguished by their respective gates — Bab-i-Humayum,
leading into the court of the Janissaries; Orta Kapu, the middle
gate, giving access to the court in which the sultan held state
receptions; and Bah-i-Saadet, the gate of Felicity, leading to
the more private apartments of the palace. From the reign of
Abd-ul-Mejid, the seraglio has been practically abandoned, first
for the palace of Dolmabagche on the shore near Beshiktash,
and now for Yildiz Kiosk, on the heights above that suburb. It
is, however, visited annually by the sultan, to do homage to the
relics of the prophet which are kept there. The older apartments-
of the palace, such as the throne-room, the Bagdad Kiosk, and
many of the objects in the imperial treasury are of extreme
interest to all lovers of oriental art. To visit the seraglio, an
imperial irade is necessary. Another great change in the general
aspect of the city has been produced by the erection of stately
mosques in the most commanding situations, where dome and,
minarets, and huge rectangular buildings present a combination
of mass and slenderness, of rounded lines and soaring pinnacles,
which gives to Constantinople an air of unique dignity and grace,
and at the same time invests it with the glamour of the oriental
world- The most remarkable mosques are the following: — The
mosque of Sultan Mahommed the Conqueror, built on the site
of the church of the Holy Apostles, in 1459, but rebuilt in 1768
owing to injuries due to an earthquake;., the mosques of Sultan
Selim, of the Shah Zadeh, of Sultan Suleiman and of Rustem:
Pasha — all works of the 16th century, the best period of Turkish
architecture; the mosque of Sultan Bayezid II. (1497-1505);-
the mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. (1 610); Yeni- Valide-Jamissi
(1615-1665); Nuri-Osmanieh (1748-1755); Laleli-Jamissi
(1765). The Turbehs containing the tombs of the sultans and,
members of their families are often beautiful specimens of
Turkish art. ,

In their architecture, the mosques present a striking instance
of the influence of the Byzantine style, especially as it appears
in St Sophia. The architects of the mosques have made a
skilful use of the semi-dome in the support of the main dome
of the building, and in the Consequent extension of the arched
canopy that spreads over the worshipper. In some cases the
main dome rests upon four semi-domes. At the same time,
when viewed from the exterior, the main dome rises large, bold
and commanding, with nothing of the squat appearance that
mars the dome of St Sophia, with nothing of the petty prettiness
of the little domes perched on the drums of the later Byzantine
churches. The great mosques express the spirit of the days
when the Ottoman empire was still mighty and ambitious.
Occasionally, as in the case of Laleli Jamissi, where the dome rests
upon an octagon inscribed in a square, the influence of SS.
Sergius and Bacchus is perceptible.

For all intents and purposes, Constantinople is now the
collection of towns and villages situated on both sides of the
Golden Horn and along the shores of the Bosporus, including
Scutari and Kadikeui. But the principal parts of this great
agglomeration are Stamboul (from Gr. ds tt\v ttoKlv, " into
the city "), the name specially applied to the portion of the city
upon the promontory, Galata and Pera. Galata has a long
history, which becomes of general interest after 1265, when it
was assigned to the Genoese merchants in the city by Michael
Palaeologus, in return for the friendly services of Genoa in the
overthrow of the Latin empire of Constantinople. In the course
of time, notwithstanding stipulations to the contrary, the town
was strongly fortified and proved a troublesome neighbour

8

CONSTANTINOPLE

During the siege of 1453 the inhabitants maintained on the whole
a neutral attitude, but on the fall of the capital they surrendered
to the Turkish conqueror, who granted them liberal terms. The
walls have for the most part been removed. The noble tower,
however, which formed the citadel of the colony, still remains,
and is a striking feature in the scenery of Constantinople. There
are also churches and houses dating from Genoese days. Galata
is the chief business centre of the city, the seat of banks, post-
offices, steamship offices, &c. Pera is the principal residential
quarter of the European communities settled in Constantinople,
where the foreign embassies congregate, and the fashionable
shops and hotels are found.

Since the middle of the 19th century the city has yielded more
and more to western influences, and is fast losing its oriental
character. The sultan's palaces, and the residences of all classes
of the community, adopt with more or less success a European
style of building. The streets have been widened and named.
They are in many instances better paved, and are lighted at
night. The houses are numbered. Cabs and tramways have
been introduced. Public gardens have been opened. For some
distance outside the Galata bridge, both shores of the Golden
Horn have been provided with a quay at which large steamers
can moor to discharge or embark their passengers and cargo.
The Galata quay, completed in 1889, is 756 metres long and 20
metres wide; the Stamboul quay, completed in 1900, is 378
metres in length. The harbour, quays and facilities for handling
merchandise, which have been established at the head of the
Anatolian railway, at Haidar Pasha, under German auspices,
would be a credit to any city. It is true that most of these
improvements are due to foreign enterprise and serve largely
foreign interests; still they have also benefited the city, and
added much to the convenience and comfort of local life. There
has been likewise progress in other than material respects.
The growth of the imperial museum of antiquities, under the
direction of Hamdy Bey, within the grounds of the Seraglio,
has been remarkable; and while the collection of the sarcophagi
discovered at Sidon constitutes the chief treasure of the museum,
the institution has become a rich storehouse of many other
valuable relics of the past. The existence of a school of art,
where painting and architecture are taught, is also a sign of new
times. A school of handicrafts flourishes on the Sphendone
of the Hippodrome. The fine medical school between Scutari
and Haidar Pasha, the Hamidieh hospital for children, and the
asylum for the poor, tell of the advance of science and humanity
in the place.

Considerable attention is now given to the subject of education
throughout the empire, a result due in great measure to the
influence of the American and French schools and colleges
established in the provinces and at the capital. More than
thirty foreign educational institutions flourish in Constantinople
itself, and they are largely attended by the youth belonging to
the native communities of the country. The Greek population
is provided with excellent schools and gymnasia, and the
Armenians also maintain schools of a high grade. The Turkish
government itself became, moreover, impressed with the import-
ance of education, and as a consequence the whole system of
public instruction for the Moslem portion of the population was,
during the reign of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II., more widely
extended and improved. Beside the schools of the old type
attached to the mosques, schools of a better class were estab-
lished under the direct control of the minister of education,
which, although open to improvement, certainly aimed at a
higher standard than that reached in former days. The progress
of education became noticeable even among Moslem girls. The
social and political influence of this intellectual improvement
among the various communities of the empire soon made itself
felt, and had much to do with the startling success of the con-
stitutional revolution carried out, under the direction of the
Committee of Union and Progress, in the autumn of 1908.

Climate. — The climate of the city is healthy, but relaxing.
It is damp and liable to sudden and great changes of temperature.
The winds from the north and those from the south are at

constant feud, and blow cold or hot in the most capricious
manner, often in the course of the same day. " There are two
climates at Constantinople, that of the north and that of the
south wind." The winters may be severe, but when mild they
are wet and not invigorating. In summer the heat is tempered
by the prevalence of a north-east wind that blows down the
channel of the Bosporus. Observations at Constantinople and
at Scutari give the following results, for a period of twenty years.

Constantinople.

Scutari.

Mean temperature
Maximum ....

Rain

Number of rainy days .

57:7'
99 1'

17° 2'

28-3 in.
112

58° 1'
105° 6'
13*0'
29-29 in.
128-6

The sanitation of the city has been improved, although much
remains to be done in that respect. No great epidemic has visited
the city since the outbreak of cholera in 1866. Typhoid and
pulmonary diseases are common.

Population. — The number of the population of the city is an
uncertain figure, as no accurate statistics can be obtained. It
is generally estimated between 800,000 and 1,000,000. The
inhabitants present a remarkable conglomeration of different
races, various nationalities, divers languages, distinctive
costumes and conflicting faiths, giving, it is true, a singular
interest to what may be termed the human scenery of the city,
but rendering impossible any close social cohesion, or the de-
velopment of a common civic life. Constantinople has well been
described as " a city not of one nation but of many, and hardly
more of one than of another." The following figures are given
as an approximate estimate of the size of the communities
which compose the population.

Moslems 384,910

Greeks 152,741

Greek Latins 1,082

Armenians 149,590

Roman Catholics (native) . . 6,442

Protestants (native) . . . . 819

Bulgarians 4.377

Jews . . 44-3 61

Foreigners ...... 129,243

873.565
Water-Supply. — Under the rule of the sultans, the water-
supply of the city has been greatly extended. The reservoirs
in the forest of Belgrade have been enlarged and increased in
number, and new aqueducts have been added to those erected
by the Byzantine emperors. The use of the old cisterns within
the walls has been almost entirely abandoned, and the water is
led to basins in vaulted chambers (Taxim), from which it is
distributed by underground conduits to the fountains situated
in the different quarters of the city. From these fountains the
water is taken to a house by water-carriers, or, in the case of the
humbler classes, by members of the household itself.

For the supply of Pera, Galata and Beshiktash, Sultan
Mahmud I. constructed, in 1732, four bends in the forest of
Belgrade, N.N.W. and N.E. of the village of Bagchekeui, and
the fine aqueduct which spans the head of the valley of Buyuk-
der6. Since 1885, a French company, La Compagnie des Eaux,
has rendered a great service by bringing water to Stamboul,
Pera, and the villages on the European side of the Bosporus,
from Lake Dercos, which lies close to the shore of the Black Sea
some 29 m. distant from the city. The Dercos water is laid
on in many houses. Since 1893 a German company has supplied
Scutari and Kadikeui with water from the valley of the Sweet
Waters of Asia.

Trade. — The trade of the city has been unfavourably affected
by the political events which have converted former provinces
of the Turkish empire into autonomous states, by the develop-
ment of business at other ports of the empire, owing to the
opening up of the interior country through the construction of
railroads, and by the difficulties which the government, with
the view of preventing political agitation, has put in the way of

CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

easy intercourse by natives between the capital and the provinces.
Most of the commerce of the city is in hands of foreigners and of
Armenian and Greek merchants. Turks have little if anything
to do with trade on a large scale. " The capital, " says a writer
in the Konstantinopler Handelsblatt of November 1904, " pro-
duces very little for export, and its hinterland is small, extending
on the European side only a few kilometres — the outlet for the
fertile Eastern Rumelia is Dedeagach — and on the Asiatic side
embracing the Sea of Marmora and the Anatolian railway
district. Even part of this will be lost to Constantinople when
the Anatolian railway is connected with the port of Mersina
and with the Kassaba-Smyrna railway. Some 750 tons of the
sweetmeat known as ' Turkish delight ' are annually exported
to the United Kingdom, America and Rumelia; embroideries,
&c, are sold in fair quantities to tourists. Otherwise the chief
articles of Constantinople's export trade consist of refuse and
waste materials, sheep's wool (called Kassab bashi) and skins
from the slaughter-houses (in 1903 about 3,000,000 skins were
exported, mostly to America), horns, hoofs, goat and horse hair,
guts, bones, rags, bran, old iron, &c, and finally dogs' excre-
ments, called in trade ' pure,' a Constantinople speciality, which
is used in preparing leather for ladies' gloves. From the hinter-
land comes mostly raw produce such as grain, drugs, wool, silk,
ores and also carpets. The chief article is grain."

The average value of the goods passing through the port of
Constantinople at the opening of the 20th century was estimated
at about £ T 1 1,000,000. From the imperfect statistics available,
the following tables of the class of goods imported and exported,
and their respective values, were drawn up in 1901 by the late
Mr Whittaker, The Times correspondent.

Imports.
Manufactured goods (cotton, woollen,

silk, &c.)

Haberdashery, ironmongery

Sugar

Petroleum

Flour

Coffee

Rice

Cattle

Various

fT 1 3,500,000
90,000
500,000
400,000
400,000
300,000
250,000
100,000
850,000

Total . £T 7,000,000

Cereals .

Mohair

Carpets .

Silk and cocoons

Opium

Gum tragacanth

Wool

Hides

Various .

Exports.

£T 1,000,000
800,000
700,000
500,000
400,000
150,000
100,000
100,000
250,000

Total . £T 4,100,000

About 40% of the import trade of Constantinople is British.
According to the trade report of the British consulate, the share
of the United Kingdom in the value of £7,142,000 on the total
imports to Constantinople during the year 1900-1901 was
£1,811,000; while the share of the United Kingdom in the
value of £2,669,000 on the total exports during the same year
was £998,000. But it is worthy of note that while British
commerce still led the way in Turkey, the trade of some other
countries with Turkey, especially that of Germany, was increas-
ing more rapidly. Comparing the average of the period 1896-
1900 with the total for 1904, British trade showed an increase
of 33%, Austro-Hungarian of nearly 60%, Germany of 130%,
Italian of 98%, French of 8%, and Belgian of nearly 33%.
The shipping visiting the port of Constantinople during the year
1905, excluding sailing and small coasting vessels, was 9796,
representing a total of 14,785,080 tons. The percentage of
steamers under the British flag was 37-1; of tonnage, 45-9.

Administration. — For the preservation of order and security,
the city is divided into four divisions (Belad-i-Selassi), viz.
1 A Turkish lira = 18 shillings (English).

Stamboul, Pera-Galata, Beshiktash and Scutari. The minister
of police is at the head of the administration of the affairs of
these divisions, and is ex-officio governor of Stamboul. The
governors of the other divisions are subordinate to him, but are
appointed by the sultan. Each governor has a special staff of
police and gendarmery and his own police-court. In each division
is a military commander, having a part of the garrison of the
city under his orders, but subordinate to the commander-in-chief
of the troops guarding the capital.

The municipal government of the four divisions of the city
is in the hands of a prefect, appointed by the sultan, and sub-
ordinate to the minister of the interior. He is officially styled
the prefect of Stamboul, and is assisted by a council of twenty-four
members, appointed by the sultan or the minister of the interior.
All matters concerning the streets, the markets, the bazaars,
the street-porters (hamals), public weighers, baths and hospitals
come under his jurisdiction. He is charged also with the collec-
tion of the city dues, and the taxes on property. The city is
furthermore divided into ten municipal circles as follows. In
Stamboul: (1) Sultan Bayezid, (2) Sultan Mehemet, (3) Djerah
Pasha (Psamatia); on the European side of the Bosporus and
the northern side of the Golden Horn: (4) Beshiktash, (5)
Yenikeui, (6) Pera, (7) Buyukdere ; on the Asiatic side of the Bos-
porus: (8) Anadol Hissar, (9) Scutari, (10) Kadikeui. Each
circle is subdivided into several wards (mahalleh). " The out-
lying parts of the city are divided into six districts (Cazas),
namely, Princes' Islands, Guebzeh, Beicos, Kartal, Kuchuk-
Chekmedje and Shile, each having its governor (kaimakam),
who is usually chosen by the palace. These districts are depend-
encies of the ministry of the interior, and their municipal affairs
are directed by agents of the prefecture."

In virtue of old treaties, known as the Capitulations (q.v.),
foreigners enjoy to a large extent the rights of exterritoriality.
In disputes with one another, they are judged before their own
courts of justice. In litigation between a foreigner and a native,
the case is taken to a native court, but a representative of the
foreigner's consulate attends the proceedings. Foreigners have
a right to establish their own schools and hospitals, to hold their
special religious services, and even to maintain their respective
national post-offices. No Turkish policeman may enter the
premises of a foreigner without the sanction of the consular
authorities to whose jurisdiction the latter belongs. A certain
measure of self-government is likewise granted to the native
Christian communities under their ecclesiastical chiefs.

Bibliography. — On Constantinople generally, besides the regular
guide-books and works already mentioned, see P. Gyllius, De topo-
graphic, Constantinopoleos, De Bosporo Thracio (1632) ; Du Cange,
Constantinopolis Christiana (1680); J. von Hammer, Constan-
tinopolis und der Bosporos (1822) ; Mordtmann, Esquisse topo-
graphique de Constantinople (1892) ; E. A. Grosvenor, Constantinople
(1895); van Millingen, Byzantine Constantinople (1899); Paspates,
Bvfaimval MeXkrai (1877) ; Scarlatos Byzantios, 'H Koivaravrlvov t6Xk
(1851) ; E. Pears, Fall of Constantinople (1885), The Destruction of the
Greek Empire (1903) ; Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire; Salzenberg, Altchristliche Baudenkmale von Konstantinopel;
Lethaby and Swainson, The Church of Sancta Sophia; Pulgher,
Les Anciennes £,glises byzantines de Constantinople; Labarte, Le
Palais imperial de Constantinople et ses abords. (A. van M.)

CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF. Of the numerous eccle-
siastical councils held at Constantinople the most important are
the following:

1. The second ecumenical council, 381, which was in reality
only a synod of bishops from Thrace, Asia and Syria, convened
by Theodosius with a view to uniting the church upon the basis
of the Orthodox faith. No Western bishop was present, nor any
Roman legate; from Egypt came only a few bishops, and these
tardily. The first president was Meletius of Antioch, whom
Rome regarded as schismatic. Yet, despite its sectional char-
acter, the council came in time to be regarded as ecumenical
alike in the West and in the East.

The council reaffirmed the Nicene faith and denounced all
opposing doctrines. The so-called " Niceno-Constantinopolitan
Creed," which has almost universally been ascribed to this
council, is certainly not the Nicene creed nor even a recension

IO

CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

of it, but most likely a Jerusalem baptismal formula revised by
the interpolation of a few Nicene test-words. More recently
its claim to be called " Constantinopolitan " has been challenged.
It is not found in the earliest records of the acts of the council,
nor was it referred to by the council of Ephesus (431), nor by
the " Robber Synod " (449), although these both confirmed
the Nicene faith. It also lacks the definiteness one would expect
in a creed composed by an anti-Arian, anti-Pneumatomachian
council. Harnack (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed.,
s.v. " Konstantinopolit. Symbol.") conjectures that it was
ascribed to the council of Constantinople just before the council
of Chalcedon in order to prove the orthodoxy of the Fathers of
the second ecumenical council. At all events, it became the
creed of the universal church, and has been retained without
change, save for the addition of filioque.

Of the seven reputed canons of the council only the first four
are unquestionably genuine. The fifth and the sixth probably
belong to a synod of 382, and the seventh is properly not a canon.
The most important enactments of the council were the granting
of metropolitan rights to the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch,
Thrace, Pontus and Ephesus; and according to Constantinople
the place of honour after Rome, against which Rome protested.
Not until 1 50 years later, and then only under compulsion of the
emperor Justinian, did Rome acknowledge the ecumenicity of
the council, and that merely as regarded its doctrinal decrees.

See Mansi iii. pp. 521-599; Hardouin i. pp. 807-826; Hefele,
2nd ed., ii. pp. I sqq. (English translation, ii. pp. 340 sqq.) ; Hort,
Two Dissertations (Cambridge, 1876) ; and the article Creeds.

2. The council of 553, the fifth ecumenical, grew out of the
controversy of the " Three Chapters," an adequate account of
which, up to the time of the council, may be found in the articles
Justinian and Vigilids. The council convened, in response
to the imperial summons, on the 4th of May 553. Of the 165
bishops who subscribed the acts all but the five or six from
Egypt were Oriental; the pope, Vigilius, refused to attend
(he had made his escape from Constantinople, and from his
retreat in Chalcedon sent forth a vain protest against the council) .
The synod was utterly subservient to the emperor. The " Three
Chapters " were condemned, and their authors, long dead,
anathematized, without, however, derogating from the authority
of the council of Chalcedon, which had given them a clean bill
of orthodoxy. Vigilius was excommunicated, and his name
erased from the diptychs. The Orthodox faith was set forth in
fourteen anathemas. Opinion is divided as to whether Origen
was condemned. His name occurs in the eleventh anathema,
but some consider it an interpolation; Hefele defends the
genuineness of the text, but finds no evidence for a special
session against Origen, as some have conjectured.

. The council was confirmed by the emperor, and was generally
received in the East. Vigilius was soon coerced into submission,
but the West repudiated his pusillanimous surrender, and rejected
the council. A schism ensued which lasted half a century and
was not fully healed until the synod of Aquileia, about 700.
But the ecumenicity of the council was generally acknowledged

by 680.

See Mansi ix. pp. 24-106, 149-658, 712-730; Hardouin iii. pp. 1-328,
331, 414, 524; Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 798-924 (English translation,
iv. pp. 229-365).

3. The sixth ecumenical council, 680-681, which was convened
by the emperor Constantine Pogonatus to terminate the Mono-
thelitic controversy (see Monothelites). All the patriarchates
were represented, Constantinople and Antioch by their bishops in
person, the others by legates. The number of bishops present
varied from 150 to 300. The council approved the first five
ecumenical councils and reaffirmed the Nicene and " Niceno-.
Constantinopolitan " creeds. Monothelitism was unequivocally
condemned; Christ was declared to have had "two natural
wills and two natural operations, without division, conversion,
separation or confusion." Prominent Monothelites, living or
dead, were anathematized, in particular Sergius and his suc-
cessors in the see of Constantinople, the former pope, Honorius,,
and Macarius, the patriarch of Antioch. An imperial decree

-confirmed the council, and commanded the acceptance of its

doctrines under pain of severe punishment. The Monothelites
took fright and fled to Syria, where they gradually formed the
sect of the Maronites (q.v.).

The anathematizing of Honorius as heterodox has occasioned
no slight embarrassment to the supporters of the doctrine of
papal infallibility. It is not within the scope of this article to
pass judgment upon the various proposed solutions of the
difficulty, e.g. that Honorius was not really a Monothelite;
that in acknowledging one will he was not speaking ex cathedra;
that, at the time of condemning him, the council was no longer
ecumenical; &c. One thing is certain, however, he was anathe-
matized; and the notion of interpolation in the acts of the council
(Baronius) may be dismissed as groundless.

See Mansi xi. pp. 190-922; Hardouin iii. pp. 1043-1644; Hefele,
2nd ed. iii. pp. 12 1-3 13.

4. The " Quinisext Synod " (692), so-called because it was
regarded by the Greeks as supplementing the fifth and sixth
ecumenical councils, was held in the dome of the Imperial
Palace (" In Trullo," whence the synod is called also " Trullan ").
Its work was purely legislative and its decisions were set forth
in 102 canons. The sole authoritative standards of discipline
were declared to be the " eighty-five apostolic canons," the
canons of the first four ecumenical councils and of the synods
of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Antioch, Changra, Laodicea, Sardica
and Carthage, and the canonical writings of some twelve Fathers,
— all canons, synods and Fathers, Eastern with one exception,
viz. Cyprian and the synod of Carthage; the bishops of Rome
and the occidental synods were utterly ignored.

The canons of the second and fourth ecumenical councils
respecting the rank of Constantinople were confirmed; the rank
of a see was declared to follow the civil rank of its city; un-
enthroned bishops were guaranteed against diminution of their
rights; metropolitans were forbidden to alienate the property
of vacant suffragan sees.

The provisions respecting clerical marriage were avowedly
more lenient than the Roman practice. Ordination was denied
to any one who after baptism had contracted a second marriage,
kept a concubine, or married a widow or- a woman of ill-repute.
Lectors and cantors might marry after ordination; presbyters,
deacons and sub-deacons, if already married, should retain their
wives; a bishop, however, while not dissolving his marriage,
should keep his wife at a distance, making suitable provision for
her. An illegally married cleric could not perform sacerdotal
functions. Monks and nuns were to be carefully separated, and
were not to leave their houses without permission.

It was forbidden to celebrate baptism or the eucharist in
private oratories; neither might laymen give the elements to
themselves, nor approach the altar, nor teach. Offerings for the
dead were authorized, and the mixed chalice made obligatory.
Contrary to the occidental custom, fasting on Saturday was
forbidden. The mutilation of the Scriptures and the desecration
of sacred places were severely condemned; likewise the use of
the Iamb as the symbol for Christ (a favourite symbol in the
West).

The synod legislated also concerning marriage, bigamy,
adultery, rape, abortion, seductive arts and obscenity. The
theatre, the circus and gambling were unsparingly denounced,
and soothsayers and jugglers, pagan festivals and customs, and
pagan oaths were placed under the ban.

The council was confirmed by the emperor and accepted in
the East; but the pope protested against various canons,
chiefly those respecting the rank of Constantinople, clerical
marriage, the Saturday fast, and the use of the symbol of lamb;
and refused, despite express imperial command and threat, to
accept the " Pseudo-Sexta." So that while the synod adopted
a body of legislation that has continued to be authoritative
for the Eastern Church, it did so at the cost of aggravating the
irritation of the West, and by so much hastening the inevitable
rupture of the church.

See Mansi xi. pp. 921-1024; Hardouin iii. pp. 1645-1716; Hefele,
2nd ed., iii. pp. 328-348.

5. The iconoclastic synods of 754 and 815, both of which

CONST ANTINUS— CONSTELLATION

ii

promulgated harsh decrees against images and neither of which
is recognized by the Latin Church, and the synod of 842, which
repudiated the synod of 815, approved the second council of
Nicaea, and restored the images, are all adequately treated in
the article Iconoclasts.

See Mansi xii. pp. 575 sqq,, xiii. pp. 210 sqq., xiv. pp. in sqq.,
787 sqq.; Hardouin iv. pp. 330 sqq., 1045 sqq., 1457 sqq.; Hefele,
2nd ed. iv. pp. 1 sqq., 104 sqq.

6. The synods of 869 and 870, of which the former, regarded
by the Latin Church as the eighth ecumenical council, condemned
Photius as an usurper and restored Ignatius to the see of Constanti-
nople; the latter, which the Greeks consider to have been the
true eighth ecumenical council, held after the death of Ignatius
and the reconciliation of Photius with the emperor, repudiated
the synod of 869, restored Photius, and condemned all who would
not recognize him. (For further details of these two synods see
Photius.)

See Mansi xv. pp. 143-476 et passim, xvi. pp. I-550, xvii. pp. 66-
186, 365-530; Hardouin v. pp. 119-390, 749-1210, et passim, vi.
pp. 19-87, 209-334 ; Hefele, 2nd ed., iv. pp. 228 sqq., 333 sqq., 435 sqq. ;
Hergenrother, Photius (Regensburg, 1867-1869). (T. F. C.)

CONSTANTINUS, pope from 708 to 715, was a Syrian by birth
and was consecrated pope in March 708. He was eager to assert
the supremacy of the papal see; at the command of the emperor
Justinian II. he visited Constantinople; and he died on the 9th
of April 715.

CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, commonly called
Chlorus (the Pale), an epithet due to the Byzantine historians,
Roman emperor and father of Constantine the Great, was born
about a.d. 250. He was of Illyrian origin; a fictitious connexion
with the family of Claudius Gothicus was attributed to him
by Constantine. Having distinguished himself by his military
ability and his able and gentle rule of Dalmatia, he was, on the
1st of March 293, adopted arid appointed Caesar by Maximian,
whose step-daughter, Flavia Maximiana Theodora, he had
married in 289 after renouncing his wife Helena (the mother of
Constantine). In the distribution of the provinces Gaul and
Britain were allotted to Constantius. In Britain Carausius and
subsequently Allectus had declared themselves independent,
and it was not till 296 that, by the defeat of Allectus, it. was
re-united with the empire. In 298 Constantius overthrew the
Alamanni in the territory of the Lingones (Langres) and
strengthened the Rhine frontier. During the persecution of the
Christians in 303 he behaved with great humanity. He ob-
tained the title of Augustus on the 1st of May 305, and died
the following year shortly before the 2 5th of July at Eboracum
(York) during an expedition against the Picts and Scots.

See Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 39 ; Eutropius ix. 14-23 ;
Zosimus ii. 7.

CONST ANTZA (Constanta), formerly known as Kustendji or
Kustendjs, a seaport on the Black Sea, and capital of the
department of Constantza, Rumania; 140 m. E. by S. from
Bucharest by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,725. When the Dobrudja was
ceded to Rumania in 1878, Constantza was partly rebuilt. In its
clean and broad streets there are many synagogues, mosques and
churches, for half the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, Moslems,
Armenians or Jews; the remainder being Orthodox Rumans
and Greeks. In the vicinity there are mineral springs, and the
sea-bathing also attracts many visitors in summer. The chief
local industries are tanning and the manufacture of petroleum
drums. The opening, in 1895, of the railway to Bucharest,
which crosses the Danube by a bridge at Cerna Voda, brought
Constantza a considerable transit trade in grain and petroleum,
which are largely exported; coal and coke head the list of imports,
followed by machinery, iron goods, and cotton and woollen
fabrics. The harbour, protected by breakwaters, with a light-
house at the entrance, is well defended from the north winds,
but those from the south, south-east, and south-west prove
sometimes highly dangerous. In 1902 it afforded 10 alongside
berths for shipping. It had a depth of 22 ft. in the old or inner
basin, and of 26 ft. in the new or outer basin, beside the quays.
The railway runs along the quays. A weekly service between
Constantza and Constantinople is conducted by state-owned

steamers, including the fast mail and passenger boats in connexion
with the Ostend and Orient expresses. In 1902, 576 vessels
entered at Constantza, with a net registered tonnage of 641,737.
The Black Sea squadron of the Rumanian fleet is stationed here.
Constantza is the Constantiana which was founded in honour
of Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great (a.d. 274-337).
It lies at the seaward end of the Great Wall of Trajan, and
has evidently been surrounded by fortifications of its own. In
spite of damage done by railway contractors (see Henry C.
Barkley, Between the Danube and the Black Sea, 1876) there are
considerable remains of ancient masonry — walls, pillars, &c.
A number of inscriptions found in the town and its vicinity
show that close by was Tomi, where the Roman poet Ovid
(43 b.c.-a.d. 17) spent his last eight years in exile. A statue
of Ovid stands in the main square of Constantza.

In regard to the Constantza inscriptions in general, see Allard,
La Bulgarie orientate (Paris, 1866) ; Desjardins in Ann. dell' istit.
di corr. arch. (1868) ; and a paper on Weickum's collection in
Sitzungsbericht of the Munich Academy (1875).

CONSTELLATION (from the Lat. constellatus, studded with
stars; co'n, with, and stella, a star), in astronomy, the name giyen
to certain groupings of stars. The partition of the stellar expanse
into areas characterized by specified stars can be traced back
to a very remote antiquity. It is believed that the ultimate
origin of the constellation figures and names is to be found in
the corresponding systems in vogue among the primitive civiliza-
tions of the Euphrates valley — the Sumerians, Accadians and
Babylonians; that these were carried westward into ancient
Greece by the Phoenicians, and to the lands of Asia Minor by
the Hittites, and that Hellenic culture in its turn introduced
them into Arabia, Persia and India. From the earliest times
the star-groups known as constellations, the smaller groups
(parts of constellations) known as asterisms, and also individual
stars, have received names connoting some meteorological
phenomena, or symbolizing religious or mythological beliefs.
At one time it was held that the constellation names and myths
were of Greek origin; this view has now been disproved, and
an examination of the Hellenic myths associated with the stars ■
and star-groups in the light of the records revealed by the
decipherment of Euphratean cuneiforms leads to the conclusion
that in many, if not all, cases the Greek myth has a Euphratean.
parallel, and so renders it probable that the Greek constellation
system and the cognate legends are primarily of Semitic of
even pre-Semitic origin.

The origin and development of the grouping of the stars into
constellations is more a matter of archaeological than of astro-
nomical interest. It demands a careful study of the myths and
religious thought of primitive peoples; and the tracing of the
names from one language to another belongs to comparative
philology.

The Sumerians and Accadians, the non-Semitic inhabitants
of the Euphrates valley prior to the Babylonians, described
the stars collectively as a " heavenly flock "; the sun was the
"old sheep"; the seven planets were the "old-sheep stars";
the whole of the stars had certain " shepherds, " and Sibzianna
(which, according to Sayce and Bosanquet, is the modern
Arcturus, the brightest star in the northern sky) was the " star
of the shepherds of the heavenly herds.*/' The Accadians
bequeathed their system to the Babylonians, and cuneiform
tablets and cylinders, boundary stones, and Euphratean art
generally, point to the existence of a well-defined system of
star names in their early history. From a detailed study of such
records, in their nature of rather speculative value, R. Brown,
junr. (Primitive Constellations, 1899) has compiled a Euphratean
planisphere, which he regards as the mother of all others. The
tablets examined range in date from 3000-500 B.C., and hence
the system must be anterior to the earlier date. Of great im-
portance is the Creation Legend, a cuneiform compiled from
older records during the reign of Assur-bani-pal, c. 650 B.C.,
in which there occurs a passage interpretable as pointing to
the acceptance of 36 constellations: 12 northern, 12 zodiacal
sind 12 southern. These constellations were arranged in three

12

CONSTELLATION

concentric annuli, the northern ones in an inner annulus sub-
divided into 60 degrees, the zodiacal ones into a medial annulus of
120 degrees, and the southern ones into an outer annulus of 240
degrees. Brown has suggested a correlation of the Euphratean
names with those of the Greeks and moderns. His results may
be exhibited in the following form: — the central line gives the
modern equivalents of the names in the Euphratean zodiac; the
upper line the modern equivalents of the northern paranatellons;
and the lower line those of the southern paranatellons. The
zodiacal constellations have an interest peculiarly their own;
placed in or about the plane of the ecliptic, their rising and
setting with the sun was observed with relation to weather
changes and the more general subject of chronology, the twelve
subdivisions of the year being correlated with the twelve divisions
of the ecliptic (see Zodiac).

lation to weather changes. The earliest Greek work which
purported to treat the constellations qua constellations, of which
we have certain knowledge, is the Qcuvofieva of Eudoxus of Cnidus
(c. 403-350 B.C.). The original is lost, but a versification by
Aratus (c. 270 B.C.), a poet at the court of Antigonus Gonatas,
king of Macedonia, and an 'Efi77?7<ns or commentary by Hippar-
chus, are extant. In the Qcuvontva of Aratus 44 constellations
are enumerated, viz. 19 northern: — Ursa major, Ursa minor,
Bootes, Draco, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Perseus,
Triangulum, Pegasus, Delphinus, Auriga, Hercules, Lyra t
Cygnus, Aquila, Sagitta, Corona and Serpentarius; 13 central
or zodiacal: — Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces and the
Pleiades; and 12 southern: — Orion, Canis, Lepus, Argo, Cetus,
Eridanus, Piscis australis, Ara, Centaurus, Hydra, Crater and

Northern . .

Cassiopeia

Auriga

Cepheus

Ursa minor

Ursa major

Bootes

Serpentarius

Hercules

Lyra

Aquila

Pegasus

Andromeda

Zodiacal . .

Aries

Taurus

Gemini

Cancer

Leo

Virgo

Libra

Scorpio

Sagittarius

Capricornus

Aquarius

Pisces

Southern

Eridanus

Orion

Canis major

Argo

Hydra
Crater

Corvus

Centaurus

Lupus

Ara

?

Piscis
australis

Cetus

The Phoenicians — a race dominated by the spirit of com-
mercial enterprise — appear to have studied the stars more
especially with respect to their service to navigators; according
to Homer " the stars were sent by Zeus as portents for mariners."
But all their truly astronomical writings are lost, and only by a
somewhat speculative piecing together of scattered evidences can
an estimate of their knowledge be formed. The inter-relations
of the Phoenicians with the early Hellenes were frequent and far-
reaching, and in the Greek presentation of the legends concerning
constellations a distinct Phoenician, and in turn Euphratean,
element appears. One of the earliest examples of Greek literature
extant, the Theogonia of Hesiod (c. 800 B.C.), appears to be a
curious blending of Hellenic and Phoenician thought. Although
not an astronomical work, several constellation subjects are
introduced. In the same author's Works and Days, a treatise
which is a sort of shepherd's calendar, there are distinct references
to the Pleiades, Hyades, Orion, Sirius and Arcturus. It cannot
be argued, however, that these were the only stars and con-
stellations named in his time; the omission proves nothing. The
same is true of the Homeric epics wherein the Pleiades, Hyades,
Ursa major, Orion and Bootes are mentioned, and also of the
stars and constellations mentioned in Job. Further support is
given to the view that, in the main, the constellations were trans-
mitted to the Greeks by the Phoenicians from Euphratean
sources in the fact that Thales, the earliest Greek astronomer
of any note, was of Phoenician descent. According to Calli-
machus he taught the Greeks to steer by Ursa minor instead of
Ursa major; and other astronomical observations are assigned
to him. But his writings are lost, as is also the case with those of
Phocus the Samian, and the history of astronomy by Eudemus,
the pupil of Aristotle; hence the paucity of our knowledge of
Thales' s astronomical learning.

From the 6th century B.C. onwards, legends concerning the
constellation subjects were frequently treated by the historians
and poets. Aglaosthenes or Agaosthenes, an early writer, knew
Ursa minor as Kwocrovpa, Cynosura, and recorded the transla-
tion of Aquila; Epimenides the Cretan [c. 600 B.C.) recorded the
translation of Capricornus and the star Capella; Pherecydes
of Athens (c. 500-450 B.C.) recorded the legend of Orion, and
stated the astronomical fact that when Orion sets Scorpio rises;
Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.) and Hellanicus of Mytilene (c. 496-411
B.C.) narrate the legend of the seven Pleiades — the daughters of
Atlas; and the latter states that the Hyades are named either
from their orientation, which resembles v (upsilon), " or because
at their rising or setting Zeus rains "; and Hecataeus of Miletus
(c. 470 B.C.) treated the legend of the Hydra.

In the 5th century B.C. the Athenian astronomer Euctemon,
according to Geminus of Rhodes, compiled a weather calendar
in which Aquarius, Aquila, Canis major, Corona, Cygnus,
Delphinus, Lyra, Orion, Pegasus, Sagitta and the asterisms
Hyades and Pleiades are mentioned, always, however, in re-

Corvus. In this enumeration Serpens is included in Serpentarius
and Lupus in Centaurus; these two constellations were separated
by Hipparchus and, later, by Ptolemy. On the other hand,
Aratus kept the Pleiades distinct from Taurus, but Hipparchus
reduced these stars to an asterism. Aratus was no astronomer,
while Hipparchus was ; and from the fact that the latter adopted,
with but trifling exceptions, the constellation system portrayed
by Aratus, it may be concluded that the system was already
familiar in Greek thought. And three hundred years after
Hipparchus, the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy adopted a
very similar scheme in his uranometria, which appears in the
seventh and eighth books of his Almagest, the catalogue being
styled the "Eicdecns /caiwuaj or " accepted version."

The Almagest has a dual interest: first, being the work of one
primarily a commentator, it presents a crystallized epitome of
all earlier knowledge; and secondly, it has served as a basis of
subsequent star-catalogues. 1 The Ptolemaic catalogue em-
braces only those stars which were visible at Rhodes in the time
of Hipparchus (c. 150 B.C.), the results being corrected for
precession " by increasing the longitudes by 2° 40', and leaving
the latitudes undisturbed " (Francis Baily, Mem. R.A.S., 1843).
The names and orientation of the constellations therein adopted
are, with but few exceptions, identical with those used at the
present day; and as it cannot be doubted that Ptolemy made
only very few modifications in the system of Hipparchus, the
names were adopted at least three centuries before the Almagest
was compiled. The names in which Ptolemy differs from
modern usage are: — Hercules (tv yovanv), Cygnus ("Opm),
Eridanus (nora^os), Lupus (QtjpLov), Pegasus ("Lt7tos), Equuleus
("Lt7tou TTporonri ) , Canis minor (HpoKvuv), and Libra (XtjXoi,
although f vyos is used for the same constellation in other parts
of the Almagest). The following table gives the names of the
constellations as they occur in (1) modern catalogues; (2)
Ptolemy (a.d. 150); (3) Ulugh Beg (1437); (4) Tycho Brahe
(1628); the last column gives the English equivalent of the
modern name.

The reverence and authority which was accorded the famous
compilation of the Alexandrian astronomer is well evidenced by
the catalogue of the Tatar Ulugh Beg, the Arabian names there
adopted being equivalent to the Ptolemaic names in nearly
every case; this is also shown in the Latin translations given
below. Tycho Brahe, when compiling his catalogue of stars,
was unable to observe Lupus, Ara, Corona australis and Piscis
australis, on account of the latitude of Uranienburg ; and hence
these constellations are omitted from his catalogue. He diverged
from Ptolemy when he placed the asterisms Coma Berenices and
Antinous upon the level of formal constellations, Ptolemy having

1 The historical development of star-catalogues in general, re-
garded as statistics of the co-ordinates, &c, of stars, is given in the
historical section of the article Astronomy. See also E. B. Knobel,
" Chronology of Star Catalogues," Mem. R.A.S.{i&tj).

CONSTELLATION

Plate I.

CONSTELLATIONS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE.

PlATF. II.

CONSTELLATION

CONSTELLATIONS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.

CONSTELLATION

i3

j

Modern.

Ptolemy.

Ulugh Beg.

Tycho Brahe.

Meaning.

Ursa minor

"ApKTou jut/cpas der7-epio-jit6s| Stellae Ursi minoris

Ursa minor, Cynosura

Little Bear

Ursa major

"ApKTou p.eya\rjs ,,

„ Ursi majons

Ursa major, Helice

■Great Bear

Draco

ApaKovros ,,

,, Draconis

Draco

Dragon

Cepheus

Krj<j>kws ,,

„ Cephei

Cepheus

Cepheus

cr

Bootes

Howtov ,,

„ Vociferatoris

Bootes, Arctophylax

Ploughman

w-

Corona borealis

Xretfrkvov (3opetov ,,

,, Coronae or Phecca

Corona borea

Northern Crown

w

Hercules

Tov kv ybvaaiv ,,

„ Incumbentis genubus

Engonasi, Hercules

Man kneeling

O

Lyra

Aipas ,,

„ roOShelyak or Testudo

Lyra, Vultur cadens

T 6
Lyre

Bird, Swan

Cygnus

"Opvi6os „

„ Gallinae

Olor, Cygnus

Cassiopeia

KacTtTl€7T€taS „

„ Inthronatae

Cassiopeia

Cassiopeia

-*->

Perseus

Hepire&s ,,

„ Bershaush or Portans

Perseus

Perseus

G "*

Caput Larvae

J

Auriga

'Jividx»v ,,

„ Tenentis habenas

Auriga, Heniochus, Erichthonius

Charioteer

G

Serpentarius

'0<j>io{>xov ,,

„ Serpentarii

Ophiuchus, Serpentarius

Serpent-holder

j3

Serpens

"Opecos otfrioiixov „

„ Serpentis

Serpens ophiuchi

Serpent

4->

j Sagitta

'OkttoO „

„ Sagittae

Sagitta or Telum

Arrow

O
2

Aquila

'AeroD ,,

„ Aquilae

Aquila or Vultur volans

Eagle

Delphinus

AeX^tvos ,,

„ Delphini

Delphinus

Dolphin

/

Equuelus

"Ititov irpoTOfxijs ,,

„ Sectionis eq^ui

Equuleus, Equi sectio

Colt

r?

Pegasus

"lirirov ,,

,, Equi majons

Pegasus, Equus alatus

Pegasus, Horse

Andromeda

'AvdponiSas „

„ Mulieris catenatae

Andromeda

Andromeda

Triangulum

Tpiy&vov ,,

„ Trianguli

Triangulus, Deltoton

Triangle

Aries

Kpiov ,,

„ *Arietis

Aries

Ram

Taurus

Taiipov „

„ Tauri

Taurus

Bull

c

Gemini

AiSviicov „

„ Gemellorum

Gemini

Twins

#

Cancer

KapKtrou ,,

„ Cancri

Cancer

Crab

is

Leo

Aiovros ,,

„ Leonis

Leo

Lion

"2 -

Virgo

HapOivov „

„ Virginis, Sumbela

Virgo

Virgin

en

Libra

XijXwv ,,

„ Librae

Libra

Balance

O

Scorpio

SKOpTTtOU ; ,

„ Scorpionis

Scorpius

Scorpion

Sagittarius

To^otov M

„ Sagittarii, Arcum

Sagittarius

Archer

Capricornus

AiyoKepuTos ,,

„ Capricorni

Capricornus

Goat

rt

Aquarius

"TSpoxbov ,,

„ Effusoris aquae, Situla

Aquarius

Water-pourer

Pisces

'lxBvbyv t>

„ Piscis

Pisces

Fishes

Cetus

IC^tous „

„ Ceti

Cete

Sea-monster,

1/5

Whale

Orion

'ilpiovos t1

„ Gigantis

Orion

Orion

CO

Eridanus

TloTCLflQV ,,

„ Fluminis

Eridanus fluvius

River

C
O

Lepus

Aa7tf>o0 ,,

„ Leporis

Lepus

Hare

'£

Canis major

Kvvos ,,

„ Canis majoris

Canis major

Great Dog

rt

Canis minor

HpoKvvds ,,

„ Canis minoris

Canis minor, Procyon

Little Dog

"qj

Argo

'Apyovs 1t

„ Navis

Argo navis

Ship

to "

c

Hydra

"T5pou „

„ Hydri

Hydra

Sea-serpent
Bowl

Crater

Kpar^poj ,,

„ Craterae

Crater

e

Corvus

KdpaKos ,,

„ Corvi

Corvus

Crow

1-1

Centaurus

KePTavpov ,,

„ Centauri

Centaurus, Chiron

Centaur

-4->

Lupus

Qrjplov ,,

„ Ferae

Wild beast

3
O

Ara

QvfiiarTjplov ,,

,, Thuribuli

Censer, Altar

Cfi

Corona australis

XT&t>avov vortov ,,

„ Coronae australis

Southern Crown

^

Piscis australis

'IxQvos votIov ,,

,, Piscis australis

„ Fish

regarded these asterisms as unformed stars (d/wp<^>a)TOi) . The
next innovator of moment was Johann Bayer, a German astro-
nomer, who published a Uranometria in 1603, in which twelve
constellations, all in the southern hemisphere, were added to
Ptolemy's forty-eight, viz. Apis (or Musca) (Bee), Avis Indica
(Bird of Paradise), Chameleon, Dorado (Sword-fish), Grus
(Crane), Hydrus (Water-snake), Indus (Indian), Pavo (Peacock),
Phoenix, Piscis volans (Flying fish), Toucan, Triangulum
australe. According to W. Lynn {Observatory, 1886, p. 255),
Bayer adapted this part of his catalogue from the observations
of the Dutch navigator Petrus Theodori (or Pieter Dirchsz
Keyser), who died in 1596 off Java. The Coelum stellatum
Christianum of Julius Schiller (1627) is noteworthy for the
attempt made to replace the names connoting mythological and
pagan ideas by the names of apostles, saints, popes, bishops, and
other dignitaries of the church, &c. Aries became St Peter;
Taurus, St Andrew; Andromeda, the Holy Sepulchre; Lyra,
the Manger; Canis major, David; and so on. This innovation
(with which the introduction of the twelve apostles into the solar
zodiac by the Venerable Bede may be compared) was short-
lived. According to Charles Hutton [Math. Diet. i. 328(1795)]
the editions published in 1654 and 1661 had reverted to the
Greek names; on the other hand, Camille Flammarion (Popular
Astronomy, p. 375) quotes an illuminated folio of 1661, which
represents " the sky delivered from pagans and peopled with
Christians." A similar confusion was attempted by E. Weigelius,
who sought to introduce a Coelum heraldicum, in which the

constellations were figured as the arms or insignia of European
dynasties, and by symbols of commerce.

In Edmund Halley's southern catalogue (Catalogus stellarum
australium), published in 1679 and incorporated in Flamsteed's
Historia coeleslis (1725), the following constellations are
named: — Piscis australis, Columba Noachi, Argo navis, Robur
Caroli, Ara, Corona australis, Grus, Phoenix, Pavo, Apt: 3 or Avis
Indica, Musca apis, Chameleon, Triangulum australe, Piscis
voians, Dorado or Xiphias, Toucan or Anser Americanus, and
Hydrus. Flamsteed's maps also contained Mons Menelai.
This list contains nothing new except Robur Caroli, since
Columba Noachi (Noah's dove) had been raised to the skies by
Bartschius in 1624. The constellation Robur Caroli and also
the star Cor Caroli (a Canum Venaticorum) were named by
Halley in honour of Charles II. of England.

In 1690 two posthumous works of Johann Hevelius (1611-
1687), the Firmamentum sobiescianum and Prodromus astrono-
miae, added several new constellations to the list, viz. Canes
venatici (the Greyhounds), Lacerta (the Lizard), Leo minor
(Little Lion), Lynx, Sextans Uraniae, Scutum or Clypeus
Sobieskii (the shield of Sobieski), Vulpecula et Anser (Fox and
Goose), Cerberus, Camelopardus (Giraffe), and Monoceros
(Unicorn); the last two were originally due to Jacobus Bart-
schius. In 1679 Augustine Royer introduced the most interesting
of the constellations of the southern hemisphere, the Crux
australis or Southern Cross, He also suggested Nubes major,
Nubes minor, and Lilium, and re-named Canes venatici the river

*4

CONSTIPATION— CONSTITUTION

Jordan, and Vulpecula et Anser the river Tigris, but these
innovations met with no approval. The Magellanic clouds, a
collection of nebulae, stars and star-clusters in the neighbourhood
of the south pole, were so named by Hevelius in honour of the
navigator Ferdinand Magellan.

Many other star-groupings have been proposed from time to
time; in some cases a separate name has been given to a part
of an authoritatively accepted constellation, e.g. Ensis Orionis,
the sword of Orion, or an ancient constellation may be subdivided,
e.g. Argo (ship) into Argo, Malus (mast), Vela (sails), Puppis
(stern) , Carina (keel) ; and whereas some of the rearrangements,
which have been mostly confined to the southern hemisphere,
have been accepted, many, reflecting nothing but idiosyncrasies of
the proposers, have deservedly dropped into oblivion. Nicolas
Louis de Lacaille, who made extended observations of the
southern stars in 1751 and in the following years, and whose
results were embodied in his posthumous Coelum australe
stelliferum (1763), introduced the following new constellations: —
Apparatus sculptoris (Sculptor's workshop), Fornax chemica
(Chemical furnace), Horologium (Clock), Reticulus rhomboidalis
(Rhomboidal net), Caela sculptoris (Sculptor's chisels), Equuleus
pictoris (Painter's easel), Pyxis nautica (Mariner's compass),
Antlia pneumatica (Air pump), Octans (Octant), Circinus (Com-
passes), Norma alias Quadra Euclidis (Square), Telescopium
(Telescope), Microscopium (Microscope) and Mons Mensae
(Table Mountain). Pierre Charles Lemonnier in 1776 intro-
duced Tarandus (Reindeer), and Solitarius; J. J. L. de Lalande
introduced Le Messier (after the astronomer Charles Messier)
(1776), Quadrans muralis (Mural quadrant) (1795), Globus
aerostaticus (Air balloon) (1798), and Felis (the Cat) (1799).
Martin Poczobut introduced in 1777 Taurus Poniatovskii;
Bode introduced the Honores Frederici (Honours of Frederick)
(1786), Telescopium Herschelii (Telescope of Herschel) (1787),
Machina electrica (Electrical machine) (1790), Officina typo-
graphica (Printing press) (1799), an d Lochium funis (Log line);
and M. Hell formed the Psalterium Georgianum (George's lute).

The following list gives the names of the constellations now
usually employed: they are divided into three groups: — north
of the zodiac, in the zodiac, south of the zodiac. Those marked
with an asterisk have separate articles.

Northern (28).

"Andromeda

*Cepheus

"Hercules

Pegasus

*Aquila

*Coma Berenices

Lacerta

*Perseus

•Auriga

*Corona borealis

*Leo minor

*Sagitta

*Bo6tes

*Cygnus

Lynx

Serpens

Camelopardus

*Delphinus

*Lyra

Triangulum

"Canes venatici

Draco

( Ophiuchus
} *Serpentarius

*Ursa major

'Cassiopeia

Equuleus

*Ursa minor

*Vulpecula et Anser

Zodiacal (12).

* Aquarius

*Capricornus

*Libra

"Scorpio

*Aries

*Gemini

* Pisces

*Taurus

*Cancer

*Leo

"Sagittarius
Southern (49).

*Virgo.

Antlia (pneumatica)

Corona australis

Lepus

Pictor (Equuleus pictoris)

Apus

Corvus

Lupus

Piscis australis

*Ara

Crater

Malus

Puppis

Argo

Crux

Mons Mensae

Recticulum

Caela sculptoris

(Caelum)

*Canis major

Dorado

Microscopium

Sculptor (Apparatus sculptoris)
Scutum Sobieskii

Canis minor

*Eridanus

Monoceros

Sextans

Carina

Fornax chemica

Musca australis

Telescopium

*Centaurus

Grus

Norma

Toucan

*Cetus

Horologium

Octans

Triangulum australe

Chameleon

*Hydra

*Orion

Vela

Circinus

Hydrus

Pavo

Volans (Piscis volans)

Columba Noachi

Indus

Phoenix

(C. E.*)

CONSTIPATION (from Lat. constipare, to press closely to-
gether, whence also the adjective " costive "), the condition of
body when the faeces are unduly retained, or there is difficulty in
evacuation, tightness of the bowels (see Digestive Organs; and
Therapeutics). It may be due to constitutional peculiarities,
3edentary or irregular habits, improper diet, &c. The treatment

varies with individual cases, according to the cause at work,
laxatives, dieting, massage, &c, being prescribed.

CONSTITUENCY (from " constituent," that which forms a
necessary part of a thing; Lat. constituere, to create), a political
term for the body of electors who choose a representative for
parliament or for any other public assembly, for the place or
district possessing the right to elect a representative, and for
the residents generally, apart from their voting powers, in such
a locality. The term is also applied, in a transferred sense, to
the readers of a particular newspaper, the customers of a business
and the like.

CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. The word
constitution (comtitutio) in the time of the Roman empire
signified a collection of laws or ordinances made by the emperor.
We find the word used in the same sense in the early history of
English law, e.g. the Constitutions of Clarendon. In its modern
use constitution has been restricted to those rules which concern
the political structure of society. If we take the accepted
definition of a law as a command imposed by a sovereign on the
subject, the constitution would consist of the rules which point
out where* the sovereign is to be found, the form in which his
powers are exercised, and the relations of the different members
of the sovereign body to each other where it consists of more
persons than one, In every independent political society, it
is assumed by these definitions, there will be found somewhere
or other a sovereign, whether that sovereign be a single person,
or a body of persons, or several bodies of persons. The com-
mands imposed by the sovereign person or body on the rest of
the society are positive laws, properly so called. The sovereign
body not only makes laws, but has two other leading functions,
viz. those of judicature and administration. Legisiation is
for the most part performed directly by the sovereign body
itself; judicature and . administration, for the most part, by
delegates. The constitution of a society, accordingly, would
show how the sovereign body is composed, and what are the
relations of its members inter se, and how the sovereign functions
of legislation, judicature and administration are exercised.
Constitutional law consists of the rules relating to these subjects,
and these rules may either be laws properly so called, or they
may not — i.e. they may or may not be commands imposed by

the sovereign body itself. The
English constitutional rule, for
example, that the king and
parliament are the sovereign,
cannot be called a law; for a
law presupposes the factwhieh it
asserts. And other rules, which
are constantly observed in prac-
tice, but haveneverbeenenacted
by the sovereign power, are in
the same way constitutional laws
which are not laws. It is an
undoubted rule of the English
constitution that the king' shall
not refuse his assent to a bill
which has passed both Houses
of Parliament,but it is certainly
not a law. Should the king veto
such a bill his action would be
unconstitutional,but not illegal. :
On the other hand the rules re-
latingto the electionof members
to the House of Commons are
nearly all positive laws strictly -
so called. Constitutional law,
as the phrase is commonly used,
would include all the laws dealing with the sovereign body in the
exercise of its various functions, and all the rules, not being
laws properly so called, relating to the same subject.

The above is an attempt to indicate the meaning of the
phrases in their stricter or more technical uses. Some wider
meanings may be noticed. In the phrase constitutional

CONSTITUTION

15

government, a form of government based on certain principles
which may roughly be called popular is the leading idea. Great
Britain, Switzerland, the United States, are all constitutional
governments in this sense of the word. A country where a large
portion of the people has some considerable share in the supreme
power would be a constitutional country. On the other hand,
constitutional, as applied to governments, may mean stable as
opposed to unstable and anarchic societies. Again, as a term
of party politics, constitutional has come to mean, in England,
not obedience to constitutional rules as above described, but
adherence to the existing type of the constitution or to some
conspicuous portions thereof, — in other words, conservative.

The ideas associated with constitution and constitutionalism
are thus, it will be seen, mainly of modern and European origin.
They are wholly inapplicable to the primitive and simple societies
of the present or of the former times. The discussion of forms
of government occupies a large space in the writings of the Greek
philosophers,— a fact which is to be explained by the existence
among the Greeks of many independent political communities,
variously organized, and more or less democratic in character.
Between the political problems of the smaller societies and those
of the great European nations there is no useful parallel to be
drawn, although the predominance of classical learning made
it the fashion for a long time to apply Greek speculations on the
nature of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy to public
questions in modern Europe. Representation (q.v.), the char-
acteristic principle of European constitutions, has, of course,
no place in societies which were not too large to admit of every
free citizen participating personally in the business of govern-
ment. Nor is there much in the politics or the political literature
of the Romans to compare with the constitutions of modern
states. Their political system, almost from the beginning of
empire, was ruled absolutely by a small assembly or by one man.

The impetus to constitutional government in modern times
has to a large extent come from England, and it is from English
politics that the phrase and its associations have been borrowed.
England has offered to the world the one conspicuous example
of a long, continuous, and orderly development of political
institutions. The early date at which the principle of self-
government was established in England, the steady growth of
the principle, the absence of civil dissension, and the preservation
in the midst of change of so much of the old organization, have
given its constitution a great influence over the ideas of politicians
in other countries. This fact is expressed in the proverbial
phrase — •" England is the mother of parliaments." It would
not be difficult to show that the leading features of the constitu-
tions now established in Other nations have been based on,
or defended by, considerations arising from the political history
of England.

In one important respect England differs conspicuously
from most other countries. Her constitution is to a large extent
unwritten, using the word in much the same sense as when we
speak of unwritten law. Its rules can be found in no written
document, but depend, as so much of English law does, on
precedent modified by a constant process of interpretation.
Many rules of the constitution have in fact a purely legal history,
that is to say, they have been developed by the law courts,
as part of the general body of the common law. Others have in a
similar way been developed by the practice of parliament. Both
Houses, in fact, have exhibited the same spirit of adherence to
precedent, coupled with a power of modifying precedent to
suit circumstances, which distinguishes the judicial tribunals.
In a constitutional crisis the House of Commons appoints a
committee to " search its journals for precedents," just as the
court of king's bench would examine the records of its own
decisions. And just as the law, while professing to remain the
same, is in process of constant change, so, too, the unwritten
constitution is, without any -acknowledgment of the fact, con-
stantly taking up new ground.

In contrast with the mobility of an unwritten constitution
is the fixity of a constitution written out, like that of the United
States or Switzerland, in one authoritative code. The constitu-

tion of the United States, drawn up at Philadelphia in 1787,
is contained in a code of articles. It was ratified separately
by each state, and thenceforward became the positive and
exclusive statement of the constitution. The legislative powers
of the legislature are not to extend to certain kinds of bills, e.g.
ex post facto bills; the president has a veto which can only be
overcome by a majority of two- thirds in both Houses; the con-
stitution itself can only be changed in any particular by the con-
sent of the legislatures or conventions of three-fourths of the
several states; and finally the judges of the Supreme Court are
to decide in all disputed cases whether an act of the legislature
is permitted by the constitution or not.

The constitution of the United States is the supreme law of
the land as to the matters which it embraces. The constitution
of each state is the supreme law of the state, except so far as it
may be controlled by the constitution of the United States.
Every statute in conflict with the constitution to which it is
subordinate is void so far as this conflict extends. If it concerns
only a distinct and separable part of the statute, that part only
is' void. Every court before which a statutory right or defence
is asserted has the power to inquire whether the statute in
question is or is not in conflict with the paramount constitution.
This power belongs even to a justice of the peace in trying a
cause. He sits to administer the law, and it is for him to deter-
mine what is the law. Inferior courts commonly decline to hold
a statute unconstitutional, even if there may appear to be
substantial grounds for such a decision. The presumption is
always in favour of the validity of the law, and they generally
prefer to leave the responsibility of declaring it void to the higher
courts.

The judges of the state courts are bound by their oath of office
to support the constitution of the United States. They have an
equal right with those of the United States to determine whether
or how far it affects any matter brought in question in any
action. So, vice versa, the judges of the United States courts,
if the point comes up on a trial before them, have the right to
determine whether or how far the constitution of a state in-
validates a statute of the state. They, however, are ordinarily
bound to follow the views of the state courts on such a question.
They are not bound by any decision of a state court as to the
effect of the constitution of the United States on a state statute
or any other matter. This judicial power of declaring a statute
void because unconstitutional has been not infrequently exercised,
from the time when the first state constitutions were adopted.

Juries in criminal causes are sometimes made by American
statutes or recognized by American practice as judges of the law
as well as the fact. The better opinion is that this does not
make them judges of whether a law on which the prosecution
rests violates the paramount constitution and is therefore void
(United States v. Cattender, Wharton's State Trials, 688; State v.
Main, 69 Connecticut Reports, 123, 128).

If a state court decides a point of constitutional law, set up
under the constitution of the United States, against the party
relying upon it, and this decision is affirmed by the state court
of last resort, he may sue out a writ of error, and so bring his
case before the Supreme Court of the United States. If the
state decision be in his favour, the other side cannot resort to
like proceedings.

A decree of the Supreme Court of the United States on a point
of construction arising under the constitution of the United
States settles it for all courts, state and national.

The salient characteristic of the United States constitution is,
perhaps, its formidable apparatus of provisions against change;
and, in fact, only 1 5 constitutional amendments had been adopted
from 1789 up to 1909, the last being in 1870. In the same period
the unwritten constitution of England has made a most marked
' advance, chiefly in the direction of democratizing the monarchy,
and diminishing the powers of the House of Lords. The House
of Commons has continuously asserted its legislative predomin-
ance, and has reduced the other House to the position of a
revising chamber, which in the last resort, however, can produce
a legislative deadlock, subject to the results of a new genera]

i6

"CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS"

election (see Parliament). And the cabinet, which depends on
the support of the House of Commons, has become more and
more the executive council of the realm. One conspicuous
feature of the English constitution, by which it is broadly dis-
tinguished from written or artificial constitutions, is the presence
throughout its entire extent of legal fictions. The influence of
the lawyers on the progress of the constitution has already been
noticed, and is nowhere more clearly shown than in this peculiarity
of its structure. As in the common law, so in the constitution,
change has been effected in substance without any corresponding
change in terminology. There is hardly one of the phrases used to
describe the position of the crown which can be understood in its
literal sense, and many of them are currently accepted in more
senses than one. The American constitution of 1789 reproduced,
however, in essentials, and with necessary modifications, the
contemporary British model, and, where it did so, has preserved
the old conception of what was then the British system of
government. The position and powers of the president were
a fair counterpart of the royal prerogative of that day; the
two houses of Congress corresponded sufficiently well to the
House of Lords and the House of Commons, allowing for the
absence of the elements of hereditary rank and territorial in-
fluence. While the English constitution has changed much, the
American constitution has changed very little in these respects.
Allowing for the more democratic character of the constituencies,
the organization of the supreme power in the United States is
nearer the English type of the 18th century — is, in fact, less
elastic than in the United Kingdom.

On the other hand, it is not uncommon to misinterpret the
rigidity of the United States constitution, from a regard rather
to the theory which its text suggests than to the practical
working of the machine. For the letter of the constitution has
to some extent been modified, if not technically amended, in
various respects by judicial interpretation, and by use and wont
(e.g. as regards the election of the president). This side of the
matter may be studied in C. G. Tiedeman's work cited below.
Moreover, even in respect of the 18th-century British character
attaching to the constitution, as drawn up in 1787, it has to be
remembered that this was not taken direct from England. As
several American constitutional historians have elaborately
shown (e.g. A. C. McLaughlin, in The Confederation and the
Constitution, 1905), the English idea had already been developed
in various directions during the preceding colonial period, and
the constitution really represented the English constitutional
usage as known in America, into which the Philadelphia con-
vention introduced new features corresponding to the prevailing
civil conditions or suggested by English analogy. It is important
to emphasize this point, since the resemblance of the American
constitution of 1789 to the contemporary English constitution
has sometimes been exaggerated; but the fact remains that the
written constitution has been less susceptible of development
than the unwritten.

Between England and some other constitutional countries a
difference of much constitutional importance is to be found in
the terms on which the component parts of the country were
brought together. All great societies have been produced by
the aggregation of small societies into larger and larger groups.
In England the process of consolidation was completed before
the constitution settled down into its present form. In the
United States, on the other hand, in Switzerland, and in Germany
the constitution is in form an alliance among a number of
separate states, each of which may have a constitution and
laws of its own for local purposes. In federal governments it
remains a question how far the independence of individual
states has been sacrificed by submission to a constitution. In
the United States constitutional progress is hampered by the
necessity thus created of having every amendment ratified by
the separate vote of three-fourths of the states.

See also Government; Sovereignty; Cabinet; Prerogative,
&c, and the section on Government or Constitution in the articles
on the various countries. The standard work on the English con-
stitution is Sir William Anson's Law and Custom of the Constitution
(1st ed. 1886; 3rd ed. 1909)- see also A. L. Lowell, The Government

of England (1908); W. Bagehot, The English Constitution; S. Low,
The Governance of England (1904) ; A. V. Dicey, The Law of the
Constitution (7th ed. 1909) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of
England (1878) ; R. Gneist, History of the English Constitution
(Engl, trans. 1886); J. Macy, The English Constitution (New York,
1897); E. W. Ridges, Constitutional Law of England (1905); F. W.
Maitland, Constitutional History of England (1908) ; G. B. Adams
and H. M. Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional
History (New York, 1901). For America, see C. E. Stevens, Sources
of the Constitution of the United States (London and New York, 1 894) ;
G. T. Curtis, Constitutional History of the United States (2 vols., New
York, 1 889-1896) ; T. Mel. Cooley, General Principles of Constitutional
Law in the United States (Boston, 1880; 3rd ed. 1898); S. G.
Fisher, Evolution of the Constitution of the United States (Philadelphia,
1897); J. I. C. Hare, American Constitutional Law (2 vols., Boston,
1889) ; J. F. Jameson (ed.), Essays on the Constitutional History of the
United States in the Formative Period, 177S-178Q (Boston, 1889);
W. M. Meigs, Growth of the Constitution in the Federal Convention
of 1787 (Philadelphia, 1900) ; and C. G. Tiedeman, Unwritten Con-
stitution of the United States (New York, 1890). Also A. L. Lowell,
Government and Parties in Continental Europe (2 vols., 1896) ; W. F.
Dodd, Modern Constitutions (2 vols., Chicago, 1909), a collec-
tion of the fundamental laws of twenty-two of the most important
countries.

" CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS " ('kfrnvaiuv iroXireia), a work
attributed to the philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), forming
one of a series of Constitutions (iroXu-eicu), 158 in number, which
treated of the institutions of the various states in the Greek
world. It was extant until the 7th century of our era, or to an
even later date, but was subsequently lost. A copy of this
treatise, written in four different hands upon four rolls of papyrus,
and dating from the end of the 1st century a.d., was discovered
in Egypt, and acquired by the trustees of the British Museum,
for whom it was edited by F. G. Kenyon, assistant in the manu-
script department, and published in January 1891. Some very
imperfect fragments of another copy had been acquired by the
Egyptian Museum at Berlin, and were published in 1880.

Authorship. — It may be regarded as now established that the
treatise discovered in Egypt is identical with the work upon the
constitution of Athens that passed in antiquity under the name of
Aristotle. The evidence derived from a comparison of the
British Museum papyrus with the quotations from the lost work
of Aristotle's which are found in scholiasts and grammarians is
conclusive. Of fifty-eight quotations from Aristotle's work, fifty-
five occur in the papyrus. Of thirty-three quotations from
Aristotle, which relate to matters connected with the con-
stitution, or the constitutional history of Athens, although
they are not expressly referred to the 'AOnivaiuv iroXireia,
twenty-three are found in the papyrus. Of those not found
in the papyrus, the majority appear to have come either
from the beginning of the treatise, which is wanting in the
papyrus, or from the latter portion of it, which is mutilated.
The coincidence, therefore, is as nearly as possible complete.
It may also be regarded as established by internal evidence that
the treatise was composed during the interval between Aristotle's
return to Athens in 335 B.C. and his death in 322. There are two
passages which give us the latter year as the terminus ad quern,
viz. c. 42. 1 and c. 62. 2. In the former passage the democracy
which is about to be described is spoken of as the " present
constitution " (17 vvv KarkaTaxrvs rrjs irdXiTeias). The democratic
constitution was abolished, and a timocracy established, on the
surrender of Athens to Antipater, at the end of the Lamian War,
in the autumn of 322. At the same time Samos was lost; it is
still reckoned, however, among the Athenian possessions in the
latter passage. On the other hand, the foreign possessions
of Athens are limited to Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros, Delos and
Samos. This could only apply to the period after Chaeronea
(338 B.C.). In c. 61. 1, again, mention is made of a special
Strategus kirl ras o-u/jjuopias; but it can be proved from inscrip-
tions that down to the year 334 the generals were collectively con-
cerned with the symmories. Finally, in c. 54. 7 an event is dated
by the archonship of Cephisophon (329). We thus get the
years 329 and 322 as fixing the limits of the period to which the
composition of the work must be assigned. It follows that,
whether it is by Aristotle or not, its date is later than that of the
Politics, in which there is no reference to any event subsequent
to the death of Philip in 336

"CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS'

17

The only question as to authorship that can fairly be raised
is the question whether it is by Aristotle or by a pupil; i.e. as to
the sense in which it is " Aristotelian." The argument on the
two sides may be summarized as follows: —

Against. — (i.) The occurrence of non- Aristotelian words and
phrases and the absence of turns of expression characteristic of
the undisputed writings of Aristotle, (ii.) The occurrence of
statements contradictory of views found in the Politics; e.g.
c. 4 (Constitution of Draco) compared with Pol. 1274 b 15
(ApaicoPTOS vofwi fitv An, irdXirdq. 8' VTapxovay tovs
vonovs Wr\Kev) ; c. 8. 1 (the archons appointed by lot out of
selected candidates) compared with Pol. 1274 a 17, and 1281
b 31 (the archons elected by the demos); c. 17. 1 (total length of
Peisistratus' reign, 19 years) compared with Pol. 13 15 b 32
(total length, 17 years); c. 21. 6 (Cleisthenes left the clan and
phratries unaltered) compared with Pol. 1319 b 20 (Cleisthenes
increased the number of the phratries); c. 21. 2 and 4 compared
with Pol. 1275 b 37 (different views as to the class admitted
to citizenship by Cleisthenes). It will be observed that the
instances quoted relate to the most famous names in the early
history of Athens, viz. Draco, Solon, Peisistratus and Cleisthenes.
(iii.) Arguments drawn from the style, composition and general
character of the work, which are alleged to be unworthy of the
author of the undoubtedly genuine writings. There is no sense
of proportion (contrast the space devoted to Peisistratus and his
sons, or to the Four Hundred and the Thirty, with the inadequate
treatment of the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian
Wars); there is a lack of historical insight and an uncritical
acceptance of erroneous views; and the anecdotic element is
unduly prominent. These considerations led several of the earlier
critics to deny the Aristotelian authorship, e.g. the editors of the
Dutch edition of the text, van Herwerden and van Leeuwen;
Rtihl, Cauer and Schvarcz in Germany; H. Richards and others
in England.

For. — (i.) The consensus of antiquity. Every ancient writer
who mentions the Constitution attributes it to Aristotle, while no
writer is known to have questioned its genuineness, (ii.) The
coincidence of the date assigned to its composition on internal
grounds with the date of Aristotle's second residence in Athens,
(iii.) Parallelisms of thought or expression with passages in the
Politics; e.g. c. 16. 2 and 3 compared with Pol. 1318 b 14 and
13 19 a 30; the general view of Solon's legislation compared with
Pol. 1296 b 1; c. 27. 3 compared with Pol. 1274 a 9. To
argument (i.) against the authorship, it is replied that the
Constitution is an historical work, intended for popular use;
differences in style and terminology from those of a philosophical
treatise, such as the Politics, are to be expected. To argument
(ii.) it is replied that, as the Constitution is a later work than the
Politics, a change of view upon particular points is not surprising.
These considerations have led the great majority of writers upon
the subject to attribute the work to Aristotle himself. On this
side are found Kenyon and Sandys among English scholars, and
in Germany, Wilamowitz, Blass, Gilbert, Bauer, Bruno Keil,
Busolt, E. Meyer, and many others. On the whole, it can hardly
be doubted that the view which is supported by so great a weight
of authority is the correct one. The arguments advanced on the
other side are not to be lightly set aside, but they can scarcely
outweigh the combination of external and internal evidence in
favour of the attribution to Aristotle. An attentive study of the
parallel passages in the Politics will go a long way towards
carrying conviction. It is true that a series such as the Constitu-
tions might well be entrusted to pupils working under the direc-
tion of their master. It is also true, however, that the
Constitution of Athens must have been incomparably the most
important of the series and the one that would be most naturally
reserved for the master's hand. There are no traces in the
treatise either of variety of authorship or of incompleteness,
though there are evidences of interpolation.

Contents. — The treatise consists of two parts, one historical,
and the other descriptive. The first forty-one chapters compose
the former part, the remainder of the work the latter. The first
part comprised an account of the original constitution of Athens,

and of the eleven changes through which it successively passed
(see c. 41). The papyrus, however, is imperfect at the beginning
(the manuscript from which it was copied appears to have been
similarly defective), the text commencing in the middle of a
sentence which relates to the trial and banishment of the
Alcmeonidae for their part in the affair of Cylon. The missing
chapters must have contained a sketch of the original constitu-
tion, and of the changes introduced in the time of Ion and
Theseus.

The following is an abstract of Part I. in its present form.
Chapters 2,3, description of the constitution before the time of Draco.
4, Draco's constitution. 5-12, reforms of Solon. 13, party feuds
after the legislation of Solon. 14-19, the rule of Peisistratus and his
sons. 20, 21, the reforms of Cleisthenes. 22, changes introduced
between Cleisthenes and the invasion of Xerxes. 23, 24, the supre-
macy of the Areopagus, 479-461 B.C. 25, its overthrow by Ephialtes.
26, 27, changes introduced in the time of Pericles. 28, the rise of the
demagogues. 29-33, the revolution of the Four Hundred. 34-40,
the government of the Thirty. 41, list of the successive changes in
the constitution. It may be noted that the reforms of Solon, the
tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons, and the revolutions of the Four
Hundred and the Thirty, together occupy considerably more than
two-thirds of Part I.

Part II. describes the constitution as it existed at the period of
the composition of the treatise (329-322 B.C.). It begins with an
account of the conditions of citizenship and of the training of the
ephebi (citizens between the ages of 18 and 20). In chapters 43-49
the functions of the Council (£011X17) and of the officials who act in
concert with it are described. 50-60 deal with the officials who are
appointed by lot, of whom the most important are the nine Archons,
to whose functions five chapters (55-59) are devoted. The military
officers, who come under the head of elective officials, form the
subject of c. 61. With c. 63 begins the section on the Law-courts,
which occupied the remainder of the Constitution. This portion,
with the exception of c. 63, is fragmentary in character, owing to the
mutilated condition of the fourth roll of the papyrus on which it was
written. ' It will thus be seen that the subjects which receive fullest
treatment in Part II. are the Council, the Archons and the Law-
courts. The Ecclesia, on the other hand, is dealt with very briefly,
in connexion with the prytaneis and proedri (cc. 43, 44).

Sources. — The labours of several workers in this field, notably
Bruno Keil and Wilamowitz, have rendered it comparatively
easy to form a general estimate of Aristotle's indebtedness to
previous writers, although problems of great difficulty are
encountered as soon as it is attempted to determine the precise
sources from which the historical part of the work is derived.
Among these sources are unquestionably Herodotus (for the
tyranny of Peisistratus, and for the struggle between Cleisthenes
and Isagoras), Thucydides (for the episode of Harmodius and
Aristogeiton, and for the Four Hundred) , Xenophon (for the
Thirty), and the poems of Solon. There is now among critics
a general consensus in favour of the view that the most important
of his sources was the Atthis of Androtion, a work published
in all probability only a few years earlier than the Constitution;
in any case, after the year 346. From it are derived not only
the passages which are annalistic in character and read like
excerpts from a chronicle {e.g. c. 13. 1, 2; c. 22; c. 26. 2* 3),
but also most of the matter common to the Constitution and to
Plutarch's Solon. The coincidences with Plutarch, which are
often verbal, and extend to about 50 lines out of 170 in cc. 5-1 1
of the Constitution, can best be explained on the hypothesis
that Hermippus, the writer followed by Plutarch, used the
same source as Aristotle, viz. the Atthis of Androtion. Androtion
is probably closely followed in the account of the pre-Draconian
constitution, and to him appear to be due the explanation of
local names {e.g. x^P^v dreXes), or proverbial expressions {e.g.
rd jut) <j)v\oKpi,velv) , as well as the account of "Strategems"
such as that of Themistocles against the Areopagus (c. 25) or
that employed by Peisistratus in order to disarm the people
(c. 15. 4). Whether the anecdotes, which are a conspicuous
feature in the Constitution, should be referred to the same source
is more open to doubt. It is also generally agreed that among
the sources was a work, written towards the end of the 5th
century B.C., by an author of oligarchical sympathies, with the
object of defaming the character and policy of the heroes of the
democracy. This source can be traced in passages such as
c. 6. 2 (Solon turning the Seisachtheia to the profit of himself and
his friends), 9. 2 (obscurity of Solon's laws intentional, cf. c. 35. 2),

I«

CONSUETUDINARY— CONSUL

27. 4 (Pericles' motive for the introduction of the dicasts' pay).
But while the object (01 PovKontvoi (SkoLtrfaintiv, c. 6) and the
date of this oligarchical pamphlet (for the date cf. Plutarch's
Solon, c. 15 oi 7repi Kovoova koI TZXuvlav /cat 'linrovucov, which
points to a time when Conon, Alcibiades and Callias were pro-
minent in public life) are fairly certain, the authorship is quite
uncertain, as is also its relationship to another source of import-
ance, viz. thai? from which are derived the accounts of the
Four Hundred and the Thirty. The view taken of the character
and course of these revolutions betrays a strong bias in favour
of Theramenes, whose ideal is alleged to have been the iraTptos
iroXtreta. It has been maintained, on the one hand, that this
last source (the authority followed in the accounts of the Four
Hundred and the Thirty) is identical with the oligarchical
pamphlet, and, on the other, that it is none other than the Atthis
of Androtion. The former hypothesis is improbable. In favour
of the latter two arguments may be adduced. In the first place,
Androtion's father, Andron, was one of the Four Hundred, and
took Theramenes' side. Secondly, the precise marks of time,
which are characteristic of the Atthis, are conspicuous in these
chapters. In view, however, of the fact that Androtion in his
political career showed himself not only a democrat, but a
democrat of the extreme school, the hypothesis must be
pronounced untenable.

Value. — It is by no means easy to convey a just impression of
the value of Aristotle's work as an authority for the constitu-
tional history of Athens. In all that relates to the practice of
his own day Aristotle's authority is final. There can be no
question, therefore, as to the importance, or the trustworthy
character, of the Second Part. But even here a caution is
necessary. It must be remembered that its authority is final
for the 4th century only, and that we are not justified in arguing
from the practice of the 4th century to that of the 5th, unless
corroborative evidence is available. In the First Part, however,
where he is treating of the institutions and practice of a past
age, Aristotle's authority is very far from being final. An
analysis of this part of the work discloses his dependence, in a
remarkable degree, upon his sources. Occasionally he compares,
criticizes or combines; as a rule he adheres closely to the
writer whom he is using. There is no evidence, either of inde-
pendent inquiry, or of the utilization of other sources than
literary ones. Where " original documents " are quoted, or
referred to, as e.g. in the history of the Four Hundred, or of the
Thirty, it is probable that he derived them from a previous
writer. For the authority of Aristotle we must substitute,
therefore, the authority of his sources; i.e. the value of any
particular statement will vary with the character of the source
from which it comes. For the history of the 5th century the
passages which come from Androtion's Atthis carry with them
a high degree of authority. It by no means follows, however,
that a statement relating to earlier times is to be accepted
simply because it is derived from the same source. And in
passages which are derived from other sources than the Atthis
a much lower degree of authority can be claimed, even for state-
ments relating to the 5th century. The supremacy of the
Areopagus after the Persian Wars, the policy attributed to
Aristides (c. 24), and the association of Themistocles with
Ephialtes, are cases in point. Nor must the reader expect to
find in the Constitution a great work, in any sense of the term.
The style, it is true, is simple and clear, and the writer's criticisms
are sensible. But the reader will look in vain for evidence of
the philosophic insight which makes the Politics, even at the
present day, the best text-book of political philosophy. It is
perhaps hardly too much to say that there is not a single great
idea in the whole work. He will look in vain, too, for any
consistent view of the history of the constitution as a whole,
or for any adequate account of its development. He will find
occasional misunderstandings of measures, and confusions of
thought. There are appreciations which it is difficult to accept,
and inaccuracies which it is difficult to pardon. There are
contradictions which the author has overlooked, and there are
omissions which are unaccountable. Yet, in spite of such defects,

the importance of the Constitution can hardly be exaggerated.
Its recovery has rendered obsolete any history of the Athenian
constitution that was written before the year 1801. Before
this date our knowledge was largely derived from the statements
of scholiasts and lexicographers which had not seldom been
misunderstood. The recovery of the Constitution puts us for
the first time in possession of the evidence. To appreciate the
difference that has been made by its recovery, it is only necessary
to Compare what we now know of the reforms of Cleisthenes
with what we formerly knew. It is much of it evidence that
needs a careful process of weighing and sifting before it can be
safely used; but it is, as a rule, the best, or the only evidence.
The First Part may be less trustworthy than the Second; it is
notjess indispensable to the student of constitutional history.

Bibliography. — A conspectus of the literature of the Constitution
complete down. to the end of 1 892 is given in Sandys p. Ixvii., and,
though less complete, down to the beginning of 1895 in Busolt,
Griechische Geschichte, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 15. In the present article
only the most important editions, works or articles are mentioned.

Editions of the text : Editio princeps, ed. by F. G. Kenyon, 30th
January 1891, with commentary. Autotype facsimile of the
papyrus (1891). Aristotelis voXirda 'Adr)vaio>v, ed. G. Kaibel et U. von
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (Berlin, Weidmann, 1891). Aristotelis qui
fertur ' KS-qvaiuv woXueia recensuerunt H. van Herwerden et J. van
Leeuwen (Leiden, 1891). Teubner text, ed. by F. Blass (Leipzig,
1892). Edition of the text without commentary by Kenyon.

Most of these have passed through several editions. The fullest
commentary is that contained in the edition of the text by J. E.
Sandys (London, 1893). The best translations are those of Kenyon,
in English, and of Kaibel and Kiessling, in German.

Works dealing with the subject: Bruno Keil, Die Solonische
Verfassung nach Aristoteles (Berlin, 1892) ; G. Gilbert, Constitutional
Antiquities of Sparta and Athens (Eng. trans., 1895); U. von Wila-
mowitz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (2 vols., Berlin, 1893),
a work of great importance, in spite of many unsound conclusions;
E. Meyer, Forschungen, vol. ii. pp. 406 ff. (the section dealing with the
Four Hundred is especially valuable). Articles: R. W. Macan,
Journal of Hellenic Studies (April 1891); R. Nissen, Rheinisches
Museum (1892), p. 161; G. Busolt, Hermes (1898), pp. 71 ff . ; O.
Seeck, " Quellenstudien zu des Aristoteles' Verfassungsgeschichte
Athens," in Lehmann's Beitrage zwalten Geschichte, vol. iv. pp. 164
and 270. (E. M. W.)

CONSUETUDINARY (Med. Lat. consuetudinarius, from con-
suetudo, custom), customary, a term used especially of law
based on custom as opposed to statutory or written law. As a
noun " consuetudinary " (Lat. consuetudinarius, sc. liber) is the
'name given to a ritual book containing the forms and ceremonies
used in the services of a particular monastery, cathedral or
religious order.

CONSUL (in Gr. generally wroros, a shortened form of crparqybs
viraros, i.e. praetor maximus), the title borne by the two highest
of the ordinary magistrates of the whole Roman community
during the republic. In the imperial period these magistrates
had ceased practically to be the heads of the state, but their
technical position remained unaltered. (For the modern
commercial office of consul see the separate article below.)

The consulship arose with the fall of the ancient monarchy
(see further Rome: History, II. " The Republic "). The Roman
reverence for the abstract conception of the magistracy, as
expressed in the imperium and the auspicia, led to the pre-
servation of the regal power weakened only by external
limitations. The two new officials who replaced the king bore
the titles of leaders (praetores) and of judges (judices; cf. Cicero,
De legibus, iii. 3. 8, " regio imperio duo sunto iique a praeeundo
judicando . . . praetores judices . . . appellamino"). But the
new fact of colleagueship caused a third title to prevail, that
of consules or " partners," a word probably derived from con-
salio on the analogy of praesul and exul (Mommsen, Staatsrecht,
ii. p. 77, n. 3). This first example of the collegiate principle
assumed the form that soon became familiar in the Roman
commonwealth. Each of the pair of magistrates could act up to
the full powers of the imperium; but the dissent of his colleague
rendered his decision or his action null and void. At the same
time the principle of a merely annual tenure of office was insisted
on. The two magistrate's at the close of their year of office were
bound to transmit their power to successors; and these successors
whom they nominated were obliged to seek the suffrages of the

CONSUL

1 9.

people. The only body known to us as electing the consuls
during the republican period was the comitia centuriata (see
Comitia). The consulate was originally confined to patricians.
During the struggle for higher office that was waged between,
the orders the office was suspended on fifty-one occasions
between the years 444 and 367 B.C. and replaced by the military
tribunate with consular power, to which plebeians were eligible.
The struggle was brought to an end by the Licinio Sextian laws
of 367 B.C., which enacted that one consul must be a plebeian
(see Patricians).

Most of the internal history of Rome down to the beginning
of the third century B.C. consists in a series of attacks, whether
intentional or accidental, on the power of the executive. As
the consuls are the sole representatives of higher executive
authority in early times, this history is one of a progressive
decline in the originally wide and arbitrary powers of the office.
Their right of summary criminal jurisdiction was weakened by
the successive laws of appeal (provocatio) ; their capacity for
interpreting the civil law at their pleasure by the publication
of the Twelve Tables and the Forms of Action. The growth
of the tribunate of the plebs hampered their activity both as
legislators and as judges. They surrendered the duties of
registration to the censors in 443 B.C., and the rights of civil
jurisdiction and control over the market and police to the
praetor and the curule aediles in 367 B.C.

The result of these limitations and of this specialization of
functions in the community was to leave the consuls with less
specific duties at home than any magistrates in the state. But
the absence of specific functions may be of itself a sign of a general
duty of supervision. The consuls were in a very real sense the
heads of the state. Polybius describes them as controlling the
whole administration (Polyb. vi. 1 2 Tracrcov eun nvpioi t&v Sri/jo-
alwv irpa^toiv). This control they exercised in concert with the
senate, whose chief servants they were. It was they who were
the most regular consultants of this council, who formulated
its decrees as edicts, and who brought before the people legislative
measures which the senate had approved. It was they also who
represented the state to the outer world and introduced foreign
envoys to the senate. The symbols of their presidency were
manifold. It was marked by the twelve lictors (q.v.), a number
permitted to no other ordinary magistrate, by the fact that the
first act of newly-admitted consuls was to take the auspices,
their second to summon the senate, and by the use of their names
for dating the year. The consulate was, indeed, as Cicero expresses
it, the culminating point in an official career (" Honorum populi
finis est consulatus," Cic. Pro Planco, 25. 60).

In the domestic sphere the consuls retained certain powers
of jurisdiction. This jurisdiction was either (i.) administrative
or (ii.) criminal, (i.) Their administrative jurisdiction was some-
times concerned with financial matters such as pecuniary claims
made by the state and individuals against one another. They
acted in these matters in the periods during which the censors
were not in office. We also find them adjudicating in disputes
about property between the cities of Italy, (ii.) Their criminal
jurisdiction was of three kinds. In the first place it was their
duty, before the development of the standing commissions
which originated in the middle of the 2nd century B.C., to set in
motion the criminal law against offenders for the cognizance of
ordinary, as opposed to political, crimes. The reference of such
cases to the assembly of the people was effected through their
quaestors (see Quaestor). Secondly, when the people and
senate, or the senate alone, appointed a special commission
(see Senate), the commissioner named was often a consul.
Thirdly, we find the consul conducting a criminal inquiry raised
by a point of international law. It is possible that in this case
his advising body {consilium) was composed of the fetiales (see
Herald, ad fin.). (Cicero, De republica, iii. 18. 28; Mommsen,
Staatsrecht, ii. p. 112, n. 3).

During the greater part of the republic the consuls were
recognized as the heads of the administration abroad as well as
at home. It thus became necessary that departments of adminis-
tration (provinciae) should be determined and assigned. The

method of assignment varied. The least usual device was for
one consul to take the field at the head of an army, while the
other remained at home to transact the civil business of state.
More often foreign wars demanded the attention of both consuls.
In this case the regular army of four legions was usually divided;
between them. When it was necessary that both armies should
co-operate, the principle of rotation was adopted, each consul
having the command for a single day — a practice which may be
illustrated by the events preceding the battle of Cannae (Polybius
iii. no; Livy xxii. 41). During the great period of conquest
from 264 to 146 B.C. Italy was generally one of the consular
"provinces," some foreign country the other; and when at the
close of this period Italy was at peace, this distinction approxi-
mated to one between civil and military command. The consuls .
settled their departments amongst themselves by agreement!
or by lot (comparatio, sortitio), the power of declaring what
should be the consular provinciae was usurped by the senate,
(see Senate), and a lex Sempronia passed by C. Gracchus,:
probably in 122 B.C., ordained that the two consular provinces
should be declared before the election of the consuls. At this
time the consuls entered office on the 1st of January (a practice
which commenced in 1 53 b. a), and their military command began
on the 1 st of March, They could hold this military command
until they were superseded in the following March, and thus their
tenure of power was practically raised to fourteen months. But
meanwhile the home officials invested with the imperium had
proved insufficient for the military needs of the empire, and the
system of prolonging the command {prorogatio imperii) had been
growing up (see Province). The consul whose command had
been prolonged now served abroad as proconsul. It is probable,
that Sulla in his legislation of 81 B.C. did something to stereotype^
this system. Certainly the government by pro-magistrates be-
comes the rule after this period (cf. Cicero, De natura deorum,'
ii. 3. 9; De divinatione, ii. 36. 76, 77), although there are several
instances of consuls assuming the active command of provinces
between the years 74 and 55 B.C. (Mommsen, Rechtsfrage, p. 30),
and Cicero declares that the consul has a right to approach
every province (" consules, quibus more majorum concessum
est vel omnes adire proviricias," Cicero, Ad Atticum, viii. 15. 3).'
Certainly in theory the provinces were still regarded as "con-
sular," not " proconsular," and were technically, although not
practically, held from the 1st of March' of the consul's tenure'
of office at Rome (cf. Cicero, De provinciis consularibus, 15. 37;
Mommsen, Rechtsfrage, passim). It was not until the lex
Pompeia of 52 B.C. (Dio Cassius xl. 56) had established a five
years' interval between home and foreign command that the
theory of the prorogatio imperii vanished and the proconsulate
became a separate office.

Since the theory of the persistence of the republican constitu-
tion was of the essence of the Principate, the consuls necessarily
lost little of their outward position and dignity under the rule of
the Caesars. The consulship was the only office in which a citizen,
other than a member of the imperial house, might have the
princeps as a colleague, and in the interval between the death or
deposition of one princeps and the appointment of another the
consuls resumed their normal position as the heads of the state
(cf. Herodian ii. 12). As the presidents of the senate, who after
a.d. 14 elected them to their office, they were the chief personal
representatives of those elements of sovereignty that were
supposed to attach to that body, and they directed that high
criminal jurisdiction which the senate of this period assumed
(see Senate). A restored power of jurisdiction is indeed one of
the features of their position during this time, and it is probable
that the civil appeals which came to the senate were delegated
to the consuls. They also acted for a time as delegates to the
princeps in matters of Chancery jurisdiction such as trusts and
guardianship (Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. p. 103). The consulship
was also a preparation for certain high commands, such as the
government of certain public and imperial provinces (see Pro-
vince) and the praefecture of the city. It was probably due
to the fact that the consulship was such a prize, and perhaps also
to the expense imposed on the office by its association with the

20

CONSUL

celebration of games (Dio Cassius lvi. 46, lix. 20) that the tenure
was progressively shortened. In the early principate the consuls
hold office for six months, later for four to two months (Mommsen,
Staatsrecht, ii. pp. 84-87). The consuls appointed for the 1st of
January were called ordinarii, the others suffecti; and the whole
year was dated by the names of the former.

This distinction continued in the Empire that was founded
by Diocletian and Constantine. The ordinarii were nominated
by the emperor, the suffecti were nominated by the senate, and
their appointment was ratified by the emperor. The consulship
was still the greatest dignity which the Empire had to bestow;
and the pomp and ceremony of the office increased in proportion
to the decline in its actual power. The entry of the consuls on
office was celebrated by a great procession, by games given to
the people, by a distribution of gifts, such as the ivory diptychs,
a long series of which has been preserved. But the senate, over
which they presided until the time of Justinian, was little more
than the municipal council of the city of Rome; and the justice
which they meted out had dwindled down to the formal and
uncontested acts of manumission and the granting of guardians.
Sometimes there was a consul of the West at Rome and a consul
of the East at Constantinople; at other times both consuls
might be found in either capital. The last consul born in a private
station was Basilius in the East in a.d. 541. But the emperors
continued to bear the title for some time longer.

Authorities. — Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. pp. 74-140
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887) ; Herzog, Geschichle und System der romischen
Staatsverfassung, i. p. 688 foil., 827 foil. (Leipzig, 1884, &c); Lange,
Romische Alterthumer, i. p. 524 foil. (Berlin, 1856, &c); Schiller,
Staats- und Rechtsaltertiimer, p. 53 foil. (Munich, 1893, Handbuch
der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft, von Dr Iwan von Muller) ;
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiouites grecques et romaines, i.
1455 foil. (1875, &c.) ; De Ruggiero, Dizionario eptgrafico di antichitd
Romane, ii. 679 foil., 868 foil. (Rome, 1886, &c); Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopadie, iv. 11 12 foil, (new edition, Stuttgart, 1893, &c).

For the consular diptychs, cf. besides Daremberg-Saglio, I.e.,
Gori, Thesaurus veterum diptychorum (Florence, 1759), and Labarte,
Histoire des arts induslriels au moyen age, i. p. 10 foil., 190 foil. (1st
ed., Paris, 1864). (A. H. J. G.)

CONSUL, a public officer authorized by the state whose com-
mission he bears to manage the commercial affairs of its subjects
in a foreign country, and formally permitted by the government
of the country wherein he resides to perform the duties which
are specified in his commission, or lettre de provision. (For the
ancient magisterial office of consul see separate article above.)

A consul, as such, is not invested with any diplomatic character,
and he cannot enter on his official duties until a rescript, termed
an exequatur (sometimes a mere countersign endorsed on the
commission), has been delivered to him by the authorities of the
state to which his nomination has been communicated by his
own government. This exequatur, called in Turkey a barai,
may be revoked at any time at the discretion of the government
where he resides. The status of consuls commissioned by the
Christian powers to reside in Mahommedan countries, China,
Korea, Siam, and, until 1899, in Japan, and to exercise judicial
functions in civil and criminal matters between their own
countrymen and strangers, is exceptional to the common law,
and is founded on special conventions or capitulations (q.v.).

The title of consul, in the sense in which it is used in inter-
national law, is derived from that of certain magistrates, in the
cities of medieval Italy, Provence and Languedoc, charged with
the settlement of trade disputes whether by sea or land (consules
mercatorum, consules artis maris, &c.) - 1 With the growth of trade
it early became convenient to appoint agents with similar
powers in foreign parts, and these often, though not invariably,
were styled consuls {consules in partibus ultramarinis). 2 The

1 The title of consul was borne by the chief municipal officers of
several cities of the south of France during the middle ages and up
to the Revolution. The name was not due to their being the suc-
cessors of the chiefs of the Roman municipia. They were members
of the governing body known as the consulat, and in Latin documents
are sometimes styled consiliarii, i.e. councillors. The consulat itself
is not traceable beyond the 12th century.

2 Particular quarters of mercantile cities were assigned to foreign
traders and were placed under the jurisdiction of their own magis-
trates, variously styled syndics, provosts (praepositi), echevins

earliest foreign consuls were those established by Genoa, Pisa,
Venice and Florence, between 1098 and 1196, in the Levant, at
Constantinople, in Palestine, Syria and Egypt. Of these the
Pisan agent at Constantinople bore the title of consul, the
Venetian that of baylo (q.v.). In 1251 Louis IX. of France
arranged a treaty with the sultan of Egypt under which French
consuls were established at Tripoli and Alexandria, and Du
Cange cites a charter of James of Aragon, dated 1268, granting
to the city of Barcelona the right to elect consuls in partibus
ultramarinis, &c. The free growth of the system was, however,
hampered by commercial and dynastic rivalries. The system
of French foreign consulships, for instance, all but died out after
the crushing of the independent life of the south and the incor-
poration of Provence and Languedoc under the French crown;
while, with the establishment of Venetian supremacy in the
Levant, the baylo developed into a diplomatic agent of the first
class at the expense of the consuls of rival states. The modern
system of consulships actually dates only from the 16th century.
Early in this century both England and Scotland had their
" conservators " with " jurisdiction to do justice between
merchant and merchant beyond the seas " ; but France led the
way. The alliance between Francis I. and Suleiman the Magnifi-
cent gave her special advantages in the Levant, of which she
was not slow to take advantage. Her success culminated in the
capitulations signed in 1604, under the terms of which her
consuls were given precedence over all others and were endowed
with diplomatic immunities (e.g. freedom from arrest and from
domiciliary visits) , while the traders of all other nations were put
under the protection of the French flag. It was not till 1675
that, under the first capitulations signed with Turkey, English
consuls were established in the Ottoman empire. Ten years
earlier, under the commercial treaty between England and
Spain, they had been established in Spain.

The frequent wars of the succeeding century hindered the
development of the consular system. Thus, though the system
of consuls was regularly established in France by the ordinance
of 1661, in 1760 France had consuls only in the Levant, Barbary,
Italy, Spain and Portugal, while she discouraged the establish-
ment of foreign consuls in her own ports as tending to infringe
her own jurisdiction. It was not till the 19th century that the
system developed universally. Hitherto consuls had, for the
most part, been business men with no special qualification as
regards training; but the French system, under which the
consular service had been long established as part of the general
civil service of the country, a system that had survived the
Revolution unchanged, was gradually adopted by other nations;
though, as in France, consuls not belonging to the regular
service, and having an inferior status, continued to be appointed.
In Great Britain the consular service was organized in 1825
(see below) ; in France the series of ordinances and laws by which
its modern constitution was fixed began in 1833. In Germany
progress was hindered by the political conditions of the country
under the old Confederation; for the Hanse cities, which practi-
cally monopolized the oversea trade, lacked the means to estab-
lish a consular system on the French model. The present
magnificently organized consular system of Germany is, then,
one of the most remarkable outcomes of the establishment of the
united empire. It was initiated by an act of the parliament
of the North German Confederation (Nov. 8, 1867), subsequently
incorporated in the statutes of the Empire, which laid down
the principle that the German consulates were to be under
the immediate jurisdiction of the president of the Confederation
(later the emperor). The functions, duties and privileges of
French and German consuls do not differ materially from those
of British consuls; but there is a great difference in the organiza-
tion and personnel of the consular service. In France, apart
from the consuls elus or consuls marchands, who are mere consular
agents, selected by the government from among the traders of a

(scabini), &c, who had power to fine or to expel from the quarter.
The Hanseatic League (q.v.), particularly, had numerous settlements
of this kind, the earliest being the Steelyard at London, established
in the 13th century.

CONSUL

21

town where it desires to be represented, and unsalaried, the
consular body proper was, by the decrees of July 10, 1880, and
April 27, 1883, practically constituted a branch of the diplomatic
service. It is recruited from the same sources, and its members
are free to exchange into the corps diplomatique, or vice versa.
Candidates for the diplomatic and consular services have to
undergo the same training and pass the same examinations,
i.e. in the constitutional, administrative and judicial organiza-
tion of the various powers, in international law, commercial
law and maritime law, in the history of treaties and in com-
mercial and political geography, in political economy, and in
the German and English languages. They have to serve three
years abroad or attached to some ministerial department before
they can enter for the examination which entitles them to an
appointment as attache or as consul suppliant. This assimilation
of the consular to the diplomatic service remains peculiar to
France. 1

In Germany it was enacted by the law of February 28, 1873,
that German consuls must be either trained jurists, or must
have passed special examinations. The result of this system
has been the establishment throughout the world of an elaborate
network of trained commercial experts, directly responsible to
the central government, and charged as one of their principal
duties with the task of keeping the government informed of all
that may be of interest to German traders. These annual
consular reports were from the first regularly and promptly
published in the Deutsche Handelsarchiv, and have contributed
much to the wonderful expansion of German trade. The right
to establish consuls is now universally recognized by Christian
civilized states. Jurists at one time contended that according
to international law a right of " ex-territoriality " attached to
consuls, their persons and dwellings being sacred, and themselves
amenable to local authority only in cases of strong suspicion on
political grounds. It is now admitted that, apart from treaty,
custom has established very few consular privileges; that
perhaps consuls may be arrested and incarcerated, not merely
on criminal charges, but for civil debt; and that, if they engage
in trade or become the owners of immovable property, their
persons certainly lose protection. This question of arrest has
been frequently raised in Europe: — in the case of Barbuit, a
tallow-chandler, who from 1717 to 1735 acted as Prussian
consul in London, and to whom the exemption conferred by
statute on ambassadors was held not to apply; in the case of
Cretico, the Turkish consul in London in 1808; in the case of
Begley, the United States consul at Genoa, arrested in Paris
in 1840; and in the case of De la Fuente Hermosa, Uruguayan
consul, whom the Cour Roy ale of Paris in 1842 held liable to
arrest for debt. In the same way consuls are often exempt
from all kinds of rates and taxes, and always from personal
taxes. They are exempt from billeting and military service, but
are not entitled (except in the Levant, where also freedom
from arrest and trial is the rule) to have private chapels in their
houses. The right of consuls to exhibit their national arms and
flag over the door of the bureau is not disputed.

Until the year 1825 British consuls were usually merchants
engaged in trade in the foreign countries in which they acted
as consuls, and their remuneration consisted entirely of fees.
An act of that year, however, organized the consular service
as a branch of the civil service, with payment by a fixed salary
instead of by fees; consuls were forbidden also to engage in
trade, and the management of the service was put under the
control of a separate department of the foreign office, created
for the purpose. In 1832 the restriction as to engaging in trade
was withdrawn, except as regards salaried members of the British
consular service.

1 i.e. as regards the organization of the system. Consuls, or
consuls-general, of other countries have sometimes a diplomatic or
quasi-diplomatic status. Consuls-general charges d'affaires, e.g.,
rank as diplomatic agents. Of these the most notable is the British
agent and consul-general in Egypt, whose position is unique. The
diplomatic agent of Belgium at Buenos Aires, e.g., is minister-resident
and consul-general, and the minister of Ecuador in London is consul-
general charge d'affaires.

The duty of consuls, under the " General Instructions to
British Consuls," is to advise His Majesty's trading subjects,
to quiet their differences, and to conciliate as much as possible
the subjects of the two countries. Treaty rights he is to support
in a mild and moderate spirit; and he is to check as far as
possible evasions by British traders of the local revenue laws.
Besides assisting British subjects who are tried for offences in
the local courts, and ascertaining the humanity of their treat-
ment after sentence, he has to consider whether home or foreign
law is more appropriate to the case, having regard to the con-
venience of witnesses and the time required for decision; and,
where local courts have wrongfully interfered, he puts the
home government in motion through the consul-general or
ambassador. He sends in reports on the labour, manufacture,
trade, commercial legislation and finance, technical education,
exhibitions and conferences of the country or district in which
he resides, and, generally, furnishes information on any subject
which may be desired of him. He acts as a notary public; he
draws up marine and commercial protests, attests documents
brought to him, and, if necessary, draws up wills, powers of
attorney, or conveyances. He celebrates marriages in accordance
with the provisions of the Foreign Marriage Act 1892, and,
where the ministrations of a clergyman cannot be obtained,
reads the burial service. At a seaport he has certain duties
to perform in connexion with the navy. In the absence of any
of His Majesty's ships he is senior naval officer; he looks after
men left behind as stragglers, or in hospital or prison, and sends
them on in due course to the nearest ship. He is also em-
powered by statute to advance for the erection or maintenance
of Anglican churches, hospitals, and places of interment sums
equal to the amount subscribed for the purpose by the resident
British subjects.

As the powers and duties of consuls vary with the particular
commercial interests they have to protect, and the civilization
of the state in whose territory they reside, instead of abstract
definition, we summarize the provisions on this subject of the
British Merchant Shipping Acts. 2 Consuls are bound to send
to the Board of Trade such reports or returns on any matter
relating to British merchant shipping or seamen as they may
think necessary. Where a consul suspects that the shipping or
navigation laws are being evaded, he may require the owner or
master to produce the log-book or other ship documents (such
as the agreement with the seamen, the account of the crew, the
certificate of registration); he may muster the crew, and order
explanations with regard to the documents. Where an offence
has been committed on the high seas, or aboard ashore, by
British seamen or apprentices, the consul makes inquiry on oath,
and may send home the offender and witnesses by a British ship,
particulars for the Board of Trade being endorsed on the agree-
ment for conveyance. He is also empowered to detain a foreign
ship the master or seamen of which appear to him through their
misconduct or want of skill to have caused injury to a British
vessel, until the necessary application for satisfaction or security
be made to the local authorities. Every British mercantile
ship, not carrying passengers, on entering a port gives into the
custody of the consul to be endorsed by him the seamen's agree-
ment, the certificate of registry, and the official log-book; a
failure to do this is reported to the registrar-general of seamen.
The following five provisions are also made for the protection of
seamen. If a British master engage seamen at a foreign port,
the engagement is sanctioned by the consul, acting as a super-
intendent of Mercantile Marine Offices. The consul collects the
property (including arrears of wages) of British seamen or
apprentices dying abroad, and remits to H.M. paymaster-general.
He also provides for the subsistence of seamen who are ship-
wrecked, discharged, or left behind, even if their service was with
foreign merchants; they are generally sent home in the first
British ship that happens to be in want of a complement, and
the expenses thus incurred form a charge on the parliamentary
fund for the relief of distressed seamen, the consul receiving a

2 See also instructions to consuls prepared by the Board of Trade
and approved by the secretary of state for foreign affairs.

22

CONSUL

commission of i\ % on the amount disbursed. Complaints by
crews as to the quality and quantity of the provisions on board
are investigated by the consul, who enters a statement in the
log-book and reports to the Board of Trade. Money disbursed
by consuls on account of the illness or injury of seamen is generally
recoverable from the owner. With regard to passenger vessels,
the master is bound to give the consul facilities for inspection
and for communication with passengers, and to exhibit his
" master's list," or list of passengers, so that the consul may
transmit to the registrar-general, for insertion in the Marine
Register Book, a report of the passengers dying and children
born during the voyage. The consul may even defray the
expenses of maintaining, and forwarding to their destination,
passengers taken off or picked up from wrecked or injured
vessels, if the master does not undertake to proceed in six weeks;
these expenses becoming, in terms of the Passenger Acts 1855
and 1863, a debt due to His Majesty from the owner or charterer,
where a salvor is justified in detaining a British vessel, the
master may obtain leave to depart by going with the salvor
before the consul, who, after hearing evidence as to the service
rendered and the proportion of ship's value and freight
claimed, fixes the amount for which the master is to give
bond and security. In the case of a foreign wreck the consul
is held to be the agent of the foreign owner. Much of the
notarial business which is imposed on consuls, partly by
statute and partly by the request of private parties, consists
in taking the declarations as to registry, transfers, &c, under
the Mercantile Shipping Acts. Consuls in the Ottoman empire,
China, Siam and Korea have extensive judicial and executive
powers.

Since the incorporation of the British consular service in the
civil service there have been several proposals to " reform " the
system with the view of increasing its usefulness, more particularly
from the point of view of providing assistance to British trade
abroad (see Reports of Special Committees of the House of
Commons on the Consular Service, 1858, 1872, 1903). It has been
frequently urged that British consuls in their commercial know-
ledge and intercourse with foreign merchants compare unfavour-
ably, for example, with the consuls of the United States. It
must be remembered, however, that there are points of striking
dissimilarity between the duties of the consuls of these two
countries. The American consul is necessarily brought much
into touch with the trade and commerce of the country to which
he is assigned through the system of consular invoices (see
Ad Valorem) ; in his ordinary reports he is not confined to one
stereotyped form, and when preparing special reports (a valuable
feature of the United States consular service) he is liberally
treated as regards any expense to which he has been put
in obtaining information. He is practically free from the
multifarious duties which the English consul has to discharge in
connexion with the mercantile marine, nor has he to perform
marriage ceremonies; and financially he is much better off,
being allowed to retain as personal all fees obtained from his
notarial duties. The Committee of 1903 was appointed to in-
quire, inter alia, whether the limits of age — 25 to 50 — for candi-
dates should be altered, and whether service as a vice-consul
for a certain period should be required to qualify for promotion
to the rank of consul; whether means could not be adopted to
give consular officers opportunities of increasing their practical
knowledge of commercial matters and to bring them more into
personal contact with the commercial community. The sugges-
tions of the committee as the result of its inquiries were adopted
in principle by the Foreign Office. The consular service is now
grouped into three main divisions: (1) the general service; (2)
Levant and Persia; and (3) China, Japan, Korea and Siam.
The general consular service is graded into three divisions:
first grade, consuls-general, salary £1000 with local allowances;
second grade, consuls-general and consuls, salary £800 and local
allowances; third grade, consuls, salary £600, with local
allowances. Vice-consuls have an annual salary of £350, rising
by annual increments of £15 to £450. In the general consular
service appointments are sometimes made to the higher offices

from the ranks, but more usually from a select list of nominees,
who must pass a qualifying examination. A proportion of the
vacancies are reserved for competition amongst candidates who
have had actual commercial experience. Divisions 2 and 3 are
recruited by open competition. There were at one time a small
number of commercial agents ■(/hose business consisted in watch-
ing and reporting on the commerce, industries and products of
special districts, and in answering inquiries on commercial sub-
jects. Their duties were subsequently transferred to the consular
staff, and a new class of officers, consular attaches, created.
The consular attaches divide their time between special in-
vestigations abroad, and visits to manufacturing districts in
the United Kingdom. The headquarters of the commercial
attaches in Europe, except those at Paris and Constant ; nople,
were transferred to London, without defined districts, in 1907
(see Report on the System of British Commercial Attaches and
Agents, 1908, Cd. 3610). " Pro-consuls "are frequently appointed
for the purpose of administering oaths, taking affidavits or
affirmations, and performing notarial acts under the Com-
missioners for Oaths Acts 1889.

The position of the United States consuls is minutely described
hr the Regulations, Washington, 1896. Under various treaties
and conventions, they enjoy large privileges and jurisdiction.
By the treaty of 18 16 with Sweden the United States government
agreed that the consuls of the two states respectively should be
sole judges in disputes between captains and crews of vessels.
(Up to 1906 there were eighteen treaties containing this clause.)
By convention with France in 1853 they likewise agreed that the
consuls of both countries should be permitted to hold real estate,
and to have the " police interne des navires a commerce." In
Borneo,China, Korea, Morocco, Persia, Siam, Tripoli and Turkey
an extensive jurisdiction, civil and criminal, is exercised by
treaty stipulation iri cases where United States subjects are
interested. Exemption from liability to appear as a witness is
often stipulated. The question was raised in France in 1843 by
the case of the Spanish consul Soller at Aix, and in America in
1854 by the case of Dillon, the French consul at San Francisco,
who, on being arrested by Judge Hoffmann for declining to give
evidence in a criminal suit, pulled down his consular flag. So,
also, inviolability of national archives is often stipulated. To
the consuls of other nations the United States government have
always accorded the privileges of arresting deserters, and of being
themselves amenable only to the Federal and not to the States
courts. They also recognize foreign consuls as representative
suitors for absent foreigners.

The United States commercial agents are appointed by the
president, and usually receive an exequatur. They form a class
by themselves, and are distinct from the consular agents, who
are simply deputy consuls in districts where there is no principal
consul.

By a law of April 1906 the U.S. consular service was re-
organized and graded, the office of consul-general being divided
into seven classes, and that of consul into nine classes; and on
June 27 an executive order was issued by President Roosevelt
governing appointments and promotions.

See A. de Miltitz, Manuel des consuls (London and Berlin, 1837-
1843); Baron Ferdinand de Cussy, Dictionnaire du diplomate et du
consul (Leipzig, 1846), and Reglements consulaires des principaux
hats maritimesde V Europe et de I'Amerique {ib., 1851) ; Tuson, British
Consul's Manual (London, 1856) ; De Clercq, Guide pratique des
consulats (1st ed., 1858, 5th ed. by de Vallat, Paris, 1898); C. T.
Tarring, British Consular Jurisdiction in the East (London, 1887);.
Lippmann, Die Konsularjurisdiktion im Orient (Berlin, 1898) ; Zorn,
Die Konsulargesetzgebung des deutschen Reichs (2nd ed., Berlin, 1901) ;
v. Konig, Handbuch des deutschen Konsularwesens (6th ed., Berlin,
1902) ; : Martens, Das deutsche Konsular- und Kolonialrecht (Leipzig,
1904); Malfatti di Monte Tretto, Handbuch des osterreichisch-
ungarischen Konsularwesens (2 vols., 2nd ed., Vienna, 1904). See
also the Parliamentary Reports referred to in the text. For British
consuls much detailed information, including, e.g., minute directions
for the uniforms of the various grades, will be found in the official
Foreign Office List published annually. As regards American consuls,
see C. L. Jones, The Consular Service of the U. S. A. (Philadelphia,
1906) ; Publications of Univ. of Pennsylvania, '■ Series in Pol. Econ.
and Public Law," No. 18; and Fred. Van Dyne, Our Foreign Service
(Rochester, N.Y., 1909).

"CONSULATE OF THE SEA"— CONTANGO

23

"CONSULATE OF THE SEA," a celebrated collection of
maritime customs and ordinances (see also Sea La\Vs) in the
Catalan language, published at Barcelona in the latter part of
the 15th century. Its proper title is The Book of the Consulate,
or in Catalan, Lo Libre de Consolat, the name being derived from
the fact that it embodied the rules of law followed in the mari-
time cities of the Mediterranean coast by the commercial judges
known generally as consuls (q.v.). The earliest extant edition
of the work, which was printed at Barcelona in 1494, is without
a title-page or frontispiece, but it is described by the above-
mentioned title in the epistle dedicatory prefixed to the table
of contents. The only known copy of this edition is preserved in
the National Library in Paris. The epistle dedicatory states
that the work is an amended version of the Book of the Consulate,
compiled by Francis Celelles with the assistance of numerous
shipmasters and merchants well versed in maritime affairs.
According to a statement made by Capmany in his Codigo de los
costumbras maritimas de Barcelona, published at Madrid in 1791,
there was extant to his knowledge in the last century a more
ancient edition of the Book of the Consulate, printed in semi-
Gothic characters, which he believed to be of a date prior to 1484.
This is the earliest period to which any historical record of the
Book of the Consulate being in print can be traced back. There
are, however, two Catalan MSS. preserved in the National Library
in Paris, the earliest of which, being MS. Espagnol 1 24, contains
the two first treatises which are printed in the Book of the Con-
sulate of 1494, and which are the most ancient portion of its
contents, written in a hand of the 14th century, on paper of that
century. The subsequent parts of this MS. are on paper of the
15 th century, but there is no document of a date more recent
than 1436. The later of the two MSS., being MS. Espagnol 56,
is written throughout on paper of the 15th century, and in a hand
of that century, and it purports, from a certificate on the face of
the last leaf, to have been executed under the superintendence
of Peter Thomas, a notary public, and the scribe of the Consulate
of the Sea at Barcelona. ■

The edition of 1494, which is justly regarded as the editio
princeps of the Book of the Consulate, contains, in the first place,
a code of procedure issued by the kings of Aragon for the guidance
of the courts of the consuls of the sea, in the second place, a
collection of ancient customs of the sea, and thirdly, a body of
ordinances for the government of cruisers of war. A colophon
at the end of these ordinances informs the readers that " the book
commonly called the Book of the Consulate ends here"; after
which there follows a document known by the title of The
Acceptations, which purports to record that the previous chapters
and ordinances had been approved by the Roman people in the
nth century, and by various princes and peoples in the 12th and
13th centuries. Capmany was the first person to question the
authenticity of this document in his Memorias historicas sobre
la marina, &°c, de Barcelona, published at Madrid in 1779-1792.
Pardessus and other writers on maritime law followed up the
inquiry in the 19th century, and have conclusively shown that
the document, whatever may have been its origin, has no proper
reference to the Book of the Consulate, and is, in fact, of no histori-
cal value whatsoever. The paging of the edition of 1494 ceases
with this document, at the end of which is the printer's colophon,
reciting that " the work was completed on the 14th of July 1494,
at Barcelona, by Pere Posa, priest and printer." The remainder
of the volume consists of what may be regarded as an appendix
to the original Book of the Consulate. This appendix contains
various maritime ordinances of the kings of Aragon and of the
councillors of the city of Barcelona, ranging over a period from
1340 to 1484. It is printed apparently in the same type with the
preceding part of the volume. The original Book of the Consulate,
coupled with this appendix, constitutes the work which has
obtained general circulation in Europe under the title of The Con-
sulate of the Sea, and which in the course of the 16th century was
translated into the Castilian, the Italian, and the French
languages. The Italian translation, printed at Venice in 1 549
by Jean Baptista Pedrezano, was the version which obtained
the largest circulation in the north of Europe, and led many

jurists to suppose the work to have been of Italian origin. In
the next following century the work was translated into Dutch
by Westerven, and into German by Engelbrecht, and it is also
said to have been translated into Latin.

An excellent translation into French of " The Customs of the Sea,"
which are the most valuable portion of the Book of the Consulate, was
published by Pardessus in the second volume of his Collection des
lois maritim.es (Paris, 1834), under the title of " La Compilation
connue sous le nom de consulat de la mer." See introduction, by Sir
Travers Twiss, to the Black Book of the Admiralty (London, 1874),
which in the appendix to vol. iii. contains his translation of " The
Customs of the Sea," with the Catalan text. (T. T.)

CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere), literally, the act of consum-
ing or destroying. Thus the word is popularly applied to
phthisis, a " wasting away " of the lungs due to tuberculosis

(q.v.). In economics the word has a special significance as a

technical term. It has been defined as the destruction of utilities,
and thus opposed to " production," which is the creation of
utilities, a utility in this connexion being anything which satisfies
a desire or serves a purpose. Consumption may be either pro-
ductive or unproductive; productive where it is a means directly
or indirectly to the satisfaction of any economic want, unpro-
ductive when it is devoted to pleasures or luxuries. Its place in
the science of economics, and its close relation with production,
are treated of in every text-book, but special reference may be
made to W. Roscher, Nationalokonomie, 1883, and G. Schonberg,
Handbuck d. polit. Okonomie, 1890-1891.

CONSUS, an ancient Italian deity, originally a god of agricul-
ture. The time at which his festival was held (after harvest
and seed-sowing), the nature of its ceremonies and amusements,
his altar at the end of the Circus Maximus always covered with
earth except on such occasions, all point to his connexion with
the earth. In accordance with this, the name has been derived
from condere ( = Condius, as the "keeper" of grain or the
" hidden " god, whose life-producing influence works in the
depths of the earth). Another etymology is from conserere
(" sow," cf. Ops Consiva and her festival Opiconsivia). Amongst
the ancients (Livy i. 9; Dion. Halic. ii. 31) Consus was most
commonly identified with Uoo-eiSSiv "Lnrios (Neptunus Equester),
and in later Latin poets Consus is used for Neptunus, but this
idea was due to the horse and chariot races which took place at
his festival; otherwise, the two deities have nothing in common.
According to another view, he was the god of good counsel,
who was said to have " advised " Romulus to carry off the
Sabine women (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 199) when they visited Rome
for the first celebration of his festival (Consualia). In later
times, with the introduction of Greek gods into the Roman
theological system, Consus, who had never been the object of
special reverence, sank to the level of a secondary deity, whose
character was rather abstract and intellectual.

His festival was celebrated on the 21st of August and the
15th of December. On the former date, the flamen Quirinalis,
assisted by the vestals, offered Sacrifice, and the pontifices
presided at horse and chariot races in the circus. It was a day
of public rejoicing; all kinds of rustic amusements took place,
amongst them running on ox-hides rubbed with oil (like the
Gr. acTKoAiao-jUos). Horses and mules, crowned with garlands,
were given rest from work. A special feature of the games in
the circus was chariot racing, in which mules, as the oldest
draught beasts, took the place of horses. The origin of these
games was generally attributed to Romulus; but by some
they were considered an imitation of the Arcadian i7nroKpareia
introduced by Evander. There was a sanctuary of Consus on
the Aventine, dedicated by L. Papirius Cursor in 272, in early
times wrongly identified with the altar in the circus.

See W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals (1899); G. Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902) ; Preller-Jordan, Romische
Mythologie (1881).

CONTANGO, a Stock Exchange term for the rate of interest
paid by a " bull " who has bought stock for the rise and does
not intend to pay for it when the Settlement arrives. He
arranges to carry over or continue his bargain, and does so by
entering into a fresh bargain with his seller, or some other party,

24

CONTARINI— CONTE

by which he sells the stock for the Settlement and buys it again
for the next, the price at which the bargain is entered being
called the making-up price. The rate that he pays for this
accommodation, which amounts to borrowing the money
involved until the next Settlement, is called the contango.

CONTARINI, the name of a distinguished Venetian family,
who gave to the republic eight doges and many other eminent
citizens. The story of their descent from the Roman family
of Cotta, appointed prefects of the Reno valley (whence Cotta
Reni or Conti del Reno), is probably a legend. One Mario Con-
tarini was among the twelve electors of the doge Paulo Lucio
Anafesto in 697. Domenico Contarini, elected doge in 1043,
subjugated rebellious Dalmatia and recaptured Grado from the
patriarch of Aquileia. He died in 1070. Jacopo was doge
from 1275 to 1280. Andrea was elected doge in 1367, and during
his reign the war of Chioggia took place (1380); he was the
first to melt down his plate and mortgage his property for the
benefit of the state. Other Contarini doges were: Francesco
(1623-1624), Niccolo (1630-1631), who built the church of the
Salute, Carlo (1655-1656), during whose reign the Venetians
gained the naval victory of the Dardanelles, Domenico (1659-
1675) and Alvise (1676-1684). There were at one time no less
than eighteen branches of the family; one of the most important
was that of Contarini dallo Zaffo or di Giaffa, who had been
invested with the countship of Jaffa in Syria for their services to
Caterina Cornaro, queen of Cyprus; another was that of Con-
tarini degli Scrigni (of the coffers) , so called on account of their
great wealth. Many members of the family distinguished
themselves in the service of the republic, in the wars against the
Turks, and no less than seven Contarini fought at Lepanto.
One Andrea Contarini was beheaded in 1430 for having wounded
the doge Francesco Foscari (q.v.) on the nose. Other members
of the house were famous as merchants, prelates and men of
letters; among these we may mention Cardinal Gasparo Con-
tarini (1483-1542), and Marco Contarini (1631-1689), who was
celebrated as a patron of music and collected at his villa of
Piazzola a large number of valuable musical MSS., now in the
Marciana library at Venice. The family owned many palaces in
various parts of Venice, and several streets still bear its name.

See J. Fontana, " Sulla patrizia famiglia Contarini," in II
Gondoliere (1843). (L. V.*)

CONTAT, LOUISE FRANCHISE (1760-1813), French actress,
made her dSbut at the Comedie Francaise in 1766 as Atalide in
Bajazet. It was in comedy, however, that she made her first
success, as Suzanne in Beaumarchais's Mariage de Figaro; and
in several minor character parts, which she raised to the first
importance, and as the soubrette in the plays of Moliere and
Marivaux, she found opportunities exactly fitted to her talents.
She retired in 1809 and married de Parny, nephew of the poet.
Her sister Marie fimilie Contat (1 769-1 846), an admirable
soubrette, especially as the pert servant drawn by Moliere and
de Regnard, made her debut in 1784, and retired in 1815.

CONTE, literally a " story," derived from the Fr. conter, to
narrate, through low Lat. and Provencal forms contare and
comtar. This word, although not recognized by the New English
Dictionary as an English term, is yet so frequently used in
English literary criticisms that some definition of it seems to be
demanded. A conte, in French, differs from a ricit or a rapport
in the element of style; it may be described as an anecdote told
with deliberate art, and in this introduction of art lies its peculiar
literary value. According to Littre, there is no fundamental
difference between a conte and a roman, and all that can be said
is that the conte is the generic term, covering long stories and
short alike, whereas the roman (or novel) must extend to a
certain length. But if this is the primitive and correct significa-
tion of the word, it is certain that modern criticism thinks of a
conte essentially as a short story, and as a short story exclusively
occupied in illustrating one set of ideas or one disposition of
character. As early as the 13th century, the word is used in
French literature to describe an anecdote thus briefly and
artistically told, in prose or verse. The fairy-tales of Perrault
and the apologues of La Fontaine were alike spoken of as contes,

and stories of peculiar extravagance were known as contes bieus,
because they were issued to the common public in coarse blue
paper covers. The most famous contes in the 18th century were
those of Voltaire, who has been described as having invented
the conte philosophique. But those brilliant stories, Candide,
Zadig, L'Ingenu, La Princesse de Babylone and Le Taureau blanc,
are not, in the modern sense, contes at all. The longer of these
are romans, the shorter nouvelles; not one has the anecdotical
unity required by a conte. The same may be said of those of
Marmontel, and of the insipid imitations of Oriental fancy which
were so popular at the close of the 18th century. The most per-
fect recent writer of contes is certainly Guy de Maupassant, and
his celebrated anecdote called " Boule de suif " may be taken
as an absolutely perfect example of this class of literature, the
precise limitations of which it is difficult to define. (E. G.)

CONTfi,, NICOLAS JACQUES (1755-1805), French mechanical
genius, chemist and painter, was born at Aunou-sur-Orne, near
Sees, on the 4th of August 1 755, of a family of poor farm labourers.
At the age of fourteen he displayed precocious artistic talent
in a series of religious panels, remarkably fine in colour and
composition, for the principal hospital of Sees, where he was
employed to help the gardener. With the advice of Greuze he
took up portrait painting, quickly became the fashion, and laid
by in a few years a fair competency. From that time he gave free
rein to his passion for the mechanical arts and scientific studies.
He attended the lectures of J. A. C. Charles, L. N. Vaquelin and
J. B. Leroy, and exhibited before the Academy of Science an
hydraulic machine of his own invention of which the model was
the subject of a flattering report, and was placed in Charles's
collection. The events of the Revolution soon gave him an
opportunity for a further display of his inventive faculty. The
war with England deprived France of plumbago ; he substituted
for it an artificial substance obtained from a mixture of graphite
and clay, and took out a patent in 1795 for the form of pencil
which still bears his name. At this time he was associated with
Monge and Berthollet in experiments in connexion with the
inflation of military balloons, was conducting the school for that
department of the engineer corps at Meudon, was perfecting the
methods of producing hydrogen in quantity, and was appointed
(1796) by the Directory to the command of all the aerostatic
establishments. He was at the head of the newly created
Conservatoire des arts et metiers, and occupied himself with
experiments in new compositions of permanent colours, and in
1798 constructed a metal-covered barometer for measuring
comparative heights, by observing the weight of mercury
issuing from the tube. Summoned by Bonaparte to take part
as chief of the aerostatic corps in the expedition to Egypt, he
considerably extended his field of activity, and for three years
and a half was, to quote Berthollet, " the soul of the colony."
The disaster of Aboukir and the revolt of Cairo had caused the
loss of the greater part of the instruments and munitions taken
out by the French. Conte, who, as Monge says, " had every
science in his head and every art in his hands," and whom the
First Consul described as " good at everything," seemed to be
everywhere at once and triumphed over apparently insur-
mountable difficulties. He made, - in an almost uncivilized
country, utensils, tools and machinery of every sort from simple
windmills to stamps for minting coin. Thanks to his activity
and genius, the expedition was provided with bread, cloth, arms
and munitions of war; the engineers with the exact tools of
their trade; the surgeons with operating instruments. He
made the designs, built the models, organized and supervised
the manufacture, and seemed to be able to invent immediately
anything required. On his return to France in 1802 he was
commissioned by the minister of the interior, Chaptal, to super-
intend the publication of the great work of the commission on
Egypt, and an engraving machine of his construction materially
shortened this task, which, however, he did not live to see
finished. He died at Paris on the 6th of December 1805.
Napoleon had included him in his first promotions to the Legion
of Honour. A bronze statue was erected to his memory in 1852
at Sees, by public subscription.

CONTEMPT OF COURT

25

CONTEMPT OF COURT, in English law, any disobedience
or disrespect to the authority or privileges of a legislative body,
or interference with the administration of a court of justice.

1. The High Court of Parliament. Each of the two houses
of Parliament has by the law and custom of parliament power
to protect its freedom, dignity and authority against insult,
disregard or violence by resort to its own process and not to
ordinary courts of law and without having its process interfered
with by those courts. The nature and limits of this authority
to punish for contempt have been the subject of not infrequent
conflict with the courts of law, from the time when Lord Chief
Justice Holt threatened to commit the speaker for attempting
to stop the trial of Ashby v. White (1701), as a breach of privilege,
to the cases of Burdett v. Abbott (1810), Stockdale v. Hansard
and Howard v. Cosset (1842, 1843), and Bradlaugh v. Gosset
(1884). It is now the accepted view that the power of either
House to punish contempt is exceptional and derived from
ancient usage, and does not flow from their being courts of
record. Orders for committal by the Commons are effectual
only while the House sits; orders by the Lords may be for a
time specified, in which event prorogation does not operate as
a discharge of" the offender. It was at one time considered that
the privilege of committing for contempt was inherent in every
deliberative body invested with authority by the constitution,
and consequently that colonial legislative bodies had by the
nature of their functions the power to commit for contempt.
But in Kielley v. Carson (1843; 4 Moore, P.C. 63) it was held
that the power belonged to parliament by ancient usage only
and not on the theory above stated, and in each colony it is
necessary to inquire how far the colonial legislature has acquired,
by order in council or charter or from the imperial legislature,
power to punish breach of privilege by imprisonment or com-
mittal for contempt. This power has in some cases been given
directly, in others by authority to make laws and regulations
under sanctions like those enforced by the Houses of the imperial
parliament. In the case of Nova Scotia the provincial assem-
bly has power to give itself by statute authority to commit
for contempt (Fielding v. Thomas, 1896; L.R.A.C. 600). In
Barton v. Taylor (1886; n A.C. 197) the competence of the
legislative assembly of New South Wales to make standing
orders punishing contempt was recognized to exist under the
colonial constitution, but the particular standing orders under
consideration are held not to cover the acts which had been
punished. (See May, Pari. Pr., 10th ed., 1896; Anson, Law
and Custom of the Constitution, 3rd ed., 1897.)

2. Courts of Justice. The term contempt of court, when used
with reference to the courts or persons to whom the exercise
Qf the judicial functions of the crown has been delegated, means
insult offered to such court or person by deliberate defiance of
its authority, disobedience to its orders, interruption of its
proceedings or interference with the due course of justice, or
any conduct calculated or tending to bring the authority or
administration of the law into disrespect or disregard, or to
interfere with or prejudice parties or witnesses during the
litigation. The ingenuity of the judges and of those who are
concerned to defeat or defy justice have rendered contempt
almost Protean in its character. But for practical purposes
most, if not all, contempts fall within the classification which
follows: —

(a) Disobedience to the judgment or order of a court com-
manding the doing or abstaining from a particular act, e.g. an
order to execute a conveyance of property or an order on a
person in a fiduciary capacity to pay into court trust moneys
as to which he is an accounting party. This includes disobedience
by the members of a local authority to a mandamus to do some
act which they are by law bound to do; and proceedings for
contempt have been taken in the case of guardians of the poor
who have refused to enforce the Vaccination Acts, e.g. at
Keighley and Leicester, and of town councillors who have
refused to comply with an order to take specified measures to
drain their borough (e.g. Worcester) . This process for compelling
obedience is in substance a process of civil execution for the

benefit of the injured party rather than a criminal process for
punishing the disobedience; and for purposes of appeal orders
dealing with these forms of contempt have hitherto been treated
as civil proceedings.

(b) Disobedience by inferior judges or magistrates to the
lawful order of a superior court. Such disobedience, if amounting
to wilful misconduct, would usually give ground for amotion
or removal from office, or for prosecution or indictment or
information for misconduct (Archbold, Criminal Pleading, 147,
23rd ed.).

(c) Disobedience or misconduct by executive officers of the
law, e.g. sheriffs and their bailiffs or gaolers. The contempt
consists in not complying with the terms of writs or warrants
sent for execution. For instance, a judge of assize having
ordered the court to be cleared on account of some disturbance,
the high sheriff issued a placard protesting against " this un-
lawful proceeding," and " prohibiting his officer from aiding
and abetting any attempt to bar out the public from free access
to the court." The lord chief justice of England, sitting in the
other court, summoned the sheriff before him and fined him
£500 f° r the contempt, and £500 more for persisting in addressing
the grand jury in court, after he had been ordered to desist.
A sheriff who fails to attend the assizes is liable to severe fine
as being in contempt (Oswald, 51). And in Harvey's case
(1884, 26 Ch. D. 644) steps were taken to attach a sheriff who
had failed to execute a writ of attachment for contempt of court
in the mistaken belief that he was not entitled to break open
doors to take the person in contempt. The Sheriffs Act 1887
enumerates many instances in which misconduct is punishable
under that act, but reserves to superior courts of record power
to deal with such misconduct as a contempt (s. 29).

(d) Misconduct or neglect of duty by subordinate officials
of courts of justice, including solicitors. In these cases it is
more usual for the superior authorities to remove the offender
from office, or for disciplinary proceedings to be instituted by
the Law Society. But in the case of an unqualified person
assuming to act as a solicitor or in the case of breach of an
undertaking given by a solicitor to the court, proceedings for
contempt are still taken.

(e) Misconduct by parties, jurors or witnesses. Jurors who
fail to attend in obedience to a jury summons and witnesses
who fail to attend on subpoena are liable to punishment for
contempt, and parties, counsel or solicitors who practise a
fraud on the court are similarly liable.

(/) Contempt in facie curiae. " Some contempts." says
Blackstone, " may arise in the face of the court, as by rude
and contumelious behaviour, by obstinacy, perverseness or
prevarication, by breach of the peace, or any wilful disturbance
whatever "; in other words, direct insult to or interference
with a sitting court is treated as contempt of the court. It is
immaterial whether the offender is juror, party, witness, counsel,
solicitor or a stranger to the case at hearing, and occasionally
it is found necessary to punish for contempt persons under
trial for felony or misdemeanour if by violent language or conduct
they interrupt the proceedings at their trial. Judges have even
treated as contempt the continuance outside the court-house
after warning of a noise sufficient to disturb the proceedings
of the court; and in Victoria Chief Justice Higginbotham
committed for contempt a builder who persisted after warning
in building operations close to the central criminal court in
Melbourne, which interfered with the due conduct of the business
of the sittings.

(g) Attempts to prevent or interfere with the due course
of justice, whether made by a person interested in a particular
case or by an outsider. This branch of contempt takes many
forms, such as frauds on the court by justices, solicitors cr counsel
(e.g. by fraudulently circularizing shareholders of a company
against which a winding-up petition had been filed), tampering
with witnesses by inducing them through threats or persuasion
not to attend or to withhold evidence or to commit perjury,
threatening judge or jury or attempting to bribe them and the
like; and also by " scandalizing the court itself " by abusing

26

CONTEMPT OB COURT

the parties concerned in a pending case, or by creating prejudice
against such persons before their cause is heard.

The locus classicus on the subject of contempt by , attacks
on judges is a judgment prepared by Sir Eardley-Wilmot in the

case of an application for an attachment against
Invectives j Almon in 1765, for publishing a pamphlet libelling
^agel. the court of king's bench. The judgment was not

actually delivered as the case was settled, but has long
been accepted as correctly stating the law. Sir Eardley-Wilmot
said that the offence of libelling judges in their judicial capacity
is the most proper case for an attachment, for the " arraignment
of the justice of the judges is arraigning the king's justice; it
is an impeachment of his wisdom and goodness in the choice of
his judges; and excites in the minds of the people a general
dissatisfaction with all judicial determinations, and indisposes
their minds to obey them. To be impartial, and to be .universally
thought so, are both absolutely necessary for the giving justice
that free, open and uninterrupted current which it has for many
ages found all over this kingdom, and which so eminently
distinguishes and exalts it above all nations upon the earth."
Again, " the constitution has provided very apt and proper
remedies for correcting and rectifying the involuntary mistakes
of judges, and for punishing and removing them for any perver-
sion of justice. But if their authority is to be trampled on by
pamphleteers and news-writers, and the people are to be told
that the power given to the judges for their protection is prosti-
tuted to their destruction, the court may retain its power some
little time, but I am sure it will eventually lose all its authority."
The object of the discipline enforced by the court by proceed-
ings for contempt of court is not now, if it ever was, to vindicate
the personal dignity of the judges or to protect them from
insult as individuals, but to vindicate the dignity and authority
of the court itself and to prevent acts tending to obstruct the
due course of justice. The question whether a personal invective
against judges should be dealt with brevi manu by the court
attacked, or by proceedings a,t the instance of the attorney-
general by information or indictment for a libel on the adminis-
tration of justice or on the judge attacked, or should be dealt
with by a civil action for damages, depends on the nature and
occasion of the attack on the judge.

There has at times been a disposition by judges in colonial
courts to use the process of the court to punish criticisms on
their acts by counsel or parties or even outsiders, which the
privy council has been prone to discourage. For instance in a
Nova Scotia case a barrister was suspended from practice for
writing to the chief justice of the province a letter relating to
a case in which the barrister was suitor. The privy council
while considering the letter technically a contempt, held the
punishment inappropriate. In Macleod v. St Aubyn (1899,
A.C. 549) it was said that proceedings for scandalizing the
court itself were obsolete in England. But in 1900 the king's
bench division, following the Almon case, summarily punished
a scurrilous personal attack on a judge of assize with reference
to his remarks in a concluded case, published immediately after
the conclusion of the case (R. v. Gray, igoo, 2 Q.B. 36). The
same measure may be meted out to those who publish invectives
against judges or juries with the object of creating suspicion
or contempt as to the administration of justice. But the exist-
ence of this power does not militate against the right of the press
to publish full reports of trials and judgments or to make with
fairness, good faith, candour and decency, comments and
criticisms on what passed at the trial and on the correctness of
the verdict or the judgment. To impute corruption is said to go
beyond the limits of fair criticism. Shortt (Law relating to
Works of Literature) states the law to be that the temperate and
respectful discussion of judicial determination is not prohibited,
but mere invective and abuse, and still more the imputation of
false, corrupt and dishonest motives is punishable. In an
information granted in 1788 against the corporation of Yarmouth
for having entered upon their books an order " stating that the
assembly were sensible that Mr W. (against whom an action had
been brought for malicious prosecution, and a verdict for £3000

returned, which the court refused to disturb) was actuated by
motives of public justice, of preserving the rights of the corpora-
tion to their admiralty jurisdiction, and of supporting the honour
and credit of the chief magistrate, " Mr Justice Buller said, " The
judge and jury who tried the case, confirmed by the court of
common pleas, have said that instead of his having been actuated
by motives of public justice, or by any motives which should
influence the actions of an honest man, he had been actuated
by malice. These opinions are not reconcilable; if the one be
right the other must be wrong. It is therefore a direct insinua-
tion that the court had judged wrong in all they have done in
this case, and is therefore clearly a libel on the administration of
justice."

The exact limits of the power to punish for contempt of court
in respect of statements or comments on the action of judges and
juries, or with reference to pending proceedings, have been the
subject of some controversy, owing to the difficulty of reconciling
the claims of the press to liberty and of the public to free dis-
cussion of the proceedings of courts of justice with the claims of
the judges to due respect and of the parties to litigation that
their causes should not be prejudiced before trial by outside inter-
ference. As the law now stands it is permissible to publish con-
temporaneous reports of the proceedings in cases pending in any
court (Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, s. 3), unless the
proceedings have taken place in private (in camera), or the court
has in the interests of justice prohibited any report until the case
is concluded, a course now rarely, if ever, adopted. But it is not
permissible to make any comments on a pending case calculated
to interfere with the due course of justice in the case, nor to
publish statements abouti the cause or the parties calculated
to have that effect. This rule applies even when the case has
been tried and the jury has disagreed if a second trial is in
prospect. Applications are frequently made to commit pro-
prietors and editors who comment too freely or who undertake
the task of trying in their newspapers a pending Case. The courts
are now slow to move unless satisfied that the statements or
comments may seriously affect the course of justice, e.g. by
reaching the jurors who have to try the case.

The difference between pending and decided cases has been
frequently recognized by the courts. What would be a fair
comment in a decided case may tend to influence the mind
of the judge or the jury in a case waiting to be heard, and will
accordingly be punished as a contempt. In Tichborne v. Moslyn
the publisher of a newspaper was held to have committed a
contempt by printing in his paper extracts from affidavits in a
pending suit, with comments upon them. In the case of R. v.
Castro it was held that after a true bill has been found, and the
indictment removed into the court of queen's bench, and a day
fixed for trial, the case was pending; and: it was a contempt
of court to address public meetings, alleging that the defendant
was not guilty, that there was a conspiracy against the defendant,
and that he could not have a fair trial; and the court ordered
the parties to answer for their contempt. In the case of the Moat
Farm murder (1903) the high court punished as contempt a
series of articles. published in a newspaper while the preliminary
inquiry . was proceeding and before the case went to a jury
(R. v. Parker, 1903, 2 K.B. 432). The like course was followed
in 1905 in the case of statements made in a Welsh newspaper
about a woman awaiting trial for attempted murder (R. v.
Davigs, 1906, 1 K.B. 32); and in the case of the Weekly Dis-
patch in 1902 (R. v. Tibbits and Windust, 1 K.B. 77), two journal-
ists were tried on indictment, and held to have been rightly
convicted, for conspiring to prevent the course of justice by
publishing matter calculated to interfere with the fair trial of
persons who were under accusation.

" In the superior courts the power of committing for con-
tempt is inherent in their constitution, has been coeval with their
original institution and has been always exercised " courts
(Oswald, On Contempt, 3). The high court in which . having
these courts are merged is the only court which has jurisMc-
a general jurisdiction to deal summarily with all forms ""

of contempt- Each division of that court deals with

CONTI, PRINCES OF

27

Punish-
ment.

the particular contempts arising with reference to proceedings
before the division; but the king's bench division, in the exercise
of the supervisory authority inherited from the old court of king's
bench as custos morum, also from time to time deals with acts
constituting interference with justice in other inferior courts
whether of record or not. The nature and limits of this jurisdic-
tion after much discussion have been defined by decisions ki 1903
and 1905 in attempts to try by newspapers cases under inquiry
by justices or awaiting trial at assizes or quarter sessions. The
exercise of this authority in the king's bench division, being in
a criminal cause or matter, is not the subject of appeal to any
higher court.

Inferior courts of record have, as a general rule, power to
punish only those contempts which are committed in facie curiae
or consist in disobedience to the lawful orders or judgments of
the court. For instance, a county court may summarily punish
persons who insult the judge or any officer of the court of any
juror or witness, or wilfully interrupt the proceedings, or mis-
behave in the court-house (County Court Act 1888, s. 162), and
may also attack persons who having means refuse to comply
with an order to pay money, or refuse to comply with an order
to deliver up a specific chattel or disobey an injunction. A court
of quarter sessions has at common law a like power as to con-
tempts in facie curiae and is said to have power to punish its
officials for contempt in nonrattendance or neglect of duty:

Contempt of court is a misdemeanour and is punishable by
fine and imprisonment or either at discretion. The offence may
be tried summarily, or may be prosecuted on informa-
tion or on indictment as was done in the case of the
Weekly Dispatch already mentioned. The prerogative
of pardon extends to all contempts of court which are dealt with
by a sentence of clearly punitive character; but it is doubtful
whether it extends to committals for disobedience to orders
made in aid of the execution of a civil judgment.

Contempt is usually dealt with summarily by the court con-
temned in the case of contempt in facie curiae. The offender
may be instantly apprehended and without further proof or
examination fined or sent to prison. In the case of other con-
tempts the High Court not only can deal with contempts affecting
itself, but can also intervene summarily to protect inferior courts
from contempts. This jurisdiction was asserted and exercised
in the Moat Farm case (1903) and the South Wales Past case
(1905) already mentioned. v

Except in cases of contempt in facie curiae evidence on oath
as to the alleged contempt must be laid before the court, and
application made for the " committal " or " attachment " of
the offender. The differences between the two modes are
technical rather than substantial.

The procedure for dealing with contempt of court varies
somewhat according as the contempt consists in disobeying
an order of the High Court made in a civil cause, or consists in
interference with the course of justice by persons not present in
court nor parties to the cause. In the first class of cases the court
proceeds by order of committal or giving leave to issue writ of
attachment. In either case the person said to be in contempt
must have full notice of the proposed motion and of the grounds
on which he is said to be in contempt; and the rules regulating
such proceedings must be strictly complied with (R. v. Tuck,
1906, 2 Ch. 692). In proceedings on the crown side of the king's
bench division it is still usual to apply in the first place for a rule
nisi for leave to attach the alleged offender who is given an
opportunity of explaining, excusing or justifying the incriminated
acts. It is essential that before punishment the alleged offender
should have had full notice as to the specific offence charged
and opportunity of answering to it. The king's bench procedure
is that generally used for interference with the due course of
criminal justice or disobedience to prerogative writs such as
mandamus.

An order of committal is an order in execution specifying the
nature of the detention to be suffered, or the penalty to be paid.
The process of attachment merely brings the accused into court;
he is then required to answer on oath interrogatories administered

to him, so that the court may be better informed of the circum-
stances of the contempt. If he can clear himself on oath he is
discharged; if he confesses the court will punish him by fine or
imprisonment, or both, at its discretion. But in Very many cases
on proper apology and submission, and undertaking not to repeat
the contempt, and payment of costs, the court allows the
proceedings to drop without proceeding to fine or imprison.

From time to time proposals have been made to deprive the
superior courts of the power to deal summarily with contempts
not committed in facie curiae, and to require proceedings on
other charges for contempt to go before a jury. This distinction
has already been made in some British colonies, e.g. British
Guiana, by an ordinance of 1900 (No. 31). Recent decisions
in England have so fully defined the limits of the offence and
declared the practice of the courts that it would probably only
result in undue licence of the press if the power now carefully
and judicially exercised of dealing summarily with journalistic
interference with the ordinary course of justice were taken away
and the delay involved in submitting the case to a jury were made
inevitable. The courts now only act in clear cases, and in cases
of doubt can always send the question to a jury. The experience
of other countries makes it undesirable to part with the summary
remedy so long as it is in the hands of a trusted judicature.

Scotland. — In Scotland, the courts of session and justiciary have,
at common law, and exercise the power of punishing contempt
committed during a judicial proceeding by censure, fine or imprison-
ment proprio motu without formal proceedings or a summary com-
plaint. The nature of the offence is there in substance the same as
in England (see Petrie, 1889: 7 Rettie Justiciary 3; Smith, 1892:
20 Rettie Justiciary 52).

Ireland. — In Ireland the law of contempt is on the same lines as in
England, but conflicts have arisen between the bench and popular
opinion, due to political and religious differences, which have led
to proposals for making juries and not judges arbiters in cases of
contempt.

British Dominions beyond Seas. — The courts of most British
possessions have acquired and freely exercise the power of the court
of king's bench to deal summarily with contempt of court; and,
as already stated, it is not infrequently the duty of the privy council
to restrain too exuberant a vindication of the offended dignity of a
colonial court. (W. F. C.)

CONTI, PRINCES OF. The title of prince of Conti, assumed
by a younger branch of the house of Conde, was taken from
Conti-sur-Selles, a small town about 20 m. S.W. of Amiens,
which came into the Conde family by the marriage of Louis of
Bourbon, first prince of Conde, with Eleanor de Roye in 1551.

Francois (1 558-1614), the third son of this marriage, was
given the. title of marquis de Conti, and between 1581 and 1597
was elevated to the rank of a prince. Conti, who belonged to
the older faith, appears to have taken no part in the wars of
religion until 1587, when his distrust of Henry, third duke of
Guise, caused him to declare against the League, and to support
Henry of Navarre, afterwards King Henry IV. of France. In
1589 after the murder of Henry III., king of France, he was one
of the two princes of the blood who signed the declaration
recognizing Henry IV. as king, and he continued to support
Henry, although on the death of Charles cardinal de Bourbon
in 1590 he himself was mentioned as a candidate for the throne.
In 1605 Conti, whose first wife Jeanne de Coeme, heiress of
Bonnetable, had died in 1601, married the beautiful and witty
Louise Marguerite (1 574-1631), daughter of Henry duke of
Guise and Catherine of Cleves, whom, but for the influence of
his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrees, Henry IV. would have made
his queen. Conti died in 1614. His only child Marie having
predeceased him in 1610, the title lapsed. His widow followed
the fortunes of Marie de' Medici, from whom she received many
marks of favour, and was secretly married to Francois de
Bassompierre (q.v.), who joined her in conspiring against Cardinal
Richelieu. Upon the exposure of the plot the cardinal exiled
her to her estate at Eu, near Amiens, where she died. The
princess wrote Aventures de la cour de Perse, in which, under the
veil of fictitious scenes and names, she tells the history of her
own time.

In 1629 the title of prince de Conti was revived in favour of
Akmand de Bourbon (16,29-1666), second son of Henry II. of

28

CONTI, N. DE'

Bourbon, prince of Cond6, and brother of Louis, the great
Conde. He was destined for the church and studied theology
at the university of Bourges, but although he received several
benefices he did not take orders. He played a conspicuous
part in the intrigues and fighting of the Fronde, became in 1648
commander-in-chief of the rebel army, and in 1650 was with
his brother Conde imprisoned at Vincennes. Released when
Mazarin went into exile, he wished to marry Mademoiselle de
Chevreuse (1627-1652), daughter of the famous confidante of
Anne of Austria, but was prevented by his brother, who was now
supreme in the state. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651,
but soon afterwards became reconciled with Mazarin, and in
1654 married the cardinal's niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi
(1639-1672), and secured the government of Guienne. He took
command of the army which in 1654 invaded Catalonia, where
he captured three towns from the Spaniards. He afterwards
led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Ales-
sandria in 1657 retired to Languedoc, where he devoted himself
to study and mysticism until his death. At Clermont Conti had
been a fellow student of Moliere's for whom he secured an
introduction to the court of Louis XIV., but afterwards, when
writing a treatise against the stage entitled Traiti de la comidie
el des spectacles selon les traditions de I'Eglise (Paris, 1667), he
charged the dramatist with keeping a school of atheism. Conti
also wrote Lettres sur la grdce, and Du devoir des grands et des
devoirs des gouverneurs de province.

Louis Aemand de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1661-1685),
eldest son of the preceding, succeeded his father in 1666, and in
1680 married Marie Anne, a daughter of Louis XIV. and Louise
de la Valliere. He served with distinction in Flanders in 1683,
and against the wish of the king went to Hungary, where he
assisted the Imperialists to defeat the Turks at Gran in 1683.
After a dissolute life he died at Fontainebleau from smallpox.

Francois Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1664-1709),
younger brother of the preceding, was known until 1685 as prince
de la Roche-sur-Yon. Naturally of great ability, he received
an excellent education and was distinguished both for the
independence of his mind and the popularity of his manners.
On this account he was not received with favour by Louis XIV. ;
so in 1683 he assisted the Imperialists in Hungary, and while
there he wrote some letters in which he referred to Louis as le
rot du Mdtre, for which on his return to France he was temporarily
banished to Chantilly. Conti was a favourite of his uncle the
great Conde, whose grand-daughter Marie Therese de Bourbon
(1666-1732) he married in 1688. In 1689 he accompanied his
intimate friend Marshal Luxembourg to the Netherlands, and
shared in the French victories at Fleurus, Steinkirk and Neer-
winden. On the death of his cousin, Jean Louis Charles, due
de Longueville (1646-1694), Conti in accordance with his
cousin's will, claimed the principality of Neuchatel against
Marie, duchesse de Nemours (1625-1707), a sister of the duke.
He failed to obtain military assistance from the Swiss, and by
the king's command yielded the disputed territory to Marie,
although the courts of law had decided in his favour. In 1697
Louis XIV. offered him the Polish crown, and by means of
bribes the abbe de Polignac secured his election. Conti started
rather unwillingly for his new kingdom, probably, as St Simon
remarks, owing to his affection for Francoise, wife of Philip II.,
duke of Orleans, and daughter of Louis XIV. and Madame de
Montespan. When he reached Danzig and found his rival
Augustus II., elector of Saxony, already in possession of the
Polish crown, he returned to France, where he was graciously
received by Louis, although St Simon says the king was vexed
to see him again. But the misfortunes of the French armies
during the earlier years of the war of the Spanish Succession
compelled Louis to appoint Conti, whose military renown stood
very high, to command the troops in Italy. He fell ill before
he could take the field, and died on the 9th of February 1709,
his death calling forth exceptional signs of mourning from all
classes.

Louis Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1696-1727),
eldest son of the preceding, was treated with great liberality

by Louis XIV., and also by the regent, Philip duke of Orleans.
He served under Marshal Villars in the War of the Spanish
Succession, but he lacked the soldierly qualities of his father.
In 1713 he married Louise Elisabeth (1693-1775), daughter of
Louis Henri de Bourbon, prince de Conde, and grand-daughter
of Louis XIV. He was a prominent supporter of the financial
schemes of John Law, by which he made large sums of money.

Louis Franqois de Bourbon, prince de Conti (1717-1776),
only son of the preceding, adopted a military career, and when
the war of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1741 accompanied
Charles Louis, due de Belle-Isle, to Bohemia. His services
there led to his appointment to command the army in Italy,
where he distinguished himself by forcing the pass of Villafranca
and winning the battle of Coni in 1 744. In 1 745 he was sent to
check the Imperialists in Germany, and in 1746 was transferred
to the Netherlands, where some jealousy between Marshal Saxe
and himself led to his retirement in 1747. In this year a faction
among the Polish nobles offered Conti the crown of that country,
where owing to the feeble health of King Augustus III. a vacancy
was expected. He won the personal support of Louis XV. for
his candidature, although the policy of the French ministers
was to establish the house of Saxony in Poland, as the dauphiness
was a daughter of Augustus. Louis therefore began secret
personal relations with his ambassadors in eastern Europe, who
were thus receiving contradictory instructions; a policy known
later as the secret du roi. Although Conti did not secure the Polish
throne he remained in the confidence of Louis until 1755, when
his influence was destroyed by the intrigues of Madame de
Pompadour; so that when the Seven Years' War broke out in
1756 he was refused the command of the army of the Rhine,
and began the opposition to the administration which caused
Louis to refer to him as " my cousin the advocate." In 1771
he was prominent in opposition to the chancellor Maupeou.
He supported the parlements against the ministry, was especially
active in his hostility to Turgot, and was suspected of aiding a
rising which took place at Dijon in 1775. Conti, who died on
the 2nd of August 1776, inherited literary tastes from his father,
was a brave and skilful general, and a diligent student of military
history. His house, over which the comtesse de Boufflers
presided, was the resort of many men of letters, and he was a
patron of Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Louis Francois Joseph, prince de Conti (1734-1814), son
of the preceding, possessed considerable talent as a soldier, and
distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War. He took
the side of Maupeou in the struggle between the chancellor and
the parlements, and in 1788 declared that the integrity of the
constitution must be maintained. He emigrated owing to the
weakness of Louis XVI., but refused to share in the plans for
the invasion of France, and returned to his native country in
1790. Arrested by order of the National Convention in 1793,
he was acquitted, but was reduced to poverty by the confiscation
of his possessions. He afterwards received a pension, but the
Directory banished him from France, and as he refused to share
in the plots of the royalists he lived at Barcelona till his death
in 1 8 14, when the house of Conti became extinct.

See F. de Bassompierre, Memoires (Paris, 1877); G. Tallemant
des Reaux, Historiettes (Paris, 1 854-1 860); L. de R. due de Saint
Simon, Memoires (Paris, 1873) ; C. E. duchesse d'Orleans, Memoires
(Paris, 1880); R. L. Marquis d'Argenson, Journal et memoires
(Paris, 1859-1865); F. J. de P. cardinal de Bernis, Memoires et
lettres (Paris, 1878) ; J. V. A. due de Broglie, Le Secret du roi (Paris,
1878); P. A. Cheruel, Histoire de la minorite de Louis XIV et du
ministire de Mazarin (Paris, 1879); E. Boutaric, Correspondance
secrete de Louis XV sur la politique etrangere (Paris, 1866); P.
Foncin, Essai sur le ministire de Turgot (Paris, 1877) ; E. Bourgeois
Neuchdtel et la politique prussienne en Franche-Comte (Paris, 1877).

CONTI, NICOLO DE* (fl. 1419-1444), Venetian explorer and
writer, was a merchant of noble family, who left Venice about
141 9, on what proved an absence of 25 years. We next find
him in Damascus, whence he made his way over the north
Arabian desert, the Euphrates, and southern Mesopotamia,
to Bagdad. Here he took ship and sailed down the Tigris to
Basra and the head of the Persian Gulf; he next descended
the gulf to Ormuz, coasted along the Indian Ocean shore of

CONTINENT

29

Persia (at one port of which he remained some time, and entered
into a business partnership with some Persian merchants), and
so reached the gulf and city of Cambay, where he began his
Indian life and observations. He next dropped down the west
coast of India to Ely, and struck inland to Vijayanagar, the
capital of the principal Hindu state of the Deccan, destroyed
in 155s- Of this city Conti gives an elaborate description, one
of the most interesting portions of his narrative. From Vijay-
anagar and the Tungabudhra he travelled to Maliapur near
Madras, the traditional resting-place of the body of St Thomas,
and the holiest shrine of the native Nestorian Christians, then
" scattered over all India," the Venetian declares, " as the Jews
are among us." The narrative next refers to Ceylon, and gives
a very accurate account of the Cingalese cinnamon tree; but,
if Conti visited the island at all, it was probably on the return
journey. His outward route now took him to Sumatra, where
he stayed a year, and of whose cruel, brutal, cannibal natives
he gained a pretty full knowledge, as of the camphor, pepper
and gold of this " Taprobana." From Sumatra a stormy
voyage of sixteen days brought him to Tenasserim, near the
head of the Malay Peninsula. We then find him at the mouth
of the Ganges, and trace him ascending and descending that
river (a journey of several months), visiting Burdwan and
Aracan, penetrating into Burma, and navigating the Irawadi to
Ava. He appears to have spent some time in Pegu, from which
he again plunged into the Malay Archipelago, and visited Java,
his farthest point. Here he remained nine months, and then
began his return by way of Ciampa (usually Cochin-China in
later medieval European literature, but here perhaps some more
westerly portion of Indo-China); a month's voyage from
Ciampa brought him to Coloen, doubtless Kulam or Quilon, in
the extreme south-west of India. Thence he continued his
homeward route, touching at Cochin, Calicut and Cambay, to
Sokotra, which he describes as still mainly inhabited by Nestorian
Christians; to the " rich city " of Aden, " remarkable for its
buildings "; to Gidda or Jidda, the port of Mecca; over the
desert to Carras or Cairo; and so to Venice, where he arrived
in 1444.

As a penance for his (compulsory) renunciation of the Christian
faith during his wanderings, Eugenius IV. ordered him to relate
his history to Poggio Bracciolini, the papal secretary. The
narrative closes with Conti's elaborate replies to Poggio's question
on Indian life, social classes, religion, fashions, manners, customs
and peculiarities of various kinds. Following a prevalent
fashion, the Venetian divides his Indies into three parts, the first
extending from Persia to the Indus; the second from the Indus
to the Ganges; the third including all beyond the Ganges;
this last he considered to excel the others in wealth, culture
and magnificence, and to be abreast of Italy in civilization.
We may note, moreover, Conti's account of the bamboo in the
Ganges valley; of the catching, taming and rearing of elephants
in Burma and other regions; of Indian tattooing and the use
of leaves for writing; of various Indian fruits, especially the
jack and mango; of the polyandry of Malabar; of the cock-
fighting of Java; of what is apparently the bird of Paradise;
of Indian funeral ceremonies, and especially suttee; of the self-
mutilation and immolation of Indian fanatics; and of Indian
magic, navigation (" they are not acquainted with the compass "),
justice, &c. Several venerable legends are reproduced; and
Conti's name-forms, partly through Poggio's vicious classicism,
are often absolutely unrecognizable; but on the whole this is
the best account of southern Asia by any European of the
15th century; while the traveller's visit to Sokotra is an almost
though not quite unique performance for a Latin Christian of
the middle ages.

The original Latin is in Poggio's De varietate Fortunae, book iv. ;
see the edition of the Abbe Oliva (Paris, 1723). The Italian version,
printed in Ramusio's Navigationi et viaggi, vol. i., is only from
a Portuguese translation made in Lisbon. An English translation
with short notes was made by J. Winter Jones for the Hakluyt
Society in the vol. entitled India in the Fifteenth Century (London,
1857) ; an introductory account of the traveller and his work by
R. H. Major precedes. (C. R. B.)

CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together";
hence " connected," " continuous "), a word used in physical
geography of the larger continuous masses of land in contrast to
the great oceans, and as distinct from the submerged tracts
where only the higher parts appear above the sea, and from
islands generally.

On looking at a map of the world, continents appear generally
as wedge-shaped tracts pointing southward, while the oceans
have a polygonal shape. Eurasia is in some sense an exception,
but all the southern terminations of the continents advance
into the sea in the form of a wedge — South America, South
Africa, Arabia, India, Malaysia and Australia connected by a
submarine platform with Tasmania. It is difficult not to
believe that these remarkable characters have some relation
to the structure of the great globe-mass, and according to T. C.
Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, in their Geology (1906), " the
true conception is perhaps that the ocean basins and continental
platforms are but the surface forms of great segments of the
lithosphere, all of which crowd towards the centre, the stronger
and heavier — the ocean basins — taking precedence and squeezing
the weaker and lighter ones — the continents — between them."
" The area of the most depressed, or master segments, is almost
exactly twice that of the protruding or squeezed ones. This
estimate includes in the latter about 10,000,000 sq. m. now
covered with shallow water. The volume of the hydrosphere
is a little too great for the true basins, and it runs over, covering
the borders of the continents " (see Continental Shelf) . Several
theories have been advanced to account for the roughly triangular
shape of the continents, but that, presenting the least difficulty
is the one expressed above, " since in a spherical surface divided
into larger and smaller segments the major part should be
polygonal,while the minor residual segments are more likely
to be triangular."

As bearing on this geological idea, it is interesting to notice
in this connexion that the areas of volcanic activity are mostly
where continent and ocean meet; and that around the continents
there is an almost continuous " deep" from 100 to 300 m.
broad, of which the Challenger Deep (11,400 ft.) and the great
Tuscarora Deep are fragments. If on a map of the world a
broad inked brush be swept seawards round Africa, passing
into the Mediterranean, round North and South America,
round India, then continuously south of Java and round Australia
south of Tasmania and northward to the tropic, this broad band
will represent the encircling ribbon-like " deep," which gives
strength to the suggestion that the continents in their main
features are permanent forms and that their structural connexion
with the oceans is not temporary and accidental. The great
protruding or " squeezed " segments are the Eurasian (with
an area roughly of twenty-four, reckoning in millions of square
miles), strongly ridged on the south and east, and relatively
flat on the north-west; the African (twelve), rather strongly
ridged on the east, less abruptly on the west and north; the
North American (ten), strongly ridged on the west, more gently
on the east, and relatively flat on the north and in the interior; the
South American (nine), strongly ridged on the west and somewhat
on the north-east and south-east, leaving ten for the smaller
blocks. The sum of these will represent one-third of the earth's
surface, while the remaining two-thirds is covered by the ocean.

The foundation structure of the continents is everywhere
similar. Their resulting rocks and soils are due to differential
minor movements in the past, by which deposits of varying
character were produced. These movements, taking place
periodically and followed by long periods of rest, produce
continued stability for the development and migration of forms
of life, the grading of rivers, the development of varied char-
acteristic land forms, the migration and settlement of human
beings, the facility or difficulty of intelligent intercourse between
races and communities, with finally the commercial interchange
of those commodities produced by varying climatic conditions
upon different parts of the continental surface; in short, for
those geographical factors which form the chief product of past
and present human history. (See Geography.)

'3°

CONTINENTAL SHELF—CONTINUED FRACTIONS

CONTINENTAL SHELF, the term in physical geography for
the submerged platform upon which a continent or island stands
in relief. If a coin or medal be partly sunk under water the
image and superscription will stand above water and represent
a continent with adjacent islands; the sunken part just sub-
merged will represent the continental shelf and the edge of the
coin the boundary between it and the surrounding deep, called
by Professor H. K. H. Wagner the continental slope. If the
lithosphere surface be divided into three parts, namely, the
continent heights, the ocean depths, and the transitional area
separating them, it will be found that this transitional area is
almost bisected by the coast-line, that nearly one-half of it
(,10,000,000 sq. m.) lies under water less than ioo fathoms deep,
and the remainder 12,000,000 sq. m. is under 600 ft. in elevation.
•There are thus two continuous plain systems, one above water and
one under water, and the second of these is called the continental
shelf. It represents the area which would be added to the land
surface if the sea fell 600 ft. This shelf varies in width. Round
Africa — except to the south— and off the western coasts of
America it scarcely exists. It is wide under the British Islands
and extends as a continuous platform under the North Sea,
down the English Channel to the south of France; it unites
Australia to New Guinea on the north and to Tasmania on the
south, connects the Malay Archipelago along the broad shelf east
of China with Japan, unites north-western America with Asia,
sweeps in a symmetrical curve outwards from north-eastern
America towards Greenland, curving downwards outside New-
foundland and holding Hudson Bay in the centre of a shallow
dish. In many places it represents the land planed down by
wave action to a plain of marine denudation, where the waves
have battered down the cliffs and dragged the material under
water. If there were no compensating action in the differential
movement of land and sea in the transitional area, the whole
of the land would be gradually planed down to a submarine
platform , and all the globe would be covered with water. There
are, however, periodical warpings of this transitional area by
which fresh areas of land are raised above sea-level, and fresh
continental coast-lines produced, while the sea tends to sink
more deeply into the great ocean basins, so that the continents '
slowly increase in size. ' In many cases it is possible that the
continental shelf is the end of a low plain submerged by
subsidence; in others a low plain may be an upheaved con-
tinental shelf, and probably wave action is only one of the factors
at work " (H. R. Mill, Realm of 'Nature, 1897).

CONTINUED FRACTIONS. In mathematics, an expression

^ h
ai* T.

of the form

o 2 =

04=*=-

where ai,a 2 ,(J3, . . . and 6 2 ,6 3 , 64, . . . are any quantities whatever,
positive or negative, is called a " continued fraction." The
quantities ai . . . ,b 2 . . . may follow any law whatsoever. If the
continued fraction terminates, it is said to be a terminating
continued fraction; if the number of the quantities Oi . . ., 6 2 • • •
is infinite it is said to be a non-terminating or infinite continued
fraction. If &2/02, 63/03..., the component fractions, as they
are called, recur, either from the commencement or from some
fixed term, the continued fraction is said to be recurring or
periodic. It is obvious that every terminating continued fraction
reduces to a commensurable number.

The notation employed by English writers for the general con-
tinued fraction is

Oi±-

3 64
a 2 = fc o s =fca4= t ' '■■■'
Continental writers frequently use the notation

61, „„ „ , H.bibt]

- — ^ . . ., or ai =*=, — '^i— '±1 —

O4 |0 2 |03 |04

The terminating continued fractions

ai

6 2 63

= — - =t — =
o 2 CE3

a u 01 +

a 2

ai +

O2 + O3

.62 63 bt
02+03+04'

reduced to the forms

01 01O2+62 01O2O3+62O3 + 62O1

l' 02 O2O3 + 63 '

01020304 + &203Q4 + 63O1O4 + &4O102 + b 2 bj

020304+0463+0264 ' ■ "

are called the successive convergents to the general continued fraction.

Their numerators are denoted by p u p 2 , p 3 , p 4 . . .; their de-
nominators by Ci, 52, ?3, ?4. • •

We have the relations

Pn=a„p n -l+bnPn-

In the case of the fraction 01 —
relations p„ = a n pn~i - b„p n - 2 ,
Taking the quantities a t . . . , 6 :

we have the

fraction of the form Oi-l — - . — ,

2 +0 S +

gn = o„g„_i+6„g„_
62 63 64
— 03—04— ' '
Qn = o„g„_i — 6„g„_ 2 .

. . to be all positive, a continued

. . . is called a continued fraction of

a continued fraction of the form — — — .

02-03 — 04 —

the first class ;

called a continued fraction of the second flass.

A continued fraction of the form 01-I — . — . — . .... where

02+03+04 +

Oi, o 2 , 03, 04. . . are all positive integers, is called a simple continued
fraction. In the case of this fraction a u a 2 , o 3 , a 4 . . . are called the
successive partial quotients. It is evident that, in this case,

Pi, P2, ps- ■ ., gi, 22, gs. • .,
are two series of positive integers increasing without limit if the
fraction does not terminate.

The general continued fraction Oi-| — - , -^ , — , . is evidently

OSTO3+04+ J

equal, convergent by convergent, to the continued fraction
1 A262 X2X363 X3X464
ai ~'~X2a2+ X 3 o 3 + X4O4 +" ■ • '
where X 2 , X 3 , X 4 , . . . are any quantities whatever, so that by choos-
ing A 2 6 2 = i, X2A303 = i, &c, it can be reduced to any equivalent con-
tinued fraction of the form Oi+t- , -7- . -y , ...

O2+O3+.04 +

Simple Continued Fractions.

I. The simple continued fraction is both the most interesting
and important kind of continued fraction.

Any quantity, commensurable or incommensurable, can be
expressed uniquely as a simple continued fraction, terminating in
the case of a commensurable quantity, non-terminating in the case
of an incommensurable quantity. A non-terminating simple con-
tinued fraction must be incommensurable.

In the case of a terminating simple continued fraction the number
of partial quotients may be odd or even as we please by writing the

last partial quotient, o„ as o n — 1 +-.

' The numerators and denominators of the successive convergents
obey the law p„q n -i — £„_iG„ = ( — i) n , from which it follows at once
that every convergent is in its lowest terms. The other principal
properties of the convergents are : —

The odd convergents form an increasing series of rational fractions
continually approaching to the value of the whole continued frac-
tion ; the even convergents form a decreasing series having the same
property.

Every even convergent is greater than every odd convergent ;
every odd convergent is less than, and every even convergent
greater than, any following convergent.

Every convergent is nearer to the value of the whole fraction
than any preceding convergent.

Every convergent is a nearer approximation to the value of the
whole fraction than any fraction whose denominator is less than
that of the convergent.

The difference between the continued fraction and the n' h con-

vergent is less than

and greater than

On+2

These limits

o»2»+i ° g„g„ +2

may be replaced by the following, which, though not so close, are

simpler, viz. -=- and „ , _, — ;.
^ g» g»(g»+gn+i)

Every simple continued fraction must converge to a definite limit ;
for its value lies between that of the first and second convergents
and, since

pn
In

F"-i

g«-i "

Lt.£= = Lt.

g»

Pn-

q n qn-\
so that its value cannot oscillate.

The chief practical use of the simple continued fraction is that
by means of it we can obtain rational fractions which approxi-
mate to any quantity, and we can also estimate the error of our

CONTINUED FRACTIONS

3 1

approximation. Thus a continued fraction equivalent to x (the
ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle) is
i j_ i _i_ II
3+ 7 + i5+i +292 + 1 +i + ...
of which the successive convergents are

3. 21 233 355 IQ3993 &
i' 7" 106' 113' 33102' *'

the fourth of which is accurate to the sixth decimal place, since the
error lies between i/g^s or -0000002673 and fle/^Ss or -0000002665.
Similarly the continued fraction given by Euler as equivalent to
i(« — 1) (e being the base of Napierian logarithms), viz.

i 1 2 I i

I+6 + IO+I4 + I8+ .-;,

may be used to approximate very rapidly to the value of e.

For the application of continued fractions to the problem " To
find the fraction, whose denominator does not exceed a given integer
D, which shall most closely approximate (by excess or defect, as
may be assigned) to a given number commensurable or incommen-
surable," the reader is referred to G. Chrystal's Algebra, where also
may be found details of the application of continued fractions to
such interesting and important problems as the recurrence of eclipses
and the rectification of the calendar (q.v.).

Lagrange used simple continued fractions to approximate to the
solutions of numerical equations; thus, if an equation has a root
between two integers a and a+i, put x = a + i/y and form the
equation in y; if the equation in y has a root between b and 6+1,
put y = b + i/z, and so on. Such a method is, however, too tedious,
compared with such a method as Horner's, to be of any practical
value.

The solution in integers of the indeterminate equation ax+by = c
may be effected by means of continued fractions. If we suppose a/b
to be converted into a continued fraction and p/q to be the pen-
ultimate convergent, we have dq — bp = +1 or —I, according as
the number of convergents is even or odd, which we can take them
to be as we please. If we take aq — bp = +l we have a general
solution in integers of ax+by = c, viz. x = cq — bt, y = at—cp; if we
take aq — bp = — I, we have x — bt — cq, y = cp— at.^

An interesting application of continued fractions to establish a
unique correspondence between the elements of an aggregate of m
dimensions and an aggregate of n dimensions is given by G. Gantor
in vol. 2 of the Acta Mathematical . •

Applications of simple continued fractions to the theory of
numbers, as, for example, to prove the theorem that a divisor of the
sum of two squares is itself the sum of two squares, may be found
in J. A. Serret's Cours d'Algebre SupSrieure.

2. Recurring Simple Continued Fractions. — The infinite continued
fraction

1 t_ L L L 2.LL J. L

ai+ a2+a 3 + . . . +a„+6 1 + 6 2 + . . . +b„+h+b 2 + . . . + b„+ k + . . .,

where, after the « tb partial quotient, the cycle of partial quotients
b\, 6 2 , ... , b n recur in the same order, is the type of a recurring
simple continued fraction.

The value of such a fraction is the positive root of a quadratic
equation whose coefficients are real and of which one root is negative.
Since the fraction is infinite it cannot be commensurable and there-
fore its value is a quadratic surd number. Conversely every positive
quadratic surd number, when expressed as a simple continued
fraction, will give rise to a recurring fraction. Thus

. _l I I I 1

2_V3_ 3 + i+2+l+2+ ...,

, 1 1 1 1 _i 1 1 _i
V28-5+ 3+2+3 + io+3+2+~3 + io+ ■■•

The second case illustrates a feature of the recurring continued
fraction which represents a complete quadratic surd. There is only
one non-recurring partial quotient Oi. If 61, fo, . . ., b„ is the cycle
of recurring quotients, then &„=2<ji, hi = b„_i, b 2 = b„_ 2 , 6 3 = 6„_ 3 , &c.

In the case of a recurring continued fraction which represents
V N, where N is an integer, if n is the number of partial quotients in
the recurring cycle, and f»,/j„ the nr ih convergent, then p\ T — Nq 2 m
— ( — i)" r , whence, if n is odd, integral solutions of the indeterminate
equation x 2 — Ny 2 = ± I (the so-called Pellian equation) can be found.
If n is even, solutions of the equation x 2 ~^-Ny 2 = + 1 can be found.

The theory and development of the simple recurring continued
fraction is due to Lagrange. For proofs of the theorems here stated
and for applications to the more general indeterminate equation
x 2 — Ny 2 = H the reader may consult Chrystal's Algebra or Serret's
Cours d'Algebre Superieure; he may also profitably consult a tract
by T. Muir, The Expression of a Quadratic Surd as a Continued
Fraction (Glasgow, 1874).

The General Continued Fraction.

I. The Evaluation of Continued Fractions. — The numerators and
denominators of the convergents to the general continued fraction
both satisfy the difference equation «„ = a„K„_i+&„«„_2. When we

can solve this equation we have an expression for the n th convergent
to the fraction, generally in the form of the quotient of two series,
each of n terms. As an example, take the fraction (known as
Brouncker's fraction, after Lord Brouncker)

1 i 2 3j 5? 2

1 + 2 + 2+2 +2 + . - .

«„ +l = 2«„ + (2re-i) 2 «„_ 1 ,

Here we have
whence

M»+l — (2» + l)w„=— (2» — l)j«„ — (2»— l)«„_i),

and we readily find that

g» 3 5 7 '" 2»+i'

whence the value of the fraction taken to infinity is |x.

It is always possible to find the value of the w th convergent to a
recurring continued fraction. If r be the number of quotients in
the recurring cycle, we can by writing down the relations connecting
the successive p's and q's obtain a linear relation connecting

Pnr+mt P(n~l)r+m, P(n-2)r+m,

in which the coefficients are all constants. Or we may proceed as
follows. (We need not consider a fraction with a non-recurring part) .
Let the fraction be

£l 2?.
b-i +b 2 +..

+X+K+ . . .

Let M„=;

then

ai 02

leading to an

gnr+m ' """ b L +6 2 + . . • +&r +U„i

equation of the form A« n «n-i+B : K„+C«„_i + D = o, where A,B,C,D
are independent of n, which is readily solved.

2. The Convergence of Infinite Continued Fractions. — -We have seen
that the simple infinite continued fraction converges. The infinite
general continued fraction of the first class cannot diverge for its
value lies between that of its first two convergents. It may, how-
ever, oscillate. We have the relation p„q n ^i —p„-iq„ = ( — l)"J 2 &3 ■ ■ -b n ,

from which — — £^ = ( — i)* 2 '•• ■ " " ■, and the limit of the right-

hand side is not necessarily zero.

The tests for convergency are as follows :

Let the continued fraction of the first class be reduced to the form

then it is convergent .if at least one of the series

dl+ d 2 +d 3 +d i +

d 3 +df,+d 7 + . . ., ^2+^4+^6+ ■ • • diverges, and oscillates if both

these series converge.

For the convergence of the continued fraction of the second class
there is no complete criterion. The following theorem covers a large
number of important cases.

" If in the infinite continued fraction of the second classa„&J„ + I
for all values of n, it converges to a finite limit not greater than'
unity."

3. The Incommensurability of Infinite Continued Fractions^—
There is no general test for the incommensurability of the general
infinite continued fraction.

Two cases have been given by Legendre as follows; —

If <z 2 , a 3 , . ■ ., a n , bi, bt, . . .,b n are all positive integers, then

I. The infinite continued fraction — . . , — , con-

a 2 +a z + . . . +<z„+ . . .

verges to an incommensurable limit if after some finite value of n

the condition a„<£&„ is always satisfied.

" " b n

T n - ... con -

verges to an incommensurable limit if after some finite value of H

the condition a„&6„ + i is always satisfied, where the sign > need

not always occur but must occur infinitely often.

Continuants.
The functions p„ and q n , regarded as functions of oi, . . ., c„,
bt, . . ., b n determined by the relations

pn = a n p n ^i+b H p n _ 1 ,
qn = a„q^i + b n q„^ 2 ,

with the conditions pi=ai, po = l; qi = a 2 , qi = l, ?o = 0, have been
studied under the name of continuants. The notation adopted is

h h\

,01, a 2 , ...

and it is evident that we have

II. The infinite continued fraction — — '

a 2 -

Pn~K( a

■bn\.

aj '

_W K . . ., b n \

The theory of continuants is due in the first place to Euler. The
reader will find the theory completely treated in Chrystal's Algebra,
where will be found the exhibition of a prime number of the form
\p-\- 1 as the actual sum of two squares by means, of continuants,
a result given by H. J. S. Smith.

32

CONTINUED FRACTIONS

The continuant K(„ *' 3 " ' " "J is also equal to the

determinant

Ol

— I

o
o

Ch

o

O3

-I

o
o

*4
4

u —I a„_i 6 r
o o — — 00 — la,

from which point of view continuants have been treated by W.
Spottiswoode, J. J. Sylvester and T. Muir. Most of the theorems
concerning continued fractions can be thus proved simply from the
properties of determinants (see T. Muir's Theory of Determinants,
chap, iii.).

Perhaps the earliest appearance in analysis of a continuant in its
determinant form occurs in Lagrange's investigation of the vibra-
tions of a stretched string (see Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound,
vol. i. chap. iv.).

The Conversion of Series and Products into Continued Fractions.

I . A continued fraction may always be found whose n ih convergent
shall be equal to the sum to n terms of a given series or the product
to n factors of a given continued product. In fact, a continued

..+a„ +

numerators of its successive convergents any assigned quantities
Pi, Pz, ps, ■ ■ ■ , pn, and for their denominators any assigned
quantities gi, q 2 , 53, . . . , g„ . . .

The partial fraction b n /a n corresponding to the n th convergent
can be found from the relations

pn = anpn-i+bnpn-2, g. n = a n q n -i+b n q n ~i ;
and the first two partial quotients are given by

bi = pi, Oi = gi, biOt — p2, ai02-{-b2 = q2.
If we form then the continued fraction inwhich pi, p 2 , pz, . . ., p„
are »i, «i+«2, M1+M2+M3, • • • > M1+M2 + . . .' m„, and gi, g2, g3, . . ., g n
are all unity, we find the series Mi +M2+
continued fraction

«2 «3

Ml Mi U%

fraction - 1 ,— ,

can be constructed having for the

. -j-« B equivalent to the

Ml

which we can transform into

«2 «lM 3

«2

, -I+;

Mn-1

M»-i

Mi
I -

M2M4

M„- 2 M„

■ . . . — Mn-l+Mn

-M1 + M2 — M2 + M3 — M3 + M4

a result given by Euler.

2. In this case the sum to n terms of the series is equal to the n th
convergent of the fraction. There is, however, a different way in
which a series may be represented by a continued fraction. We may
require to represent the infinite convergent power series a +OiX+
02^+ ... by an infinite continued fraction of the form
fo fox fox fox
1 — 1— 1— 1—...
Here the fraction converges to the sum to infinity of the series. Its
n tb convergent is not equal to the sum to n terms of the series.
Expressions for fo, fo, fo, . . . by means of determinants have been
given by T. Muir (Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xxvii.).

A method was given by J. H. Lambert for expressing as a con-
tinued fraction of the preceding type the quotient of two convergent
power series. It is practically identical with that of finding the
greatest common measure of two polynomials. As an instance
leading to results of some importance consider the series

F(»,x) = i + (T+ff)l , + (T+f|>(T+f| + l)2 , + ...
We have

F(n + i,x)-F(n,x) = - <T+w)( * +)t + l) F(n+a,s),
whence we obtain

F(i,x) 1 */y(t+i) */(t+i)(7+2)
Wtp^x) 1+ I + I +...,

which may also be written

7 x x

T+7 + I+T+2 + ...
By putting = fc x 2 /4 for x in F(o,x) and F(i,x), and putting at the same
time 7 = 1/2, we obtain

tan x =

tanh x-

X X 1 X 2 X 1

*i~ 3- 5-7- • ■ • Val '" *°i + 3+"5+ 7 +
These results were given by Lambert, and used by him to [prove

that ir and it 2 are incommensurable, and also any commensurable

power of e.

Gauss in his famous memoir on the hypergeometric series

F ( ,, ft7 ,x)=r+^+^+;y 7 % i ^+...

gave the expression for F(a,/3+l, 7+1, x)+F(a, fo 7, x) as a con-
tinued fraction, from which if we put £ = and write 7 — I for 7,
we get the transformation

a a(a + l) a(a + l)(a+2) , _I fox fox ,

I+ y x+ y{y + if + y{y+i){y+ 2 f +----I- 1 _ x _.. where

„ _ a _ (a + l)7 (a+w-l)(7+w-2)

Pl ~y' P * ~(7 + l)(7+2) P 2 "- 1 "(7+2»-3)(7+2»-2)'

ft = ;

2(7 + 1 -a)
_, (7+2)(7+3)"-

Ft n(y + n — I — a)

" P2n- (7+2ra-2)(7+2»-l)-

7(7 + 1)'

From this we may express several of the elementary series as
continued fractions; thus taking 0=1, 7 = 2, and putting x for — x,

, , , , . X iH I 2 X 2 2 X 2*X 1?X 1?X

we have log (1 +x) =- + - + - + - + ~ _fy + ^ + _

Taking 7 = 1, writing xfa for x and increasing a indefinitely, we

haVe6= I-l+i-3>i-5+...

For some recent developments in this direction the reader may
consult a paper by L- J- Rogers in the Proceedings of the London
Mathematical Society (series 2, vol. 4).

Ascending Continued Fractions.

There is another type of continued fraction called the ascending
continued fraction, the type so far discussed being called tjie descend-
ing continued fraction. It is of no interest or importance, though
both Lambert and Lagrange devoted some attention to it. The
notation for this type of fraction is

bi+—-—

63+-—^

b2+ ?i_

03

ci+-

It is obviously equal to the series

„ ,62 , 63 , 64 1

O2 O2O3 O2O304 02030405

Historical Note.

+ .

The invention of continued fractions is ascribed generally to
Pietro Antonia Cataldi, an Italian mathematician who died in
1626. He used them to represent square roots, but only for
particular numerical examples, and appears to have had no
theory on the subject. A previous writer, Rafaello Bombelli,
had used them in his treatise on Algebra (about 1579), and it is
quite possible that Cataldi may have got his ideas from him.
His chief advance on Bombelli was in his notation. They next
appear to have been used by Daniel Schwenter (1585-1636)
in a Geometrica Practica published in 1618. He uses them for
approximations. The theory, however, starts with the publica-
tion in 1655 by Lord Brouncker of the continued fraction

j j2 ^2 K-2

-1- , ^ ,— 1 as an equivalent of ir/4. This he is supposed

to have deduced, no one knows how, from Wallis' formula for

John Wallis, discussing this fraction in his Arithmetica In-
finitorum (1656), gives many of the elementary properties of the
convergents to the general continued fraction, including the rule
for their formation. Huygens (Descriptio automali planetarii,
1703) uses the simple continued fraction for the purpose of
approximation when designing the toothed wheels of his Planet-
arium. Nicol Saunderson (1682-1730), Euler and Lambert
helped in developing the theory, and much was done by Lagrange
in his additions to the French edition of Euler's Algebra (1795).
Moritz A. Stern wrote at length on the subject in Crelle's Journal
(x., 1833; xi., 1834; xviii., 1838). The theory of the con-
vergence of continued fractions is due to Oscar Schlomilch,
P. F. Arndt, P. L. Seidel and Stern. O. Stolz, A. Pringsheim
and E. B. van Vleck have written on the convergence of infinite
continued fractions with complex elements.

References. — For the further history of continued fractions we
may refer the reader to two papers by Gunther and A. N. Favaro,
Bulletins di bibliographia e di storia delle scienze mathematische e
fisiche, t. vii., and to M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik, 2nd Bd.
For text-books treating the subject in great detail there are those
of G. Chrystal in English; Serret's Cours d'algebre superieure in
French; and in German those of Stern, Schlomilch, Hatterdorff and
Stolz. For the application of continued fractions to the theory of

CONTOUR— CONTRABAND

33

trrational numbers there is P. Bachmann's Vorlesungen ilber die
Natur der Irrationalzahnen (1892). For the application of continued
fractions to the theory of lenses, see R. S. Heath's Geometrical Optics,
chaps, iv. and v. For an exhaustive summary of all that has been
written on the subject the reader may consult Bd. 1 of the Ency-
klopddie der mathematischen Wissenschaften (Leipzig). (A. E. J.)

CONTOUR, CONTOUR-LINE (a French word meaning generally
" outline," from the Med. Lat. contomare, to round off), in physical
geography a line drawn upon a map through all the points upon
the surface represented that are of equal height above sea-level.
These points lie, therefore, upon a horizontal plane at a given
elevation passing through the land shown on the map, and the
contour-line is the intersection of that horizontal plane with
the surface of the ground. The contour-line of o, or datum level,
is the coastal boundary of any land form. If the sea be imagined
as rising 100 ft., a new coast-line, with bays and estuaries indented
in the valleys, would appear at the new sea-level. If the sea
sank once more to its former level, the 100-ft. contour-line with
all its irregularities would be represented by the beach mark
made by the sea when 100 ft. higher. If instead of receding the
sea rose continuously at the rate of 100 ft. per day, a series of
levels 100 ft. above one another would be marked daily upon the
land until at last the highest mountain peaks appeared as islands
less than 100 ft. high. A record of this series of advances
marked upon a flat map of the original country would give a
series of concentric contour-lines narrowing towards the mountain-
tops, which they would at last completely surround. Contour-
lines of this character are marked upon most modern maps
of small areas and upon all government survey and military maps
at varying intervals according to the scale of the map.

CONTRABAND (Fr. contrebande, from contra, against, and
bannum, Low Lat. for " proclamation "), a term given generally
to illegal traffic; and particularly, as " contraband of war,"
to goods, &c, which subjects of neutral states are forbidden by
international law to supply to a belligerent.

According to current practice contraband of war is of two
kinds: (1) absolute or unconditional contraband, i.e. materials
of direct application in naval or military armaments; and
(2) conditional contraband, consisting of articles which are fit for,
but not necessarily of direct application to, hostile uses. There is
much difference of opinion among international jurists and states,
however, as to the specific materials and articles which may
rightfully be declared by belligerents to belong to either class.
There is also disagreement as to the belligerent right where
the immediate destination is a neutral but the ultimate an enemy
port.

An attempt was made at the Second Hague Conference to
come to an agreement on the chief points of difference. The
British delegates were instructed even to abandon the principle
of contraband of war altogether, subject only to the exclusion
by blockade of neutral trade from enemy ports. In the alterna-
tive they were to do their utmost to restrict the definition of
contraband within the narrowest possible limits, and to obtain
exemption of food-stuffs destined for places other than be-
leaguered fortresses and of raw materials required for peaceful
industry. Though the discussions at the conference did not
result in any convention, except on the subject of mails, it was
agreed among the leading maritime states that an early attempt
should be made to codify the law of naval war generally, in
connexion with the establishment of an international prize
court (see Prize).

Meanwhile, on the subject of mails, important articles were
adopted which figure in the " Convention on restric-
tions in the right of capture " (No. n of the series
as set out in the General Act, see Peace Conference). They
are as follows:—

Art. 1. — The postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents,
whatever its official or private character may be, found on the high
seas on board a neutral or enemy ship is inviolable. If the ship is
detained, the correspondence is forwarded by the captor with the
least possible delay.

The provisions of the preceding paragraph do not apply, in case
of violation of blockade, to correspondence destined for, or proceeding
from, a blockaded port.

viz. 3

Malls.

Art. 1 1. —The inviolability of postal correspondencedoesnotexempt
a neutral mail ship from the laws and customs of maritime war as
to neutral merchant ships in general. The ship, however, may
not be searched except when absolutely necessary, and then only
with as much consideration and expedition as possible.

As regards food-stuffs Great Britain has long and consistently
held that provisions and liquors fit for the consumption of the
enemy's naval or military forces are contraband, pood-
Her Prize Act, however, provides a palliative, in the stuffs and
case of " naval or victualling stores," for the penalty Dre '
attaching to absolute contraband, the lords of the emp °"'
admiralty being entitled to exercise a right of pre-emption over
such stores, i.e. to purchase them without condemnation in a
prize court. In practice, purchases are made at the market
Value of the goods, with an additional 10% for loss of profit.

On the continent of Europe no such palliative has yet been
adopted; but moved by the same desire to distinguish unmistak-
able from, so to speak, constructive contraband, and to protect
trade against the vexation of uncertainty, many continental
jurists have come to argue conditional contraband away al-
together. This change of opinion has especially manifested
itself in the discussions on the subject in the Institute of Inter-
national Law, a body composed exclusively of recognized
international jurists. The rules this body adopted in 1896,
though they do not represent the unanimous feeling of its
members, may be taken as the view of a large proportion of
them. The majority comprised German, Danish, Italian,
Dutch and French specialists. The rules adopted contain a
clause, which, after declaring conditional contraband abolished,
states that: " Nevertheless the belligerent has, at his option
and on condition of paying an equitable indemnity, a right of
sequestration or pre-emption as to articles (objets) which, on
their way to a port of the enemy, may serve equally in war or
in peace." This rule, it is seen, is of wider application than the
above-mentioned provision of the British Prize Act. To become
binding in its existing form, either an alteration of the text of
the Declaration of Paris or a modification in the wording of
the clause would be necessary, seeing that under the Declaration
of Paris " the neutral flag covers enemy goods, except contra-
band of war." It may be said that, in so far as the continent is
concerned, expert opinion is, on the whole, favourable to the
recognition of conditional contraband in the form of a right of
sequestration or pre-emption and within the limits Great Britain
has shown a disposition to set to it as against herself.

As regards coal there is no essential difference between the
position of coal to feed ships and that of provisions to feed men.
Neither is per se contraband. At the West African CoaA

Conference in 1884 the Russian representative pro-
tested against its inclusion among contraband articles, but the
Russian government included it in their declaration as to contra-
band on the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War. In 1898
the British foreign office replied to an inquiry of the Newport
Chamber of Commerce on the position of coal that: " Whether
in any particular case coal is or is not contraband of war, is a
matter prima facie for the determination of the Prize Court
of the captor's nationality, and so long as such decision, when
given, does not conflict with well-established principles of inter-
national law, H.M.'s government will not be prepared to take
exception thereto." The practical applications of the law and
usage of contraband in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5,
however, brought out vividly the need of reform in these " well-
established principles."

The Japanese regulations gave rise to no serious difficulties.
Those issued by Russia, 6"n the other hand, led to „ .
much controversy between the British government versywtth
and that of Russia, in connexion with the latter's Russia In
pretension to class coal, rice, provisions, forage, horses ^ usso "
and cotton with arms, ammunition, explosives, &c, as War- e
absolute contraband. On June i,i904,LordLansdowne
expressed the surprise with which the British government learnt
that rice and provisions were to be treated as unconditionally
contraband—" a step which they regarded as inconsistent with

13

34

CONTRABAND

the law and practice of nations." They furthermore " felt
themselves bound to reserve their rights by also protesting
against the doctrine that it is for the belligerent to decide what
articles are as a matter of course, and without reference to other
considerations, to be dealt with as contraband of war, regard-
less of the well-established rights of neutrals"; nor would the
British government consider itself bound to recognize as valid
the decision of any prize court which violated those rights.
It did not dispute the right of a belligerent to take adequate
precautions for the purpose of preventing contraband of war,
in the hitherto accepted sense of the words, from reaching the
enemy; but it objected to the introduction of a new doctrine
under which ' ' the well-understood distinction between conditional
and unconditional contraband was altogether ignored, and under
which, moreover, on the discovery of articles alleged to be
contraband, the ship carrying them was, without trial and in
spite of her neutrality, subjected to penalties which are reluct-
antly enforced even against an enemy's ship." (See section'
40 of Russian Instructions on Procedure in Stopping, Examining
and Seizing Merchant Vessels, published in London Gazette of
March 18, 1904.) In particular circumstances provisions might
acquire a contraband character, as, for instance, if they should
be consigned direct to the army or fleet of a belligerent, or to a
port where such fleet might be lying, and if facts should exist
raising the presumption that they were about to be employed
in victualling the fleet of the enemy. In such cases it was not
denied that the other belligerent would be entitled to seize the
provisions as contraband of war, on the ground that they would
afford material assistance towards the carrying on of warlike
operations. But it could not be admitted that if such
provisions were consigned to the port of a belligerent (even
though it should be a port of naval equipment) they should
therefore be necessarily regarded as contraband of war. The
test was whether there were circumstances relating to any
particular cargo to show that it was destined for military or
naval use. 1

The Russian government replied that they could not admit
that articles of dual use when addressed to private individuals
in the enemy's country should be necessarily free from seizure
and condemnation, since provisions and such articles of dual
use, though intended for the military or naval forces of the
enemy, would obviously, under such circumstances, be addressed
to private individuals, possibly agents or contractors for the
naval or military authorities.

Lord Lansdowne in answer stated that while H.M. government
did not contend that the mere fact that the consignee was a
private person should necessarily give immunity from capture,
they held that to take vessels for adjudication merely because
their destination was the enemy's country would be vexatious,
and constitute an unwarrantable interference with neutral
commerce. To render a vessel liable to such treatment there
should be circumstances giving 'rise to a reasonable suspicion
that the provisions were destined for the enemy's forces, and
it was in such a case for the captor " to establish the fact of
destination for the enemy's forces before attempting to procure
their condemnation " (September 30, 1904).

The protests of Great Britain led to the reference of the subject
by the Russian government to a departmental committee, with
the result that on October 22, 1904, a rectifying notice was issued
declaring that articles capable of serving for a warlike object, in-
cluding rice and food-stuffs, should be considered as contraband
of war, if they are destined for the government of the belligerent
power or its administration or its army or its navy or its fortresses
or its naval ports; or for the purveyors thereof; and that in
cases where they were addressed to private individuals these
articles should not be considered as contraband of war; but that
in all cases horses and beasts of burden were to be considered
as contraband. As regards cotton, •explanations were given by
the Russian government (May n, 1904) that the prohibition
of cotton applied only to raw cotton suitable for the manufacture
of explosives, and not to yarn or tissues:
The carriage of belligerent despatches connected with the con-

duct of a war or of persons in the service of a belligerent state
falls within the , prohibition of contraband traffic,
but to distinguish such traffic from that of contraband, Analogues
properly so called, the term applied to it in international %££ tra ~
law is " analogues of contraband." The penalty
attaching to such carriage necessarily varies according to the
degree of the analogy. ■

Trade between neutrals has a prima facie right to go on, in
spite of war, without molestation. But if the ultimate destina-
tion of goods, though shipped first to a neutral port,
is enemy's territory, then, according to the doctrine yo"age&" S
of " continuous voyages," the goods may be treated
as if they had been shipped to the enemy's territory direct.
The doctrine is entirely Anglo-Saxon in its origin 1 and'develop-
ment. Only in one case does it seem ever to have been actually
put in force by a foreign prize court, namely, in the case of the
" Doelwijk," a Dutch vessel which was adjudged good prize
by an Italian court on the ground that, although bound for
Djibouti, a French port, it was laden with a provision of arms
of a model which had gone out of use in Europe, and could only be
destined for the Abyssinians, with whom Italy was at war.

The Institute of International Law in 1896 adopted the
following rule on the subject: —

" Destination to the enemy is presumed, where the shipment
is to one of the enemy ports, or to a neutral port, if it is unquestion-
ably proved by the facts that the neutral port was only a state
{(.tape) towards the enemy as the final destination of a single com-
mercial operation."

During the South African War (1899-1902) Great Britain was
involved in controversy with Germany, who at first declined
to recognize the existence of any rule which could interfere
with trade between neutrals, the German vessels in question
having been stopped on their way to a neutral port.

As stated above, the Second Hague Conference failed to come
to any understanding on contraband, but the subject was exhaust-
ively dealt with by the Conference of London (1908-1909) on
the laws and customs of naval war, in the following articles: —

ART. 22. — The following articles may, without notice, be treated
as contraband of war, under the name of absolute contraband: (1)
Arms of all kinds, including arms for sporting purposes, and their
distinctive component parts; (2) projectiles, charges and cartridges
of all kinds, and their distinctive component parts ; (3) powder and
explosives specially prepared for use in war; (4) gun-mountings,
limber boxes, limbers, military wagons, field forges and their dis-
tinctive component parts; (5) clothing and equipment of a distinct-
ively military character; (6) all kinds of harness of a distinctively
military character; (7) saddle, draught and pack animals suitable
for use in war ; (8) articles of camp equipment and their distinctive
component parts; (9) armour plates; (10) warships, including boats,
and their distinctive component parts of such a nature that they
can only be used on a vessel of war; (11) implements and apparatus
designed exclusively for the manufacture of munitions of war, for the
manufacture or repair of arms, or war material for use on land or sea.

Art. 23. — Articles exclusively used for war may be added to the
list of absolute contraband by a declaration, which must be notified.
Such notification must be addressed to the governments of other
powers, or to their representatives accredited to the power making
the declaration. A notification made after the outbreak of hostilities
is addressed only to neutral powers.

Art. 24. — The following articles, susceptible of use in war as well
.as for purposes of peace, may, without notice, be treated as contra-
band of war, under the name of conditional contraband: (1) Food-
stuffs; (2) forage and grain, suitable for feeding animals; (3)
clothing, fabrics for clothing, and boots and shoes, suitable for use
in war; (4) gold and silver in coin or bullion; paper money; (5)
vehicles of all kinds available for use in war, and their component
parts; (6) vessels, craft and boats of all kinds; floating docks, parts
of docks and their component parts ; (7) railway material, both fixed
and rolling-stock, and material for telegraphs, wireless telegraphs
and telephones; (8) balloons and flying machines and their dis-
tinctive component parts, together with accessories and articles
recognizable as intended for use in connexion with balloons and
flying machines; (9) fuel; lubricants; (10) powder and explosives
not specially prepared for use in war; (11) barbed wire and imple-
ments for fixing and cutting the same; (12) horseshoes and shoeing
materials; (13) harness and saddlery; (14) field glasses, telescopes,
chronometers and all kinds of nautical instruments.

'See Springbok case, 1866, 5 Wallace I.; on Doelwijk case see
Brusa, Rev. gen. de droit international public (1897); Fauchille id.
(1897), p. 291, also The Times, April 15, May 25, June I, 1897.

CONTRACT

35

Art. 25. — Articles susceptible of use in war as well as for purposes
of peace, other than those enumerated in Articles 22 and 24, may be
added to the list of conditional contraband by a declaration, which
must be notified in the manner provided for in the second paragraph
of Article 23.

Art. 26.— If a power waives, so far as it is concerned, the right to
treat as contraband of war an article comprised in any of the classes
enumerated in Articles 22 and 24, such intention shall be announced
by a declaration, which must be notified in the manner provided for
in the second paragraph of Article 23.

Art. 27. — Articles which are not susceptible of use in war may not
be declared contraband of war.

Art. 28. — The following may not be declared contraband of war :
(1) Raw cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, hemp and other raw materials of
the textile industries, and yarns of the same; (2) oil seeds and nuts;
copra; (3) rubber, resins, gums and lacs; hops; (4) raw hides
and horns, bones and ivory; (5) natural and artificial manures,
including nitrates and phosphates for agricultural purposes; (6)
metallic ores ; (7) earths, clays, lime, chalk, stone, including marble,
bricks, slates and tiles; (8) Chinaware and glass; (9) paper and
paner-making materials; (10) soap, paint and colours, including
articles exclusively used in their manufacture, and varnish; (11)
bleaching powder, soda ash, caustic soda, salt cake, ammonia,
sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of copper; (12) agricultural,
mining, textile and printing machinery; (13) precious and semi-
precious stones, pearls, mother-of-pearl and coral; (14) clocks and
watches, other than chronometers; (15) fashion and fancy goods;
(16) feathers of all kinds, hairs and bristles; (17) articles of house-
hold furniture and decoration ; office furniture and requisites.

Art. 29. — Likewise the following may not be treated as contraband
of war: (1) Articles serving exclusively to aid the sick and wounded.
They can, however, in case of urgent military necessity and subject
to the payment of compensation, be requisitioned, if their destination
is that specified in Article 30 ; (2) articles intended for the use of the
vessel in which they are found, as well as those intended for the use
of her crew and passengers during the voyage.

Art. 30. — Absolute contraband is liable to capture if it is shown
to be destined to territory belonging to or occupied by the enemy,
or to the armed forces of the enemy. It is immaterial whether the
carriage of the goods is direct or entails transhipment or a subsequent
transport by land.

Art. 31. — Proof of the destination specified in Article 30 is com-
plete in the following cases: (1) When the goods are documented
for discharge in an enemy port, or for delivery to the armed forces
of the enemy; (2) when the vessel is to call at enemy ports only, or
when she is to touch at an enemy port or meet the armed forces of
the enemy before reaching the neutral port for which the goods in
question are documented.

Art. 32. — Where a vessel is carrying absolute contraband, her
papers are conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged,
unless she is found clearly out of the course indicated by her papers
and unable to give adequate reasons to justify such deviation.

Art. 33. — Conditional contraband is liable to capture if it is shown
to be destined for the use of the armed forces or of a government
department of the enemy state, unless in this latter case the circum-
stances show that the goods cannot in fact be used for the purposes
of the war in progress. This latter exception does not apply to a
consignment coming under Article 24 (4).

Art. 34. — -The destination referred to in Article 33 is presumed to
exist if the goods are consigned to enemy authorities, or to a con-
tractor established in the enemy country who, as a matter of common
knowledge, supplies articles of this kind to the enemy. A similar

E resumption arises if the goods are consigned to a fortified place
elonging to the enemy, or other place serving as a base for the armed
forces of the enemy. No such presumption, however, arises in the
case of a merchant vessel bound for one of these places if it is sought
to prove that she herself is contraband. In cases where the above
presumptions do not arise, the destination is presumed to be innocent.
The presumptions set up by this article may be rebutted.

Art. 35. — Conditional contraband is not liable to capture, except
when found on board a vessel bound for territory belonging to or
occupied by the enemy, or for the armed forces of the enemy, and
when it is not to be discharged in an intervening neutral port. The
ship's papers are conclusive proof both as to the voyage on which
the vessel is engaged and as to the port of discharge of the goods,
unless she is found clearly out of the course indicated by her papers,
and unable to give adequate reasons to justify such deviation.

Art- 36. — Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 35, con-
ditional contraband, if shown to have the destination referred to in
Article 33, is liable to capture in cases where the enemy country has
no seaboard.

Art. 37. — A vessel carrying goods liable to capture as absolute or
conditional contraband may be captured on the high seas or in the
territorial waters of the belligerents throughout the whole _ of her
voyage, even if she is to touch at a port of call before reaching the
hostile destination.

Art. 38. — A vessel may not be captured on the ground that she
has carried contraband on a previous occasion if such carriage is in
point of fact at an end.

Art. 39. — Contraband goods are liable to condemnation.

Art. 40. — A vessel carrying contraband may be condemned if the
contraband, reckoned either by value, weight, volume or freight,
forms more than half the cargo.

Art. 41. — If a vessel carrying contraband is released, she may be"
condemned to pay the costs and expenses incurred by the captor
in respect of the proceedings in the national prize court and the
custody of the ship and cargo during the proceedings.

Art. 42. — Goods which belong to the owner of the contraband
and are on board the same vessel are liable to condemnation.

Art. 43.— If a vessel is encountered at sea while unaware of the
outbreak of hostilities or of the declaration of contraband which
applies to her cargo, the contraband cannot be condemned except
on payment of compensation; the vessel herself and the remainder
of the cargo are not liable to condemnation or to the costs and
expenses referred to in Article 41. The same rule applies if the
master, after becoming aware of the outbreak of hostilities, or of the
declaration of contraband, has had no opportunity of discharging
the contraband. A vessel is deemed to be aware of the existence of a
state of war, or of a declaration of contraband, if she left a neutral
port subsequently to the notification to the power to which such port
belongs of the outbreak of hostilities or of the declaration of contra-
band respectively, provided that such notification was made in
sufficient time. A vessel is also deemed to be aware of the existence
of a state of war if she left an enemy port after the outbreak of
hostilities.

Art. 44.' — A vessel which has been stopped on the ground that she
is carrying contraband, and which is not liable to condemnation on
account of the proportion of contraband on board, may, when the
circumstances permit, be allowed to continue her voyage if the
master is Willing to hand over the contraband to the belligerent
warship. The delivery of the contraband must be entered by the
captor on the logbook of the vessel stopped, and the master must
give the captor duly certified copies of all relevant papers. The
captor is at liberty to destroy the contraband that has been handed
over to him under these conditions.

See Hautefeuille, Des droits et devoirs des nations neutres (2nd ed.,
1858); Perels, Droit maritime international, traduit par Arendt
(Paris, 1884) ; Moore, Digest of International Law (1906) ; L. Oppen-
heim, International Law (1907); Barclay, Problems of International',
Practice and Diplomacy (1907). See also Hall, International Law on
Analogues of Contraband; Smith and Sibley, International Law as
interpreted during the Russo-Japanese War, 1905, on " Malacca ",
and " Prinz Heinrich " cases (mails). (T. Ba.)

CONTRACT (Lat. contractus, from contrahere, to draw together,
to bind), the legal term for a bargain or agreement; some writers,
following the Indian Contract Act, confine the term to agree-
ments enforceable by law: this, though not yet universally
adopted, seems an improvement. Enforcement of good faith
in matters of bargain and promise is among the most important
functions of legal justice. It might not be too much to say.
that, next after keeping the peace and securing property against
violence and fraud so that business may be possible, it is the most
important. Yet we shall find that the importance of contract is
developed comparatively late in the history of law. The common-
wealth needs elaborate rules about contracts only when it is
advanced enough in civilization and trade to have an elaborate
system of credit. The Roman law of the empire dealt with
contract, indeed, in a fairly adequate manner, though it never-
had a complete or uniform theory; and the Roman law, as settled
by Justinian, appears to have satisfied the Eastern empire long
after the Western nations had begun to recast their institutions,
and the traders of the Mediterranean had struck out a cosmo-
politan body of rules and custom known as the Law Merchant,
which claimed acceptance in the name neither of Justinian nor
of the Church, but of universal reason. It was amply proved
afterwards that the foundations of the Roman system were strong
enough to carry the fabric of modern legislation. But the
collapse of the Roman power in western Christendom threw
society back into chaos, and reduced men's ideas of ordered
justice and law to a condition compared with which the earliest
Roman law known to us is modern.

In this condition of legal ideas, which it would be absurd to
call jurisprudence, the general duty of keeping faith is not
recognized except as a matter of religious or social observance.'
Those who desire to be assured of anything that lies in promise
must exact an oath, or a pledge, or personal sureties; and even
then the court of their people — in England the Hundred Court in
the first instance — will do nothing for them in the first case,
and not much in the two latter. Probably the settlement
of a blood-feud, with provisions for the payment of the fine

36

CONTRACT

by instalments, was the nearest approach to a continuing con-
tract, as we now understand the term, which the experience of
Germanic antiquity could furnish. It is also probable that the
performance of such undertakings, as it concerned the general
peace, was at an early time regarded as material to the common-
weal; and that these covenants of peace, rather than the
rudimentary selling and bartering of their day, first caused our
Germanic ancestors to realize the importance of putting some
promises at any rate under public sanction. We have not now
to attempt any reconstruction of archaic judgment and justice,
or the lack of either, at any period of the darkness and twilight
which precede the history of the middle ages. But the history
of the law, and even the present form of much law still common
to almost all the English-speaking world, can be understood
only when we bear in mind that our forefathers did not start
from any general conception of the state's duty to enforce
private agreements, but, on the contrary, the state's powers and
functions in this regard were extended gradually, unsystematic-
ally, and by shifts and devices of ingenious suitors and counsel,
aided by judges, rather than by any direct provisions of princes
and rulers. Money debts, it is true, were recoverable from an
early time. But this was not because the debtor had promised
to repay the loan; it was because the money was deemed still to
belong to the creditor, as if the identical coins were merely in
the debtor's custody. The creditor sued to recover money, for
centuries after the Norman Conquest, in exactly the same form
which he would have used to demand possession of land; the
action of debt closely resembled the " real actions," and, like
them, might be finally determined by a judicial combat; and
down to Blackstone's time the creditor was said to have a
property in the debt — property which the debtor had " granted "
him. Giving credit, in this way of thinking, is not reliance on
the right to call hereafter for an act, the payment of so much
current money or its equivalent, to be performed by the debtor,
but merely suspension of the immediate right to possess one's
own particular money, as the owner of a house let for a term
suspends his right to occupy it. This was no road to the modern
doctrine of contract, and the passage had to be made another way.
In fact the old action of debt covered part of the ground of
contract only by accident. It was really an action to recover

any property that was not land; for the remedy of
debt." ° r a dispossessed owner of chattels, afterwards known

as detinue, was only a slightly varying form of it.
If the property claimed was a certain sum of money, it might
be due because the defendant had received money on loan, or
because he had received goods of which the agreed price remained
unpaid; or, in later times at any rate, because he had become
liable in some way by judgment, statute or other authority of
law, to pay a fine or fixed penalty to the plaintiff. Here the
person recovering might be as considerable as the lord of a manor,
or as mean as a " common informer "; the principle was the
same. In every case outside this last class, that is to say, when-
ever there was a debt in the popular sense of the word, it had to
be shown that the defendant had actually received the money
or goods; this value received came to be called quid pro quo —
a term unknown, to all appearance, out of England. Neverthe-
less the foundation of the plaintiff's right was not bargain or
promise, but the unjust detention by the defendant of the
plaintiff's money or goods.

We are not concerned here to trace the change from the
ancient method of proof — oath backed by " good suit," i.e.

the oaths of an adequate number of friends and
pnot ° neighbours — through the earlier form of jury trial, in

which the jury were supposed to know the truth of
their own knowledge, to the modern establishment of facts by
testimony brought before a jury who are bound to give their
verdict according to the evidence. But there was one mode of
proof which, after the Norman Conquest, made a material
addition to the substantive law. This was the proof by writing,
which means writing authenticated by seal. Proof by writing
was admitted under Roman influence, but, once admitted, it
acquired the character of being conclusive which belonged to all

proof in early Germanic procedure. Oath, ordeal and battle
were all final in their results. When the process was started
there was no room for discussion. So the sealed writing was
final too, and a man could not deny his own deed. We still say
that he cannot, but with modern refinements. Thus the deed,
being allowed as a solemn and probative document, furnished
a means by which a man could bind himself, or rather effectually
declare himself bound, to anything not positively forbidden by
law. Whoever could afford parchment and the services of a
clerk might have the benefit of a " formal contract " in the
Roman sense of the term. At this day the form of deed called
a bond or " obligation " is, as it stands settled after various
experiments, extremely artificial; but it is essentially a solemn
admission of liability, though its conclusive stringency has been
relaxed by modern legislation and practice in the interest of sub-
stantial justice. By this means the performance of all sorts of
undertakings, pecuniary and otherwise, could be and was legally
secured. Bonds were well known in the 13th century, and from
the 14th century onwards were freely used for commercial
and other purposes; as for certain limited purposes they still
are. The " covenant " of modern draftsmen is a direct promise
made by deed; it occurs mainly as incident to conveyances of
land. The medieval " covenant," conventio, was, when we first
hear of it, practically equivalent to a lease, and never became
a common instrument of miscellaneous contracting, though the
old books recognize the possibility of turning it to various uses
of which there are examples; nor had it any sensible influence
on the later development of the law. On the whole, in the old
common law one could do a great deal by deed, but very little
without deed. The minor bargains of daily life, so far as they
involved mutual credit, were left to the jurisdiction of inferior
courts, of the Law Merchant, and — last, not least — of the Church.

Popular custom, in all European countries, recognized simpler
ways of pledging faith than parchment and seal. A handshake
was enough to bind a bargain. Whatever secular law
might say, the Church said it was an open sin to break
plighted faith; a matter, therefore, for spiritual
correction, in other words, for compulsion exercised on the
defaulter by the bishop's or the archdeacon's court, armed
with the power of excommunication. In this way the ecclesiasti-
cal courts acquired much business which was, in fact, as secular
as that of a modern county court, with the incident profits.
Medieval courts lived by the suitors' fees. What were the king's
judges to do? However high they put their claims in the
course of the rivalry between Church and Crown, they could not
effectually prohibit the bishop or his official from dealing with
matters for which the king's court provided no remedy. Con-
tinental jurists had seen their way, starting from the Roman
system as it was left by Justinian, to reduce its formalities
to a vanishing quantity, and expand their jurisdiction to the
full breadth of current usage. English judges could not do this
in the 15th century, if they could ever have done so. Nor would
simplification of the requisites of a deed, such as has now been
introduced in many jurisdictions, have been of much use at a
time when only a minority even of well-to-do laymen could
write with any facility.

There was no principle and no form of action in English law
which recognized any general duty of keeping promises. But
could not breach of faith by which a party had suffered be
treated as some kind of legal wrong ? There was a known action
of trespass and a known action of deceit, this last of a special
kind, mostly for what would now be called abuse of the process
of the court; but in the later middle ages it was an admitted
remedy for giving a false warranty on a sale of goods. Also .
there was room for actions " on the case," on facts analogous
to those covered by the old writs, though not precisely within
their terms. If the king's judges were to capture this important
branch of business from the clerical hands which threatened to
engross it, the only way was to devise some new form of action
on the case. There were signs, moreover, that the court ol
chancery would not neglect so promising a field if the common
law judges left it open.

Fidel
laeslo.

CONTRACT

37

The mere fact of unfulfilled promise was not enough, in the
eyes of medieval English lawyers, to give a handle to the law.
A o it ^ ut m J ur y caused by reliance on another man's under-
' taking was different. .The special undertaking or
" assumption " creates a duty which is broken by fraudulent
or incompetent miscarriage in the performance. I profess to be
a skilled farrier, and lame your horse. It is no trespass, because
you trusted the horse to me; but it is something like a trespass,
and very like a deceit. I profess to be a competent builder; you
employ me to build a house, and I scamp the work so that the
house is not fit to live in. An action on the case was allowed
without much difficulty for such defaults. The next step, and
a long one, was to provide for total failure to perform. The
builder, instead of doing bad work, does nothing at all within
the time agreed upon for completing the house. Can it be said
that he has done a wrong? At first the judges felt bound to
hold that this was going too far; but suitors anxious to have
the benefit of the king's justice persevered, and in the course
of the 15th century the new form of action, called assumpsit from
the statement of the defendant's undertaking on which it was
founded, was allowed as a remedy for non-performance as well
as for faulty performance. Being an action for damages, and
not for a certain amount, it escaped the strict rules of proof
which applied to the old action of debt; being in form for a kind
of trespass, and thus a privileged appeal to the king to do right
for a breach of his peace, it escaped likewise the risk of the
defendant clearing himself by oath according to the ancient
popular procedure. Hence, as time went on, suitors were em-
boldened to use " assumpsit " as an alternative for debt, though
it had been introduced only for cases where there was no other
remedy. By the end of the 16th century they got their way ;
and it became a settled doctrine that the existence of a debt
was enough for the court to presume an undertaking to pay it.
The new form of action was made to cover the whole ground
of informal contracts, and, by extremely ingenious devices of
pleading, developed from the presumption or fiction that a man
had promised to pay what he ought, it was extended in time
to a great variety of cases where there was in fact no contract
at all.

The new system gave no new force to gratuitous promises.
For it was assumed, as the foundation of the jurisdiction, that

the plaintiff had been induced by the defendant's
Hon. erS " undertaking, and with the defendant's consent, to

alter his position for the worse in some way. He had
paid or bound himself to pay money, he had parted with goods,
he had spent time in labour, or he had foregone some profit or
legal right. If he had not committed himself to anything on the
strength of the defendant's promise, he had suffered no damage
and had no cause of action. Disappointment of expectations
is unpleasant, but it is not of itself damnum in a legal sense. To
sum up the effect of this in modern language, the plaintiff must
have given value of some kind, more or less, for the defendant's
undertaking. This something given by the promisee and accepted
by the promisor in return for his undertaking is what we now
call the consideration for the promise. In cases where debt
would also lie, it coincides with the old requirement of value
received {quid pro quo) as a condition of the action of debt being
available. But the conception is far wider, for the consideration
for a promise need not be anything capable of delivery or
possession. It may be money or goods; but it may also be an
act or series of acts ; further (and this is of the first importance
for our modern law) , it may itself be a promise to pay money or
deliver goods, or to do work, or otherwise to act or not to act in
some specified way. Again, it need not be anything which is
obviously for the promisor's benefit. His acceptance shows
that he set some value on it; but in truth the promisee's burden,
and not the promisor's benefit, is material. The last refinement
of holding that, when mutual promises are exchanged between
parties, each promise is a consideration for the other and makes
it binding, was conclusively accepted only in the 17th century.
The result was that promises of mere bounty could no more be
enforced than before, but any kind of lawful bargain could;

and there is no reason to doubt that this was in substance what
most men wanted. Ancient popular usage and feeling show
little more encouragement than ancient law itself to merely
gratuitous alienation or obligations. Also (subject, till quite
modern times, to the general rule of common-law procedure
that parties could not be their own witnesses, and subject to
various modern statutory requirements in various classes of
cases) no particular kind of proof was necessary. The necessity
of consideration for the validity of simple contracts was un-
fortunately confused by commentators, almost from the beginning
of its history, with the perfectly different rules of the Roman
law about nudum pactum, which very few English lawyers took
the pains to understand. Hasty comparison of misunderstood
Roman law, sometimes in its civil and sometimes in its ecclesi-
astical form, is answerable for a large proportion of the worst
faults in old-fashioned text-books. Doubtless many canonists,
probably some common lawyers, and possibly some of the judges
of the Renaissance time, supposed that ex nudo pacto non oritur
actio was in some way a proposition of universal reason; but it
is a long way from this to concluding that the Roman law had
any substantial influence on the English.

The doctrine of consideration is in fact peculiar to those
jurisdictions where the common law of England is in force, or
is the foundation of the received law, or, as in South Africa, has
made large encroachments upon it in practice. Substantially
similar results are obtained in other modern systems by professing
to enforce all deliberate promises, but imposing stricter conditions
of proof where the promise is gratuitous.

As obligations embodied in the solemn form of a deed were
thereby made enforceable before the doctrine of consideration
was known, so they still remain. When a man has Deeds.
by deed declared himself bound, there is no need to
look for any bargain, or even to ask whether the other party
has assented. This rugged fragment of ancient law remains
embedded in our elaborate modern structure. Nevertheless
gratuitous promises, even by deed, get only their strict and bare
rights. There may be an action upon them, but the powerful
remedy of specific performance — often the only one worth
having — is denied them. For this is derived from the extra-
ordinary jurisdiction of the chancellor, and the equity ad-
ministered by the chancellor was not for plaintiffs who could
not show substantial merit as well as legal claims. The singular
position of promises made by deed is best left out of account
in considering the general doctrine of the formation of contracts;
and as to interpretation there is no difference. In what follows,
therefore, it will be needless, as a rule, to distinguish between
" parol " or " simple " contracts, that is, contracts not made by
deed, and obligations undertaken by deed.

From the conception of a promise being valid only when
given in return for something accepted in consideration of
the promise, it follows that the giving of the promise
and of the consideration must be simultaneous. Words

Promise
and otter.

of promise uttered before there is a consideration for
them can be no more than an offer; and, on the other hand, the
obligation declared in words, or inferred from acts and conduct, on
the acceptance of a consideration, is fixed at that time, and cannot
be varied by subsequent declaration, though such declarations
may be material as admissions. It was a long while, however,
before this consequence was clearly perceived. In the 18th
century it was attempted, and for a time with considerable
success, to extend the range of enforceable promises without
regard to what the principles of the law would bear, in order
to satisfy a sense of natural justice. This movement was checked
only within living memory, and traces of it remain in certain
apparently anomalous rules which are indeed of little practical
importance, but which private writers, at any rate, cannot
safely treat as obsolete. However, the question of " past
consideration " is too minute and technical to be pursued here.
The general result is that a binding contract is regularly consti-
tuted by the acceptance of an offer, and at the moment when it
is accepted; and, however complicated the transaction may be,
there must always, in the theory of English law, be such a

38

CONTRACT

moment in every case where a contract is formed. It also
follows that an offer before acceptance creates. no duty of any
kind (" A revocable promise is unknown to our law "^Apson);
which' is by no means necessarily the case in systems where
the English rule of consideration is unknown. The question
what amounts to final acceptance of an offer is, on the other
hand, a question ultimately depending on common sense, and
must be treated on similar lines in all civilized countries where
the business of life is carried on in a generally similar way. The
rules that an offer is understood to be made only for a reasonable
time, according to the nature of the case, and lapses if not
accepted in due time; that an expressed revocation of an offer
can take effect only if communicated to the other party before
he has accepted; that acceptance of an offer must be accprding
to its terms, and a conditional or qualified acceptance is only
a new proposal, and the like, may be regarded as standing on
general convenience as much as on any technical ground.

Great difficulties have arisen, and in other systems as well

as in the English, as to the .completion of contracts between

persons at a distance. : There must be some rule, and

spoadence. vet an y ru ^ e t ^ at can he framed must seem arbitrary

in some cases. On the whole the modern doctrine

is to some such effect as the following : — j

The proposer of a contract can prescribe or authorize any
mode, or at least any reasonable mode, of acceptance, and if he
specifies none he is deemed to authorize the use of any reasonable
mode in common use, and especially the post. Acceptance in
words is not always required; an offer may be well accepted
by an act clearly referable to the proposed agreement, and
constituting the whole or part of the performance asked for—
say the despatch of goods in answer to an order by post, or the
doing of work bespoken; and it seems that in such cases further
communication — unless expressly requested — is not necessary
as matter of law, however prudent and desirable it may be.
Where a promise and not an act is sought (as where a tradesman
writes a letter offering goods for sale on credit) , it must be
communicated; in the absence of special direction letter post
or telegraph may be used; and, further, the acceptor having
done his part when his answer is committed to the post, English
courts now hold (after much discussion and doubt) that any
delay or miscarriage in course of post is at the proposer's risk,
so that a man may be bound by an acceptance he never received.
It is generally thought — though there is no English decision-
that, in conformity with this last rule, a revocation by telegraph
of an acceptance already posted would be inoperative. Much
more elaborate rules are laid down in some continental codes.
It seems doubtful whether their complication achieves any gain
of substantial justice worth the price. At first sight it looks
easy to solve some of the difficulties by admitting an interval
during which one party is bound and the other not. But, apart
from the risk of starting fresh problems as hard as the old ones,
English principles, as above said, require a contract to be con-
cluded between the parties at one point of time, and any excep-
tion to this would have to be justified by very strong grounds of
expediency. We have already assumed, but it should be specific-
ally stated, that neither offers nor acceptances are confined to
communications made in spoken or written words. Acts or
signs may and constantly do signify proposal and assent. One
does not in terms request a ferryman to put one across the river.
Stepping into the boat is an offer to pay the usual fare for being
ferried over, and the ferryman accepts it by putting off. This is
a very simple case, but the principle is the same in all cases.
Acts fitted to convey to a reasonable man the proposal of an
agreement, or the acceptance of a proposal he has made, are as
good in law as equivalent express words. The term " implied
contract " is current in this connexion, but it is unfortunately
ambiguous. It sometimes means a contract concluded by acts,
not words, of one or both parties, but still a real agreement;
sometimes an obligation imposed by law where there is not any
agreement in fact, for which the name " quasi-contract " is
more appropriate and now usual. :

The obligation of contract is an obligation created and deter-

mined by the will of the parties. Herein is the characteristic
difference of contract from all other branches of law.
The business of the law, therefore, is to give effect so tLthm
far as possible to the intention of the parties, and all
the rules for interpreting contracts go back to this fundamental
principle and are controlled by it. Every one knows that its
application is not always obvious. Parties often express them-
selves obscurely; still oftener they leave large parts of their
intention unexpressed, or (which for the law is the same thing)
have not formed any intention at all as to what is to be done
in certain events. But even where the law has to fill up gaps by
judicial conjecture, the guiding principle still is, or ought to be,
the consideration of what either party has given the other
reasonable cause to expect of him. The court aims not at
imposing terms on the parties, but at fixing the terms left blank
as the parties would or reasonably might have fixed them if all
the possibilities had been clearly before their minds. For this
purpose resprt must be had to various tests: the court may
look to the analogy of what the parties have expressly provided
in case of other specified events, to the constant or general
usage, of persons engaged in like business, and, at need, ultimately
to. the court's own sense of what is just and expedient. All
auxiliary rules of this kind are subject to the actual will of the
parties, and are applied only for want of sufficient declaration
of it. by the parties themselves. A rule which can take effect
against the judicially known will of the parties is not a rule of
construction or interpretation, but a positive rule of law. How-
ever artificial some rules of construction may seem, this test
will always hold. In modern times the courts have avoided
laying down new rules of construction, preferring to keep a free
hand and deal with each case on its merits as a whole. It should
be observed that the fulfilment of a contract may create a
relation between the parties which, once established, is governed
by fixed rules of law not variable by the preceding agreement.
Marriage is the most conspicuous example of this, and perhaps
the only complete one in our modern law.

There are certain rules of evidence which to some extent
guide or restrain interpretation. In particular, oral testimony
is not allowed to vary the terms of an agreement
reduced to writing. This is really in aid of the parties'
deliberate intention, for the object of reducing terms to writing
is to make them certain. There are apparent exceptions to the
rule, of which the most conspicuous is the admission of evidence
to show that words were used in a special meaning current in
the place or trade in question., But they are reducible, it will be
found, to applications (perhaps over-subtle in some cases) of
the still more general- principles that, before giving legal force
to a document, we must know that, it is really what it purports
to be, and that when we do give effect to it according to its
terms we must be sure of what its terms really say. The rules
of evidence here spoken of are modern, and have nothing to do
with the archaic rule already mentioned as to the effect of a.deed.

Every contracting party is bound to perform his promise
according to its terms, and in case of any doubt in the sense
in which the other party would reasonably understand
the promise. Where the performance on one or both formance.
sides extends over an appreciable time, continuously
or by instalments, questions may arise as to the right of either
party to refuse or suspend further performance on the ground
of some default on the other side. Attempts to lay down hard
and fast rules on such questions are now discouraged, the aim
of the courts being to give effect to the true substance and intent
of the contract in every case. Nor will the court hold one part
of the terms deliberately agreed to more or less material than
another in modern business dealings. " In the contracts of
merchants time is of the essence," as the Supreme Court of the
United States has said in our own day. Certain ancient rules
restraining the apparent literal effect of common provisions
in mortgages and other instruments were in truth controlling
rules of policy. New rules of this kind can be made only by
legislation. Whether the parties did or did not in fact intend
the obligation of a contract to be subject to unexpressed

Evidence.

CONTRACT

39

conditions is, however, a possible and not uncommon question of
interpretation. One class of eases giving rise to such questions
is that in which performance becomes impossible by some
external cause not due to the promisor's own fault; a similar
but not identical one is that in which the agreement cduld be
literally performed, and yet the performance would not give
the promisor the substance of what he bargained for; as
happened in the "coronation cases" arising out of the post-
ponement of the king's coronation in 1902. As to promises
obviously absurd or impossible from the first, they are un-
enforceable only on the ground that the parties cannot have
seriously meant to create a liability. For precisely the same
reason, supported by the general usage and understanding of
mankind, common social engagements, though they often fulfil
all other requisites of a contract, have never been treated as
binding in law.

In all matters of contract, as we have said, the ascertained
will of the parties prevails. But this means a will both lawful
illegality. anc ^ ^ ree " Hence there are limits to the force of. the
general rule, fixed partly by the law of the land, which
is above individual will and interests, partly by the need of
securing good faith and justice between the parties themselves
against fraud or misadventure. Agreements cannot be enforced
when their performance would involve an offence against the
law. There may be legal offence, it must be remembered, not
only in acts commonly recognized as criminal, disloyal or
immoral, but in the breach or non-observance of positive regula-
tions made by the legislature, or persons having statutory
authority, for a great variety of purposes. It would be useless
to give details on the subject here. Again, there are cases where
an agreement may be made and performed without offending
the law, but on grounds of "public policy" it is not thought
right that the performance should be a matter of legal obligation,
even if the ordinary conditions of an enforceable contract are
satisfied. A man may bet, in private at any rate, if he likes,
and pay or receive as the event may be; but for many years
the winner has had no right of action against the loser. Un-
fortunate timidity on the part of the judges, who attempted
to draw distinctions instead of saying boldly that they would
not entertain actions on wagers of any kind, threw this topic
into the domain of legislation; and the laudable desire of
parliament to discourage gambling, so far as might be, without
attempting impossible prohibitions, has brought the law to a
state of ludicrous complexity in both civil and criminal jurisdic-
tion. But what is really important under this doctrine of public
policy is the confinement of " contracts in restraint of trade "
within special limits. In the middle ages and down to modern
times there was a strong feeling — not merely an artificial legal
doctrine— against monopolies and everything tending to mono-
poly. Agreements to keep up prices or not to compete were
regarded as criminal. Gradually it was found that some kind of
limited security against competition must be allowed if such
transactions as the sale of a going concern with its goodwill,
or the retirement of partners from a continuing firm, or the
employment of confidential servants in matters involving trade
secrets, were to be carried on to the satisfaction of the parties.
Attempts to lay down fixed rules in these matters were made
from time to time, but they were finally discredited by the
decision of the House of Lords in the Maxim-Nordenfelt Com-
pany's case in 1894. Contracts " in restraint of trade " will now
be held valid, provided that they are made for valuable considera-
tion (this even if they are made by deed), and do not go beyond
what can be thought reasonable for the protection of the interests
concerned, and are not injurious to the public. (The Indian
Contract Act, passed in 1872, has unfortunately embodied
views now obsolete, and remains unamended.) All that remains
of the old rules in England is the necessity of valuable considera-
tion, whatever be the form of the contract, and a strong pre-
sumption — but riot an absolute rule of law— that an unqualified
agreement not to carry on a particular business is not
reasonable.

Where there is no reason in the nature of the contract for not

enforcing it, the consent of a contracting party may still not be
binding on him because not given with due knowledge, or, if he
is in a relation of dependence to the other party, with inde-
pendent judgment. Inducing a man by deceit to enter into a
contract may always be treated by the deceived party p ^
as a ground for avoiding his obligation, . if he does so
within a reasonable time after discovering the truth, and, in
particular, before any innocent third person has acquired rights
for value on the faith of the contract (see Fraud). Coercion
would be treated on principle' in the same way as fraud, but
such cases hardly occur in modern times. There is a kind of
moral domination, however, which our courts watch with the
utmost jealousy, and repress under the name of "undue influence"
when it is used to obtain pecuniary advantage. Persons in a
position of legal or practical authority — guardians, confidential
advisers, spiritual directors, and the like— must not ab ise their
authority for selfish ends. They are not forbidden to take
benefits from those who depend on them or put their trust in
them; but if they do, and the givers repent of their bounty,
the whole burden of proof is on the takers to show that the gift
was in the first instance made freely and with understanding.
Large voluntary gifts or beneficial contracts, outside the limits
within which natural affection and common practice justify
them, are indeed not encouraged in any system of civilized
law. Professional money-lenders were formerly checked by
the usury law: since those laws were repealed in 1854, courts
and juries have shown a certain astuteness in applying the
rules of law as to fraud and undue influence — the latter with
certain special features— to transactions with needy " expectant
heirs " and other improvident persons which seem on the whole
unconscionable. The Money Lenders Act of 1900 has fixed
and (as finally interpreted by the House of Lords) also sharpened
these developments. In the case of both fraud and undue
influence, the person entitled to avoid a contract may, if so
advised, ratify it afterwards; and ratification, if made with
full knowledge and free judgment, is irrevocable. A contract
made with a person deprived by unsound mind or intoxication
of the capacity to form a rational judgment is on the same
footing as a contract obtained by fraud, if the want of capacity
is apparent to the other party.

There are many cases in which a statement made by one party to
the other about a material fact will enable the other to avoid the
contract if he has relied on it, and it was in fact untrue,
though it may have been made at the time with honest ^J^tion.
belief in its truth. This is so wherever, according to the
common course of business, it is one party's business to know
the facts, and the other practically must, or reasonably may,
take the facts from 'him. In some classes of cases even inadver-
tent omission to disclose any material fact is treated as a mis-
representation. Contracts of insurance are the most important;
here the insurer very seldom has the means of making any
effective inquiry of his own. Misdescription of real property
on a sale; without fraud, may according to its importance be
a matter for compensation or for setting aside the contract.
Promoters of companies are under special duties as to good faith
and disclosure which have been worked out at great length in
the modern decisions. But company law has become so complex
within the present generation that, so far from throwing much
light on larger principles, it is hardly intelligible without some
previous grasp of them. Sometimes it is said that misrepre-
sentation (apart from fraud) of any material fact will serve to
avoid any and every kind of contract. It is submitted that this
is certainly not the law as to the sale of goods or as to the contract
to marry, and therefore the alleged rule cannot be laid down
as universal. But it must be remembered that parties can, if
they please, and not necessarily by the express terms of the
contract itself, make the validity of their contract conditional
on the existence of any matter of fact whatever, including the
correctness of any particular statement. If they have done this,
and the fact is not so, the contract has no force; not because
there has been a misrepresentation, but because the parties
agreed to be bound if the fact was so and not otherwise. It is

CONTRACTILE VACUOLE— CONTRAFAGOTTO

40

a question of interpretation whether in a given case there was
any such condition.

Mistake is said to be a ground for avoiding contracts, and there
are cases which it is practically convenient to group under this
head. On principle they seem to be mostly reducible to
Mistake. failure of the accep tance to correspond with the offer, or
absence of any real consideration for the promise. In such cases,
whether there be fraud or not, no contract is ever formed, and
therefore there is nothing which can be ratified — a distinction
which may have important effects. Relief against mistake is
given where parties who have really agreed, or rather their
advisers, fail to express their intention correctly. Here, if the
original true intention is fully proved— as to which the court
is rightly cautious— the faulty document can be judicially
rectified.

By thf common law an infant (i.e. a person Jess than twenty-one

years olc) was bound by contracts made for " necessaries," i.e.

such commodities as a jury holds, and the court thinks

Disability. they may reasonably holdj su itable and required for

the person's condition; also by contracts otherwise clearly for
his benefit; all other contracts he might confirm or avoid after
coming of age. An extremely ill-drawn act of 1874 absolutely
deprived infants of the power of contracting loans, contracting
for the supply of goods other than necessaries, and stating an
account so as to bind themselves; it also disabled them from
binding themselves by ratification. The liability for necessaries
is now declared by legislative authority in the Sale of Goods Act
1893; the modern doctrine is that it is in no case a true liability
on contract. There is an obligation imposed by law to pay, not
the agreed price, but a reasonable price. Practically, people
who give credit to an infant do so at their peril, except in cases
of obvious urgency.

Married women were incapable by the common law of con-
tracting in their own names. At this day they can hold separate
property and bind themselves to the extent of that property—
not personally— by contract. The law before the Married
Women's Property Acts (1882 and 1893, and earlier acts now
superseded and repealed) was a very peculiar creature of the
court of chancery; the number of cases in which it is necessary
to go back to it is of course decreasing year by year. But a
married woman can still be restrained from anticipating the
income of her separate property, and the restriction is still
commonly inserted in marriage settlements.

There is a great deal of philosophical interest about the nature
and capacities of corporations, but for modern practical purposes
it may be said that the legal powers of British corporations are
directly or indirectly determined by acts of parliament. For
companies under the Companies Acts the controlling instrument
or written constitution is the memorandum of association.
Company draftsmen, taught by experience, nowadays frame
this in the most comprehensive terms. Questions of either
personal or corporate disability are less frequent than they
were. In any case they stand apart from the general principles
which characterize our law of contract.

The rights created by contract are personal rights against the
promisors and their legal representatives, and therefore different
in kind from the rights of ownership and the like
Contract w hich are available against all the world. Nevertheless
Inperty. they may be and very commonly are capable of
pecuniary estimation and estimated as part of a man's
assets. Book debts are the most obvious example. Such rights
are property in the larger sense: they are in modern law trans-
missible and alienable, unless the contract is of a kind implying
personal confidence, or a contrary intention is otherwise shown.
The rights created by negotiable instruments are an important
and unique species of property, being not only exchangeable
but the very staple of commercial currency. Contract and
conveyance, again, are distinct in their nature, and sharply
distinguished in the classical Roman law. But in the common
law property in goods is transferred by a complete contract of
sale without any further act, and under the French civil code
and systems which have followed it a like rule applies not only

to movables but to immovables. In English law procuring a
man to break his contract is a civil wrong against the other
contracting party, subject to exceptions which are still not

clearly defined.

Authorities. — History: Ames, "The History of Assumpsit,
Harvard Law Rev. ii. 1, 53 (Cambridge, Mass. 1889); Pollock and
Maitland, History of English Law, 2nd ed., ii. 184-239 (Cambridge,
1898). Modern: Pollock, article " Contract " in Encyclopaedia of
the Laws of England (2nd ed., London, 1907), a technical summary
of the modern law; the same writer's edition of the Indian Contract
Act (assisted by D. F. Mulla, London and Bombay, 1905) restates
and discusses the principles of the common law besides commenting
on the provisions of the Act in detail. Of the text-books, Anson,
English Law of Contract, reached an eleventh edition in 1906;
Harriman, Law of Contracts (second edition, 1901) ; Leake, Principles
of the Law of Contract (fifth edition by Randall, 1906) ; Pollock,
Principles of Contract (eighth edition, 1910, third American edition,
Wald's completed by Wifiiston, New York, 1906). O. W. Holmes's
(justice of the Supreme Court of the United States) The Common Law
(Boston, Mass. 1881) is illuminating on contract as on other legal
topics, though the persent writer cannot accept all the learned
judge's historical conjectures. (F. Po.)

CONTRACTILE VACUOLE, in biology, a spherical space filled
with liquid, which at intervals discharges into the medium; it
is found in all fresh-water groups of Protozoa, and some marine
forms, also in the naked aquatic reproductive cells of Algae and
Fungi. It is absent in states with a distinct cell-wall to resist
excessive turgescence, such as would lead to the rupture of a
naked cell, and we conclude that its chief function is to prevent
such turgescence in unprotected naked cells. It fulfils also
respiratory and renal functions, and is comparable, physiologi-
cally, to the contractile vesicle or bladder of Rotifers and
Turbellarians. In many species it is part of a complex of canals
or spaces in the protoplasm.

See M. Hartog, British Association Reports, and Degen, Botanische
Zeitung, vol. lxiii. Abt. 1 (1905) (see also Protozoa; Protoplasm).
CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradic-
tions), in logic, the term applied to the second of the three
primary " laws of thought." The oldest statement of the law
is that contradictory statements cannot both at the same time
be true, e.g. the two propositions " A is B " and " A is not B"
are mutually exclusive. A may be B at one time, and not at
another; A may be partly B and partly not B at the same time;
but it is impossible to predicate of the same thing, at the same
time, and in the same sense, the absence and the presence of the
same quality. This is the statement of the law given by Aristotle
(to yap avrd vvkpx^v re koX jui) imapxuv hhiivarov tc? o.vt<?
Kcd Kara to olvto, Metaph. T 3, 1005 b 19). It takes no
account of the truth of either proposition; if one is true, the
other is not; one of the two must be true.

Modern logicians, following Leibnitz and Kant, have generally
adopted a different statement, by which the law assumes an
essentially different meaning. Their formula is " A is not
not- A "; in other words it is impossible to predicate of a thing
a quality which is its contradictory. Unlike Aristotle's law
this law deals with the necessary relation between subject and
predicate in a single judgment. Whereas Aristotle states that
one or other of two contradictory propositions must be false,
the Kantian law states that a particular kind of proposition is
in itself necessarily false. On the other hand there is a real
connexion between the two laws. The denial of the statement
" A is not-A " presupposes some knowledge of what A is, i.e.
the statement A is A. In other words a judgment about A is
implied. Kant's analytical propositions depend on presupposed
concepts which are the same for all people. His statement,
regarded as a logical principle purely and apart from material
facts, does not therefore amount to more than that of Aristotle,
which deals simply with the significance of negation.

See text-books of Logic, e.g. C. Sigwart's Logic (trans. Helen
Dendy, London, 1895), vol. i. pp. 142 foil. ; for the various expressions
of the law see Ueberweg's Logik, § 77; also J. S. Mill, Examination
of Hamilton, 471 ; Venn, Empirical Logic.

CONTRAFAGOTTO, Double Bassoon or Contrabassoon
(Fr. contrebasson; Ger. Kontrafagolt), a wood-wind instrument
of the double reed family, which it completes as grand bass,
the other members being the oboe, cor angkis, and bassoon.

CONTRALTO— CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS

4i

The contrafagotto corresponds to the double bass in strings,
to the contrabass tuba in the brass wind, and to the pedal
clarinet in the single reed wood wind.

There are at the present day three distinct makes of contra-
fagotto. (1) The modern German (fig. 1) is founded on the

older models, resembling
the bassoon, the best-
known being Heckel's of
Biebrich-am-Rhein, used
at Bayreuth and in many
German orchestras. In
this model the character-
istics of the bassoon are
preserved, and the tone
is of true fagotto quality
extended in its lower
register. The Heckel con-
trafagotto consists of a
wooden tube 16 ft. 4 in.
long with a conical bore,
and doubled back four
times upon itself to make
it less unwieldy. It is
thus about the same
length as the bassoon and
terminates in a bell 4 in.
in diameter pointing
downwards. The crook
consists of a small brass
tube about 2 ft. long,
having avery narrow bore,
to which is bound the
double-reed mouthpiece.
(2) The modern English
double bassoon is one
designed by Dr W. H.
Stone, and made under
his superintendence by
Haseneier of Coblenz. It

Fig. i.— Contra- From Capt. c. R. Day's is stat . ed that instruments

fagotto, German Cat - ."'. Mus -, Insi - b g of this pattern are less

model (Wilhelm i^oTtiswoode. y " fatiguing to blow than

Heckel). F IG . 2.— Contra- those resembling the bas-

fagotto, Haseneier- soon . The bore is truly

Morton model. ^^ starting with a

diameter of \ in. at the reed and ending in a diameter of
4 in. at the open end of the tube which points upwards and has
no denned bell, being merely finished with a rim. Alfred Morton,
in England, has constructed double bassoons on Dr Stone's
design (fig. 2). (3) The third model is of brass and consists of
a conical tube of wide calibre some 15 or 16 ft. long, curved
round four times upon itself and having a brass tuba or euphonium
bell which points upwards. This brass model, usually known
as the Belgian or French (fig. 3), was really of Austrian origin,
having been first introduced by Schollnast of Presburg about
1839. B. F. Czerveny of Koniggratz and Victor Mahillon of
Brussels both appear to have followed up this idea independently;
the former producing a metal contrafagotto in Eb in 1856 and one
in Bb which he called sub-contrafagotto in 1867, while Mahillon's
was ready in 1868. In the brass contrafagotto the lateral holes
are pierced at theoretically correct intervals along the bore, and
have a diameter almost equal to the section of the bore at the
point where the hole is pierced. The octave harmonic only is
obtainable on this instrument owing to the great length of the
bore and its large calibre. There are therefore two octave keys

which give a chromatic compass Eh

register are obtained by skilful manipulation of the reed with
the lips and increased pressure of the breath. The notes of both
extremes are difficult to produce.

Although the double bassoon is not a transposing instrument
the music for it is written an octave higher than the real sounds

"»f 8va. bassa.

The modern wooden contrafagotto has a pitch one octave
below that of the bassoon and three below that of the oboe; its
compass extending from 16 ft. C. to middle C. The harmonics
of the octave in the middle register and of the 12th in the upper

Back. Front.

Fig. 3. — -The French or Belgian Contrafagotto.

in order to avoid the ledger lines. The quality of tone is some-
what rough and rattling in the lowest register, the volume of
sound not being quite adequate considering the depth of the pitch.
In the middle and upper registers the tone of the wooden contra-
fagotto possesses all the characteristics of the bassoon. The
contrafagotto has a complete chromatic compass, and it may
therefore be played in any key. Quick passages are avoided
since they would be neither easy nor effective, the instrument
being essentially a slow-speaking one. The lowest notes are only
possible to a good player, and cannot be obtained piano; never-
theless, the instrument forms a fine bass to the reed family, and
supplies in the orchestra the notes missing in the double bass
in order to reach 16 ft. C.

The origin of the contrafagotto, like that of the oboe (q.v.) must be
sought in the highest antiquity (seeAuLOs). Its immediate forerunner
was the double bombard or bombardino or the great double quint-

(a— -

pommer whose compass extended downwards to E —

It is not known precisely when the change took place, though it was
probably soon after the transformation of the bassoon, but Handel
scored for the instrument and it was used in military bands before
being adopted in the orchestra. The original instrument made for
Handel by T. Stanesby, junior, and played by J. F. Lampe at the
Marylebone Gardens in 1739, was exhibited at the Royal Military
Exhibition, London, in 1890. Owing to its faulty construction and
weak rattling tone the double bassoon fell into disuse, in spite of the
fact that the great composers Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven scored
for it abundantly ; the last used it in the C minor and choral sym-
phonies and wrote an obbligato for it in Fidelio. It was restored to
favour in England by Dr W. H. Stone. (K. S.)

CONTRALTO (from Ital. contra-alto, i.e. next above the alto),
the term for the lowest variety of the female voice, as dis-
tinguished from the soprano and mezzo-soprano. Originally
it signified, in choral music, the part next higher than the alto,
given to the falsetto counter-tenor.

CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, in Music. The forms of music
may be considered in two aspects, the texture of the music from
moment to moment, and the shape of the musical design as a
whole. Historically the texture of music became definitely

43

CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS

organized long before the shape coold be determined by any
but external or mechanical conceptions. The laws of musical
texture were known as the laws of " counterpoint " (see Counter-
point and Harmony). The "contrapuntal" forms, then,
are historically the earliest and aesthetically the simplest in
music; the simplest, that is to say, in principle, but not neces-
sarily the easiest to appreciate or to execute. Their simplicity
is like that of mathematics, the simplicity of the elements
involved; but the intricacy of their details and the subtlety
of their expression may easily pass the limits of popularity,
while art of a much more complex nature may masquerade in
popular guise; just as mathematical science is seldom popular-
ized, while biology masquerades in infant 'schools as "natural
history." . Here, however, the resemblance between counterpoint
and mathematics ends, for the simplicity of genuine contrapuntal
style is a simplicity of emotion as well as of principle; and if
the style has a popular reputation of being severe and abstruse,
this is largely because the popular conception of emotion is
conventional and dependent upon an excessive amount of
external nervous stimulus.

i. Canonic Forms and Devices.

In the canonic forms, the earliest known in music as an inde-
pendent art, the laws of texture also determine the shape of the
whole, so that it is impossible, except in the light of historical
knowledge, to say which is prior to the other. The principle
of canon being that one voice shall reproduce the material of
another note for note, it follows that in a composition where
all parts are canonic and where the material of the leading part
consists of a pre-determined melody, such as a Gregorian chant
or a popular song, there remains no room for further considera-
tion of the shape of the work. Hence, quite apart from their
expressive power and their value in teaching composers to attain
harmonic- fluency under difficulties, the canonic forms played
the leading part in the music of the 15th and 1 6th centuries;
nor indeed have they since fallen into neglect without grave
injury to the art. But strict canon soon proved inadequate,
and even dangerous, as the sole regulating principle in music;
and its rival and cognate principle, the basing of polyphonic
designs upon a given melody to which one part (generally the
tenor) was confined, proved scarcely less so.- Nor were these
two principles, the canon and the canto fermo, likely, by com-
bination in their strictest forms, to produce better artistic
results than separately. Both were rigid and mechanical
principles; and their development into real artistic devices
was due, not to a mere increase in the facility of their use, but
to the fact that, just as the researches of alchemists led to the
foundations of chemistry, so did the early musical puzzles lead
to the discovery of innumerable harmonic and melodic resources
which have that variety and freedom of interaction which can
be organized into true works of art and can give the ancient
mechanical devices themselves a genuine artistic character
attainable by no other means.

The earliest canonic form is the rondel or rota as practised
in the 1 2th century. It is, however, canonic by accident rather
than in its original intention. It consists of a combination of
short melodies in several voices, each melody being sung by
each voice in turn. Now it is obvious that if one voice began
alone, instead of all together, and if when it went on to the
second melody the second voice entered with the first, and so on,
the result would be a canon in the unison. Thus the difference
between the crude counterpoint of the rondel and a strict canon
in the unison is a mere questipn of the point at which the com-
position begins, and a 12th century rondel is simply a canon at
the unison begun at the point where all the voices have already
entered. There is some reason to believe that one kind of rondeau
practised by Adam de la Hale was intended to be sung in the
true canonic manner of the modern round; and the wonderful
English rota, " Sumer is icumen in," shows in the upper four
parts the true canonic method, and in its two-part pes the
method in which the parts began together. In these archaic
works the canonic form gives the whole a consistency and stability

contrasting oddly with the dismal warfare between nascent
harmonic principles and ancient anti-harmonic criteria which
hopelessly wrecks them as regards euphony. As soon as harmony
became established on a true artistic basis, the unaccompanied
round took the position of a trivial but refined art-form, with
hardly more expressive possibilities than the triolet in poetry, a
form to which its brevity and lightness renders it fairly compar-
able. Orlando di Lasso's QSlibrom sans cesse is a beautiful
example of the 16th century round, which was at that time
little cultivated by serious musicians. In more modern times
the possibilities of the round in its purest form have^enormously
increased; and with the aid of elaborate instrumental accom-
paniments it plays an important feature in such portions of
classical operatic ensemble as can with dramatic propriety be
devoted to expressions of feeling uninterrupted by dramatic
action. In the modern round the first voice can execute a long
and complete melody before the second voice joins in. Even if
this melody be not instrumentally accompanied, it will imply
a certain harmony, or at all events arouse curiosity as to what
the harmony is to be. And the sequel may shed a new light
upon the harmony, and thus by degrees the whole character
of the melody may be transformed. The power of the modern
round for humorous and subtle, or even profound, expression
was first fully revealed by Mozart, whose astounding unaccom-
panied canons would be better known if he had not unfortunately
set many of them to extemporized texts unfit for publication.
The round or the catch (which is simply a specially jocose round)
is a favourite English art-form, and the English specimens of
it are probably more numerous and uniformly' successful than
those of any other nation. Still they cannot honestly be said
to realize the full possibilities of the form. It is so easy to write
a good piece of free and fairly contrapuntal harmony in three or
more parts, and so arrange it that it remains correct when the
parts are brought in one by one, that very few composers seem
to have realized that any further artistic device was possible
within such limits. Even Cherubini gives hardly more than a
valuable hint that the round may be more than a jeu d' esprit;
and, unless he be an adequate exception, the unaccompanied
rounds of Mozart and Brahms stand alone as works that raise
the round to the dignity of a serious art-form. With the addition
of an orchestral accompaniment the round obviously becomes
a larger thing; and when we consider such specimens as that
in the finale of Mozart's Cosi fan tutte, the quartet in the last
act of Gherubini's Faniska, the wonderfully subtle quartet
" Mir ist so wunderbar " in Beethoven's Fidelio, and the very
beautiful numbers in Schubert's masses where Schubert finds
expression for his genuine contrapuntal feeling without incurring
the risks resulting from his lack of training in fugue-form, we
find that the length of the initial melody, the growing variety
of the orchestral accompaniment and the finality and climax
of the free coda, combine to give the whole a character closely
analogous to that of a set of contrapuntal variations, such as
the slow movement of Haydn's " Emperor " string quartet, or
the opening of the finale of Beethoven's 9th Symphony. Berlioz
is fond; of beginning his largest movements like a kind of round;
e.g. his Dies Irae, and Scene aux Champs.

A moment's reflection will show that three conditions are
necessary to make a canon into a round. First, the voices
must imitate each other in the unison; secondly, they must
enter at equal intervals of time; and thirdly, the whole melodic
material must be as many times longer than the interval of time
as the number of voices; otherwise, when the last voice has
finished the first phrase, the first voice will not be ready to return
to the beginning. Strict canon is, however, possible under
innumerable other conditions, and even a round is possible with
some of the voices at the interval of an octave, as is of course
inevitable in writing for unequal voices. And in a round for
unequal voices there is obviously a new means of effect in the
fact that, as the melody rotates, its different parts change
their pitch in relation to each other. The art by which this is
possible without incorrectness is that of double, triple and
multiple counterpoint (see Counterpoint). Its difficulty is

CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS

43

variable, and with an instrumental accompaniment there is
none. In fugues, multiple counterpoint is one of the normal
resources of music; and few devices are more self-explanatory
to the ear than the process by which the subject and counter-
subjects of a fugue change their positions, revealing fresh melodic
and acoustic aspects of identical harmonic structure at every
turn. This, however, is rendered possible and interesting by
the fact that the passages in such counterpoint are separated
by episodes and are free to appear in different keys: Many
fugues of Bach are written throughout in multiple counterpoint;
but the possibility of this, even to composers such as Bach and
Mozart, to whom difficulties seem unknown, depends upon the
freedom of the musical design which allows the composer to
select the most effective permutations and combinations of his
counterpoint, and also to put them into whatever key he chooses.
An unaccompanied round for unequal voices would bring about
the permutations and combinations in a mechanical order;
and unless the melody were restricted to a compass common to
soprano and alto each alternate revolution would carry it beyond
the bounds of one or the other group of voices. The technical
difficulties of such a problem are destructive to artistic invention.
But they do not appear in the above-mentioned operatic rounds,
though these are for unequal voices, because here the length of
the initial melody is so great that the composition is quite long
enough before the last voice has got farther than the first or
second phrase, and, moreover, the free instrumental accompani-
ment is capable of furnishing a bass to a mass of harmony
Otherwise incomplete.

The resources of canon, when emancipated from the principles
of the round, are considerable when the canonic form is strictly
maintained, and are inexhaustible when it is treated freely. A
canon need not be in the unison; and when it is in some other
interval the imitating voice alters the expression of the melody
by transferring it to another part of the scale. Again, the
imitating voice may follow the leader at any distance of time;
and thus we have obviously a definite means of expression in
the difference of closeness with which various canonic parts may
enter, as, for instance, in the stretto of a fugue. Again, if the
' answering part enters on an unaccented beat where the leader
began on the accent, there will be artistic value in the resulting
difference of rhythmic expression. This is the device known
as per arsin et thesin. All these devices are, in skilful hands,
quite definite in their effect upon the ear, and their expressive
power is undoubtedly due to their special canonic nature. The
beauty of the pleading, rising sequences in crossing parts that
we find in the canon in the 2nd at the opening of the Recordare
in Mozart's Requiem is attainable by no other technical means.
The close canon in the 6th at the distance of one minim in re-
versed accent in Bach's eighteenth Goldberg variation owes all
its smooth harmonic expression to the fact that the two canonic
parts move in sixths which would be simultaneous but for the
pause of the minim which reverses the accents of the upper
part while it creates that chain of suspended discords which
give harmonic variety to the whole.

Two other canonic devices have important artistic value,
namely, augmentation and diminution (two different aspects of
the same thing) and inversion. In augmentation the imitating
part sings twice as slow as the leader, or sometimes still slower.
This obviously should impart a new dignity to the melody, and
in diminution the expression is generally that of an accession
of liveliness. 1 Neither of these devices, however, continues to
appeal to the ear if carried on for long. In augmentation the
answering part lags so far behind the leader that the ear cannot
long follow the connexion, while a diminished answer will
obviously soon overtake the leader, and can proceed on the
same plan only by itself becoming the leader of a canon in
augmentation. Beethoven, in the fugues in his sonatas op. 106
and no, adapted augmentation and diminution to modern
varieties of thematic expression, by employing them in triple

1 But see the E. major fugue in the second book of the Wohl-
temperirtes Klavier, where the entry of the diminished subject (in
a new position of the scale) is very tender and solemn.

time, so that, hy' doubling the length of the original notes across
this triple rhythm, they produce an entirely hew rhythmic
expression. This does not seem to have been applied by any
earlier composer with the same consistency or intention.

The device of inversion consists in the imitating part reversing
every interval of the leader, ascending where the leader descends
and vice versa. Its expressive power depends upon such subtle
matters of the harmonic expression of melody that its artistic
use is one of the surest signs of the difference between classical
and merely academic music. There are "many melodies of which
the inversion is as natural as the original form, and does not
strikingly alter its character. Such are, for instance, the theme
of Bach's Kunst der Fuge, most of PurcelTs contrapuntal themes,
the theme in the fugue of Beethoven's sonata, op. no, and the
eighth of Brahms's variations on a theme by Haydn. In such
cases inversion sometimes produces harmonic variety as well
as a sense of melodic identity in difference. But where a melody
has marked features of rise and fall, such as long scale passages
or bold skips, the inversion, if productive' of good harmonic
structure and expression, may be a powerful method of trans-
formation. This is admirably shown in the twelfth of Bach's
Goldberg Variations, in the fifteenth fugue of the first book of
his Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, in the finale of Beethoven's
sonata, op. 106, and in the second subjects of the first and last
movements of Brahms's clarinet trio;

The only remaining canonic device which figures in classical
music is that known as cancrizans, in which the imitating part
reproduces the leader backwards. It is of extreme rarity in
serious music; and, though it sometimes happens by accident
that a melody or figure of uniform rhythm will produce something
equally natural when read backwards, there is only one example
of its use that appeals to the ear as well as the eye. This is to
be found in the finale of Beethoven's sonata, op. 106, where it is
applied to a theme with such sharply contrasted rhythmic and
melodic features that with long familiarity a listener would
probably feel not only the wayward humour of the passage in
itself, but also its connexion with the main theme. Nevertheless,
the prominence given to the device in technical treatises, and the
fact that this is the one illustration which hardly any of them
cite, show too clearly the way in which music is treated not only
as a' dead language but as if it had never been alive.

All these devices are also independent of the canonic idea,
since they are so many methods of transforming themes
in themselves and need not always be used in contrapuntal
combination.

■ a 2. Fugue.

As the composers of the 16th century made progress in har-
monic and contrapuntal expression through the discipline of
strict Canonic forms, it became increasingly evident that there
was no necessity for the maintenance of strict canon throughout
a composition. Oh the contrary, the very variety of canonic
possibilities, apart from i:he artistic necessity of breaking up the
unif drm fulness of harmony, suggested the desirability of changing
one kind of canon for another, and even of contrasting canonic
texture with that of plain masses of non-polyphonic harmony.
The result is best known in the polyphonic 16th-century motets.
Iri these the essentials of canonic effect are embodied in the entry
of one voice after another with a definite theme stated by each
voice in that part of the scale which best suits its compass, thus
producing a free canon for as many parts as there are voices,
in alternate intervals of the 4th, 5th and octave, and at such
distances of time as are conducive to clearness and variety of
proportion. It is not necessary for the later voices to imitate
more than the opening phrase of the earlier, or, if they do
imitate its continuation, to keep to the same interval.

Such a texture differs in no way from that of the fugue of more
modern times. But the form is not what is now understood as
fugue, inasmuch as .16th-century composers did hot normally
think of writing long movements on one theme or of making a
point of the return of a theme after episodes. With the appear-
ance of new words in the text, the 16th-century composer

44

CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS

naturally took up a new theme without troubling to design it for
contrapuntal combination with the opening; and the form
resulting from this treatment of words was faithfully reproduced
in the instrumental ricercari of the time. Occasionally, however,
breadth of treatment and terseness of design combined to produce
a short movement on one idea indistinguishable in form from a
fughetta of Bach; as in the Kyrie of Palestrina's Ma,ss, Salve
Regina.

But in Bach's art the preservation of a main theme is more
necessary the longer the composition; and Bach has an incalcul-
able number of methods of giving his fugues a symmetry of form
and balance of climax so subtle and perfect that we are apt to
forget that the only technical rules of a fugue are those which
refer to its texture. In the Kunst der Fuge Bach has shown with
the utmost clearness how in his opinion the various types of
fugue may be classified. That extraordinary work is a series of
fugues, all on the same subject. The earlier fugues show how
an artistic design may be made by simply passing the subject
from one voice to another in orderly succession (in the first ex-
ample without any change of key except from tonic to dominant).
The next stage of organization is that in which the subject is
combined with inversions, augmentations and diminutions of
itself. Fugues of this kind can be conveniently called stretto-
fugues. 1 The third and highest stage is that in which the fugue
combines its subject with contrasted counter-subjects, and thus
depends upon the resources of double, triple and quadruple
counterpoint. But of the art by which the episodes are con-
trasted, connected climaxes attained, and keys and subtle
rhythmic proportions so balanced as to give the true fugue-
forms a beauty and stability second only to those of the true
sonata forms, Bach's classification gives us no direct hint. A
comparison of the fugues in the Kunst der Fuge with those else-
where in his works reveals a necessary relation between the nature
of the fugue-subject and the type of fugue. In th.e Kunst der Fuge
Bach has obvious didactic reasons for taking the same subject
throughout; and, as he wishes to show the extremes of technical
possibility, that subject must necessarily be plastic rather than
characteristic. Elsewhere Bach prefers very lively or highly
characteristic themes as subjects for the simplest kind of instru-
mental fugue. On the other hand, there comes a point when the
mechanical strictness of treatment crowds out the proper develop-
ment of musical ideas; and the 7th fugue (which is one solid mass
of stretto in augmentation, diminution and inversion) and the
1 2 th and 13 th (which are invertible bodily) are academic exercises
outside the range of free artistic work. On the other hand,
the less complicated stretto-fugues and the fugues in double
and triple counterpoint are perfect works of art and as beautiful as
any that Bach wrote without didactic purpose.

Fugue is still, as in the 16th century, a texture rather
than a form; and the rules given in most technical treatises
for its general shape are based, not on the practice of the
great composers, but on the necessities of beginners, whom
it would be as absurd to ask to write a fugue without giving
them a form as to ask a schoolboy to write so many pages of
Latin verses without a subject. But this standard form, what-
ever its merits may be in combining progressive technique with
musical sense, has no connexion with the true classical types of
fugue, though it played an interesting part in the renaissance
of polyphony during the growth of the sonata style, and even gave
rise to valuable works of art (e.g. the fugues in Haydn's quartets,
op. 20). One of its rules was that every fugue should have a
stretto. This rule, like most of the others, is absolutely without
classical warrant; for in Bach the ideas of stretto and of counter-
subject almost exclude one another except in the very largest
fugues, such as the 22nd in the second book of the Forty-eight;
while Handel's fugue-writing is a masterly method, adopted
as occasion requires, and with a lordly disdain for recognized
devices. But the pedagogic rule proved to be not without
artistic point in more modern music; for fugue became, since the
rise of the sonata-form, for some generations a contrast with
the normal means of expression instead of being itself normal.

1 For technical terms see articles Counterpoint and Fugue.

And while this was so, there was considerable point in using
every possible means to enhance the rhetorical force of its
peculiar devices, as is shown by the astonishing modern fugues
in Beethoven's last works. Nowadays, however, polyphony is
universally recognized as a permanent type of musical texture,
and there is no longer any reason why if it crystallizes into the
fugue-form at all it should not adopt the classical rather than
the pedagogic type.

It is still an unsatisfied wish of accurate musicians that the term
fugue should be used to imply rather a certain type of polyphonic
texture than the whole form of a composition. At present one
runs the risk of grotesque misconceptions when one quite rightly
describes as " written in fugue " such passages as the first subjects
in Mozart's Zauberflbte overture, the andantes of Beethoven's
first symphony and C minor quartet, or the first and second
subjects of the finale of Mozart's G major quartet, the second
subject of the finale of his D major quintet, and the exposition
of quintuple counterpoint in the coda of the finale of the Jupiter
Symphony, and countless other passages in the developments and
main subjects of classical and modern works in sonata form. The
ordinary use of the term implies an adherence to a definite set
of rules quite incompatible with the sonata style, and therefore
inapplicable to these passages, and at the same time equally
devoid of real connexion with the idea of fugue as understood
by the great masters of the 16th century who matured it. In
the musical articles in this Encyclopaedia we shall therefore
speak of writing "in fugue" as we would speak of a poet writing
in verse, rather than weaken our descriptions by the orthodox
epithet of " loose fugato."

3. Counterpoint on a Canto Fermo.

The early practice of building polyphonic designs on a voice-
part confined to a given plain-song or popular melody furnishes
the origin for every contrapuntal principle that is not canonic,
and soon develops into a canonic principle in itself. When the
canto fermo is in notes of equal length and is sung without inter-
mission, it is of course as rigid a mechanical device as an acrostic.
Yet it may have artistic value in furnishing a steady rhythm
in contrast to suitable free motion in. the other parts. When it
is in the bass, as in Orlando di Lasso's six-part Regina Coeli,
it is apt to cramp the harmony; but when it is in the tenor
(its normal place in 16th-century music), or any other part, it
determines little but the length of the composition. It may or
may not appeal to the ear; if not, it at least does no harm, for
its restricting influence on the harmony is small if its pace is
slower than that of its surroundings. If, on the other hand, its
melody is characteristic, or can be enforced by repetition, it
may become a powerful means of effect, as in the splendid close
of Fayrfax's Mass Albanus quoted by Professor Wooldridge
on page 320 in the second volume of the Oxford History of Music.
Here the tenor part ought to be sung by a body of voices that
can be distinctly heard through the glowing superincumbent
harmony; and then the effect of its five steps of sequence in
a melodious figure of nine semibreves will reveal itself as the
principle which gives the passage consistency of drift and finality
of climax.

When the rhythm of the canto fermo is not uniform, or when
pauses intervene between its phrases, whether these are different
figures or repetitions of one figure in different parts of the scale,
the device passes into the region of free art, and an early example
of its simplest use is described in the article Music as it appears
in Josquin's wonderful Miserere. Orlando di Lasso's work is
full of instances of it, one of the most dramatic of which is the
motet Fremuit spiritu Jesus (Magnum Opus No. 553 [378]),
in which, while the other voices sing the scripture narrative
of the death and raising of Lazarus, the tenor is heard singing
to an admirably appropriate theme the words, Lazare, veni
foras. When the end of the narrative is reached, these words fall
into their place and are of course taken up in a magnificent
climax by the whole chorus.

The free use of phrases of canto fermo in contrapuntal texture,
whether confined to one part or taken up in fugue by all,

CONTREXEVILLE— CONVENTION

45

constitutes the whole fabric of 16th-century music; except where
polyphonic device is dispensed with altogether, as in Palestrina's
two settings of the Stabat Mater, his Litanies, and all of his later
Lamentations except the initials. A 16th-century mass, when
it is not derived in this way from those secular melodies to which
the council of Trent objected, is so closely connected with
Gregorian tones, or at least with the themes of some motet
appropriate to the holy day for which it was written, that in a
Roman Catholic cathedral service the polyphonic music of the
best period co-operates with the Gregorian intonations to produce
a consistent musical whole with a thematic coherence almost
suggestive of Wagnerian Leitmotif. In later times the Protestant
music of Germany attained a similar consistency, under more
complicated musical conditions, by the use of chorale-tunes; and
in Bach's hands the fugal and other treatment of chorale-melody
is one of the most varied and expressive of artistic resources.
It seems to be less generally known that the chorale plays a
considerable though not systematic part in Handel's English
works. The passage "the kingdoms of the world" in the
"Hallelujah Chorus" (down to "and He shall live for ever
and ever ") is a magnificent development of the second part of
the chorale Wachet auf (" Christians wake, a voice is calling");
and it would be easy to trace a German or Roman origin for many
of the solemn phrases in long notes which in Handel's choruses
so often accompany quicker themes.

From the use of an old canto fermo to the invention of an original
one is obviously a small step; and as there is no limit to the
possibilities of varying the canto fermo, both in the part which
most emphatically propounds it and in the imitating or contrasted
parts, so there is no line of demarcation between the free develop-
ment of counterpoint on a canto fermo and the general art of
combining melodies which gives harmony its deepest expression
and musical texture its liveliest action. Nor is there any such
line to separate polyphonic from non-polyphonic methods of
accompanying melody; and Bach's Orgelbiichlein and Brahms's
posthumous organ-chorales show every conceivable gradation
between plain harmony or arpeggio and the most complex canon.

In Wagnerian polyphony canonic devices are rare except in
such simple moments of anticipation or of communion with
nature as we have before the rise of the curtain in the Rheingold
and at the daybreak in the second act of the Gdtterddmmerung.
On the other hand, the art of combining contrasted themes
crowds almost every other kind of musical texture (except
tremolos and similar simple means of emotional expression)
into the background, and is itself so transformed by new harmonic
resources, many of which are Wagner's own discovery, that it
may almost be said to constitute a new form of art. The influence
of this upon instrumental music is as yet helpful only in those
new forms which are breaking away from the limits of the sonata
style; and it is impossible at present to sift the essential from
the unessential in that marvellous compound of canonic device,
Wagnerian harmony, original technique and total disregard of
every known principle of musical grammar, which renders the
work of Richard Strauss the most remarkable musical pheno-
menon of recent years. All that is certain is that the two
elements in which the music of the future will finally place its
main organizing principles are not those of instrumentation and
external expression, on which popular interest and controversy
are at present centred, but rhythmic flow and counterpoint. These
have always been the elements which suffered from neglect or
anarchy in earlier transition-periods, and they have always been
the elements that gave rationality to the new art to which the
transitions led. (D. F. T.)

CONTREXEVILLE, a watering-place of north-eastern France,
in the department of Yosges, on the Vair, 39 m. W. of fipinal by
rail. Pop. (1906) 940. The mineral springs of Contrexeville
have been in local repute since a remote period, but became
generally known only towards the end of the 18th century; and
the modern reputation of the place as a health resort dates from
1864, when it began to be developed by a company, the Societe
des Eaux de Contrex6ville, and more particularly from about
1895. In the ten years after this latter date many improvements

were made for the accommodation of visitors, for whom the season
is from May to September. The waters of the Source Pavilion,
which are used chiefly for drinking, have a temperature of 53° F.
and are characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium sulphate.
They are particularly efficacious in the treatment of gravel and
kindred disorders, by the elimination of uric acid.

See Thirty-five years at Contrexeville (1903), by Dr Debout
d'Estrees.

CONTROL (Fr. controle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat.
contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check
the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " con-
trol " in this, its literal, meaning) , a substantive (whence the verb)
for that which checks or regulates anything, and so especially
command of body or mind by the will, and generally the power
of regulation. In England the "Board of Control," abolished
in 1858, was the body which supervised the East India Company
in the administration of India. In the case of " controller,"
a general term for a public official who checks expenditure, the
more usual form " comptroller " is a "wrong spelling due to a
false connexion with " accompt " or " account." A " control "
or " control-experiment," in science, is an experiment used, by
an application of the method of difference, to check the inferences
drawn from another experiment.

CONTUMACY (Lat. contumacia, obstinacy; derived from the
root tern-, as in temnere,*te-Aespise, or possibly from the root
turn-, as in turner e, to swell, with anger, &c), a stubborn refusal
to obey authority, obstinate resistance; particularly, in law,
the wilful contempt of the order or summons of a court (see
Contempt of Court). In ecclesiastical law, the contempt of
the authority of an ecclesiastical court is dealt with by the
issue of a writ de contumace capiendo from the court of chancery
at the instance of the judge of the ecclesiastical court; this writ
took the place of that de excommunicato capiendo in 18 13, by an
act of George III. c. 127 (see Excommunication).

CONUNDRUM (a word of unknown origin, probably coined
in burlesque imitation of scholastic Latin, as "hocus-pocus"
or "panjandrum"), originally a term meaning whim, fancy or
ridiculous idea; later applied to a pun or play upon words, and
thus, in its usual sense, to a particular form of riddle in which
the answer depends on a pun. In a transferred sense the word
is also used of any puzzling question or difficulty.

CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together),
a term applied to an association of persons secluded from the
world and devoted to a religious life, and hence to the building
in which they live, a monastery or (more particularly) nunnery.
The diminution <" conventicle " (conventiculum) , generally used
in a contemptuous sense as implying sectarianism, secrecy or
illegality, is applied to the meetings or meeting-places of religious'
or other dissenting bodies.

CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement;
from convenire, to come together), a meeting or assembly; an
agreement between parties; a general agreement on which i?
based some custom, institution, rule of behaviour or taste, or
canon of art; hence extended to the abuse of such an agreement,
whereby the rules based upon it become lifeless and artificial.
The word is of some interest historically and politically. It is
used of an assembly of the representatives of a nation, state or
party, and is particularly contrasted with the formal meetings
of a legislature. It is thus applied to those parliaments in English
history which, owing to the abeyance of the crown, have as-
sembled without the formal summons of the sovereign; in 1660
a convention parliament restored Charles II. to the throne,
and in 1689 the Houses of Commons and Lords were summoned
informally to a convention by William, prince of Orange, as
were the Estates of Scotland, and declared the throne abdicated
by James II. and settled the disposition of the realm. Similarly,
the assembly which ruled France from September 1792 to
October 1795 was known as the National Convention (see below) ;
the statutory assembly of delegates which framed the constitution
of the United States of America in 1787 was called the Constitu-
tional Convention; and the various American state constitutions
have been drafted and sometimes revised by constitutional

4 6

CONVENTION, THE^CONVERSION

conventions. In the party system of the United States the
nomination of party candidates for office or election is in the
hands of delegates, chosen by the primaries, meeting in the
convention of the party; the convention system is universal,
from the national conventions of the Republican and Democratic
parties, which nominate the candidates for the presidency
and vice-presidency, down to a ward convention, which nomi-
nates the candidate for a town-councillorship. In diplomacy,
"convention" is a general name given to international agree-
ments other than treaties, but not necessarily differing either
in form or subject-matter from a treaty, and sometimes used
quite widely of all forms of such agreements. Many con-
ventions have been made for the formation of international
"unions" to regulate and protect various economic, industrial
and other non-political interests, such as postal and telegraphic
services, trade-marks, patents, copyright, quarantine, &c.
Thus the Latin Monetary Union was created in 1865 by the
Convention of Paris, and the abolition of bounties on the pro-
duction and exportation of sugar by the Convention of Brusseis
in igo2 (see Treaties).

. CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL, in France, the constitutional
and legislative assembly which sat from the 20th of September
1792 to the 26th of October 1795 (the 4th of Brumaire of the
year IV.). On the 10th of August 1792, when the populace
of Paris stormed the Tuileries and demanded the abolition of
the monarchy, the Legislative Assembly decreed the provisional
suspension of the king and the convocation of a national conven-
tion which should draw up a constitution. At the same time
it was decided that the deputies to that convention should be
elected by all Frenchmen 25 years old, domiciled for a year and
living by the product of their labour. The National Convention
was therefore the first French assembly elected by universal
suffrage, without distinctions of class. The age limit of the
electors was further lowered to 21, and that of eligibility was
fixed at 25 years.

The first session was held on the 20th of September 1792.
The next day royalty was abolished, and on the 22nd it was
decided that all documents should be henceforth dated from the
year I. of the French Republic. The Convention was destined
to last for three years. The country was' at war, and it seemed
best to postpone the new constitution until peace should be
concluded. At the same time as the Convention prolonged its
powers it extended them considerably in order to meet the
pressing dangers which menaced the Republic. Though a
legislative assembly, it took over the executive power, entrusting
it to its own members. This "confusion of powers," which was
contrary to the philosophical theories — those of Montesquieu
especially— which had inspired the Revolution at first, was
one of the essential characteristics of the Convention. The
series of exceptional measures by which that confusion of
powers was created constitutes the "Revolutionary government"
in the strict sense of the word, a government which was princi-
pally in vigour during the period called "the Terror." It is
thus necessary to distinguish, in the work of the Convention, the
temporary expedients from measures intended to be permanent.

The Convention held its first session in a hall of the Tuileries,
then it sat in the hall of Manege*, and finally from the 10th of
May 1793 in that of the Spectacles (or Machines), an immense
hall in which the deputies were but loosely scattered. This
last hall had tribunes for the public, which often influenced the
debate by interruptions or applause. The full number of deputies
was 749, not counting 33 from the colonies, of whom only a
section arrived in Paris. Besides these, however, the depart-
ments annexed from 1792 to 1795 were allowed to send deputa-
tions. Many of the original deputies died or were exiled during
the Convention, but not all their places were filled by suppliants.
Some of those proscribed during the Terror returned after the
9th of Thermidor. Finally, many members were sent away
either to the departments or to the armies, on missions which
lasted sometimes for a considerable length of time. For all
these reasons it is difficult to find out the number of deputies
present at any given date, for votes by roll-call were rare. In

the Terror the number of those voting averaged only 250. The
members of the Convention were drawn from all classes of
society, but the most numerous were lawyers. Seventy-five
members had sat in the Constituent Assembly, 183 in the
Legislative.

According to its own ruling, the Convention elected its presi-
dent every fortnight. He was eligible for re-election after the
lapse of a fortnight. Ordinarily the sessions were held in the
morning, but evening sessions were also frequent, often extending
late into the night. Sometimes in exceptional circumstances
the Convention declared itself in permanent session and sat
for several days without interruption. For both legislative and
administrative purposes the Convention used committees, with
powers more or less widely extended and regulated by successive
laws. The most famous of these committees are those of Public
Safety, of General Security, of Education {ComiU de salut public,
ComiU de surelS gSnerale, Comite de I' instruction).

The work of the Convention was immense in all branches of
public affairs. To appreciate it without prejudice , one should
recall that this assembly saved France from a civil war and
invasion, that it founded the system of public education {Museum,
Ecole Poly technique, Ecole Normale Supirieure, Ecole des Langues
orientales, Conservatoire), created institutions of capital im-
portance, like that of the Grand Litre de la Dette publique,
and definitely established the social and political gains of the
Revolution.

See French Revolution; Girondists; Mountain;
Danton; Robespierre; Marat, &c.

Bibliography.— -The Convention published a Proces-verbal of its
sessions, which, although lacking the value of those published by
assemblies_ to-day, is an official document of capital importance.
Copies of it are rare, however, and it has been too much neglected
by historians. See F. A. Aulard, Recueil des actes du comite de Salut
Public avec la correspondance officielle des representants en mission,
et le registre du conseil executif provisoire (Paris, 1889 et seq.) ;
M. J. Guillaume, Proces-verbaux du comite d' Instruction Publique
de la Convention Nationale (Paris, 1 891-1904, 5 vols. 4to) ; F. A.
Aulard, Histoire politique de la Revolution francaise (Paris, 1903);
Mortimer-Ternaux, Histoire de la Terreur (1862-1881), a work
based on and comprising documents, but written with strong
royalist bias; Eugene Despois, Le Vandalisme revolutionnaire (1868),
for the scientific work of the Convention. A detailed bibliography
of the documents relating to the Convention is given in the Repertoire
gSneral des sources manuscrites de I'histoire de Paris pendant la
Revolution francaise, vol. viii. &c (1908), edited by A. Tueley under
the auspices of the municipality of Paris. For a more summary
bibliography see M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de I'histoire de Paris pendant
la Revolution francaise, i. 89-95 (Paris, 1890). (R. A.*)

CONVERSANO, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy,
in the province of Bari, 17 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Bari.
Pop. (1901) 13,685. It has a fine southern Romanesque cathedral
of the end of the nth century, with a modernized interior, and
a castle which from 1456 belonged to the Acquaviva family,
dukes of Atri and counts of Conversano. The convent of
S. Benedetto is one of the earliest offshoots of Montecassino.
(See S. Simone, II Duomo di Conversano, Trani, 1896). Here,
or in the vicinity, is the site of the unimportant ancient town
of Norba.

CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or
change), a general term for the operation of converting, changing,
or transposing; used technically in special senses in logic,
theology and law.

1. In logic, conversion is one of three chief methods of im-
mediate inference by which a conclusion is obtained directly
from a single premise without the intervention of another
premise or middle term. A proposition is said to be "converted"
when the subject and the predicate change places; the original
proposition is the "convertend," the new one the "converse."
The chief rule governing conversion is that no term which was not
distributed 1 in the convertend may be distributed in the con-
verse; nor may the quality of the proposition (affirmative or
negative) be changed. It follows that of the four possible forms

1 A term is said to be " distributed " when it is taken universally:
in the proposition "men are mortal " (meaning. " all men ") the
term " men " is "distributed " while " mortal " is undistributed,
because there are mortal beings which are not men.

CONVERSION

47

of propositions A, E, I and O (see article A), E and I can be
converted simply. If no A is B (E), it follows that no B is A;
if some A is B, it follows that some B is A. This form of con-
version is called Simple Conversion; E propositions convert into
E, and I into I. On the other hand, A cannot be converted
simply. If all men are mortal, the most that can follow by
conversion is that some mortals are men. This is called Con-
version by Limitation or Per Accidens. Only if it be known
from external or non-logical sources that the predicate also is
distributed can there be simple conversion of a universal affirma-
tive. Neither of these: forms of conversion can be applied to
the particular negative proposition O, which has to be dealt
with under a secondary system of conversion, as follows. The
terminology by which these secondary processes are described
is not altogether satisfactory, and logicians are not agreed as to
the application of the terms. The following system is perhaps the
most commonly used. We have seen that the converse of "all
A is B" is "some B is A"; we can, in addition, derive from it
another, though purely formal, proposition "no A is not-B";
i.e. an E proposition. This process is called Obversion, Permuta-
tion or Immediate Inference by Privative Conception; it is
applicable to every proposition including O. A further process,
known as Contraposition or Conversion by Negation, consists
of conversion following on obversion. Thus from "all A is B,"
we get " no not-B is A." In the case of the O proposition we
get (by obversion) " some A is not-B " and then (by conversion)
"some not-B is A" {i.e. an I proposition). In the case of the
I proposition the contrapositive is impossible, as infringing the
main rule of conversion. Another term, Inversion, has been
used by some logicians for a still more complicated process by
the alternative use of conversion and obversion, which is applic-
able to A and E, and results in obtaining a proposition concerning
the contradictory of the original subject; thus "all A is B"
becomes "some not- A is not B."

Considerable discussion has centred on the problem as to
whether the process of conversion can properly be regarded as
inference. The essence of inference is that the conclusion should
embody knowledge which is not in the premise or premises, and
many logicians have contended that no fact is stated in the
converse which was not in the convertend, or, in other words,
that conversion is merely a transformation or verbal change
of the same statement. Hence the term Eductions and Equiva-
lent Propositional Forms have been given to converse proposi-
tions. It is clear, for instance, that if the universal affirmative
is taken connotatively as a scientific law, and not historically,
no real inference is achieved by stating as another scientific fact
its converse, the particular affirmative. Moreover, even if the
convertend is stated as an historic fact, though there is acquired
a certain new significance, it may well be argued that the
inference is not immediate but syllogistic.

For this controversy see J. S. Mill, Logic, II. i. 2 ; Bradley, Logic,
III. pt. i. chap. ii. 30-37; H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic
(1906), pp. 209 foil.; J. N. Keynes, Formal Logic (3rd ed., 1894).

2. In theology, conversion (the equivalent of the Gr. crrpefaiv,
bri<TTpe<l>av) is originally the acceptation of Christianity by
heathens. It is also used generally for a change from one re-
ligion to another, or in a narrower sense for a complete change
of attitude towards God, involving a deeper conviction of the
ultimate religious and moral truths. Considerable difference of
opinion has always existed, and still exists, within the Christian
Church as to the true nature • and the causes of conversion,
especially in the sense last described. Some have held that man
is merely the passive recipient of the Divine Grace, a view based
largely on the rendering of the Authorized Version of Isaiah
vi. 10 as quoted in Matt. xiii. 15, Mark iv. 12, and John xii. 40.
Others again hold that baptism, as involving a second birth of
the baptized person, makes subsequent conversion unnecessary
or even meaningless, or conversely that conversion is this very
second birth and renders baptism unnecessary. The reply
generally made to such arguments is that baptism implies
regeneration only, which is a change wrought from the outside
by the Divine Spirit in general disposition or spiritual status.

while conversion is a positive or concrete demonstration of that
change, not merely the negative beginning of a new life but the
positive "returning" to God in faith and repentance. The
precise connexion between conversion and repentance is again
a vexed question. How far and in what sense does man take an
active part in his own conversion? To this it is .frequently
answered that while the initial stage of conversion is and can be
the work of the Holy Spirit alone, it lies with man to make it
complete by accepting the proffered grace in repentance and faith
(cf. Acts vii. 51, "Ye stiffnecked and uncircumcised in heart and
ears, ye do always resist the Holy Ghost"). A man may of his
own free will avoid those surroundings which predispose him to
such "resistance." The view that man cannot convert himself
is clearly stated in Article X. by the Church of England. " The
condition of man after the fall of Adam is such that he cannot
turn (sese converter ■«) and prepare himself by his > own natural
strength and good works, to faith, and calling upon God: where-
fore we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable
to God, without the grace of God by Christ preventing us that
we may have a good will, and working with us, when we have
that good will." Further problems are connected with the
possibility of repeated conversions of the same man, the necessity
of a single strongly marked conversion completed in. a single
process, the significance of sudden conversion of persons in a
highly emotional state, such as has been common in revivalist
meetings, especially in Wales and the United States of America.
Conversions of the last kind have followed frequently on striking
physical phenomena, perceived in many cases only by the con-
vert himself, such as a sudden bright light or a noise like a clap of
thunder. 1 In all cases of conversion, however, the criterion of its,
validity is generally taken to be the resultant change of a man's
character as manifested in his mode of life and thought, in the
abstention from sin, and in devotion to good works. (X.)

3. In English law, conversion is the unauthorized exercise
of dominion by one person over the property (other than money
or chattels real) of another, in a manner inconsistent with his
rights of possession, or the unauthorized assumption by another
of the powers of the true owner of goods. The history and
exact definition of this form of actionable wrong have occupied
the attention of many learned writers, and the incidents of
actions to assert the rights of the true owner form a considerable
part of treatises on the rules and forms of civil pleading. There
are many ways in which the wrong may be committed. : In
some cases the exercise of the dominion may amount to an act
of trespass or to a crime, e.g. where the taking amounts , to
larceny, or fraudulent appropriation by a bailee or agent en-
trusted with the property of another (Larceny Acts of 1861 and
1001). But in such cases, except where money is taken, the
civil remedy of the owner is by action for conversion or detention
of the property, subject in the case of larceny to the rule that
criminal prosecution should precede restitution by the taker.
The remedy in use in these cases used to be by what was called
an action on the case for trover and conversion, the plaintiff
putting aside all suggestions of trespass and of crime, and resting
his case on the fiction that the defendant had found and used
goods not his own. The fictitious averment of loss was abolished
in 1852, and under the present procedure, in which the old forms
of action are not in use, the remedy is by a claim (still usually
called conversion) for wrongfully depriving the true owner of
personal property of its use by some specified act inconsistent
with his dominion over it, usually by dealing with the property
in a manner inconsistent with the owner's rights. Originally,
the action of trover and conversion was limited to goods and
chattels, but it is now accepted as applying to valuable securities,
such as cheques and bills of exchange.

The gist of the action is in the unauthorized dealing, for
however short a time and for however limited a purpose, with
the personal property of another. Even refusal to deliver up
to the owner is sufficient to prove conversion, though it is often

1 Numerous instances, drawn from other religions besides Chris-
tianity, are given in Professor William James's The Varieties of
Religious Experience (1902).

48

CONVEX— CONVEYANCING

made the ground of an action for detinue, if the plaintiff desires
to have the property returned in specie. The knowledge, motive
or good faith of the person wrongfully dealing with the property
of another is for civil purposes immaterial, and the action is
often brought to try the title of two claimants to the same goods;
e.g. where a person who has innocently bought or taken in pledge
goods stolen or illegally procured resists the claim of the original
owner for the return of the goods. A warehouseman may
render himself liable to the owner of goods deposited with him,
through delivering the goods to a third person on a forged
authority or without authority, or by issuing a warehouse
receipt representing the goods to be in his possession or control
when they have ceased to be so.

The exact measure of compensation due to a plaintiff whose
goods have been wrongfully converted may be merely nominal
if the wrong is technical and the defendant can return the goods;
it may be limited to the actual damage where the goods can be
returned, but the wrong is substantial; but in ordinary cases
it is the full value to the owner of the goods of which he has
been deprived.

Fraudulent conversion by any person to his own use (or that
of persons other than the owner) of property entrusted to him
is a crime in the case of custodians of property, factors, trustees
under express trusts in writing (Larceny Act, 1861, ss. 77-85;
Larceny Act, 1901).

The law of Ireland, of most British possessions, and of the
United States, follows that of England as to the civil or criminal
remedies for conversion.

The term " conversion " is also used in English law with reference
to the rule of courts of equity which, in certain cases (following
the maxim of treating as done what ought to have been done),
treats as converted into personalty land which has been directed
so to be converted by a will, contract or settlement, or as
converted into land personalty which has been by such instru-
ment directed to be applied for purchase of realty. The "rule
is also applied where a vendor of land dies between the making
of the contract of sale and its completion by conveyance of the
land. The importance of the rule lies in the different destination
of realty and personalty under the laws relating to inheritance

and succession.

See Bullen and Leake, Precedents of Pleading (3rd ed., 1868,
6th ed. by Dodd and Chitty, 1905); F. Pollock, on Torts (7th ed.,
1904); Clerk and Lindsell, on Torts (3rd ed., 1904); Lewin, on
Trusts (nth ed-, 1904); Jarman, on Wills (5th ed., 1893); Dart,
Vendors and Purchasers (nth ed., p. 301). (W. F. C.)

CONVEX (Lat. convexus, carried round, rounded, from con-,
with, and vehere, to carry), a term for the exterior side of a
curved or rounded surface, as opposed to " concave " (Lat. con-,
and cavus, hollow), the inner surface.

CONVEYANCE, primarily the act or process of conveying
anything. The verb " to convey," now used in the senses of
carrying, transporting, transmitting, communicating or handing
over, originally had the same meaning as "convoy" (q.v.),
i.e. to accompany, a meaning which still survived in the 18th
century. Like " convoy " it is ultimately derived from the Late
Lat. conviare (not from convehere), but through the old Norman
French form conveier, which in central France passed into the
form convoier, mod. Fr. convoyer, whence " convoy." Apart
from the general sense given above the word conveyance is now
used in three special senses: (1) a carriage or other means of
transport, (2) in law, the transference of property by deed or
writing between living persons, and (3) the written instrument
by which such transference is effected. (See Conveyancing.)

CONVEYANCING, in English law, the art or science of convey-
ing or effecting the transfer of property, or modifying interests
in relation to property, by means of written documents.

In early legal systems the main element in the transfer of

property was the change, generally accompanied by some public

ceremony, in the actual physical possession: the

story. f unct j on { documents, where used, being merely the
preservation of evidence. Thus, in Great Britain in the feudal
period, the common mode of conveying an immediate freehold
was by feoffment with livery of seisin — a proceeding in which the

transferee was publicly invested with the feudal possession or
seisin, usually through the medium of some symbolic act per-
formed in the presence of witnesses upon the land itself. A deed
or charter of feoffment was commonly executed at the same
time by way of record, but formed no essential part of the
conveyance. In the language of the old rule of the common law,
the immediate freehold in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery,
whereas reversions and remainders and all incorporeal heredita-
ments lay in grant, i.e. passed by the delivery of the deed of
conveyance or grant without any further ceremony. The
process by which this distinction was broken down and the
present uniform system of private conveyancing by simple deed
was established, constitutes a long chapter in English legal
history.

The land of a feudal owner was subject to the risk of forfeiture
for treason, and to military and other burdens. The common law
did not allow him to dispose of it by will. By the law of mort-
main religious houses were prohibited from acquiring it. The
desire to escape from these burdens and limitations gave rise to the
practice of making feoffments to the use of, or upon trust for,
persons other than those to whom the seisin or legal possession
was delivered. The common law recognized only the legal tenant ;
but the cestui que use or beneficial owner gradually secured for his
wishes and directions concerning the profits of the land the strong
protection of the chancellors as exercising the equitable jurisdiction
of the king. The resulting loss to the crown and the great lords of
the feudal dues and privileges, coupled with the public disadvantages
arising from ownership of land which, in an increasing degree, was
merely nominal, brought about the passing in the year 1535 of the
famous Statute of Uses, the object of which was to destroy alto-
gether the system of uses and equitable estates. It enacted, in
substance, that whoever should have a use or trust in any heredita-
ments should be deemed to have the legal seisin, estate and possession
for the same interest that he had in the use; in other words, that
he should become in effect the feudal tenant without actual delivery
of possession to him by the actual feoffee to uses or trustee: In its
result the statute was a fiasco. It was solemnly decided that the act
transferred the legal possession to the use once only, and that in the
case of a conveyance to A to the use of B to the use of or upon trust
for C, it gave the legal estate to B, and left C with an interest in the
position of the use before the statute. Thus was completed the
foundation of the modern system of trusts fastened upon legal
estates and protected by the equitable doctrines and practice of the
j udicature.

But the statute not only failed to abolish uses: it also opened
the way to the evasion of the public ceremony of livery of seisin, and
the avoidance of all notoriety in conveyances. Other ways, besides
an actual feoffment to uses, of creating a use had been in vogue before
the statute. If A bargained with B, in writing or not, for the sale
of land, and B paid the price, but A remained in legal possession,
the court of chancery enforced the use or equitable interest in favour
of B. The effect of a bargain and sale (as such a transaction was
called) after the statute was to give B the legal interest without any
livery of seisin. This fresh danger was met in the very year of the
statute itself by an enactment that a bargain and sale of an estate of
inheritance or freehold should be made by deed publicly enrolled.
But the Statute of Enrolments was in terms limited to estates of
freehold. It was allowed that a bargain and sale for a term, say, of
one year, must transfer the seisin to the bargainee without enrol-
ment. And since what remained in the bargainor was merely a
reversion which " lay in grant," it was an easy matter to release this
by deed the day after. By this ingenious device was the publicity
of feoffment or enrolment avoided, and the lease and release, as the
process was called, remained the usual mode of conveying a freehold,
in posession down to the 19th century.

It was not until 1845 that the modern system of transfer by
a single deed was finally established. By the Real Property
Act of that year it was enacted that all corporeal hereditaments
should, as regards the immediate freehold, be deemed to lie in
grant as well as in livery. Since this act the ancient modes of
conveyance, though not abolished by it, have in practice become
obsolete. Traces of the old learning connected with them
remain, however, embedded in the modern conveyance. Many
a purchase-deed recites that the vendor is seised in fee-simple
of the property. It is the practice, moreover, to convey not only
" to " but also " to the use of " a purchaser. For before the
Statute of Uses, a conveyance made without any consideration
or declaration of uses was deemed to be made to the use of the
party conveying. In view of the operation of the statute upon
the legal estate in such circumstances, it is usual in all convey-
ances, whether for value or not, to declare a use in favour of the
party to whom the grant is made.

CONVEYANCING

49

In its popular usage the word " conveyance " signifies the
document employed to carry out a purchase of land. But the
term " conveyancing " is of much wider import, and comprises
the preparation and completion of all kinds of legal instruments.
A well-known branch of the conveyancer's business is the investi-
gation of title — an important function in the case of purchases
or mortgages of real estate. With personal estate (other than
leasehold) he has perhaps not so much concern. Chattels are
usually transferred by delivery, and stocks or shares by means
of printed instruments which can be bought at a law-stationer's.
The common settlements and wills, however, deal wholly or
mainly with personal property; and an interest in settled
personalty is frequently the subject of a mortgage. Of late
years, also, there has been an enormous increase in the volume
of conveyancing business in connexion with limited joint-stock
companies.

In the preparation of legal documents the practitioner is
much assisted by the use of precedents. These are outlines or
models of instruments of all kinds, exhibiting in accepted legal
phraseology their usual form and contents with additions and
variations adapted to particular circumstances. Collections of
them have been in use from early times, certainly since printing
became common. The modern precedent is, upon the whole,
concise and businesslike. The prolixity which formerly character-
ized most legal documents has largely disappeared, mainly
through the operation of statutes which enable many clauses
previously inserted at great length to be, in some cases, e.g.
covenants for title, incorporated by the use of a few prescribed
words, and in others safely omitted altogether. The Solicitors'
Remuneration Act 1881, has also assisted the process of curtail-
ment, for there is now little or no connexion between the length
of a deed and the cost of its preparation. So long as the drafts-
man adheres to recognized legal phraseology and to the well-
settled methods of carrying out legal operations, there is no reason
why modern instruments should not be made as terse and
businesslike as possible.

It is not usual for land to be sold without a formal agreement
in writing being entered into. This precaution is due, partly

to the Statute of Frauds (§4), which renders a contract
tor sale* ^ or tne sa ^ e °^ ' anc * unenforceable by action "unless

the agreement upon which such action shall be brought,
or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and
signed by the party to be charged therewith or some other
person thereunto by him lawfully authorized," and partly to the
fact that there are few titles which can with prudence be exposed
to all the requisitions that a purchaser under an " open contract "
is entitled by law to make. Such a purchaser may, for example,
require a forty years' title (Vendor and Purchaser Act 1874).
Under an open contract a vendor is presumed to be selling the
fee-simple in possession, free from any incumbrance, or liability,
or restriction as to user or otherwise; and if he cannot deduce a
title of the statutory length, or procure an incumbrance or
restriction to be removed, the purchaser may repudiate the
contract. The preparation of an agreement for sale involves
accordingly an examination of the vendor's title, and the exercise
of skill and judgment in deciding how the vendor may be pro-
tected against trouble and expense without prejudice to the
sale. Upon a sale by auction the agreement is made up of (1)
the particulars, which describe the property; (2) the conditions
of sale, which state the terms upon which it is offered; and
(3) the memorandum or formal contract at the foot of the condi-
tions, which incorporates by reference the particulars and
conditions, names or sufficiently refers to the vendor, and is
signed by the purchaser after the sale. The object of the agree-
ment, whether the sale is by private contract or by auction, is
to define accurately what is sold, to provide for the length of
title and the evidence in support of or in connexion with the
title which is to be required except so far as it is intended that
the general law shall regulate the rights of the parties, and to
fix the times at which the principal steps in the transaction are
to be taken. It is also usual to provide for the payment of interest
at a prescribed rate upon the purchase money if the completion

shall be delayed beyond the day fixed for any cause other than
the vendor's wilful default, and also that the vendor shall be at
liberty to rescind the contract without paying costs or compensa-
tion if the purchaser insists upon any requisition or objection
which the vendor is unable or, upon the ground of expense or
other reasonable ground, is unwilling to comply with or remove.
Upon a sale by auction it is the rule to require a deposit to be
paid by way of security to the vendor against default on the
part of the purchaser.

The signature of the agreement is followed by the delivery
to the purchaser or his solicitor of the abstract of title, which
is an epitome of the various instruments and events
under and in consequence of which the vendor derives f title.
his title. A purchaser is entitled to an abstract at
the vendor's expense unless otherwise stipulated. It begins
with the instrument fixed by the contract for the commencement
of the title, or, if there has been no agreement upon the subject,
with an instrument of such character and date as is prescribed
by the law in the absence of stipulation between the parties.
From its commencement as so determined the abstract, if properly
prepared, shows the history of the title down to the sale; every
instrument, marriage, birth, death, or other fact or event con-
stituting a link in the chain of title, being sufficiently set forth
in its proper order. The next step is the verification of the
abstract on the purchaser's behalf by a comparison of it with
the originals of the deeds, the probates of the wills, and office
copies of the instruments of record through which the title is
traced. The vendor is bound to produce the original documents,
except such as are of record or have been lost or destroyed, but,
unless otherwise stipulated, the expense of producing those
which are not in his possession falls upon the purchaser (Con-
veyancing Act 1 881). After being thus verified, the abstract
is perused by the purchaser's advisers with the object of seeing
whether a title to the property sold is deduced according to the
contract, and what evidence, information or objection, in respect
of matters appearing or arising upon the abstract, ought to be
called for or taken. For this purpose it is necessary to consider
the legal effect of the abstracted instruments, whether they
have been properly completed, whether incumbrances, adverse
interests, defects, liabilities in respect of duties, or any other
burdens or restrictions disclosed by the abstract, have been
already got rid of or satisfied, or remain to be dealt with before
the completion of the sale. The result of the consideration of these
matters is embodied in " requisitions upon title," which
are delivered to the vendor's solicitors within a time tion"sf '
usuallyfixed for the purpose by the contract. In making
or insisting upon requisitions regard is had, among other things,
to any special conditions in the contract dealing with points as to
which evidence or objection might otherwise have been required
or taken, and to a variety of provisions contained in the Vendor
and Purchaser Act 1874, and the Conveyancing Act 1881, which
apply, except so far as otherwise agreed, and of which the follow-
ing are the most important: (1) Recitals, statements and
descriptions of facts, matters and parties contained in instruments
twenty years old at the date of the contract are, unless proved
inaccurate, to be taken as sufficient evidence of the truth of such
facts, matters and descriptions; (2) a purchaser cannot require
the production of, or make any requisition or objection in respect
of, any document dated before the commencement of the title;
(3) the cost of obtaining evidence and information not in the
vendor's possession must be borne by the purchaser. The
possibility of the rescission clause now commonly found in con-
tracts for the sale of real estate being exercised in order to avoid
compliance with an onerous requisition, is also an important
factor in the situation. The requisitions are in due course
replied to, and further requisitions may arise out of the answers.
A summary method of obtaining a judicial determination of
questions connected with the contract, but not affecting its
validity, is provided by the Vendor and Purchaser Act 1874.
Before completion it is usual for the purchaser to cause searches
to be made in various official registers for matters required to
be entered therein, such as judgments, land charges, and pending

5°

CONVEYANCING

actions, which may affect the vendor's title to sell, or amount
to an incumbrance upon the property.

When the title has been approved, or so soon as it appears
reasonably certain that it will be accepted, the draft conveyance
is prepared and submitted to the vendor. This is
aneesT" commonly done by and at the expense of the purchaser,
who is entitled to determine the form of the con-
veyance, provided that the vendor is not thereby prejudiced,
or put to additional expense. The common mode of conveying
a freehold is now, as already mentioned, by ordinary deed,
called in this case an indenture, from the old practice, where a
deed was made between two or more parties, of writing copies
upon the same parchment and then dividing it by an indented
or toothed line. Indenting is, however, not necessary, and in
modern practice is disused. A deed derives its efficacy from
its being sealed and delivered. It is still a matter of doubt
whether signing is essential. It is not necessary that its execu-
tion should be attested except in special circumstances, as, e.g.
where made under a power requiring the instrument exercising
it to be attested. But in practice conveyances are not only
sealed, but also signed, and attested by one or two witnesses.
The details of a conveyance in any particular case depend upon
the subject-matter and terms of the sale, and the state of the
title as appearing by the abstract. The framework, however,
of an ordinary purchase-deed consists of (i) the date and parties,
(2) the recitals, (3) the testatum or witnessing-part, containing
the statement of the consideration for the sale, the words
incorporating covenants for title and the operative words, (4)
the parcels or description of the property, (5) the habendum,
showing the estate or interest to be taken by the purchaser, and
(6) any provisos or covenants that may be required. A few
words will illustrate the object and effect of these component
parts.

(1) The parties are the persons from whom the property, or
some estate or interest in or in relation to it, is to pass to the
purchaser, or whose concurrence is rendered necessary by the
state of the title in order to give the purchaser the full benefit
of his contract and to complete it according to law. It is often
necessary that other persons besides the actual vendor should
join in the conveyance, e.g. a mortgagee who is to be paid off
and convey his estate, a trustee of an outstanding legal estate,
a person entitled to some charge or restriction who is to release
it, or trustees who are to receive the purchase-money where a
limited owner is selling under a power (e.g. a tenant for life
under the power given by the Settled Land Act 1882). Parties
are described by their names, addresses and occupations or
titles, each person with a separate interest, or filling a distinct
character, being of a separate part. (2) The recitals explain
the circumstances of the title, the interests of the parties in
relation to the property, and the agreement or object intended
to be carried into effect by the conveyance. Where the sale is
by an absolute owner there is no need for recitals, and they are
frequently dispensed with; but where there are several parties
occupying different positions, recitals in chronological order of
the instruments and facts giving rise to their connexion with
the property are generally necessary in order to make the deed
intelligible. (3) It is usual to mention the consideration. Where
it consists of money the statement of its payment is followed
by an acknowledgment, in a parenthesis, of its receipt, which,
in deeds executed since the Conveyancing Act 1881, dispenses
with any endorsed or further receipt. A vendor, who is the
absolute beneficial owner, now conveys expressly " as beneficial
owner," which words, by virtue of the Conveyancing Act 1881,
imply covenants by him with the purchaser that he has a right
to convey, for quiet enjoyment, freedom from incumbrances,
and for further assurance — limited, however, to the acts and
defaults of the covenantor and those through whom he derives
his title otherwise than by purchase for value. A trustee or an
incumbrancer joining in the deed conveys " as trustee " or "as
mortgagee," by which words covenants are implied that the
covenantor individually has not done or suffered anything to
incumber the property, or prevent him from conveying as

expressed. As to the operative words, any expression showing
an intention to pass the estate is effectual. Since the Conveyan-
cing Act 1881, "convey" has become as common as "grant,"
which was formerly used. (4) The property may be described
either in the body of the deed or in a schedule, or compendiously
in the one and in detail in the other. In any case it is usual to
annex a plan. Different kinds of property have their appro-
priate technical words of description. Hereditaments is the most
comprehensive term, and is generally used either alone or in
conjunction with other words more specifically descriptive of
the property conveyed. (5) The habendum begins with the
words " to hold," and the estate, on a sale in fee-simple, is
limited, as already mentioned, not only to, but also to the use of,
the purchaser. Before the Conveyancing Act 1881, it was
necessary to add, after the name of the purchaser, the words
" and his heirs," or " his heir and assigns," though the word
" assigns " never had any conveyancing force. But since that
Act it is sufficient to add " in fee-simple " without using the
word " heirs." Unless, however, one or other of these additions
is made, the purchaser will even now get only an estate for his
life. If the property is to be held subject to a lease or incum-
brance, or is released by the deed from an incumbrance previously
existing, this is expressed after the words of limitation. (6)
Where any special covenants or provisions have been stipulated
for, or are required in the circumstances of the title, they are,
as a rule, inserted at the end of the conveyance. In simple
cases none are needed. Where, however, a vendor retains
documents of title, which he is entitled to do where he sells a
part only of the estate to which they relate, it is the practice
for him by the conveyance to acknowledge the right of the
purchaser to production and delivery of copies of such of them
as are not instruments of record like wills or orders of court, and
to undertake for their safe custody. This acknowledgment and
undertaking supply the place of the lengthy covenants to the
like effect which were usual before the Conveyancing Act 1881.
A trustee or mortgagee joining gives an acknowledgment as to
documents retained by him, but not an undertaking. The fore-
going outline of a conveyance will be illustrated by the following
specimen of a simple purchase-deed of part of an estate belonging
to an absolute owner in fee : —

This Indenture made the day of

between A. B. of, &c., of the one part and C. D. of, &c., of the other
part Whereas the said A. B. is seised (among other hereditaments)
of the messuage hereinafter described and hereby conveyed for an
estate in fee simple in possession free from incumbrances and has
agreed to sell the same to the said C. D. for £100 Now this In-
denture witnesseth that in pursuance of the said agreement
and in consideration of the sum of £100 paid to the said A. B. by
the said C. D. (the receipt whereof the said A. B. doth hereby acknow-
ledge) the said A. B. as beneficial owner doth hereby convey unto
the said C. D. All that messuage or tenement situate &c, and
known as, &c. To Hold the premises unto and to the use of the said
C. D. his heirs and assigns [or in fee simple] And the said A. B.
doth hereby acknowledge the right of the said C. D. to production
and delivery of copies of the following documents of title [mentioning
them] and doth undertake for the safe custody thereof In
witness, &c.

It will be observed that throughout the deed there are no stops,
the commencement of the several parts being indicated by capital
letters. The draft conveyance having been approved on behalf of
the vendor, it is engrossed upon stout paper or parchment, and
there remains only the completion of the sale, which usually
takes place at the office of the vendor's solicitor. A purchaser is
not entitled to require the vendor to attend personally and
execute the conveyance in his presence or that of his solicitor.
The practice is for the deed to be previously executed by the
vendor and delivered to his solicitor, and for the solicitor to
receive the purchase-money on his client's behalf, since a
purchaser is , under the Conveyancing Act 1 8 8 1 , saf e in pay ing the
purchase-money to a solicitor producing a deed so executed, when
it contains the usual acknowledgment by the vendor of the
receipt of the money. Upon the completion, the documents of
title are handed over except in the case above referred to, and any
claims between the parties in respect of interest upon the
purchase-money, apportioned outgoings, or otherwise, are

CONVEYANCING

5i

settled. The conveyance is, of course, delivered to the purchaser,
upon whom rests the obligation of affixing the proper stamp —
which he may do without penalty within thirty days after
execution (Stamp Act 1891). It may be added that, subject to
any special bargain, which is rarely made, the costs of the
execution by the vendor and other parties whose concurrence is
necessary, and of any act required to be done by the vendor to
carry out his contract, are borne by the vendor.

Ordinary leases at rack-rents are not generally preceded by a
formal agreement, such as is common on a sale of land, or by an
teases. investigation into the lessor's title. As a rule, the
principal terms are arranged between the parties, and
embodied with various ancillary provisions in a draft lease,
which is prepared by the lessor's advisers and submitted to the
lessee, the ultimate form and contents of the instrument being
adjusted by negotiation. If an intending lessee desires to
examine the title he must make an express bargain to that effect,
for under a contract to grant a lease the intended lessee is not
entitled, in the absence of such express stipulation, to call for the
title to the freehold (Vendor and Purchaser Act 1874). By the
Statute of Frauds all leases, except leases for a term not exceeding
three years, and at not less than two-thirds of the rack-rent, were
required to be in writing. And now by the Real Property Act
1845, leases required by law to be in writing are void at law unless
made by deed. An instrument, void as a lease under the act,
may, however, be valid as an agreement to take a lease; and
since the Judicature Act 1873, under which equitable doctrines
prevail in the High Court, a person holding under an agreement
for a lease, of which specific performance would be granted, is
treated in all branches of that court as if such a lease were
already executed. Unless otherwise agreed, a lease is always
prepared by a lessor's solicitor at the expense of the lessee; but
the cost of the counterpart (i.e. the duplicate executed by the
lessee) is usually borne by the lessor.

Upon the sale and conveyance of a leasehold property sub-
stantially the same procedure is observed as above indicated in
the case of a freehold. A few additional points,
meatof ' h° wever > ma y De specially mentioned. Under an open
leaseholds, contract the vendor cannot be called upon to show the
title to the freehold reversion (Vendor and Purchaser
Act 1874; Conveyancing Act 1881). Accordingly, the abstract
of title begins with the lease, however old; but the subsequent
title need not be carried back for more than forty years before the
sale. The purchaser, apart from stipulation, must assume,
unless the contrary appears, that the lease was duly granted, and
upon production of the receipt for the last payment due for rent
before completion, that all the covenants and provisions of the
lease have been duly performed and observed up to the date of
actual completion. The appropriate word of conveyance is
" assign," and a conveyance of leaseholds is generally called an
assignment. The vendor's covenants for title implied by his
assigning " as beneficial owner " include, in addition to the
covenants implied by those words in a conveyance of freehold, a
covenant limited in manner above mentioned, that the lease is
valid, and that the rent and the provisions of the lease have been
paid and observed up to the time of conveyance (Conveyancing
Act 188 1). Where the vendor, as is the common case, remains
liable after the assignment for the rent and the performance of
the covenants, the purchaser must covenant to pay the rent, and
perform and observe the covenants and provisions of the lease,
and keep the vendor indemnified in those respects.

A mortgage is prepared by the solicitor of the mortgagee, and
the mortgagor bears the whole expenses of the transaction. It is
Mortgages. seldom that there is any preliminary agreement,
because (1) a contract to lend money is not specifically
enforceable; and (2) inasmuch as the primary object of a
mortgagee is to have his money well secured, he is not, generally,
willing to submit to restrictions as to title or evidence of title
which might give rise to difficulty or expense in the event of a
sale of the mortgaged property. An intending mortgagor is
accordingly required to show a title easily marketable, and to
verify it at his own cost. A mortgage follows the same general

form as a conveyance on sale, the principal points of difference
being that the conveyance of the property is preceded by a
covenant for the payment of the mortgage money and interest,
and followed by a proviso for reconveyance upon such payment,
and by any special provisions necessary or proper in the circum-
stances, such as a covenant for insurance and repairs where the
security comprises buildings. The covenants for title implied by
a mortgagor conveying " as beneficial owner " are the same as in
the case of a vendor, but they are absolute and nonqualified in
the manner above pointed out.

The beneficial operation of the Conveyancing Act 188 1 in shorten-
ing conveyances is well illustrated by a modern mortgage. For, by
virtue of the act, a mortgagee by deed executed after its commence-
ment has, subject to any contrary provisions contained in the deed,
the following powers to the like extent as if they had been conferred
in terms : (I ) a power of sale exercisable after the mortgage money
has become due (a) if notice requiring payment has been served '
and not complied with for three months, (b) if any interest is in
arrear for. two months, or (c) there has been a breach of some
obligation under the deed or the act other than the covenant for
payment of the mortgage money or interest; (2) a power to insure
subject to certain restrictions; (3) a power, when entitled to sell,
to appoint a receiver; and (4) a power while in possession to cut
and sell timber. The act contains ancillary provisions enabling
a mortgagee upon a sale to convey the property for such estate or
interest as is the subject of the mortgage, and to give a valid receipt
for the purchase-money, and the purchaser is amply protected
against any irregularities of which he had no notice. There are also
large powers of leasing conferred by the act upon mortgagor and
mortgagee while respectively in possession, and a power for the
mortgagor, whilst entitled to redeem, to inspect and take copies of
title-deeds in the mortgagee's possession. The elaborate provisions
for all these purposes which were formerly inserted in mortgage
deeds are now omitted; but sometimes the operation of the act is
modified in certain respects. The procedure upon a sale by a mort-
gagee is the same as in the case of any other vendor. He conveys,
however, " as mortgagee," these words implying only a covenant
by him against incumbrances arising from his own acts.

The frame of a strict settlement of real estate, which is usually
made either on marriage or by way of resettlement on a tenant in
tail under an existing settlement attaining twenty-one,
has been much simplified; but such settlements still meats.
remain the most technical and most complicated of
legal instruments. By virtue of the Settled Land Acts 1882 to
1800, tenants for life and many other limited owners have
extensive powers of sale, of leasing, and of doing numerous other
acts required in a due course of management. These powers
cannot be excluded or fettered by settlors. They are, as a rule,
considered in practice to be sufficient, and the corresponding
elaborate provisions formerly inserted in settlements are now
omitted, the operation of the acts being merely supplemented,
where desirable, by some extension of the statutory powers, in
relation, e.g., to the investment and application of capital money.
To complete the statutory machinery it is desirable that persons
should be nominated by the settlement trustees for the purposes
of the acts. Since the Conveyancing Act 1881, provisions for the
protection of jointresses or persons entitled under settlements to
rent charges or annual sums issuing out of the land are no longer
required, as all such persons have now powers of distress and
entry, and of limiting terms to secure their respective interests.
Terms for raising portions must still, however, be expressly
created. The Conveyancing Act 1881 also confers large powers
of management during the minorities of infants beneficially
entitled upon persons either appointed for the purpose by the
instrument or being such trustees such as are mentioned in § 42.
An estate in tail may now be limited by the use of the words " in
tail " without the words " heirs of the body " formerly necessary.
And a settlor generally conveys " as settlor," by which only a
covenant for further assurance is implied under the Conveyancing
Act 1 88 1. Personal settlements are most often made upon
marriage. The settled property is vested in trustees, either by
the settlement itself, or in the case of cash, mortgage debts, stocks
or shares, by previous delivery or transfer, upon trusts declared
by the instrument.

The norma! trusts after the marriage are (1) for investment;
(2) for payment of the income of the husband's property to him
for life, and of the wife's property to her for life for her separate
use without power of anticipation whilst under coverture; (3) for

52

CONVEYORS

Wills.

payment to the survivor for his or her life of the income of both
properties; (4) after the death of the survivor, both as to capital
and income, for the issue of the marriage as the husband and wife
shall jointly by deed appoint, and in default of joint appointment
as the survivor shall by deed or will appoint, and in default of such
appointment for the children of the marriage who attain twenty-
one, or being daughters marry, in equal shares, with the addition
of a clause (called the hotchpot clause) precluding a child who
or whose issue takes a part of the fund by appointment from sharing
in the unappointed part without bringing the appointed share into
account. Then follows a power for the trustees with the consent
of the parents whilst respectively living to raise a part (usually a
half) of the share of a child and apply it for his or her advancement
or benefit. Power to apply income, after the death of the life tenants,
for the maintenance and education of infants entitled in expectancy,
is conferred upon trustees by the Conveyancing Act 1 88 1. The
ultimate trusts in the event of there being no children who attain
vested interests are (1) of the husband's property for him absolutely;
and (2) of the wife's property for such persons as she shall when
discovert by deed, or whether covert or discovert by will, appoint,
and in default of appointment, for her absolutely if she survive the
husband, but if ,not, then for her next of kin under the'Statute of
Distributions, excluding the husband. For all ordinary purposes
the trustees have now under various statutes sufficient powers and
indemnities. They may, however, in some cases need special pro-
tection against liability. A power of appointing new trustees is
supplied by the Trustee Act 1893. It is usually made exercisable
by the husband and wife during their joint lives, and by the survivor
during his or her life.

The form and contents of wills are extremely diverse. A will
of, perhaps, the commonest type (a) appoints executors and
trustees; (6) makes a specific disposition of a freehold
or leasehold residence; (c) gives a few legacies or
annuities; and (d) devises and bequeaths to the executors and
trustees the residue of the real and personal estate upon trust
to sell and convert, to invest the proceeds (after payment of
debts and funeral and testamentary expenses) in a specified
manner, to pay the income of the investments to the testator's
widow for life or until another marriage, and subject to her
interest, to hold the capital and income in trust for his children
who attain twenty-one, or being daughters marry, in equal
shares, with a power of advancement. Daughters' shares are
frequently settled by testators upon them and their issue on
the same lines and with the same statutory incidents as above
mentioned in the observations upon settlements; and- some-
times a will contains in like manner a strict settlement of real
estate. It is a point often overlooked by testators desirous of
benefiting remote descendants that future interests in property
must, under what is known as the rule against perpetuities, be
restricted within a life or lives in being and twenty-one years
afterwards. In disposing of real estate " devise " is the ap-
propriate word of conveyance, and of personal estate "bequeath."
But neither word is at all necessary. " I leave all I have to
A. B. and appoint him my executor " would make an effectual will
for a testator who wished to give all his property, whether real
or personal, after payment of his debts, to a single person.
By virtue of the Land Transfer Act 1897, Part I., real estate of
an owner dying after 1897 now vests for administrative purposes
in his executors or administrators, notwithstanding any testa-
mentary disposition.

It remains to mention that by the Land Transfer Act 1897 a
system of compulsory registration of title, limited to the county
of London, was established. (See Land Registration.)

Conveyancing counsel to the court (i.e. to the chancery division
of the High Court) are certain counsel, in actual practice as con-
veyancers, of not less than ten years' standing, who are appointed
by the lord chancellor, to the number of six, under s. 40 of the
Master in Chancery Abolition Act 1852. They are appointed for the
purpose of assisting the court in the investigation of the title to any
estate, and upon their opinion the court or any judge thereof may
act. Any party who objects to the opinion given by any con-
veyancing counsel may have the point in dispute disposed of by
the judge at chambers or in court. Business to be referred to
conveyancing counsel is distributed among them in rotation, and
their fees are regulated by the taxing officers.

United States. — American legislation favours the general
policy of registering all documents in the contents of which the
public have an interest, and its tendency has been steadily
towards more and more full registration both of documents and
statistics. From the early days of the colonial era it has been

customary to record wills and conveyances of real estate in full
in public books, suitably indexed, to which free access was given.
During the last decade of the 19th century, three states —
Illinois, Massachusetts, and Ohio — adopted the main features
of the Torrens or Prussian system for registering title to land
rather than conveyances under which title may be claimed.
These are the ascertainment by public officers of the state of the
title to some or all of the parcels of real estate which are the
subject of individual property within the state; the description
of each parcel (giving its proper boundaries and characteristics)
on a separate page of a public register, and of the manner in
which the title is vested; the issue of a certificate to the owner
that he is the owner; the official notation on this register of
each change of title thereafter; and a warranty by the govern-
ment of the title to which it may have certified. To make the
system complete it is further requisite that every landowner
should be compelled to make use of it, and that it should be
impossible to transfer a title effectually without the issue of
such a government certificate in favour of the purchaser.

Constitutional provisions have been found to prevent or
embarrass legislation in these directions in some of the states,
but it is believed that they are nowhere such as cannot be obeyed
without any serious encroachment on the principles of the new
system (People v. Chase, 165 Illinois Reports, 527; State v.
Guilbert, 56 Ohio State Reports, 575; People v. Simon, 176
Illinois Reports, 165; Tyler v. Judges, 173 Massachusetts
Reports; 55 North-Eastem Reporter, 812; Hamilton v. Brown,
161 United States Reports, 256).

Conveyances which have been duly recorded become of com-
paratively little importance in the United States. The party
claiming immediately under them, if forced to sue to vindicate
his title, must produce them or account for their loss; but any
one deriving title from him can procure a certified copy of the
original conveyance from the recording officer and rely on that.
Equitable mortgages by a deposit of title-deeds are unknown.

The general prevalence of public registry systems has had an
influence in the development of American jurisprudence in the
direction of supporting provisions in wills and conveyances, which,
unless generally known, might tend to mislead and deceive, such as
spendthrift trusts (Nichols v. Eaton, 9 1 United States Reports ,716).
Conveyances of real estate are simple in form, and are
often prepared by those who have had no professional training
for the purpose. Printed blanks, sold at the law-stationers,
are commonly employed. The lawyers in each state have
devised forms for such blanks, sometimes peculiar in some
points to the particular state, and sometimes copied verbatim
from those in use elsewhere. Deeds intended to convey an
absolute estate are generally either of the form known as
warranty deed or of that known as release deed. The release deed
is often used as a primary conveyance without warranty to one
who has no prior interest in the land. Uniformity in deeds is
rendered particularly desirable from the general prevalence of
the system of recording all conveyances at length in a public
office. Record books are printed for this purpose, containing
printed pages corresponding to the printed blanks in use in the
particular state, and the recording officer simply has to fill up
each page as the deed of similar form was filled up. One set of
books may thus be kept for recording warranty deeds, another
for recording release deeds, another for recording mortgage
deeds, another for leases, &c.

Authorities. — Davidson, Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing
(London, 1877 and 1885); Key and Elphinstone, Compendium of
Precedents in Conveyancing (London, 1904) ; Elphinstone, Intro-
duction to Conveyancing (London, 1900) ; Prideaux, Precedents in
Conveyancing (1904); Pollock, The Land Laws (London, 1896).

(S. Wa.;S. E. B.)
CONVEYORS. " Conveyor " (for derivation see Conveyance)
is a term generally applied to mechanical devices designed for
the purpose of moving material in a horizontal or slightly in-
clined direction; in this article, however, are included a variety
of appliances for moving materials in horizontal, vertical and
combined horizontal and vertical directions. The material so
handled may be conveyed in a practically uninterrupted stream,

CONVEYORS

53

as in the case of worms, bands and pushplate conveyors, or
elevators carrying grain or coal, &c; or it may be conveyed
from one point to another, intermittently, that is to say in a
succession of separate loads, as happens with single bucket
elevators, furnace hoists, rope and chain haulage, and also in
the case of ropeways and aerial cableways. Some of these
devices are of great antiquity, others are of quite modern origin.
The principles of their construction are simple and easy of
understanding, but by variations in the details of their construc-
tion the engineer has adapted these few appliances to the most
varied work. At one end of the scale they may be used for
such light duties as conveying the goods purchased by a customer
to the packers and bringing them back made up into a parcel
or for taking his money to the cashier and returning the change.
At the other they are adopted for handling large quantities of
heavy material at a minimum expenditure of human labour.
Coal, for instance, a more or less friable substance, the value of
which is seriously diminished by fracture, may be mechanically
handled with a minimum risk of breakage. The difficult problem
of handling the contents of gas retorts and coke ovens, and of
simultaneously quenching and conveying the glowing material,
has been solved. Perhaps an even more astonishing piece of
work is the manipulation of the iron from the blast furnace;
for instance, liquid metal is drawn from a furnace into pouring
pots which in their turn discharge it to and distribute it over a
pig-iron casting machine, which is practically a conveyor for
liquid metal, consisting of a strand of moving moulds from which
the solidified pigs, after cooling in water, are automatically
removed after reaching the loading terminal over the railway
trucks. Certain types of conveyors may be made to combine
efficiently, with their primary work of transport, complex
sorting, sifting, drying and weighing operations.

Worm Conveyors. — The worm conveyor, also known as the
Archimedean screw, is doubtless the most ancient form of
conveyor. It consists of a continuous or broken blade screw
set on a spindle. This spindle is made to revolve in a suitable
trough, and as it revolves any material put in is propelled by the
screw from one end of the trough to the other. Such conveyors
have been used in flour-mills for centuries. The writer has seen
in an East Anglian mill which was over 250 years old disused
screw conveyors, probably as old as the mill, consisting of
spindles of octagonal shape, made of not too hard wood, around
which a broken blade screw was formed by the insertion at
regular intervals of small blades of hard wood (fig. 1). Modern
worm conveyors usually consist of a spindle formed of a length of

Fig. 1. — Early Flour Mill Conveyor. 1

wrought iron piping, to which is fitted either a broken or con-
tinuous worm. In the former case (fig. 2) the worm is composed
of a series of blades or paddles arranged like a spiral round the

Fig. 2. — Paddle Worm Conveyor.

spindle; each blade is fixed, by means of its shank, in a transverse
hole in the spindle, and the shank is held in position by being
tapped and fitted with a nut. In this way is formed, out of
separate blades, a practically complete screw, technically known

1 The illustrations in this article are taken, by kind permission,
from the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.

as a " paddle worm." The lengths or sections of the worm
run to about 8 ft., the various lengths being coupled by turned
gudgeons, which also serve as journals for the bearings. In the
so-called continuous worm conveyors the screw is formed of a
continuous sheet-iron spiral (fig. 3) . Sometimes a narrow groove

Fig. 3. — Continuous Worm Conveyor.

is cut in spiral form on the spindle, and in this groove the sheet-
iron spiral is secured.

The spiral or anti-friction conveyor (fig. 4) was introduced
about 1887. In this case a narrow spiral, which passes con-
centrically round the spindle, with a space between both, is fixed
to it at set intervals by small blades, each of which is itself fixed
by its shank and a nut to the spindle. The spiral may be made of

Fig. 4. — Spiral or Anti-Friction Conveyor.

almost any section, from a round bar about 3? in. in diameter to
L or T section, but is preferably a flat bar. Worms are fitted into
wooden or iron troughs leaving a clearance of J to J in. The
spindle must be supported at suitable intervals by bearings,
preferably of the bush type. A continuous worm, being more
rigid than a paddle worm, needs fewer supports. The lid of the
worm trough should be loose, not screwed on, because in case of
an accumulation of feed through a choke in a delivery spout the
paddles of a paddle worm would be broken, or a continuous worm
stripped, unless the material could throw off the lid and relieve
the worm. The ratios of the pitch of the worm to the diameter
must be regulated by the nature of the material to be conveyed,
and will vary from one- third to a pitch equal to, or even exceeding,
the diameter. The greater the pitch the larger the capacity, but
also the greater the driving power required, at the same speed.
For handling materials of greater specific gravity, such as
cement, &c, it is advisable to use a smaller pitch than for
substances of lower specific gravity, such as grain. The capacity
of a continuous worm exceeds that of either a paddle or spiral
conveyor of the same diameter, pitch and speed. As regards the
relative efficiency of paddle and spiral conveyors a series of
careful tests made by the writer indicated that, run at a slow
speed the paddle worm, but at a high speed the spiral worm, has
the greater efficiency. There is of course a speed at which the
efficiency of both types is about equal, and that is at 150 revolu-
tions per minute for conveyors 4 to 6 in. in diameter.

The power necessary to drive worm conveyors under normal
conditions is very considerable; a continuous worm of 18 to 20 in.
diameter running at 60 revolutions per minute will convey 50
tons of grain per hour over a distance of a hundred feet at an
expenditure of 185 to 19 H.P. A material like cement would
require rather more power because of the greater friction of the
cement against the blades and the trough. Delivery from a
worm conveyor can be effected at any desired point, all that is
necessary being to cut an outlet, which should preferably be as
wide as the diameter of the worm, because the worm delivers only
on its leading side, and is practically empty on the other side,
so that a smaller outlet might only give exit to a portion of the
feed, unless it was on the leading side.

A special form of worm conveyor is the tubular (fig. 5), which
consists of an iron tube with a continuous spiral fitted to its inner

54

CONVEYORS

periphery, or of iron or wooden tubes of square sections fitted
with fixed baffle plates inside. In working it revolves bodily on
suitable rollers. This type is more costly than the ordinary
worm conveyors, and also requires more power. Its efficiency is,

Fig. 5. — Tubular Worm Conveyor.

moreover, easily impaired if run at too high a speed, because
the centrifugal force asserts itself and counteracts the propulsion,
which in this case is effected by gravity. Some experiments
made in 1868 by George Fosbery Lyster, engineer of the Liverpool
docks, gave convincing results (see Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,
August 1869). The tubular worm conveyor is suitable where a
granular material has to be moved over a comparatively short
distance, say from one building to another on the same level, and
where no bridge is available for the installation of any other kind
of conveyor. Conveyofs of this type have, however, come into
use for conveying hard and cutting substances over consider-
able lengths. Ordinary worm conveyors are practically debarred
from use for such substances on account of the short life of the
intermediate bearings, which are not necessary with externally
supported tubular worms.

To sum up, worm conveyors are of the simplest construction
and of small prime cost. The terminals again are much less
expensive than those of most other kinds of conveyors. When the
distance to be traversed by the material is short, the worm
conveyor has this advantage, that it is cheaper than other kinds
of conveyors. If it be
desired not only to con-
vey but also to mix two
or more materials, such
as cement and sand in a
dry state, or poultry
food, this appliance is
thoroughly well adapted
for the work. On the
other hand, there is a
grinding action exer-
cised on any material
conveyed, and when
hard or cutting sub-
stances are handled the
wear and tear on the
conveyor blades, trough
and bearings is very
great, and the power
sensible item.

Band Conveyors— -The inventor of band conveyors for the
handling of grain and minerals was G. F. Lyster, who, as already
mentioned, in 1868 carried out exhaustive experiments at the
Liverpool docks, where he established the band conveyor as a
grain-handler. For granaries the band conveyor is an ideal
appliance. Its capacity is great, and it can be run at relatively
high speeds with a moderate expenditure of power. The band
conveyor of to-day is an endless belt of canvas or more often
india-rubber with insertion, and when fitted with the usual
receiving and delivery appliances can be used to handle grain
from or into granaries and also to feed bins or sections of a ware-
' house. The endless bands run over terminal pulleys, and are
also supported on their way by a series of guide rollers, which
are in greater number on the loaded than on the empty strand.
The band is usually run quite fiat, except that at the point or
points where the grain is fed on it is slightly hollowed for a few
feet, by means of two curving rolls which are set obliquely so as

to make it trough-shaped. The supporting or guide rollers are
4 in. to 6 in. in diameter, and are sometimes made of wood, but
more often consist of steel tubes to which spindles with conical
end gudgeons are secured. The gudgeons generally run in
suitable bush-bearings, which should be well lubricated. Band
conveyors should be driven on the delivery and not the receiving
terminal, as the tight side of the band is the flattest. The guide
rollers, for ordinary grain conveyors, are fitted to the upper or
working side of the. band at intervals of about 6 ft., and at
distances of 12 ft. on the lower or return strand. In cases where
both strands of the band are used for carrying grain, the lower
strand must be supported by as many rollers as the upper.
Under such conditions, terminal pulleys must be of larger
diameter than usual, the object being to throw the two strands
farther apart, so as to give sufficient space between the two
strands to spout the feed in and out again at the other end.
The two strands can be run any distance apart by the use of
two additional pulleys for the terminals. This arrangement
would be in place where it was desired, as it might be, to run
one strand of the band along the top floor of the granary to
distribute, while the other strand travelled along the ground-
floor or basement to withdraw, the grain.

Band conveyors are kept tight, when the band is not very long,
by a tightening gear, similar to that used on elevators, and consisting
of two screws which push or better pull the two pedestals of one
terminal pulley farther away from the other terminal. If the band
is of such length that an adjustment of ^ to 5 ft. on the tightening
gear is not sufficient, it is advisable to use in place of screws a tighten-
ing pulley, over which the belt passes, but which is itself held in
tension by weights. The choice of the exact tightening gear will
depend on various considerations, the length of the belt, the type
of throw-off carriage used, and the quality of the belt all being
factors to be considered. The throw-off carriage (fig. 6), which
serves to withdraw material from the band at any desired point,
is a simple but ingenious appliance consisting essentially of guide
pulleys which by raising one part of the band and lowering the other
have the effect of causing the grain to quit the surface of the band
at the point where it is deflected upwards. The grain is thus cast

ELEVATION

Fig. 6. — Throw-off Carriage for Band Conveyor.

CROSS SECTION

absorbed by a worm conveyor is a

clear of the band, and into the air, being caught as it falls in a hopper
and spouted in any desired direction. Throw-off carriages differ in
certain details, but the principle is the same. For feeding a band
conveyor it is important to give the material a horizontal velocity,
approaching that of the band. The grain should therefore be fed
through a spout rather less in breadth than half of the width of the
band, and set at an incline of 42J to the horizontal. Band con-
veyors run at a speed of 400 to 600 ft. per minute, according to the
nature of the material; oats, for instance, would be liable to be
blown off the band at a speed in excess of 500, which would be
suitable for wheat. Nuts, maize and the heavier seeds could be
carried at 600. The power consumption by a grain-laden band
compares favourably with any other form of conveyor. An 18-in.
band 100 ft. in length running 500 ft. per minute would carry 50 tons
per hour at an expenditure of only 4-5 H.P.

While the band conveyor is an ideal conveyor in warehouses
and mills, it is also capable of rendering good service in handling
such heavy materials as coal and minerals. Of course for such
purposes the band and its fittings must be of much more sub-
stantial construction. The central portions of the band carrying
the load, being subjected to great wear and tear, are often made

CONVEYORS

55

Fig. 7.

of solid india-rubber extending to nearly half the thickness of
the band in the middle, and tapering off towards the edges, while
the surface facing the guide rollers is of insertion coated with
india-rubber. Bands properly prepared and stretched will bear
a strain of 3 tons to the square inch. Balata bands may be
used in place of india-rubber, but though less expensive are not
so lasting. Bands that have to carry coal or minerals are usually
.-,. curved along the entire

length of the upper or
loaded strand into a trough
shape by guide rollers (fig.
7). Bands of woven wire
are sometimes used with
coal - washing plants, but
^^ have the disadvantage of
s^ lack of durability. They
are more liable to stretch
and are high in price. They
may be run as high as about 600 ft. per minute, but to ensure
proper grip-driving terminals must either be faced with leather
or made of wood.

The speed of band conveyors loaded with coal or minerals
greatly depends on the size of the fragments; the proper speed
for large pieces would be 150-200 ft. per minute, while smaller
material could be carried at a maximum velocity of 700-750 ft.
Band conveyors will carry in an upward direction, up to 24
degrees, without any loss of capacity. They can be used not
only to carry light and heavy bodies, such as grain and coal,
in a continuous stream, but also to convey relatively large
bodies such as sacks of flour, or cement, &c, intermittently.
Thus a band 26 in. wide and 350 ft. long is used at a flour-mill
in York to load sacks of flour into railway trucks; by this
means 12 wagons can be loaded by two men in 1 hour. Band
conveyors are not necessarily fixed in one place. A portable
model has rendered good service in tunnel-cutting, mining and
quarrying. This band is mounted in a light steel frame, itself
fitted with small wheels, so as to be readily put in any required
position, and is entirely self-contained, being provided with
tightening gear, a small motor, &c. If required, several lengths
can be joined together, or one band can deliver upon another
at a lower level. The same advantages that attend the use of
the band-conveyor for handling grain may be claimed for this
appliance when carrying coal and heavy bodies, namely the
demand for relatively small power, smooth and noiseless work,
and gentle handling of material. On the other hand the feed
cannot be withdrawn at intermediate points except by means
of a throw-off carriage. The numerous bearings of the guide
rollers require careful lubrication, and the rubber bands should
be protected as much as possible from changes of temperature.

The metal band or belt conveyor, a modification of the rubber
or canvas band conveyors, is an endless belt composed of iron
plates connected to endless chains, usually of malleable cast iron,
running under the plates. Such appliances, being obviously
more cumbrous than band conveyors, are only used in handling
material of a hard and cutting nature. They usually deliver only
at the end, but if intermediate delivery be desired a scraper may
be so fixed across the band at a given point, at an angle of 45 , as
to scrape the whole or part of the feed into a shoot, or a scraper
may be mounted obliquely on a suitable carriage which can be
moved to any points at which delivery may be required. In
some bands of this type supporting rollers are attached to the
links and travel with them, or are fixed to the framing so that
the band runs over them, an arrangement which has the advan-
tage of economizing driving power and of promoting smooth
running. Metal band conveyors are tightened in the same way
as textile or rubber bands, and may run at a speed of 60 to 1 20
ft. per minute. The driving gear must always be placed at the
delivery terminal, so that the loaded strand is in tension. Such
appliances are often used as sorting tables or picking bands, for
instance, for coal, cement, minerals, &c.

In another modification ' of the metal band conveyor, the
travelling trough conveyor, the sides of each plate are turned up

so as to form the conveying surface of the band into a continuous
trough. With this arrangement intermediate delivery is im-
possible, as the sides of the trough will not allow the use of a
scraper. As compared with push-plate conveyors (which consist
of scrapers mounted on endless travelling chains that run usually
in troughs), travelling trough conveyors are gentle handlers of
material.

A conveyor which is capable of dealing with many different
kinds of material is known as the vibrating trough conveyor.
It is so far like the band and travelling trough conveyor that
the material it conveys from one point to another is conveyed
without the use of any stirring or pushing agent, such as belong
to worm, push-plate and cable trough conveyors. For materials
requiring gentle treatment, this type of conveyor is eminently
suitable. There are different kinds of vibrating trough conveyors .
In one type the trough is caused to make a reciprocating motion
by means of a crank and connecting rod, the trough itself being
supported on rollers. In another type the trough is actuated
by a cam, or by cranks with some kind of quick return motion.
In the appliance known as the- Zimmer or swinging conveyor
the trough is supported in its reciprocating motion by means
of laminated spring legs set obliquely to the trough. These
legs are securely bolted at one end to the floor or any other
solid support, and at the other end to the trough itself; hence
no lubrication is required, as would be the case with supporting
rollers. Moreover the combined action of the reciprocating
motion of the crank and the rocking of the spring legs has the
effect of causing the material to travel faster in the trough with
a given stroke of the crank than would be the case with any
other support. The material to be conveyed is not carried
along with its support as in the case of a band or travelling
trough conveyor, but is caused to move in a series of hops, to
use popular language.

The action will be sufficiently explained by the appended diagram
(fig. 8), which, however, is exaggerated to give a clearer idea of the
actual movements, which are on quite a small scale. The line AB
represents the bottom of the trough, while C C are two of the spring
legs; the full lines indicate the spring legs at the extreme backward
position of the crank, while the dotted lines show the spring legs
E ... B, ... E 2 ... E 3
.fV.-:. ..':--Q.-:. . . S:,py:'... .'-.p.. -

Fig. 8. — Swinging or Zimmer Conveyor.

and bottom of the trough at the extreme forward position of the
crank D. The material to be conveyed, represented by E, is thrown
forward by the forward movement of the crank, and describes a short
parabolic curve; it is thrown at about a right angle to the inclined
legs C C, but before it has time to complete its parabolic course, the
trough has been moved by the crank into its original position. As
soon as tne material has dropped down, the trough makes another
forward movement, whereupon the material is thrown forward
another stage, and this process, which is continually repeated, as
indicated by the letters Ei, E2, E3, has the effect of carrying or
conveying the material in the direction desired. It is important to
note that the actual movement both of trough and material is within
narrow bounds; the horizontal movement of the trough is only
about I in., while the vertical or upward movement is about | in.
The material is conveyed by this vibrating trough with a minimum
of friction, as it is evident that the material is carried forward without
any contact with the trough, while the very nature of the motion
precludes injurious friction between the particles themselves. When
the trough is full the material will move as it were in a solid mass.

An important improvement in this type of vibrating trough
conveyor is the balanced conveyor, in which the trough is made
in two sections, one being placed at a slightly lower level than the
other, so that one-half may deliver into the other half. The two
sections are driven by triple or quadruple cranks set at an angle
of about 180 to one another. In this case one-half of the conveyor
will move forward while the other moves backward, thus balancing
each other (fig. 9). At the same time the material keeps moving
in the same direction because all the spring legs are of the same
inclination. It is usual to drive balanced conveyors at or near the
centre of their length, but they -may also be driven from one end,

56

CONVEYORS

in which case Vrte balancing of the conveyor would be effected by
a powerful volute spring which is compressed and released by a crank
and connecting rod, in place of being connected to one-half of the
conveyor. Two sections of a Zimmer conveyor can be made to run
in opposite directions by merely reversing the inclination of the
spring legs; in, such a case the sections of a trough would be con-
nected by a flexible coupling. Conveyors of this type have been
used in lengths up to 500 ft., and in widths of over 6 ft. The feed
can be received or discharged at any desired point in the length;
for drawing off material at intermediate points it is only necessary
to open a slide in the bottom of the trough. If a great increase be
desired in the capacity of this conveyor the connecting rod may be
attached, not to the trough at all, but to the spring legs at a point
of about a third or half-way from the base, so that the free ends of
the legs can swing the trough backward and forward ; by this means
the stroke is amplified and consequently the capacity is increased,
while the driving power required is practically the same,

The power absorbed by the Zimmer conveyor is comparatively
small ; a length of 100 ft. conveying a load of 50 tons per hour takes
8-75 h.p. With a speed of 300-370 revolutions per minute of the

chain of buckets. But these buckets, unlike elevator buckets,
which are bolted on to a band or chain, are free to move on the
axis on which they are suspended above their centre of gravity.
When the conveyor is at work the buckets will always be in an
upright position, whether the motion be vertical or horizontal.
Each bucket carries its load to the point at which delivery is
required, where an adjustable tippling device is ready to catch
and tilt the bucket, thus emptying it. This type of conveyor is
chiefly used in connexion with coal stores and boiler houses,
where it has undeniable advantages. For instance, in feeding
overhead bunkers a well-designed gravity bucket conveyor may
do the work of (1) a horizontal conveyor in bringing coal from the
railway siding, (2) a vertical elevator in raising it to the bunkers,
and (3) a horizontal conveyor in distributing it to the respective
bunkers. In some cases the returning empty strand of buckets is
used to clear the ashes from under the boilers.

conveyor, the material will traverse 40-70 ft. per minute. The gentle
action of this appliance has caused it to be largely used in dealing
with friable materials, such as coal. The simplicity of the mechan-
ism leaves little to get out of order, and the entire absence of travel-
ling gear, such as supporting rollers, is a valuable feature. The
capacity of the conveyor may be sensibly increased by running it on
a downward gradient, while the capacity will be correspondingly
diminished by working in an upward direction. Among many
purposes for which this type of conveyor has been found suitable
is that of a. drainer in connexion with coal-washing plants. A per-
forated plate at the head will allow the water to escape, while the
coal is carried to the other end. A slight upward slant permits the
water left with the coal to run back and escape. In colliery work
this conveyor makes a suitable picking table. The motion of the
trough, while not so fast as to baffle the pickers, has the advantage
of uniformly spreading the lumps of coal. This apparatus also lends
itself to the grading of coal. All that is necessary is to fit the trough
with a sieve which divides it into an upper and lower deck. The
coarser material passes along the top of the sieve, while the finer
coal, sifted out by the perforations, travels along the bottom of the
trough till discharged. In spite of the gentle propelling action of
this conveyor, it has a thorough sifting action ; a perforated plate
from 10 to 12 ft. long is usually sufficient to separate any desired
grade, and at a certain Belgian colliery a conveyor of this type fitted
with grading sieves feeds seven trucks standing in a row, but each
on a different siding, and each taking coal of a different size. This
conveyor has been found useful both as a drying and cooling appli-
ance. Several substances of a sticky nature, such as moist sugar,
which are difficult to deal with mechanically, can be efficiently
handled by the swinging conveyor.

The gravity or tilting bucket conveyor can be used as a combined
elevator and conveyor. It consists essentially of two endless
chains or ropes held at fixed distances apart by suitable bars
which are fitted with small rollers at each end. Every link, or
second link, carries a bucket, and the whole forms an endless

Conveyors of this type run at a mean rate of 40 ft. per minute,
and if it be desired to attain a given capacity the size of the
buckets must be adapted to the increased load as an increase of
speed for a higher capacity is impracticable. The power absorbed
is not great, the heaviest demand on the motive force being
made by the elevating operation. Such conveyors have the merit
of handling the material gently, while feeding and discharging can
take place at any point. There are many journals to be looked
after, but in the most approved systems thei- lubrication is
effected automatically. Whilst such a plant has the advantage
of requiring only one driving gear, a breakdown at one point of
the installation means the stoppage of the whole.

Among typical conveyors on this system is the Hunt conveyor
(fig. 10), which consists of a double link carrying a series of pivoted
buckets which are free to revolve on their axes at all points, except
at that point at which they discharge. This operation is effected
by a cam action, the buckets on their release righting themselves
and becoming ready for refilling. The driving gear propels the
chain by means of pawls which engage with the cross studs of the
chain and have a central thrusting action. Another well-known
appliance of this type is the pan bucket conveyor. This consists
of a continuous trough built in sections and supported on axles and
guide wheels running on suitable rails. There is one axle to each
section, and in each section of the trough a bucket is pivoted to the
sides. There are several other conveyors of this type, amongst
which the " Tipit " should be mentioned. For the Bousse gravity
conveyor it is claimed that it will go round any curve backwards or
forwards in both planes, and is therefore adaptable for installations
when the typical gravity bucket would be useless. The buckets^ of
this conveyor are coupled together by a link in the middle, which
obviously allows more latitude in negotiating curves than the double
chain of most of the other types.

CONVEYORS

57

Pneumatic Grain Elevators have been employed with good
effect in loading and unloading grain from ships. This method of
conveying grain falls under three systems: (i) the blast system;
(2) the suction system; and (3) the combined blast and suction
system.

In the first system a barge, known as a machinery barge, is
fitted with a steam boiler, a set of air compressing engines, and a
length of flexible piping long enough to reach from any part of
the barge to the farthest corner of the ship to be loaded. A
small pipe, known as the nozzle, is inserted at the inlet end of the
piping, where the grain is taken in, and communicates with the
air compressor at the other end. Compressed air can be ad-
mitted to the nozzle or shut off by a valve. The inlet end of the
flexible pipe is pushed into the grain in the barge, while the other
end is led over the hatches of the vessel to be loaded. As the
compressor is set to work and the valve of the compressed air
supply pipe opened, the air naturally rushes up the pipe and

this through valves into a second receptacle, whence it is con-
veyed to any desired point by flexible pipes. This second tank
is divided into two sections and provided with valves so that the
two sections will alternately be under the influence of blast or
suction. Alternatively the grain is discharged by an automatic
valve from the vacuum tank into the second air-tight chamber
which communicates with the compressed air chamber. From
this section the grain is discharged by an outlet pipe by the
agency of compressed air. A similar system was introduced by
Messrs Haviland & Farmer, who have, however, since abandoned
it on account of difficulties connected with the application of the
blast, which was found to abrade the grain rather severely,
especially at the bends in the pipes. An even greater objection
was the delivery of dust with the grain, which made it impossible
for trimmers to remain in the hold while the elevator was at
work. Messrs Haviland and Farmer now work on the suction
system, in which they claim to have introduced several improve-

escapes at the other end which is lying over the ship's hatchway.
If the inlet nozzle be immersed in the grain to the depth of 12 to
18 in. the induced atmospheric air will follow the lead of the
compressed air, and drawing the grain around into the inlet
nozzle will carry it up the pipe and deliver it into the hold of the
vessel loading.

In the suction system, which is identified with the name of
F. E. Duckham, the process is somewhat different. An air-tight
•tank or receiver, 8 to 10 ft. in diameter and 10 to 20 ft. high, is
fitted with a hopper bottom, and is erected, if floating, on a barge,
at a sufficient height to allow grain falling from the hopper
bottom, and passing through an air lock, to be delivered by
gravity through a shoot into the vessel being loaded. A pipe
connects the vacuum tank with the exha,ust pumps. Several
flexible pipes of sufficient length to reach any corner of the ship to
be unloaded, may be connected with the vacuum tank. As the
air pumps are set working a partial vacuum is formed within the
tank, and as the nozzle end of the pipe is immersed into the grain
to the depth of a few inches, the air and grain are drawn in at the
mouth of the nozzle and carried along the pipe to the vacuum
tank. The natural expansion of the air then lets the grain drop to
the hopper bottom, whence it issues from an air-lock valve,
while the air is drawn away by a pipe communicating with the
pumps and is thence discharged into the open.

In the third system, or blast and suction combined, the grain
is sucked into a vacuum tank, as just described, and drops from

ments, notably in regard to the purification of the air between the
vacuum chamber and the exhaustors, and in devising a new
automatic air trap.

The first pneumatic suction elevator in Great Britain was
erected at the Millwall docks (London) under the Duckham
patents. At Sulina, on the Lower Danube, a pneumatic elevator
erected on the Haviland-Farmer system, which has undergone
one or two reconstructions, has been proved capable of elevating
160 tons of grain per hour with 375 i.h.p.

The only objection to pneumatic elevators appears to be that of
expense. The cost of installation is relatively heavy, and the
power required for working is large. But in dealing with vessels
carrying heavy cargoes of grain the saving of labour and demur-
rage is sufficient to justify the large outlay of capital required in
ports where there is sufficient grain traffic.

Hot Coke Conveyors. — Hot coke is admittedly one of the most
difficult materials to handle by mechanical means, and though it
might be too much to say that all difficulties have' been sur-
mounted by the engineer, it has, since the end of the 19th century,
been more or less satisfactorily handled by machinery. Even in a
dry state coke is a troublesome material to handle by machinery.
It is of a gritty and rasping nature, and is at the same time very
friable. Unless it is gently handled, breakage is bound to occur
and to result in the making of a certain proportion of fine dust
known as " breeze." Apart from the depreciation in the value of
the coke, this .breeze is a sharp, cutting material, calculated to do

58

CONVEYORS

considerable injury to the working parts of the conveyor, such as
chains, and to the bearings, if it can get inside. Of course the
conveying of the coke in an incandescent condition is another
serious difficulty, as this glowing material .must be quenched by
water, a sufficiently delicate operation in itself. The chief use for
hot coke conveyors has been found in connexion with gas works,
but attempts have also been made to provide efficient machinery
for the service of coke ovens of great capacity.

The justification of any kind of machinery must rest on its
relative efficiency and economy. As compared with some other
materials the mechanical handling of hot coke does not realize
such a striking economy; a hot coke conveyor is expensive to
build — on account of the great wear and tear it must be very
solidly constructed — and it is costly in upkeep. Still in large gas
works the use of machinery for treating glowing coke is economic-

uptake to carry awey the fumes and vapours. These trucks
have been hauled, in lieu of human arms, by endless ropes or even
small locomotives.

The earlier hot coke conveyors were of the pushplale type. The
trough, some 27 in. wide, consisted of cast iron sections, while the
pushplates, formed of malleable castings, were attached at a pitch
of 24 in. to a central chain and were pulled along on a wrought iron
bar, which could be renewed when necessary. These conveyors with
a speed of 48 ft. per minute, had a capacity of some 20 tons per hour.
A conveyor constructed on these lines was installed at the Gathorn
works in 1903. The wear and tear was very great; moreover the
chain, being central, suffered severely from the hot coke, to the
action of which it was directly exposed.

The New Conveyor Company's conveyor consists of a water-tight
trough through which pass closely-fitting tray plates, attached to a
single chain. These plates are joggled down at one end to receive
the flat front part of the succeeding plate, with the aim of excluding

Flue seated

Cross Section

''Water
Trough

Longitudinal Section

Plan

Fig. 11.— Bronder Hot Coke Conveyor.

ally advisable. Exact calculations are not very easy to make,
because while the cost of hand labour in this department of a gas
works is accurately known, the efficiency of different hot coke
conveyors varies. G. E. Stephenson, of the Gathorn gas works,
estimated that a saving of 4! d. per ton had been realized on each
ton of coke conveyed to the yard from the retort house, as
against the same material wheeled in barrows. This saving
represented the difference between the cost of twelve men, who
formerly handled the hot coke with shovels and barrows, and the
cost of one conveyor with the wages of one man to look after it.
In an ordinary way one man would rake out the coke from the
retort mouthpiece into a barrow placed underneath, while a
second man quenched the glowing coke with buckets of water, or
better still with a hose. Then the barrow would be wheeled out
into the yard. Obviously this is a slow and relatively expensive
method, apart from the deleterious fumes arising from the
quenching of the coke. Some improvement was effected by the
substitution for the old hand-barrows of cage-like tipping trucks;
these are run on narrow gauge rails out of the retort house and
the red-hot coke they contain is quenched by a copious spray,
the truck being placed the while over a grating through which the
surplus water is drained away, under an inverted funnel with an

the breeze from the under part of the carrying plate. The chain is
made entirely of steel with side rollers attached to every third plate,
the plates, \ in. thick, are dished in the shape of a tray, which is less
hable'to distortion (from heat) than a flat plate. The speed of travel
is about 45 ft. per minute, while the capacity when handling coke
from 20 ft. retorts is some 30 tons per hour.

A conveyor made by Messrs Graham, Morton & Co., consists of
a travelling tray, the sections of which are joined together by steel
spindles provided with a roller at each end, the latter running on
suitable rails. These sections consist of steel castings with a number
of lateral slots; thus the tray has the appearance of a travelling
grating. To receive the quenching water that escapes through the
grating a trough is placed beneath, and a scraper is used to free the
trough of the dust escaping through the grating.

An interesting conveyor is that of G. A. Bronder, of New York
(fig. 1 1 )_, which has some affinity with the gravity bucket conveyor.
It runs in a water-tight trough which is filled up to a certain height,
the water being slowly circulated by mechanism which resembles
a water wheel. The chain of buckets runs in the trough, the sides
forming the rails for the supporting rollers. The conveyor is covered
in along its whole length, and forms a sort of flue which is connected
at each bench with a number of shoots through which the coke
drops into the conveyor buckets. A pipe of large diameter is con-
nected with an exhaust fan, which draws away the fumes created
by the quenching process, and sends them into a chimney discharg-
ing into the open. The chain and buckets, being carried on rollers
which run on the outer edge of the trough, cannot come in contact

CONVEYORS

59

either with the hot coke or with gritty particles. The chain of
buckets is connected by horseshoe-shaped brackets extending
upwards beyond the sides of the buckets and connected with the
links of the driving chains. When the conveyor is at work the covers
of the mouth-pieces are opened and the coke is fed into the buckets ;
simultaneously the water valves are opened and the glowing coke is
quenched. Any breeze which may have fallen between the buckets
is collected by a scraper and delivered into a tank at one end, while
the propeller wheel draws the water from this tank and drives it
back to the other end of the trough. The top strand is the working
strand and delivers its load at the terminal. One important differ-

Fig. 12. — Wild Coke Conveyor.

ence between an ordinary gravity bucket conveyorand this apparatus
is that the buckets are here rigidly connected to the supporting
wheels.

The West hot coke conveyor consists of a strongly-built trough
in which a single wide chain partly carries and partly drags the coke.
In the trough is a false bottom, the plates of which are loosely fixed
and kept in position by angle irons on which the chain drags. By
two arm-like extensions the links of the chain are widened right
across the trough. The pitch of the chain is 12 in., so that all the
large pieces of coke are more carried than dragged. The speed of
travel is about 40 ft. per minute.

The Wild conveyor (fig. 12) consists of a cast iron or steel trough
24 to 30 in. wide by 9 in. deep, supported by cast iron brackets to
which the rails that support the strands of the chain are secured.
Both chains run outside the trough, and are secured on either side
to the pushplates, so that only the scraper comes in contact with
the hot coke. Every second link of the 12 in. pitch chain carries
a push or scraper-plate, as shown in illustration.

The De Brouwer hot coke conveyor, which is much used in gas
works both in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe, was
invented by a Belgian engineer. Its construction has undergone
many modifications which experience has shown to be desirable.
It consists of a trough of cast or wrought iron, or mild steel, 20 to
36 in. wide and 3 to 6 in. deep. Double endless chains run in the
corners of the trough, the two chains being connected together by
round cross bars set 30 in. apart, so as to form a sort of ladder. The
hot coke is carried or dragged along by these bars. One end of
the trough is closed and the other is bent upwards with a view to
retaining the quenching water. As the hot coke is dragged along
it is subjected to the action of jets of water. The conveyor bars,
which act as scrapers, sweep the water and the coke along the
trough till the point is reached where the latter curves upwards.
Then the water flows back like a small cascade on the half-quenched
coke, which is thus thoroughly extinguished. Considerable inclines
can be negotiated with this conveyor; in some installations on the
continent of Europe angles of 30° to the horizontal have been
surmounted. In a modification of the De Brouwer conveyor, in-
stalled at the Cassel gas works, the bars which form the rungs of
the conveyor were replaced by cast iron rakes. In another modified
form, the work of F. A. Marshall, to be found in the Copenhagen
gas works, sluices are provided for withdrawing an excess of water
at any point in the trough.

In Great Britain a hot coke conveyor has been designed on
similar lines by Messrs R. Dempster & Sons, Ltd. (fig. 13). The
chains are parallel from end to end, and are composed of identical
and interchangeable malleable cast links. Instead of the chains
carrying the rollers, as is often the case, the chains are themselves
carried and guided by flanged rollers supported from the framework.
This arrangement has the advantage of decreasing the weight of the
chain, as neither the rollers nor the lubricators have to be conveyed,
being stationary. The scrapers are of cast steel and have a rake-like
shape with a view to minimize the breakage of coke.

The essential features in a hot coke conveyor are strength and
simplicity, a minimum of wearing parts, interchangeability of
wearing surfaces and of worn and broken parts, protection of
wearing and working parts from contact with the hot coke, and
facilities for keeping the temperature of the conveyor .ts even
as possible, so as to avoid distortion of parts through sudden
changes. To attain these latter conditions, it appears essential
to construct conveyors of the pushplate type. In these the hot
coke is kept continually moving, and thus the good effect is
secured of heating the conveyor from end to end uniformly and
gradually. This applies particularly to gas works conveyors.

Cross Section,
with Water Jacket.

Fig. 13. — Dempster Coke Conveyor.

6o

CONVEYORS

For the service of coke ovens the plate or tray conveyor might
be suitable because more gentle. It must be remembered that
coke oven conveyors must be of large capacity, and moreover
in this case there is more scope for cooling the coke in front of
the oven before it is removed to the conveyor, the work being
all effected in the open.

Elevators. — This term is here confined to its proper meaning
(in English engineering treatises) of a device for raising material
in a vertical or slanting direction by means of buckets attached
to endless belts or chains. Lifts for passengers are also some-
times termed elevators (?.».), and in America the term is
also currently applied to the granary or warehouse in which
grain is stored (see Granaries).

In the bucket elevator, an endless belt or chain runs
over terminal pulleys which are fixed at different levels, the
distance from centre to centre of these pulleys beings known
as the length of the elevator. The design and construction
of the elevator will be varied to suit its purpose. Grain
elevators are invariably cased in wooden or iron trunks, and
the head and foot are also of wood or iron, iron trunks
being particularly used in so-called fire-proof buildings.
The trunk of the grain elevator (fig. 14) is almost always
vertical whilst the band to which the buckets are attached
may consist of leather, cotton, hemp, webbing or other suit-
able substances. When an elevator is intended for lifting
heavy materials, such as coal, coke or cement, it is usually
set at a slant (figs. 15 and 16), and the endless belt is
replaced by one or two strands of endless chain which
support the buckets and run over the terminal sprocket
wheels. The buckets are attached to the links of the
chains, and to prevent these heavy buckets and chains
from sagging in their inclined position, rollers or more
often short skidder bars are fixed to each bucket, sliding
on well-oiled angle bars on each side of the elevator frame.

Both grain and mineral elevators are usually fitted with
tightening gears to keep the belt or chain taut; these are
generally placed at the lower or well end so as not to
interfere with the position of the upper terminal, which is
almost invariably the driven one. The tightening of the
band at the bottom terminal in the elevator well necessarily
alters the space between the terminal pulley and the bottom
of the well. This is of little consequence in grain elevators,
but for elevators intended to handle coal or any material
of varying size the ordinary tightening gear is unsuitable. In
such a case the best plan is to attach the elevator-well to
the terminal in such a way as to go up or down with the
sprocket wheel when the chain is loosened or tightened,
while the foot bracket which supports the well and terminal
spindle remains a fixture. In order to tighten elevator
chains without interfering with either of the terminals,
adjustable jockey pulleys at some suitable point may be
used, and the desired effect can thus be attained by pressing
against the chains and thereby taking up the slack without
any interference with either the feed or delivery end.

Elevator buckets must be proportioned to the size and nature of
the material they are intended to carry, and care must be taken to
maintain a uniform feed. This may readily be effected by adjustable
outlets and spouts for grain and the like, and by certain feeding
devices for handling minerals of uneven size. For instance, an oscil-
lating feed shoot making from 30 to 60 oscillations per minute can be
installed in such a case, and adjusted to deposit at each backward
and forward stroke the exact amount of material adapted to the
capacity of the elevator. The speed of the shoot will naturally vary
with the size of material to be fed. For small coal 60 oscillations
would be about the correct speed; for large coal the speed might
be reduced to 30 or less. Speaking generally, care should always be
taken to prevent an undue rush of feed, that is, more than the
elevator can take up, and if tenacious materials are handled, feeding
devices should be employed provided with stirrers or agitators that
will effectually keep the material moving and prevent any larger
lumps from arching over the feed spout, and thus producing chokes.
Elevators should always be fed from that side on which the buckets
ascend, that the stream of material may meet the elevator buckets
on their upward journey. This will prevent the material from
filling up the elevator well and spare the buckets from dredging
through an accumulation of feed. Elevators erected at an incline

are best fed at a point several feet above the well into the chain of
ascending buckets, as under such conditions little will miss the
buckets and drop into the well.

The reason why grain elevators are set vertically, whereas ele-
vators intended to carry heavy bodies such as coal and ore are
generally inclined at an angle, is that the former can be run at a
much greater velocity than the latter. Grain, for instance, would be
uninjured by a velocity at the delivery end which would fracture
coal and seriously reduce its value, to say nothing of the dust pro-
duction and the damage which would be done to the receiving
spouts and shoots. Elevators carrying a light material can be run
at a circumferential velocity of 250 to 350 ft. per minute, and if

side elevation

Fig. 14.-

CHO ELEVATION.

-Grain Elevator.

vertically set, will throw the grain, &c, clear of the elevator into
the shoot for its reception. On the other hand, elevators handling
heavy material must be set at an angle in order to give a clear de-
livery at a much lower speed of 50 to 60 ft. per minute; in other
words, the elevator is so inclined that the shoot for the reception
of the material can be put underneath the delivering buckets which
slowly disgorge their load. To obtain good results, without taking
up too much space, an elevator carrying heavy material should be
set at 40° to 6o c to the horizontal. The same results can be obtained
if the main portion of the elevator is vertical and only the upper
portion inclined, or so curved as to bring the delivery over the shoot.
The speed at which vertical elevators should be run will depend
on the diameter of the terminal pulley, that is, the pulley over which
the buckets and bands pass. The centrifugal force of pulleys revolv-
ing at the same speed is in direct proportion to their diameters, and
this is twice as much in a 2 ft.- as in a 1 ft. pulley. It may be taken
that the centrifugal force of a pulley will increase in proportion to
the square of its velocity; hence the centrifugal force of a pulley
2 ft. in diameter running at 50 revolutions per minute will be four
times the centrifugal force of a pulley of the same diameter making
only 25 revolutions per minute. It must not be forgotten that to
effect a clean discharge of the buckets of a vertical elevator, the

CONVEYORS

61

centrifugal fqrce must be sufficient- to overcome the gravity of the
material, because the material thrown off the delivery pulley in a
horizontal direction will be more rapidly deflected into a parabolic
curve the higher its specific gravity. It follows that for a specifically
heavy material a greater centrifugal force will be required; that
is to say, the elevator will .
have to be higher speeded
than in dealing with a lighter
material.

Elevator buckets must be
varied according to the nature
of the material; for instance,
shallow buckets will be found
best for a soft and clinging
material such as flour, moist
sugar, sand, small coal, &c,
while for a hard or semi-hard
body such as wheat, coal,

Fig. 15. — Mineral Elevator,
upper terminal.

&c, deeper buckets are prefer-
able. On account of their lower
speed, elevators for specifically
heavy material require much
larger buckets and chains than
grain elevators of the same bulk
capacity. The most economical
form of elevator is fitted with a
continuous chain of buckets.
Such elevators may be con-
structed to carry either grain or
minerals. The advantages are
greatercapacity than an ordinary
elevator of the same dimensions
and a more uniform delivery;
moreover, smoother running is
secured, since the buckets being
close together need not plunge
intermittently through the con-
tents of the elevator-well.

Intermittent Conveyors. — The
elevators we have been considering, whether used for carrying
and distributing coal or grain, have this in common, that
they raise material from a lower to a higher level, so to speak,
in a continuous stream, the continuity being broken only
by the short spaces between the buckets. In the continuous
bucket type indeed the stream of material is practically, if
not absolutely, continuous. In all these cases the elevator
is fed with the material in a continuous stream, and by
some mechanical means; whether by band, worm or shoot,
is immaterial. Elevators of a somewhat different and more
substantial construction may be and are often used for handling
filled sacks, barrels, carcases of animals and other bulky objects,
which cannot be delivered in a uniform stream, but may have
to be conveyed by the elevator intermittently. The ordinary
buckets used for grain or coal are replaced by other appliances
for gripping and holding the object to be raised from a lower to
a higher level, but in principle these appliances are essentially
elevators.

Another kind of elevator, known as a lift or hoist, is used in
mines and quarries and in serving blast furnaces. This is an
elevator with one or two buckets. Essentially a heavy load
lifter, it is intended for material of too large a bulk to be handled
economically by ordinary elevators, and is employed for lifting
in either a vertical or, more often, an inclined direction.

For elevating materials, such as large coal, iron ore, limestone,
&c, which are too large to be fed into ordinary elevators, and

must therefore be handled intermittently, the single bucket
elevator or hoist may be used with advantage. But as the
essential use of mechanical appliances for handling material is
to save human labour as far as possible, that hoist will prove
the most economical the operation of which is as automatic as
possible. The Americans seem to have been pioneers in the
construction of furnace hoists, which form the principal elevators
of this class, but some excellent examples of the modern furnace
hoist are now to be found in Great Britain and elsewhere in
Europe. Generally speaking, a furnace hoist consists of an
inclined iron bridge girder set at an angle to the upright shaft
of the furnace. On this incline are laid rails for the ascent and
descent of the bucket, which in this case is known as a skip and
is provided with suitable wheels, while the hoisting gear manipu-
lating the skips by a steel rope is erected on or near the ground
level. The rails when they approach the upper terminus are
usually bent in a more or less horizontal position so as auto-
matically to tilt and thereby unload the skip. To attain the
same end, the rails supporting the back wheels of the skips may
be bent at the terminus, or the back wheels may have additional
wheels of a larger diameter on the other side of their flanges, so
that during the ascent and descent the skip runs on its four
normal wheels, while at the upper terminus the outer and larger
back wheels engage with short lengths of extra rails and thus
tilt and effect the automatic clearance of the skip. The dead
weight of the skip may be balanced by a counter weight, or
double tracks may be laid, so that the empty skip descends on
one track whilst the loaded_skip is being raised on the other.
In this case the distributing hopper at the top of the furnace has
an elongated shape so as to take the charges
alternately from buckets on either track.
Again, the two tracks may be laid one above
the other, so that one skip runs on the upper

rails and the other on
the lower. The two
buckets will pass each
other at about the
centre of the framing,
where there will be
plenty of room for
clearance.

The capacity of the
skip will of course de-
pend to some extent on the capacity of the furnace, but an
average charge may be put down at 2 tons of ore and lime, or
1 ton of coke. To raise such a charge to a furnace 80 ft. high
would require, assuming no counter weight were used, a motor
of about 100 h.p. On account of the great speed at which

Fig. 16. — Mineral Elevator,
lower terminal.

62

CONVEYORS

the hoist works, the time taken in raising the charged skip,
discharging it, and returning it empty would be only 30 to
40 seconds. The hoist cable runs over guide pulleys placed
at the top of the furnace, and the cable is often manipulated
by an electrically driven winch in a cabin below. The
descent of the empty skip in more modern installations
is utilized to effect an even distribution of the feed from
the hopper to the furnace by causing the hopper to revolve.
To this end the latter is provided with an ingenious mechanism
which only comes into operation as the car descends. After
every charge shot into the hopper the latter is revolved a few
degrees, and this has the effect of giving the delivery of the next
load in another direction, so that the charges of the skip are in
turn distributed over the whole area of the surface. This is
deemed a most essential point in furnace-charging, and it is
not one of the least recommendations of this mechanical system
of furnace-charging that it can give an even feed without any
hand labour whatever. A double hoist has been designed which
has the advantage that if one elevator breaks down the work
of the furnace is not interrupted. In this system two furnaces
are connected at the top by a gantry or bridge, against which,
between the furnaces, two inclined elevators are set, so that
each can serve either furnace. The skips are on wheels and
detachable from the elevator, and are loaded from the ore
pockets at the lower terminal and drawn up on a cradle; as this
reaches the top where the rails on the gantry correspond with
the gauge of the skip or car, the latter is carried by its own
weight down a slight incline to either furnace, discharging its
contents as it passes over the conical mouth. Another advantage
claimed for this system is that the rails of the cradle, when in
its lowest position, correspond with the rails which lie parallel
to the furnaces and run right under the store bins from which
the skip is loaded. The economy to be realized from a furnace
hoist will be in direct proportion to the use made of mechanical
means of feed conveyance. For instance, the store bins in
connexion with such elevators might be economically fed by
suitable conveyors, or the material might be brought in self-
unloading hoppered trucks into conveniently placed bins, ready
to be drawn into the skips.

Ropeways. — A ropeway has been defined as that method of
handling material which consists of drawing buckets on ropes,
and by means of ropes, such buckets being filled with the material
to be handled and being automatically or otherwise discharged.
At what period of history ropeways were first used it is impossible
to say, but the fact that pulley blocks, and even wire ropes, were
known to the ancients, renders a pedigree of 2000 years at least
possible. In more modern days, an old engraving shows a single
ropeway in working order in 1 644 in the city of Danzig. This, the
work of Adam Wybe, a Dutch engineer, was a single ropeway in
its simplest form, consisting of an endless rope passing over
pulleys suspended on posts; to the rope were attached a number
of small buckets, which evidently carried earth from a hill out-
side the city to the rampart inside the moat. The rope was
probably of hemp. Modern ropeways worked with wire ropes
date from about i860, when a ropeway was erected in the Harz
Mountains. Since then several systems have been evolved, but
in the main ropeways may be divided into the single and double
rope class.

The ropeway is essentially an intermittent conveyor, the
material being carried in buckets or skips, and practice has proved
it an economical means of handling heavy material. The prime
cost of a ropeway is usually moderate, though of course it varies
with the ground and other local conditions. Working expenses
should be low, because under the supervision of one competent
engineer unskilled labour is quite sufficient. A ropeway may
be carried over ground over which rails could only be laid at
enormous cost. To a certain extent ropeways are independent of
weather conditions, because their working need not be interrupted
even by heavy snowfalls. Their construction is very simple, and
there is little gear to get out of order. Sound workmanship and
good material will ensure a relatively long life. As an instance,
a certain rope in a Spanish ropeway tested new to a breaking

strain of 29} tons was shown after carrying 160,000 tons (in two
years' incessant work) still to possess a breaking strain of 27 \ tons.
The power absorbed by a ropeway is relatively moderate, and
under special conditions may be nil. The only demand it makes
on the superficial area of the ground traversed is the small
emplacements of the standards, which in modern ropeways are
few and far between. Wayleaves, or the permission to erect
standards and run the line over private land, may of course
mean an item in the capital outlay. This circumstance may
have checked ropeway construction in Great Britain, but it must
also be borne in mind that a large portion of that country is
comparatively level and well provided with railways. In
building a ropeway it is essential to take as straight a line as
possible, because curves generally necessitate angle stations,
which mean extra capital and working, cost. On the other hand,
ground that would be difficult for the railway engineer, such as
steep hills, deep valleys and turbulent streams, has no terror for
the ropeway erector. There is a case of a ropeway of a total
length of 5400 ft. with a total difference in altitude of 2000 ft. ; it
is claimed this ground could not be covered by a railway with less
than 1 5 m. of line graded at 1 in 40.

Perhaps the simplest type of a single rope system is an endless
running rope from which the carriers are suspended, and with
which they move by frictional contact. Or the carriers may be
fixed to this rope and move with it. The ropeway itself would
consist of an endless rope running between two drums, one, known
as the driving drum, being provided with power receiving and
transmitting gear, while the drum at the opposite terminal would
be fitted with tightening gear. The endless rope is carried on suitable
pulleys which themselves are supported on standards or trestles
spaced at intervals varying with the nature of the ground. The
rope runs at an average speed of 4 m. per hour, a speed at which
the bucket or skip can automatically unload itself. In the double
ropeway the carrier runs on a fixed rope, which takes the place of
the rails of a railway. The carrier is fitted with running heads fur-
nished with grooved steel wheels. The load is borne by a hanger
pivoted from the carrier, and is conveyed along the rail rope by an
endless hauling rope at an average speed of 4 to 6 m. per hour.
The hauling is operated by driving gear at one end, and controlled
by tightening gear at the other end just as in the single rope system.
Double ropeways have been carried in one section over 18 to 20 m.,
and will transport single loads of 6 cwt. to a ton or more.

Broadly speaking, the single ropeway is not so suitable for heavy
loads and long distances as the double, but in this connexion the
work of Ropeways Limited should be noted, which favours a single
rope system. Their engineer, J. Pearce Roe, introduced multiple
sheaves for supporting the rope at each standard. Thus the rope
may pass over one, two or four sheaves, which are provided with
balance beams that have the advantage of adjusting themselves
to the angle caused by the rope passing over the sheaves, thus
equalizing the pressure over a number of sheaves. A ropeway
erected on this system in Japan spans 4000 yds. of very broken
ground; yet only 17 trestles are used, and as each support is placed
as high as possible, no one is of great height. An altitude of 1 130 ft.
is reached in a distance of 1200 yds. The ropeway has a daily
carrying capacity of 60 tons in one direction and of 30 tons in the
other. Another installation on this system, which serves an iron
mine in Spain, spans 6500 yds. of very rough country, so steep that
in many places the sure-footed mule cannot keep on the track.
This ropeway can deal with 85 tons per hour. The greatest distance
covered by this system, on one section, is 7100 yds., or about 4 m.,
and the carrying capacity is 45 tons per hour.

The motive power required for a ropeway will vary with the
conditions. In cases of descending loads the power generated is
sometimes so considerable as to render it available for driving other
machinery, or it may have to be absorbed by some special brake
device. In a ropeway in Japan of 1800 yds., which runs mostly at
an incline of 1 in l|, the force generated is absorbed by a hydraulic
brake the revolving fan of which drives the water against fixed
vanes which repel and heat it. In this way, 50 h.p. is absorbed
and the speed brought under the control of a hand brake.

Aerial Cableways. — The aerial cableway is a development of
the ropeway, and is a conveyor capable of hoisting and dumping
at any desired point. The load is carried along a trackway
consisting of a single span of suspended cable, which covers a
comparatively short distance. The trackway may either run in a
more or less horizontal direction, i.e. the terminals may be on the
same level, or it may be inclined at such an angle that the load
will descend by gravity. The trackway or rail rope rests upon
saddles of iron or hard wood on the tops of terminal supports,
usually known as towers. These towers may be constructed

CONVEYORS

63

either of wood or iron, and if the exigencies of the work render it
desirable, they may be mounted on trolleys and rails, in which
case the cableway is rendered portable, and can be moved about,
sometimes a great advantage in excavating work. The motive
power may be either steam, gas, or electricity. The motor is
situated in what is termed the head tower, which is sometimes a
little higher than the other or tail tower. Sometimes, but not
frequently, the latter is also fitted with a motor. The span
between the two towers sometimes extends to 2000 ft., but this
is exceptional. Very heavy loads are dealt with, sometimes as
much as 8 tons in a single load. The load, which may be carried
in a skip or a tray, is borne by an apparatus called the carrier,
which is a modification of a running head, consisting of pulleys
and blocks and running along the main cable or trackway. The
carrier is also fitted with pulleys or guides for the dump line.
The carrier is drawn along the main cable by an endless or
hauling rope which passes from the carrier over the head tower
and is wound several times round the drum of the winding engine
to secure frictional hold, then back over the head tower, to the
tail tower, returning to the rear end of the carrier. The hoisting
rope passes from the engine to the fall block for raising the load.
The dump line comes from the other side of the winding engine
drum and passes to a smaller block attached to the rear end of the
skip or tray. The whole weight of the skip is borne by the
hoisting rope, while the dump line comes in slack, but at the
same rate of speed. Whenever it is desired to dump the load,
the dump line is shifted to a section of the drum having a
slightly larger diameter, and being thus drawn in at a higher rate
of speed the load is discharged. The engine is then reversed, and
the carriage brought back for the next load.

This is in outline the mode of operating all cableways. This
appliance has rendered great service as a labour saver in navvy-
ing, quarrying and mining work; in placer-mining, for instance,
cableways have been found very useful when fitted with a self-
filling drag bucket, which will take the place of a great number of
hands. Cableways can be worked at a great speed, but a good
mean speed would be 500 to 750 ft. for conveying and 200 to 300
ft. for hoisting. A cableway used in excavating work in Chicago
was credited with a capacity of 400 to 600 cub. yds. per day at a
total cost of 2d. per yard, including labour, coal, oil, waste, &c.

Coaling Ships at Sea. — In the coaling of ships at sea the cable-
way has rendered great service. The conditions under which
this operation has to be carried out present many difficulties,
especially in rough water. One of the chief obstacles is the
maintenance of the necessary tension on the cable used in
conveying the coal from the collier to the ship. The first test in
coaling ships at sea, made by the British admiralty, took place in
1890 in the Atlantic at a point 500 m. south of the Azores in
water 2000 fathoms deep. Ten ships of war were coaled, each
vessel taking enough coal to enable it to steam back to Torbay,
1800 m. away. In this case the collier was lashed alongside the
battleship it was feeding, thick fenders being interposed to
prevent damage, but nevertheless as the colliers got light they
pitched considerably, and one or two sustained dents in their
sides. The ships did not roll, being kept bows-on to the swell,
which became heavy before the coaling was completed. The
coal was taken in by derricks at the main deck ports. It is
clear that had the sea been really rough coaling in this fashion
would have been impossible.

The most practicable method of coaling at sea yet devised
is the marine cableway of Spencer Miller, which has been tried
with some success in the American navy. It is intended for use
between vessels 350 to 500 ft. apart. The ship being coaled
takes the collier in tow, steaming at the rate of 4 to 8 knots;
it has been found that a speed of five knots in moderately rough
water will keep the cableway taut and maintain a sufficient
distance between the crafts. The collier is fitted with an engine
having double cylinders and double friction drums, which is
placed just abaft the foremast. A steel rope j in. in diameter
is led from one drum over a pulley at the mast head and thence
to a pulley at the head of shear-poles on the vessel being coaled,
and brought back to the other drum. The engine moves in the

same direction all the time and keeps on winding in both the
strands of the conveying rope. Should the two vessels increase
the distance between them during the operation of conveying
the coal bags, of which two, weighing 420 lb each, may be
fastened to the carrier, the extra rope called for is obtained by
slipping the upper strand from the drum; this increases the
speed of the upper cable. On the other hand should the distance
between the vessels be reduced, this operation is reversed, the
speed of the upper strand being reduced. To keep the carriage
steady on its return empty, a rope, known as the sea-anchor
line, is stretched above the two strands of the conveyor line,
and under a pulley on the carriage. This cable is attached to
the vessel, resting on a saddle on the shear head, whence it leads
through the carriage over pulleys at the head of the foremast
and mainmast of the collier, running on astern several hundred
feet into the sea. A drag or sea-anchor, usually made of canvas
and cone-shaped, is attached to the end of this rope. This
anchor is used to support the empty carriage on its return to
the collier. The diameter of the cone's base is graduated to the
speed of the vessels. Thus in a smooth-water test, with a ship
steaming at 6 knots, one 7 ft. in diameter was used, while the
same anchor answered its purpose very well with a ship doing
5 knots in rough water.

The results given by this system of coaling at sea are relatively
satisfactory. Tests made in the United States navy showed
that 20 to 25 tons of coal per hour could be delivered by a collier
to a war-vessel during a moderate gale. As the ship was under
steam all the time and consumed 3 to 4 tons of coal per hour,
the balance of the coal bunkered amounted to between 16 and
20 tons per hour, or say 384 tons in 24 hours. It has been sug-
gested that under service conditions the speed of the towing
vessel might be increased to 8 or 10 knots an hour; this would
of course increase the coal consumption unless the collier pro-
ceeded under her own steam. But in such a case the space
between the two crafts might be diminished, which would have
the effect of causing the cable to sag and of stopping the work,
since the conveyor cable to act properly must be kept taut.
In Great Britain the Temperley Transporter Company have
taken up this method of coaling at sea, working in collaboration
with Spencer Miller, and have introduced several improvements
in detail. Their system has been tried by the British admiralty.

The coaling of a large vessel by this appliance has the advantage
of economizing hand labour. One man is required to work the
hoist on the collier, while 20 men will be in the hold filling the
bags and delivering them to the deck, where 1 5 or so will transfer
the bags to the lift. One or two men suffice for the overhead
work ; their station is in the trestle trees. On board the receiving
ship a few men will be stationed at the shear head to empty the
bags into a canvas shoot, and then return them, while there will
be the usual force of bunker trimmers. A ton of coal per minute
has' been transferred from the collier to the vessel, but for this
capacity the ships must not be too far apart, else the rope would
not remain taut under such loads. During the Russo-Japanese
War, many of the Russian battleships were coaled by means
of aerial cableways. The coaling of vessels in this manner seems
a success, but it would be desirable to increase the carrying
capacity of the cableway or to duplicate the installations.

Telpherage. — A telpher ropeway or cableway may be defined
as a ropeway or cableway worked and controlled electrically,
only a rail rope being required besides the live rail or wire from
which the electric current is taken. Telpherage was devised
by Professor Fleeming Jenkin in 1881, and developed by him
in conjunction with Professors W. E. Ayrton and J. Perry.
The telpher itself consists of a light two-wheeled truck, carrying
the driving motors, which, to avoid gearing or other complicated
mechanism, are usually coupled directly to the axles of the
telpher. Thus the telpher is a self-propelled electric carrier
running on a mono-rail, which, according to the conditions, may
be a steel rail or a steel cable. From the telpher are suspended
carriers which can be adapted to any kind of material. In many
cases the whole load may be suspended from the telpher, or the
load, especially if of some length, may be supported at one end

6 4

CONVOCATION

by a telpher, and at the other end by what is known as a trailer,
or again, two telphers may be installed, one at each end of the
load. The telpher carries a small trolley sheave or bow which
serves to collect the current from a trolley wire stretched a little
above the rail. Frequently the telpher is accompanied by an
attendant who manipulates it, but by dividing the trolley wire
into sections any system of telpherage may be constructed to
work automatically, and by switching off the current from the
section in which the telpher is required to stop it can be brought
to a standstill at any required point. The speed of the telpher
may be readily regulated by the introduction of a resistance
between any section of the line and the supply of electricity.
The speed may be high, as much as 1 500 ft. per minute over the
straight portions of the line, but slackened at curves and loading
stations, or when approaching a terminus. The required power
may be obtained from the mains of an ordinary electric supply
with either direct or alternating current, but the former is
preferable. The mean expenditure of power in a working day
is said to average (including electrical hoisting) 1 H.P. per ton
of average load.

The uses of telpherage are many and various. In factories
and warehouses, where the buildings are scattered, it has been
installed with excellent results. Being essentially an overhead
system, there is a saving of floor space, the ground not being
obstructed by trucks or trolleys. The same reasons which
render ropeways an economical means of handling such material
as coal, ore, stone, slate, &c, between the mine or quarry and
the rail or barge, may be adduced in favour of telpherage. For
the unloading of railway trucks in a crowded goods-yard it
is undoubtedly applicable. Any kind of tipping or hoisting
operations can be automatically effected by its aid, and any
sort of grab may be used in dealing with such materials as sand,
clay or gravel. Telpherage is clearly a labour-saving method
of handling materials, but of course the exact conditions under
which any system is to be used need careful study, while the
economy to be effected by the installation of a telpher line must
to a great extent depend upon the available supply of electrical
energy. (G. F. Z.)

CONVOCATION (Lat. convocatio, a calling together), an
assembly of persons met together in answer to a summons. The
term is more usually applied in a restricted sense to assemblies
of the clergy or of the graduates of certain universities.

In the American Protestant Episcopal Church a convocation
is a voluntary deliberative conference of the clergy; it has no
legislative function, and like the convocation of a university,
assembles primarily to discuss matters of common interest.

In England the name " convocation " is specifically given to
an assembly of the spirituality of the realm of England, which is
summoned by the metropolitan archbishops of Canterbury and of
York respectively, within their ecclesiastical provinces, pursu-
ant to a royal writ, whenever the parliament of the realm is
summoned, and which is also continued or discharged, as the
case may be, whenever the parliament is prorogued or dissolved.
These assemblies consist of two Houses, an upper and lower.
In the upper house sit the archbishops and bishops, and in the
lower the deans and archdeacons of every cathedral, the provost
of Eton College, with one proctor elected by each cathedral
chapter and two by the beneficed clergy in each diocese in the
province of Canterbury (in the province of York two proctors are
elected by each archdeacon), with a prolocutor at their head.
When and how this convocation originated is not historically
clear. This much is known from authentic records, that the
present constitution of the convocation of the prelates and clergy
of the province of Canterbury was recognized as early as in the
eleventh year of the reign of Edward I. (1283) as its normal
constitution; and that in extorting that recognition from the
crown, which the clergy accomplished by refusing to attend
unless summoned in lawful manner (debito modo) through their
metropolitan, the clergy of the province of Canterbury taught the
laity the possibility of maintaining the freedom of the nation
against the encroachments of the royal power. It had been a
provision of the Anglo-Saxon period, the origin of which is

generally referred to the council of Clovesho (747), that the
possessions of the church should be exempt from taxation by the
secular power, and that it should be left to the benevolence of the
clergy to grant such subsidies to the crown from the endowments
of their churches as they should agree to in their own assemblies.
It may be inferred, however, from the language of the various
writs issued by the crown for the collection of the " aids " voted
by the Co mmune Concilium of the realm in the reign of Henry III.,
that the clergy were unable to maintain the exemption of church
property from being taxed to those " aids " during that king's
reig'n; and it was not until some years had elapsed of the reign of
Edward I. that the spirituality succeeded in vindicating their
constitutional privilege of voting in their own assemblies their
free gifts or " benevolences," and in insisting on the crown
observing the lawful form of convoking those assemblies through
the metropolitan of each province.

The form of the royal writ, which it is customary to issue in the
present day to the metropolitan of each province, is identical in
its purport with the writ issued by the crown in 1283 to the
metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, after the clergy
of that province had refused to meet at Northampton in the
previous year, because they had not been summoned in lawful
manner; whilst the mandates issued by the metropolitans in
pursuance of the royal writs, and the citations issued by the
bishops in pursuance of the mandates of their respective metro-
politans, are identical in their purport and form with those used in
summoning the convocation of 1283, which met at the New
Temple in the city of London, and voted a " benevolence " to
the crown, as having been convoked in lawful manner. The
existing constitution of the convocation of the province of
Canterbury — and the same observation will apply to that of the
province of York — in respect of its comprising representatives of
the chapters and of the beneficed clergy, in addition to the
bishops and other dignitaries of the church, would thus appear
to be of even more ancient date than the existing constitution of
the parliament of the realm.

From this period down to the eleventh year of the reign of
Edward III. there were continual contests between the spiritu-
ality of the realm and the crown, — the spirituality contest
contending for their constitutional right to vote their between
subsidies in their provincial convocations; the crown, spMtu-
on the other hand, insisting on the immediate attend- am wnd
ance of the clergy in parliament. The resistance of the
clergy to the innovation of the " praemunientes " clause had so
far prevailed in the reign of Edward II. that the crown consented
to summon the clergy to parliament through their metropolitans,
and a special form of provincial writ was for that purpose framed;
but the clergy protested against this writ, and the struggle was
maintained between the spirituality and the crown until 1337
(n Edward III.), when the crown reverted to the ancient
practice of commanding the metropolitans to call together their
clergy in their provincial assemblies, where their subsidies were
voted in the manner as accustomed before the " praemunientes "
clause was introduced. The " praemunientes " clause, however,
was continued in the parliamentary writs issued to the several
bishops of both provinces, whilst the bishops were permitted to
neglect at their pleasure the execution of the writs.

The history of the convocation of the province of Canterbury,
as at present constituted, is full of stirring incidents, and it
resolves itself readily into five periods. The first
period, by which is meant the first period which dates ad eris«iT
from an epoch of authentic history, is the period of its periods.
greatest freedom, but not of its greatest activity. It
extends from the reign of Edwardl. (1283) to that of Henry VIII.
The second period is the period of its greatest activity and of its
greatest usefulness, and it extends from the twenty-fifth year of
the reign of Henry VIII. to the reign of Charles II. The third
period extends from the fifteenth year of the reign of Charles II.
(1664) to the reign of George I. This was a period of turbulent
activity and little usefulness, and the anarchy of the lower house
of convocation during this period created a strong prejudice
against the revival of convocation in the mind of the laity. The

CONVOCATION

65

fourth period extends from the third year of the reign of George
I. (1716) to the fifteenth year of the reign of Queen Victoria.
This was a period of torpid inactivity, during which it was
customary for convocation to be summoned and to meet pro
forma, and to be continued and prorogued indefinitely. The
fifth period may be considered to have commenced in the fifteenth
year of the reign of Queen Victoria (1852).

During the first of the five periods above mentioned, it would
appear from the records preserved at Lambeth and at York that
the metropolitans frequently convened congregations
period ( s0 ca ll e d) °f their clergy without the authority of a
royal writ, which were constituted precisely as the
convocations were constituted, when the metropolitans were
commanded to call their clergy together pursuant to a writ from
the crown. As soon, however, as King Henry VIII. had obtained
from the clergy their acknowledgment of the supremacy of the
crown in all ecclesiastical causes, he constrained the spirituality
to declare, by what has been termed the Act of Submission on
behalf of the clergy, that the convocation " is, always has been,
and ought to be summoned by authority of a royal writ "; and
this declaration was embodied in a statute of the realm (25 Henry
VIII. c. 19), which further enacted that the convocation " should
thenceforth make no provincial canons, constitutions or ordin-
ances without the royal assent and licence." The spirituality was
thus more closely incorporated than heretofore in the body
politic of the realm, seeing that no deliberations on its part can
take place unless the crown has previously granted its licence for
such deliberations. It had been already provided during this
period by 8 Henry VI. c. 1, that the prelates and other clergy,
with their servants and attendants, when called to the convoca-
tion pursuant to the king's writ, should enjoy the same liberty
and defence in coming, tarrying and returning as the magnates
and the commons of the realm enjoy when summoned to the
king's parliament.

The second period, which dates from 1533 to 1664, has been
distinguished by four important assemblies of the spirituality
of the realm in pursuance of a royal writ — the two
first of which occurred in the reign of Edward VI.,
the third in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the
fourth in the reign of Charles II. The two earliest of these
convocations were summoned to complete the work of the
reformation of the Church of England, which had been begun
by Henry VIII.; the third was called together to reconstruct
that work, which had been marred on the accession of Mary (the
consort of Philip II. of Spain), whilst the fourth was summoned
to re-establish the Church of England, the framework of which
had been demolished during the great rebellion. On all of these
occasions the convocations worked hand in hand with the
parliament of the realm under a licence and with the assent
of the crown. Meanwhile the convocation of 1603 had framed
a body of canons for the governance of the clergy. Another
convocation requires a passing notice, in which certain canons
were drawn up in 1640, but by reason of an irregularity in the
proceedings of this convocation (chiefly, on the ground that
its sessions were continued for some time after the parliament
of the realm had been dissolved), its canons are not held to have
any binding obligation on the clergy. The convocations had
up to this time maintained their liberty of voting the subsidies
of the clergy in the form of " benevolences " separate and apart
from the " aids " granted by the laity in parliament, and one
of the objections taken to the proceedings of the convocation
of 1640 was that it had continued to sit and to vote its subsidies
to the crown after the parliament itself had been dissolved.
It is not, therefore, surprising on the restoration of the monarchy
in 1 66 1 that the spirituality was not anxious to retain the liberty
of taxing itself apart from the laity, seeing that its ancient liberty
was likely to prove of questionable advantage to it. It voted,
however, a benevolence to the crown on the occasion of its first
assembling in 1661 after the restoration of King Charles II.,
and it continued so to do until 1664, when an arrangement was
made between Archbishop Sheldon and Lord Chancellor Hyde,
under which the spirituality silently waived its long-asserted

vii. 3

Second
period.

right of voting its own subsidies to the crown, and submitted itself
thenceforth to be assessed to the " aids " directly granted to the
crown by parliament. An act was accordingly passed
by the parliament in the following year 1665, entitled aoniaa
An act to grant a Royal Aid unto the King's Majesty, compact
to which aid the clergy were assessed by the com-
missioners named in the statute without any objection being
raised on their part or behalf, 1 there being a proviso that in so
contributing the clergy should be relieved of the liability to pay
two subsidies out of four, which had been voted by them in the
convocation of a previous year. In consequence of this practical
renunciation of their separate status, as regards their liability
to taxation, the clergy have assumed and enjoyed in common
with the laity the right of voting at the election of members of
the House of Commons, in virtue of their ecclesiastical freeholds.

The most important and the last work of the convocation
during this second period of its activity was the revision of the
Book of Common Prayer which was completed in the latter
part of 1 66 1.

The Revolution in 1688 is the most important epoch in the
third period of the history of the synodical proceedings of the
spirituality, when the convocation of Canterbury,
having met in 1689 in pursuance of a royal writ, period.
obtained a licence under the great seal, to prepare
certain alterations in the liturgy and in the canons, and to
deliberate on the reformation of the ecclesiastical courts. A
feeling, however, of panic seems*to have come over the Lower
House, which took up a position of violent antagonism to the
Upper House. This circumstance led to the prorogation of
the convocation and to its subsequent discharge without any
practical fruit resulting from the king's licence. Ten years
elapsed during which the convocation was prorogued from time
to time without any meeting of its members for business being
allowed. The next convocation which was permitted to meet
for business, in 1700, was marked by great turbulence and in-
subordination on the part of the members of the Lower House,
who refused to recognize the authority of the archbishop to
prorogue their sessions. This controversy was kept up until
the discharge of the convocation took place concurrently with
the dissolution of the parliament in the autumn of that year.
The proceedings of the Lower House in this convocation were
disfigured by excesses which were clearly violations of the
constitutional order of the convocation. The Lower House
refused to take notice of the archbishop's schedule of prorogation,
and adjourned itself by its own authority, and upon the demise
of the crown it disputed the fact of its sessions having expired,
and as parliament was to continue for a short time, prayed
that its sessions might be continued as a part of the parliament
under the " praemunientes " clause. The next convocation was
summoned in the first year of Queen Anne, when the Lower
House, under the leadership of Dean Aldrich, its prolocutor,
challenged the right of the archbishop to prorogue it, a . lm *
and presented a petition to the queen, praying her Lower
majesty to call the question into her own presence. House to
The question was thereupon examined by the queen's slt / f < ' e ".
council, when the right of the president to prorogue pe " enuy '
both houses of convocation by a schedule of prorogation was held
to be proved, and further, that it could not be altered except
by an act of parliament. During the remaining years of the
reign of Queen Anne the two Houses of convocation were engaged
either in internecine strife, or in censuring sermons or books, as
teaching latitudinarian or heretical doctrines; and, when it had
been assembled concurrently with parliament on the accession
of King George I., a great breach was before long created between
the two houses by the Bangorian controversy. Dr Hoadly,
bishop of Bangor, having preached a sermon before the king,
in the Royal Chapel at St James's Palace in 171 7, against the
principles and practice of the nonjurors, which had been printed

1 It had always been the practice, when the clergy voted their sub-
sidies in their convocation, for parliament to authorize the collection
of each subsidy by the same commissioners who collected the
parliamentary aid.

66

CONVOCATION

Fifth
period*

by the king's command, the Lower House, which was offended
by the sermon and had also been offended by a treatise on the
same subject published by Dr Hoadly in the previous
Baagoriaa vearj i os t n0 time in representing the sermon to the
troversy. Upper House, and in calling for its condemnation. A
controversy thereupon arose between the two houses
which was kept up with untiring energy by the Lower House,
until the convocation was prorogued in 1717 in pursuance of a
royal writ; from which time until 1861 no licence from the crown
was granted to convocation to proceed to business. During
this period, which may be regarded as the fourth distinguishing
period in the history of the convocations of the Church of England,
it was usual for a few members of the convocation to
period. meet when first summoned with every new parliament,
in pursuance of the royal writ, for the Lower House
to elect a prolocutor, and for both houses to vote an address
to the crown, after which the convocation was prorogued from
time to time, pursuant to royal writs, and ultimately discharged
when the parliament was dissolved. There were, however,
several occasions between 171 7 and 1741 when the convocation
of the province of Canterbury transacted certain matters, by
way of consultation, which did not require any licence from the
crown, and there was a short period in its session of 1741 when
there was a probability of its being allowed to resume its de-
liberative functions, as the Lower House had consented to obey
the president's schedule of prorogation; but the Lower House
having declined to receive a communication from the Upper
House, the convocation was forthwith prorogued, from which
time until the middle of the 19th century the convocation was
not permitted by the crown to enjoy any opportunity even for
consultation. The spirituality at last aroused itself from its
long repose in 1852, and on this occasion the Upper House took
the lead. The active spirit of the movement was Samuel Wilber-
force, bishop of Oxford, but the master mind was
Henry Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter. On the convoca-
tion assembling several petitions were presented to
both houses, praying them to take steps to procure from the
crown the necessary licence for their meeting for the despatch
of business, and an address to the Upper House was brought
up from the Lower House, calling the attention of the Upper
House to the reasonableness of the prayer of the various petitions.
After some discussion the Upper House, influenced mainly by
the argument of Henry, bishop of Exeter, consented to receive
the address of the Lower House, and the convocation was there-
upon prorogued, shortly after which it was discharged concur-
rently with the dissolution of parliament. On the assembling
of the next convocation of the province of Canterbury, no royal
writ of exoneration having been sent by the crown to the metro-
politan, the sessions of the convocation were continued for
several days; and from this time forth convocation may be
considered to have resumed its action as a consultative body,
whilst it has also been permitted on more than one occasion
to exercise its functions as a deliberative body. In 1865, under
licence from the crown, the Convocations of Canterbury and
York framed new canons in place of the 36th, 37th, 38th and
40th canons of 1603, and amended the 62nd and 102nd canons
in 1888. In 1872 convocation was empowered by letters of
business from the crown to frame resolutions on the subject of
public worship, which resolutions were afterwards incorporated
in the Act of Uniformity Amendment Act 1872.

As a deliberative body, convocation has done much useful
work, but it suffers considerably from its unrepresentative
nature. The non-beneficed clergy still remain without the
franchise, but the establishment of Houses of Laymen (see
Laymen, Houses of) for both provinces has, to a certain extent,
secured the co-operation of the lay element. Several attempts
have been made to promote legislation to enable the convocations
to reform their constitutions and to enable them to unite for
special purposes; in 1905 a bill was introduced into the House of
Lords. It did not, however, get beyond a first reading. In 1896
a departure was made in holding joint sessions of both convoca-
tions, in conjunction with the two Houses of Laymen, for con-

sultative purposes. This body is now termed the Representative
Church Council, and it adopted a Constitution in November 1905.
All formal business is transacted in the separate convocations.
It is usual for convocation to meet three times a year.

The order of convening the convocation of the province of Canter-
bury is as follows. A writ issues from the crown, addressed to the
metropolitan archbishop of Canterbury, commanding him " by
reason of certain difficult and urgent affairs concerning us, the
security and defence of our Church of England, and the peace and
tranquillity, public good and defence of our kingdom, and our
subjects of the same, to call together with all convenient speed, and
in lawful manner, the several bishops of the province of Canterbury,
and deans of the cathedral churches, and also the archdeacons,
chapters and colleges, and the whole clergy of every diocese of the
said province, to appear before the said metropolitan in the cathedral
church of St Paul, London, on a certain day, or elsewhere, as shall
seem most expedient, to treat of, agree to and conclude upon the
premises and other things, which to them shall then at the same place
be more clearly explained on our behalf." In case the metropolitical
see of Canterbury should be vacant, the writ of the crown is ad-
dressed to the dean and chapter of the metropolitical church of
Canterbury in similar terms, as being the guardians of the spiritu-
alities of the see during a vacancy. Thereupon the metropolitan,
or, as the case may be, the dean and chapter of the metropolitical
church, issue a mandate to the bishop of London, as dean of the
province, and if the bishopric of London should be vacant, then to
the bishop of Winchester as subdean, which embodies the royal writ,
and directs the bishop to cause all the bishops of the province to be
cited, and through them the deans of the cathedral and collegiate
churches, and the archdeacons and other dignitaries of churches, and
each chapter by one, and the clergy of each diocese by two sufficient
proctors, to appear before the metropolitan or his commissary, or,
as the case may be, before the dean and chapter of the metropolitical
church or their commissary, in the chapter-house of the cathedral
church of St Paul, London, if that place be named in the mandate,
or elsewhere, with continuation and prorogation of days next
following, if that should be necessary, to treat upon arduous and
weighty affairs, which shall concern the state and welfare, public
good and defence of this kingdom and the subjects thereof, to be
then and there seriously laid before them, and to give their good
counsel and assistance on the said affairs, and to consent to such
things as shall happen to be wholesomely ordered and appointed
by their common advisement, for the honour of God and the good
of the church.

The provincial dean, or the subdean, as the case may be, there-
upon issues a citation to the several bishops of the province, which
embodies the mandate of the metropolitan or of the dean and chapter
of the metropolitical church, as the case may be, and admonishes
them to appear, and to cite and admonish their clergy, as specified
in the metropolitical mandate, to appear at the time and place
mentioned in the mandate. The bishops thereupon either summon
directly the clergy of their respective dioceses to appear before them
or their commissaries to elect two proctors, or they send a citation
to their archdeacons, according to the custom of the diocese, direct-
ing them to summon the clergy of their respective archdeaconries
to elect a proctor. The practice of each diocese in this matter is
the law of the convocation, and the practice varies indefinitely as
regards the election of proctors to represent the beneficed clergy.
As regards the deans, the bishops send special writs to them to
appear in person, and to cause their chapters to appear severally by
one proctor. Writs also go to every archdeacon, and on the day
named in the royal writ, which is always the day next following
that named in the writ to summon the parliament, the convocation
assembles in the place named in the archbishop's mandate. There-
upon, after the Litany has been sung or said, and a Latin sermon
preached by a preacher appointed by the metropolitan, the clergy
are praeconized or summoned by name to appear before the metro-
politan or his commissary; after which the clergy of the Lower
House are directed to withdraw and elect a prolocutor to be presented
to the metropolitan for his approbation. The convocation thus
constituted resolves itself at its next meeting into two houses, and
it is in a fit state to proceed to business.

The constitution of the convocation of the province of York differs
slightly from that of the convocation of the province of Canterbury,
as each archdeaconry is represented by two proctors, precisely as
in parliament formerly under the Praemunientes clause.

There are some anomalies in the diocesan returns of the two
convocations, but in all such matters the consuetudo of the diocese
is the governing rule.

Bibliography. — Wilkins, Concilia Magnae Britannia etHiberniae
(4 vols, folio, 1737); Gibson, Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani
(2 vols, folio, 1713) ; Johnson, A Collection of all the Ecclesiastical
Laws, Canons and Constitutions of the English Church (2 vols. 8vo,
1720); Gibson, Synodus Anglicana (8vo, 1702, re-edited by Dr
Edward Cardwell, 8vo, 1854); Shower, A Letter to a Convocation
Man concerning the Rights, Powers and Privileges of that Body (4to,
1697); Wake, The Authority of Christian Princes over their Ecclesi-
astical Synods asserted, occasioned by a late Pamphlet intituled A Letter

CONVOLVULACEAE— CONVOY

6 7

to a Convocation Man (8vo, 1697); Atterbury, The Rights, Powers
and Privileges of an English Convocation stated and vindicated in
answer to a late book of Dr Wake's (8vo, 1700); Burnet, Reflections
on a Book intituled The Rights, Powers and Privileges of an English
Convocation stated and vindicated (4to, 1700); Kennet, Ecclesiastical
Synods and Parliamentary Convocations of the Church of England
historically stated and justly vindicated from the Misrepresentation
of Mr Atterbury (8vo, 1701); Atterbury, The Power of the Lower
House of Convocation to adjourn itself (4to, 1701) ; Gibson, The Right
of the Archbishop to continue or prorogue the whole Convocation (4*0,
1701); Kennet, The Case of the Praemunientes (4to, 1701); Hooper,
The Narrative of the Lower House vindicated from the Exceptions of a
Letter, intituled The Right of the Archbishop to continue or prorogue
the Convocation (4to, 1702); Atterbury, The Case of the Schedule
stated (4 to > 1702); Gibson, The Schedule- Reviewed, or the Right of
the Archbishop to continue or prorogue the whole Convocation, cleared
from the Exception of a late Vindication of the Narrative of the Lower
House, and of a Book intituled The Case of the Schedule stated (4to,
1702); Hody, A History of the English Councils and Convocation,
and of the Clergy's sitting in Parliament (8vo, 1702); Wake, The
State of the Church and Clergy of England in their Councils, Synods,
Convocations, Conventions, and other Public Assemblies, occasioned
by a book intituled The Rights, Powers and Privileges of an English
Convocation (fol., 1703); Burnet, History of His Own Time (2 vols,
folio, 1734), re-edited by Dr Martin J. Routh (6 vols. 8vo, 1833);
Hallam, Constitutional History of England (3 vols. 8vo, 1832) ; Card-
well, Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England (2 vols.,
1839); Card well, A History of Conferences and other Proceedings
connected with the revision of the Common Prayer (8vo, 1841); Card-
well, Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of Religion, Canon and Pro-
ceedings of Convocation in the Province of Canterbury (2 vols. 8vo,
1842) ; Lathbury, A History of the Convocation of the Church of Eng-
land (2nd ed., 8vo, 1853); Trevor, The Convocation of the two Pro-
vinces (8vo, 1852); Pearce, The Law relating to Convocations of the
Clergy (8vo, 1848) ; Synodalia, a Journal of Convocation, commenced
in 1852 (8vo); The Chronicle of Convocation, being a record of the
proceedings of the Convocation of Canterbury, commenced in 1863
(8vo). (T. T.; T. A. I.)

CONVOLVULACEAE, a botanical natural order belonging to
the series Tubiflorae of the sympetalous group of Dicotyledons.
It contains about 40 genera with more than 1000 species, and is
found in all parts of the world except the coldest, but is especially
well developed in tropical Asia and tropical America. The most
characteristic members of the order are twining plants with
generally smooth heart-shaped leaves and large showy white or
purple flowers, as, for instance, the greater bindweed of English
hedges, Calystegia septum, and many species of the genus Ipomaea,
the largest of the order, including the " convolvulus major " of
gardens, and morning glory. The creeping or trailing type is a
common one, as in the English bindweed {Convolvulus arvensis),
which has also a tendency to climb, and Calystegia Soldanella,
the sea-bindweed, the long creeping stem of which forms a sand-
binder on English seashores; a widespread and efficient tropical
sand-binder is Ipomaea Pes-Caprae. One of the commonest
tropical weeds, Evolvulus alsinoides, has slender, long-trailing
stems with small leaves and flowers. In hot dry districts such
as Arabia and north-east tropical Africa, genera have been
developed with a low, much-branched, dense, shrubby habit,
with small hairy leaves and very small flowers. An exceptional
type in the order is represented by Humbertia, a native of
Madagascar, which forms a large tree. The dodder (q.v.) is a
genus (Cuscuta) of leafless parasites with slender thread-like
twining stems. The flowers stand singly in the leaf-axils or form
few or many flowered cymose inflorescences; the flowers are
sometimes crowded into small heads. The bracts are usually
scale-like, but sometimes foliaceous, as for instance in Calystegia,
where they are large and envelop the calyx.

The parts of the flower are in fives in calyx, corolla and stamens,
followed by two carpels which unite to form a superior ovary.
The sepals, which are generally free, show much variation in size,
shape and covering, and afford valuable characters for the distinc-
tion of genera or sub-genera. The corolla is generally funnel-
shaped, more rarely bell-shaped or tubular; the outer face is
often marked out in longitudinal areas, five well-defined areas
tapering from base to apex, and marked with longitudinal striae
corresponding to the middle of the petals, and alternating with
five non-striated weaker triangular areas; in the bud the latter
are folded inwards, the stronger areas being exposed and showing
a twist to the right. The slender filaments of the stamens vary

widely, often in the same flower; the anthers are linear to
ovate in shape, attached at the back to the filament, and open
lengthwise. Some importance attaches to the form of the
pollen grains; the two principal forms are ellipsoidal with
longitudinal bands forming the Convolvulus-type, and a spherical
form with a spiny surface known as the Ipomaea-typt. The
ovary is generally two-chambered, with two inverted ovules
standing side by side at the inner angle of each chamber. The
style is simple or branched, and the stigma is linear, capitate or
globose in form; these variations afford means for distinguishing
the different genera. The fruit is usually a capsule opening by
valves; the seeds, where four are developed, are each shaped like
the quadrant of a sphere; the seed-coat is smooth, or sometimes
warty or hairy; the embryo is large with generally broad, folded,
notched or bilobed cotyledons surrounded by a horny endosperm.
Cuscuta has a thread-like, spirally twisted embryo with no trace
of cotyledons.

The large showy flowers are visited by insects for the honey
which is secreted by a ring-like disk below the ovary; large-

Convolvulus sepium, slightly reduced.

1. Flower cut vertically. 4. Embryo taken out of seed.

2. Fruit, slightly reduced. 5. Horizontal plan of arrange-

3. Seed cut lengthwise showing ment of flower.

embryo.

flowered species of Ipomaea with narrow tubes are adapted for the
visits of honey-seeking birds.

The largest genus, Ipomaea, has about 400 species distributed
throughout the warmer parts of the earth. Convolvulus has
about 150 to 200 species, mainly in temperate climates; the
genus is principally developed in the Mediterranean area and
western Asia. Cuscuta contains nearly 100 species in the warmer
and temperate regions; two are native in Britain.

The tubers of Ipomaea Batatas are rich in starch and sugar, and,
as the " sweet potato," form one of the most widely distributed
foods in the warmer parts of the earth. Several members of the
order are used medicinally for the strong purging properties of the
milky juice (latex) which they contain; scammony is the dried
latex from the underground stem of Convolvulus Scammonia, a
native of the Levant, while jalap is the product of the tubercles
of Exogonium Purga, a native of Mexico. Species of Ipomaea
(morning glory), Convolvulus and Calystegia are cultivated as
ornamental plants. Convolvulus arvensis (bindweed) is a pest in
fields and gardens on account of its wide-spreading underground
stem, and many of the dodders (Cuscuta) cause damage to crops.

CONVOY (through the Fr. from late Lat. conviare, to go along
with, from Lat. cum, with, and via, way; " convey " has the
same ultimate origin [see Conveyance], neither word being

68

CONVULSIONS— CONWAY, H. S.

connected, as has sometimes been supposed, with Lat. con-
vehere, to carry together), a verb and noun now almost exclusively-
used in military and naval parlance. As a verb it signifies in the
first instance to accompany or to escort; and in the 17th century
we even hear of cavalry " convoying " infantry, but its meaning
was soon complicated by the growing use of the word " convey "
in the sense of " to carry," and as the usual task of an escort was
that of accompanying and protecting vehicles containing supplies,
the noun " convoy " (Fr. convoi) was introduced and has thence-
forward in land warfare meant a train of vehicles containing
stores for the use of troops and its guard or escort. Sometimes
even the word is found in the meaning of the train of vehicles
without implying that there is an escort, so far has the original
meaning become obscured; but the idea of military protection is
always present, whether this protection is given by a separate
escort or provided by the weapons of the drivers themselves.

In naval warfare the term is used to describe a method
adopted for defending merchant ships against capture. It was
usually applied to the vessels to be protected — as for example
" the Baltic convoy," or " Captain Montray's convoy." Until
the 17th century the English term was " to waft " and the
warship employed to guard the traders on their way was called
" a wafter." The practice of sailing in convoy for mutual
protection was common in the middle ages, when all ships were
more or less armed and the war vessel was not entirely differ-
entiated from the trader. Thus the ships of the great German
confederation of cities known as the Hanseatic League were
required to sail in convoy. So were the six trading squadrons
which sailed yearly from Venice. The masters of all the vessels
were required to obey the authority of an officer who had the
general command. In the 16th century the Spanish trade with
America was compelled by law to sail in convoys (Jlotas) , in order
to avoid the danger of capture by pirates to which single ships
were exposed. In the 17th and 18th centuries the use of convoy
was universal. Dutch, French or British ships were collected at
a rendezvous, and were accompanied by warships till they reached
the point at which they were compelled to separate in order to
go to their various destinations. The main danger was near the
enemy's ports. An example of the way the duty was discharged
may be found in the Newfoundland convoy. They sailed from
England under the direction of a naval officer and the protection
of his ships, commonly a forty- or fifty-gun ship with a smaller
vessel in attendance. The convoy sailed to the banks of
Newfoundland. When they had filled up with stock fish, they
were escorted across the Atlantic by the same officer. He
accompanied those of them bound to the Mediterranean to the
port of Leghorn, and, when they had unloaded and reloaded, saw
them home. All cases were not so simple. The ships engaged in
the East and West India trade, for instance, sailed together. In
the Channel they were protected by the main strength of the
fleet. When beyond the Stilly Islands they were left to the care
of a smaller force, and continued together till in the neighbour-
hood of Madeira, when they separated. Convoys were subject to
attack in two forms, by strong squadrons which overpowered the
guard, and by privateers, corsairs and isolated cruisers. Thb
latter peril was much increased in the case of British commerce by
the reluctance of the merchant captains to obey the naval officers.
They were very much inclined to separate from the convoy as
they approached their destination in the hope of forestalling
rivals. As a natural consequence they were frequently captured
by hostile privateers. French naval officers had authority and
large powers of punishment over merchant skippers. The British
naval officers had not. In 1803-34, on the renewal of the war with
France, the British government saw the necessity for regulating
convoy more strictly than had hitherto been the case. It
therefore passed " an act for the better protection of the trade of
the United Kingdom during the present hostilities with France."
By this act (the 43rd Geo. III. Cap. 57) all vessels not exempted
by special licence were required to sail in convoy and to conform
to strict regulations, under penalties of £1000 (or, when the goods
included government stores, of £1500) and the loss of all claim to
insurance in case of capture. (D. H.)

The object of convoying is to attach an official public character
to the convoyed ships, i.e. a sort of assimilation of them to
the escorting ship or ships of war. Thus European states and
jurists hold that the declaration of the commander of the convoy,
that there is no contraband of war on board the convoyed ships,
pledges the national good faith, and must be assumed to be
correct in the same way as it is assumed that the convoy itself is
carrying no contraband of war. Great Britain has never taken
this view. Down to 1907 she had maintained that it is materially
impossible for any neutral state to exercise the necessary super-
vision to secure absolute accuracy of the ship's papers. Number
29, however, of the instructions given by the government to
the British plenipotentiaries at the Hague Conference of 1907
stated that " H.M. government would ... be glad to see the
right of search limited in every practicable way, e.g. by the adop-
tion of a system of consular certificates declaring the absence of
contraband from the cargo. . . ." As the greater includes the
smaller, we may assume that, if a consular certificate might
suffice to exempt from the exercise of search, the state guarantee
of a convoy would certainly suffice. The London Convention
on the Laws and Customs of Naval War has laid down the rules
as to convoys in the following terms:

Neutral vessels under national convoy are exempt from search.
The commander of a convoy gives, in writing, at the request of the
commander of a belligerent warship, all information as to the
character of the vessels and their cargoes, which could be obtained
by search. — Art. 61.

If the commander of the belligerent warship has reason to suspect
that the confidence of the commander of the convoy has been abused,
he communicates his suspicions to him. In such a case it is for the
commander of the convoy alone to investigate the matter. He must
record the result of such investigation in a report, of which a copy is
handed to the officer of the warship. If, in the opinion of the com-
mander of the convoy, the facts shown in the report justify the cap-
ture of one or more vessels, the protection of the convoy must be
withdrawn from such vessels. — Art. 62. (T. Ba.)

CONVULSIONS, the pathological condition of body associated
with abnormal, violent and spasmodic contractions and relaxa-
tions of the muscles, taking the form of a fit. Convulsions may be
a symptom resulting from various diseases, but the term is
commonly restricted to the infantile variety, occurring in
association with teething, or other causes which upset the child's
nervous system. The treatment (plunging into a hot bath, or
administration of chloroform) must be prompt, as convulsions are
responsible for a large part of infant mortality.

The name " Convulsionaries " (Fr. Convulsionnaires) was
given to certain Jansenist fanatics in France in the 18th century,
owing to the convulsions, regarded by them as proofs of divine
inspiration, which were the result of their religious ecstasies (see
Jansenism). The term " Convulsionists " is sometimes applied
to them, as also, more loosely, to other religious enthusiasts who
exhibit the same symptoms.

CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795), English field
marshal and statesman, was the second son of Francis Seymour,
of Ragley, Warwickshire, who took the name of Conway on
succeeding to the estates of the earl of Conway in 1699 and was
created Baron Conway in 1703 (see Seymour or St Maur).
Henry Seymour Conway's elder brother, Francis, 2nd Baron
Conway, was created marquess of Hertford in 1793; his mother
was a sister of Sir Robert Walpole's wife, and he was therefore
first cousin to Horace Walpole, with whom he was on terms of in-
timate friendship throughout his life. Having entered the army
at an early age, Conway was elected to the Irish parliament in
1 741 as member for Antrim, which he continued to represent
for twenty years; in the same year he became a member of the
English House of Commons, sitting for Higham Ferrers in
Northamptonshire, and he remained in parliament, representing
successively a number of different constituencies, almost without
interruption for more than forty years. Meantime he saw much
service in the army abroad, where he served with conspicuous
bravery and not without distinction. In 1745 he became
aide-de-camp to the duke of Cumberland in Germany, and was
present at Fontenoy; in the following year he had command
of a regiment at Culloden. In 1755 he went to Ireland as secretary

CONWAY, HUGH— CONWAY, SIR W. M.

69

to the lord-lieutenant, a position which he held for one year only;
and on his return to England he received a court appointment,
having already been promoted major-general. In 1757 he was
associated with Sir John Mordaunt in command of an abortive
expedition against Rochfort, the complete failure of which
brought Conway into discredit and involved him in a pamphlet
controversy. In 1759 he became lieutenant-general, and served
under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the campaigns of 1761-
1763. Returning to England he took part in the debates in
parliament on the Wilkes case, in which he opposed the views
of the court, speaking strongly against the legality of general
warrants. His conduct in this matter highly incensed the king,
who insisted on Conway being deprived of his military command
as well as of his appointment in the royal household. His
dismissal along with other officers was the occasion of another
paper controversy in which Conway was defended by Horace
Walpole, and gave rise to much constitutional dispute as to
the right of the king to remove military officers for their conduct
in parliament — a right that was tacitly abandoned by the Crown
when the Rockingham ministry of 1765 reinstated the officers
who had been removed.

In this ministry Conway took office as secretary of state, with
the leadership of the House of Commons. In the dispute with
the American colonies his sympathies were with the latter, and
in 1766 he carried the repeal of the Stamp Act. When in July
of that year Rockingham gave place to Chatham, Conway
retained his office; and when Chatham became incapacitated by
illness he tamely acquiesced in Townshend's reversal of the
American policy which he himself had so actively furthered in
the previous administration. In January 1768, offended by the
growing influence of the Bedford faction which joined the govern-
ment, Conway resigned the seals of office, though he was per-
suaded by the king to remain a member of the cabinet and
" Minister of the House of Commons." When, however, Lord
North became premier in 1770, Conway resigned from the
cabinet and was appointed to the command of the royal regiment
of horse guards; and in 1772 he became governor of Jersey,
the island being twice invaded by the French during his tenure
of command. In 1780 and 1781 he took an active part in opposi-
tion to Lord North's American policy, and it was largely as the
result of his motion on the 22 nd of February in the latter year,
demanding the cessation of the war against the colonies, when
the ministerial majority was reduced to one, that Lord North
resigned office. In the Rockingham government that followed
General Conway became commander-in-chief with a seat in the
cabinet; and he retained office under Shelburne when Rocking-
ham died a few months later. On Pitt's elevation to the premier-
ship, Conway supported Fox in opposition; but after the
dissolution of parliament in 1784 he retired from political life.
He was made field marshal in 1 793,and died at Henley-on-Thames
on the 9th of July 1795. Conway married in 1747 Caroline,
daughter of General Campbell (afterwards duke of Argyll), and
widow of the earl of Aylesbury. He had one daughter, Anne,
who married John Darner, son of Lord Milton, and who inherited
a life interest in Strawberry Hill under the will of Horace Walpole.

Conway was personally one of the most popular men of his
day. He was handsome, conciliatory and agreeable, and a
man of refined taste and untarnished honour. As a soldier he
was a dashing officer, but a poor general. He was weak, vacillat-
ing and ineffective as a politician, lacking in judgment and
decision, and without any great parliamentary talent. In his
later years he dabbled in literature and the drama, and interested
himself in arboriculture in his retirement at Henley-on-Thames.

See Horace Walpole, Letters, edited by P. Cunningham (9 vols.,
London, 1857), many of the letters being addressed to Conway;
Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. (2 vols.,
London, 1822); Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by Sir
D. le Marchant (4 vols., London, 1845); Journal of the Reign of
George III., 1771-1783 (2 vols., London, 1859). See also the duke
of Buckingham and Chandos, Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets
of George III. (4 vols., London, 1853). Much information about
Conway will also be found in the biographies of his leading con-
temporaries, Rockingham, Shelburne, Chatham, Pitt and Fox.

(R.J.M.)

CONWAY, HUGH, the nom-de-plume of Frederick John
Fargus (1847-1885), English novelist, who was born at
Bristol on the 26th of December 1847, the son of an auctioneer.
He was intended for his father's business, but at the age of
thirteen joined the training-ship "Conway" in the Mersey.
In deference to his father's wishes, however, he gave up the idea
of becoming a sailor, and returned to Bristol, where he was
articled to a firm of accountants till on his father's death in
1868 he took over the family business.' While a clerk he had
written the words for various songs, adopting the nom-de-plume
Hugh Conway in memory of his days on the training-ship. Mr
Arrowsmith, the Bristol printer and publisher, took an interest
in his work, and Fargus's first short story appeared in Arrow-
smith's Miscellany. In 1883 Fargus published through Arrow-
smith his first long story, Called Back, of which over 350,000
copies were sold within four years. A dramatic version of this
book was produced in London in 1884, and in this year Fargus
published another story, Dark Days. Ordered to the Riviera
for his health, he caught typhoid fever, and died at Monte Carlo
on the 15th of May r88s. Several other books from his pen
appeared posthumously, notably A Family Affair.

CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832-1907), American
clergyman and author, was born of an old Virginia family in
Stafford county, Virginia, on the 17 th of March 1832. He
graduated at Dickinson College in 1849, studied law for a year,
and then became a Methodist minister in his native state. In
1852, owing largely to the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson,
his religious and political views underwent a radical change, and
he entered the Harvard Divinity School, where he graduated
in 1854. Here he fell under the influence of "transcendentalism,"
and became an outspoken abolitionist. On his return to
Virginia this fact and his rumoured connexion with the attempt
to rescue the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston aroused
the bitter hostility of his old neighbours and friends, and in
consequence he left the state. In 1854-1856 he was pastor of
a Unitarian church at Washington, D.C., but his anti-slavery
views brought about his dismissal. From 1856 to 1861 he was a
Unitarian minister in Cincinnati, Ohio, where, also, he edited
a short-lived liberal periodical called The Dial. Subsequently
he was an editor of the Commonwealth in Boston, Mass., and
wrote The Rejected Stone (1861) and The Golden Hour (1862),
both powerful pleas for emancipation. In 1862-1863, during
the Civil War, he lectured in England in behalf of the North.
From 1863 to 1884 he was the minister of the South Place chapel,
Finsbury, London; and during this time wrote frequently for
the London press. In 1884 he returned to the United States
to devote himself to literary work. In addition to those above
mentioned, his publications include Tracts for To-day (1858),
The Natural History of the Devil (1859), Testimonies Concerning
Slavery (1864), The Earthward Pilgrimage (1870), Republican
Superstitions (1872), Idols and Ideals (1871), Demonology and
Devil Lore (2 vols., 1878), A Necklace of Stories (1879), Thomas
Carlyle (1881), The Wandering Jew (1881), Emerson at Home and
Abroad (1882), Pine and Palm (2 vols., 1887), Life and Papers of
Edmund Randolph (1888), The Life of Thomas Paine with an
unpublished sketch of Paine by William Cobbett (2 vols., 1892),
Solomon and Solomonic Literature (1899), his Autobiography
(2 vols., 1900), and My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East
(r9o6). Conway died on the 15th of November 1907.

CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856- ), English art
critic and mountaineer, son of the Rev. William Conway, after-
wards canon of Westminster, was born at Rochester, and was
educated at Repton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
became interested in early printing and engraving, and in r88o
made a tour of the principal libraries of Europe in pursuit of his
studies, the result appearing in 1884 as a History of the Wood-
cutters of the Netherlands in the Fifteenth Century. His later works
on art included Early Flemish Artists (1887); The Literary
Remains of Albrecht Diirer (1889); The Dawn of Art in the
Ancient World (1891), dealing with Chaldaean, Assyrian and
Egyptian art; Early Tuscan Artists (1902). From 1884 to 1887
he was professor of art at University College, Liverpool; and in

7°

CONWAY— COODE

i 901-1904 he was Slade professor of the fine arts at Cambridge.
He was knighted in 1895. Sir Martin Conway early became a
member of the Alpine Club, of which he was president from 1902
to 1904. In 1892 he beat the climbing record by ascending to a
height of 23,000 ft. in the Himalayas in the course of an exploring
and mountaineering expedition undertaken under the auspices
of the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society and the
British Association. In 1896 -1897 he explored the interior of
Spitsbergen, and in the next year he explored and surveyed the
Bolivian Andes, climbing Sorata (21,500 ft.) and Illimani
(21,200 ft.). He also ascended Aconcagua (23,080 ft.) and
explored Tierra del Fuego. At the Paris exhibition of 1900 he
received the gold medal for mountain surveys, and the founder's
medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1905. His expedi-
tions are described in his Climbing and Exploration in the Kara-
Koram Himalayas {t.?><)\) ,The Alps from End to End (1895), The
First Crossing of Spitsbergen (1897), The Bolivian Andes (1901),
&c; No Man's Land, a History of Spitsbergen from . . . J$g6 . . .
was published in 1906.

CONWAY {Conwy, or Aberconwy) , a municipal borough in the

Arfon parliamentary division of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 14 m.

by the London & North- Western railway from Bangor, and 225

m.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 4681. The town is enclosed

by a high wall, roughly triangular, about 1 m. round, with

twenty-one dilapidated round towers, pierced by three principal

gateways with two strong towers. The castle in the south-east

angle, built in 1284 by Edward I., was inhabited, in 1389, by

Richard II. , who here agreed to abdicate. Held for Charles I. by

Archbishop Williams, it was taken by General Mytton in 1646.

Dismantled by the new proprietor, Earl Conway, it remains a

ruin. It is oblong, with eight massive towers, and has, within, a

hall 130 ft. in length, known as Llewelyn's. The parliamentary

borough of Conway,returning, with five other towns,one member,

extends over to the right bank of the stream Conwy (Conway).

In 1885 the mayor of Conway was made a constable. Llandudno

with Great and Little Orme's Heads are at some 4 m. distance.

Two bridges, a tubular for the railway (40 ft. shorter than that of

the Menai) and a suspension, designed by Stephenson (1846-

1848) and Telford (1822-1826) respectively, cross the stream.

St Mary's church is Gothic; the Elizabethan Plas Mawr is the

locale of the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art. There are still

some fragments of the 1185 Cistercian Abbey. There are golf

links here and at Llandudno. The Conwy stream, on which a

steamboat runs from Deganwy (2 m. below Conway town) to

Trefriw, opposite Llanrwst, in summer, has some coasting trade

in sulphur and slates. It is about 30 m. long, its valley (a

haunt of artists) containing the towns last mentioned and

Bettws y coed. Its pearls are mentioned in Drayton's Polyolbion

and Spenser's Faerie Queene. Pearl fisheries existed at Conway

for many centuries, dating back to the Roman occupation.

Tacitus, Agricola, 12, says of Britain " gignit et Oceanus

margarita, sed subfusca ac liventia," as are those found to-day.

Diganhwy (Dyganwy, Deganwy) is mentioned in the Mabinogion

{Geraint and Enid), if the reading is sound; it is certainly

mentioned in the Annates Cambriae (years 812-822) and in the

Black Book of Caerfyrddin (Carmarthen), xxiii. 1. Caer-hyn, 45

m. from Conway, is on the highroad from London to Holyhead,

and is the Conovium of the Romans. The site of the camp can

still be traced, consisting of a square, strengthened by four

parallel walls, extending to a distance from the main work.

The camp is on a height, with the Conwy in front and a wood on

each flank. At the foot of the hill, near the stream, was a Roman

bath, with walls, pavement and pillars. Camden's Britannia

mentions tiles, with marks of the 10th or Antoninus's legion,

as being found here, perhaps mistakenly. Gleini nadroedd

(possibly amulets) and vitrum have been found here. In Bwlch y

ddwy faen (" two rock ravine "), on the way to Aber, are the

remains of a Roman road and antiquities.

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL (1787-1857), dean of
Llandaff , one of the most distinguished of English geologists, who
was born in London on the 7th of June 1787, was a grandson of
John Conybeare, bishopof Bristol (1692-1755)^ notable preacher

and divine, and son of Dr William Conybeare, rector of Bishops-
gate. Educated first at Westminster school, he went in 1805 to
Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1808 he took his degree of B.A.,
with a first in classics and second in mathematics, and proceeded
to M.A. three years later. Having entered holy orders he
became in 1814 curate of Wardington, near Banbury, and he
accepted also a lectureship at Brislington near Bristol. During
this period he was one of the founders of the Bristol Philosophi-
cal Institution (1822). He was rector of Sully in Glamorganshire
from 1823 to 1836, and vicar of Axminster from 1836 to 1844.
He was appointed Bampton lecturer in 1839, an d was instituted
to the deanery of Llandaff in 1845. Attracted to the study of
geology by the lectures of Dr John Kidd {q.v.) he pursued the
subject with ardour. As soon as he had left college he made
extended journeys in Britain and on the continent, and he
became one of the early members of the Geological Society.
Both Buckland and Sedgwick acknowledged their indebtedness
to him for instruction received when they first began to devote
attention to geology. To the Transactions of the Geological
Society as well as to the Annals of Philosophy and Philosophical
Magazine he contributed many geological memoirs. In 18 21 he
distinguished himself by the description of a skeleton of the
Plesiosaurus, discovered by Mary Anning, and his account has
been confirmed in all main points by subsequent researches.
Among his most important memoirs is that on the south-western
coal district of England,written in conjunction with Dr Buckland,
and published in 1824. He wrote also on the valley of the Thames,
on Elie de Beaumont's theory of mountain-chains, and on the
great landslip which occurred near Lyme Regis in 1839 when
he was vicar of Axminster. His principal work, however, is the
Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (1822) ,being a second
edition of the small work issued by William Phillips {q.v.) and
written in co-operation with that author. The original contribu-
tions of Conybeare formed the principal portion of this edition,
of which only Part I., dealing with the Carboniferous and newer
strata, was published. It affords evidence throughout of the
extensive and accurate knowledge possessed by Conybeare;
and it exercised a marked influence on the progress of geology
in this country. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and a
corresponding member of the Institute of France. In 1844 he
was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of
London. The loss of his eldest son, W. J. Conybeare, preyed on
his mind and hastened his end. He died at Itchenstoke, near
Portsmouth, a few months after his son, on the 12th of August
1857. (Obituary in Gent. Mag. Sept. 1857, p. 335.)

His elder brother John Josias Conybeare (1779-1824), also
educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and an accomplished scholar,
became vicar of Batheaston, and was professor of Anglo-Saxon
and afterwards of poetry at Oxford. He likewise was an ardent
student of geology and communicated several important papers
to the Annals of Philosophy and the Transactions of the Geological
Society of London. (Obituary in Ann. Phil. vol. viii., Sept.
1824, p. 162.)

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN (1815-1857), English divine,
son of Dean W. D. Conybeare, was born on the 1st of August
1815, and was educated at Westminster and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1837. From 1842
to 1848 he was principal of the Liverpool Collegiate Institution,
which he left for the vicarage of Axminster. He published
Essays, Ecclesiastical and Social, in 1856, and a novel, Perversion,
or the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity, but is best known as
the joint author (with J. S. Howson) of The Life and Epistles
of St Paul (1851). He died at Weybridge in 1857.

COODE, SIR JOHN (1816-1892), English engineer, was born
at Bodmin, Cornwall, on the nth of November 18 16, the son
of a solicitor. After considerable experience as an engineer in
the west of England he came to London, and from 1844-1847
had a consulting practice in Westminster. In the latter year
he was appointed resident engineer in charge of the extensive
national harbour works at Portland then in progress. In 1856
he was appointed engineer-in-chief of this undertaking, and this
post he retained till the completion of the works in 1872. His

COOK, A. S.— COOK, CAPTAIN

7*

services at Portland were rewarded with a knighthood. He was
now recognized as the leading authority on harbour construction,
and his advice was sought by many of the colonial governments,
especially by those of South Africa and Australia, and by the
Indian government. After the Portland harbour his best-known
work is the harbour of Colombo, Ceylon. He was made a
K.C.M.G. in 1886. From 1884 till his death he was a member
of the Suez Canal Commission, and' from 1889-1891 president
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He died at Brighton on
the 2nd of March 1892.

COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853- ), American
scholar, was bom on the 6th of March 1853 in Montville, Morris
county, New Jersey. He graduated at Rutgers College in 1872,
and also studied at Gottingen and Leipzig (1877-1878), and,
after spending the years 1879-1881 as associate in English
at Johns Hopkins University, in London, and under Sievers
at Jena, he became in 1882 professor of English in the University
of California, and in 1889 professor of English language and
literature in Yale University. He re-organized the teaching
of English in the state of California, and edited many texts for
reading in secondary schools; but he is best known for his work
in Old English and in poetics. He translated, edited, and
revised Sievers' Old English Grammar (1885), edited Judith
(1888), The Christ of Cynewulf (1900), Asser's Life of King Alfred
(1905), and The Dream of the Rood (1905), and prepared A First
Book in Old English Grammar (1894). He also edited, with
annotations, Sidney's Defense of Poesie (1890); Shelley's Defense
of Poetry (1891); Newman's Poetry (1891); Addison's Criticisms
on Paradise Lost (1892); The Art of Poetry (1892), being the
essays of Horace, Vida and Boileau; and Leigh Hunt's What is
Poetry (1893); and published Higher Study of English (1906).

COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829-1883), English dramatic
critic and author, was born in London on the 30th of January
1829, the son of a solicitor. He was educated at King's College
school, London, and, after four years in his father's office, obtained
a situation in the London office of a railway company, at first
utilizing only his spare time in literary work, but eventually
devoting himself entirely to literature. He was dramatic critic
of the Pall Mall Gazette from 1867 to 1875, and of the World
from 1875 till his death. He also wrote freely on art topics,
and was the author of several novels. He died in London on
the nth of September 1883.

COOK, ELIZA (1818-1889), English author, was born on the
24th of December 1818, in Southwark, being the daughter of a
local tradesman. She was self-taught, and began when a girl
to write poetry for the Weekly Dispatch and New Monthly. In
1838 she published Melaia and other Poems, and from 1849 to
1854 conducted a paper for family reading called Eliza Cook's
Journal. She also published Jottings from my Journal (i860),
and New Echoes (1864); and in 1863 she was given a civil list
pension of £100 a year. As the author of a single poem, " The
Old Armchair," Eliza Cook's name was for a generation after
1838 a household word both in England and in America, her
kindly domestic sentiment making her a great favourite with the
working-class and middle-class public. She died at Wimbledon
on the 23rd of September 1889.

COOK, JAMES (1728-1779), English naval captain and
explorer, was born on the 28th of October 1728, at Marton
village, Cleveland, Yorkshire, where his father was first an
agricultural labourer and then a farm bailiff. At twelve years
of age he was apprenticed to a haberdasher at Staithes, near
Whitby, and afterwards to Messrs Walker, shipowners, of
Whitby, whom he served for years in the Norway, Baltic and
Newcastle trades.

In 175s, having risen to be a mate, Cook joined the royal
navy, and after four years' service was, on the recommendation
of Sir Hugh Palliser, his commander, appointed master suc-
cessively of the sloop " Grampus," of the " Garland " and of the
" Solebay," in the last of which he served in the St Lawrence.
He was employed also in sounding and surveying the river, and
he published a chart of the channel from Quebec to the sea. In
1762 he was present at the recapture of Newfoundland, and was

employed in surveying portions of this coast (especially Placentia
Harbour); in 1763, on Palliser becoming governor of Newfound-
land, Cook was appointed " marine surveyor of the coast of
Newfoundland and Labrador"; this office he held till 1767;
and the volumes of sailing directions he now brought out (1766-
1768) showed remarkable abilities. At the same time he began
to make his reputation as a mathematician and astronomer by
his observation of the solar eclipse of the 5th of August 1766,
at one of the Burgeo Islands, near Cape Ray, and by his account
of the same in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. lvii. pp.
215-216).

In 1768 Cook was appointed to conduct an expedition,
suggested by the revival of geographical interest now noticeable,
and resolved on by the English admiralty at the instance of the
Royal Society, for observing the impending transit of Venus, and
prosecuting geographical researches in the South Pacific Ocean.
For these purposes he received a commission as lieutenant (May
25th), and set sail in the " Endeavour," of 370 tons, accompanied
by several men of science, including Sir Joseph Banks (August
25th). On the 13th of April 1769, he reached Tahiti, where he
observed the transit on the 3rd of June. From Tahiti he sailed in
quest of the great continent then supposed to exist in the South
Pacific, explored the Society Islands, and thence struck to New
Zealand, whose coasts he circumnavigated and examined with
great care for six months, charting them for the first time with
fair accuracy, and especially observing the channel (" Cook
Strait ") which divided the North and South Islands. His
attempts to penetrate to the interior, however, were thwarted by
native hostility. From New Zealand he proceeded to " New
Holland " or Australia, and surveyed with the same minuteness
and accuracy the whole east coast. New South Wales he named
after a supposed resemblance to Glamorganshire; Botany Bay,
sighted on the 28th of April 1770, was so called by the
naturalists of the expedition. On account of the hostility of the
natives his discoveries here also were confined to the coast, of
which he took possession for Great Britain. From Australia
Cook sailed to Batavia, satisfying himself upon the way that (as
Torres had first shown in 1607) New Guinea was in no way an
outlying part of the greater land mass to the south.

Arriving in England, by way of the Cape of Good Hope, on the
1 2th of June, Cook was made a commander, and soon after was
appointed to command another expedition for examining and
determining once for all the question of the supposed great
southern continent. With the " Resolution " of 462 tons, the
"Adventure" (Captain Furneaux) of 330 tons, and 193 men,
he sailed from Plymouth on the 13th of July 1772; he touched at
the Capeof Good Hope, and striking thence south-east (November
22nd) passed the Antarctic Circle (January 16th, 1773), repassed
the same, and made his way to New Zealand (March 26th)
without discovering land. From New Zealand he resumed his
" search for a continent," working up and down across the South
Pacific, and penetrating to 67 31' and again to 71 10' S., with
imminent risk of destruction from floating ice, but with the
satisfaction of disproving the possibility of the disputed con-
tinent in the seas south-eastward of New Zealand. He then
made for Easter Island, whose exact position he determined, for
the first time, with accuracy; noticing and describing the gigantic
statues which Roggewein, the first discoverer of the island, had
made known. In the same manner he accomplished a better
determination and examination of the Marquesas, as well as of
the Tonga or Friendly Islands, than had yet been made; and
after a stay at Tahiti to rest and refit, crossed the central Pacific
to the " New Hebrides," as he renamed Quiros's " Southern
Land of the Holy Spirit " (a name preserved in the modern
island of Espiritu Santo), called by Bougainville the " Great
Cyclades " (Grandes Cyclades), whose position, extent, divisions
and character were now verified as never before. Next followed
the wholly new discoveries of New Caledonia, Norfolk Island,
and the Isle of Pines. Another visit to New Zealand, and yet
another examination of the far southern Pacific, which was
crossed from west to east through the whole of its extent, from
south Australia to Tierra del Fuego, were now undertaken by

72

COOK, THOMAS

Cook before he finally closed his work in refutation of the Ant-
arctic continent, as previously understood, on this side of the
world. The voyage closed with a rapid survey of the " Land of
Fire," the rounding of Cape Horn, the rediscovery of the island
now named Southern Georgia, the discovery of Sandwich Land,
the crossing of the South Atlantic (here also exploding the great
Terra Australis delusion), and visits to the Cape of Good Hope,
St Helena, Ascension, Fernando Noronha and the Azores.
The voyage (reckoning only from the Cape of Good Hope and
back to the same) had covered considerably more than 20,000
leagues, nearly three times the equatorial circumference of the
earth; it left the main outlines of the southern portions of the
globe substantially as they are known to-day; and it showed a
possibility of keeping a number of men for years at sea without a
heavy toll of lives. Cook only lost one man out of 118 in more
than 1000 days; he had conquered scurvy.

The discoverer reached Plymouth on the 25th of July 1775,
and his achievements were promptly, if meanly, rewarded. He
was immediately raised to the rank of post-captain, appointed a
captain in Greenwich hospital, and soon afterwards unanimously
elected a member of the Royal Society, from which he received
the Copley gold medal for the best experimental paper which had
appeared during the year.

Cook's third and last voyage was primarily to settle the
question of the north-west passage, practically abandoned since
before the middle of the 17th century, but now taken up again, as
a matter of scientific interest, by the British government. The
explorer, who had volunteered for this service, was instructed to
sail first into the Pacific through the chain of the newly dis-
covered islands which he had recently visited, and on reaching
New Albion to proceed northward as far as latitude 65° and
endeavour to find a passage to the Atlantic. Several ships were
at the same time fitted out to attempt a passage on the other side
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Sailing from the Nore on the
25th of June 1776 (Plymouth, July 12), with the " Resolution "
and " Discovery," and touching at the Cape of Good Hope,
which he left on the 30th of November, Cook next made Tasmania
and thence passed on to New Zealand and the Tonga and Society
Islands, discovering on his way several of the larger members of
the Hervey or Cook Archipelago, especially Mangaia and Aitutaki
(March 30th- April 4th, 1777) ; some smaller isles of this group he
had already sighted on his second voyage, September 23rd,
1773. From Tahiti, as he moved north towards the main object
of his expedition, he made a far more important discovery, or
rather rediscovery, that of the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands,
the greatest and most remarkable of the Polynesian archipelagos
(early February 1778). These had perhaps first been seen by the
Spanish navigator Gaetano in 1555; but their existence had been
kept a close secret by Spain at the time, and had long been
forgotten. Striking the west American coast in 44° 55' N. on the
7th of March following, he made an almost continuous survey of
the same up to Bering Straits and beyond, as far as 70 41',
where he found the passage barred by a wall, or rather continent,
of ice, rising 12 ft. above water, and stretching as far as the eye
could reach. The farthest point visible on the American shore
(in the extreme north-west of Alaska) he called Icy Cape. On
his way towards Bering Straits he discovered and named King
George's (" Nootka ") and Prince William's Sound, as well as
Cape Prince of Wales, the westernmost extremity of North
America, never yet seen by English navigators, but well known
to Russian explorers, who probably first sighted it in 1648; he
also penetrated into the bay afterwards known as Cook's Inlet
or River, which at first seemed to promise a passage to the
Arctic Seas, to the south-east of the Alaska peninsula. Cook
next visited the Asiatic shores of Bering Straits (the extreme
north-east of Siberia); returning to America, he explored
Norton Sound, north of the Yukon; touched at (Aleutian)
Unalaska, where he met with some Russian-American settlers;
and thence made his way back to the Hawaiian group, which he
had christened after his friend and patron Lord Sandwich, then
head of the British admiralty (January 17th, 1779). Here he
visited Maui and Hawaii itself, whose size and importance he now

first realized, and in one of whose bays (Kealakekua) he met his
death earlyin the morning of the 14th of February 1779. During
the night of the 13th, one of the " Discovery's " boats was stolen
by the natives; and Cook, in order to recover it, made trial of
his favourite expedient of seizing the king's person until repara-
tion should be made. Having landed on the following day with
some marines, a scuffle ensued which compelled the party to
retreat to their boats. Cook was the last to retire; and as he was
nearing the shore he received a blow from behind which felled him
to the ground. He rose immediately, and vigorously resisted the
crowds that pressed upon him, but was soon overpowered.

Had Cook returned from his third voyage, there is ground for
believing King George would have made him a baronet. Dis-
tinguished honours were paid to his memory, both at home and
by foreign courts, and a pension was settled upon his widow.
But in his life a very inadequate share of official reward was
dealt out to the man who not only may be placed first among
British maritime discoverers, but also gave his country her title,
and so her colonies, in Australasia. As a commander, an observer
and a practical physician, his merits were equally great. Re-
ference has been made to his survey work and to his victory over
scurvy; it must not be forgotten that along with a commanding
personal presence, and with sagacity, decision and perseverance
quite extraordinary, went other qualities not less useful to his
work. He won the affection of those who served under him by
sympathy, kindness and unselfish care of others as noteworthy
as his gifts of intellect.

See the Account of a Voyage round the World in 176 0-177 1, by Lieut.
James Cook, in vols. ii. and iii. of Hawkesworth's Voyages (1773);
the Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World . . . in . . .
1772-1775, written by James Cook . . . (1777); a Voyage to the
Pacific Ocean . . . in 1776-1780, vols. i. and ii. written by Cook
(1784); also the Narrative of the Voyages round the World performed
by Captain James Cook, by A. Kippis, D.D., F.R.S. (1788), long the
standard life of the navigator, but now superseded by Arthur
Kitson's Captain James Cook, the Circumnavigator (1907). (C. R. B.)

COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892), English travelling agent, was
born at Melbourne in Derbyshire on the 22nd of November 1808.
Beginning work at the age of ten, he was successively a gardener's
help and a wood-turner at Melbourne, and a printer at Lough-
borough. At the age of twenty he became a Bible-reader and
village missionary for the county of Rutland; but in 1832, on
his marriage, combined his wood-turning business with that
occupation. In 1836 he became a total abstainer, and sub-
sequently became actively associated with the temperance
movement, and printed at his own expense various publications
in its interest, notably the Children's Temperance Magazine
(1840), the first of its kind to appear in England. In June 1841
a large meeting was to be held at Loughborough in connexion
with this movement, and Cook was struck with the idea of getting
the Midland CountiesRailwayCompany to run a special train from
Leicester to the meeting. The company consented, and on the 5 th
of July there were carried 570 passengers from Leicester to Lough-
borough and back at a shilling a head. This is believed to be the
first publicly-advertised excursion train ever run in England —
private " specials," reserved for members of institutes and similar
bodies, were already in use. The event caused great excitement,
and Cook received so many applications to organize similar
parties that he henceforward deserted wood-turning, while
continuing his printing and publishing. The summers of the
next three years were occupied with excursions like the first;
but in 1845 Cook advertised a pleasure-trip on a more extensive
scale, from Leicester to Liverpool and back, with opportunities
for visiting the Isle of Man, Dublin and Welsh coast. A Hand-
book of the Trip to Liverpool was supplied for the use of travellers.
In the previous year Cook had entered into a permanent arrange-
ment with the Midland Railway Company to place trains at
his disposal, for which he should provide the passengers. A
trip to Scotland followed, and the excursionists were received
in Glasgow with music and salute of guns.

The next great impetus to popular travel was given by the
Great Exhibition of 185 1, which Cook helped 163,000 visitors
to attend. On the occasion of the Paris exhibition of 1855 there

COOK ISLANDS— GOOKE, JAY

73

was a Cook's excursion from Leicester to Calais and back for
£i:ios. The following year saw the first grand circular tour
in Europe. This part of Cook's activity largely increased after

1863, when the Scottish railway managers broke off their
engagements with him, and left him free for more distant
enterprise. Switzerland was opened up in 1863, and Italy in

1864. Up to this time " Cook's tourists " had been personally
conducted, but now he began to be an agent for the sale of
English and foreign tickets, the holders of which travelled in-
dependently. Switzerland was the first foreign country accessible
under these conditions, and in 1865 nearly the whole of Europe
was included in the scheme. Its extension to the United States
followed in 1866. For the benefit of visitors to the Paris ex-
hibition, Cook made a fresh departure and leased a hotel there.
In the same year began his system of " hotel-coupons," providing
accommodation at a fixed charge. The year 1869 was marked
by an extension of Cook's tours to Palestine, followed by further
developments of travel in the East, his son, John Mason Cook,
(1834-1899), being appointed in 1870 agent of the khedivial
government for passenger traffic on the Nile. The Franco-
German War of 1870-187 1 was expected to damage the tourist
system, but, as a matter of fact, encouraged it, through the de-
mand for combination, international tickets enabling travellers
to reach the south of Europe without crossing the belligerent
countries. At the termination of the war a party of American
freemasons visited Paris under J. M. Cook's guidance, and became
the precursors of the present vast American tourist traffic. At
the beginning of 1872 J. M. Cook entered into formal partnership
with his father, and the firm first took the name of Thomas
Cook & Son. In 1882, on the outbreak of Arabi Pasha's rebellion,
Thomas Cook & Son were commissioned to convey Sir Garnet
Wolseley and his suite to Egypt, and to transport the wounded
and sick up the Nile by water, for which they received the thanks
of the war office. The firm was again employed in 1 884 to convey
General Gordon to the Sudan, and the whole of the men (18,000)
and stores necessary for the expedition afterwards sent to relieve
him. In 1889 Thomas Cook & Son acquired the exclusive right
of carrying the mails, specie, soldiers and officials of the Egyptian
government along the Nile. In 1891 the firm celebrated its
jubilee, and on the 19th of July of the following year Thomas
Cook died. He had been afflicted with blindness in his declining

- years. His son, J. M. Cook, died in 1899, leaving three sons, all
actively engaged in the business.

COOK or Hervey ISLANDS, an archipelago in the Pacific
Ocean, lying mainly between 155 and 160° E., and about 20 S.;
a dependency of the British colony of New Zealand. It com-
prises nine partly volcanic, partly coralline, islands, the more
important of which are Rarotonga, hilly, fertile and well watered,
with several cones 300 to 400 ft. high, above which towers the
majestic Rarotonga volcano (2920 ft.), the culminating point
of the archipelago; Mangaia (Mangia); Aitutaki, with luxuriant
cocoa-nut palm groves; Atui (Vatui); Mitiero; Mauki;
Fenuaiti; and the two Hervey Islets, which give an alternative
name to the group. The total land area is 1 1 1 sq. m. Owing
to its healthy, equable climate, the archipelago is well suited
for European settlement; but the dangerous fringing coral
reefs render it difficult of access, and it suffers also from the
absence of good harbours. The natives, who are of Polynesian
stock and speech, have legends of their emigration from Samoa.
They say their ancestors found black people on the islands, and
the strongly Melanesian type which is found, especially on
Mangaia, supports the statement. The Cook Islanders were
formerly man-hunters and cannibals, but they now are nearly
all Protestants, wear European dress and live in stone houses.
The total population is about 6200. Since 1890 the islands have
enjoyed a general legislature and an executive council of which
the Arikis (" kings " and " queens ") are members. But all
enactments are subject to the approval of the British resident
at Rarotonga, and a British protectorate, proclaimed in 1888,
was followed by the annexation of the whole archipelago by the
governor of New Zealand, by proclamation of June 10th, 1901.
The archipelago was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777, and

in 1823 became the scene of the remarkable missionary labours
of John Williams, of the London Missionary Society. The
chief products of the group are cocoanuts, fruits, coffee and
copra. Lime-juice and hats are made.

COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK (1756-1811), English actor,
was born in London, and made his first appearance on the stage
in Brentford at the age of twenty as Dumont in Jane Shore.
His first London appearance was at the Haymarket in 1778, but
it was not until 1794 in Dublin, as Othello, that he attained
high rank in his profession. In 1801 he appeared in London as
Richard III., Iago, Shylock and Sir Giles Overreach, and became
the rival of Kemble, with whom, however, and with Mrs Siddons,
he acted from 1803. His intemperate habits unfortunately grew
more and more notorious, and on at least one occasion the curtain
had to be rung down owing to the audience hissing his drunken
condition. He visited the United States in 18 10, and died in
New York on the 26th of September 181 1. A monument to his
memory was erected in St Paul's churchyard there by Edmund
Kean.

COOKE, JAY (1821-1905), American financier, was born at
Sandusky, Ohio, on the 10th of August 182 1, the son of Eleu-
theros Cooke (1787-1864), a pioneer Ohio lawyer, and Whig
member of Congress from that state in 1831-1833. Being
destined for a commercial career, Jay Cooke received a pre-
liminary training in a trading house in St Louis, and in the
booking office of a transportation company in Philadelphia, and
at the age of eighteen entered the Philadelphia house of E.W.
Clark & Company, one of the largest private banking firms in
the country. He showed such aptitude for business that three
years later he was admitted to membership in the firm, and
before he was thirty he was also a partner in the New York and
St Louis branches of the Clarks. In r8s8 he retired from the
firm, and for the next three yearshe devoted himself to reorganiz-
ing some of the abandoned Pennsylvania railways and canals and
placing them again in operation. On the 1st of January 1861 he
opened in Philadelphia the private banking house of Jay Cooke
& Company, and soon achieved signal success in floating at par
a war loan of $3,000,000 for the state of Pennsylvania, whose
credit had become notoriously bad. In the early months of the
Civil War Cooke co-operated with the secretary of the treasury,
Salmon P. Chase, in securing loans from the leading bankers in
the Northern cities, and his own firm was so successful in dis-
tributing treasury notes that Chase engaged him as special agent
for the sale of the $500,000,000 of so-called " five-twenty "
bonds authorized by the act of the 25th of February 1862. To
dispose of these bonds the treasury department had already tried
every regular means at its command and had failed. Cooke
secured the influence of the American press, appointed 2500
sub-agents, and before the machinery he set in motion could be
stopped he had sold $11,000,000 more of bonds than had been
authorized, an excess which Congress immediately sanctioned.
At the same time he used all his influence in favour of the estab-
lishment of national banks, and organized a national bank at
Washington and another at Philadelphia almost as soon as such
institutions were authorized by Congress. In the early months of
1865, when the needs of the government were pressing, and the
sale of the new " seven-thirty " notes by the national banks had
been very disappointing, Cooke's services were again secured.
He sent agents into the remotest villages and hamlets, and even
into the isolated mining camps of the West, and caused the rural
newspapers to praise the loan. As a result, between February and
July 1865 he had disposed of three series of the notes, reaching a
total of $830,000,000. Through these efforts the Union soldiers
were well supplied and well paid while dealing the final blows of
the war; and, later, with money in their pockets, they were
disbanded without difficulty.

After the war Cooke became interested in the development of
the North-west, and in 1870 his firm undertook to finance the
construction of the Northern Pacific railway. In advancing the
money for the work, the firm over-estimated the possibilities of
its capital, and at the approach of the financial crisis of 1873 it
was forced to suspend. By 1880 Cooke had discharged all his

74

COOKE, ROSE TERRY— COOKERY

obligations, and through an investment in a silver mine in Utah
had again become wealthy. He died at Ogontz, Pennsylvania,
on the 18th of February 1905. Cooke was noted for his piety,
and gave regularly a tenth of his income for religious and charit-
able purposes. His handsome estate at Ogontz, which he had
been compelled to give up during his bankruptcy, he later
repurchased and converted into a school for girls.

See E. P. Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, Financier of the Civil War
(Philadelphia, 1907).

COOKE, ROSE TERRY (1827-1892), American writer, nie
Terry, was born at West Hartford, Connecticut, on the 17th of
February 1827. She published in i860 a volume of Poems, but
after her marriage in 1873 to Rollin H. Cooke she was best known
for her fresh and humorous stories, though in 1888 she published
more verse in her Complete Poems. The chief volumes of fiction
dealing mainly with New England country life, produced by
Rose Terry Cooke, were Happy Dodd (1878), Somebody's
Neighbors (1881), Root-bound (1885), The Sphinx's Children
(1886), Steadfast (1889) and Huckleberries (189 1). She died at
Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 18th of July 1892.

COOKERY (Lat. coquus, a cook), the art of preparing and
dressing food of all sorts for human consumption, of converting
the raw materials, by the application of heat or otherwise, into
a digestible and pleasing condition, and generally ministering to
the satisfaction of the appetite and the delight of the palate.
We may take it that some form of cookery has existed from the
earliest times, and its progress has been from the simple to the
elaborate, dominated partly by the foods accessible to man, partly
by the stage of civilization he has attained, and partly by the
appliances at his command for the purpose either of treating the
food, or of consuming it when served.

The developed art of cookery is necessarily a late addition — if
it may be considered to be included at all — to the list of " fine
arts." Originally it is a purely industrial and useful art. Man,
says a French writer, was born a roaster, and " pour ttre cuisinier,
il a besoin de le devenir." The ancients were great eaters, but
strangers to the subtler refinements of the palate. The gods
were supposed to love the smell of fried meat', while their nectar
and ambrosia represented an ideal, which, though preserved as a
phrase, would hardly satisfy a modern epicure. The ancients
were poorly provided with pots and pans, except of a simple
order, or with the appurtenances of a kitchen, and they were
sadly to seek in the requisites v of a modern table. So long as
men ate with their hands no dainty confection was suitable; the
viands were set forth in a straightforward style fit for their
requirements. " Plain cooking," which, after all, can never
become obsolete, was the only sort. Oddities, no doubt, were
the luxuries; and we can see to-day in the ethnological accounts
of contemporary savages and backward civilizations, a fair
representation of the cookeries of the ancients. The luxuries
of the Chinese are, in their way, a survival of long ages of a
cookery which to western civilization is grotesque. Even if it is
an historic impertinence, it is impossible for the countries of
western civilization to regard the fine flower of their own evolu-
tion as other than the highest pitch of progress. Autres temps,
autres mceurs. To the Chinaman French cooking may possibly
be as grotesque as to an Englishman the Chinaman's hundred-
year-old buried egg, black and tasteless. The history of com-
parative cookery is bound up with the physical possibilities of
each country and its products; and if we attempt to mark out
stages in the evolution of cookery as a fine art, it is necessarily as
understood by the so-called civilized peoples of the West in their
culmination at the present day.

It is obvious that opportunity has dominated its history, for
the art of cookery is to some extent the product of an increased
refinement of taste, consequent on culture and increase of wealth.
To this extent it is a decadent art, ministering to the luxury
of man, and to his progressive inclination to be pampered and
have his appetite tickled. It is thus only remotely connected
with the mere necessities of nutrition (q.v.), or the science of
dietetics (?.».). Mere hunger, though the best sauce, will not
produce cookery, which is the art of sauces. For centuries its

elaboration consisted mainly of a progressive variety of foods,
the richest and rarest being sought out; and their nature
depended on what was most difficult to obtain. The Greeks
learnt by contact with Asia to increase the sumptuous character
of their banquets, but we know little enough of their ideas of
gastronomy. Athens was the centre of luxury. According to
our chief authority Athenaeus, Archestratus of Gela, the friend
of the son of Pericles, the guide of Epicurus, and author of the
Heduphagetica, was a great traveller, and took pains to get
information as to how the delicacies of the table were prepared
in different parts. His lost work was versified by Ennius. Other
connoisseurs seem to have been Numenius of Heraclea, Hegemon
of Thasos, Philogenes of Leucas, Simonaclides of Chios, and
Tyndarides of Sicyon. The Romans, emerging from their
pristine simplicity, borrowed from the Greeks their achievements
in'gastronomic pleasure. We read of this or that Roman gourmet,
such as Lucullus, his extravagances and his luxury. The name
of the connoisseur Apicius, after whom a work of the time of
Heliogabalus is called, comes down to us in association with a
manual of cookery. And from Macrobius and Petronius we can
gather very interesting glimpses of the Roman idea of a menu.
In the later empire, tradition still centred round the Roman
cookery favoured by the geographical position of Italy; while
the customs and natural products of the remoter parts of Europe
gradually begin to assert themselves as the middle ages progress.

It is, however, not till the Renaissance, and then too with
Italy as the starting-point, that the history of modern cookery
really begins. Meanwhile cookery may be studied rather in
the architecture of kitchens, and the development of their
appurtenances and personnel, than in any increase in the
subtleties of the art; the ideal was inevitably gross; the end
was feeding — inextricably associated in all ages with cooking,
but as distinct from its fine fleur as gluttony from gastronomy.

Montaigne's references to the revival of cookery in France
by Catherine de' Medici indicate that the new attention paid
to the art was really novel. She brought Italian cooks to Paris
and introduced there a cultured simplicity which was unknown
in France before. It is to the Italians apparently that later
developments are originally due. It is clearly established, for
instance (says Abraham Hay ward in his Art of Dining), that the
Italians introduced ices into France. Fricandeaus were invented
by the chef of Leo X. And Coryate in his Crudities, writing in
the time of James I., says that he was called " furcifer " (evidently
in contemptuous jest) by his friends, from his using those
" Italian neatnesses called forks." The use of the fork and
spoon marked an epoch in the progress of dining, and con-
sequently of cookery.

Under Louis XIV. further advances were made. His mattre
d'hdtel, Bechamel, is famous for his sauce; and Vatel, the great
Conde's cook, was a celebrated artist, of whose suicide in despair
at the tardy arrival of the fish which he had ordered, Madame
de Sevigne relates a moving story. The prince de Soubise,
immortalized by his onion sauce, also had a famous chef.

In England the names of certain cookery-books may be noted,
such as Sir J. Elliott's (1539), Abraham Veale's (1575), and the
Widdowe's Treasure (1625). The Accomplisht Cook, by Robert
May, appeared in 1665, and from its preface we learn that the
author (who speaks disparagingly of French cookery, but more
gratefully of Italian and Spanish) was the son of a cook, and had
studied abroad and under his father (c. 1610) at Lady Dormer's,
and he speaks of that time as " the days wherein were produced
the triumphs and trophies of cookery." From his description
they consisted of most fantastic and elaborately built up dishes,
intended to amuse and startle, no less than to satisfy the appetite
and palate.

Louis XV. was a great gourmet; and his reign saw many
developments in the culinary art. The mayonnaise (originally
mahonnaise) is ascribed to the due de Richelieu. Such dishes
as " potage a la Xavier," " cailles a la Mirepoix," " chartreuses
a la Mauconseil," " poulets d, la Villeroy," " potage a la Condi,"
" gigot a la Mailly," owe their titles to celebrities of the day,
and the Pompadour gave her name to various others. The

COOKERY

75

Jesuits Brunoy and Bougeant, who wrote a preface to a con-
temporary treatise on cookery (1739). described the modern
art as " more simple, more appropriate, and more cunning,
than that of old days," giving the ingredients the same union
as painters give to colours, and harmonizing all the tastes.
The very phrase " cordon bleu " (strictly applied only to a woman
cook) arose from an enthusiastic recognition of female merit
by the king himself. Madame du Barry, piqued at his opinion
that only a man could cook to perfection, had a dinner prepared
for him by a cuisiniere with such success that the delighted
monarch demanded that the artist should be named, in order
that so precious a cuisinier might be engaged for the royal
household. " Allons done, la France! " retorted the ex-grisette,
" have I caught you at last ? It is no cuisinier at all, but a
cuisiniere, and I demand a recompense for her worthy both of
her and of your majesty. Your royal bounty has made my
negro, Zamore, governor of Luciennes, and I cannot accept
less than a cordon bleu " (the Royal Order of the Saint Esprit)
" for my cuisiniere."

The French Revolution was temporarily a blow to Parisian
cookery, as to everything else of the ancien regime. " Not a
single turbot in the market," was the lament of Grimod de la
Reyniere, the great gourmet, and author of the Manuel des
amphitryons (1808). But while it fell heavily on the class of
noble amphitryons it had one remarkable effect on the art
which was epoch-making. It is from that time that we notice
the rise of the Parisian restaurants. To 1770 is ascribed the first
of these, the Champ d'oiseau in the rue des Poulies. In 1789
there were a hundred. In 1804 (when the Almanack des gour-
mands, the first sustained effort at investing gastronomy with
the dignity of an art, was started) there were between 500
and 600. And in 1814, to such an extent had the restaurants
at'tracted the culinary talent of Paris, that the allied monarchs,
on arriving there, had to contract with the two brothers Very
for the supply of their table. Among the great gastronomic
names of Napoleon's day was that of his chancellor Cambaceres,
of whose dinners many stories are told. Robert (the eponym
of the sauce Robert), Rechaud and Merillion were at this period
esteemed the Raphael, Michelangelo and Rubens of cookery;
while A. Beauvilliers (author of Art des cuisines) and Careme
(author of the Maitre d'hotel fran(ais, and chef at different
times to the Tsar Alexander I., Talleyrand, George IV. and
Baron Rothschild) were no less celebrated. 1 Perhaps the greatest
name of all in the history of the literature of cookery is that of
Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), the French judge and
authorof the Physiologic dugout (1825), the classic of gastronomy.

In England Louis Eustache Ude, Charles Elme Francatelli,
and Alexis Soyer carried on the tradition, all being not only cooks
but authors of treatises on the art. The Original (1835) of
Thomas Walker, the Lambeth police magistrate, is another work
which has inspired later pens. Like the Physiologie du gout, it is
no mere cookery-book, but a compound of observation and
philosophy. Among simple hand-books, Mrs Glasse's, Dr
Kitchener's and Mrs Rundell's were standard English works in
the 1 8th and early 19th centuries; and in France the Cuisiniere
de la campagne (1818) went through edition after edition. An
interesting old English work is Dr Pegge's Forme ofCury (1780),
which includes some historical reflections on the subject. " We
have some good families in England," he says, " of the name of
Cook or Coke. . . . Depend upon it, they all originally sprang
from real professional cooks, and they need not be ashamed of
their extraction any more than Porters, Butlers, &c." He points
out that cooks in early days were of some importance; William
the Conqueror bestowed land on his coquorum praepositus and
coquus regius; and Domesday Book records the bestowal of a
manor on Robert Argyllon, by the service of a dish called " de
la Groute" on the king's coronation day.

At the present time, whatever the local varieties of cooking,
and the difference of national custom, French cooking is ad-
mittedly the ideal of the culinary art, directly we leave the plain

1 See Lady S. O. Morgan's France, 1829-1830, ii. 414, for an
account of a dinner by Cargme.

roast and boiled. And the spread of cosmopolitan hotels and
restaurants over England, America and the European continent,
has largely accustomed the whole civilized world to the Parisian
type. The improvements in the appliances and appurtenances of
the kitchen have made the whole world kin in the arts of dining,
but the French chef remains the typical master of his craft.
Schools of cookery have been added to the educational machine.
The literature of the subject has passed beyond enumeration.

It is unnecessary here to pursue so vast a practical subject into
detail; but the following notes on broiling, roasting, baking,
boiling, stewing and frying may be useful.

Broiling. — The earliest method of cooking was probably burying
seeds and flesh in hot ashes, a kind of broiling on all the surfaces at
the same time, which when properly done is the most delicate kind
of cooking. Broiling is now done over a clear fire extending at least
2 in. beyond the edges of the gridiron, which should slightly incline
towards the cook. It is usual to rub the bars with a piece of suet
for meat, and chalk for fish, to prevent the thing broiled from being
marked with the bars of the gridiron. In this kind of cookery the
object is to coagulate as quickly as possible all the albumen on the
surface, and seal up the pores of the meat so as to keep in all the
juices and flavour. It is, therefore, necessary thoroughly to warm
the gridiron before putting on the meat, or the heat of the fire is
conducted away while the juices and flavour of the meat run into
the fire. Broiling is a simple kind of cookery, and one well suited
to invalids and persons of delicate appetites. There is no other way
in which small quantities of meat can be so well and so quickly
cooked. Broiling cannot be well done in front of an open fire, because
one side of the meat is exposed to a current of cold air. A pair of
tongs should be used instead of a fork for turning all broiled meat
and fish.

Roasting.' — Two conditions are necessary for good roasting — a
clear bright fire and frequent basting. Next to boiling or stewing
it is the most economical method of cooking. The meat at first
should be placed close to a brisk fire for five minutes to coagulate
the albumen. It should then be drawn back a short distance and
roasted slowly. If a meat screen be used, it should be placed before
the fire to be moderately heated before the meat is put to roast.
The centre of gravity of the fire should be a little above the centre
of gravity of the joint. No kitchen can be complete without an
open range, for it is almost impossible to have a properly roasted
joint in closed kitcheners. The heat radiated from a good open fire
quickly coagulates the albumen on the surface, and thus to a large
extent prevents that which is fluid in the interior from solidifying.
The connective tissue which unites the fibres is gradually converted
into gelatin, and rendered easily soluble. The fibrin and albumen
appear to undergo a higher oxidation and are more readily dissolved.
The fat cells are gradually broken, and the liquid fat unites to a small
extent with the chloride of sodium and the tribasic phosphate of
sodium contained in the serum of the blood. It is easily seen that
roasting by coagulating the external albumen keeps together the
most valuable parts of the meat, till they have gradually and slowly
undergone the desired change. This surface coagulation is not
sufficient to prevent the free access of the oxygen of the surrounding
air. The empyreumatic oils generated on the surface are neither
wholesome nor agreeable, and these are perhaps better removed by
roasting than any other method except broiling. The chief object
is to retain as much as possible all the sapid juicy properties of the
meat, so that at the first cut the gravy flows out of a rich reddish
colour, and this can only be accomplished by a quick coagulation
of the surface albumen. The time for roasting varies slightly with
the kind of meat and the size of the joint. As a rule beef and mutton
require a quarter of an hour to the pound; veal and pork about
17 minutes to the pound. To tell whether the joint is done, press
the fleshy part with a spoon ; if the meat yield easily it is done.

Baking meat is in many respects objectionable, and should never
be done if any other method is available. The gradual disuse of
open grates for roasting has led to a practice of first baking and then
browning before the fire. This method completely reverses the true
order of cooking by beginning with the lowest temperature and
finishing with the highest. Baked meat has never the delicate
flavour of roast meat, nor is it so digestible. The vapours given off
by the charring of the surface cannot freely escape, and the meat
is cooked in an atmosphere charged with empyreumatic oil. A
brick or earthenware oven is preferable to iron, because the porous
nature of the bricks absorbs a good deal of the vapour. When
potatoes are baked with meat, they should always be first parboiled,
because they take a longer time to bake, and the moisture rising from
the potatoes retards the process of baking, and makes the meat
sodden. A baked meat pie, though not always very digestible, is far
less objectionable than plain baked meat. In the case of a meat pie
the surfaces of the meat are protected by a bad conductor of heat
from that charring of the surface which generates empyreumatic
vapours, and the fat and gravy, gradually rising in temperature,
assist the cooking, and such cooking more nearly resembles stewing
than baking. The process may go on for a long time after the re-
moval of the meat from the oven, if surrounded with flannel, or some

7 6

COOKSTOWN— COOLGARDIE

bad conductor of heat. The Cornish pasty is the best example of this
kind of cooking. Meat, fish, game, parboiled vegetables, apples or
anything that fancy suggests, are surrounded with a thick flour and
water crust and slowly baked. When removed from the oven, and
packed in layers of flannel, the pasty will keep hot for hours. When
baked dishes contain eggs, it should be remembered that the albumen
becomes harder and more insoluble, according to the_ time occupied
in cooking. About the same time is required for baking as roasting.

Boiling is one of the easiest methods of cooking, but a suc-
cessful result depends on a number of conditions which, though
they appear trifling, are nevertheless necessary. The fire must be
watched so as properly to regulate the heat. The saucepan should
be scrupulously clean and have a closely-fitting lid, and be large
enough to hold sufficient water to well cover and surround the meat,
and all scum should be removed as it comes to the surface; the
addition of small quantities of cold water will assist the rising of the
scum. For all cooking purposes clean rain water is to be preferred.
Among cooks a great difference of opinion exists as to whether meat
should be put into cold water and gradually brought to the boiling
point, or should be put into boiling water. This, like many other
unsettled questions in cookery, is best decided by careful scientific
experiment and observation. If a piece of meat be put into water
at a temperature of 60°, and gradually raised to 212°, the meat is
undergoing a gradual loss of its soluble and nutritious properties,
which are dissolved in the water. From the surface to the interior
the albumen is partially dissolved out of the meat, the fibres become
hard and stringy, and the thinner the piece of meat the greater the
loss of all those sapid constituents which make boiled meat savoury,
juicy and palatable. To put meat into cold water is clearly the best
method for making soups and broth ; it is the French method of
preparing the pot au feu; but the meat at the end of the operation
has lost much of that juicy sapid property which makes boiled meat
so acceptable. The practice of soaking fresh meat in cold water
before cooking is for the same reasons highly objectionable; if
necessary, wipe it with a clean cloth. But in the case of salted,
smoked and dried meats soaking for several hours is indispensable,
and the water should be occasionally changed. The other method
of boiling meat has the authority of Baron Liebig, who recommends
putting the meat into water when in a 'state of ebullition, and after
five minutes the saucepan is to be drawn aside, and the contents
kept at a temperature of 162 (50° below boiling). The effect of
boiling water is to coagulate the albumen on the surface of the meat,
which prevents.but not entirely, the juices from passingintothe water,
and meat thus boiled has more flavour and has lost much less in
weight. To obtain well-flavoured boiled meat the idea of soups or
broth must be a secondary consideration. It is, however, impossible
to cook a piece of meat in water without extracting some of its juices
and nutriment, and the liquor should in both cases be made into a
soup.

Stewing. — When meat is slowly cooked in a close vessel it is said
to be stewed; this method is generally adopted in the preparation
of made dishes. Different kinds of meat may be used, or only one
kind according to taste. The better the meat the better the stew;
but by carefully stewing the coarsest and roughest parts will become
soft, tender and digestible, which would not be possible by any other
kind of cooking. Odd pieces of meat and trimmings and bones can
often be purchased cheaply, and may be turned into good food by
stewing. Bones, although containing little meat, contain from
39 to 49 % of gelatin. The large bones should be broken into small
pieces, and allowed to simmer till every piece is white and dry.
Gelatin is largely used both in the form of jellies and soups. Lean
meat, free from blood, is best for stewing, and, when cut into con-
venient pieces, it should be slightly browned in a little butter or
dripping. Constant attention is necessary during this process, to
prevent burning. The meat should be covered with soft water or,
better, a little stock, and set aside to simmer for four or five hours,
according to the nature of the material. When vegetables are used,
these should also be slightly browned and added at intervals, so as
not materially to lower the temperature. Stews may be thickened
by the addition of pearl barley, sago, rice, potatoes, oatmeal, flour,
&c, and flavoured with herbs and condiments according to taste.
Although stewing is usually done in a stewpan or saucepan with a
close-fitting cover, a good stone jar, with a well-fitting lid, is prefer-
able in the homes of working people. This is better than a metal
saucepan, and can be more easily kept clean; it retains the heat
longer, and can be placed in the oven or covered with hot ashes.
The common red jar is not suitable; it does not stand the heat so
well as a grey jar; and the red glaze inside often gives way in the
presence of salt. The lid of a vessel used for stewing should be re-
moved as little as possible. An occasional shake will prevent the
meat from sticking. At the end of the operation all the fat should be
carefully removed.

Frying. — Lard, oil, butter, or dripping may be used for frying.
There are two methods of frying — the dry method, as in frying a
pancake, and the wet method, as when the thing fried is immersed
in a bath of hot fat. In the former case a frying pan is used, in the
other a frying kettle or stewpan. It is usual for most things to have
a wire frying basket ; the things to be fried are placed in the basket
and immersed at the proper temperature in the hot fat. The fat
should gradually rise in temperature over a slow fire till it attains

nearly 400° Fahr. Great care is required to fry properly. If the tem-
perature is too low the things immersed in the fat are not fried,
but soddened; if, on the other hand, the temperature is too high,
they are charred. The temperature of the fat varies slightly with
the nature of things to be fried. Fish, cutlets, croquets, rissoles and
fritters are well fried at a temperature of 380 Fahr. Potatoes, chops
and white bait are better fried at a temperature of 400 ° Fahr. Care
must be taken not to lower the temperature too much by introducing
too many things. The most successful frying is when the fat rises
two or three degrees during the frying. Fried things should be of a
golden brown colour, crisp and free from fat. When fat or oil has
been used for fish it must be kept for fish. It is customary first to
use fat for croquets, rissoles, fritters and other delicate things, and
then to take it for fish. Everything fried in fat should be placed
on bibulous paper to absorb any fat on the surfaces.

COOKSTOWN, a market town of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the
east parliamentary division, 54 m. W. by N. of Belfast, on
branches of the Great Northern and the Northern Counties
(Midland) railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3531. It
consists principally of a single street of great length, and lies in
a pleasant, well-wooded district, near the Ballinderry river.
It has important manufactures of linen, and some agricultural
trade. It was founded in 1609, the landlord, Allan Cook, giving
name to it. The mansion of Killymoon Castle, in the vicinity,
is a notable example of the work of a celebrated architect, John
Nash (c. 1800).

COOKTOWN, a seaport of Banks county, Queensland,
Australia, at the mouth of the Endeavour river, about 1050 m.
direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. It is visited by the ocean steamers
of several lines, and is the centre of a very extensive beche-de-mer
and pearl fishery. Tin and gold are worked in the district, in
which also good coffee and rice are grown. Cooktown is the port
of the Palmer gold-fields, and a railway runs to Laura on the
gold-fields, 67 m. W. by S. of Cooktown. It is the chief
port of Queensland for the New Guinea trade; and is also
the seat of a Roman Catholic vicariate apostolic whose bishop
has jurisdiction over the whole of Queensland north of lat.
1 8° 50'. In 1770 Captain Cook here beached his ship the
" Endeavour," to repair the damage caused by her striking a
reef in the neighbourhood of the estuary, which he could only
clear by throwing his guns overboard. Cooktown became a
municipality in 1876. The population of the town and district
in 1901 was 1936.

COOKWORTHY, WILLIAM (1705-1780), English potter,
famous for his discovery of the existence of china-clay and china-
stone in Cornwall, and as the first manufacturer of a porcelain
similar in nature to the Chinese, from English materials, was
born at Kingsbridge, Devon, of Quaker parents who were in
humble circumstances. At the age of fourteen he was appren^
ticed to a London apothecary named Bevans, and he afterwards
returned to the neighbourhood of his birthplace, and carried
on business at Plymouth with the co-operation of his master,
under the title of Bevans & Cook worthy. The manufacture of
porcelain was at the time attracting great attention in England,
and while the factories at Bow, Chelsea, Worcester and Derby
were introducing the artificial glassy porcelain, Cookworthy,
following the accounts of Pere d'Entrecolles, spent many years
In searching for English materials similar to those used by the
Chinese. From 1745 onwards he seems to have travelled over
the greater portion of Cornwall and Devon in search of these
minerals, and he finally located them in the parish of St Stephen's
near to St Austell. With a certain amount of financial assistance
from Mr Thomas Pitt of Boconnoc (afterwards Lord Camelford)
he established the Plymouth China Factory at least as early as
1768. The factory was removed to Bristol about 1770, and the
business was afterwards sold to Richard Champion and others
and became the well-known Bristol Porcelain Manufactory.
Apart from its historic interest there is little to be said for the
Plymouth porcelain. Technically it was often imperfect, and
its artistic treatment was never of a high order. But Cookworthy
deserves to be remembered for his discovery of those abundant
supplies of English clay and rocks which form the foundation
of English porcelain and fine earthenware (see Ceramics).

COOLGARDIE, a municipal town in Western Australia,
310 m. by rail E. by N. of Perth, and 528 m. by rail N.E. of

COOLIE

77

Albany. Pop. (1901) 4249. Its gold-fields were discovered in
1891 and are among the richest in the colony. Lignite, copper,
graphite and silver are also found. Toorak and Montana are
small residential suburbs. A remarkable engineering work by
which a full supply of water was brought to the town from
Fremantle (a distance exceeding 330 m. direct) was completed
in 1903.

COOLIE, or Cooly (from Koli or Kuli, an aboriginal race of
western India; or perhaps from Tamil kuli, hire, i.e. one hired),
a term generally applied to Asiatic labourers belonging to
the unskilled class as opposed to the artisan, and employed in a
special sense to designate those natives of India and China who
leave their country under contracts of service to work as labourers
abroad. After the abolition of slavery much difficulty was
found in obtaining cheap labour for tropical plantations. The
emancipated black was unwilling to engage in field labour,
while the white man was physically incapable of so doing.
Recourse was had to the overpeopled empires of China and
India, as the most likely sources from which to obtain that
supply of workers upon which the very existence of some colonies,
notably in the West Indies, depended.

The first public recognition of the coolie traffic was in 1844,
when the British colony of Guiana made provision for the
encouragement of Chinese immigration. About the
cooties" same time both Peru and Cuba began to look to China
as likely to furnish an efficient substitute for the
negro bondsman. Agents armed with consular commissions
from Peru appeared in Chinese ports, where they collected and
sent away shiploads of coolies. Each one was bound to serve
the Peruvian planter to whom he might be assigned for seven
or eight years, at fixed wages, generally about 17s. a month,
food, clothes and lodging being provided. From 1847 to 1854
coolie emigration went on briskly without attracting much
notice, but it gradually came to light that circumstances of great
cruelty attended the trade. The transport ships were badly
equipped and overcrowded, and many coolies died before the
end of the voyage. On arrival in Cuba or Peru the survivors were
sold by auction in the open market to the highest bidders, who
held them virtually as slaves for seven years instead of for life.
Particularly terrible was the lot of those who, contrary to their
agreements, had been sent to labour in the foul guano pits of
the Chincha islands, where they were forced to toil in gangs,
each under the charge of an overseer armed with a cowhide lash.
In i860 it was calculated that of the four thousand coolies who
had been fraudulently consigned to the guano pits of Peru not
one had survived. The greater number of them had committed
suicide. In i8s<> the British governor of Hong-Kong issued a
proclamation forbidding British subjects or vessels to engage
in the transport of coolies to the Chinchas. Technically this was
ultra vires on his part, but his policy was confirmed by the Chinese
Passengers' Act 1855, which put an end to the more abominable
nhase of the traffic. After that no British ship was allowed to
sail on more than a week's voyage with more than twenty coolies
on board, unless her master had complied with certain very
stringent regulations.

The consequence of this was that the business of shipping
coolies for Peru was transferred to the Portuguese settlement
of Macao. There the Peruvian and Cuban "labour-agents"
established depots, which they unblushingly called "barracoons,"
the very term used in the West African slave trade. In these
places coolies were " received," or in plain words, imprisoned
and kept under close guard until a sufficient number were
collected for export. Some of these were decoyed by fraudulent
promises of profitable employment. Others were kidnapped
by piratical junks hired to scour the neighbouring coasts. Many
were bought from leaders of turbulent native factions, only too
glad to sell the prisoners they captured whilst waging their
internecine wars. The procurador or registrar-general of Macao
went through the form of certifying the contracts; but his
inspection was practically useless. After the war of 1856-1857
this masked slave trade pushed its agencies into Whampoa
and Canton. In April 1859, however, the whole mercantile

community of the latter port rose up in indignation against it,
and transmitted such strong representations to the British
embassy in China, that steps were taken to mitigate the evil.
New regulations were from time to time passed by the Portuguese
authorities for the purpose of minimizing the horrors of the
Macao trade. They seem, however, to have been systematically
evaded, and to have been practicallyinoperative. At Canton and
Hong-Kong the coolie trade was put under various regulations,
which in the latter port worked well only when the profits of
" head-money " were ruined. In March 1866 the representatives
of the governments of France, England and China drew up a
convention for the regulation of the Canton trade, which had
an unfortunate effect. It left head-money, the source of most
of the abuses, comparatively untouched. It enacted that
every coolie must at the end of a five years' engagement have
his return passage-money paid to him. The West Indian colonies
at once objected to this. They wanted permanent not temporary
settlers. They could not afford to burden the coolie's expensive
contract with return passage-money, so they declined to accept
emigrants on these terms. Thus a legalized coolie trade between
the West Indies and China was extinguished. Thereafter the
coolie supply for British colonies was drawn exclusively from
India, until 1904, when an exception was made in the case of
the Transvaal. Under a convention drawn up in that year
between the United Kingdom and China over fifty thousand
indentured Chinese labourers were engaged on three years'
contracts to work in the Witwatersrand gold mines (see
Transvaal). To the Malay states and other parts of eastern
Asia there is an extensive yearly migration of Chinese coolies.
This migration, however, is not under contract. From Amoy
alone some seventy-five thousand coolies yearly migrate to
Singapore and the Straits Settlements, whence they are drafted
for labour purposes in every direction.

It is scarcely possible to say when the Indian coolie trade began.
Before the end of the 18th century Tamil labourers from southern
India were wont to emigrate to the Straits Settlements,
and they also flocked to Tenasserim from the other "ooUls
side of the Bay of Bengal after the conquest had
produced a demand for labour. The first regularly recorded
attempt at organizing coolie emigration from India took place
in 1834, when forty coolies were exported to Mauritius; but it
was not until 1836 that the Indian government decided to put
the trade under official regulations. In 1837 an emigration law
was passed for all the territories of the East India Company,
providing that a permit must be obtained from government
for every shipment of coolies, that all contracts should terminate
in five years, that a return passage should be guaranteed, that
the terms of his contract should be carefully explained to each
coolie, and that the emigrant ship should only carry one coolie
for every ton and a half of burden. Then as now the Indian
government watched the deportation of labour from their
dominions with jealous and anxious care, and when in 1838 it
was found that upwards of twenty-five thousand natives had,
up to that year, gone from all parts of India to Mauritius, the
government became somewhat alarmed at the dimensions
which the traffic was assuming. Brougham and the anti-slavery
party denounced the trade as a revival of slavery, and the
Bengal government suspended it in order to investigate its
alleged abuses. The nature of these may be guessed when it is
said that the inquiry condemned the fraudulent methods of
recruiting then in vogue, and the brutal treatment which coolies
often received from ship captains and masters. In 1842 steps
were taken formally to reopen the coolie trade with Mauritius,
and in 1844 emigration to the West Indies was sanctioned by
the Indian government. In 1847 Ceylon was separated from
India, and her labour supply was cut off; but this accident was
soon remedied, the Ceylon government adopting protective
regulations for the coolies.

Emigration of coolies under contract to labour outside India
is now regulated by the Emigration Act of 1883 and the rules
issued under its provisions, the only exceptions being in re-
spect of emigrants to Ceylon and the Straits Settlements and

7 8

COOMA— COOPER, A.

adjoining states, or those engaged by the British government
for employment in east and central Africa. By section 8 of this
act natives of India are permitted to emigrate under
Modern labour contracts only to such countries as have
TionsV satisfied the government of India that sufficient pro-
vision is made for the protection of the emigrants. A
country which is duly empowered under the act to receive
emigrants may appoint an agent, residing in India, who is
responsible for the due observance of the provisions of the law.
These agents are under the general supervision of the protector
of emigrants. As emigrants have to be recruited at great
distances from the port of embarkation, recruiters are appointed
by the agents and licensed by the protector. The conduct of
these subordinates is minutely regulated. Every precaution
is taken to let the emigrant know the exact terms on which
he is hired, and to ensure good treatment in the interval between
registration and embarkation. Coolies are shipped for the
most part from Calcutta and Madras, but of recent years large
numbers bound for Mombasa and the Seychelles left from
Bombay and Karachi. Both the coolies themselves and the
depot are medically inspected. Only those physically fit are
allowed to embark. The vessels for their conveyance are
licensed and inspected by the local government. The terms
on which emigrants are recruited are settled beforehand by
convention with the colonies concerned, and are embodied in
ordinances passed by the local legislatures. They vary in detail,
but their main provisions relate to the rights and obligations
of the emigrants, including the grant of a return passage on the
expiry of a specified period, usually ten years. The British
colonies to which coolies were exported in the decade 1891-1901
were British Guiana, Trinidad, St Lucia, Jamaica, Mauritius,
the Seychelles Islands, Fiji, East Africa and Natal; the only
non-British country was Dutch Guiana. Emigration to the
French colonies, including Reunion has been forbidden by the
government of India since 1886, but there still remain in those
colonies some of the former emigrants, and the questions of their
treatment and repatriation have frequently formed the subject
of representations to the French authorities.

The number of Indian coolies resident in the various British
colonies in 1900 was 625,000, of which the largest numbers were
265,000 in Mauritius and 125,000 in British Guiana.
British There were still 13,800 in Reunion. The regulations
colonies, governing coolie labour in British Guiana may be taken
as typical for the British colonies generally. They are
contained in the Labour Ordinance of 1873, which was amended
by the ordinances of 1875, 1876, 1886 and 1887. Under these
ordinances an immigration agent-general is appointed, to whom
medical officers and recruiting agents are responsible, and the
emigrants are allotted by him to the separate estates. They
regulate the hours of work, the rate of wages, and the general
treatment of the coolies, the nature of house and hospital
accommodation, the terms of re-enlistment and the conditions of
marriage amongst the coolies themselves. The coolies returning
from the British colonies to India in 1901 possessed average
savings of £19.

During the construction of the Uganda railway large numbers
of coolies were recruited in the Punjab and exported from
British Karachi to Mombasa. During the decade 1891-1901
East and the number of these emigrants was 33,000; but on the
South completion of the line the emigration practically
AMca. stopped, while in 1901-1902 there were over 6000
emigrants who returned to India. Some, however, settled
in East Africa. Coolies are also exported for government em-
ployment in Nyasaland. In Natal the Indian population had
by 1904 reached over 100,000 and slightly outnumbered the
whites. Many of the coolies had become permanent residents in
the colony (see Natal).

According to the census of 1901 there were 775,844 foreigners
in Assam, of whom no fewer than 645,000 or 83% were brought
into the province as garden coolies. The recruiting of these
coolies is regulated by Act VI. of 1901, which provides that a
labour agreement may be entered into for four years, and includes

a penal clause, under which a coolie deserting or refusing to work
may be punished with imprisonment. The coolies can also give
an agreement under Act XIII. of 1859, by which they Assam
are only liable to civil action for breach of contract. Ceylon
The latter are called non-act coolies. This system of '"*
immigration has made tea-planting the most important Burma.
industry in Assam, and has greatly increased the prosperity of
the province. Migration to Ceylon and Burma takes place
chiefly from the Madras ports, and is of a seasonal and temporary
character. The tea estates and pearl fisheries of Ceylon, and the
town work and harvesting in Burma attract large numbers of
Tamil labourers. The respective numbers embarking in 1901
were 117,000 for Ceylon, 84,000 for Burma and 27,000 for the
Straits Settlements. In Ceylon there is no system of recruitment
like that for the Assam tea-gardens. The coolies come in gangs,
each under its own headman, with whom the planter deals
exclusively, leaving him to make his own arrangements with the
individual coolies. The coolies are mostly carried in small
sailing vessels from the ports of Madura and Tanjore, and the
number who permanently settle in Ceylon is not very great.

See E. Jenkins, The Coolie; his Rights and Wrongs (1871);
J. L. A. Hope, In Quest of Coolies (1872); and C. B. Grose, The
Labour Ordinances (Georgetown, 1890). (C. L.)

COOMA, a town of Beresford county, New South Wales,
Australia, 264 m. by rail S.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 1938.
The town is the centre of a pastoral district and has a large trade
in furs, while at Bushy Hill, a mile from the town, is a small
gold-field. Cooma, which is pleasantly situated at an elevation
of 2657 ft-, is the tourist centre for visitors to the Yarrangobilly
Caves and Mount Kosciusko and its observatory. The caves are
distant 65 m. from the town, situated in the side of a hill, over-
looking the Yarrangobilly river; they are seven in number and of
remarkable beauty and extent.

COOPER, ABRAHAM (1787-1868), English animal and battle
painter, the son of a tobacconist, was born in London. At the
age of thirteen he became an employe at Astley's amphitheatre,
and was afterwards groom in the service of Sir Henry Meux.
When he was twenty-two, wishing to possess a portrait of a
favourite horse under his care, he bought a manual of painting,
learned something of the use of oil-colours, and painted the
picture on a canvas hung against the stable wall. His master
bought it and encouraged him to continue in his efforts. He
accordingly began to copy prints of horses, and was introduced
to Benjamin Marshall, the animal painter, who took him
into his studio, and seems to have introduced him to the
Sporting Magazine, an illustrated periodical to which he was him-
self a contributor. In 1814 he exhibited his " Tam O'Shanter,"
and in 1816 he won a prize of £100 for his " Battle of Ligny."
In 1817 he exhibited his " Battle of Marston Moor " and was
made associate of the Academy, and in 1820 he was elected
Academician. Cooper, although ill educated, was a clever and
conscientious artist; his colouring was somewhat flat and dead,
but he was a master of equine portraiture and anatomy, and had
some antiquarian knowledge. He had a special fondness for
Cavalier and Roundhead pictures.

COOPER, ALEXANDER (d. 1660), English miniature painter.
His works are of great rarity, and the chief are a series represent-
ing the king and queen of Bohemia and their children, in the
possession of the German emperor; some very remarkable
portraits belonging to the queen of Holland, and others in the
possession of the king of Sweden and in various Swedish galleries.
He was the brother of Samuel Cooper, but whether senior or
junior to him is not known, although, according to certain
Swedish authorities, he is stated, upon very slight evidence, to
have been born in 1605, four years before his more famous
brother. He came to Sweden in 1646, and the Swedish docu-
ments declare that he was a Jew, and that his full name was
Abraham Alexander Cooper. He had previously been residing in
Holland, but on reaching Sweden entered the service of Queen
Christina, and continued to be her miniature painter until 1654,
when she resigned the crown. Two years later, Cooper was in
Denmark, carrying out some commissions for Christian IV., but

COOPER, SIR ASTLEY— COOPER, J. FENIMORE

in 1657 was back again in Stockholm, where he died in the early
part of 1660. The date of his birth is not known, but he is
believed to have been born in London.

For full information regarding his career, and for various docu-
ments bearing his signature, see The History of Portrait Miniatures,
by G. C. Williamson, chap. vi. page 78, and an article in the Nine-
teenth Century for October 1905. ' (G. C. W.)

COOPER, SIR ASTLEY PASTON (1768-1841), English surgeon,
was born at the village of Brooke in Norfolk on the 23rd of
August 1 768. His father, Dr Samuel Cooper, was a clergyman of
the Church of England; his mother was the author of several
novels. At the age of sixteen he was sent to London and placed
under Henry Cline (1750-1827), surgeon to St Thomas's hospital.
From the first he devoted himself to the study of anatomy, and
had the privilege of attending the lectures of John Hunter. In
1789 he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy at St Thomas's
hospital, where in 1791 he became joint lecturer with Cline in
anatomy and surgery, and in 1800 he was appointed surgeon to
Guy's hospital, on the death of his uncle, William Cooper. In
1802 he received the Copley medal for two papers read before the
Royal Society of London on the destruction of the membrana
tympani; and in 1805 he was elected a fellow of that society.
In the same year he took an active part in the formation of the
Medico-Chirurgical Society, and published in the first volume of
its Transactions an account of an attempt to tie the common
carotid artery for aneurism. In 1804 he brought out the first,
and in 1807 the second, part of his great work on hernia, which
added" so largely to his reputation that in 1813 his annual pro-
fessional income rose to £21,000 sterling. In the same year he
was appointed professor of comparative anatomy to the Royal
College of Surgeons and was very pppular as a lecturer. In 1817
he performed his famous operation of tying the abdominal aorta
for aneurism; and in 1820 he removed a wen from the head of
George IV., and about six months afterwards received a
baronetcy, which, as he had no son, was to descend to his
nephew and adopted son, Astley Cooper. He served as president
of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 and again in 1836, and
he was elected a vice-president of the Royal Society in 1830. He
died on the 12th of February 1841 in London, and was interred,
by his own desire, beneath the chapel of Guy's hospital. A
statue by E. H. Baily was erected in St Paul's.

His chief works are Anatomy and Surgical Treatment of Hernia
(1804-1807); Dislocations and Fractures (1822); Lectures on Surgery
(1824-1827); Illustrations of Diseases of the Breast (1829) ; Anatomy
of the Thymus Gland (1832) ; Anatomy of the Breast (1840).

See Life of Sir A. Cooper, by B. B. Cooper (1843).

COOPER, CHARLES HENRY (1808-1866), English antiquary,
was born at Great Marlow, on the 20th of March 1808, being
descended from a family formerly settled at Bray, Berkshire.
He received his education at a private school in Reading. In
1826 he fixed his residence at Cambridge, and in 1836 was elected
coroner of the borough. Four years later he was admitted a
solicitor, and in course of time he acquired an extensive practice,
but his taste and inclination ultimately led him to devote almost
the whole of his time to literary research, and especially the
elucidation of the history of the university of Cambridge. In
1849 he resigned the office of borough coroner on being elected
to the town-clerkship, which he retained till his death on the
21st of March 1866. His earliest production, A New Guide to
the University and Town of Cambridge, was published anonymously
in 1831. The Annals of Cambridge followed (1842-1853) con-
taining a chronological history of the university and town from
the earliest period to 1853. His most important work, the
Athenae Cantabrigienses (1858, 1861), a companion work to the
famous Athenae Oxonienses of Anthony a Wood, contains
biographical memoirs of the authors and other men of eminence
who were educated at the university of Cambridge from 1500
to 1609. Cooper's other works are The Memorials of Cambridge,
(1858-1866) and a Memoir of Margaret, Countess of Richmond
and Derby (1874). He was a constant contributor to Notes and
Queries, the Gentleman's Magazine and other antiquarian publica-
tions, and left an immense collection of MS. materials for a
biographical history of Great Britain and Ireland.

79

COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851), American novelist,
was born at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 15th of September
1789. Reared in the wild country round Otsego Lake, N.Y., on
the yet unsettled estates of his father, a judge and member of
Congress, he was sent to school at Albany and at New Haven,
and entered Yale College in his fourteenth year, remaining for
some time the youngest student on the rolls. Three years after-
wards he joined the United States navy; but after making a
voyage or two in a merchant vessel, to perfect himself in seaman-
ship, and obtaining his lieutenancy, he married and resigned
his commission (1811). He settled in Westchester county, N.Y.,
the "Neutral Ground" of his earliest American romance, and
produced anonymously (1820) his first book, Precaution, a novel
of the fashionable school. This was followed (1821) by The Spy,
which was very successful at the date of issue; The Pioneers
(1823), the first of the " Leatherstocking " series; and The
Pilot (1824), a bold and dashing sea-story. The next was Lionel
Lincoln (1825), a feeble and unattractive work; and this was
succeeded in 1826 by the famous Last of the Mohicans, a book
that is often quoted as its author's masterpiece. Quitting
America for Europe he published at Paris The Prairie (1826),
the best of his books in nearly all respects, and The Red Rover,
(1828), by no means his worst.

At this period the unequal and uncertain talent of Cooper
would seem to have been at its best. These excellent novels
were, however, succeeded by one very inferior, The Wept of
Wish-ton-Wish (1829); by The Notions of a Travelling Bachelor
(1828), an uninteresting book; and by The Waterwitch (1830),
one of the poorest of his many sea-stories. In 1830 he entered
the lists as a party writer, defending in a series of letters to the
National, a Parisian journal, the United States against a string
of charges brought against them by the Revue Britannique;
and for the rest of his life he continued skirmishing in
print, sometimes for the national interest, sometimes for that
of the individual, and not infrequently for both at once. This
opportunity of making a political confession of faith appears
not only to have fortified him in his own convictions, but to have
inspired him with the idea of imposing them on the public
through the medium of his art. His next three novels, The
Bravo (1831), The Heidenmauer (1832) and The Headsman: or
the Abbaye of Vigneron (1833), were designed to exalt the people
at the expense of the aristocracy. Of these the first is by no
means a bad story, but the others are among the dullest ever
written ; all were widely read on both sides of the Atlantic.

In 1833 Cooper returned to America, and immediately pub-
lished A Letter to my Countrymen, in which he gave his own
version of the controversy he had been engaged in, and passed
some sharp censure on his compatriots for their share in it.
This attack he followed up with The Monikins (1835) and The
American Democrat (1835); with several sets of notes on his
travels and experiences in Europe, among which may be remarked
his England (1837), in three volumes, a burst of vanity and ill-
temper; and with Homeward Bound, and Home as Found (1838),
noticeable as containing a highly idealized portrait of himself.
All these books tended to increase the ill-feeling between author
and public; the Whig press was virulent and scandalous in its
comments, and Cooper plunged into a series of actions for libel.
Victorious in all of them, he returned to his old occupation
with something of his old vigour and success. A History of the
Navy of the United States (1839), supplemented (1846) by a set of
Lives of Distinguished American Naval Officers, was succeeded
by The Pathfinder (1840), a good "Leatherstocking" novel;
by Mercedes of Castile (1840); The Deer slayer (1841); by The
Two Admirals and by Wing and Wing (1842); by Wyandotte,
The History of a Pocket Handkerchief, and Ned Myers (1843);
and by Afloat and Ashore, or the Adventures of Miles Wallingford
(1844). From pure fiction, however, he turned again to the
combination of art and controversy in which he had achieved
distinction, and in the two Littlepage Manuscripts (1845- 1846)
he fought with a great deal of vigour. His next novel was The
Crater, or Vulcan's Peak (1847), in which he attempted to intro-
duce supernatural machinery with indifferent success; and this

8o

COOPER, PETER— COOPER, SAMUEL

was succeeded by Oak Openings and Jack Tier (1848), the latter
a curious rifacimento of The Red Rover; by The Sea Lions (1849) ;
and finally by The Ways of the Hour (1850), another novel with
a purpose, and his last book. He died of dropsy on the 14th of
September 1851 at Cooperstown, New York. His daughter,
Susan Fenimore Cooper (1813-1894), was known as an author
and philanthropist.

Cooper was certainly one of the most popular authors that
have ever written. His stories have been translated into nearly
all the languages of Europe and into some of those of Asia.
Balzac admired him greatly, but with discrimination; Victor
Hugo pronounced him greater than the great master of modern
romance, and this verdict was echoed by a multitude of inferior
readers, who were satisfied with no title for their favourite less
than that of "the American Scott." As a satirist and observer
he is simply the "Cooper who 's written six volumes to prove
he's as good as a Lord" of Lowell's clever portrait; his enormous
vanity and his irritability find vent in a sort of dull violence,
which is exceedingly tiresome. It is only as a novelist that he
deserves consideration. His qualities are not those of the great
masters of fiction; but he had an inexhaustible imagination,
some faculty for simple combination of incident, a homely tragic
force which is very genuine and effective, and up to a certain
point a fine narrative power. His literary training was in-
adequate; his vocabulary is limited and his style awkward
and pretentious; and he had a fondness for moralizing tritely
and obviously, which mars his best passages. In point of con-
ception, each of his three-and-thirty novels is either absolutely
good or is possessed of a certain amount of merit; but hitches
occur in all, so that every one of them is remarkable rather in its
episodes than as a whole. Nothing can be more vividly told than
the escape of the Yankee man-of-war through the shoals and
from the English cruisers in The Pilot, but there are few things
flatter in the range of fiction than the other incidents of the novel.
It is therefore with some show of reason that The Last of the
Mohicans, which as a chain of brilliantly narrated episodes is
certainly the least faulty in this matter of sustained excellence
of execution, should be held to be the best of his works.

The personages of his drama are rather to be accounted as
so much painted cloth and cardboard, than as anything approach-
ing the nature of men and women. As a creator of aught but
romantic incident, indeed, Cooper's claims to renown must rest
on the fine figure of the Leatherstocking, and, in a less degree,
on that of his friend and companion, the Big Serpent. The
latter has many and obvious merits, not the least of which is
the pathos shed about him in his last incarnation as the Indian
John of The Pioneers. Natty Bumpo, however, is a creation
of no common unity and consistency. There are lapses and
flaws, and Natty is made to say things which only Cooper, in
his most verbosely didactic vein, could have uttered. But on
the whole the impression left is good and true. In the dignity
and simplicity of the old backwoodsman there is something
almost Hebraic. With his na'ive vanity and strong reverent
piety, his valiant wariness, his discriminating cruelty, his fine
natural sense of right and wrong, his rough limpid honesty, his
kindly humour, his picturesque dialect, and his rare skill in
woodcraft, he has all the breadth and roundness of a type and
all the eccentricities and peculiarities of a portrait.

See James Fenimore Cooper (Boston, 1883), by Thomas R. Louns-
bury in the " American Men of Letters " series; Griswold, Prose
Writers of America (Philadelphia, 1847); J. R. Lowell, Fable for
Critics; M. A. de Wolfe Howe, American Bookmen (New York,
1898); and the introduction by Mowbray Morris to Macmillan's
uniform edition of Cooper's novels (London, 1900). (W. E. H.)

COOPER, PETER (1791-1883), American manufacturer,
inventor and philanthropist, was born in New York city on the
1 2 th of February 1791. His grandfathers and his father served
in the War of American Independence. He received practically
no schooling, but worked with his father at hat-making in New
York city, at brewing in Peekskill, at brick-making in Catskill,
and again at brewing in Newburgh. At seventeen he was
apprenticed to a coach-builder in New York city. On coming of
age he got employment at Hempstead, Long Island, making

machines for shearing cloth; three years afterwards he set up
in this business for himself, having bought the sole right to
manufacture such machinery in the state of New York. Business
prospered during the War of 1812, but fell off after the peace.
He turned his shop into a furniture factory; soon sold this and
for a short time was. engaged in the grocery business on the site
of the present Bible House, opposite Cooper Union; and then
invested in a glue and isinglass factory, situated for twenty-one
years in Manhattan (where the Park Avenue Hotel was built
later) and then in Brooklyn. About i828he built the Canton Iron
Works in Baltimore, Maryland, the foundation of his great
fortune. The Baltimore & Ohio railway was to cross his property,
and, after various inventions aiming to do away with the loco-
motive crank and thus save two-fifths of the steam, in 1830 he
designed and constructed (largely after plans made two years
before) the first steam locomotive built in America; though
only a small model it proved the practicability of using steam
power for working that line. The "Tom Thumb," as Cooper
called the locomotive, was about the size of a modern hand-car;
as the natural draft was far from sufficient, Cooper devised a
blowing apparatus. Selling his Baltimore works, he built, in
1836, in partnership with his brother Thomas, a rolling mill in
New York; in 1845 he removed it to Trenton, New Jersey, where
iron structural beams were first made in 1854 and the Bessemer
process first tried in America in 1856; and at Philippsburg,
New Jersey, he built the largest blast furnace in the country at
that time. He built other foundries at Ringwood, New Jersey,
and at Durham, Pennsylvania; bought iron mines in northern
New Jersey, and carried the ore thence by railways to his mills.
Actively interested with Cyrus Field in the laying of the first
Atlantic cable, he was president of the New York, Newfound-
land & London Telegraph Company, and his frequent cash
advances made the success of the company possible; he was
president of the North American Telegraph Company also,
which controlled more than one-half of the telegraph lines of the
United States. For his work in advancing the iron trade he
received the Bessemer gold medal from the Iron and Steel
Institute of Great Britain in 1879. He took a prominent part in
educational affairs, strongly opposed the Roman Catholic claims
for public funds for parochial schools, and conducted the
campaign of the Free School Society to its successful issue in
1842, when a state law was passed forbidding the support from
public funds of any "religious sectarian doctrine." He is
probably best known, however, as the founder of the Cooper
Union (q.v.). Cooper was an early advocate of the emancipation
and the enlistment in the Union army of Southern negroes, and
he upheld the administration of Lincoln. Though he had been a
hard-money Democrat, he joined the Greenback party after the
Civil War, and in 1876 was its candidate for the presidency, but
received only 81,740 out of the 8,412,833 votes cast. He died in
New York city on the 4th of April 1883. He published The
Political and Financial Opinions of Peter Cooper, with an Auto-
biography of his Early Life (1877), and Ideas for a Science of
Good Government, in Addresses, Letters and Articles on a Strictly
National Currency, Tariff and Civil Service (1883).

There is a brief biography by R. W. Raymond, Peter Cooper
(Boston, 1900).

COOPER, SAMUEL (1609-1672), English miniature painter.
This artist was undoubtedly the greatest painter of miniatures
who ever lived. He is believed to have been born in London,
and was a nephew of John Hoskins, the miniature painter, by
whom he was educated. He lived in Henrietta St. , Covent Garden,
and frequented the Covent Garden Coffee-House. Pepys, who
makes many references to him, tells us he was an excellent
musician, playing well upon the lute, and also a good linguist,
speaking French with ease. According to other contemporary
writers, he was a short, stout man, of a ruddy countenance. He
married one Christiana, whose portrait is at Welbeck Abbey, and
he had one daughter. In 1668 he was instructed by Pepys to
paint a portrait of Mrs Pepys, for which he charged £30. He is
known to have painted also the portrait of John Aubrey,
which was presented in 1691 to the Ashmolean Museum, as we

COOPER, THOMAS— COOPER, T. SIDNEY

81

learn from his correspondence with John Ray, the naturalist.
Evelyn refers to him in 1662, when, on the. occasion of the visit
that the diarist paid to the king, Cooper was drawing the royal
face and head for the new coinage.

Magnificent examples of his work are to be found at Windsor
Castle, Belvoir Castle, Montague House, Welbeck Abbey, Ham
House, the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam and in the collection of
Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. His largest miniature is in the posses-
sion of the duke of Richmond and Gordon at Goodwood. A piece
of the artist's handwriting is to be seen at the back of one of
his miniatures in the Welbeck Abbey collection, and one of his
drawings in black chalk is in the University Gallery at Oxford.
His own portrait of himself is in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont
Morgan.

The date of his death has been handed down by a record in the
diary of Mary Beale, the miniature painter; and in some letters
from Mr Charles Manners, addressed to Lord Roos, dated 1672,
now amongst the duke of Rutland's papers at Belvoir, the writer
refers to Cooper's serious illness on the 4th of May, and to his
doubt as to whether the artist would ever recover. Mary Beale's
reference to his decease is in the following words: " Sunday,
May 5, 1672 — Mr Samuel Cooper, the most famous limner
of the world for a face, dyed."

For a fuller account see the History of Portrait Miniatures, by
G. C. Williamson, vol. i. p. 64. (G. C. W.)

COOPER (or Couper), THOMAS (c. 1517-1594), English bishop
and writer, was born in Oxford, where he was educated at
Magdalen College. He became master of Magdalen College
school, and afterwards practised as a physician in Oxford.
His literary career began in 1548, when he compiled, or rather
edited, a Latin dictionary Bibliotheca Eliotae, and in 1549 he
published a continuation of Thomas Lanquet's Chronicle of the
World. This work, known as Cooper's Chronicle, covers the
period from a.d. 17 to the time of writing, and was reprinted in
1560 and 1565. In 1565 appeared the first edition of his greatest
work, Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae, and this was
followed by three other editions. Queen Elizabeth was greatly
pleased with the Thesaurus, generally known as Cooper's Dictionary ;
and its author, who had been ordained about 1559, was made
dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1567. Two years later he
became dean of Gloucester, in 1571 bishop of Lincoln and in 1584
bishop of Winchester. Cooper was a stout controversialist; he
defended the practice and precept of the Church of England
against the Roman Catholics on the one hand and against the
Martin Marprelate writings and the Puritans on the other. He
took some part, the exact extent of which is disputed, in the
persecution of religious recusants in his diocese, and died at
Winchester on the 29th of April 1594.

Cooper's Admonition against Martin Marprelate was reprinted in
1847, and his Answer in Defence of the Truth against the Apology of
Private Mass in 1850.

COOPER, THOMAS (1759-1840), American educationalist
and political philosopher, was born in London, England, on the
22nd of October 1759, and educated at Oxford. Threatened
with prosecution at home because of his active sympathy with
the French Revolution, he emigrated to America about 1793,
and began the practice of law in Northumberland county,
Pennsylvania. He was president-judge of the Fourth District
of Pennsylvania in 1 806-181 1. Like his friend Joseph Priestley,
who was then living in Northumberland, he sympathized with
the Anti-Federalists, and took part in the agitation against the
Sedition Act, and for a newspaper attack in 1799 on President
John Adams, Cooper was convicted, fined and imprisoned for
libel. Like Priestley, Cooper was very highly esteemed by
Thomas Jefferson, who secured for him the appointment as
first professor of natural science and law in the University of
Virginia— a position which Cooper was forced to resign under
the fierce attack made on him by the Virginia clergy. After
filling the chair of chemistry in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.
(1811-1814), and in the University of Pennsylvania (1818-1819),
he became professor of chemistry in South Carolina College, at
Columbia, in 1819, and afterwards gave instruction in political

economy also. In 1 8 20 he became acting president of this institution,
and was president from 1821 until 1833, when he resigned owing
to the opposition within the state to his liberal religious views.
In December 1834, owing to continued opposition, he resigned
his professorship. He had been formally tried for infidelity in
1832. He was a born agitator: John Adams described him as
" a learned, ingenious, scientific and talented madcap." Before
his college classes, in public lectures, and in numerous pamphlets,
he constantly preached the doctrine of free trade, and tried to
show that the protective system was especially burdensome to
the South. His remedy was state action. Each state, he con-
tended, was a sovereign power and was in duty bound to protest
against the tyrannical acts of the Federal government. He
exercised considerable influence in preparing the people of
South Carolina for nullification and secession; in fact he pre-
ceded Calhoun in advocating a practical application of the state
sovereignty principle. The last years of his life were spent in
preparing an edition of the Statutes at Large of the state, which
was completed by David James McCord (1797-1855) and pub-
lished in ten volumes (1836-1841). Dr Cooper died in Columbia
on the nth of May 1840. As a philosopher he was a follower of
Hartley, Erasmus Darwin, Priestley and Broussais; he was a
physiological materialist, and a severe critic of Scotch meta-
physics. Among his publications are Political Essays (1800);
An English Version of the Institutes of Justinian (1812); Lectures
on the Elements of Political Economy (1826); A Treatise on the
Law of Libel and the Liberty of the Press (1830); and a translation
of Broussais' On Irritation and Insanity (183 1), with which
were printed his own essays, "The Scripture Doctrine of Material-
ism," " View of the Metaphysical and Physiological Arguments
in favour of Materialism," and " Outline of the Doctrine of the
Association of Ideas."

See I. Woodbridge Riley, American Philosophy: the Early Schools
(New York, 1907).

COOPER, THOMAS (1805-1892), English Chartist and writer,
the son of a working dyer, was born at Leicester on the 20th of
March 1805. After his father's death his mother began business
as a dyer and fancy box-maker at Gainsborough. Young
Cooper was apprenticed to a shoemaker. He had a passion for
knowledge; studied Greek, Latin and Hebrew in his spare time;
and in 1827 gave up cobbling to become a schoolmaster, and,
later, a Methodist preacher. His affairs did not prosper, and
after going to Lincoln, where he obtained work on a local news-
paper, he came to London in 1839. Here he became assistant
to a second-hand bookseller, but in 1840 he joined the staff of
the Leicestershire Mercury. His support of the Chartist move-
ment obliged him to resign his position, but he undertook to
edit The Midland Counties Illuminator, a Chartist journal, in
1 84 1. He became a leader of the extreme Chartist party, and
for his action in urging on the strike of 1842 he was imprisoned
in Stafford gaol for two years. Here he produced The Purgatory
of Suicides, a political epic in ten books, embodying the radical
ideas of the time. In his efforts to publish this work after his
liberation he came under the notice of Benjamin Disraeli and
Douglas Jerrold. Through Jerrold's help it appeared in 1845,
and Cooper then turned his attention to lecturing upon historical
and educational subjects. In 1856 he suddenly renounced the
free-thinking doctrines which he had held for many years, and
became a lecturer on Christian evidences. He died at Lincoln
on the 15th of July 1892. Among his other works may be
mentioned the Bridge of History over the Gulf of Time (1871)
and the Life of Thomas Cooper, written by Himself (1872).

COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY (1803-1902), English painter,
was born at Canterbury on the 26th of September 1803. In
very early childhood he showed in many ways the strength of his
artistic inclinations, but as the circumstances of his family did
not admit of his receiving any systematic training, he began be-
fore he was twelve years old to work in the shop of a coach painter.
A little later he obtained employment as a scene painter; and
he alternated between these two occupations for about eight
years. But the desire to become an artist continued to influence
him, and all his spare moments were given up to drawing and

82

COOPERAGE— CO-OPERATION

painting from nature. At the age of twenty he went to London,
drew for a while in the British Museum, and was admitted as a
student of the Royal Academy. He then returned to Canterbury,
where he was able to earn a living as a drawing-master and by
the sale of sketches and drawings. In 1827 he settled in Brussels;
but four years later he returned to London to live, and by
showing his first picture at the Royal Academy (1833) began an
unprecedentedly prolonged career as an exhibitor. Cooper's
name is mainly associated with pictures of cattle or sheep, and
the most notable of the many hundred he produced are: " A
Summer's Noon" (1836), "A Drover's Halt on the Fells"
(1838), " A Group in the Meadows " (1845), " The Half-past
One o'Clock Charge at Waterloo " (1847), " The Shepherd's
Sabbath" (1866), "The Monarch of the Meadows" (1873),
"Separated but not Divorced" (1874), "Isaac's Substitute"
(1880), " Pushing off for Tilbury Fort " (1884), " On a Farm
in East Kent " (1889), " Return to the Farm, Milking Time "
(1897). He was elected A.R.A. in 1845 and R.A. in 1867. He
presented to his native place, in 1882, the Sidney Cooper Art
Gallery, built on the site of the house in which he was born.
He wrote his reminiscences, under the title of My Life, in 1890;
and died on the 7th of February 1002.

COOPERAGE, or Coperage (Flemish and Dutch hooper, a
trader, dealer), a system of traffic in spirituous liquors, tobacco
and other articles amongst the fishermen in the North Sea. The
practice began in the middle of the 19th century, when Flemish
and Dutch koopers frequented the fishing fleets for the purpose of
barter. Trading first in tobacco, they extended their operations,
and soon became practically floating grog-shops.

The demoralizing nature of the traffic was brought to the
public notice in 1881, and a convention was held at the Hague in
1882 to consider means of remedying the abuses. In 1887 Great
Britain, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, France and the Nether-
lands signed an agreement to prevent the sale or purchase of
spirituous liquors among fishermen at sea. In Great Britain an
act (the North Sea Fisheries Act 1888) was passed to carry into
effect the terms of the convention. The act (now repealed and
replaced by the North Sea Fisheries Act 1893, with which it is
identical but for some slight verbal modifications) imposes a fine
not exceeding £50 or a term of imprisonment not exceeding three
months for supplying, exchanging or otherwise selling spirits.
It imposes a like penalty for purchasing spirits by exchange or
otherwise, and requires every British vessel dealing in provisions
or other articles to have a licence and to carry a special mark.
In 1882 Mr E. J. Mather started a mission to deep sea fishermen,
which sends out mission ships and supplies the fishermen with
good clothing, literature, tobacco, &c, at a fair price. This
mission, now the Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen,
is registered by the Board of Trade.

See E. J. Mather, Nor'ard of the Dogger (1888), and publications
of the Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen.

COOPERAGE (from " cooper," a maker of casks, derived from
such forms as Mid. Dutch cuper, Ger. Kiifer, Lat. cuparius; the
same root is seen in various Teut. words for a basket, such as
Dutch kuip and Eng. " kipe " and " coop, " but cooper is appar-
ently not formed directly from " coop," which never means a
" cask " but always a basket-cage for poultry, &c), the art of
making casks, barrels and other rounded vessels, the sides of
which are composed of separate staves, held together by hoops
surrounding them. The art is one of great antiquity; Pliny ascribes
its invention to the inhabitants of the Alpine valleys. The trade
is one in which there are numerous subdivisions, the chief of
which are tight or wet and dry or slack cask manufacture.
To these may be added white cooperage, a department which
embraces the construction of wooden tubs, pails, churns and other
even-staved vessels. Of all departments, the manufacture of
tight casks or barrels for holding liquids is that which demands
the greatest care and skill since, in addition to being perfectly
tight when filled with liquid, the vessels must bear the strain of
transportation to great distances, and in many cases have to
resist considerable internal pressure when they contain ferment-
ing liquors, The staves are best made of well-seasoned oak.

Since a cask is a double conoid, usually having its greatest
diameter (technically the bulge or belly) at the centre, each
stave must be properly curved to form a segment of the whole,
and must be so cut as to have a suitable bilge or increase of
width from the ends to the middle; it must also have its edges
bevelled to such an angle that it will form tight joints with its
neighbours. The staves being prepared, the next operation is to
set up or raise the barrel. For this purpose as many staves as are
necessary are arranged upright in a circular frame, and round
their lower halves are fitted truss hoops which serve to keep
them together for the permanent hooping. The upper ends are
then drawn together by means of a rope which is passed round
them and tightened by a windlass, and other truss hoops are
dropped over them, the wood being steamed or heated to enable
it to bend freely to shape. The two ends of the cask are next
finished to receive the heads by forming the chime, or bevel on
the extremity of the staves, and the croze or groove into which
the heads fit. Finally the heads and permanent hoops are put in
place. The heads, when made of two or more pieces, are jointed
by wooden dowel pins, and after being cut to size are chamfered
or bevelled round the edge to fit into the croze grooves. The
hoops are generally of iron. The manufacture of slack casks
proceeds on the same general lines, but is simpler in various
respects, both because less accurate workmanship is required, and
because softer woods, largely fir, may be employed. Machinery of
the most elaborate and specialized character has been devised to
perform most of the operations in making both slack and tight
casks, and though it involves considerable capital outlay it
effects so great an economy of time that it has largely superseded
hand labour. (For an account of such machinery see L. H. Ran-
some, " Cask-making Machinery," Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. 115;
also an article in Engineering, 1908, 85, p. 845.) Barrels without
separate staves are made by bending a sheet of wood, sawn from
a log in a continuous strip, into the required circular shape, the
bulge at the centre being obtained by cutting out V gores from
the ends. Barrels are also sometimes made of steel, either of the
ordinary bulging form or consisting of straight-sided drums
provided near the middle with rings on which they may be rolled..
Immense numbers of casks of different shapes and sizes are
employed in various industries. Tight barrels are a necessity to
the wine and cider maker, brewer and distiller, and are largely
used for the transport of oils and liquid chemicals, while slack
barrels are utilized by the million for packing cement, alkali,
china, fruit, fish and numerous other products.

CO-OPERATION, a term used particularly both for a theory
of life, and for a system of business, with the general sense
of "working together" {con, with, and opus, work). In its
narrowest usage it means a combination of individuals to econo-
mize by buying in common, or increase their profits by selling in
common. In its widest usage it means the creed that life may
best be ordered not by the competition of individuals, where each
seeks the interest of himself and his family, but by mutual help;
by each individual consciously striving for the good of the social
body of which he forms part, and the social body in return
caring for each individual: " each for all, and all for each " is its
accepted motto. Thus it proposes to replace among rational and
moral beings the struggle for existence by voluntary combination
for life. More or less imperfectly embodying this theory, we have
co-operation in the concrete, or " the co-operative movement,"
meaning those forms of voluntary association where individuals
unite for mutual aid in the production of wealth, which they will
devote to common purposes, or share among themuponprinciples
of equity, reason and the common good, agreed upon beforehand.
Not that a co-operative society can begin by saying absolutely
what those principles in their purity would dictate. It begins
with current prices, current rates of wages and interest, current
hours of labour, and modifies them as soon as it can wherever
they seem least conformable to equity, reason and the common
good.

In the industrial world there is everywhere much working
together for the production of wealth, but this is not included in
co-operation if the shares of those concerned are determined by

CO-OPERATION

83

competition, i.e. by a struggle and the relative ability of each to
secure a large share. Nor do co-operators regard the association
as truly voluntary, though it may depend on contract, if that
contract be one of service only, without an opportunity for all
concerned to share in the ultimate control. Co-operation in
fact is essentially a democratic association. On the other hand,
there is some working together for the production of wealth
which without being competitive, or based on service, is not
strictly voluntary: thus in primitive societies there is much
customary help, combined with customary division of the produce;
and in advanced societies we have state and municipal socialism.
These are indeed sometimes included in co-operation, but at
least they are not voluntary co-operation, since the individual
has no choice but to take part in them; they depend on the
power of the ruler to coerce the ruled, or of the majority to
coerce the minority. In co-operation, meaning voluntary co-
operation, there may also, it is true, be frequent overruling of
the minority by the majority, but only so far as the minority
have, when joining the association, voluntarily agreed to permit,
and subject always to an effective ultimate right of secession.

Thus co-operation occupies the middle ground between
competition and state or municipal socialism. In its technical
sense, however, it does not cover the whole of this ground: it
does not cover associations which are primarily for social,
provident, or religious purposes, but only those closely connected
with the production of wealth. We speak of co-operative
societies for agriculture, for manufacturing, for retail, or whole-
sale distribution, for building or house-owning, for raising capital
and so forth; while the great Friendly Societies (q.v.), though a
part of co-operation as a theory of life, are not part of the co-
operative movement. The line is somewhat hard to draw, and
consequently is drawn somewhat arbitrarily. Thus while a
society for building, or for the collective ownership of houses, is
counted a co-operative society, a Building Society (as we
ordinarily understand the term), though it be purely mutual in
its basis, is not.so counted in Great Britain, but is in the United
States (see Building Societies).

For the early history of the co-operative movement we have to
look chiefly to Great Britain, and British co-operation acknow-
ledges as its founder Robert Owen (q.v.). In every age
and every country the origins of co-operation may no
doubt be traced, wherefcnen have helped one another in
the creation of wealth and agreed as brothers as to its division.
In England long before the days of Owen there was much co-
operation of miners and fishermen which, though scarcely
obligatory on the individuals taking part in it, was largely
regulated by custom. Coming to more purely voluntary associa-
tions, co-operative workshops are recorded, retail co-operation was
practised in Scotland from the middle of the 18th century, while
in England shops not unlike co-operative stores, but without the
democratic element, were in one or two instances set up by
benevolent individuals. It does not seem, however, that there
was any theory of co-operation until Owen in England, and
almost simultaneously Fourier {q.v.) in France, formulated their
gospels, not identical, yet having much in common. Of these
two Owen and his teaching are by far the more important.

The end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries
were the culminating days of the industrial revolution, when the
old organization of domestic industry had given way before the
factory system, and the population of the factory districts was
suffering a martyrdom, with ruin of body and degradation of
character, from unbridled competition, long hours, women's
and children's labour, pauper apprenticeship, great fluctuations
of trade and employment, dearness and adulteration of pro-
visions, the truck system and insanitary homes. Owen, having
himself become a great employer of labour, after starting as a
draper's assistant, saw that this was in every sense waste, and
that as it paid the manufacturer to have the best machinery and
not to overdrive it, but to tend it well and keep it in the best
repair, so it would pay him, and abundantly pay the nation,
to have the human machines well cared for, not overworked,
and kept in the best condition. The popular individualistic

Robert
Owen.

philosophy of that day taught that the good of society would be
achieved by each individual seeking in his business relations
the interest of himself and his family; but Owen maintained
that the well-being of the social body could only be served if
each individual made that his conscious aim. For this reason he
and his disciples were called Socialists. He taught further that a
man's character depended mainly upon the circumstances which
influenced his life; he emphasized environment, and all but
denied heredity. At New Lanark, from 1799, he carried out
these ideas among the workers in the cotton mills of which he
was managing partner. 1 " For twenty-nine years," he wrote,
" we did without the necessity for magistrates or lawyers;
without a single legal punishment; without any known poors'
rate; without intemperance or religious animosities. We re-
duced the hours of labour, well educated all the children from
infancy, greatly improved the condition of the adults, diminished
their daily labour, paid interest on capital, and cleared upwards
of £300,000 of profit." So wonderful were the results upon the
population, that New Lanark became a show-place of world-wide
renown, and was visited by many of the greatest and most
exalted people of the period.

While thus using his own power Owen not only advocated
legislation to limit the hours of factory labour, but appealed to
the public authorities to establish industrial communities, where
the poor might be set to work, and be managed paternally on
the principles of New Lanark. So great was his repute, and so
influential the royal and other personages who gave him their
support, that this appeal might probably have been successful
had not Owen, in reply to complaints as to his religious views —
which were deistic — and that his system was not founded on
religion, made a public attack upon all accepted religions.

Failing to get the required support from the Government and
magistrates, he still sought it from wealthy believers in his
teaching, and a number of "communities" (see Communism)
were founded in England and Scotland, and in the United States.
These were intended to be self-supporting, the land and other
means of producing wealth being owned in common, and work
and education being regulated on Owen's principles. Owen well
knew that most of them lacked the large amount of capital
necessary, but his hand was forced by enthusiastic followers, and
even the most hopeful of the experiments, that of Queenwood in
Hampshire (1 839-1 844), was made prematurely and failed.

His connexion with New Lanark also came to an end, not from
any want of success, but through differences with some of his
partners who objected to such matters as dancing, military drill
for the children, and the wearing of kilts, but above all feared lest
Owen's " infidelity " should undermine the people's faith.

Thus it might have seemed that Owen's life and fortune had
been spent in vain, and resulted only in unsuccessful experiments;
but this was far from being so. His teaching, and in particular
his doctrines of circumstance, and of the conscious seeking after
the social good, his belief in self-supporting communities, and his
vision of a new moral and industrial world, had powerfully
affected the working classes, indeed, all classes. Workmen in
many parts of the country had formed groups with the ultimate
object of founding self-supporting communities. If the govern-
ment and the rich would not provide capital enough to start
communities, the workers would start them themselves. Thus
was the democratic basis given to co-operation. As a means they
had been founding co-operative societies, which are sometimes
called " union shops " to distinguish them from the later growth
of societies of the Rochdale type. The members began by
buying provisions wholesale and retailing them to themselves at
current prices; the difference became capital, and as soon as
possible one member was set to work to make boots and another
clothes, and so forth, until ultimately the society should have
capital enough to take land and form a community. Education
also was prominent among their objects. These co-operative
societies reached some 400 or 500 between 1828 and 1834, but the
movement then collapsed. As the original enthusiasm died out,
or members left the neighbourhood, or capital accumulated in
1 Holyoake, History of Co-operation (1906 edition), i. 34.

8 4

CO-OPERATION

the hands of the original shareholders, they almost all either failed
or became private property. In those early days, moreover, the
law gave no protection to the property of co-operative societies.
This remained so until 1852, when the Christian Socialists (see
Socialism) among their many great services to the working
classes secured such protection. In 1862 they secured also limited
liability for the members.

Before 1844 a co-operative society had already been formed and
failed at Rochdale in Lancashire, yet some ardent spirits planned
B hd 1 to f° rm another. Twenty-eight poor men, flannel
pioneers, weavers and such like, got together a capital of £28
by twopenny and threepenny subscriptions, and in
December 1844 opened in Toad Lane, Rochdale, a little shop from
which, speaking broadly, the whole of British co-operation, and
very much of that of other lands, has grown. Their objects were
those of other co-operative societies of the time, including the
ultimate aim of a self-supporting community. In this last they
never succeeded, nor indeed did they attempt it; but they did
succeed in vastly improving the position of millions of the working
classes by enabling them to" obtain their provisions cheap and
pure, to avoid the millstone of debt, to save money, to pass from
retail to wholesale trade, and from distribution to manufacturing,
building and house-owning, ship-owning and banking; above
all to educate themselves, and to live with an ideal.

The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers began their trading in the
smallest way, the members taking turns to serve in the shop;
yet where so many other Union shops had failed Rochdale
succeeded, and it has steadily grown to an institution with some
14,000 members, doing a trade of £300,000, owning shops and
workshops, a library and reading-rooms, making large profits, and
devoting a substantial part of them to education and to charitable
purposes. What was the reason of this difference? Chiefly it
would seem a different method of dealing with the profits.
Earlier " Stores " had divided these according to the capital
contributed by each member, or else equally among the members:
the Rochdale Pioneers determined that, after paying 5 % interest
on the share capital, all profit should be allotted to the purchasing
members in proportion to their purchases, and be capitalized in
the name of the member entitled, until his shares amounted to
£5. Thus each member found it his interest to purchase at the
store and to introduce new purchasers. The ownership of the
store remained always with the purchasers, and each came under
the magic influence of a little capital saved.

Not only did Rochdale store grow amazingly, but its example
spread far and near. New stores were founded on the " Rochdale
Growth pl an " an d old stores adopted it; soon they were
of co- numbered by hundreds. In spite of many failures
operative there were in 1906 more than fourteen hundred such
s ores. s t ores i n the United Kingdom, with nearly two and a
quarter million members, over £33,000,000 capital, and sales
exceeding £63,000,000 in the year. The number of societies does
not increase of late years, the tendency being rather for estab-
lished societies to open branches, but all the other figures increase
rapidly from year to year.

These workmen's Co-operative Stores, or Distributive Societies,
flourish chiefly in the north and midlands of England and in
Scotland, but are found more or less all over the country.
They, and practically all other British co-operative societies,
are registered under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act,
which constitutes them corporate bodies, with limited liability,
and fixes £200 as the maximum that any member may hold in the
share capital. Their government is democratic, based on one
vote each, for man or woman; and their members or share-
holders, and their committee-men or directors, are almost
exclusively the more provident of the working classes, or belong
to the class just above. Store societies are of various sizes, from
the small village shop to the greatest of them all, the Leeds
Society, with nearly 30,000 members, sales exceeding a million
and a half sterling, and an elaborate organization of branches
and manufacturing departments. Their method, the " Rochdale
system," is as follows, subject to occasional variations. Member-
ship is open to all who pay a shilling entrance fee and sign for a

£1 share, which can be paid up out of profit. For the most part
members may at any time withdraw their shares in cash at par.
A record of each member's purchases is kept by means of metal
tokens or otherwise, and at the end of each quarter, after paying a
limited interest (never more than 5 %, and in very many societies
less) on shares, and, in some societies, paying a proportion of
profit to the employees, the surplus is divided to the members in
proportion to their purchases : non-members also usually receiving
half dividends on theirs. Thus the members in effect obtain their
necessaries at cost price. The dividend on members' purchases
averages about 2s. 6d. in the £. In many successful societies even
more is paid, but the average is falling. Where dividend is high,
prices are often fixed above those current in the neighbourhood,
so that the members, in addition to saving the retailer's profit,
use their Society as a sort of savings bank, where they put away
a halfpenny or so for every shilling they spend. In addition to
retailing, a store often manufactures bread, clothes, boots and
millinery, sometimes farms land, or grinds corn; usually for its
own members only', but occasionally for sale to other societies
also. Their productions in this way exceed £5,000,000 a year.
They also invest large and increasing sums in building cottages, to
let or sell to their members; and they lend still more largely to
their members, to enable them to buy cottages.

Outwardly these stores may look like mere shops, but they are
really much more. First, they are managed with a view not to a
proprietor's profit, but to cheap and good commodities. Secondly
they have done an immense work for thrift and the material
prosperity of the working classes, and as teachers of business
and self-government. But further, they have a distinct social
and economic aim, namely, to correct the present inequalities of
wealth, and substitute for the competitive system an industry
controlled by all in the common interest, and distributing on
principles of equity and reason, mutually agreed on, the wealth
produced. With this view they acknowledge the duties of fair
pay and good conditions for their own employees, and of not
buying goods made under bad conditions. The best societies
further set aside a small proportion of their profits for educational
purposes, including concerts, social gatherings, classes, lectures,
reading-rooms and libraries, and often make grants to causes with
which they sympathize. Their members are prominent in local
government affairs; co-operative candidates are occasionally run
for town councils, and often talked of for parliament. Though
the societies are non-political, and have refused to join the labour
representation movement, they are usually centres of " pro-
gressive " ideas. There are of course many defects, and of their
two million members a large, and many fear an increasing,
proportion, attracted by the prosperity of the societies, think
chiefly of what they themselves gain; but the government of the
movement has, hitherto at least, been largely in the hands of men
of ideas, who believe that stores are but a step to co-operative
production, and on to the " co-operative commonwealth."

It is indeed only when we come to federations of co-operative
societies, and above all to production, with its large number of
employees, that the educational side of the movement and its
power to promote industrial reform are most seen. The Co-
operative Union, Limited, for instance, is a propagandist
federation of all the chief co-operative societies in Great Britain,
and some in Ireland. Its income of £10,000 a year is contributed
by the Co-operative Societies. It looks after their legal and
parliamentary interests, carries on much educational work by
means of literature, lectures, classes, scholarships, summer
meetings at the universities, and so on; organizes numerous
local conferences for discussion, and once a year a great national
co-operative congress, and exhibition of productions, in some
chief centre of population. The Co-operative Wholesale Society,
Limited, is a trading federation of the great majority of the
English stores. Founded in 1863 on a small scale, it now counts
its employees by thousands, its capital by millions, and its yearly
sales by tens of millions. Besides its merchant trade, it manu-
factures to the value of £4,500,000, owning factories, warehouses
and land in many districts. It imports largely, and runs its own
steamships. It is also the bank of the co-operative societies,

CO-OPERATION

85

and the chief outlet for the always redundant capital of the well-
established stores. The Scottish stores also have their Wholesale
Society, not less important relatively. For many purposes these
two are in partnership. In each of them the net profits are
returned to the stores as a dividend on purchases, and thence to
the whole body of members; but in the Scottish Wholesale a part
is also paid to its employees as a dividend upon their wages.
There are also a few local federations of stores, mostly for corn-
milling and baking.

Strongly contrasting with this production by associations of
consumers, or " consumers' production," is the co-partnership, or

labour co-partnership, branch of co-operation. Its
ne'rship' simplest form is an association of producers formed to

carry on their own industry. Originally such societies
were intended to consist solely of the workers employed; the
ideal was the " self-governing workshop," introduced from France
by the Christian Socialists of 1850; but membership is now open
to the distributive societies, which are the chief customers, and
usually, to all sympathizers. Shares are transferable, not
withdrawable. Profits first pay the agreed " wages of capital,"
usually 5%, and of what remains the main part goes to the
employees as a dividend on their wages, and to the customers as a
dividend on their purchases. In well-established societies the
dividend on wages averages about is. on the £. This is not
usually paid in cash, but credited to the employees as share
capital, whereby all may become members. Besides other
producers' associations, more or less co-operative, there are over
a hundred co-partnership societies at work in England, against a
dozen or fifteen in 1883. They are engaged in boot-making,
printing, building, weaving, clothing, wood-working, metal-
working, and so on. Some of them are very small, while others
have businesses of £50,000 a year or more, the average being
about £10,000. The majority show fair, sometimes large
profits. Each is governed by a committee, which is elected by
the members and appoints the manager. A minority of them
sell in the open, i.e. the non-co-operative, market, and a few sell
largely for export.

We constantly hear that co-operative production is a failure.
There have no doubt been failures, especially of big experiments

attempted among men totally unprepared. But many
theories °^ ^ e f a il ures counted were not truly co-operative.

At the present day consumers' production is successful
beyond all question, while the net growth of producers' associa-
tions in the last twenty years has been marked both in number
and importance. These two forms of production best illustrate
the two rival theories which divide British co-operation, and
between whose partisans the conflict has at times been sharp.
The consumers' theory maintains that all profit on price is
abstracted from the consumer, and must be returned to him;
while to him should also belong all capital and control, subject to
such regulations as the state and the trade unions enforce.
This theory is fully exemplified in the English Wholesale Society,
and in some of the smaller federations for production, which
employ workmen, whether co-operators or not, for wages only,
and admit no individual, but only co-operative societies, to
membership. It is also exemplified by the great majority of the
jtores, though in their case the employee may become a member
in his capacity as a consumer. The co-partnership theory, on
the other hand, maintains that the workers actually employed in
(my industry, whether distributive or productive, should be
partners with those who find the capital, and those who buy the
produce, and should share with them the profit, responsibilities
and control. The consumers' party contend that societies of
producers make a profit out of the consumers, and thus are never
truly co-operative, while as they multiply they must compete
against each other. The co-partnership party answer that labour
at least helps to make the profit, and that competition, as yet
almost insignificant between their societies, can be avoided by
federating them (a process long ago begun) for buying and selling
in common, and for other common purposes, while leaving each
the control and responsibility of its own internal affairs. They
further advocate the eventual federation of the productive wing

of co-operation with the distributive, for settling prices and all
matters in which their interests might conflict. In this way they
say the co-operative system may extend indefinitely without
sacrificing either individual responsibility and freedom, or a
general unity and control, so far as these are necessary to secure
the common interest. On the other hand they hold that the
opposing system tends more and more to centralization and
bureaucracy, and divorces the individual workman from all
personal interest in his work, and from any control over its
conditions. They contend, moreover, and it is indeed admitted
that, in spite of the great advantages which consumers' produc-
tion has in its command of a market and of abundant capital,
only a small part of industry can ever be carried on by associa-
tions of the persons who actually consume the produce. Outside
this small part, therefore, voluntary co-operation is impossible
except as some form of co-partnership.

On the working-out of these two principles depends the future
of co-operation. The example of Scotland probably throws
light on the problem. There co-operative production, amounting
to some millions sterling, is nearly all carried on by federations of
consumers' societies, including the Scottish Wholesale, which
apply more or less successfully the co-partnership principle — i.e.
their employees are admitted to share in profits, and may
become members, whereby they are further admitted to share in
capital and control. The type of organization hence resulting is
very much the same as where a society of producers admits
consumers' societies to membership, and sets aside a proportion of
the profits to be returned to them as dividend upon their
purchases. To this combined type, we have seen, English
productive societies, started by producers, have come; and it
would appear that those started by consumers must ultimately
tend to it. However, in spite of honoured leaders of the early
days, the consumers' party is at present greatly in the ascendant
in English co-operation, and even in the Scottish federations it is
almost strong enough to abolish co-partnership, and allow no one
to share in capital, profit or control except in his capacity as a
consumer.

An association of co-operative societies and individuals, called
the Labour Co-partnership Association, exists to maintain the
principle of co-partnership in co-operation, and also to promote
its gradual adoption in ordinary businesses. Some progress in
this latter direction is being made, there being a tendency to
improve upon simple profit-sharing by capitalizing the workman's
" bonus," whereby he becomes a shareholder, and the business
is gradually modified in a co-operative direction. There are
remarkable instances of such modification abroad, notably that
of the great iron foundry and Familistere at Guise in France.
The most noteworthy, among several, in England is that of the
South Metropolitan Gas Company, where after eighteen years of
the system 5000 odd employees had in 1907 more than £320,000
invested in the company; they also elect three of themselves
directors of the company, this being one-third of the board.
Unfortunately this example is, or at least was, marred by a feud
with the trade unions, whereas there is friendship between trade
unionism and co-partnership, as indeed between trade unionism
and co-operation generally.

One of the most recent arid promising developments of English
co-operation is the tenants' co-partnership movement for the
common ownership of groups of houses, which the Tenants'
society owning them lets out to its members. These co-part-
societies are but few as yet, but they have sprung up aers Mp
rapidly and promise great usefulness and extension. socletles -
Somewhat similar societies have long been a recognized branch of
co-operation on the continent of Europe.

Such, then, are the history and present extent of co-operation
in Great Britain. Turning abroad we find in almost all civilized
countries, besides other forms of co-operation, im- Themove-
portant and growing movements roughly similar to ment
those above described, but on the whole less identified "Jf^J?,"
with the working classes and less coloured by their
social and economic ideals. In France, Germany, Switzerland,
Italy and elsewhere, there are very important co-operative

86

CO-OPERATION

distributive movements looking to Rochdale as their prototype ;
and in the United States of America there are at least continual
attempts to spread Rochdale co-operation. Of these foreign
stores, however, many exhibit important modifications, such as
unlimited liability, and selling at cost price, or between that and
market prices. On the whole we may say that Rochdale Co-
operation is the most extended and the most typical. It, and the
workshop movement springing from Fourier, and the socialist co-
operation of Belgium and elsewhere, are certainly the forms which
have most of the ideal of democratic equality and social recon-
struction. Other forms look more to the money benefits accruing
to the members, seeking to supplement the present order of
society, rather than to bring in a new order. Among these other
forms — separate in origin, in methods, and largely in spirit — the
most important are credit co-operation, or people's banking, and
agricultural co-operation, two forms until recently unknown in
the British Islands.

Confusion has sometimes arisen from the fact that while
Rochdale Co-operation sets itself against " credit," continental
Germany co-operation is more concerned with obtaining credit
and credit for its members than with anything else. But credit is
co-opera- used in two senses. The English workman employed
tloa ' for wages is against the credit which means spending

them before they are earned: continental co-operation seeks by
collective credit to put into the hands of working peasants,
craftsmen and traders, the stock and the tools without which
their labour is vain. Credit for consumption is the road to
poverty; credit for production the road to well-being.

Just asjwith co-operation in labour and in purchase, so mutual
help in obtaining credit may doubtless be traced in primitive
forms far back into history. It was certainly more or less " in
the air " in Germany and France about 1848 and even earlier;
but the beginning of systematic organized credit co-operation
may be definitely fixed in the year 1849, when Raiffeisen began
his Darlehnscasse, or loan bank, in Rhenish Prussia. Curiously
enough it had also a second and entirely independent origin. For
in the following year Schulze-Delitzsch, in a distant part of the
same kingdom, established his Credit Society based on an
entirely different system. As this second system spread much
more rapidly than the other and attained, as indeed it retains,
much greater commercial magnitude, it came to be regarded as
the beginning of credit co-operation, of which for a long time it
was the only important form. These two remain the two distinct
types in every land. Thus Germany, which has innumerable
co-operative societies of every form and of great importance, is
in particular the mother of credit co-operation.

In the famine years of 1846 and 1847 and for some years after,
Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen was a burgomaster in the barren
Westerwald. The people were hopelessly ground down
Raiffeisen ^y ^^j. to money-lenders for small doles of capital,
banks. advanced to purchase stock, or meet times of special
difficulty. It occurred to Raiffeisen that by combining
to borrow a moderate sum of money on their joint responsibility,
and afterwards to lend it out among themselves in small sums at a
slightly greater rate of interest, the peasants might obtain relief
from their burden of usury, and at the same time get the capital
necessary to make their labour productive. Accordingly in 1849
at the little town of Flammersfeld, he set up a " Loan Bank."
Despite its success, it remained the only one of its kind for five
years, when Raiffeisen founded a second. There was no third
for eight years more: it was only in 1880 that they began really
to spread, but now they are found in many lands and are counted
by thousands.

Such a bank is essentially an association of neighbours.
Besides borrowing, it also receives savings deposits, which often
produce a large part of, or even all, the capital it needs. Usually
a few of the members are comparatively well to do people, who
join to help their neighbours by increasing the society's credit.
This Raiffeisen considered essential. They have no actual privi-
lege, but by common consent they take a leading part. In the
true Raiffeisen bank the liability of each member is unlimited,
but limited liability has been introduced in some of its modifica-

tions. The Society confines its operations strictly to a small area,
say a parish, where everyone knows everyone. Each borrower
must specify the purpose for which he wants a loan, say to buy a
cow or drain a field, or pay off a money-lender, and this is
rigorously inquired into. Only members can borrow. Any
member, however poor, can borrow for a profitable approved
purpose, and no one, however rich, for any other. Practically
all the members see that the money is applied as agreed; and,
while the loan is often made for a long period, a year or two
—even for ten or more — so as to repay itself out of the
profit, power is reserved to call it in at short notice if misapplied.
Loans are repayable by periodical instalments, but repayments
must be made with absolute punctuality. No bills, mortgages or
other securities are taken, except a note of hand either alone or
with one or two sureties. There are two committees, one to lend
and do the work of the society, and the other to supervise the
first; and on both of these it is understood that the richer
members are to be in a majority. No committeeman or officer
receives any remuneration for his services, except that the
accountant gets a small salary. Originally there were no shares,
and when in 1889 the legislature ordained that there must be
shares, the Raiffeisen banks made theirs as small as possible,
generally ten or twelve shillings. Nothing is paid on the shares as
interest or dividend, all profit being voted once for all to the
ordinary reserve and the indivisible reserve, the latter the
backbone of the system. In every large district the Raiffeisen
banks are federated in a Union, and these Unions culminate in a
General Agency. As an intermediary among themselves, and
between them and the money market, the banks have also a
central bank with a capital of £500,000, and with ten provincial
branches. A great deal of agricultural co-operation has arisen
from these banks as centres, and with the money they have
supplied.

Raiffeisen banks boast that neither member nor creditor has
ever lost a penny by them, and while this is denied it seems at
least near the truth. Their credit is so good that they can obtain
money at very low rates, and as their expenses are trifling they
can re-lend to their members at rates but little higher. In
Germany they usually lend at about 5%. Only men of good
character can obtain membership: thus, besides spreading
prosperity, they have everywhere been great promoters of
sobriety and good conduct. They were only intended to meet
the needs of the peasants, especially of the very poorest, and for
this purpose they have proved admirably suited.

Very different were the people among whom Schulze-Delitzsch
established his form of co-operative credit; and very different
the organization he adopted and the results which have
flowed from it. In 1850 Franz Hermann Schulze was a ^? b ,Z ,ze \.
judge in his native town of Delitzscn, almost at the banks.
middle point of the southern edge of Prussia, and
established there his first Vorschussverein, or Advance-Union.
He had been in England and knew something of our co-operative
movement, but he scarcely seems to have derived any part of his
inspiration from it. The people he desired to help were towns-
men, especially the small craftsmen working on their own account,
the joiners, shoemakers and so forth; and his ideal was to do this
merely by stimulating their thrift.

In a Schulze-Delitzsch bank, a number of such men combine
together to raise a capital of guarantee: to do this every member
takes up one share and one only, which is of large value, say
£30 or £50 or even much more, but can be paid up by small
instalments. Thus every member is committed to a long course
of saving. On the strength of this capital in course of formation,
and the unlimited liability of the members, the bank is able to
borrow, or to receive as savings and deposits from members and
others, a much larger capital. The funds so constituted it lends
out at the highest rates it can command, originally 12% or 14%,
but now very much less, and varying, of course, with the market.
It lends to members only, but to any amount, for any purpose and
on any good and sufficient security, whether acceptance, pro-
missory note, overdraft, discount, mortgage, pledge, surety or
what not. The loans, however, are always for a short period,

CO-OPERATION

87

usually three months, renewable for another three months, and
sometimes further than that. The committee of management are
elected by the general meetings; they decide on all loans, and
receive a salary, plus a commission on the business done. The
council of supervision are also paid, or at least entitled to pay.
The great objects which a bank keeps in view are security and a
good return on capital. It is not confined to a small area, but
works for as large and as varied a constituency as possible. With
such a constitution the Schulze-Delitzsch banks grow big and
accumulate a large capital of their own. On an average each
bank has nearly 600 members and lends about £150,000 per
annum, including loans renewed. Losses are sometimes made,
but they are not heavy on the whole. All the profits are divided
upon capital, or put to reserve, except some, usually small,
sums given to charitable or educational purposes. Dividends
average about 5%, but have been known to reach and even
exceed 30%.

It may therefore justly be said that for co-operative institu-
tions these banks smack too much of joint-stockism : they are in
fact co-operative not much more than in the same sense that the
Oldham cotton mills, and other " working-class limiteds," have
sometimes been loosely called co-operative. They seem consti-
tuted to make the lender's interest supreme, but they have,
nevertheless, conferred enormous benefits on the handicraftsmen,
small traders, small cultivators and others who borrow from
them. They have put capital within their reach at reasonable
rates.

These banks also have their central point. In 1864 the German
Co-operative Societies' Bank was founded to centralize the work
of the local Schulze-Delitzsch banks and to bring the money
market within their reach. It was not itself co-operative, and
never confined its business to the co-operative banks. Beginning
in a very small way, by 1903 it had attained a capital of a million
and a half sterling and a yearly business of £154,000,000, of
which £28,000,000 was specifically with co-operative credit
societies. It was then amalgamated with another banking
business, the Dresdner Bank, esteemed one of the most important
and successful in Germany.

Thus these two types of credit co-operation agree in being
founded on unlimited liability, but speaking broadly they are
contrasted in that the Schulze-Delitzsch banks work primarily,
though by no means solely, among townsmen, are based on share
capital, work for profit, which they divide on shares, are con-
ducted by paid directors, and confer their benefits not on the
very poorest but rather, as their own friends say, on the middle
classes: the Raiffeisen banks are designed for the peasantry, are
not based upon share capital, neither divide, nor work for,
profit, are conducted by unpaid directors, and confer their
benefits especially on the very poor. The Schulze-Delitzsch type
is strong in self-help, but tends to commercialism as it grows;
the other needs the help of the well-to-do to back up the self-
help of the poor, but it tends to altruism and the union of
classes.

The world has 30,000 co-operative credit societies, not counting
building societies; and though they are organized in many
groups, especially in their native Germany, for local reasons, or
because of some modification, or some compromise between the
two systems, the two types really include them all. There is,
however, a strong tendency to introduce limited liability into
various offshoots of the one type and the other; even into the
orthodox Schulze-Delitzsch banks themselves, when they grow
big. From Germany co-operative banks have spread into almost
all European countries — even at last to Ireland and England —
and to America and Asia. In Germany there are some fifteen
thousand local, and no less than sixty central, co-operative
credit associations, which lend out £180,000,000 a year including
renewals. In Italy, Austria and Hungary they are also strong.
In 1896 it was estimated that £150,000,000 a year must be very
well within the total amount lent by money co-operation on the
continent of Europe; eight years later it could not well fall short
of £250,000,000, and the amount keeps constantly increasing.
Of this total only a small percentage represents loans by banks of

the Raiffeisen type, which, though very numerous, often lend
only a few hundred pounds each in the year.

Great controversy has prevailed as to the state subsidies given
to co-operative credit. While governments are sometimes rather
inclined to hinder co-operative distribution, they have shown
a marked tendency to foster, whether for political or economic
reasons, co-operative credit. The Prussian government in
response to popular demand, vigorously supported by the
agricultural interest, has founded and endowed with £2,500,000
of public money, the Central Co-operative Bank, whose object
is to bring capital within the reach of the various groups of co-
operative banks. The Schulze-Delitzsch Union was the only
one to dispute the need of this, and though the bank has given
a stimulus to the formation of co-operative societies, it still
denies that this is a healthy propagation. Nevertheless, some
even of the Schulze-Delitzsch societies resort to this state bank
for money. It is under government administration and lends
immense sums each year. In France the Bank of France has
been compelled to lend £1,600,000 free of interest, and to give
about £120,000 per annum out of its profits to assist agriculture;
this money is being lent free to " regional " banks, and by them
at about 3% to local societies. State help has also been given
to the co-operative bank of the French workmen's productive
societies. In Austria and in many other countries a great deal
of similar help has been given.

Closely connected with certain developments of credit, and
deserving to rank as the third, if not the second, great sub-
division of co-operation, is agricultural co-operation, Denmark
a movement in the main of the last twenty years, but and agri.
amounting now to a great force, almost everywhere cultural
except in Great Britain, and in some countries almost co-opera-
to a revolution. It is important to say agricultural "'
co-operation and not co-operative agriculture, for in spite of
some customary mutual help in farm work, in spite of several
attempts, and some small successes, in co-operative farming,
the actual cultivation is almost everywhere individualistic.
The farmer or peasant cultivates alone, or with his family, or
servants; when he co-operates with his fellows, it is to manu-
facture, or to market, the products of his farm, or more often
to obtain the things he needs for his farming, to raise stock, to
own expensive machinery in common, or insure against risks.
By these means the small farmer, without sacrificing his own
peculiar advantages, obtains most of the advantages of the big
farmer, to the immense improvement of his position.

At almost every point agricultural and credit co-operation
touch; yet the most perfect example of agricultural co-operation
is not concerned with credit co-operation in any form. The
farmers of Denmark practise co-operation in almost every
variety, except for raising capital. The commercial banks have
provided money to start dairies and other co-operative societies;
so that, it would appear, the need of credit co-operation has not
been felt.

The Danish farmer is almost always a freeholder: it is little
more than a century since his ancestors were serfs. It is little
more than a generation since a few men, turning to account the
strong national feeling aroused by the defeat of 1864, started a
great educational movement which has left its mark on all strata
of Danish society. After the People's High School, technical
schools arose in various places; and to these, and to the excellent
continuation schools in the country districts, tht Danes are
beholden for the regeneration of their agriculture. From 1867
co-operative distributive societies on the Rochdale plan had been
spreading in Denmark; but it was not till 1882 that co-operation
in agriculture began, and the first co-operative dairy was formed;
ten years later there were about a thousand such, a number
which has slightly increased since. These dairies are productive
societies in which the cow-owners are the shareholders, and all
shareholders have equal rights and equal voting power, whether
they own one cow or one hundred. Almost every village hasj
its co-operative dairy, fitted to deal with the milk of from 400
to 1400, or even 2000 cows. They far exceed all the other dairies
of Denmark. More than four-fifths of all the milk of Denmark

88

CO-OPERATION

is used in them, and they produce butter worth more than nine
millions sterling. The profits are divided among those who supply
the cream, in proportion to the value of their supplies — a method
of dividing profits characteristic of agricultural co-operation.
The village dairies are united in federations to export their
produce.

Side by side with the dairies are other co-operative societies,
quite independent but largely composed of the same members,
for buying collectively fodder, manures and other agricultural
or household requisites, for collecting and exporting eggs,
slaughtering hogs and curing bacon, improving the breed of
stock, for bee-keeping, fruit-growing and so forth. By means
of these societies the country has been greatly enriched. The
farmer not uncommonly belongs to ten co-operative societies,
besides probably a farmers' club. The work of starting and
administrating the societies is seldom paid, and many farmers
give much time to it gratuitously. They are in the main
organized on the same principles as the dairies, but with varia-
tions; the largest egg export society, for instance, has over
30,000 members. It is not a federation of village societies, but
a centralized body with many branches.

The growth of the bacon-curing societies has been remarkable.
The first of them was not founded until 1887, but they spread
rapidly, and in seven years there were twenty, killing more than
half the country's then produce of hogs. The movement has
greatly increased since then, and multiplied its output about
fourfold. Co-operation in collecting, grading and exporting
eggs only began in 1895, and in eight years 65,000 members
had joined the various egg societies, and the value of eggs
exported had reached £436,000. Taken as a whole, the effect of
agricultural co-operation in Denmark has amounted to little less
than a revolution. It has brought the results of science within the
peasant's reach, and he has been quick to avail himself of them:
it has transformed a great part of farm work into a factory
industry, increased the yield of the soil, improved the material
position of the peasants, and drawn rich and poor together.
Denmark, once so poor, is now, except England, probably the
richest country in Europe in proportion to its population.
Besides Denmark, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland,
Finland, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada,
Ireland and many other countries have important developments
of agricultural co-operation. In Germany, where it is closely
connected with credit co-operation, it seems to date from 1866
only, yet in forty years agricultural co-operative societies have
come to number six thousand, without counting the agricultural
banks, which exceed twice that number. There are dairies,
societies to purchase farm requisites, societies of grape-growers,
hop-growers and beetroot-growers, distilleries, labour societies,
insurance societies, societies to own warehouses and granaries
and to sell produce, to purchase land and resell it in small
holdings, and even several societies which purchase land to
cultivate it in common. The close connexion between credit-
societies and other agricultural co-operation is exemplified in
the Central Union of orthodox Raiffeisen credit societies at
Neuwied. Through a central bank and a trading department
allied to it, it has negotiated the joint purchase of coal, feeding-
stuffs, manures, machinery and so forth to large amounts, as well
as the difficult business of the combined sale of agricultural
produce. Moreover, several local centres connected with this
union have granaries and warehouses for the storage of agri-
cultural produce, and negotiate joint sales, while within the union
facilities have been found for selling the products of one district
to members in another.

In Ireland stores have not hitherto flourished, though a few
exist. Irish co-operation is agricultural, and dates from the
foundation of one co-operative dairy in 1889. Thence
has grown a movement already of great importance,
still advancing and comprising from eighty to ninety
thousand members, belonging to some hundreds of
societies — dairies, agricultural supply societies, banks and so
forth, formed on the Danish model. To form a dairy the small
working farmers of a district register a society and take up

Irish
agri-
culture,

shares of £1 each, in proportion to the number of their cows.
Each brings his milk to be separated, is paid for the butter-
making material it contains, and receives back skim milk. If
any profit is divided, it belongs nine-tenths to the suppliers of
milk in proportion to the value of their supplies, and one-tenth
to the dairy employees as dividend on wages in pursuance of
the co-partnership principle. These dairies produce butter
worth more than £1,000,000. Their rapid spread is due to their
great influence in improving the quality of butter, and hence
increasing the farmer's gains. The co-operative banks are of
the Raiffeisen type, though a few have limited liability. They
aim at providing the peasants with necessary capital (" the
lucky money " they have christened it) and expelling the usurer.
They are increasing rapidly. Among other objects of Irish
co-operation are selling eggs, poultry, barley and pigs, joint-
grazing, potato-spraying, scutching flax, bacon curing, home
industries, and of course supplying farm requisites. The move-
ment promises much further growth in magnitude and variety.
The dairy societies have federated into an agency for reaching
the English market, and the supply societies into an Irish
Wholesale for purchasing to the best advantage. Besides the
direct profits and economies of these societies, they have greatly
benefited Ireland by teaching men of all classes, parties and
religions to act together for peaceful progress; they have led
to a wide diffusion of better agricultural knowledge, and to the
establishment by government of the Agricultural Department.
(See Ireland.)

In France, which Englishmen are apt to speak of as pre-
eminently the country of co-operative production, the agri-
cultural is the most important branch of co-operation;
and the source and mainstay of agricultural co-opera- tive°azr7'
tion are the Syndicats Agricoles. These are not culture
technically co-operative societies; they are rather '» France
trade unions, not indeed of wage-earners only, or and * l } er
mainly, but of cultivators. They cannot legally trade, " r * es '
being constituted for the study and protection of the general
interests of the members, the spread of information, and so
forth. Their principal object however, seems in many cases
to be to combine their members for the purchase of all farm
requisites and especially of chemical manures. This they do
by collecting, sorting and passing on orders. They cannot
usually manage selling in common without the intervention of
a society specially registered for that object. Beginning only
in 1893, .their number long ago ran into thousands and their
membership into hundreds of thousands, drawn from all classes
of cultivators and landowners, great and little. Among much
other good work they have led to the formation of a large
number of strictly co-operative societies for all the purposes
of agriculture, except cultivation in common. Thus there are
two thousand agricultural banks, besides butter factories,
distilleries, associations for threshing, for sale of fruit and
vegetables, for wine-making, oil-pressing, and so on, amounting
altogether to some hundreds. There are also societies, mostly
of ancient date, engaged in making Gruyere cheese: a few years
ago these numbered 2000, but they are dwindling. Lastly, there
are some eight thousand mutual insurance societies organized
as agricultural syndicates.

Everywhere the main features of this agricultural movement
are similar to those we have seen in Denmark and Ireland; it
is supplementary to individual cultivation; hardly ever does
it appear as associations for cultivating in common, and, speaking
with certain important exceptions, it has no very ideal aims,
but seeks chiefly to give the farmer a better profit. In England
there are a number of farms worked ' by stores, and several
large associations for the supply of farm requisites; but the
typical agricultural co-operation, based on small village societies
and federations of such societies, has only recently been made
known and begun to take root.

It is notable that while the Syndicats agricoles are almost
exactly what Fourier, the Robert Owen of France, foresaw as the
next stage of social development, the other great branch of
French co-operation, the workshop movement of the Associations

CO-OPERATION

89

ouvrieres de production, is directly due to his teaching, which
led in 1848 to the starting of a large number of co-operative
p workshops. The suppression of association after the

and co- advent of Napoleon III. killed most of them, but
operative with the return of liberty they revived and they have
produc- steadily increased ever since. They vary somewhat
among themselves, but are in the main combinations of
workmen to carry on their industries with their own capital or
that of their trade unions. Their chief difference from English
co-partnership societies is that they very rarely admit to member-
ship any persons not belonging to the trade. They are engaged
in a great variety of industries, selling comparatively little to
co-operative distributive societies, as English co-partnership
societies do, but taking contracts from government depart-
ments and the municipalities, and supplying the general public.
Complete statistics of their total trade are not available, but
it exceeds £2,000,000, and the separate societies seem to vary,
like the majority of English co-partnership societies, from about
£40,000 a year downwards, a few being larger but the great
majority small. From about 140 societies in 1896 they have
grown to between two and three times that number, and the
increase continues with rapidity. More than two hundred of
them are federated in the Chambre consultative des associations
ouvrihres de production, which looks after certain business inr
terests of the societies, and also assists the formation of new
ones by propaganda and advice. In Paris alone about a third of
these societies are found.

It has been objected that their growth is artificial inasmuch as
the government gives them certain advantages, such as pre-
ference over the private contractor at an equal price, exemption
from the deposit of security, and special concessions as to
payments on account. It also grants a subvention (recently
about £7000 per annum), which was formerly all given to the
societies in grants, but is now largely lent to them at not more
than 2% interest through their own special bank. This bank
was founded in 1893 to help the societies with loans and discounts,
and was soon after endowed by a disciple of Fourier with £20,000.
The societies have also benefited by other private beneficence
and public help. As to the Government aid, it must be remem-
bered that in France the state helps all forms of industry
in ways unknown to us, and the French co-operative producers
always declare that what is done for them is a trifle compared
to what is done for other manufacturers. Moreover, they get
many large contracts in open and unaided competition. In
these societies the auxiliaires, or workers who are not members,
are often numerous; but no society is now admitted to their
federation which does not' share profits with the auxiliaires and
facilitate their admission to membership.

Consumers' co-operation, credit co-operation, agricultural
co-operation, and workshop co-operation, as exemplified in
Great Britain, Germany, Denmark and France, are found in
most advanced countries, some in one and some in another,
in forms roughly similar to those above described. Of co-
operation for production it might have been said, a few years ago,
that outside Great Britain it everywhere meant associations of
producers. Except bakeries, there was but little consumers'
production; that, however, seems now to be spreading in foreign
countries also. The most important developments of co-opera-
tion not yet described are the socialist co-operation of Belgium,
the co-operative building societies of the United States, the
labour societies of Italy and Russia, the co-operation of German
craftsmen to provide themselves with raw material, and the
letting out of railway construction to temporary co-operative
groups of workmen by the New Zealand and Victorian
governments.

In Belgium co-operation is mostly socialist in the towns and
Catholic in the country. In all the principal industrial centres
are very important co-operative bakeries and distributive
societies, owned by co-operative groups, numbering thousands
of workmen of every calling. These Maisons du peuple are
admitted to be well managed, even by those who dislike their
politics. The socialist party look upon them chiefly as a means

of organizing and educating the working classes for political
and economic emancipation, and of providing funds for political
warfare. Like the English stores, and allied societies, they are
based on the consumer, but unlike them they pay no interest on
share capital, though they do on deposits. A much larger part
of the profit than in England is devoted to propaganda and
common purposes, though a part is also paid to the consumers
individually in the form of checks exchangeable for bread or
other goods. The workers employed also receive a share of
profit as a dividend on their wages, and elect their repre-
sentatives on the committee of management. By means of
these societies the party has a press, buildings, and the funds to
fight elections and support members in parliament. In France,
where the store movement has been of an individualistic, and
often middle class, tendency, the socialists have lately imitated
the example of Belgium, and seem to be winning more success
than the older French stores.

In the United States there has long been much important
agricultural co-operation, and there have been many much-ad-
vertised attempts to establish Rochdale co-operation, but there
have so often been failures and even dishonesties that co-opera-
tion has had a bad odour in the country, and the developments
come and go with such rapidity that it is difficult to speak with
confidence of its stability. The branch of co-operation which
has been a great success in the United States consists of the great
co-operative building societies, but building societies are not
considered part of the co-operative movement in Great Britain.

Co-operation of all kinds is greatly developed in Italy, but
one form is specially notable. The Societa di lavoro are co-
operative labour gangs of great importance. They are counted
by hundreds, and are found among navvies, builders, masons,
carriers, stevedores, agricultural labourers and other workmen,
and have carried out very great works in Italy and in foreign
countries. They have, for instance, drained' lands in the Cam-
pagna and made a railway in Greece. They differ from pro-
ductive societies markedly in that they have comparatively little
to do with capital or material, but contract mainly for labour.

The Slavonic races seem to have a special aptitude for grouping
together co-operatively: it is said that men meeting casually
on a journey will do so for the brief time they are together. In
countries like Servia we see this ancient, and more or less cus-
tomary, loose and unstable co-operation meeting the modern
contractual, permanent co-operation of banks and other
registered societies. So in Russia, where so large a part in the
national organization is played by the Artel (see Russia), which
may be a transitory co-operative group of workmen undertaking
a particular piece of work, e.g. to build a house, or a permanent
association like that of the bank porters combined together to
guarantee one another's honesty.

While English and some other forms of co-operation have
always repudiated state help, and probably rightly, so far as
their own work is concerned, the state in almost all g tate j, e j B
countries, and conspicuously in England, has in fact
helped to the extent of providing special legislation, and waiving
fees, so as to encourage the formation of co-operative societies.
A second form of state help is very noticeable in the modern
development of agriculture, as in Denmark, Canada, New Zealand,
Ireland and very many countries, where the state has played a
great part in performing or assisting functions which neither
voluntary association nor individual enterprise could well
perform alone; in providing technical education, expert advisers,
exhibitions and prizes; in distributing information in all forms;
in finding out markets, controlling railway rates, subsidizing
steamboats, and even grading, branding, warehousing and
freezing produce, and maintaining trade agents abroad. These
things have not been done for co-operative societies alone, but
for agriculture in general; but co-operation has chiefly benefited,
and much has been done expressly to encourage the formation
of associations of cultivators, and provincial and national
federations of such associations; and government departments
of agriculture are found acting through such bodies, and with
their advice and assistance. The third and most Questionable

9°

COOPERSTOWN— COOPER UNION

Con-
clusion.

form of state help is by direct subventions, and we have seen
how much has been done in this way for credit co-operation and
particularly agricultural credit. Harm has undoubtedly been
done in certain cases by forcing co-operative societies, whether
from political motives or merely mistaken policy. Yet even
as to money subventions, good authorities, while admitting the
great dangers, remain convinced that the advantages overbalance
them, self-help being evoked, and helped over initial difficulties
which would otherwise be insuperable. Experience in fact
shows that governments can do a very great deal, at least for
agricultural co-operation, but only on condition that they
encourage, and do not undermine, self-help and private initiative.
Thus while voluntary association is sometimes advocated as a
step towards, and sometimes on the other hand as a substitute for,
and bulwark against, state socialism, we find in practice these
two forces working each in its own sphere, and in ways com-
plementary one to the other, while underlying and essential to
both is the force of individual action and self-help.

We have now surveyed co-operation in its chief forms and in
some of the countries where it is chiefly found. Some years ago
it was roughly estimated that the members of one or
other of its branches numbered six millions, represent-
ing with their families a population of 25,000,000
people. This must be much within the truth to-day. In no
other country so much as in Great Britain do we find the tendency
for all branches of co-operation to federate in one union and to
help one another by mutual trade. Yet everywhere the instinct
of co-operative societies is to federate with others — at least with
others of their own particular shade; so that Wholesales and
other federations are found more and more in many countries.
Since 1895 the co-operators and co-operative societies of many
far-distant lands — almost of the whole world — have been drawn
together by the International Co-operative Alliance, a body
which, without attempting to interfere in their differences,
collects information from all, and distributes it to all, keeps
them all in touch, and every few years calls their delegates to-
gether in congress, to discuss their problems, and to remember
their common ideals.

Bibliography. — International Co-operative Alliance, Interna-
tional Co-operative Bibliography (London, 1906) ; G. J. Holyoake,
History of Co-operation (London, 1875-1879, new ed., 1906), History
of the Rochdale Pioneers (London, 1893, new ed., 1900), Self-Help a
Hundred Years Ago (London; 3rd ed., 1891), Co-operative Movement
of To-day (London, 1891, new ed., 1896); Lloyd Jones, Life and
Times and Labours of Robert Owen (London, 1890, new ed., 1895);
F. Podmore, Robert Owen (London, 1906) ; E. T. Craig, History of
Ralahine (London, 1882, new ed., 1893); Thomas Hughes and
E. V. Neale, A Manual for Co-operators (Manchester, 1881, 1888);
Catherine Webb (editor), Industrial Co-operation (Manchester, 1904) ;
Beatrice Potter (Mrs Sidney Webb), Co-operative Movement in Great
Britain (London, 1891, 1893, 1904); A. H. D. Acland and B. Jones,
Working Men Co-operators (1898); Benjamin Jones, Co-operative
Production (London, 1894); C. R. Fay, Co-operation at Home and
Abroad (London, 1908); H. D. Lloyd, Labour Co-partnership
(London and New York, 1898) ; D. F. Schloss, Methods of Industrial
Remuneration (London, 2nd ed., 1894) ; N. P. Gilman, Profit Sharing
(London, 1892); C. Robert, Guide pratique de la participation (Paris,
1892); Aneurin Williams, Twenty-eight Years of Co-partnership
at Guise (Letchworth, 1908), Relations of Co-operative Movement to
National and International Commerce (Manchester, 1896) ; Dallet-
Fabre-Prudhommeaux, Le Familistere illustre (Paris, 1901);
Bernadot, Le Familistere de Guise (Guise, 1892); E. O. Greening,
The Co-operative Traveller Abroad (London, 1888); H. W. Wolff,
People's Banks (London, 1893, 1896), Co-operative Banking, its
Principles and Practice, with a chapter on Co-operative Mortgage
Credit (London, 1907) ; de Rocquigny, La Co-operation de pro-
duction dans l' agriculture (Paris, 1896); Merlin, Les Associations
ouvrieres et patronales, &c. (Paris, 1900) ; Mabilleau and others,
La Prevoyance sociale en Italie (Paris, 1898); Fr. Miiller, Wesen,
Grundsatze und Nutzen der Consumvereine (Basel, 1900). See also
the annual Reports of the Government Labour Departments, and the
Monthly Bulletin of the Internat. Co-op. Alliance. (A. Wl.*)

COOPERSTOWN, a village and the county-seat of Otsego
county, New York, U.S.A., where the Susquehanna river emerges
from Otsego Lake; about 92 m. (by rail) W. of Albany. Pop.
(1890) 2657; (1900) 2368; (1905) 2446; (1910) 2484. It is
served by the Cooperstown & Charlotte Valley railway (owned
and controlled by the Delaware & Hudson), and is on the line of

the Oneonta & Mohawk Valley electric railway. The village
lies in the midst of a hop-growing and dairying region, and has
cheese factories and creameries. It has a public library, Thanks-
giving hospital, a Y.M.C.A. hall, and the Diocesan orphanage
(Protestant Episcopal). Cooperstown is a summer resort,
Otsego Lake (9 m. long and with an average width of about 1 m.),
the " Glimmerglass " of Cooper's novels, being one of the most
picturesque of the New York lakes. Cooperstown occupies the
site of an old Indian town. In 1 785 the site became the property
of Judge William Cooper, who in the following year founded there
a village which took his name and was incorporated in 1807.
Judge Cooper himself settled here with his family in 1790. His
son, James Fenimore Cooper, who lived here for many years
and is buried in the Episcopal cemetery here, made the region
famous in his novels.

See J. Fenimore Cooper, The Chronicles of Cooperstown (Coopers-
town, 1838).

COOPER UNION, a unique educational and charitable institu-
tion " for the advancement of science and art " in New York
city. It is housed in a brownstone building in Astor Place,
between 3rd and 4th Avenues immediately N. of the Bowery,
and was founded in 1857-1859 by Peter Cooper, and chartered
in 1859. In a letter to the trustees accompanying the trust-deed
to the property, Cooper said that he wished the endowment to
be " for ever devoted to the advancement of science and art, in
their application to the varied and useful purposes of life ";
provided for a reading-room, a school of art for women, and an
office in the Union, " where persons may apply ... for the
services of young men and women of known character and
qualifications to fill the various situations "; expressed the
desire that students have monthly meetings held in due form,
" as I believe it to be a very important part of the education
of an American citizen to know how to preside with propriety
over a deliberative assembly"; urged lectures and debates
exclusive of theological and party questions; and required that
no religious test should ever be made for admission to the Union.
Cooper's most efficient assistant in the Union was Abram S.
Hewitt. In 1900 Andrew Carnegie put the finances of the Union
on a sure footing by gifts aggregating $600,000. For the year
1907 its revenue was $161,228 (including extraordinary receipts
of $25,565, from bequests, &c), its expenditures $161,390; at
the same time its assets were $3,870,520, of which $1,070,877
was general endowment, building and equipment, and $2,797,728
was special endowments ($205,000 being various endowments
by Peter Cooper; $340,000, the William Cooper Foundation;
$600,000, the Cooper-Hewitt Foundation; $391,656, the John
Halstead Bequest; $217,820, the Hewitt Memorial Endowment).
The work has been very successful, the instruction is excellent,
and the interest of the pupils is eager. All courses are free.
The reading-room and library contain full files of current journals
and magazines; the library has the rare complete old and new
series of patent office reports, and in 1907 had 45,760 volumes;
in the same year there were 578,582 readers. There is an
excellent museum for the arts of decoration. Apart from
valuable lecture courses, the principal departments of the Union,
with their attendance in 1907, were: a night school of science—
a five-year course in general science (667) and in chemistry (154),
a three-year course in electricity (114), and a night school of art
(!333); a day school of technical science — four years in civil,
mechanical or electrical engineering — (237); a woman's art
school (282); a school of stenography and typewriting for
women (55); a school of telegraphy for women (31); a class in
elocution (96); and classes in oratory and debate (146). During
the year 2505 was the highest number in attendance at any time,
and then 3000 were on the waiting list.

In the great hall of the Union free lectures for the people are
given throughout the winter; one course, the Hewitt lectures,
in co-operation with Columbia University, "of a very high
grade, corresponding more nearly to those given by the Lowell
Institute in Boston "; six (in 1907) courses in co-operation with
the Board of Education of New York city, which, upon Mayor
Hewitt's suggestion, made an appropriation for this work in

CO-OPTATION— COORG

9 1

1887-1888, and extended such lecture courses to different parts
of the city, all under the direction (after 1890) of Henry M.
Leipziger (b. 1854), and several courses dealing especially with
social and political subjects, and including, besides lectures and
recitals, public meetings for the discussion of current problems.

CO-OPTATION (from Lat. co-optare; less correctly " co-
option ") , the election to vacancies on a legislative, administrative
or other body by the votes of the existing members of the body,
instead of by an outside constituency. Such bodies may be
purely co-optative, as the Royal Academy, or may be elective
with power to add to the numbers by co-optation, as municipal
corporations in England.

COORG (an anglicized corruption of Kodagu, said to be derived
from the Kanarese Kudu, " steep," " hilly "), a province of India,
administered by a commissioner, subordinate to the governor-
general through the resident of Mysore, who is officially also
chief commissioner of Coorg. It lies in the south of the peninsula,
on the plateau of the Western Ghats, sloping inland towards
Mysore. It is an attractive field of coffee cultivation, though
the greater part is still under forest, but the prosperity of the
industry has declined since 1891. The administrative head-
quarters are at Mercara (pop. 6732). Coorg is the smallest
province in India, its area being only 1582 sq. m. Of this
amount about 1000 sq. m. consist of ghat, reserved and other
forests. Coorg was constituted a province not on account of
its size, but on account of its isolation. It lies at the top of the
Western Ghats, and is cut off by them from easy communication
with the British districts of South Kanara and Malabar, which
form its western and southern boundaries, while on its other
sides it is surrounded by the native state of Mysore. It is a
mountainous district, presenting throughout a series of wooded
hills and deep valleys; the lowest elevations are 3000 ft. above
sea-level. The loftiest peak, Tadiandamol, has an altitude of
5729 ft.; Pushpagiri, another peak, is 5626 ft. high. The prin-
cipal river is the Cauvery, which rises on the eastern side of
the Western Ghats, and with its tributaries drains the greater
part of Coorg. Besides these there are several large streams
that take their rise in Coorg. In the rainy season, which lasts
during the continuance of the southwest monsoon, or from June
to the end of September, the rivers flow with violence and great
rapidity. In July and August the rainfall is excessive, and the
month of November is often showery. The yearly rainfall may
exceed 160 in.; in the dense jungle tract it reaches from 120 to
150; in the bamboo district in the west from 60 to 100 in. The
climate, though humid, is on the whole healthy; it is believed
to have been rendered hotter and drier by the clearing of forest
land. Coorg has an average temperature of about 60° F., the
extremes being 52° and 82 . The hottest season is in April and
May. In the direction of Mysore the whole country is thickly
wooded; but to the westward the forests are more open. The
flora of the jungle includes Michelia (Chumpak), Mesua (Iron-
wood), Diospyros (Ebony and other species), Cedrela toona
(White cedar), Chickrassia tubularis (Red cedar), Calophyllum
angustifolium (Poon spar), Canarium slrictum (Black Dammar
tree), Artocarpus, Dipterocarpus, Garcinia, Euonymus, Cinna-
momum iners, Myristica, Vaccinium, Myrtaceae, Melastomaceae,
Rubus (three species) , and a rose. In the undergrowth are found
cardamom, areca, plantain, canes, wild pepper, tree and other
ferns, and arums. In the forest of the less thickly-wooded
bamboo country in the west of Coorg the trees most common
are the Dalbergia latifolia (Black wood) , Pterocarpus marsupium
(Kino tree), Terminalia coriacea (Mutti), Lager stromia parviflora
(Benteak), Conocarpus lalifolius (Dindul), Bassia latifolia, Butea
frondosa, Nauclea parviflora, and several acacias, with which, in
the eastern part of the district, teak and sandalwood occur.
Among the fauna may be mentioned the elephant, tiger, tiger-
cat, cheetah or hunting leopard, wild dog, elk, bison, wild boar,
several species of deer, hares, monkeys, the buceros and various
other birds, the cobra di capello, and a few alligators. The most
interesting antiquities of Coorg are the earth redoubts or war-
trenches {kadangas) , which are from 15 to 25 ft. high, and provided
with a ditch 10 ft. deep by 8 or 10 ft. wide. Their linear extent is

reckoned at between 500 and 600 m. They are mentioned in
inscriptions of the 9th and 10th centuries. The exports of
Coorg are mainly rice, coffee and cardamoms; and the only
important manufacture is a kind of coarse blanket. Fruits of
many descriptions, especially oranges, are produced in abund-
ance, and are of excellent quality.

In 1901 the population was 180,607, showing an increase of
4-4 % in the decade. Of the various tribes inhabiting Coorg,
the Coorgs proper, or Kodagas, and the Yeravas, or Eravas, both
special to the country, are the most numerous. The Kodagas
(36,091) are a light-coloured race of unknown origin. They
constitute a highland clan, free from the trammels of caste, and
they have the manly bearing and independent spirit natural in
men who have been from time immemorial the lords of the soil.
Their religion consists of ancestor- and demon-worship, with a
certain admixture of Brahman cults. The men are by tradition
warriors and hunters, and while they will plough the fields and
reap the rice,they leave all menial work to the women and servants .
They speak Kodagu, a dialect of Hala Kannada or old Kanarese,
midway between that and Malayalam. It has been asserted
that the institution of polyandry was prevalent among them,
according to which the brothers of a family had their wives in
common. But if this institution ever existed it no longer does
so. The Yeravas (14,586) are a race of an altogether inferior
type, dark-skinned and thick-lipped, resembling the Australian
aborigines who possibly, according to one theory, may have
sprung from the same Dra vidian stock (see Australia: Abor-
igines). Though now nominally free, they were, before the
establishment of British rule, the hereditary praedial slaves of
the Kodagas. Some of them live a primitive life in the jungle,
but the majority earn a livelihood as coolies. They are demon-
worshippers, their favourite deity being Karingali (black Kali).
Their language, a dialect of Malayalam, is peculiar to them.
Among the other tribes or castes special to Coorg are the Heggades
(1503 in 1901), cultivators from Malabar; the Ayiri (898), who
constitute the artisan caste; the Medas (584), who are basket-
and mat-makers, and act as drummers at feasts; the Binepatta
(98), originally wandering musicians from Malabar, now agri-
culturists; the Kavadi (49), cultivators from Yedenalknad;
all these speak the Coorg language, wear the Coorg dress, and
conform, more or less, to Coorg customs. Other tribes are not
special to Coorg. Of these the Holeyas (27,000) are the most
numerous. They are divided into four sections: Badagas from
Mysore, Kembattis and Maringis from Malabar, Kukkas from
S. Kanara. They were formerly the slaves of the Kodagas and
now act as their menials. The Lingayats (8700) are rather a
religious sect than a tribe. Of the Tulu (farmer) class the
Gaudas (1 1 ,900) , who live principally along the western boundary,
are the most important; they speak Tulu and wear the Coorg
dress. Other castes and tribes are the Tiyas (1500) and Nayars
(1400), immigrants from Malayalam; the Vellala (1300), who
are Tamils; the Mahrattas (2400) and Brahmans (1100). Of
the Mussulmans the most numerous are the Moplahs (6700) and
the Shaikhs (4400), both chiefly traders. Of native Christians
there are upwards of 3000. The official language of Coorg,
which is that spoken by 45 % of the population, is Kanarese
(Kannada), the Coorg language (Kodagu) coming next. The
Coorg dress is very picturesque, its characteristics being a long
coat (Kupasa), of dark-coloured cloth, reaching below the knees,
folded across and confined at the waist by a red or blue girdle.
The sleeves are cut off below the elbow, showing the arms of a
white shirt. The head-dress is a red kerchief, or a peculiar
large, flat turban, covering the back of the neck. The Coorg
also carries a short knife, with an ivory or silver hilt, fastened
with silver chains and stuck into the girdle. A large, broad-
bladed waist knife, akin, to the kukri of the Gurkhas, worn at
the back, point upwards, was formerly a formidable weapon
in hand-to-hand fighting, but is now used only for exhibitions
of strength and skill on festive occasions.

The chief crops are rice and coffee. Some abandoned coffee
land has been planted with tea as an experiment. The cultiva-
tion of cinchona has proved unprofitable. There is no railway.

92

COORNHERT— COOT

There are no colleges, but twenty-four scholarships are given
to maintain Coorg students at colleges in Madras and Mysore.
There are secondary schools at Mercara and Virarajendrapet.

The early accounts of Coorg are purely legendary, and it was
not till the 9th and 10th centuries that its history became the
subject of authentic record. At this period, according to in-
scriptions, the country was ruled by the Gangas of Talakad,
under whom the Changalvas, kings of Changa-nad, styled later
kings of Nanjarayapatna or Nanjarajapatna, held the east and
part of the north of Coorg, together with the Hunsur taluk in
Mysore. After the overthrow, in the nth century, of the Ganga
power by the Cholas, the Changalvas became tributary to the
latter. When the Cholas in their turn were driven from the
Mysore country by the Hoysalas, in the 12th century, the
Changalvas held out for independence; but after a severe
struggle they were subdued and became vassals of the Hoysala
kingr. In the 14th century, after the fall of the Hoysala rule,
they passed under the supremacy of the Vijayanagar empire.
During this period, at the beginning of the 16th century, Nanja
Raja founded the new Changalva capital Nanjarajapatna. In
1589 Piriya Raja or Rudragana rebuilt Singapatna and renamed
it Piriyapatna (Periapatam). The power of the Vijayanagar
empire had, however, been broken in 1565 by the Mahommedans;
in 1 6 10 the Vijayanagar viceroy of Seringapatam was ousted
by the raja of Mysore, who in 1644 captured Piriyapatna. Vira
Raja, the last of the Changalva kings, fell in the defence of his
capital, after putting to death his wives and children.

Coorg, however, was not absorbed in Mysore, which was hard
pressed by other enemies, and a prince of the Ikkeri or Bednur
family (perhaps related to the Changalvas) succeeded in bringing
the whole country under his sway, his descendants continuing
to be rajas of Coorg till 1834. The capital was removed in 1681
by Muddu Raja to Madikeri or Mercara. In 1770 a disputed
succession led to the intervention of Hyder Ali of Mysore in
favour of Linga Raja, who had fled to him for help, and whom
he placed on the throne on his consenting to cede certain terri-
tories and to pay tribute. On Linga Raja's death in 1780 Hyder
Ali interned his sons, who were minors, in a fort in Mysore, and,
under pretence of acting as their guardian, installed a Brahman
governor at Mercara with a Mussulman garrison. In 1782,
however, the Coorgs rose in rebellion and drove out the Mahom-
medans. Two years later Tippoo Sultan reduced the country;
but the Coorgs having again rebelled in 1785 he vowed their
destruction. Having secured some 70,000 of them by treachery,
he drove them to Seringapatam, where he had them circum-
cised by force. Coorg was partitioned among Mussulman
proprietors, and held down by garrisons in four forts. In 1788,
however, Vira Raja (or Vira Rajendra Wodeyar), with his wife
and his brothers Linga Raja and Appaji, succeeded in escaping
from his captivity, at Periapatam and, placing himself at the
head of a Coorg rebellion,- succeeded in driving the forces of
Tippoo out of the country. The British, who were about to
enter on the struggle with Tippoo, now made a treaty with Vira
Raja; and during the war that followed the Coorgs proved
invaluable allies. By the treaty of peace Coorg, though not
adjacent to the East India Company's territories, was included
in the cessions forced upon Tippoo. On the spot where he had
first met the British commander, General Abercromby, the
raja founded the city of Virarajendrapet.

Vira Raja, who, in'consequence of his mind becoming unhinged,
was guilty towards the end of his reign of hideous atrocities,
died in 1809 without male heirs, leaving his favourite daughter
Devammaji as rani. His brother Linga Raja, however, after
acting as regent for his niece, announced in 181 1 his own assump-
tion of the government. He died in 1820, and was succeeded by
his son Vira Raja, a youth of twenty, and a monster of sensuality
and cruelty. Among his victims were all the members of the
families of his predecessors, including Devammaji. At last, in
1832, evidence of treasonable designs on the raja's part led to
inquiries on the spot by the British resident at Mysore, as the
result of which, and of the raja's refusal to amend his ways, a
British force marched into Coorg in 1834. On the nth of April

the raja was deposed by Colonel Fraser, the political agent with
the force, and on the 7th of May the state was formally annexed
to the East India Company's territory. In 1852 the raja, who
had been deported to Vellore, obtained leave to visit England
with his favourite daughter Gauramma, to whom he wished to
give a European education. On the 30th of June she was
baptized, Queen Victoria being one of her sponsors; she after-
wards married a British officer who, after her death in 1864,
mysteriously disappeared together with their child. Vira Raja
himself died in 1 863 , and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery.

The so-called Coorg rebellion of 1837 was really a rising of the
Gaudas, due to the grievance felt in having to pay taxes in
money instead of in kind. A man named Virappa, who pre-
tended to have escaped from the massacre of 1820, tried to take
advantage of this to assert his claim to be raja, but the Coorgs
remained loyal to the British and the attempt failed. In 186 1,
after the Mutiny, the loyalty of the Coorgs was rewarded by their
being exempted from the Disarmament Act.

See " The Coorgs and Yeravas," by T. H. Holland in the Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Ixx. part iii. No. 2 (1901);
Rev. G. Richter, Castes and Tribes found in the Province of Coorg
(Bangalore, 1887) ; Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908),
vol. xi. s.v., where, besides an admirable account of the country
and its inhabitants, the history of Coorg is dealt with in some detail.

COORNHERT, DIRCK VOLCKERTSZOON (1522-1590), Dutch
politician and theologian, youngest son of Volckert Coornhert,
cloth merchant, was born at Amsterdam in 1522. As a child he
spent some years in Spain and Portugal. Returning home, he
was disinherited by his father's will, for his marriage with Cornelia
(Neeltje) Simons, a portionless gentlewoman. He took for a
time the post of major-domo to Reginald (Reinoud), count of
Brederode. Soon he settled in Haarlem, as engraver on copper,
and produced works which retain high values. Learning Latin,
he published Dutch translations from Cicero, Seneca and Boetius.
He was appointed secretary to the city (1562) and secretary to
the burgomasters (1564). Throwing himself into the struggle
with Spanish rule, he drew up the manifesto of William of
Orange (1566). Imprisoned at the Hague (1568), he escaped
to Cleves, where he maintained himself by his art. Recalled
in 1572, he was secretary of state for a short time; his aversion
to military violence led him to return to Cleves, where William
continued to employ his services and his pen. As a religious
man, he wrote and strove in favour of tolerance, being decidedly
against capital punishment for heretics. He had no party views;
the Heidelberg catechism, authoritative in Holland, he criticized.
The great Arminius, employed to refute him, was won over by
his arguments. He died at Gouda on the 29th of October 1590.
His Dutch version of the New Testament, following the Latin of
Erasmus, was never completed. His works, in prose and verse,
were published in 1630, 3 vols.

See F. D. J. Moorrees, Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert (1887); N.
Delvenne, Biog. des Pays-Bas (1829); A. J. van der Aa, Biog.
Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1855). (A. Go.*)

COOT, a well-known water-fowl, the Fulica atra of Linnaeus,
belonging to the family Rallidae or rails. The word coot, in
some parts of England pronounced cute, or scute, is of uncertain
origin, but perhaps cognate with scout and scoter — both names
of aquatic birds— a possibility which seems to be more likely
since the name " macreuse," by which the coot is known in the
south of France, being in the north of that country applied to
the scoter (Oedemia nigra) shows that, though belonging to very
different families, there is in popular estimation some connexion
between the two birds. 1 The Latin Fulica (in polite French,
Fouique) is probably allied to fuligo, and has reference to the
bird's dark colour. 2 The coot breeds abundantly in many of
the larger inland waters of the northern parts of the Old World,
in winter commonly resorting, and often in great numbers, to
the mouth of rivers or shallow bays of the sea, where it becomes
a general object of pursuit by gunners whether for sport or gain.

1 It is owing to this interchange of their names that Yarrell in his
British Birds refers Victor Hugo's description of the " chasse aux
macreuses " to the scoter instead of the coot.

2 Hence also we have Fulix or Fuligula applied to a duck of dingy
appearance, and thus forming another parallel case.

COOTE— COPAIBA

93

At other times of the year it is comparatively unmolested, and
being very prolific its abundance is easily understood. The nest
is a large mass of flags, reeds or sedge, piled together among
rushes in the water or on the margin, and not unfrequently
contains as many as ten eggs. The young, when first hatched,
are beautiful little creatures, clothed in jet-black down, with
their heads of a bright orange-scarlet, varied with purplish-blue.
This brilliant colouring is soon lost, and they begin to assume the
almost uniform sooty-black plumage which is worn for the rest of
their life; but a characteristic of the adult is a bare patch or
callosity on the forehead, which being nearly white gives rise
to the epithet " bald " often prefixed to the bird's name. The
coot is about 18 in. in length, and will sometimes weigh over 2 lb.
Though its wings appear to be short in proportion to its size,
and it seems to rise with difficulty from the water, it is capable
of long-sustained and rather rapid flight, which is performed
with the legs stretched out behind the stumpy tail. It swims
buoyantly, and looks a much larger bird in the water than it
really is. It dives with ease, and when wounded is said frequently
to clutch the weeds at the bottom with a grasp so firm as not
even to be loosened by death. It does not often come on dry
land, but when there, marches leisurely and not without a certain
degree of grace. The feet of the coot are very remarkable, the
toes being fringed by a lobed membrane, which must be of
considerable assistance in swimming as well as in walking over
the ooze — acting as they do like mud-boards.

In England the sport of coot-shooting is pursued to some
extent on the broads and back-waters of the eastern counties
— in Southampton Water and Christchurch Bay — and is often
conducted battue-fashion by a number of guns. But even in
these cases the numbers killed in a day seldom reach more than
a few hundreds, and come very short of those that fall in the
officially-organized chasses of the lakes near the coast of Langue-
doc and Provence, of which an excellent description is given by
the. Vicomte Louis de Dax (Nouveaux Souvenirs de chasse, &c,
pp. 53-65; Paris, i860). The flesh of the coot is very variously
regarded as food. To prepare the bird for the table, the feathers
should be stripped, and the down, which is very close, thick and
hard to pluck, be rubbed with powdered resin; the body is then
to be dipped in boiling water, which dissolving the resin causes
it to mix with the down, and then both can be removed together
with tolerable ease. After this the bird should be left to soak
for the night in cold spring-water, which will make it look as
white and delicate as a chicken. Without this process the skin
after roasting is found to be very oily, with a fishy flavour, and
if the skin be taken off the flesh becomes dry and good for nothing
(Hawker's Instructions to Young Sportsmen; Hele's Notes about
Aldeburgh).

The coot is found throughout the Palaearctic region from
Iceland to Japan, and in most other parts of the world is repre-
sented by nearly allied species, having almost the same habits.
An African species {F. cristata), easily distinguished by two
red knobs on its forehead, is of rare appearance in the south
of Europe. The Australian and North American species (F.
australis and F. americana) have very great resemblance to the
English bird; but in South America half-a-dozen or more
additional species are found which range to Patagonia, and vary
much in size, one (F. gigantea) being of considerable magni-
tude. The remains of a very large species (F. newtoni) were dis-
covered in Mauritius, where it must have been a contemporary
of the dodo, but like that bird is now extinct. (A. N.)

COOTE, SIR EYRE (1726-1783), British soldier, the son of
a clergyman, was born near Limerick, and entered the 27th
regiment. He saw active service in the Jacobite rising of 1745,
and some years later obtained a captaincy in the 39th regiment,
which was the first British regiment sent to India. In 1756 a
part of the regiment, then quartered at Madras, was sent forward
to join Clive in his operations against Calcutta, which was re-
occupied without difficulty, and Coote was soon given the local
rank of major for his good conduct in the surprise of the Nawab's
camp. Soon afterwards came the battle of Plassey, which would
in all probability not have taken place but for Coote's soldierly

advice at the council of war; and after the defeat of the Nawab
he led a detachment in pursuit of the French for 400 m. under
extraordinary difficulties. His conduct won him the rank of
lieutenant-colonel and the command of the 84th regiment,
newly-raised for Indian service, but his exertions seriously
injured his health. In October 1759 Coote's regiment arrived
to take part in the decisive struggle between French and English
in the Carnatic. He took command of the forces at Madras,
and in 1760 led them in the decisive victory of Wandiwash
(January 22). After a time the remnants of Lally's forces
were shut up in Pondicherry. For some reason Coote was not
entrusted with the siege operations, but he cheerfully and loyally
supported Monson, who brought the siege to a successful end
on the 15th of January 1761. Soon afterwards Coote was given
the command of the East India Company's forces in Bengal,
and conducted the settlement of a serious dispute between the
Nawab Mir Cassim and a powerful subordinate, and in 1762 he
returned to England, receiving a jewelled sword of honour from
the Company and other rewards for his great services. In 1771
he was made a K.B. In 1779 he returned to India as lieutenant-
general commanding in chief. Following generally the policy
of Warren Hastings, he nevertheless refused to take sides in the
quarrels of the council, and made a firm stand in all matters
affecting the forces. Hyder Ali's progress in southern India
called him again into the field, but his difficulties were very
great and it was not until the 1st of June 1781 that the crushing
and decisive defeat of Porto Novo struck the first heavy blow
at Hyder's schemes. The battle was won by Coote under most
unfavourable conditions against odds of five to one, and is
justly ranked as one of the greatest feats of the British in India.
It was followed up by another hard-fought battle at Pollilur
(the scene of an earlier triumph of Hyder over a British force)
on the 27th of August, in which the British won another success,
and by the rout of the Mysore troops at Sholingarh a month
later. His last service was the arduous campaign of 1782,
which finally shattered a constitution already gravely impaired
by hardship and exertions. Sir Eyre Coote died at Madras on
the 28th of April 1783. A monument was erected to him in
Westminster Abbey.

For a short biography of Coote see Twelve British Soldiers (ed.
Wilkinson, London, 1899), and for the battles of Wandewash and
Porto Novo, consult Malleson, Decisive Battles of India (London,
1883). An account of Coote may be found in Wilk's Historical
Sketches of Mysore (18 10).

COPAIBA, or Copaiva (from Brazilian cupauba), an oleo-resin
— sometimes termed a balsam — obtained from the trunk of the
Copaifera Lansdorfii (natural order Leguminosae) and from
other species of Copaifera found in the West Indies and in the
valley of the Amazon. It is a somewhat viscous transparent
liquid, occasionally fluorescent and of a light yellow to pale
golden colour. The odour is aromatic and very characteristic,
the taste acrid and bitter. It is insoluble in water, but soluble
in absolute alcohol, ether and the fixed and volatile oils. Its
approximate composition is more than 50% of a volatile oil
and less than 50% of a resin. The pharmacopoeias contain
the oleo-resin itself, which is given in doses of from a half to one
drachm, and the oleum copaibae, which is given in doses of from
five to twenty minims, but which is inferior, as a medicinal agent,
to the oleo-resin. Copaiba shares the pharmacological characters
of volatile oils generally. Its distinctive features are its disagree-
able taste and the unpleasant eructations to which it may give
rise, its irritant action on the intestine in any but small doses,
its irritant action on the skin, often giving rise to an erythematous
eruption which may be mistaken for that of scarlet fever, and
its exceptionally marked stimulant action on the kidneys. In
large doses this last action may lead to renal inflammation. The
resin is excreted in the urine and is continually mistaken for
albumin since it is precipitated by nitric acid, but the precipitate
is re-dissolved, unlike albumin, on heating. Its nasty taste, its
irritant action on the bowel, and its characteristic odour in the
breath, prohibit its use — despite its other advantages — in all
diseases but gonorrhoea. For this disease it is a valuable

94

COPAL— COPE, E. M.

remedy, but it must not be administered until the acute symptoms
have subsided, else it will often increase them. It is best given
in cachets or in three times its own bulk of mucilage of acacia.
Various devices are adopted to disguise its odour in the breath.
The clinical evidence clearly shows that none of the numerous
vegetable rivals to copaiba is equal to it in therapeutic value.

COPAL (Mexican copalli, incense), a hard lustrous resin,
varying in hue from an almost colourless transparent mass to a
bright yellowish-brown, having a conchoidal fracture, and, when
dissolved in alcohol, spirit of turpentine, or any other suitable
menstruum, forming one of the most valuable varnishes. Copal
is obtained from a variety of sources; the term is not uniformly
applied or restricted to the products of any particular region or
series of plants, but is vaguely used for resins which, though
very similar in their physical properties, differ somewhat in
their constitution, and are altogether distinct as to their source.
Thus the resin obtained from Trachylobium Hornemannianum is
known in commerce as Zanzibar copal, or gum anime. Mada-
gascar copal is the produce of T. verrucosum. From Guibourtia
copallifera is obtained Sierra Leone copal, and another variety
of the same resin is found in a fossil state on the west coast of
Africa, probably the produce of a tree now extinct. From
Brazil and other South American countries, again, copal is
obtained which is yielded by TrachylobiumMartianum, Hymenaea
Courbaril, and various other species, while the dammar resins
and the piney varnish of India are occasionally classed and
spoken of as copal. Of the varieties above enumerated by far
the most important from a commercial point of view is the
Zanzibar or East African copal, yielded by Trachylobium Horne-
mannianum. The resin is found in two distinct conditions:
(i) raw or recent, called by the inhabitants of the coast sanda-
rusiza miti or chakazi, the latter name being corrupted by
Zanzibar traders into " jackass " copal; and (2) ripe or true
copal, the sandarusi inti of the natives. The raw copal, which
is obtained direct from the trees, or found at their roots or near
the surface of the ground, is not regarded by the natives as of
much value, and does not enter into European commerce. It
is sent to India and China, where it is manufactured into a
coarse kind of varnish. The true or fossil copal is found embedded
in the earth over a wide belt of the mainland coast of Zanzibar,
on tracts where not a single tree is now visible. The copal is not
found at a greater depth in the ground than 4 ft., and it is
seldom the diggers go deeper than about 3 ft. It occurs in
pieces varying from the size of small pebbles up to masses of
several ounces in weight, and occasionally lumps weighing 4
or 5 lb have been obtained. After being freed from foreign
matter, the resin is submitted to various chemical operations
for the purpose of clearing the " goose-skin," the name given
to the peculiar pitted-like surface possessed by fossil copal.
The goose-skin was formerly supposed to be caused by the
impression of the small stones and sand of the soil into which
the soft resin fell in its raw condition; but it appears that the
copal when first dug up presents no trace of the goose-skin, the
subsequent appearance of which is due to oxidation or inter-
molecular change.

COPALITE, or Copaline, also termed " fossil resin " and
" Highgate resin," a naturally occurring organic substance
found as irregular pieces of pale-yellow colour in the London
clay at Highgate Hill. It has a resinous aromatic odour when
freshly broken, volatilizes at a moderate temperature, and burns
readily with a yellow, smoky flame, leaving scarcely any ash.

COP AN, an ancient ruined city of western Honduras, near the
Guatemalan frontier, and on the right bank of the Rio Copan, a
tributary of the Motagua. For an account of its elaborately
sculptured stone buildings, which rank among the most cele-
brated monuments of Mayan civilization, see Central America:
Archaeology. The city is sometimes regarded as identical with
the Indian stronghold which, after a heroic resistance, was
stormed by the Spaniards, under Hernando de Chaves, in 1530.
It has given its name to the department in which it is situated.

COPARCENARY (co-, with, and parcener, i.e. sharer; from
O. Fr. parcpnier, Lat. parlitio, division), in law, the descent of

lands of inheritance from an ancestor to two or more persons
possessing an equal title to them. It arises either by common
law, as where an ancestor dies intestate, leaving two or more
females as his co-heiresses, who then take as coparceners or
parceners; or, by particular custom, as in the case of gavelkind
lands, which descend to all males in equal degrees, or in de-
fault of males, to all the daughters equally. These co-heirs, or
parceners, have been so called, says Littleton (§ 241), "because
by writ the law will constrain them, that partition shall be made
among them." Coparcenary so far resembles joint tenancy in
that there is unity of title, interest and possession, but whereas
joint tenants always claim by purchase, parceners claim by
descent, and although there is unity of interest there is no
entirety, for there is no jus accrescendi or survivorship. Co-
parcenary may be dissolved (a) by partition; (b) by alienation
by one coparcener; (c) by all the estate at last descending to one
coparcener, who thenceforth holds in severalty; (d) by a com-
pulsory partition or sale under the Partition Acts.

The term " coparcenary " is not in use in the United States,
joint heirship being considered as tenancy in common.

COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1807), American palaeon-
tologist, descended from a Wiltshire family who emigrated about
1687, was born in Philadelphia on the 28th of July 1840. At
an early age he became interested in natural history, and in 1859
communicated a paper on the Salamandridae to the Academy
of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. He was educated partly
in the University of Pennsylvania, and after further study and
travel in Europe was in 1865 appointed curator to the Academy
of Natural Sciences, a post which he held till 1873. In 1864-67
he was professor of natural science in Haverford College, and
in 1889 he was appointed professor of geology and palaeon-
tology in the University of Pennsylvania. To the study of the
American fossil vertebra ta he gave his special attention. From
1871 to 1877 he carried on explorations in the Cretaceous strata
of Kansas, the Tertiary of Wyoming and Colorado; and in
course of time he made known at least 600 species and many
genera of extinct vertebrata new to science. Among these were
some of the oldest known mammalia, obtained in New Mexico.
He served on the U.S. Geological Survey in 1874 in New Mexico,
in 1875 in Montana, and in 1877 in Oregon and Texas. He was
also one of the editors of the American Naturalist. He died
in Philadelphia on the 12th of April 1897.

Publications. — Reports for U.S. Geological Survey on Eocene
Vertebrata of Wyoming (1872); on Vertebrata of Cretaceous Forma-
tions of the West (1875); Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of
the West (1884) ; The Origin of the Fittest: Essays on Evolution (New
York, 1887) ; The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution (Chicago,
1896). Memoir by Miss Helen D. King, American Geologist, Jan.
1899 (with portrait and bibliography); also memoir by P. Frazer,
American Geologist, Aug. 1900 (with portrait).

COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873), English classical
scholar, was born in Birmingham on the 28th of July 1818. He
was educated at Ludlow and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity
College, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow in
1842, having taken his degree in 1841 as senior classic. He was
for many years lecturer at Trinity, his favourite subjects being
the Greek tragedians, Plato and Aristotle. When the professor-
ship of Greek became vacant, the votes were equally divided
between Cope and B. H. Kennedy, and the latter was appointed
by the chancellor. It is said that the keenness of Cope's dis-
appointment was partly responsible for the mental affliction
by which he was attacked in 1869, and from which he never
recovered. He died on the 5th of August 1873. As his published
works show, Cope was a thoroughly sound scholar, with perhaps
a tendency to over-minuteness. He was the author of An
Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric (1867), a standard work; The
Rhetoric of Aristotle, with a commentary, revised and edited by
J. E. Sandys (1877); translations of Plato's Gorgias (2nd ed.,
1884) and Phaedo (revised by H. Jackson, 1875). Mention
may also be made .of his criticism of Grote's account of the
Sophists, in the Cambridge Journal of Classical Philology, vols, i.,
ii., iii. (1854-1857).

The chief authority for the facts of Cope's life is the memoir pre-
fixed to vol. i. of his edition of The Rhetoric of Aristotle.

COPE

95

COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa), a
liturgical vestment of the Western Church. The word " cope,"
now confined to this sense, was in its origin identical with " cape "
and " cap," and was used until comparatively modern times also
for an out-door cloak, whether worn by clergy or laity. This,
indeed, was its original meaning, the cappa having been an outer
garment common to men and women whether clerical or lay (see
Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v.). The word pluviale (rain-cloak),
which the cope bears in the Roman Church, is exactly parallel
so far as change of meaning is concerned. In both words the
etymology reveals the origin of the vestment, which is no more
than a glorified survival of an article of clothing worn by all and
sundry in ordinary life, the type of which survives, e.g. in the
ample hooded cloak of Italian military officers. This origin is
clearly traceable in the shape and details of the cope. When
spread out this forms an almost complete semicircle. Along the
straight edge there is usually a broad band, and at the neck is
attached the " hood " (in Latin, the clypeus or shield), i.e. a
shield-shaped piece of stuff which hangs down over the back.
The vestment is secured in frqnt by a broad tab sewn on to one
side and fastening to the other with hooks, sometimes also by a
brooch (called the morse, Lat. morsus). Sometimes the morse
is attached as a mere ornament to the cross-piece. The cope
thus preserves the essential shape of its secular original, and
even the hood, though now a mere ornamental appendage, is a
survival of an actual hood. The evolution of this latter into its
present form was gradual; first the hood became too small for
use, then it was transformed into a small triangular piece of stuff
(13th century), which in its turn grew (14th and 15th centuries)
into the shape of a shield (see Plate II., fig. 4), and this again,
losing its pointed tip in the 17th century, expanded in the 18th
into a flap which was sometimes enlarged so as to cover the
whole back down to the waist. In its general effect, however,
a cope now no longer suggests a " waterproof." It is sometimes
elaborately embroidered all over; more usually it is of some rich
material, with the borders in front and the hood embroidered,
while the morse has given occasion for some of the most beautiful
examples of the goldsmith's and jeweller's craft (see Plate II.,
figs, s, 6).

The use of the cope as a liturgical vestment can be traced to
the end of the 8th century: a pluviale is mentioned in the
foundation charter of the monastery of Obona in Spain. Before
this the so-called cappa choralis, a black, bell-shaped, hooded
vestment with no liturgical significance, had been worn by the
secular and regular clergy at choir services, processions, &c.
This was in its origin identical with the chasuble (q.v.), and if,
as Father Braun seems to prove, the cope developed out of this,
cope 'and chasuble have a common source. 1 Father Braun cites
numerous inventories and the like to show that the cope (pluviale)
was originally no more than a more elaborate cappa worn on
high festivals or other ceremonial occasions, sometimes by the
whole religious community, sometimes — if the stock were
limited — by those, e.g. the cantors, &c, who were most con-
spicuous in the ceremony. In the 10th century, partly under
the influence of the wealthy and splendour-loving community
of Cluny, the use of the cope became very widespread; in the
nth century it was universally worn, though the rules for its
ritual use had not yet been fixed. It was at this time, however,
par excellence the vestment proper to the cantors, choirmaster
and singers, whose duty it was to sing the invitatorium, responses,
&c, at office, and the introitus, graduale, &c, at Mass. This use
survived in the ritual of the pre-Reformation Church in England,
and has been introduced in certain Anglican churches, e.g.
St Mary Magdalen's, Munster Square, in London.

'This derivation, suggested also by Dr Legg (Archaeol. Journal,
51, p. 39, 1894), is rejected by the five bishops in their report to
Convocation (1908). Their statement, however, that it is " pretty
clear " that the cope is derived from the Roman lacerna or birrus is
very much open to criticism. We do not even know what the
appearance and form of the birrus were; and the question of the
origin of the cope is not whether it was derived from any garment
of the time of the Roman Empire, and if so from which, but what
garment in use in the 8th and 9th centuries it represents.

By the beginning of the 13th century the liturgical use of the
cope had become finally fixed, and the rules for this use included
by Pope Pius V. in the Roman Missal and by Clement VIII.
in the Pontificate and Caeremoniale were consequently not new,
but in accordance with ancient and universal custom. The
substitution of the cope for the chasuble in many of the functions
for which the latter had been formerly used was primarily due to
the comparative convenience of a vestment opened at the front,
and so leaving the arms free. A natural conservatism preserved
the chasuble, which by the 9th century had acquired a symbolical
significance, as the vestment proper to the celebration of Mass;
but the cope took its place in lesser functions, i.e. the censing of
the altar during the Magnificat and at Mattins (whence the
German name Rauchmantel, smoke-mantel), processions, solemn
consecrations, and as the dress of bishops attending synods.

It is clear from this that the cope, though a liturgical, was never
a sacerdotal vestment. If it was worn by priests, it could also
be worn by laymen, and it was
never worn by priests in their
sacerdotal, i.e. their sacrificial,
capacity. For this reason it was
not rejected with the "Mass
vestments " by the English
Church at the Reformation, in
spite of the fact that it was in
no ecclesiastical sense " primi-
tive." By the First Prayer-book
of Edward VI., which repre-
sented a compromise, it was
directed to be worn as an alter-
native to the " vestment " (i.e.
chasuble) at the celebration of
the Communion; this at least
seems the plain meaning of
the words " vestment or
cope," though they have been
otherwise interpreted. In the
Second Prayer -book vestment

and cope alike disappear; but TTr .

a cope was worn by the prelate Abbey!" " *' Westrmnster

who consecrated Archbishop

Parker, and by the " gentlemen " as well as the priests of Queen
Elizabeth's chapel; and, finally, by the 24th canon (of 1603) a
" decent cope " was prescribed for the " principal minister " at the
celebration of Holy Communion in cathedral churches as well as
for the "gospeller and epistler." Except at royal coronations,
however, the use of the cope, even in cathedrals, had practically
ceased in England before the ritual revival of the 19th century
restored its popularity. The disuse implied no doctrinal change;
the main motive was that the stiff vestment, high in the neck,
was incompatible with a full-bottomed wig. Scarlet copes with
white fur hoods have been in continuous use on ceremonial
occasions in the universities, and are worn by bishops at the
opening of parliament.

With the liturgical cope may be classed the red mantle (man-
turn), which from the nth century to the close of the middle ages
formed, with the tiara, the special symbol of the papal
dignity. The immantatio was the solemn investiture
of the new pope immediately after his election, by
means of the cappa rubea, with the papal powers.
This ceremony was of great importance. In the contested
election of 1159, for instance, though a majority of the cardinals
had elected Cardinal Roland (Alexander III.), the defeated
candidate Cardinal Octavian (Victor IV.), while his rival was
modestly hesitating to accept the honour, seized the pluviale
and put it on his own shoulders hastily, upside down; and it
was on this ground that the council of Pavia in 11 60 based their
declaration in favour of Victor, and anathematized Alexander.
The immantatio fell out of use during the papal exile at Avignon
and was never restored.

It will be convenient here to note other vestments that have
developed out of the cappa. The cappa choralis has already

Fig. 1. — Seventeenth Century

The
Papal
man turn.

9 6

COPELAND— COPENHAGEN

The
cappa

been mentioned; it survived as a choir vestment that in winter
took the place of the surplice, rochet or almuce. In the 12th
century it was provided with arms {cappa manicata),
but the use of this form was forbidden at choir services
magna. and other liturgical functions. From the hood of the
cappa was developed the almuce (q.v.). At what
date the cappa choralis developed into the cappa magna, a
non-liturgical vestment peculiar to the pope, cardinals, bishops
and certain privileged prelates, is not known; but mention of it
is found as early as the 15th century. This vestment is a loose
robe, with a large hood (lined with fur in winter and red silk in
summer) and a long train, which is carried by a cleric called the
caudatarius. Its colour varies with the hierarchical rank of the
wearer: — red for cardinals, purple for bishops, &c; or, if the
dignitary belong to a religious order, it follows the colour of the
habit of the order. The right to wear a violet cappa magna is
conceded by the popes to the chapters of certain important
cathedrals, but the train in this case is worn folded over the
left arm or tied under it. It may only be worn by them, more-
over, in their own church, or when the chapter appears elsewhere
in its corporate capacity.

Lastly, from the cappa is probably derived the mozzetla, a short
cape with a miniature hood, fastened down the front with

buttons. The name is derived from the Italian
The

mozzeita. mozzare, to cut off, and points to its being an abbrevi-
ated cappa, as the episcopal " apron " is a shortened
cassock. It is worn over the rochet by the pope, cardinals,
bishops and prelate^, the colours varying as in the case of the
cappa magna. Its use as confined to bishops can be traced to
the 16th century.

See Joseph Braun, S. J., Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1907) ; also the bibliography to the article Vestments.

(W. A. P.)

COPELAND, HENRY, an 18th century English cabinet-maker
and furniture designer. He appears to have been the first
manufacturing cabinet-maker who published designs for furni-
ture. A New Book of Ornaments appeared in 1746, but it is not
clear whether the engravings with this title formed part of a
book, or were issued only in separate plates; a few of the
latter are all that are known to exist. Between 1752 and 1769
several collections of designs were produced by Copeland in
conjunction with Matthias Lock; in one of them Copeland is
described as of Cheapside. Some of the original drawings are in
the National Art library at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Copeland was probably the originator of a peculiar type of chair-
back, popular for a few years in the middle of the 18th century,
consisting of a series of interlaced circles. Much of his work has
been attributed to Thomas Chippendale, and it is certain that
one derived many ideas from the other, but which was the
originator and which the copyist is by no means clear. The
dates of Copeland's birth and death are unknown, but he was
still living in 1768.

COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn), the capital of the
kingdom of Denmark, on the east coast of the island of Zealand
(Sjaelland) at the southern end of the Sound. Pop. (1901)
400,575. The latitude is approximately that of Moscow, Berwick-
on-Tweed and Hopedale in Labrador. The nucleus of the city
is built on low-lying ground on the east coast of the island of
Zealand, between the sea and a series of small freshwater lakes,
known respectively as St Jorgens So, Peblings So and Sortedams
So, a southern portion occupying the northern part of the island
of Amager. An excellent harbour is furnished by the natural
channel between the two islands; and communication from one
division to the other is afforded by two bridges — the Langebro
and the Knippelsbro, which replaced the wooden drawbridge
built by Christian IV. in 1620. The older city, including both
the Zealand and Amager portions, was formerly surrounded
by a complete line of ramparts and moats; but pleasant boule-
vards and gardens now occupy the westward or landward site
of fortifications. Outside the lines of the original city (about
5 m. in circuit), there are extensive suburbs, especially on the
Zealand side (Osterbro, Norrebro and Vesterbro or Osterf oiled,

&c, and Frederiksberg), and Amagerbro to the south of
Christianshavn.

The area occupied by the inner city is known as Gammelsholm
(old island). The main artery is the Gothersgade, running from
Kongens Nytorv to the western boulevards, and separating a
district of regular thoroughfares and rectangular blocks to the
north from one of irregular, narrow and picturesque streets to
the south. The Kongens Nytorv, the focus of the life of the city
and the centre of road communications, is an irregular open
space at the head of a narrow arm of the harbour (Nyhavn)
inland from the steamer quays, with an equestrian statue of
Christian V. (d. 1699) in the centre. The statue is familiarly
known as Hesten (the horse) and is surrounded by noteworthy
buildings. The Palace of Charlottenborg, on the east side,
which takes its name from Charlotte, the wife of Christian V.,
is a huge sombre building, built in 1672. Frederick V. made a
grant of it to the Academy of Arts, which holds its annual
exhibition of paintings and sculpture in April and May, in the
adjacent Kunstudstilling (1883). On the south is the principal
theatre, the Royal, a beautiful modern Renaissance building
(1874), on the site of a former theatre of the same name, which
dated from 1 748. Statues of the poets Ludvig Holberg (d. 1 7 54) ,
and Adam Ohlenschlager (d. 1850), the former by Stein and the
latter by H. V. Bissen, stand on either side of the entrance, and
the front is crowned by a group by King, representing Apollo
and Pegasus, and the Fountain of Hippocrene. Within, among
other sculptures, is a relief figure of Ophelia, executed by Sarah
Bernhardt. Other buildings in Kongens Nytorv are the foreign
office, several great commercial houses, the commercial bank,
and the Thotts Palais of c. 1685. The quays of the Nyhavn are
lined with old gabled houses.

From the south end of Kongens Nytorv, a street called
Holmens Kanal winds past the National Bank to the Holmens
Kirke, or church for the royal navy, originally erected as an
anchor-smithy by Frederick II., but consecrated by Christian
IV., with a chapel containing the tombs of the great admirals
Niels Juel and Peder Tordenskjold, and wood-carving of the
17th century. The. street then crosses a bridge on to the
Slottsholm, an island divided from the mainland by a narrow
arm of the harbour, occupied mainly by the Christiansborg
and adjacent buildings. The royal palace of Christiansborg,
originally built (1731-1745) by Christian VI., destroyed by
fire in 1794, and rebuilt, again fell in flames in 1884. Fortunately
most of the art treasures which the palace contained Were saved.
A decision was arrived at in 1903, in commemoration of the
jubilee of the reign of Christian IX., to rebuild the palace for
use on occasions of state, and to house the parliament. On the
Slottsplads (Palace Square) which faces east, is an equestrian
statue of Frederick VII. There are also preserved the bronze
statues which stood over the portal of the palace before the fire —
figures of Strength, Wisdom, Health and Justice, designed by
Thorvaldsen. The palace chapel, adorned with works by
Thorvaldsen and Bissen, was preserved from the fire, as was
the royal library of about 540,000 volumes and 20,000 manu-
scripts, for which a new building in Christiansgade was designed
about 1900.

The exchange (Borsen), on the quay to the east, is an ornate
gabled building erected in 1619-1640, surmounted by a remark-
able spire, formed of four dragons, with their heads directed to
the four points of the compass, and their bodies entwining each
other till their tails come to a point at the top. To the south
is the arsenal (Tojkus) with a collection of ancient armour.

The Thorvaldsen museum (1839-1848), a sombre building
in a combination of the Egyptian and Etruscan styles, consists
of two storeys. In the centre is an open court, containing the
artist's tomb. The exterior walls are decorated with groups
of figures of coloured stucco, illustrative of events connected
with Thorvaldsen's life. Over the principal entrance is the
chariot of Victory drawn by four horses, executed in bronze
from a model by Bissen. The front hall, corridors and apart-
ments are painted in the Pompeian style, with brilliant colours
and with great artistic skill. The museum contains about 300

COPE

Plate 1.

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Er'5 Py

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^^EL? ;' *9

HHH

BH

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Fig. 2.— THE SYON COPE. (English, 13™ Century.)

The medallions with which it is embroidered contain representations of Christ on the Cross, Christ and St Mary Magdalene, Christ
and Thomas, the death of the Virgin, the burial and coronation of the Virgin, St Michael and the twelve Apostles. Of the latter, four
survive only in tiny fragments. The spaces between the four rows of medallions are filled with six-winged cherubim. The ground-work
of the vestment is green silk embroidery, that of the medallions red. The figures are worked in silver and gold thread and coloured silks.
The lower border and the orphrey with coats of arms do not belong to the original cope and arc of somewhat later date. The cope belonged
to the convent of Syon near Isleworth, was taken to Portugal at the Reformation, brought back early in the 19th century to England by
exiled nuns and given by them to the Earl of Shrewsbury. In 1864 it was bought by the South Kensington Museum.

G. 3.— COPE OF BLUE SILK VELVET, WITH AITLIQUE WORK AND EMBROIDERY.

In the middle of the orphrey is a figure of Our Lord holding the orb in His left hand, and with His right hand raised in benediction.
To the right are figures of St Peter, St Bartholomew and St Ursula; and to the left, St Paul, St John the Evangelist and St Andrew
On the hood is a seated figure of the Virgin Mary holding the Infant Saviour. GERMAN: early 16th century. (In the Victoria and
Albert Museum, No. 91. 1904.)

VII. »6

Plate II.

COPE

Fig. 4.— COPE OF EMBROIDERED PURPLE SILK VELVET.

In the middle is represented the Assumption of the Virgin; on the hood is a seated figure of the Almighty bearing

three souls in a napkin. English, about 1500. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)

fit •' ' X

{ ■

Fig. 5.— COPE MORSE (German, 14TH Century) IN THE
CATHEDRAL AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.

(From a photograph by Father Joseph Braun, S. J.)

Fig. 6.

-COPE MORSE (German, Early 14TH Century),
IN THE PARISH CHURCH AT ELTEN.

(From a photograph by Father Joseph Braun, S. J.)

COPENHAGEN

97

of Thorvaldsen's works; and in one apartment is his sitting-room
furniture arranged as it was found at the time of his death in
1844.

On the mainland, immediately west of the Slottsholm, is the
Prinsens Palais, once the residence of Christian V. and Frederick
VI. when crown princes, containing the national museum. This
consists of four sections, the Danish, ethnographical, antique
and numismatic. It was founded in 1807 by Professor Nyerup,
and extended between 1815 and 1885 by C. J. Thomsen and
J. J. A. Worsaae, and the ethnographical Collection is among
the finest in the world. From this point the Raadhusgade leads
north-west to the combined Nytorv-og-Gammeltorv, where is
the old townhall (Raadhus, 1815), and continues as the Norregade
to the Vor Frue Kirke (Church of our Lady), the cathedral
church of Copenhagen. This church, the site of which has been
similarly occupied since the 12th century, was almost entirely
destroyed in the bombardment of 1807, but was completely
restored in 1811-1829. The works of Thorvaldsen which it
contains constitute its chief attraction. In the pediment is a
group of sixteen figures by Thorvaldsen, representing John the
Baptist preaching in the wilderness; over the entrance within
the portico is a bas-relief of Christ's entry into Jerusalem; on
one side of the entrance is a statue of Moses by Bissen, and on
the other a statue of David by Jerichau. In a niche behind
the altar stands a colossal marble statue of Christ, and
marble statues of the twelve apostles adorn both sides of the
church.

Immediately north of Vor Frue Kirke is the university,
founded by Christian I. in 1479; though its existing constitution
dates from 1788. The building dates from 1836. There are five
faculties — theological, juridical, medical, philosophical and
mathematical. In 1851 an English and in 1852 an Anglo-Saxon
lectureship were established. All the professors are bound to give
a series of lectures open to the public free of charge. The
university possesses considerable endowments and has several
foundations for the assistance of poor students; the " regent's
charity," for instance, founded by Christian, affords free residence
and a small allowance to one hundred bursars. There are about
2000 students. In connexion with the university are the obser-
vatory, the chemical laboratory in Ny Vester Gade, the surgical
academy in Bredgade, founded in 1786, and the botanic garden.
The university library, incorporated with the former Classen
library, collected by the famous merchants of that name, contains
about,20o,ooo volumes, besides about 4000 manuscripts, which
include Rask's valuable Oriental collection and the Arne-Magnean
series of Scandinavian documents. It shares with the royal
library the right of receiving a copy of every book published in
Denmark. There is also a zoological museum. Adjacent is
St Peter's church, built in a quasi-Gothic style, with a spire
256 ft. high, and appropriated since 1585 as a parish church for
the German residents in Copenhagen. A short distance along
the Krystalgade is Trinity church. Its round tower is in ft.
high, and is considered to be unique in Europe. It was con-
structed from a plan of Tycho Brahe's favourite disciple Longo-
mOntanus, and was formerly used as an observatory. It is
ascended by a broad inclined spiral way, up which Peter the
Great is said to have driven in a carriage and four. From this
church the Kjobermayergade runs south, a populous street of
shops, giving upon the Hoibro-plads, with its fine equestrian
statue of Bishop Absalon, the city's founder. This square is
connected by a bridge with the Slottsholm.

The quarter north-east of Kongens Nytorv and Gothersgaden
is the richest in the city, including the palaces of Amalienborg,
the castle and gardens of Rosenborg and several mansions of the
nobility. The quarter extends to the strong moated citadel,
which guards the harbour on the north-east. It is a regular
polygon with five bastions, founded by Frederick III. about
1662-1663. One of the mansions, the Moltkes Palais, has a
collection of Dutch paintings formed in the 18th century. This
is in the principal thoroughfare of the quarter, Bredgaden, and
close at hand the palace of King George of Greece faces the
Frederikskirke or Marble church. This church, intended to have
vii. 4

been an edifice of great extent and magnificence, was begun in
the reign of Frederick V. (1749), but after twenty years was left
unfinished. It remained a ruin until 1874, when it was purchased
by a wealthy banker, M. Tietgen, at whose expense the work
was resumed. The edifice was not carried up to the height
originally intended, but the magnificent dome, which recalls the
finest examples in Italy, is conspicuous far and wide. The
diameter is only a few feet less than that of St Peter's in Rome.
As the church stands it is one of the principal works of the
architect, F. Meldahl. Behind King George's palace from the
Bredgade lies the Amalienborg-plads, having in the centre an
equestrian statue of Frederick V., erected in 1768 at the cost of
the former Asiatic Company. The four palaces, of uniform
design, encircling this plads, were built for the residence
of four noble families; but on the destruction of Chris tians-
borg in 1794 they became the residence of the king and
court, and so continued till the death of Christian VIII. in
1848. One of the four is inhabited by the king, the second and
third by the crown prince and other members of the royal family,
while the fourth is occupied by the coronation and state rooms.
The Ameliegade crosses the plads and, with the Bredgade,
terminates at the esplanade outside the citadel, prolonged in the
pleasant promenade of Lange Linie skirting the Sound.

To the west of the citadel is the Ostbanegaard, or eastern rail-
way station, from which start the local trains on the coast line
to Klampenborg and Helsingor. South-west from this point
extends the line of gardens which occupy the site of former land-
ward fortifications, pleasantly diversified by water and planta-
tions, skirted on the inner side by three wide boulevards,
Ostervold, Norrevold and Vestervold Gade, and containing
noteworthy public buildings, mostly modern. In the Ostre
Anlaeg is the art museum (1895) containing pictures, sculptures
and engravings. Infrontof it is the Denmark monument (1896),
commemorating the golden wedding (1892) of Christian IX.
and Queen Louisa. Among various scenes in relief, the marriage
of King Edward VII. of England and Queen Alexandra is
depicted. The botanical garden (1874) contains an observatory
with a statue of Tycho Brahe, and the chemical laboratory,
mineralogical museum, polytechnic academy (1829) and com-
munal hospital adjoin it. On the inner side of Ostevold Gade
is Rosenborg Park, with the palace of Rosenborg erected in
1610-1617. It is an irregular building in Gothic style, with a
high pointed roof, and flanked by four towers of unequal dimen-
sions. It contains the chronological collection of Danish
monarchs, including a coin and medal cabinet, a fine collection
of Venetian glass, the famous silver drinking-horn of Oldenburg
(1474), the regalia and other objects of interest as illustrating
the history of Denmark. The Riddersal, a spacious room, is
covered with tapestry representing the various battles of
Christian V., and has at one end a massive silver throne. The
Norrevold Gade leads through the Norretorv past the Folke-
teatre and the technical school to the Orsteds park, and from
its southern end the Vestervold Gade continues through the
Raadhus Plads, a centre of tramways, flanked by the modern
Renaissance town hall (1901), ornamented with bronze figures,
with a tower at the eastern angle. Here is also the museum
of industrial art, and the Ny-Carlsberg Glyptotek, with its
collection of sculpture, is on this boulevard, which skirts the
pleasure garden called Tivoli. From the Raadhus-plads the
Vesterbro Gade runs towards the western quarter of the city,
skirting the Tivoli. Here is the Dansk Folke museum, a collec-
tion illustrating the domestic life of the nation, particularly that
of the peasantry since 1600. A column of Liberty (Friheds-
Stotte) rises in an open space, erected in 1798 to commemorate
the abolition of serfdom. Immediately north is the main
railway station (Banegaard), and the North and Klampenborg
stations near at hand. The western (residential) quarter contains
the park of Frederiksberg, with its palace erected under Frederick
IV. (d. 1730), used as a military school. The park contains a
zoological garden, and is continued south in the pleasant Sonder-
marken, near which lies the old Glyptotek, which contained the
splendid collection of sculptures, &c, made by H. C. Jacobsen

98

COPENHAGEN

since 1887, uutil their removal to the new Glyptotek founded
by him in the Vestre Boulevard.

The quarter of Christianshavn is that portion of the city which
skirts the harbour to the south, and lies within the fortifications.
It contains the Vor Frelsers Kirke (Church of Our Saviour),
dedicated in 1696, with a curious steeple 282 ft. high, ascended
by an external spiral staircase. The lower part of the altar is
composed of Italian marble, with a representation of Christ's
sufferings in the garden of Gethsemane; and the organ is con-
sidered the finest in Copenhagen. The city does not extend
much farther south, though the Amagerbro quarter lies without
the walls. The island of Amager is fertile, producing vegetables
for the markets of the capital. It was peopled by a Dutch colony
planted by Christian II. in 1516, and many old peculiarities of
dress, manners and languages are retained.

The environs of Copenhagen to the north and west are interest-
ing, and the country, both along the coast northward and inland
westward is pleasant, though in no way remarkable. The rail-
way along the coast northward passes the seaside resorts of
Klampenborg (6 m.) and Skodsborg (10 m.) . Near Klampenborg
is the Dyrehave (Deer park) or Skoven (the forest), a beautiful
forest of beeches. The Zealand Northern railway passes Lyngby,
on the lake of the same name, a favourite summer residence, and
Hillerod (21 m.), a considerable town, capital of the amt (county)
of Frederiksberg, and close to the palace of Frederiksberg.
This was erected in 1602-1620 by Christian IV., embodying two
towers of an earlier budding, and partly occupying islands in a
small lake. It suffered seriously from fire in 1859, but was care-
fully restored under the direction of F. Meldahl. It contains a
national historical museum, including furniture and pictures.
The palace church is an interesting medley of Gothic and Re-
naissance detail. The villa of Hvidore was acquired by Queen
Alexandra in 1907.

Among the literary and scientific associations of Copenhagen
may be mentioned the Danish Royal Society, founded in 1742,
for the advancement of the sciences of mathematics, astronomy,
natural philosophy, &c, by the publication of papers and essays;
the Royal Antiquarian Society, founded in 1825, for diffusing
a knowledge of Northern and Icelandic archaeology; the Society
for the Promotion of Danish Literature, for the publication of
works chiefly connected with the history of Danish literature;
the Natural Philosophy Society; the Royal Agricultural Society;
the Danish Church History Society; the Industrial Association,
founded in 1838; the Royal Geographical Society, established
in 1876; and several musical and other societies. The Academy
of Arts was founded by Frederick V. in 1754 for the instruction
of artists, and for disseminating a taste for the fine arts among
manufacturers and operatives. Attached to it are schools for
the study of architecture, ornamental drawing and modelling.
An Art Union was founded in 1826, and a musical conservatorium
in 1870 under the direction of the composers N. W. Gade and
J. P. E. Hartmann.

Among educational institutions, other than the university,
may be mentioned the veterinary and agricultural college,
established in 1773 and adopted by the state in 1776, the
military academy and the school of navigation. Technical
instruction is provided by the polytechnic school (1829), which
is a state institution, and the school of the Technical Society,
which, though a private foundation, enjoys public subvention.
The schools which prepare for the university, &c, are nearly all
private, but are all under the control of the state. Elementary
instruction is mostly provided by the communal schools.

The churches already mentioned belong to the national
Lutheran Church; the most important of those belonging to
other denominations are the Reformed church, founded in 1688,
and rebuilt in 1731, the Catholic church of St Ansgarius, con-
secrated in 1842, and the Jewish synagogue in Krystalgade,
which dates from 1853. Of the monastic buildings of medieval
Copenhagen various traces are preserved in the present nomen-
clature of the streets. The Franciscan establishment gives its
name to the Graabrodretorv or Grey Friars' market; and
St Clara's Monastery, the largest of all, which was founded by

Queen Christina, is still commemorated by the Klareboder or
Clara buildings, near the present post-office. The Duebrodre
Kloster occupied the site of the hospital of the Holy Ghost.

Among the hospitals of Copenhagen, besides many modern
institutions, there may be mentioned Frederick's hospital,
erected in 1752-1757 by Frederick V., the Communal Hospital,
erected in 1859-1863, on the eastern side of the Sortedamsso,
the general hospital in Ameliegade, founded in 1769, and the
garrison hospital, in Rigensgade, established in 1816 by Frederick
VI. After the cholera epidemic of 1853, which carried off more
than 4000 of the inhabitants, the medical association built
several ranges of workmen's houses, and their example was
followed by various private capitalists, among whom may be
mentioned the Classen trustees, whose buildings occupy an open
site on the western outskirts of the city.

Copenhagen is by far the most important commercial town
in Denmark, and exemplifies the steady increase in the trade
of the country. The harbour is mainly comprised in the narrow
strait between the outer Sound and its inlet the Kalvebod or
Kallebo Strand. The trading capabilities were aided by the
construction in 1894 of the Frihavn (free port) at the northern
extremity of the town, well supplied with warehouses and other
conveniences. It is connected with the main railway station by
means of a circular railway, while a short branch connects it
with the ordinary custom-house quay. The commercial harbour
is separated from the harbour for warships (Orlogshavn) by a
barrier. The sea approaches are guarded by ten coast batteries
besides the old citadel. The Middelgrund is a powerful defensive
work completed in 1896 and most of the rest are modern. The
landward defences of Copenhagen, it may be added, were left
unprovided for after the Napoleonic wars until the patriotism of
Danish women, who subscribed sufficient funds for the first fort,
shamed parliament into granting the necessary money for others
(1886-1895). Copenhagen is not an industrial town. The
manufactures carried on are mostly only such as exist in every
large town, and the export of manufactured goods is inconsider-
able. The royal china factory is celebrated for models of
Thorvaldsen's works in biscuit china. The only very large
establishment is one for the construction of iron steamers,
engines, &c, but some factories have been erected within the area
of the free port for the purpose of working up imported raw
materials duty free.

History. — Copenhagen (i.e. Merchant's Harbour, originally
simply Havn, latinized as Hafnia) is first mentioned in history
in 1043. It was then only a fishing village, and remained so
until about the middle of the 12th century, when Valdemar I.
presented that part of the island to Axel Hvide, renowned in
Danish history as Absalon (q.v.), bishop of Roskilde, and after-
wards archbishop of Lund. In 1167 this prelate erected a castle
on the spot where the Christiansborg palace now stands, and
the building was called after him Axel-huus. The settlement
gradually became a great resort for merchants, and thus acquired
the name which, in a corrupted form, it still bears, of Kaup-
mannahofn, Kjobmannshavn, or Portus Mercatorum as it is
translated by Sax© Grammaticus. In n 86, Bishop Absalon
bestowed the castle and village, with the lands of Amager, on
the see of Roskilde; but, as the place grew in importance, the
Danish kings became anxious to regain it, and in 1245 King
Eric IV. drove out Bishop Niels Stigson. On the king's death
(1250), however, Bishop Jacob Erlandsen obtained the town,
and, in 1254, gave to the burghers their first municipal privileges,
which were confirmed by Pope Urban III. in 1286. In the
charter of 1254, while there is mention of a communitas capable
of making a compact with the bishop, there is nothing said of
any trade or craft gilds. These are, indeed, expressly pro-
hibited in the later charter of Bishop Johann Kvag (1294);
and the distinctive character of the constitution of Copenhagen
during the middle ages consisted in the absence of the free gild
system, and the right of any burgher to pursue a craft under
license from the Vogt (advocatus) of the overlord and the city
authorities. Later on, gilds were established, in spite of the pro-
hibition of the old charters; but they were strictly subordinate

COPENHAGEN

99

to the town authorities, who appointed their aldermen and sup-
pressed them when they considered them useless or dangerous.
The prosperity of Copenhagen was checked by an attack by the
people of Liibeck in 1248, and by another on the part of Prince
Jaromir of Riigen in 1259. In 1306 it managed to repel the
Norwegians, but in 1362, and again in 1368, it was captured
by the opponents of Valdemar Atterdag. In the following
century a new enemy appeared in the Hanseatic league, which
was jealous of its rivalry, but their invasion was frustrated by
Queen Philippa. Various attempts were made by successive
kings to obtain the town from the see of Roskilde, as the most
suitable for the royal residence; but it was not till 1443 that the
transference was finally effected and Copenhagen became the
capital of the kingdom. From 1523 to 1524 it held out for
Christian II. against Frederick I., who captured it at length and
strengthened its defensive works; and it was only after a year's
siege that it yielded in 1536 to Christian III. From 1658 to 1660
it was unsuccessfully beleaguered by Charles Gustavus of Sweden ;
and in the following year it was rewarded by various privileges
for its gallant defence. In 1660 it gave its name to the treaty
which concluded the Swedish war of Frederick III. In 1700 it
was bombarded by the united fleets of England, Holland and
Sweden; in 1728 a conflagration destroyed 1640 houses and
five churches; another in 1795 laid waste 943 houses, the church
of St Nicolas, and the Raadhus. In 1801 the Danish fleet was
destroyed in the roadstead by the English (see below, § Battle
of Copenhagen); and in 1807 the city was bombarded by the
British under Lord Cathcart, and saw the destruction of the
university buildings, its principal church and numerous other
edifices.

See O. Nielsen, Kobenhavns Historie oz Beskrivelse (Copenhagen,
1877-1892) ; C. Bruun and P. Munch, Kobenhavn, Skrilding aj
dets Historie, &c. (ibid. 1887-1901); Bering-Liisberg, Kobenhavn
i gamle Dage (ibid. 1898 et seq.). (0. J. R. H.)

Battle of Copenhagen

The formation of a league between the northern powers',
Russia, Prussia, Denmark and Sweden, on the 16th of December

1800, nominally to protect neutral trade at sea from the enforce-
ment by Great Britain of her belligerent claims, led to the
despatch of a British fleet to the Baltic on the 12th of March

1801. It consisted of fifty-three sail in all, of which eighteen
were of the line. Prussia possessed no fleet. The nominal
strength of the Russian fleet was eighty-three sail of the line,
of the Danish twenty-three, and of the Swedish eighteen. But
this force was for the most part only on paper. Some of the
Russian ships were at Archangel, others in the Mediterranean.
Of those actually in the Baltic and fit to go to sea, twelve were
at Reval shut in by the ice, and the others were at Kronstadt.
The Swedes could equip only eleven of the line for sea, and
Denmark only seven or eight. It is highly doubtful whether
the three powers could have collected more than forty ships of
the line — -and they would have been hastily manned, destitute
of experience, and without confidence. A rapid British attack
would in any case forestall the concentration of these hetero-
geneous squadrons. The superior quality of the veteran British
crews was more than enough to counterbalance a mere superiority
in numbers. The command of the British fleet was given to
Sir Hyde Parker, an amiable man of no energy and little ability.
He had Nelson with him as second in command — then a junior
admiral but without rival in capacity and in his hold on the
confidence of the fleet. Parker's orders were to give Denmark
twenty-four hours in which to withdraw from the coalition, and
on her refusal to destroy or neutralize her strength and then
proceed against the Russians before the breaking up of the ice
allowed the ships at Reval to join the squadron at Kronstadt.

On the 21st of March the British fleet, after a somewhat
stormy passage, was at the entrance to the Sound. Nicholas
Vansittart, afterwards Lord Bexley, the British diplomatic
agent entrusted with the message to the Danish government,
was landed, and left for Copenhagen. On the 23rd he returned
with the refusal of the Danes. The British fleet then passed

the Danish fort at Cronenburg, unhurt by its distant fire, and
without being molested by the forts on the Swedish shore.
Nelson urged immediate attack, and recommended, as an
alternative, that part of the British fleet should watch the Danes
while the remainder advanced up the Baltic to prevent the
junction of the Russian Reval squadron with the ships in
Kronstadt. Sir Hyde Parker was, however, unwilling to go up the
Baltic with the Danes unsubdued behind him, or to divide his
force. It was therefore resolved that an attack should be made
on the Danish capital with the whole fleet in two divisions.
Copenhagen lies on the east side of the island of Zealand; opposite
it is the shoal known as the Middle Ground. To the east of the
Middle Ground is another shoal known as Saltholm Flat, and
there is a passage available for large ships between them. The
main fortification of Copenhagen was the powerful Tfekroner
(Three Crown) battery at the northern end of the sea-front.
Here the Danes had placed their strongest ships. The southern
part of the city front was covered by hulks and gun-vessels or
bomb-vessels. There were in all eighteen hulks or ships of the
line in the Danish defence. To have made the attack from the
northern end would in Nelson's words have been " to take the
bull by the horns." He therefore proposed that he should be
detached with ten sail of the line, and the frigates and small
craft, to pass between the Middle Ground and Saltholm Flat,
and assail the Danish line at the southern end while the remainder
of the fleet engaged the Trekroner battery from the north. Sir
Hyde Parker accepted his offer, and added two ships of the line
to the ten asked for by Nelson.

During the nights of the 30th and 31st of March the channel
between the Middle Ground and Saltholm Flat was sounded
by the boats of the British fleet, the Danes making no attempt
to interfere with them. On the 1st of April Nelson brought his
ships through. He had transferred his flag from his own ship
the " St George " (98) to the " Elephant " (74), commanded by
Captain Foley, because the water was too shallow for a three-
decker. On the morning of the 2nd of April the wind was fair
from the south-east, and at 9.30 a.m. the British squadron weighed
anchor, led by the " Amazon " frigate, commanded by Captain
Riou, and began to pass along the front of the Danish line. The
Danes could bring into action 375 guns in all. Their hulks and
bomb-vessels were supported by batteries on Zealand; but, as
the water is shallow for a long distance from the shore, these
defences were too far off to render them effectual aid on the
south end of their line. Nelson disposed of a greater number
of guns, 1058 in all, but some did not come into action. The
" Agamemnon " (64), commanded by Captain Fancourt, was
unable to round the south point of the Middle Ground. The
" Bellona " (74), commanded by Captain Thompson, and the
" Russel " (74), commanded by Captain Cuming, ran ashore
on the Middle Ground, but within range though at too great a
distance for fully effective fire. Captain Thompson lost his leg
in the battle. The other ships passed between the " Bellona "
and " Russel " and the Danes. The leading British ship, the
" Defiance " (74), carrying the flag of Rear-Admiral Graves,
anchored just south of the Trekroner. As the wind was from
the south-east Sir Hyde Parker was unable to make the proposed
attack from the north. The place opposite the Danish fort
which was to have been taken by him was occupied by Captain
Riou and the frigates. The " Elephant " anchored almost in
the middle of the line. Fire was opened about 10 a.m., and at
11.30 the action was at its height.

Until 1 o'clock there was no diminution of the Danish fire.
Sir Hyde Parker, who saw the danger of Nelson's position,
became anxious, and sent his second, Captain Robert Waller
Ottway, to him with a message authorizing him to retire if he
thought fit. Before Ottway, who had to go in a row-boat, reached
the " Elephant," Sir Hyde Parker had reflected that it would be
more magnanimous in him to take the responsibility of ordering
the retreat. He therefore hoisted the signal of recall. It was
a well-meant but ill-judged order-. Nelson could only have
retreated before the south-easterly wind by going past the
Trekroner fort, where the passage is narrow, and the navigation

IOO

COPERNICUS

difficult. He therefore disregarded the signal, and amused
himself and the few officers about him by putting his glass to
his blind eye and saying that he could not see it. The frigates
opposite the Trekroner did retreat, Captain Riou being slain
as they drew off.

At about 2.30 the fire from the Danish hulks had been much
beaten down, but as their crews fell, fresh men were sent from
the shore and the fire was resumed. Nelson astutely and
legitimately seized the opportunity to open negotiations with the
Danes. He sent a flag of truce carried by Sir F. Thesiger ashore
to the crown prince of Denmark (then regent of the kingdom),
to say that unless he was allowed to take possession of the hulks
which had surrendered he would be compelled to burn them, a
course which he deprecated on the ground of humanity and his
tenderness of " the brothers of the English the Danes." The
crown prince, who was shaken by the spectacle of the battle,
allowed himself to be drawn into a reply, and to be referred to
Sir Hyde Parker. Fire was suspended by the Danes to allow
of time to receive Sir Hyde Parker's answer. Nelson with
intelligent promptitude availed himself of the interval to with-
draw his squadron past the Trekroner. The difficulty found in
getting the ships out — one of them grounded — showed how
disastrous an attempt to draw off under fire of the forts must
have been.

The Danish government, which had entered the coalition
largely from fear of Russia, was not prepared to make very great
sacrifices, and now entered into negotiations for an armistice.
It was the more ready to do so because it received news of the
assassination of the tsar Paul, which had happened on the 24th
of March. An armistice was made for fourteen weeks, which
left the British fleet free to proceed up the Baltic. On the 12th
of April, after lightening the three-deckers of their guns, the
fleet passed over the shallows. But its presence had now lost
all military significance. Sir Hyde Parker was assured by the
Russian minister at Copenhagen that the new tsar Alexander I.
would not continue the policy of hostility with England and
alliance with France which had proved fatal to his father. The
Swedes, who like the Danes had entered the coalition under
pressure from Russia, did not send their ships to sea. The
government of the new tsar was prepared for an arrangement
with England. The date of the final settlement was in all
probability delayed by the activity of Nelson, and his belief that
a British fleet was the best negotiator in Europe. The British
government learnt of the tsar's death on the 15th of April. On
the 17 th it instructed Sir Hyde Parker to agree to a suspension of
hostilities, and not to take active measures against Russia so long
as the Reval squadron did not put to sea. On the 21st of April,
having now received a full account of the battle at Copenhagen,
it recalled Sir Hyde Parker, whose vacillating conduct and
want of enterprise had become manifest. He received the news
of his recall on the 5th of May. Nelson, to whom the command
passed, at once put to sea, and hastened with a part of his fleet
to Reval, which he reached on the 12th of May. The Russian
squadron had, however, cut a passage through the ice in the
harbour on the 3rd, and had sailed for Kronstadt. Nelson was
received with formal civility by the Russian officers, with whom
he exchanged visits. He wrote a letter to Mr Garlike, secretary
of the British embassy at St Petersburg, saying that he had come
with a small squadron as the best way of paying " the very
highest compliment " to the tsar.

The Russian government, which not unnaturally wished to
avoid any appearance of acting under dictation, and was now
in no anxiety for the Reval squadron, treated his presence as a
menace. On the 13th of May Count Pahlen answered in a most
peremptory letter informing Nelson that negotiations would
be suspended while he remained at Reval. This retort caused
Nelson annoyance which he did not attempt to conceal, but he
justly concluded that he had nothing further to do at Reval,
and therefore returned down the Baltic. Nelson remained with
the fleet till he was relieved at his own request, and was able to
sail for England on the 18th of June. He gave a proof of his
regard for the service of the country by taking his passage home

in a small brig rather than withdraw a line of battle ship from the
squadron, which his rank entitled him to dq, and as other
admirals of the time generally did. The British sailors and ships
embargoed in Russia were released on the 17 th of May. Great
Britain released her prisoners on the 4th of June, and on the
17 th of June was signed the convention which terminated the
Baltic campaign.

See Dispatches and Letters of Vice-Admiral Nelson, by Sir N. Harris
Nicolas (1845); Life of Nelson, by Capt. A. T. Mahan (London,
1899). (D. H.)

COPERNICUS (orKoppERNiGK),NICOLAUS(i473-i543), Polish
astronomer, was born on the 19th of February 1473, at Thorn
in Prussian Poland, where his father, a native of Cracow, had
settled as a wholesale trader. His mother, Barbara Watzelrode,
belonged to a family of high mercantile and civic standing.
After the death of his father in 1483, Nicolaus was virtually
adopted by his uncle Lucas Watzelrode, later (in 1489) bishop
of Ermeland. Placed at the university of Cracow in 1491, he
devoted himself, during three years, to mathematical science
under Albert Brudzewski (1445-1497), and incidentally acquired
some skill in painting. At the age of twenty-three he repaired
to Bologna, and there varied his studies of canon law by attending
the astronomical lectures of Domenico Maria Novara (1454-
1504). At Rome, in the Jubilee year 1500, he himself lectured
with applause; but having been nominated in 1497 canon of
the cathedral of Frauenburg, he recrossed the Alps in 1501 with
the purpose of obtaining further leave of absence for the com-
pletion of his academic career. Late in the same year, accord-
ingly, he entered the medical school of Padua, where he remained
until 1505, having taken meanwhile a doctor's degree in canon
law at Ferrara on the 31st of May 1503. After his return to
his native country he resided at the episcopal palace of Heilsberg
as his uncle's physician until the latter's death on the 29th of
March 1512. He then retired to Frauenburg, and vigorously
attended to his capitular duties. He never took orders, but
acted continually as the representative of the chapter under
harassing conditions, administrative and political; he was
besides commissary of the diocese of Ermeland; his medical
skill, always at the service of the poor, was frequently in demand
by the rich; and he laid a scheme for the reform of the currency
before the Diet of Graudenz in 1522. Yet he found time, amid
these multifarious occupations, to elaborate an entirely new
system of astronomy, by the adoption of which man's outlook
on the universe was fundamentally changed.

The main lines of his great work were laid down at Heilsberg;
at Frauenburg, from 1513, he sought, with scanty instrumental
means, to test by observation the truth of the views it embodied
(see Astronomy: History). His dissatisfaction with Ptolemaic
doctrines was of early date; and he returned from Italy, where
so-called Pythagorean opinions were then freely discussed, in
strong and irrevocable possession of the heliocentric theory.
The epoch-making treatise in which it was set forth, virtually
finished in 1530, began to be known through the circulation in
manuscript of a Commentariolus, or brief popular account of its
purport written by Copernicus in that year. Johann Albrecht
Widmanstadt lectured upon it in Rome; Clement VII. approved,
and Cardinal Schonberg transmitted to the author a formal
demand for full publication. But his assent to this was only
extracted from him in 1540 by the importunities of his friends,
especially of his enthusiastic disciple George Joachim Rheticus
(1514-1576), who printed, in the Narratio prima (Danzig, 1540),
a preliminary account of the Copernican theory, and simul-
taneously sent to the press at Nuremberg his master's complete
exposition of it in the treatise entitled De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (1543). But the first printed copy reached Frauen-
burg barely in time to be laid on the writer's death-bed. Coper-
nicus was seized with apoplexy and paralysis towards the close
of 1542, and died on the 24th of May 1543, happily unconscious
that the fine Epistle, in which he had dedicated his life's work
to Paul III., was marred of its effect by an anonymous preface,
slipt in by Andreas Osiander (1498-1552), with a view to dis-
arming prejudice by insisting upon the purely hypothetical

COPIAPO— COPPEE, FRANCOIS

IOI

character of the reasonings it introduced. The trigonometrical
section of the book had been issued as a separate treatise (Witten-
berg, 1542) under the care of Rheticus. The only work published
by Copernicus on his own initiative was a Latin version of the
Greek Epistles of Theophylact (Cracow, 1509). His treatise
De monetae cudendae ralione, 1526 (first printed in 1816), written
by order of King Sigismund L, is an exposition of the principles
on which it was proposed to reform the currency of the Prussian
provinces of Poland. It advocates unity of the monetary system
throughout the entire state, with strict integrity in the quality
of the coin, and the charge of a seigniorage sufficient to cover
the expenses of mintage.

Authorities. — Rheticus was the only contemporary biographer
of Copernicus, and his narrative perished irretrievably. Gassendi's
jejune Life (Paris, 1654) is thus the earliest extant of any note.
It was supplemented, during the 19th century, by the various
publications of J. Sniadecki (Warsaw, 1803-1818); of J. H. W.
Westphal, J. Czynski, M. Curtze, H. A. Wolynski, F. Hipler, and
others, but their efforts were overshadowed by Dr Leopold Prowe's
exhaustive Nicolaus Coppernicus (Berlin, 1883^1884), embodying
the outcome of researches indefatigably prosecuted for over thirty
years. The first volume (in two parts) is a detailed biography of the
great astronomer; the second includes some of his minor writings
and correspondence, family records, and historical documents of
local interest. The effects of his Italian sojourn upon the nascent
ideas of Copernicus may be profitably studied in Domenico Berti's
Copernico e le vicende del sistema Copernicano in Italia (Roma, 1876),
and in G. V. Schiaparelli's I Precursori del Copernico nell' antichila
(Milano, 1873). A centenary edition of De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium was issued at Thorn in 1873, and a German translation
by C. L. Menzzer in 1879. (A. M. C.)

C0PIAP6, a city of northern Chile, capital of the province of
Atacama, about 35 m. from the coast on the Copiapo river, in
lat. 27 36' S., long. 70 23' W. Pop. (1895) 93°i. The Caldera
& Copiapo railway (built 1848-1851 and one of the first in South
America) extends beyond Copiap6 to the Chafiarcillo mines
(50 m.) and other mining districts. Copiapo stands 1300 ft.
above sea-level and has a mean temperature of about 67° in
summer and 51 in winter. Its port, Caldera, 50 m. distant by
rail, is situated on a well-sheltered bay with good shipping
facilities about 6 m. N. of the mouth of the Copiapo river.
Copiap6 is perhaps the best built and most attractive of the
desert region cities. The river brings down from the mountains
enough water to supply the town and irrigate a considerable
area in its vicinity. Beyond the small fertile valley in which
it stands is the barren desert, on which rain rarely falls and
which has no economic value apart from its minerals (especially
saline compounds). Copiapo was founded in 1742 by Jose de
Manso (afterwards Conde.de Superunda, viceroy of Peru) and
took its name from the Copayapu Indians who occupied that
region. It was primarily a military station and transport post
on the road to Peru, but after the discovery of the rich silver
deposits near Chafiarcillo by Juan Godoy in 1832 it became an
important mining centre. It has a good mining school and
reduction works, and is the supply station for an extensive
mining district. For many years the Famatina mines of
Argentina received supplies from this point by way of the Come-
Caballo pass.

COPING (from " cope," Lat. capa), in architecture, the capping
or covering of a wall. This may be made of stone, brick, tile,
slate, metal, wood or thatch. In all cases it should be weathered
to throw off the wet. In Romanesque work it was plain and
flat, and projected over the wall with a throating to form a drip.
In later work a steep slope was given to the weathering (mainly
on the outer side), and began at the top with an astragal; in
the Decorated style there were two or three sets off; and in the
later Perpendicular period these assumed a wavy section, and
the coping mouldings were continued round the sides, as well
as at top and bottom, mitreing at the angles, as in many of the
colleges at Oxford. The cheapest type of coping is that which
caps the ordinary 9 in. brick wall, and consists of brick on edge
above a double tile creasing, all in cement; the creasing con-
sisting of one or two rows of tiles laid horizontally on the wall
and projecting on each side about 2 in. to throw off the water
(see also Masonry).

COPLAND, ROBERT (fl. 1515), English printer and author,
is said to have been a servant of William Caxton, and certainly
worked for Wynkyn de Worde. The first book to which his
name is affixed as a printer is The Boke of Justices of Peace (1515),
at the sign of the Rose Garland, in Fleet Street, London. Anthony
a. Wood supposed, on the ground that he was more educated
than was usual in his trade, that he had been a poor scholar of
Oxford. His best known works are The hye way to the S.pyttell
hous, a dialogue in verse between Copland and the porter of
St Bartholomew's hospital, containing much information about
the vagabonds who found their way there; and Jyl of Breynt-
fords Testament, dismissed in Athenae Oxonienses (ed. Bliss) as
" a poem devoid of wit or decency, and totally unworthy of
further notice." He translated from the French the romances
of Kynge Appolyne of Thyre (W. de Worde, 1510), The History
of Helyas Knyght of the Swanne (W. de Worde, 1513), and The
Life of Ipomydon (Hue of Rotelande), not dated. Among his
other works is The Complaynte of them that ben too late maryed,
an undated tract printed by W. de Worde.

William Copland, the printer, supposed to have been his
brother, published three editions of Howleglas, perhaps by
Robert, which in any case represent the earliest English version
of Till Eulenspiegel.

The Knyght of the Swanne was reprinted in Thorn's Early Prose
Romances, vol. iii., and by the Grolier Club (1901); the Hye Way
in W. C. Hazlitt's Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England,
vol. iv. (1866). See further the " Forewords " to Dr F. J. Furnivall's
reprint of Jyl of Breyntford (for private circulation, 1871) and J. P.
Collier, Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the
English Language, vol. i. p. 153 (1865). For the books issued from
his press see Hand-Lists of English Printers (1501-1556), printed
for the Bibliographical Society in 1896.

COPLESTON, EDWARD (1776-1849), English bishop, was
born at Offwell in Devonshire, and educated at Oxford. He was
elected to a tutorship at Oriel College in 1797, and in 1800 was
appointed vicar of St Mary's, Oxford. As university professor
of poetry (1802-1812) he gained a considerable reputation by
his clever literary criticism and sound latinityi After holding
the office of dean at Oriel for some years, he succeeded to the
provostship in 1814, and owing largely to his influence the
college reached a remarkable degree of prosperity during the
first quarter of the 19th century. In 1826 he was appointed
dean of Chester, and in the next year he was consecrated bishop
of Llandaff. Here he gave his support to the new movement
for church restoration in Wales, and during his occupation of
the see more than twenty new churches were built in the diocese.
The political problems of the time interested him greatly, and
his writings include two able letters to Sir Robert Peel, one
dealing with the Variable Standard of Value, the other with the
Increase of Pauperism (Oxford, 1819).

COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON (1737-1815), English historical
painter, was born of Irish parents at Boston, Massachusetts.
He was self-educated, and commenced his career as a portrait-
painter in his native city. The germ of his reputation in England
was a little picture of a boy and squirrel, exhibited at the Society
of Arts in 1760. In 1774 he went to Rome, and thence in 1775
came to England. In 1777 he was admitted associate of the
Royal Academy; in 1783 he was made Academician on the
exhibition of his most famous picture, the " Death of Chatham,"
popularized immediately by Bartolozzi's elaborate engraving;
and in 1790 he was commissioned to paint a portrait picture of
the defence of Gibraltar. The " Death of Major Pierson," in
the National Gallery, also deserves mention. Copley's powers
appear to greatest advantage in his portraits. He was the
father of Lord Chancellor Lyndhurst.

COPPEE, FRANCOIS EDOUARD JOACHIM (1842-1908),
French poet and novelist, was born in Paris on the 12 th of
January 1842. His father held a small post in the civil service,
and he owed much to the care of an admirable mother. After
passing through the Lycee Saint-Louis he became a clerk in
the ministry of war, and soon sprang into public favour as a
poet of the young " Parnassian " school. His first printed verses
date from 1864. They were republished with others in 1866 in

102

COPPEE, HENRYS-COPPER

a collected form (Le Religuaire), followed (1867) by Les Intimitis
and Poemes modernes (1867-1869). In 1869 his first play, Le
Passant, was received with marked approval at the Odeon
theatre, and later Fais ce que dots (187 1) and Les Bijoux de la
delivrance (1872), short metrical dramas inspired by the war,
were warmly applauded. '

After filling a post in the library of the senate, Coppee was
chosen in 1878 as archivist of the Com6die-Francaise, an office
which he held till 1884. In that year his election to the Academy
caused him to retire altogether from his public appointments.
He continued to publish volumes of poetry at frequent intervals,
including Les Humbles (1872), Le Cahier rouge (1874), Olivier
(1875), L'Exilee (1876), Contes en vers, &c. (1881), Poemes et
recits (1886), Arriere-saison (1887), Paroles sinceres (1890). In
his later years his output of verse declined, but he published two
more volumes, Dans la priere et la lutle and Vers franqais. He
had established his fame as " le poete des humbles." Besides
the plays mentioned above, two others written in collaboration
with Armand d'Artois, and some light pieces of little importance,
Coppee produced Madame de Maintenon (1881), Sever Torelli
(1883), Les Jacobites (1885), and other serious dramas in verse,
including Pour la couronne (1895), which was translated into
English (For the Crown) by John Davidson, and produced at the
Lyceum Theatre in 1896. The performance of a short episode
of the Commune, Le Pater, was prohibited by the government
(1889) . Coppee's first story in prose, Une Idylle pendant le siege,
appeared in 1875. It was followed by various volumes of short
tales, by Toute une jeunesse (1890) — an attempt to reproduce the
feelings, if not the actual wants, of the writer's youth, — Les Vrais
Riches (1892), LeCoupable (1896), &c. He was made an officer of
the Legion of Honour in 1888. A series of reprinted short
articles on miscellaneous subjects, styled Mon Franc Parler,
appeared from 1893 to 1896; and in 1898 was published La
Bonne Souffrance, the outcome of Coppee's reconversion to the
Roman Catholic Church, which gained very wide popularity.
The immediate cause of his return to the faith was a severe illness
which twice brought him to the verge of the grave. Hitherto
he had taken little open interest in public affairs, but he now
joined the most violent section of Nationalist politicians, while
retaining contempt for the whole apparatus of democracy. He
took a leading part against the prisoner in the Dreyfus case,
and was one of the originators of the notorious Ligue de la Patrie
Francaise. He died on the 23rd of May 1908.

Alike in verse and prose Coppee concerned himself with the
plainest expressions of human emotion, with elemental patriot-
ism, and the joy of young love, and the pitifulness of the poor,
bringing to bear on each a singular gift of sympathy and insight.
The lyric and idyllic poetry, by which he will chiefly be re-
membered, is animated by musical charm, and in some instances,
such as La Benediction and La Grive des forgerons, displays a
vivid, though not a sustained, power of expression. There is
force, too, in the gloomy tale, Le Coupable. But he exhibits all
the defects of his qualities. In prose especially, his sentiment
often degenerates into sentimentality, and he continually
approaches, and sometimes oversteps, the verge of the trivial.
Nevertheless, by neglecting that canon of contemporary art
which would reduce the deepest tragedies of life to mere subjects
for dissection, he won those common suffrages which are the prize
of exquisite literature.

See M. de Lescure's Francois Coppee, I'homme, la vie, I'auvre
(1889), an d G. Druilhet, Vn Poke francais (1902).

COPPEE, HENRY (1821-1895), American educationalist
and author, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 13th of
October 182 1, of a French family formerly settled in Haiti.
He studied at Yale for two years, worked as a civil engineer,
graduated at West Point in 1845, served in the Mexican War as
a lieutenant and was breveted captain for gallantry at Contreras
and Churubusco, was professor of English at West Point from
1850 to 1855 (when he resigned from the army), was professor
of English literature and history in the University of Pennsyl-
vania 1855-1866, and on the 1st of April 1866 was chosen first
president of Lehigh University. In 1875 he was succeeded by

John McD. Leavitt and became professor of history and English
literature, but was president pro tern, from the death of Robert
A. Lamberton (b. 1824) in September 1893 to his own death
in Bethlehem on the 22nd of March 1895. He published ele-
mentary text-books of logic (1857), of rhetoric (1859), and of
English literature (1872); various manuals of drill; Grant, a
Military Biography (1866); General Thomas (1893), in the
" Great Commanders " Series; History of the Conquest of Spain
by the Arab-Moors (1881) ; and in 1862 a translation of Marmont's
Esprit des institutions militaires, besides editing the Comte de
Paris's Civil War in America.

COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63-1, H=i, or 63-6,
O = 16), a metal which has been known to and used by the human
race from the most remote periods. Its alloy with tin (bronze)
was the first metallic compound in common use by mankind,
and so extensive and characteristic was its employment in pre-
historic times that the epoch is known as the Bronze Age. By
the Greeks and Romans both the metal and its alloys were
indifferently known as x^A/cos and aes. As, according to Pliny,
the Roman supply was chiefly drawn from Cyprus, it came to be
termed aes cyprium, which was gradually shortened to cyprium,
and corrupted into cuprum, whence comes the English word
copper, the French cuivre, and the German Kupfer.

Copper is a brilliant metal of a peculiar red colour which
assumes a pinkish or yellowish tinge on a freshly fractured surface
of the pure metal, and is purplish when the metal contains
cuprous oxide. Its specific gravity varies between 8-91 and
8 -95, according to the treatment to which it may have been
subjected; J. F. W. Hampe gives 8-945 (f°) for perfectly pure
and compact copper. Ordinary commercial copper is somewhat
porous and has a specific gravity ranging from 8 • 2 to 8 • 5 . It takes
a brilliant polish, is in a high degree malleable and ductile, and
in tenacity it only falls short of iron, exceeding in that quality
both silver and gold. By different authorities its melting-point
is stated at from 1000 to 1200 C; C. T. Heycock and F. H.
Neville give io8o°-5; P. Dejean gives 1085° as the freezing-
point. The molten metal is sea-green in colour, and at higher
temperatures (in the electric arc) it vaporizes and burns with
a green flame. G. W. A. Kahlbaum succeeded in subliming the
metal in a vacuum, and H. Moissan (Compt. rend., 1905, 141,
p. 853) distilled it in the electric furnace. Molten copper absorbs
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and sulphur dioxide; it also appears
to decompose hydrocarbons (methane, ethane), absorbing the
hydrogen and the carbon separating out. These occluded gases
are all liberated when the copper cools, and so give rise to porous
castings, unless special precautions are taken. The gases are
also expelled from the molten metal by lead, carbon dioxide,
or water vapour. Its specific heat is 0-0899 a t o° C. and 0-0942
at 100°; the coefficient of linear expansion per i° C. is 0-001869.
In electric conductivity it stands next to silver; the conducting
power of silver being equal to 100, that of perfectly pure copper
is given by A. Matthiessen as 96-4 at 13 C.

Copper is not affected by exposure in dry air, but in a moist
atmosphere, containing carbonic acid, it becomes coated with a
green basic carbonate. When heated or rubbed it emits a peculiar
disagreeable odour. Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids have little
or no action upon it at ordinary temperatures, even when
in a fine state of division; but on heating, copper sulphate and
sulphur dioxide are formed in the first case, and cuprous chloride
and hydrogen in the second. Concentrated nitric acid has also
very little action, but with the dilute acid a vigorous action
ensues. The first products of this reaction are copper nitrate
and nitric oxide, but, as the concentration of the copper nitrate
increases, nitrous oxide and, eventually, free nitrogen are liberated.

Many colloidal solutions of copper have been obtained. A
reddish-brown solution is obtained from solutions of copper
chloride, stannous chloride and an alkaline tartrate (Lotter-
moser, Anorganische Collolde, 1901).

Occurrence. — Copper is widely distributed in nature, occurring
in most soils, ferruginous mineral waters, and ores. It has been
discovered in seaweed; in the blood of certain Cephalopoda and
Ascidia as haemocyanin, a substance resembling the ferruginous

COPPER

103

haemoglobin, and of a species of Limulus; in straw, hay, eggs,
cheese, meat, and other food-stuffs; in the liver and kidneys,
and, in traces, in the blood of man and other animals (as an en-
tirely adventitious constituent, however); it has also been shown
by A. H. Church to exist to the extent of 5-9% in turacin, the
colouring-matter of the wing-feathers of the Turaco.

Native copper, sometimes termed by miners malleable or
virgin copper, occurs as a mineral having all the properties
of the smelted metal. It crystallizes in the cubic system, but the
crystals are often flattened, elongated, rounded or otherwise
distorted. Twins are common. Usually the metal is arborescent,
dendritic, filiform, moss-like or laminar. Native copper is found
in most copper-mines, usually in the upper workings, where
the deposit has been exposed to atmospheric influences. The
metal seems to have been reduced from solutions of its salts, and
deposits may be formed around mine-timber Or on iron objects.
It of ten fills cracks and fissures in the rock. It is not infrequently
found in serpentine, and in basic eruptive rocks, where it occurs
as veins and in amygdales. The largest known deposits are those
in the Lake Superior region, near Keweenaw Point, Michigan,
where masses upwards of 400 tons in weight have been dis-
covered. The metal was formerly worked by the Indians for
implements and ornaments. It occurs in a series of amygdaloidal
dolerites or diabases, and in the associated sandstones and con-
glomerates. Native silver occurs with the copper, in some
cases embedded in it, like crystals in a porphyry. The copper is
also accompanied by epidote, calcite, prehnite, analcite and other
zeolitic minerals. Pseudomorphs after calcite are known; and
it is notable that native copper occurs pseudomorphous after
aragonite at Corocoro, in Bolivia, where the copper is disseminated
through sandstone.

Ores. — The principal ores of copper are the oxides cuprite and
melaconite, the carbonates malachite and chessylite, the basic
chloride atacamite, the silicate chrysocolla, the sulphides
chalcocite, chalcopyrite, erubescite and tetrahedrite. Cuprite
(q.v.) occurs in most cupriferous mines, but never by itself in
large quantities. Melaconite (q.v.) was formerly largely worked
in the Lake Superior region, and is abundant in some of the
mines of Tennessee and the Mississippi valley. Malachite is a
valuable ore containing about 56% of the metal; it is obtained
in very large quantities from South Australia, Siberia and other
localities. Frequently intermixed with the green malachite is
the blue carbonate chessylite or azurite (q.v.), an ore containing
when pure 55-16% of the metal. Atacamite (q.v.) occurs chiefly
in Chile and Peru. Chrysocolla (q.v.) contains in the pure state
30% of the metal; it is an abundant ore in Chile, Wisconsin
and Missouri. The sulphur compounds of copper are, however,
the most valuable from the economic point of view. Chalcocite,
redruthite, copper-glance (q.v.) or vitreous copper (Cu 2 S) contains
about 80% of copper. Copper pyrites, or chalcopyrite, contains
34-6% of copper when pure; but many of the ores, such as
those worked specially by wet processes on account of the presence
of a large proportion of iron sulphide, contain less than 5 % of
copper. Cornish ores are almost entirely pyritic; and indeed
it is from such ores that by far the largest proportion of copper
is extracted throughout the world. In Cornwall copper lodes
usually run east and west. They occur both in the " killas "
or clay-slate, and in the " growan " or granite. Erubescite
(q.v.), bornite, or horseflesh ore is much richer in copper than the
ordinary pyrites, and contains 56 or 57% of copper. Tetra-
hedrite (q.v.), fahlerz, or grey copper, contains from 30 to
48% of copper, with arsenic, antimony, iron and sometimes
zinc, silver or mercury. Other copper minerals are percylite
(PbCuCl 2 (OH) 2 ), boleite (3PbCuCl 2 (OH) 2 , AgCl), stromeyerite
{(Cu, Ag) 2 Sj, cubanite (CuS, Fe 2 S 3 ), stannite (Cu 2 S, FeSnS 3 ),
tennantite (3Cu 2 S, As 2 S 3 ), emplectite (Cu 2 S, Bi 2 S 3 ), wolfsbergite
(Cu 2 S, Sb 2 S 3 ), famatinite (3Cu 2 S, Sb 2 S 5 ) and enargite (3Cu 2 S,
As 2 S5). For other minerals, see Compounds of Copper below.

Metallurgy. — Copper is obtained from its ores by three principal
methods, which may be denominated — (1) the pyro-metallurgical
or dry method, (2) the hydro-metallurgical or wet method, and
(3) the electro-metallurgical method.

The methods of working vary according to the nature of
the ores treated and local circumstances. The dry method,
or ordinary smelting, cannot be profitably practised with ores
containing less than 4% of copper, for which and for still poorer
ores the wet process is preferred.

Copper Smelting. — We shall first give the general principles
which underlie the methods for the dry extraction of copper, and
then proceed to a more detailed discussion of the plant used.
Since all sulphuretted copper ores (and these are of the most
economic importance) are invariably contaminated with arsenic
and antimony, it is necessary to eliminate these impurities, as
far as possible, at a very early stage. This is effected by calcina-
tion or roasting. The roasted ore is then smelted to a mixture
of copper and iron sulphides, known as copper " matte " or
" coarse-metal," which contains little or no arsenic, antimony
or silica. The coarse-metal is now smelted, with coke and
siliceous fluxes (in order to slag off the iron), and the product,
consisting of an impure copper sulphide, is variously known as
" blue-metal," when more or less iron is still present, " pimple-
metal," when free copper and more or less copper oxide is present,
or " fine " or " white-metal," which is a fairly pure copper
sulphide, containing about 75% of the metal. This product is
re-smelted to form " coarse-copper," containing about 95% of
the metal, which is then refined. Roasted ores may be smelted
in reverberatory furnaces (English process), or in blast-furnaces
(German or Swedish process). The matte is treated either in
reverberatory furnaces (English process), in blast furnaces
(German process), or in converters (Bessemer process). The
" American process " or " Pyritic smelting " consists in the
direct smelting of raw ores to matte in blast furnaces. The
plant in which the operations are conducted varies in different
countries. But though this or that process takes its name from
the country in which it has been mainly developed, this does not
mean that only that process is there followed.

The " English process " is made up of the following operations :
(1) calcination; (2) smelting in reverberatory furnaces to form
the matte; (3) roasting the matte; and (4) subsequent smelting
in reverberatory furnaces to fine- or white-metal; (5) treating
the fine-metal in reverberatory furnaces to coarse- or blister-
copper, either with or without previous calcination; (6) refining
of the coarse-copper. A shorter process (the so-called " direct
process ") converts the fine-metal into refined copper directly.
The " Welsh process " closely resembles the English method;
the main difference consists in the enrichment of the matte by
smelting with the rich copper-bearing slags obtained in sub-
sequent operations. The " German or Swedish process " is
characterized by the introduction of blast-furnaces. It is made
up of the following operations: (1) calcination, (2) smelting in
blast-furnaces to form the matte, (3) roasting the matte, (4)
smelting in blast-furnaces with coke and fluxes to " black- " or
" coarse-metal," (5) refining the coarse-metal. The " Anglo-
German Process " is a combination of the two preceding, and
consists in smelting the calcined ores in shaft furnaces, con-
centrating the matte in reverberatory furnaces, and smelting to
coarse-metal in either.

The impurities contained in coarse-copper are mainly iron, lead,
zinc, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, sulphur,
selenium and tellurium. These can be eliminated by an oxidizing
fusion, and slagging or volatilizing the products resulting from
this operation, or by electrolysis (see below). In the process
of oxidation, a certain amount of cuprous oxide is always formed,
which melts in with the copper and diminishes its softness and
tenacity. It is, therefore, necessary to reconvert the oxide into
the metal. This is effected by stirring the molten metal with a
pole of green wood (" poling "); the products which arise from
the combustion and distillation of the wood reduce the oxide to
metal, and if the operation be properly conducted "tough-pitch "
copper, soft, malleable and exhibiting a lustrous silky fracture,
is obtained. The surface of the molten metal is protected from
oxidation by a layer of anthracite or charcoal. "Bean-shot "
eopper is obtained by throwing the molten metal into hot water;
if cold water be used, " feathered-shot " copper is formed.

io4

COPPER

" Rosette " copper is obtained as thin plates of a characteristic
dark-red colour, by pouring water upon the surface of the molten
metal, and removing the crust formed. " Japan " copper is
purple-red in colour, and is formed by casting into ingots,
weighing from six ounces to a pound, and rapidly cooling by
immersion in water. The colour of these two varieties is due to
a layer of oxide. " Tile " copper is an impure copper, and is
obtained by refining the first tappings. " Best-selected " copper
is a purer variety.

Calcination or Roasting and Calcining Furnaces. — The roasting
should be conducted so as to eliminate as much of the arsenic
and antimony as possible, and to leave just enough sulphur as is
necessary to combine with all the copper present when the
calcined ore is smelted. The process is effected either in heaps,
stalls, shaft furnaces, reverberatory furnaces or muffle furnaces.
Stall and heap roasting require considerable time, and can only
be economically employed when the loss of the sulphur is of no
consequence; they also occupy much space, but they have the
advantage of requiring little fuel and handling. Shaft furnaces
are in use for ores rich in sulphur, and where it is desirable to
convert the waste gases into sulphuric acid. Reverberatory
roasting does not admit of the utilization of the waste gases,
and requires fine ores and much labour and fuel; it has, however,
the advantage of being rapid. Muffle furnaces are suitable for
fine ores which are liable to decrepitate or sinter. They involve
high cost in fuel and labour, but permit the utilization of the
waste gases.

Reverberatory furnaces of three types are employed in
calcining copper ores: (i) fixed furnaces, with either hand or
mechanical rabbling; (2) furnaces with movable beds; (3)
furnaces with rotating working chambers. Hand rabbling
in fixed furnaces has been largely superseded by mechanical
rabbling. Of mechanically rabbling furnaces we may mention
the O'Harra modified by Allen-Brown, the Hixon, the Keller-
Gaylord-Cole, the Ropp, the Spence, the Wethey, the Parkes,
Pearce's " Turret " and Brown's " Horseshoe " furnaces.
Blake's and Brunton's furnaces are reverberatory furnaces with
a movable bed. Furnaces with rotating working chambers admit
of continuous working; the fuel and labour costs are both low.

In the White-Howell revolving furnace with lifters — a modifica-
tion of the Oxland — the ore is fed and discharged in a continuous
stream. The Bruckner cylinder resembles the Elliot and Russell
black ash furnace; its cylinder tapers slightly towards each end,
and is generally 18 ft. long by 8 ft. 6 in. in its greatest diameter.
Its charge of from 8 to 12 tons of ore or concentrates is slowly
agitated at a rate of three revolutions a minute, and in from
24 to 36 hours it is reduced from say 40 or 35 % to 7 % of sulphur.
The ore is under better control than is possible with the continu-
ous feed and discharge, and when sufficiently roasted can be
passed red-hot to the reverberatory furnace. These advantages
compensate for the wear and tear and the cost of moving the
heavy dead-weight.

Shaft calcining furnaces are available for fine ores and permit
the recovery of the sulphur. They are square, oblong or circular
in section, and the interior is fitted with horizontal or inclined
plates or prisms, which regulate the fall of the ore. In the
Gerstenhoffer and Hasenclever-Helbig furnaces the fall is
retarded by prisms and inclined plates. In other furnaces the
ore rests on a series of horizontal plates, and either remains on
the same plate throughout the operation (Ollivier and Perret
furnace), or is passed from plate to plate by hand (Maletra),
or by mechanical means (Spence and M'Dougall).

The M'Dougall furnace is turret-shaped, and consists of a series
of circular hearths, on which the ore is agitated by rakes attached
to revolving arms and made to fall from hearth to hearth. It
has been modified by Herreshoff , who uses a large hollow revolv-
ing central shaft cooled by a current of air. The shaft is provided
with sockets, into which movable arms with their rakes are
readily dropped. The Peter Spence type of calcining furnace
has been followed in a large number of inventions. In some the
rakes are attached to rigid frames, with a reciprocating motion-,
in others to cross-bars moved by revolving chains. Some of

these furnaces are straight, others circular. Some have only
One hearth, others three. This and the previous type of furnace,
owing to their large capacity, are at present in greatest favour.
The M'Dougall-Herreshoff, working on ores of over 30% of
sulphur, requires no fuel; but in furnaces of the reverberatory
type fuel must be used, as an excess of air enters through the
slotted sides and the hinged doors which open and shut frequently
to permit of the passage of the rakes. The consumption of fuel,
however, does not exceed 1 of coal to 10 of ore. The quantity of
ore which these large furnaces, with a hearth area as great as
2000 ft. and over, will roast varies from 40 to 60 tons a day.
Shaft calcining furnaces like the Gerstenhoffer, Hasenclever,
and others designed for burning pyrites fines have not found
favour in modern copper works.

The Fusion of Ores in Reverberatory and Cupola Furnaces. —
After the ore has been partially calcined, it is smelted to extract
its earthy matter and to concentrate the copper with part of its
iron and sulphur into a matte. In reverberatory furnaces it is
smelted by fuel in a fireplace, separate from the ore, and in
cupolas the fuel, generally coke, is in direct contact with the ore.
When Swansea was the centre of the copper-smelting industry
in Europe, many varieties of ores from different mines were
smelted in the same furnaces, and the Welsh reverberatory
furnaces were used. To-day more than eight-tenths of the
copper ores of the world are reduced to impure copper bars or to
fine copper at the mines; and where the character of the ore
permits, the cupola furnace is found more economical in both
fuel and labour than the reverberatory.

The Welsh method finds adherents only in Wales and Chile.
In America the usual method is to roast ores or concentrates
so that the matte yielded by either the reverberatory or cupola
furnace will run from 45 to 50% in copper, and then to transfer
to the Bessemer converter, which blows it up to 99 %. In Butte,
Montana, reverberatories have in the past been preferred to
cupola furnaces, as the charge has consisted mainly of fine
roasted concentrates; but the cupola is gaining ground there.
At the Boston and Great Falls (Montana) works tilting reverbera-
tories, modelled after open hearth steel furnaces, were first
erected; but they were found to possess objectionable features.
Now both these and the egg-shaped reverberatories are being
abandoned for furnaces as long as 43 ft. 6 in. from bridge to
bridge and of a width of 15 ft. 9 in. heated by gas, with re-
generative checker work at each end, and fed with ore or con.
centrates, red-hot from the calciners, through a line of hoppers
suspended above the roof. Furnaces of this size smelt 200 tons
of charge a day. But even when the old type of reverberatory
is preferred, as at the Argo works, at Denver, where rich gold,
and silver-bearing copper matte is made, the growth of tha
furnace in size has been steady. Richard Pearce's reverberatories
in 1878 had an area of hearth of 15 ft. by 9 ft. 8 in., and smelted
12 tons of cold charge daily, with a consumption of 1 ton of
coal to 2-4 tons of ore. In 1900 the furnaces -were 35 ft. by 16 ft.,
and smelt 50 tons daily of hot ore, with the consumption of 1 ton
of coal to 3-7 tons of ore.

The home of cupola smelting was Germany, where it has never
ceased to make steady progress. In Mansfeld brick cupola
furnaces are without a rival in size, equipment and performance.
They are round stacks, designed on the model of iron blast
furnaces, 29 ft. high, fed mechanically, and provided with stoves
to heat the blast by the furnace gases. The low percentage of
sulphur in the roasted ore is little more than enough to produce
a matte of 40 to 45 %, and therefore the escaping gases are
better fitted than those of most copper cupola furnaces for
burning in a stove. But as the slag carries on an average 46 %
of silica, it is only through the utmost skill that it can be made
to run as low on an average as 0-3% in copper oxide. As the
matte contains on an average 0-2% of silver, it is still treated
by the Ziervogel wet method of extraction, the management
dreading the loss which might occur in the Bessemer process
of concentration, applied as preliminary to electrolytic separation.
Blast furnaces of large size, built of brick, have been constructed
for treating the richest ai>d more silicious ores of Rio Tinto, and

COPPER

105

the Rio Tinto Company has introduced converters at the mine.
This method of extraction contrasts favourably in time with
the leaching process, which is so slow that over 10,000,000
tons of ore are always under treatment on the immense leaching
floors of the company's works in Spain. In the United States
the cupola has undergone a radical modification in being built
of water-jacketed sections. The first water-jacketed cupola
which came into general use was a circular inverted cone, with
a slight taper, of 36 inches diameter at the tuyeres, and com-
posed of an outer and an inner metal shell, between which
water circulated. As greater size has been demanded, oval and
rectangular furnaces — as large as 180 in. by 56 in. at the tuyeres —
have been built in sections of cast or sheet iron or steel. A single
section can be removed and replaced without entirely emptying
the stack, as a shell of congealed slag always coats the inner
surface of the jacket. The largest furnaces are those of the
Boston & Montana Company at Great Falls, Montana, which
have put through 500 tons of charge daily, pouring their melted
slag and matte into large wells of 10 ft. in diameter. A combined
brick- and water-cooled furnace has been adopted by the Iron
Mountain Company at Keswick, Cal., for matte concentration.
In it the cooling is effected by water pipes, interposed horizontally
between the layers of bricks. The Mt. Lyell smelting works in
Tasmania, which are of special interest, will be referred to later.
(See Pyritic Smelting below.)

Concentrating Matte to Copper in the Bessemer Converter. — As
soon as the pneumatic method of decarburizing pig iron was
accepted as practicable, experiments were made with a view to
Bessemerizing copper ores and mattes. One of the earliest and
most exhaustive series of experiments was made on Rio Tinto
ores at the John Brown works by John Hollway, with the aim
of both smelting the ore and concentrating the matte in the
same furnace, by the heat evolved through the oxidation of
their sulphur and iron. Experiments along the same lines were
made by Francis Bawden at Rio Tinto and Claude Vautin in
Australia. The difficulty of effecting this double object in one
operation was so great that in subsequent experiments the aim
was merely to concentrate the matte to metallic copper in con-
verters of the Bessemer type. The concentration was effected
without any embarrassment till metallic copper commenced to
separate and chill in the bottom tuyeres. To meet this obstacle
P. Manhes proposed elevated side tuyeres, which could be kept
clear by punching through gates in a wind box. His invention
was adopted by the Vivians, at the Eguilles works near Sargues,
Vaucluse, France, and at Leghorn in Italy. But the greatest
expansion of this method has been in the United States, where
more than 400,000,000 lb. of copper are annually made in
Bessemer converters. Vessels of several designs are used —
some modelled exactly after steel converters, other barrel-
shaped, but all with side tuyeres elevated about 10 in. above
the level of the bottom lining. Practice, however, in treating
copper matte differs essentially from the treatment of pig iron,
inasmuch as from 20 to 30% of iron must be eliminated as slag
and an equivalent quantity of silica must be supplied. The only
practical mode of doing this, as yet devised, is by lining the con-
verter with a silicious mixture. This is so rapidly consumed
that the converters must be cooled and partially relined after
3 to 6 charges, dependent on the iron contents of the matte.
When available, a silicious rock containing copper or the precious
metals is of course preferred to barren lining. The material
for lining, and the frequent replacement thereof, constitute the
principal expense of the method. The other items of cost are
labour, the quantity of which depends on themechanicalappliances
provided for handling the converter shells and inserting the
lining; and the blast, which in barrel-shaped converters is low
and in vertical converters is high, and which varies therefore
from 3 to 1 5 lb to the square inch. The quantity of air consumed
in a converter which will blow up about 35 tons of matte per day
is about 3000 cub. ft. per minute. The operation of raising a
charge of 50% matte to copper usually consists of two blows.
The first blow occupies about 25 minutes, and oxidizes all but
a small quantity of the iron and some of the sulphur, raising

the product to white metal. The slag is then poured and
skimmed, the blast turned on and converter retilted. During the
second blow the sulphur is rapidly oxidized, and the charge
reduced to metal of 09% in from 30 to 40 minutes. Little or
no slag results from the second blow. That from the first blow
contains between 1 % and 2 % of copper, and is usually poured
from ladles operated by an electric crane into a reverberatory,
or into the settling well of the cupola. The matte also, in all
economically planned works, is conveyed, still molten, by
electric cranes from the furnace to the converters. When lead
or zinc is not present in notable quantity, the loss of the precious
metals by volatilization is slight, but more than 5% of these
metals in the matte is prohibitive. Under favourable conditions
in the larger works of the United States the cost of converting
a 50% matte to metallic copper is generally understood to be
only about -fo to ^ of a cent per lb. of refined copper.

Pyritic Smelting. — The heat generated by the oxidation of
iron and sulphur has always been used to maintain combustion
in the kilns or stalls for roasting pyrites. Pyritic smelting is
a development of the Russian engineer Semenikov's treatment
(proposed in 1866) of copper matte in a Bessemer converter.
Since John Hollway's and other early experiments of Lawrence
Austin and Robert Sticht, no serious attempts have been made
to utilize the heat escaping from a converting vessel in smelting
ore and matte either in the same apparatus or in a separate
furnace. But considerable progress has been made in smelting
highly sulphuretted ores by the heat of their own oxidizable
constituents. At Tilt Cove, Newfoundland, the Cape Copper
Company smelted copper ore, with just the proper proportion
of sulphur, iron and silica, successfully without any fuel, when
once the initial charge had been fused with coke. The furnaces
used were of ordinary design and built of brick. Lump ore alone
was fed, and the resulting matte showed a concentration of only
3 into 1. When, however, a hot blast is used on highly
sulphuretted copper ores, a concentration of 8 of ore into 1 of
matte is obtained, with a consumption of less than one-third
the fuel which would be consumed in smelting the charge had
the ore been previously calcined. A great impetus to pyritic
smelting was given by the investigations of W. L. Austin, of
Denver, Colorado, and both at Leadville and Silverton raw ores
are successfully smelted with as low a fuel consumption as 3 of
coke to 100 of charge.

Two types of pyritic smelting may be distinguished: one,
in which the operation is solely sustained by the combustion of
the sulphur in the ores, without the assistance of fuel or a hot
blast; the other in which the operation is accelerated by fuel,
or a hot blast, or both. The largest establishment in which
advantage is taken of the self-contained fuel is at the smelting
works of the Mt. Lyell Company, Tasmania. There the blast
is raised from 6oo° to 700 F. in stoves heated by extraneous
fuel, and the raw ore smelted with only 3 % of coke. The
ore is a compact iron pyrites containing copper 2-5%, silver
3-83 oz., gold 0-139 oz. It is smelted raw with hot blast in
cupola furnaces, the largest being 2 10 in. by 40 in. The resulting
matte runs 25%. This is reconcentrated raw in hot blast
cupolas to 55%, and blown directly into copper in converters.
Thus these ores, as heavily charged with sulphur as those of the
Rio Tinto, are speedily reduced by three operations and without
roasting, with a saving of 97-6% of the copper, 93-2% of the
silver and 93-6% of the gold.

Pyritic smelting has met with a varying economic success.
According to Herbert Lang, its most prominent chance of success
is in localities where fuel is dear, and the ores contain precious
metals and sufficient sulphides and arsenides to render profitable
dressing unnecessary.

The Nicholls and James Process. — Nicholls and James have
applied, very ingeniously, well-known reactions to the refining
of copper, raised to the grade of white metal. This process is
practised by the Cape Copper and Elliot Metal Company. A
portion of the white metal is calcined to such a degree of oxidation
that when fused with the unroasted portion, the reaction between
the oxygen in the roasted matte and the sulphur in the raw

io6

COPPER

material liberates the metallic copper. The metal is so pure that
it can be refined by a continuous operation in the same furnace.

Wet Methods for Copper Extraction. — Wet methods are only
employed for low grade ores (under favourable circumstances
ore containing from J to i % of copper has admitted of economic
treatment), and for gold and silver bearing metallurgical
products.

The fundamental principle consists in getting the ore into
a solution, from which the metal can be precipitated. The ores
of any economic importance contain the copper either as oxide,
carbonate, sulphate or sulphide. These compounds are got into
solution either as chlorides or sulphates, and from either of these
salts the metal can be readily obtained. Ores in which the
copper is present as oxide or carbonate are soluble in sulphuric
or hydrochloricacids,ferrouschloride,ferric sulphate, ammoniacal
compounds and sodium thiosulphate. Of these solvents, only
the first three are of economic importance. The choice of sul-
phuric or hydrochloric acid depends mainly upon the cost, both
acting with about the same rapidity; thus if a Leblanc soda
factory is near at hand, then hydrochloric acid would most
certainly be employed. Ferrous chloride is not much used;
the Douglas-Hunt process uses a mixture of salt and ferrous
sulphate which involves the formation of ferrous chloride, and
the new Douglas-Hunt process employs sulphuric acid in which
ferrous chloride is added after leaching.

Sulphuric acid may be applied as such on the ores placed in
lead, brick, or stone chambers; or as a mixture of sulphur
dioxide, nitrous fumes (generated from Chile saltpetre and
sulphuric acid), and steam, which permeates the ore resting on
the false bottom of a brick chamber. When most of the copper
has been converted into the sulphate, the ore is lixiviated.
Hydrochloric acid is applied in the same way as sulphuric acid;
it has certain advantages of which the most important is that
it does not admit the formation of basic salts; its chief dis-
advantage is that it dissolves the oxides of iron, and accordingly
must not be used for highly ferriferous ores. The solubility of
copper carbonate in ferrous chloride solution was pointed out
by Max Schaffner in 1862, and the subsequent recognition of
the solubility of the oxide in the same solvent by James Douglas
and Sterry Hunt resulted in the " Douglas-Hunt " process for
the wet extraction of copper. Ferrous chloride decomposes the
copper oxide and carbonate with the formation of cuprous and
cupric chlorides (which remain in solution), and the precipitation
of ferrous oxide, carbon dioxide being simultaneously liberated
from the carbonate. In the original form of the Douglas-Hunt
process, ferrous chloride was formed by the interaction of sodium
chloride (common salt) with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol),
the sodium sulphate formed at the same time being removed by
crystallization. The ground ore was stirred with this solution
at 70 C. in wooden tubs until all the copper was dissolved. The
liquor was then filtered from the iron oxides, and the filtrate
treated with scrap iron, which precipitated the copper and
reformed ferrous chloride, which could be used in the first stage
of the process. The advantage of this method rests chiefly on
the small amount of iron required; but its disadvantages are
that any silver present in the ores goes into solution, the forma-
tion of basic salts, and the difficulty of filtering from the iron
oxides. A modification of the method was designed to remedy
these defects. The ore is first treated with dilute sulphuric acid,
and then ferrous or calcium chloride added, thus forming copper
chlorides. If calcium chloride be used the precipitated calcium
sulphate must be removed by filtration. Sulphur dioxide is then
blown in, and the precipitate is treated with iron, which produces
metallic copper, or milk of lime, which produces cuprous oxide.
Hot air is blown into the filtrate, which contains ferrous or calcium
chlorides, to expel the excess of sulphur dioxide, and the liquid
can then be used again. In this process (" new Douglas-Hunt ")
there are no iron oxides formed, the silver is not dissolved, and
the quantity of iron necessary is relatively small, since all the
copper is in the cuprous condition. It is not used in the treat-
ment of ores, but finds application in the case of calcined argenti-
ferous lead and copper mattes.

The precipitation of the copper from the solution, in which
it is present as sulphate, or as cuprous and cupric chlorides, is
generally effected by metallic iron. Either wrought, pig, iron
sponge or iron bars are employed, and it is important to notice
that the form in which the copper is precipitated, and also the
time taken for the separation, largely depend upon the condition
in which the iron is applied. Spongy iron acts most rapidly, and
after this follow iron turnings and then sheet clippings. Other
precipitants such as sulphuretted hydrogen and solutions of
sulphides, which precipitate the copper as sulphides, and mirk
of lime, which gives copper oxides, have not met with commercial
success. When using iron as the precipitant, it is desirable that
the solution should be as neutral as possible, and the quantity of
ferric salts present should be reduced to a minimum; otherwise,
a certain amount of iron would be used up by the free acid and
in reducing the ferric salts. Ores in which the copper is present
as sulphate are directly lixiviated and treated with iron. Mine
waters generally contain the copper in this form, and it is
extracted by conducting the waters along troughs fitted with iron
gratings.

The wet extraction of metallic copper from ores in which it
occurs as the sulphide, may be considered to involve the following
operations: (1) conversion of the copper into a soluble form,
(2) dissolving out the soluble copper salt, (3) the precipitation
of the copper. Copper sulphide may be converted either into
the sulphate, which is soluble in water; the oxide, soluble in
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid; cupric chloride, soluble in water;
or cuprous chloride, which is soluble in solutions of metallic
chlorides.

The conversion into sulphate is generally effected by the
oxidizing processes of weathering, calcination, heating with iron
nitrate or ferric sulphate. It may also be accomplished by
calcination with ferrous sulphate, or other easily decomposable
sulphates, such as aluminium sulphate. Weathering is a very
slow, and, therefore, an expensive process; moreover, the entire
conversion is only accomplished after a number of years. Cal-
cination is only advisable for ores which contain relatively much
iron pyrites and little copper pyrites. Also, however slowly the
calcination may be conducted, there is always more or less
copper sulphide left unchanged, and some copper- oxide formed.
Calcination with ferrous sulphate converts all the copper sulphide
into sulphate. Heap roasting has been successfully employed
at Agordo, in the Venetian Alps, and at Majdanpek in Servia.
Josef Perino's process, which consists in heating the ore with iron
nitrate to 50 — 150° C, is said to possess several advantages,
but it has not been applied commercially. Ferric sulphate is
only used as an auxiliary to the weathering process and in an
electrolytic process.

The conversion of the sulphide into oxide is adopted where the
Douglas-Hunt process is employed, or where hydrochloric or
sulphuric acids are cheap. The calcination is effected in rever-
beratory furnaces, or in muffle furnaces, if the sulphur is to be
recovered. Heap, stall or shaft furnace roasting is not very
satisfactory, as it is very difficult to transform all the sulphide
into oxide.

The conversion of copper sulphide into the chlorides may
be accomplished by calcining with common salt, or by treating
the ores with ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid or with
ferric chloride. The dry way is best; the wet way is only
employed when fuel is very dear, or when it is absolutely
necessary that no noxious vapours should escape into the
atmosphere. The dry method consists in an oxidizing roasting
of the ores, and a subsequent chloridizing roasting with either
common salt or Abraumsalz in reverberatory or muffle furnaces.
The bulk of the copper is thus transformed into cupric chloride,
little cuprous chloride being obtained. This method had been
long proposed by William Longmaid, Max Schaffner, Becchi and
Haupt, but was only introduced into England by the labours of
William Henderson, J. A. Phillips and others. The wet method
is employed at Rio Tinto, the particular variant being known
as the " Dotsch " process. This consists in stacking the broken
ore in heaps and adding a mixture of sodium sulphate and ferric

COPPER

107

chloride in the proportions necessary for the entire conversion
of the iron into ferric sulphate. The heaps are moistened with
ferric chloride solution, and the reaction is niaintained by the
liquid percolating through the heap. The liquid is run off at the
base of the heaps into the precipitating tanks, where the copper
is thrown down by means of metallic iron. The ferrous chloride
formed at the same time is converted into ferric chloride which
can be used to moisten the heaps. This conversion is effected by
allowing the ferrous chloride liquors slowly to descend a tower,
filled with pieces of wood, coke or quartz, where it meets an
ascending current of chlorine.

The sulphate, oxide or chlorides, which are obtained from
the sulphuretted ores, are lixiviated and the metal precipitated
in the same manner as we have previously described.

The metal so obtained is known as " cement " copper. If it
contains more than 55% of copper it is directly refined, while
if it contains a lower percentage it is smelted with matte or
calcined copper pyrites. The chief impurities are basic salts of
iron, free iron, graphite, and sometimes silica, antimony and iron
arsenates. Washing removes some of these impurities, but some
copper always passes into the slimes. If much carbonaceous
matter be present (and this is generally so when iron sponge is
used as the precipitant) the crude product is heated to redness
in the air; this burns out the carbon, and, at the same time,
oxidizes a little of the copper, which must be subsequently
reduced. A similar operation is conducted when arsenic is
present; basic-lined reverberatory furnaces have been used for
the same purpose.

Electrolytic Refining. — The principles have long been known
on which is based the electrolytic separation of copper from the
certain elements which generally accompany it, whether these,
like silver and gold, are valuable, or, like arsenic, antimony,
bismuth, selenium and tellurium, are merely impurities. But it
was not until the dynamo was improved as a machine for generat-
ing large quantities of electricity at a very low cost that the
electrolysis of copper could be practised on a commercial scale.
To-day, by reason of other uses to which electricity is applied,
electrically deposited copper of high conductivity is in ever-
increasing demand, and commands a higher price than copper
refined by fusion. This increase in value permits of copper with
not over £2 or $10 worth of the precious metals being profitably
subjected to electrolytic treatment. Thus many million ounces
of silver and a great deal of gold are recovered which formerly
were lost.

The earliest serious attempt to refine copper industrially was
made by G. R. Elkington, whose first patent is dated 1865.
He cast crude copper, as obtained from the ore, into plates
which were used as anodes, sheets of electro-deposited copper
forming the cathodes. Six anodes were suspended, alternately
with four cathodes, in a saturated solution of copper sulphate in
a cylindrical fire-clay trough, all the anodes being connected
in one parallel group, and all the cathodes in another. A hundred
or more jars were coupled in series, the cathodes of one to the
anodes of the next, and were so arranged that with the aid of
side-pipes with leaden connexions and india-rubber joints the
electrolyte could, once daily, be made to circulate through them
all from the top of one jar to the bottom of the next. The current
from a Wilde's dynamo was passed, apparently with a current
density of 5 or 6 amperes per sq. ft., until the anodes were too
crippled for further use. The cathodes, when thick enough, were
either cast and rolled or sent into the market direct. Silver and
other insoluble impurities collected at the bottom of the trough
up to the level of the lower side-tube, and were then run off
through a plug in the bottom into settling tanks, from which
they were removed for metallurgical treatment. The electrolyte
was used until the accumulation of iron in it was too great, but
was mixed from time to time with a little water acidulated by
sulphuric acid. This process is of historic interest, and in
principle it is identical with that now used. The modifications
introduced have been chiefly in details, in order to economize
materials and labour, to ensure purity of product, and to increase
the rate of deposition.

The chemistry of the process has been studied by Martin Kiliani
{Berg- und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, 1885, p. 249), who found
that, using the (low) current-density of 1-8 ampere per sq. ft. of
cathode, and an electrolyte containing 1 J lb of copper sulphate
and § lb of sulphuric acid per gallon, all the gold, platinum and
silver present in the crude copper anode remain as metals, undis-
solved, in the anode slime or mud, and all the lead remains there
as sulphate, formed by the action of the sulphuric acid (or SO4 ions) ;
he found also that arsenic forms arsenious oxide, which dissolves
until the solution is saturated, and then remains in the slime, from
which on long standing it gradually dissolves, after conversion by
secondary reactions into arsenic oxide; antimony forms a basic
sulphate which in part dissolves; bismuth partly dissolves and
partly remains, but the dissolved portion tends slowly to separate
out as a basic salt which becomes added to the slime ; cuprous oxide,
sulphide and selenides remain in the slime, and very slowly pass
into solution by simple chemical action; tin partly dissolves (but
in part separates again as basic salt) and partly remains as basic
sulphate and stannic oxide; zinc, iron, nickel and cobalt pass into
solution — more readily indeed than does the copper. Of the metals
which dissolve, none (except bismuth, which is rarely present in
any quantity) deposits at the anode so long as the solution retains
its proper proportion of copper and acid, and the current-density
is not too great. Neutral solutions are to be avoided because in them
silver dissolves from the anode and, being more electro-negative than
copper, is deposited at the cathode, while antimony and arsenic are
also deposited, imparting a dark colour to the copper. Electrolytic
copper should contain at least 99-92 % of metallic copper, the balance
consisting mainly of oxygen with not more than o-oi % in all of
lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth and silver. Such a degree of
purity is, however, unattainable unless the conditions of electrolysis
are rigidly adhered to. It should be observed that the free acid is
gradually neutralized, partly by chemical action on certain con-
stituents of the slime, partly by local action between different metals
of the anode, both of which effect solution independently of the
current, and partly by the peroxidation (or aeration) of ferrous
sulphate formed from the iron in the anode. At the same time there
is a gradual substitution of other metals for copper in the solution,
because although copper plus other (more electro-positive) metals
are constantly dissolving at the anode, only copper is deposited at
the cathode. Hence the composition and acidity of the solution,
on which so much depends, must be constantly watched.

The dependence of the mechanical qualities of the copper upon
the current-density employed is well known. A very weak current
gives a pale and brittle deposit, but as the current-density is in-
creased up to a certain point, the properties of the metal improve ;
beyond this point they deteriorate, the colour becoming darker and
the deposit less coherent, until at last it is dark brown and spongy
or pulverulent. The presence of even a small proportion of hydro-
chloric acid imparts a brown tint to the deposit. Baron H. v. Hiibl
{Mittheil. des k. k. militar-geograph. Inst., 1886, vol. vi. p. 51) has
found that with neutral solutions a 5 % solution of copper sulphate
gave no good result, while with a 20% solution the best deposit was
obtained with a current-density of 28 amperes per sq. ft.; with
solutions containing 2 % of sulphuric acid, the 5 % solution gave
good deposits with current-densities of 4 to 7-5 amperes, and the
20% solution with 11-5 to 37 amperes, per sq. ft. The maximum
current-densities for a pure acid solution at rest were : for 15% pure
copper sulphate solutions 14 to 21 amperes, and for 20% solutions
18-5 to 28 amperes, per sq. ft.; but when the solutions were kept
in gentle motion these maxima could be increased to 21-28 and
28-37 amperes per sq. ft. respectively. The necessity for adjusting
the current-density to the composition and treatment of the electro-
lyte is thus apparent. The advantage of keeping the solution in
motion is due partly to the renewal of solution thus effected in the
neighbourhood of the electrodes, and partly to the neutralization of
the tendency of liquids undergoing electrolysis to separate into layers,
due to the different specific gravities of the solutions flowing from
the opposing electrodes. Such an irregular distribution of the
bath, with strong copper sulphate solution from the anode at the
bottom and acid solution from the cathode at the top, not only
alters the conductivity in different strata and so causes irregular
current-distribution, but may lead to the current-density in the
upper layers being too great for the proportion of copper there
present. Irregular and defective deposits are therefore obtained.
Provision for circulation of solution is made in the systems of
copper-refining now in use. Henry Wilde, in 1875, in depositing
copper on iron printing-rollers, recognized this principle and rotated
the rollers during electrolysis, thereby renewing the surfaces of metal
and liquid in mutual contact, and imparting sufficient motion to
the solution to prevent stratification; as an alternative he imparted
motion to the electrolyte by means of propeller blades. Other
workers have followed more or less on the same lines; reference
may be made to the patents of F. E. and A. S. Elmore, who sought
to improve the character of the deposit by burnishing during electro-
lysis, of E. Dumoulin, and Sherard Cowper-Coles {Engineering
Review, 1^05, vol. xiii. p. 392), who prefers to rotate the cathodf
at a speed that maintains a peripheral velocity of at least 1000 ft.
per minute. Certain other inventors have applied the same principle
in a different way. H. Thofehrn in America and J. C. Graham va

io8

COPPER

England have patented processes by which jets of the electrolyte
are caused to impinge with considerable force upon the surface of
the cathode, so that the renewal of the liquid at this point takes
place very rapidly, and current-densities per sq. ft. of 50 to 100
amperes are recommended by the former, and of 300 amperes by the
latter. Graham has described experiments in this direction, using
a jet of electrolyte forced (beneath the surface of the bath) through
a hole in the anode upon the surface of the cathode. Whilst the jet
was playing, a good deposit was formed with so high a current-density
as 280 amperes per sq. ft., but if the jet was checked, the deposit
(now in a still liquid) was instantaneously ruined. When two or
more jets were used side by side the deposit was good opposite the
centre of each, but bad at the point where two currents met, because
the rate of flow was reduced. By introducing perforated shields
of ebonite between the electrodes, so that the full current-density
was only attained at the centres of the jets, these ill effects could
be prevented. One of the chief troubles met with was the formation
of arborescent growths around the edges of the cathode, due to the
greater current-density in this region; this, however, was also
obviated by the use of screens. By means of a very brisk rotation
of cathode, combined with a rapid current of electrolyte, J. W.
Swan has succeeded in depositing excellent copper at current-
densities exceeding 1000 amperes per sq. ft. The methods by which
such results are to be obtained cannot, however, as yet be practised
economically on a working scale; one great difficulty in applying
them to the refining of metals is that the jets of liquid would be
liable to carry with them articles of anode mud, and Swan has shown
that the presence of solid particles in the electrolyte is one of the
most fruitful causes of the well-known nodular growths on electro-
deposited copper. Experiments on a working scale with one of the
jet processes in America have, it is reported, been given up after a
full trial.

In copper-refining practice, the current-density commonly ranges
from 7-5 to 12 or 15, and occasionally to 18, amperes per sq. ft.
The electrical pressure required to force a current of this intensity
through the solution, and to overcome a certain opposing electro-
motive force arising from the more electro-negative impurities of
the anode, depends upon the composition of the bath and of the
anodes, the distance between the electrodes, and the temperature,
but under the usual working conditions averages 0-3 volt for every
pair of electrodes in series. In nearly all the processes now used,
the solution contains about l| to 2 lb of copper sulphate and from
5 to 10 oz. of sulphuric acid per gallon of water, and the space
between the electrodes is from 1^ to 2 in., whilst the total area of
cathode surface in each tank may be 200 sq. ft., more or less. The
anodes are usually cast copper plates about (say) 3 ft. by 2 ft. by
f or I in. The cathodes are frequently of electro-deposited copper,
deposited to a thickness of about fa in. on black-leaded copper plates,
from which they are stripped before use. The tanks are commonly
constructed of wood lined with lead, or tarred inside, and are placed
in terrace fashion each a little higher than the next in series, to
facilitate the flow of solution through them all from a cisternat
one end to a well at the other. Gangways are left between adjoining
rows of tanks, and an overhead travelling-crane facilitates the
removal of the electrodes. The arrangement of the tanks depends
largely upon the voltage available from the electric generator
selected; commonly they are divided into groups, all the baths in
each group being in series. In the huge Anaconda plant, for example,
in which 150 tons of refined copper can be produced daily by the
Thofehrn multiple system (not the jet system alluded to above),
there are 600 tanks about 8| ft. by 4J ft. by 31 ft. deep, arranged
in three groups of 200 tanks in series. The connexions are made
by copper rods, each of which, in length, is twice the width of the
tank, with a bayonet-bend in the middle, and serves to support
the cathodes in the one and the anodes in the next tank. Self-
registering voltmeters indicate at any moment the potential differ-
ence in every tank, and therefore give notice of short circuits occur-
ring at any part of the installation. The chief differences between the
commercial systems of refining lie in the arrangement of the baths,
in the disposition and manner of supporting the electrodes in each,
in the method of circulating the solution, and in the current-density
employed. The various systems are often classed in two groups,
known respectively as the Multiple and Series systems, depending
upon the arrangement of the electrodes in each tank. Under the
multiple system anodes and cathodes are placed alternately, all the
anodes in one tank being connected to one rod, and all the cathodes
to another, and the potential difference between the terminals of
each tank is that between a single pair of plates. Under the series
system only the first anode and the last cathode are connected to
the conductors; between these are suspended, isolated from one
another, a number of intermediate bi-polar electrode plates of raw
copper, each of these plates acting on one side as a cathode, receiving
a deposit of copper, and on the other as an anode, passing into
solution; the voltage between the terminals of the tank will be as
many times as great as that between a single pair of plates as there
are spaces between electrodes in the tank. In time the original
impure copper of the plates becomes replaced by refined copper,
but if the plates are initially very impure and dissolve irregularly,
it may happen that much residual scrap may have to be remelted,
or that some of the metal may be twice refined, thus involving a

waste of energy. Moreover, the high potential difference between
the terminals of the series tank introduces a greater danger of short-
circuiting through scraps of metal at the bottom of the bath; for
this reason, also, lead-lined vats are inadmissible, and tarred slate
tanks are often used instead. A valuable comparison of the multiple
and series systems has been published by E. Keller (see The Mineral
Industry, New York, 1899, vol. vii. p. 229). G. Kroupa has calcu-
lated that the cost of refining is 8s. per ton of copper higher under
the series than it is under the multiple system; but against this, it
must be remembered that the new works of the Baltimore Copper
Smelting and Rolling Company, which are as large as those of the
Anaconda Copper Mining Company, are using the Hayden process,
which is the chief representative of the several series systems. In
this system rolled copper anodes are used; these, being purer than
many cast anodes, having flat surfaces, and being held in place by
guides, dissolve with great regularity and require a space of only
f in. between the electrodes, so that the potential difference between
each pair of plates may be reduced to 0-15-0-2 volt.

J. A. W. Borchers, in Germany, and A. E. Schneider and O.
Szontagh, in America, have introduced a method of circulating the
solution in each vat by forcing air into a vertical pipe communi-
cating between the bottom and top of a tank, with the result that
the bubbling of the air upward aspirates solution through the vertical
pipe from below, at the same time aerating it, and causing it to
overflow into the top of the tank. Obviously this slow circulation
has but little effect on the rate at which the copper may be de-
posited. The electrolyte, when too impure for further use, is
commonly recrystallized, or electrolysed with insoluble anodes to
recover the copper.

The yield of copper per ampere (in round numbers, 1 oz. of copper
per ampere per diem) by Faraday's law is never attained in practice ;
and although 98 % may with care be obtained, from 94 to 96 %
represents the more usual current-efficiency. With 100% current-
efficiency and a potential difference of 0-3 volt between the electrodes,
I lb of copper should require about 0-154 electrical horse-power
hours as the amount of energy to be expended in the tank for its
production. In practice the expenditure is somewhat greater than
this; in large works the gross horse-power required for the refining
itself and for power and lighting in the factory may not exceed
0-19 to 0-2 (or in smaller works 0-25) horse-power hours per pound
of copper refined.

Many attempts have been made to use crude sulphide of copper
or matte as an anode, and recover the copper at the cathode, the
sulphur and other insoluble constitutents being left at the anode.
The best known of these is the Marchese process, which was tested
on a working scale at Genoa and Stolberg in Rhenish Prussia. As
the operation proceeded, it was found that the voltage had to be
raised until it became prohibitive, while the anodes rapidly became
honeycombed through and, crumbling away, filled up the space at
the bottom of the vat. The process was abandoned, but in a modified
form appears to be now in use in Nijni-Novgorod in Russia. Siemens
and Halske introduced a combined process in which the ore, after
being part-roasted, is leached by solutions from a previous electro-
lytic operation, and the resulting copper solution electrolysed.
In this process the anode solution had to be kept separate from the
cathode solution, and the membrane which had in consequence to be
used, was liable to become torn, and so to cause trouble by permitting
the two solutions to mix. Modifications of the process have therefore
been tried.

Modern methods in copper smelting and refining have effected
enormous economy in time, space, and labour, and have conse-
quently increased the world's output. With pyritic smelting a
sulphuretted copper ore, fed into a cupola in the morning, can be
passed directly to the converter, blown up to metal, and shipped
as 99% bars by evening — an operation which formerly, with
heap roasting of the ore and repeated roasting of the mattes in
stalls, would have occupied not less than four months. A large
furnace and a Bessemer converter, the pair capable of making a
million pounds of copper a month from a low-grade sulphuretted
ore, will not occupy a space of more than 25 ft. by 100 ft.; and
whereas, in making metallic copper out of a low-grade sulphuretted
ore, one day's labour used to be expended on every ton of ore
treated, to-day one day's labour will carry at least four tons of
ore through the different mechanical and metallurgical processes
necessary to reduce them to metal. About 70% of the world's
annual copper output is refined electrolytically, and from the
461,583 tons refined in the United States in 1907, there were
recovered 13,995,436 oz;. of silver and 272,150 oz. of gold. The
recovery of these valuable metals has contributed in no small
degree to the expansion of electrolytic refining.

Production.- — The sources of copper, its applications and its
metallurgy, have undergone great changes. Chile was the
largest producer in 1869 with 54,867 tons; but in 1899 her

COPPER

109

production had fallen off to 25,000 tons. Great Britain, though
she had made half the world's copper in 1830, held second place in
i860, making from native ores 15,968 tons; in 1900 her pro-
duction was 777 tons, and in 1907, 711 tons. The United States
made only 572 tons in 1850, and 12,600 tons in 1870; but she to-
day makes more than 60% of the world's total. In 1879, Spain
was the largest producer, but now ranks third.

The estimated total production for each decade of the 19th
century in metric tons is here shown: —

1801-1810
1811-1820
1 821-1830
1 831-1840
1841-1850
1851-1860
1861-1870

91,000

96,000

135,000

218,400

291,000

506,999
900,000

1871-1880 1,189,000

1881-1890 2,373,398

1891-1900 3,708,901

The following table gives the output of various countries
and the world's production for the years 1895, 1900, 1905,
1907:—

Country.

1895-

1900.

1905-

1907.

United States .
Spain and Portugal

Chile ....
Germany .
Australasia

Russia .

175,294
55,755
18,725
22,428

16,799

10,160

12,806

5,364

274,933
53,718
28,285
26,016
20,635
23,368
22,473
8,128

397>oo3
45-527
36,485
29,632
22,492

34,483
70,010

8,839

398,736
50,470
49,718
27,112
20,818
41,910
61,127
15,240

World's production

339,994

496,819

699,5H

723,807

As the stock on hand rarely exceeds three months' demand,
and is often little more than a month's supply, it is evident that
consumption' has kept close pace with production.

The large demand for copper to be used in sheathing ships
ceased on the introduction of iron in shipbuilding because of the
difficulty of coating-iron with an impervious layer of copper; but
the consumption in the manufacture of electric apparatus and for
electric conductors has far more than compensated.

Alloys of Copper. — Copper unites with almost all other metals,
and a large number of its alloys are of importance in the arts. The
principal alloys in which it forms a leading ingredient are brass,
bronze, and German or nickel silver; under these several heads their
respective applications and qualities will be found.

Compounds of Copper. — Copper probably forms six oxides, viz.
CU4O, CU3O, CU2O, CuO, CU2O3 and Cu0 2 . The most important are
cuprous oxide, Cu 2 0, and cupric oxide, CuO, both of
Oxides which give rise to well-defined series of salts. The other
andhy oxides do not possess this property, as is also the case
droxUes. of th g hydrate d ox ; des Cu 3 2 2H 2 and Cu 4 3 5H 2 0, de-
scribed by M. Siewert.

Cuprous oxide, Cu 2 0, occurs in nature as the mineral cuprite (q.v.).
It may be prepared artificially by heating copper wire to a white
heat, and afterwards at a red heat, by the atmospheric oxidation
of copper reduced in hydrogen, or by the slow oxidation of the metal
under water. It is obtained as a fine red crystalline precipitate by
reducing an alkaline copper solution with sugar. When finely
divided it is of a fine red colour. It fuses at red heat, and colours
glass a ruby-red. The property was known to the ancients and
during the middle ages; it was then lost for several centuries, to
be rediscovered in about 1827. Cuprous oxide is reduced by hydro-
gen, carbon monoxide, charcoal, or iron, to the metal ; it dissolves
in hydrochloric acid forming cuprous chloride, and in other mineral
acids to form cupric salts, with the separation of copper. It dissolves
in ammonia, forming a colourless solution which rapidly oxidizes
and turns blue. A hydrated cuprous oxide, (4Cu 2 0, H 2 0), is obtained
as a bright yellow powder, when cuprous chloride is treated with
potash or soda. It rapidly absorbs oxygen, assuming a blue colour.
Cuprous oxide corresponds to the series of cuprous salts, which are
mostly white in colour, insoluble in water, and readily oxidized
to cupric salts.

Cupric oxide, CuO, occurs in nature as the mineral melaconite
(q.v.), and can be obtained as a hygroscopic black powder by the
gentle ignition of copper nitrate, carbonate or hydroxide; also by
heating the hydroxide. It oxidizes carbon compounds to carbon
dioxide and water, and therefore finds extensive application in
analytical organic chemistry. It is also employed to colour glass,
to which it imparts a light green colour. Cupric hydroxide,
Cu(OH) 2 , is obtained as a greenish-blue flocculent precipitate by

mixing cold solutions of potash and a cupric salt. This precipitate
always contains more or less potash, which cannot be entirely
removed by washing. A purer product is obtained by adding
ammonium chloride, filtering, and washing with hot water. Several
hydrated oxides, e.g. Cu(OH) 2 ,3CuO,Cu(OH) 2 -6H 2 0,6CuO-H 2 0,have
been described. Both the oxide and hydroxide dissolve in ammonia
to form a beautiful azure-blue solution (Schweizer's reagent), which
dissolves cellulose, or perhaps, holds it in suspension as water does
starch ; accordingly, the solution rapidly perforates paper or calico.
The salts derived from cupric oxide are generally white when
anhydrous, but blue or green when hydrated.

Copper quadrantoxide, CU4O, is an olive-green powder formed by
mixing well-cooled solutions of copper sulphate and alkaline stannous
chloride. The trientoxide, Cu 3 0, is obtained when cupric oxide is
heated to l500°-200o° C. It forms yellowish-red crystals, which
scratch glass, and are unaffected by all acids except hydrofluoric;
it also dissolves in molten potash. Copper dioxide, Cu0 2 H 2 0, is
obtained as a yellowish-brown powder, by treating cupric hydrate
with hydrogen peroxide. When moist, it decomposes at about
6°C, but the dry substance must be heated to about 180°, before
decomposition sets in (see L. Moser, Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii. p. 549).

Cuprous hydride, (CuH)„, was first obtained by Wurtz in 1844,
who treated a solution of copper sulphate with hypophosphorous
acid, at a temperature not exceeding 70 C. According to E. J.
Bartlett and W. H. Merrill, it decomposes when heated, and gives
cupric hydride, CuH 2 , as a reddish-brown spongy mass, which turns
to a chocolate colour on exposure. It is a strong reducing agent.

Cuprous fluoride, CuF, is a ruby-red crystalline mass, formed by
heating cuprous chloride in an atmosphere of hydrofluoric acid at
iioo°-I200° C. It is soluble in boiling hydrochloric acid, but it is
not reprecipitated by water, as is the case with cuprous chloride.
Cupric fluoride, CuF 2 , is obtained by dissolving cupric oxide in
hydrofluoric acid. The hydrated form, (CuF 2 , 2H 2 0, 5HF) ,is obtained
as blue crystals, sparingly soluble in cold water; when heated to
loo C. it gives the compound CuF(OH), which, when heated with
ammonium fluoride in a current of carbon dioxide, gives anhydrous
copper fluoride as a white powder.

Cuprous chloride, CuCl or Cu 2 Cl 2 , was obtained by Robert Boyle
by heating copper with mercuric chloride. It is also obtained by
burning the metal in chlorine, by heating copper and cupric oxide
with hydrochloric acid, or copper and cupric chloride with hydro-
chloric acid. It dissolves in the excess of acid, and is precipitated
as a white crystalline powder on the addition of water. It melts at
below red heat to a brown mass, and its vapour density at both
red and white heat corresponds to the formula Cu 2 Cl 2 . It turns
dirty violet on exposure to air and light; in moist air it absorbs
oxygen and forms an oxychloride. Its solution in hydrochloric acid
readily absorbs carbcn monoxide and acetylene; hence it finds
application in gas analysis. Its solution in ammonia is at first
colourless, but rapidly turns blue, owing to oxidation. This solution
absorbs acetylene with the precipitation of red cuprous acetylide,
Cu 2 C 2 , a very explosive compound. Cupric chloride, CuCl 2 , is ob-
tained by burning copper in an excess of chlorine, or by heating the
hydrated chloride, obtained by dissolving the metal or cupric oxide
in an excess of hydrochloric acid. It is a brown deliquescent powder,
which rapidly forms the green hydrated salt CuCl 2 , 2H 2 on exposure.
The oxychloride Cu 3 2 Cl 2 -4H 2 is obtained as a pale blue precipi-
tate when potash is added to an excess of cupric chloride. The
oxychloride Cu40 3 Cl 2 ,4H 2 occurs in nature as the mineral atacamite.
It may be artificially prepared by heating salt with ammonium
copper sulphate to 100°. Other naturally occurring oxychlorides
are botallackite and tallingite. " Brunswick green," a light green
pigment, is obtained from copper sulphate and bleaching powder.

The bromides closely resemble the chlorides and fluorides.

Cuprous iodide, Cu 2 I 2 , is obtained as a white powder, which suffers
little alteration on exposure, by the direct union of its components
or by mixing solutions of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid and
potassium iodide ; or, with liberation of iodine, by adding potassium
iodide to a cupric salt. It absorbs ammonia, forming the compound
Cu 2 I 2 , 4NH3. Cupric iodide is only known in combination, as in
Cul 2 , 4NH 3 , H 2 0, which is obtained by exposing Cu 2 I 2 ,4NH 3 to
moist air.

Cuprous sulphide, Cu 2 S, occurs in nature as the mineral chalcocite
or copper-glance (q.v.), and may be obtained as a biack brittle mass
by the direct combination of its constituents. (See above, Metallurgy.)
Cupric sulphide, CuS, occurs in nature as the mineral covellite.
It may be prepared by heating cuprous sulphide with sulphur, or
triturating cuprous sulphide with cold strong nitric acid, or as a
dark brown precipitate by treating a copper solution with sul-
phuretted hydrogen. Several polysulphides, e.g. Cu 2 S 6 , Cu 2 S 6 , Cu 4 S 6 ,
Cu 2 S 3 , have been described; they are all unstable, decomposing-
into cupric sulphide and sulphur. Cuprous sulphite, CuS0 3 -H 2 0, is
obtained as a brownish-red crystalline powder by treating cuprous
hydrate with sulphurous acid. A cuproso-cupric sulphite, Cu 2 S0 3 ,
CuS0s,2H 2 0, is obtained by mixing solutions of cupric sulphate and
acid sodium sulphite.

Cupric sulphate or " Blue Vitriol," CUSO4, is one of the most im-
portant salts of copper. It occurs in cupriferous mine waters and as
the minerals chalcanthite or cyanosite, CuS04-5H 2 0, and boothite,
CuS0 4 -7H 2 0. Cupric sulphate is obtained commercially by the

no

COPPERAS— COPPERHEADS

oxidation of sulphuretted copper ores (see above, Metallurgy; wet
methods), or by dissolving cupric oxide in sulphuric acid. It was
obtained in 1644 by Van Helmont, who heated copper with sulphur
and moistened the residue, and in 1648 by Glauber, who dissolved
copper in strong sulphuric acid. (For the mechanism of this reaction
see C. H. Sluiter, Chem. Weekblad, 1906, 3, p. 63, and C. M. van
Deventer, ibid., 1906, 3, p. 515.) It crystallizes with five molecules
of water as large blue triclinic prisms. When heated to ioo°, it loses
four molecules of water and forms the bluish-white monohydrate,
which, on further heating to 250°-26o°, is converted into the white
CUSO4. The anhydrous salt is very hygroscopic, and hence finds
application as a desiccating agent. It also absorbs gaseous hydro-
chloric acid. Copper sulphate is readily soluble in water, but in-
soluble in alcohol ; it dissolves in hydrochloric acid with a consider-
able fall in temperature, cupric chloride being formed. The copper
is readily replaced by iron, a knife-blade placed in an aqueous
solution being covered immediately with a bright red deposit of
copper. At one time this was regarded as a transmutation of iron
into copper. Several basic salts are known, some of which occur as
minerals; of these, we may mention brochantite (q.v.), CuSCh,
3Cu(OH 2 ), langite, CuS0 4 , 3Cu(OH) 2 , H 2 0, lyellite (or devilline),
warringtonite ; woodwardite and enysite are hydrated copper-
aluminium sulphates, connellite is a basic copper chlorosulphate,
and spangolite is a basic copper aluminium chlorosulphate. Copper
sulphate finds application in calico printing and in the preparation
of the pigment Scheele's green.

A copper nitride, Cu 3 N, is obtained by heating precipitated cuprous
oxide in ammonia gas (A. Guntz and H. Bassett, Bull. Soc. Chim.,
I9°*. 35. P- 201). Amaroon-colouredpowder,ofcompositionCuN0 2 ,
is formed when pure dry nitrogen dioxide is passed over finely-
divided copper at 25°-30°. It decomposes when heated to 90°;
with water it gives nitric oxide and cupric nitrate and nitrite.
Cupric nitrate, Cu(N0 3 ) 2 , is obtained by dissolving the metal or oxide
in nitric acid. It forms dark blue prismatic crystals containing
3, 4, or 6 molecules of water according to the temperature of crystal-
lization. The trihydrate melts at 114-5°, and boils at 170°, giving
off nitric acid, and leaving the basic salt Cu(N0 3 ) 2 -3Cu(OH) 2 . The
mineral gerhardtite is the basic nitrate Cu 2 (OH) 3 N0 3 .

Copper combines directly with phosphorus to form several
compounds. The phosphide obtained by heating cupric phosphate,
Cu 2 H 2 P 2 0g, in hydrogen, when mixed with potassium and cuprous
sulphides or levigated coke, constitutes " Abel's fuse," which is used
as a primer. A phosphide, Cu 3 P 2 , is formed by passing phosphor-
etted hydrogen over heated cuprous chloride. (For other phosphides
see E. Heyn and O. Bauer, Rep. Chem. Soc, 1906, 3, p. 39.) Cupric
phosphate, Cu 3 (P04) 2 , may be obtained by precipitating a copper
solution with sodium phosphate. Basic copper phosphates are of
frequent occurrence in the mineral kingdom. Of these we may
notice libethenite, Cu 2 (OH)PO*4; chalcosiderite, a basic copper iron
phosphate; torbernite, a copper uranyl phosphate; andrewsite, a
hydrated copper iron phosphate ; and henwoodite, a hydrated copper
aluminium phosphate.

Copper combines directly with arsenic td*form several arsenides,
some of which occur in the mineral kingdom. Of these we may
mention whitneyite, Cu 9 As, algodonite, CuoAs, and domey kite, Cu 3 As.
Copper arsenate is similar to cupric phosphate, and the resemblance
is to be observed in the naturally occurring copper arsenates,
which are generally isomorphous with the corresponding phosphates.
Olivenite corresponds to libethenite; clinoclase, euchroite, corn-
wallite and tyrolite are basic arsenates; zeunerite corresponds to
torbernite; chalcophyllite (tamarite or " copper-mica ") is a basic
copper aluminium sulphato-arsenate, and bayldonite is a similar
compound containing lead instead of aluminium. Copper arsenite
forms the basis of a number of once valuable, but very poisonous,
pigments. Scheele's green is a basic copper arsenite; Schweinfurt
green, an aceto-arsenite ; and Casselmann's green a compound of
cupric sulphate with potassium or sodium acetate.

Normal cupric carbonate, CuC0 3 , has not been definitely obtained,
basic hydrated forms being formed when an alkaline carbonate is
added to a cupric salt. Copper carbonates are of wide occurrence
in the mineral kingdom, and constitute the valuable ores malachite
and azurite. Copper rust has the same composition as malachite;
it results from the action of carbon dioxide and water on the metal.
Copper carbonate is also the basis of the valuable blue to green
pigments verditer, Bremen blue and Bremen green. Mountain or
mineral green is a naturally occurring carbonate.

By the direct union of copper and silicon, cuprosilicon, consisting
mainly of Cu 4 Si, is obtained (Lebeau, C.R., 1906; Vigouroux, ibid.).

Copper_ silicates occur in the mineral kingdom, many minerals
owing their colour to the presence of a cupriferous element. Dioptase
(q.v.) and chrysocolla (q.v.) are the most important forms.

Detection. — Compounds of copper impart a bright green coloration
to the flame of a Bunsen burner. Ammonia gives a characteristic
blue coloration when added to a solution of a copper salt ; potassium
ferrocyanide gives a brown precipitate, and, if the solution be very
dilute, a brown colour is produced. This latter reaction will detect
one part of copper in 500,000 of water. For the borax beads and the
qualitative separation of copper from other metals, see Chemistry:
Analytical. For the quantitative estimation, see Assaying:
Copper.

Medicine. — In medicine copper sulphate was employed as an
emetic, but its employment for this purpose is now very rare, as it is
exceedingly depressant, and if it fails to act, may seriously damage
the gastric mucous membrane. It is, however, a useful superficial
caustic and antiseptic. All copper compounds are poisonous, but
not so harmful as the copper arsenical pigments.

References. — See generally H. J. Steven's Copper Handbook
(annual), W. H. Weld, The Copper Mines of the World (1907), The
Mineral Industry (annual), and Mineral Resources of the United States
(annual). Forthedry metallurgy, see E.D.Peters,Principles of Copper
Smelting (New York, 1907) ; for pyritic smelting, see T. A. Rickard,
Pyrite Smelting (1905) ; for wet methods, see Eissler, Hydrometallurgy
of Copper (London, 1902) ; and for electrolytic methods, see T. Ulke,
Die electrolytische Raffination des Kupfers (Halle, 1904). Reference
should also be made to the articles Metallurgy and Electro-
Metallurgy. For the chemistry of copper and its compounds see
the references in the article Chemistry: Inorganic. Toxicologic
and hygienic aspects are treated in Tschirsch's Das Kupfer vom
Standpunkt der gerichtlichen Chemie, Toxikologie und Hygiene
(Stuttgart, 1893).

COPPERAS (Fr. couperose; Lat. cupri rosa. the flower of
copper), green vitriol, or ferrous sulphate, FeS0 4 -7H 2 0, having
a bluish-green colour and an astringent, inky and somewhat
sweetish taste. It is used in dyeing and tanning, and in the
manufacture of ink and of Nordhausen sulphuric acid or fuming
oil of vitriol (see Iron).

COPPER-GLANCE, a mineral consisting of cuprous sulphide,
Cu 2 S, and crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It is known
also as chalcocite, redruthite and vitreous copper (German,
Kupfer glaserz of G. Agricola, 1546). The crystals have the form
of six-sided tables or prisms; the
angle between the prism faces
(lettered in the figure) being
6o° 25'. When twinned on the
prism planes 0, as is frequently
the case, the crystals simulate
hexagonal symmetry still more
closely, as in the minerals arag-

onite and chrysoberyl. Twinning also takes place according
to two other laws, giving rise to interpenetrating crystals with the
basal planes (s) of the two individuals inclined at angles of 69 or
87 56' respectively. The mineral also occurs as compact masses
of considerable extent. The colour is dark lead-grey with a
metallic lustre, but this is never very bright, since the material
is readily altered, becoming black and dull on exposure to
light. The mineral is soft (H. = 2|) and sectile, and can be
readily cut with a knife, like argentite; sp. gr. 5-7. Analyses
agree closely with the formula Cu 2 S, which corresponds to
79-8% of copper; small quantities of iron and silver are some-
times present.

Next to chalcopyrite, copper-glance is the most important ore
of copper. It usually occurs in the upper part of the copper-
bearing lodes, and is a secondary sulphide derived from the
chalcopyrite met with at greater depths; sometimes, however,
the two minerals are found together in the same part of the lodes.
The best crystals are from St Just, St Ives, and Redruth in
Cornwall, and from Bristol in Connecticut. Small crystals of
recent formation are found on Roman bronze coins in the thermal
springs at Bourbonne-les-Bains.

Copper-glance readily alters to other minerals, such as
malachite, covellite, melaconite and chalcopyrite. On the other
hand, it is found as pseudomorphs after chalcopyrite, galena, and
organic structures such as wood; copper-glance pseudomorphous
after galena preserves the cleavage of the original mineral and is
known as harrisite.

Isomorphous with copper-glance is the orthorhombic mineral
stromeyerite, a double copper and silver sulphide, CuAgS, which
occurs in abundance in the Altai Mountains. (L. J. S.)

COPPERHEADS, an American political epithet, applied by
Union men during the Civil War to those men in the North who,
deeming it impossible to conquer the Confederacy, were earnestly
in favour of peace and therefore opposed to the war policy of the
president and of Congress. Such men were not necessarily
friends of the Confederate cause. The term originated in the
autumn of 1862, and its use quickly spread throughout the North.
In the Western states early in 1863 the terms " Copperhead "

COPPERMINE— GOPROLITES

in

and " Democrat " had become practically synonymous. . The
name was adopted because of the fancied resemblance of the
peace party to the venomous copperhead snake, and, though
applied as a term of opprobrium, it was willingly assumed by
those upon whom it was bestowed.

COPPERMINE, a river of Mackenzie district, Canada, about
475 m. long, rising in a small lake in approximately no° 20' W.
and 65° 50' N., and flowing south to Lake Gras and then north-
westward to Coronation Gulf in the Arctic Ocean. Like Back's
river, the only other large river of this part of Canada, it is
unnavigable, being a succession of lakes and violent rapids.
The country through which it flows is a mass of low hills arid
morasses. The river was discovered by Samuel Hearne in 177 1,
and was explored from Point Lake to the sea by Captain (after-
wards Sir John) Franklin in 182 1.

COPPER-PYRITES, or Chalcopyrite, a copper iron sulphide
(CuFeS 2 ) , an important ore of copper. The name copper-pyrites
is from the Ger. Kupferkies, which was used as f«tr back as
1546 by G. Agricola; chalcopyrite (from xaX«6s, " copper,"
and pyrites) was proposed by J. F. Henckel in his Pyritologia,
oder Kiess-Historie (1725). By the ancients copper-pyrites
was included with other minerals under the term pyrites,
though the copper-ore from Cyprus referred to by Aristotle
as chalcites may possibly have been identical with this
mineral.

Chalcopyrite crystallizes in the tetragonal system with inclined
hemihedrism, but the form is so nearly cubic that it was not
recognized as tetragonal until accurate measurements were
made in 1822. Crystals are usually tetrahedral in aspect, owing
to the large development of the sphenoid P jui}. The faces
of this form are dull and striated, whilst the smaller faces of the
complementary sphenoid P' {in} (fig. 1) are bright and smooth.
The combination of these two forms produces a figure resembling

an octahedron, the
^ angle between P and

P' being 70 7 J',
corresponding to the
angle 70 32' of the
regular octahedron.
The other faces
shown in fig. 1 are
the basal pinacoid,
a {001}, and two
square pyramids,
{201}. Crystals are usually twinned, and are
and difficult to decipher. There are three
twin-planes being (in), (101) and (no)
respectively. Twinning according to the first law is effected
by rotation about an axis normal to the sphenoidal face (in),
the resulting form resembling the twins of blende and spinel.
Twinning according to the second law can only be explained
by reflection across the plane (101), not by rotation about an
axis; chalcopyrite affords an excellent example of this com-
paratively rare type of symmetric twinning. Interpenetra-
tion twins (fig. 2) with (no) as twin-plane are of very rare
occurrence.

Crystals have imperfect cleavages parallel to the eight faces
of the pyramid c {201}. The fracture is conchoidal, and the
material is brittle. Hardness 4; specific gravity 4-2. The
colour is brass-yellow, and the lustre metallic; the streak, or
colour of the powder, is greenish-black. The mineral is especially
liable to surface alteration, tarnishing with beautiful iridescent
colours; a blue colour usually predominates, owing probably
to the alteration of the chalcopyrite to covellite (CuS). The
massive and compact mineral frequently exhibits this iridescent
tarnish, and is consequently known to miners as " peacock
ore " or " peacock copper." The massive mineral sometimes
occurs in mammillary and botryoidal forms with a smooth
brassy surface, and is then known to Cornish miners as " blister-
copper-ore."

Chalcopyrite or copper-pyrites may be readily distinguished
from iron-pyrites (or pyrites), which it somewhat resembles

Fig

6 {101} and c
often complex
twin-laws, the

Fig. 2.

in appearance, by its deeper colour and lower degree of hardness:
the former is easily scratched by a knife, whilst the latter can
only be scratched with difficulty or not at all. Chalcopyrite
is decomposed by nitric acid with separation of sulphur and
formation of a green solution; ammonia added in excess to this
solution changes the green colour to deep blue and precipitates
red ferric hydroxide.

The chemical formula CuFeS2 corresponds with the percentage
composition Cu = 34'5, Fe = 30'5, S = 35'o. Analyses usually,
however, show the presence of more iron, owing to the intimate
admixture of iron-pyrites. Traces of gold, silver, selenium or
thallium are sometimes present, and the mineral is sometimes
worked as an ore of gold or silver.

Chalcopyrite is of wide distribution and is the commonest
of the ores of copper. It occurs in metalliferous veins, often
in association with iron-pyrites, chalybite, blende, &c, and in
Cornwall and Devon, where it is abundant, with cassiterite. The
large deposits at Falun in Sweden occur with serpentine in
gneiss, and those at Montecatini, near Volterra in the province
of Pisa, serpentine and gabbro. At Rammelsberg in the Harz
it forms a bed in argillaceous schist, and at Mansfield in Thuringia
it occurs in the Kupferschiefer with ores of nickel and cobalt.
Extensive deposits are mined in the United States, particularly
at Butte in Montana, and in Namaqualand, South Africa.
Well-crystallized specimens are met with at many localities;
for example, formerly at Wheal Towan (hence the name
towanite, which has been applied to the species) in the St
Agnes district of Cornwall, at Freiberg in Saxony, and Joplin,
Missouri. (L. J. S.)

COPPICE, or Copse (from an O. Fr. copeis or coupeis, from
Late Lat. colpare, to cut with a blow; colpas, the Late Lat. for
"blow," is a shortened form of colapus or colaphus, adapted
from the Gr. k6Xo.<£os)> a small plantation or thicket of planted
or self : sown trees, which are cut periodically for use or sale,
before the trees grow into large timber. Whether naturally
or artificially grown the produce is looked on by the English
law as jructus industrialis. The tenant for life or years may
appropriate this produce (see Dashwood v. Magniac, 1801,
3 Ch. 306).

COPRA (a Spanish and Portuguese adaptation of the Malay
hopper ah, and Hindustani khopra, the coco-nut), the dried
broken kernel of the coco-nut from which coco-nut oil is extracted
by boiling and pressing. Copra is the form in which the product
of the coco-nut is exported for commercial purposes (see Coco-
nut Palm).

COPROLITES (from Gr. K&irpos, dung, and \L60s, stone), the
fossilized excrements of extinct animals. The discovery of
their true nature was made by Dr William Buckland, who
observed that certain convoluted bodies occurring in the Lias
of Gloucestershire had the form which would have been produced
by their passage in the soft state through the intestines of reptiles
or fishes. These bodies had long been known as "fossil fir
cones" and "bezoar stones." Buckland's conjecture that they
were of faecal origin, and similar to the album grecum or ex-
crement of hyaenas, was confirmed by Dr W. Prout, who on
analysis found they consisted essentially of calcium phosphate
and carbonate, and not infrequently contained fragments of
unaltered bone. The name "coprolites" was accordingly
given to them by Buckland, who subsequently expressed his
belief that they might be found useful in agriculture on account
of the calcium phosphate they contained. The Liassic coprolites
are described by Buckland as resembling oblong pebbles, or
kidney-potatoes; they are mostly 2 to 4 in. long, and from
1 to 2 in. in diameter, but those of the larger ichthyosauri are
of much greater dimensions. In colour they vary from ash-grey
to black, and their fracture is conchoidal. Internally they are
found to consist of a lamina twisted upon itself, and externally
they generally exhibit a tortuous structure, produced, before
the cloaca was reached, by the spiral valve of a compressed
small intestine (as in skates, sharks and dog-fishes); the surface
shows also vascular impressions and corrugations due to the
same cause. Often the bones, teeth and scales of fishes are to

112

COPTOS

be found dispersed through the coprolites, and sometimes the
bones of small ichthyosauri, which were apparently a prey to
the larger marine saurians. Coprolites have been found at Lyme
Regis, enclosed by the ribs of ichthyosauri, and in the remains of
several species of fish ; also in the abdominal cavities of a species
of fossil fish, Macropoma Mantelli, from the chalk of Lewes.
Professor T. Jager has described coprolites from the alum-slate
of Gaildorf in Wurttemberg; the fish-coprolites of Burdiehouse
and of Newcastle-under-Lyme are of Carboniferous age. The
so-called " beetle-stones " of the coal-formation of Newhaven,
near Leith, which have mostly a coprofite nucleus, have been
applied to various ornamental purposes by lapidaries. The
name " cololites " (from the Greek kcoKov, the large intestine,
XWor, stone) was given by Agassiz to fossil wormlike bodies,
found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, which he determined
to be either the petrified intestines or contents of the intestines
of fishes. The bone-bed of Axmouth in Devonshire and West-
bury and Aust in Gloucestershire, in the Penarth or Rhaetic
series of strata, contains the scales, teeth and bones of saurians
and fishes, together with abundance of coprolites; but neither
there nor at Lyme Regis is there a sufficient quantity of phos-
phatic material to render the working of it for agricultural
purposes remunerative.

The term coprolites has been made to include all kinds of
phosphatic nodules employed as manures, such, for example, as
those obtained from the Coralline and the Red Crag of Suffolk.
At the base of the Red Crag in that county is a bed, 3 to 18 in.
thick, containing rolled fossil bones, cetacean and fish teeth, and
shells of the Crag period, with nodules or pebbles of phosphatic
matter derived from the London Clay, and often investing
fossils from that formation. These are distinguishable from
the grey Chalk coprolites by their brownish ferruginous colour
•and smooth appearance. When ground they give a yellowish-red
powder. These nodules were at first taken by Professor J. S.
Henslow for coprolites; they were afterwards termed by
Buckland " pseudo-coprolites." " The nodules, having been
imbued with phosphatic matter from their matrix in the London
Clay, were dislodged," says Buckland, " by the waters of the
seas of the first period, and accumulated by myriads at the
bottom of those shallow seas where is now the coast of Suffolk.
Here they were long rolled together with the bones of large
mammalia, fishes, and with the shells of molluscous creatures
that lived in shells. From the bottom of this sea they have been
raised to form the dry lands along the shores of Suffolk, whence
they are now extracted as articles of commercial value, being
ground to powder in the mills of Mr [afterwards Sir John] Lawes,
at Deptford, to supply our farms with a valuable substitute for
guano, under the accepted name of coprolite manure." The
phosphatic nodules occurring throughout the Red Crag of Suffolk
are regarded as derived from the Coralline Crag. The Suffolk
beds have been worked since 1846; and. immense quantities of
coprolite have also been obtained from Essex, Norfolk and
Cambridgeshire. The Cambridgeshire coprolites are believed
to be derived from deposits of Gault age; they are obtained by
washing from a stratum about a foot thick, resting on the Gault,
at the base of the Chalk Marl, and probably homotaxeous with
the Chloritic Marl. An acre used to yield on an average 300 tons
of phosphatic nodules, value £750. About £140 per acre was
paid for the lease of the land, which after two years was restored
to its owners re-soiled and levelled. Plicatulae have been found
attached to these coprolites, showing that they were already hard
bodies when lying at the bottom of the Chalk ocean. The
Cambridgeshire coprolites are either amorphous or finger-shaped;
the coprolites from the Greensand are of a black or dark-brown
colour; while those from the Gault are greenish- white on the
surface, brownish-black internally. Samples of Cambridgeshire
and Suffolk coprolite have been found by A. Voelcker to give on
analysis phosphoric acid equivalent to about 55 and 52-5%
of tribasic calcium phosphate respectively {J own. R. Agric.
Soc. Eng., i860, xxi. 358). The following analysis of a saurio-
coprolite from Lyme Regis is given by T. J. Herapath
xii. 91) : —

Water . . . . . . f . . . 3-976

Organic matter ...... 2-001

Calcium sulphate ..... 2-026

Calcium carbonate . . . . . 28-121

Calcium fluoride . . . . . .not determined

Calcium and magnesium phosphate . 53-996

Magnesium carbonate 0-423

Aluminic phosphate . . . . . 1-276

Ferric phosphate 6-182

Silica 0-733

98-734
An ichthyo-coprolite from Tenby was found to contain 15.4%
of phosphoric anhydride. The pseudo-coprolites of the Suffolk
Crag have been estimated by Herapath to be as rich in phosphates
as the true ichthyo-coprolites and saurio-coprolites of other
formations, the proportion of P 2 5 contained varying between
12-5 and 37-25%, the average proportion, however, being 32
or 33%-

Coprolit# is reduced to powder by powerful mills of peculiar
construction, furnished with granite and buhrstones, before being
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. The acid renders it
available as a manure by converting the calcium phosphate,
Ca 3 P 2 08, that it contains into the soluble monocalcium salt,
CaHiPjOs, or " superphosphate." The phosphate thus produced
forms an efficacious turnip manure, and is quite equal in value
to that produced from any other source. The Chloritic Marl in
the Wealden district furnishes much phosphatic material, which
has been extensively worked at Froyle. In the vicinity of
Farnham it contains a bed of " coprolites " of considerable extent
and 2 to 15 ft. in thickness. Specimens of these from the Dippen
Hall pits, analysed by Messrs J. M. Paine and J. T. Way, showed
the presence of phosphates equivalent to 55-96 of bone-earth
{J own. R. Agric. Soc. Eng. ix. : 56). Phosphatic nodules occur
also in the Chloritic Marl of the Isle of Wight and Dorset-
shire, and at Wroughton, near Swindon. They are found in the
Lower Greensand, or Upper Neocomian series, in the Atherfield
Clay at Stopham, near Pulborough; occasionally at the junction
of the Hythe and Sandgate beds; and in the Folkeston beds,
at Farnham. At Woburn, Leighton, Ampthill, Sandy, Upware,
Wicken and Potton, near the base of Upper Neocomian iron-
sands, there is a band between 6 in. and 2 ft. in thickness con-
taining " coprolites "; these consist of phosphatized wood,
bones, casts of shells, and shapeless lumps. The coprolitic
stratum of the Speeton Clay, on the coast to the north of Flam-
borough Head, is included by Professor Judd with the Portland
beds of that formation. In 1864 two phosphatic deposits, a
limestone 3 ft. thick, with beds of calcium phosphate, and a shale
of half that thickness, were discovered by Hope Jones in the
neighbourhood of Cwmgynen, about 16 m. from Oswestry. They
are at a depth of about 12 ft., in slaty shale containing Llandeilo
fossils and contemporaneous f elspathic ash and scoriae. A
specimen of the phosphatic limestone analysed by A. Voelcker
yielded 34-92% tricalcium phosphate, a specimen of the shale
52-15% (Report of Brit. Assoc, 1865). Phosphatic beds, sup-
posed to have had a coprolitic origin, are found in the Lower
Silurian rocks of Canada.

See T. J. Herapath, Chem. Gaz., 1849, p. 449; W. Buckland,
Geology and Mineralogy (4th ed., 1869); O. Fisher, Quart. Journ.
Geo!. Soc, 1873, p. 52; J. J. H. Teall, On the Potton and Wicken
Phosphatic Deposits (Sedgwick Prize Essay for 1873) (1875) and
" The Natural History of Phosphatic Deposits," Proc. Geol. Assoc.
xvi. (1900); L. W. Collet, Proc Roy. Soc. Edin. xxv. pt. 10, p. 862:
T. G. Bonney, Cambridgeshire Geology (1875); L. Gruner, Bull,
soc geol. franc, xxviii. (2nd series), p. 62; J. Martin, ibid. iii. (3rd
series), p. 273.

COPTOS (Egyptian Keft, Kebto), the modern ]£tjft (a village
with railway station a short distance from the west bank of the
Nile about 25 m. north-east of Thebes), an ancient city, capital of
the fifth nome of Upper Egypt, and the starting-point of several
roads to the Red Sea, of which that which passes along the valley
running due east to Kosseir past the ancient quarries of Hamma-
mat was the most frequented, until the foundation of Berenice
(q.v.) by Ptolemy Philadelphus made an even more important line
of traffic to the south-west. The growth of trade with Arabia

COPTS

113

and India thereafter raised Coptos to great commercial
prosperity; but in a.d. 292 its share in the rebellion against
Diocletian led to an almost total devastation. It again appears,
however, as a place of importance, and as the seat of a consider-
able Christian community, though the stream of traffic turned
aside to the neighbouring Kus. During part of the 7th century
it was called Justinianopolis in honour of the emperor Justinian.

The local god of Coptos, as of Khemmis (Akhmlm, q.v.), was
the ithyphallic Min; but in late times Isis was of equal import-
ance in the city. Min was especially the god of the desert routes.
Petrie's excavations on the site of the temple brought to light
remains of all periods, the most remarkable objects being three
very primitive limestone statues of the god with figures of an
elephant, swords of sword-fish, sea-shells, &c, engraved upon
them: there were also found some very peculiar terra-cottas of
the Old Kingdom, and the decree of an Antef belonging to the
latter part of the Middle Kingdom, deposing the monarch for
siding with the king's enemy.

COPTS, the early native Christians of Egypt and their suc-
cessors of the Monophysite sect, now racially the purest repre-
sentatives of the ancient Egyptians. The name is a Europeanized
form, dating perhaps from the 14th century, of the Arabic Kibt
(or Kubt), which, in turn, is derived from the Greek AiyinrTioi.,
" Egyptians " (the Copts in the Coptic language likewise style
themselves powXiuu, "people of Egypt," "Egyptians").

The limited application of the name is explained by the
circumstances of the time when Mahomet sent forth his challenge
to the world and 'Amr conquered Egypt (a.d. 627-641). At
that time the population of Egypt was wholly Christian (except
for a sprinkling of Jews, &c), divided into two fiercely hostile
sects, the Monophysites and the Melkites. The division was in
great measure racial. The Melkites, adherents of the orthodox
or court religion sanctioned by the council of Chalcedon, were
mainly of foreign extraction, from the various Hellenistic races
which peopled the Eastern Roman empire, while the bulk of the
population, the true Egyptians, were Monophysite. Amongst
the latter political aspirations, apart from religion, may be said
not to have existed. It has generally been held that the Copts
invited and aided the Moslems to seize the country in order that
at all costs they might be freed from the yoke of the state religion
imposed by the Eastern Roman Empire; but Dr A. J. Butler
has shown this view to be untenable, while admitting that the
religious feuds of the Christians made the task of the Arabs easy.
The mysterious Mukaukis, who treacherously handed over
Alexandria, impregnable as it was for Arab warriors, and then
capitulated, was none other than Cyrus, the Melkite patriarch
and governor of Egypt; the native Monophysite party, however,
smarting under the persecution of the Emperor Heraclius, seemed
to have most to gain by a change of masters. The prophet
Mahomet himself had prescribed indulgence to the Copts before
his death, and 'Amr was mercifully disposed.to them. Although
they offered resistance in some places, after the Roman forces
had been destroyed or had abandoned Egypt they generally
acquiesced in the inevitable; and when in 646 a Roman fleet
and army recaptured Alexandria and harried the Delta, the
Copts helped the Moslems to cast out the Christian invaders.
Some of the Copts embraced Islam at once, but as yet they
formed practically a solid Christian nation under ihz protection
of the conquering Arabs, and the religious and political distinction
between the " true believers " and the Christians was so sharp
that a native Christian turning Moslem was no longer a Copt,
i.e. Egyptian; he practically changed his nationality.

The beginnings of Christianity in Egypt are obscure; the
Existence of it among the natives (as opposed to the mixed
" Greek " population of Egypt and Alexandria which produced
so many leading figures and originated leading doctrines in the
early church) can be traced back as far as the Decian persecution
(a.d. 249-251) in the purely Egyptian names of several martyrs.
St Anthony (c. a.d. 270) was a Copt; so also was Pachomius,
the founder of Egyptian monasticism at the beginning of the
4th century. The scriptures were translated into Coptic not later
than the 4th century. A religion founded on morality and with

a clear doctrine of life after death was especially congenial to
the Egyptians; thus the lower orders in the country embraced
Christianity fervently, while the Alexandrian pagans were lost
in philosophical speculation and Neoplatonism was spread
amongst the rich "Greek" landowners; these last, partly out
of religious enthusiasm, partly from greed, annoyed and oppressed
their Christian peasantry. Egypt was then terribly im-
poverished; the upper country was constantly overrun by
raiders from Nubia and the desert; and the authority of the
imperial government was too weak to interfere actively on
behalf of the Christians. The monasteries, however, were
refuges that could bid defiance to the most powerful of the pagan
aristocracy as well as to barbarian hordes, and became centres
of united action that, at the summons of Shenoute, the organizer
of the national church, swept away the idols of the oppressors
in riot and bloodshed. In the course of the 5th century the
Christians reached a position in which they were able to treat
the pagans mercifully as a feeble remnant.

The Copts had little interest in theology; they were content
to take their doctrine as prepared for them by the subtler minds
of their Greek leaders at Alexandria, choosing the simplest
form when disputes arose. In 325 their elected patriarch,
Athanasius, and his following of Greeks and Copts, triumphed
at the council of Nicaea against Arius; but in 451 the banishment
of Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexandria, by the council of Chalcedon
created a great schism, the Egyptian church holding to his
Monophysite tenets (see Coptic Church, below), while the Catholic
and imperial party at Constantinople ever sought to further
the " Melkite" cause in Egypt at the expense of the native church.
Thenceforward there were generally two patriarchs, belonging
to the rival communities, and the Copts were oppressed by the
Melkites; Heraclius, in 638 after the repulse of the Persians,
endeavoured to unite the churches, but, failing in that, he
persecuted the Monophysites more severely than ever before,
until "Amr brought Egypt under the Moslem rule of 'Omar, as
has been related above. Under the persecution many Copts
had gone over to the Melkites, but now it was the turn of the
Melkites, as supporters of the emperor of Constantinople, to
suffer, and they almost entirely disappeared from Egypt, though
a remnant headed by a patriarch of Alexandria of the Orthodox
Christians has survived to this day.

But after a few years of the mild rule of 'Amr the Egyptians
began to be squeezed for the benefit of the Moslem exchequer and
persecuted for their religion. Many of the more thoughtful and
sober Christians must long have been disgusted with religious
strife, and had already embraced the simple and congenial
doctrines of Islam; others went over for the sake of material gain.
Conflicts arose from time to time between the Mahommedan
minority and the Christians. The Copts were excellent scribes
and accountants and were continued in their posts under the
Arab rule; the government offices were full of them; sometimes
even the wazirate (vizierate) was held by a Copt, and that too in a
time of persecution of the Christians. The pride of the Copts,
still seen in the objection which the poorest among them have
to engaging in any mean work or trade, was a serious danger,
perhaps even a chief source of their troubles, in earlier days;
devout Moslems on more than one occasion stirred the mob to
fury when they saw Christians lording it over " true believers. "
The lower orders of the Copts were continually oppressed. Thus
there was every inducement amongst the Christians to turn
Mahommedan. Arab tribes, too, were encouraged to settle in
Egypt until the Mahommedans exceeded the Copts in numbers.

The history of the Copts consists on the one hand of the record
of religious strife, of growing scandals in the church, such as
simony, and attempted reforms; and on the other hand of
persecutions at the hands of the Moslems. As examples of the
severity of the persecutions, it may be noted that, in the 8th
century, the monks not only were compelled to pay a capitation
tax, but were branded with name and number, civilians were
oppressed with heavy taxation, churches demolished, pictures and
crosses destroyed (722-723). Degrading dresses were imposed
upon the Christians (849-850) ; later, under Hakim (997), they

H4

COPTS

were compelled to wear heavy crosses and black turbans as
an ignominious distinction. Salaheddin (Saladin) in 1171 re-
enforced these statutes and defiled the churches. In 1301, the
blue turban was introduced, but many Copts preferred a change
of religion to the adoption of this head-dress. In 1348 a religious
war, attended by the destruction of churches and mosques and
great loss of life, raged at Cairo between the Copts and Mahom-
medans, and large numbers of the former embraced Islam.
Their oppression practically ceased under Mehemet Ali (181 1).

There have been very few cases of conversion from Mahom-
medanisro to Christianity; and, as intermarriage of Christians
with Mahcmmedans implied conversion to Islam, the Copts have
undoubtedly preserved the race of the Egyptians as it existed at
the time of the Arab conquest in remarkable purity. The Coptic
agricultural population (fellahm) in the villages of Upper Egypt
and elsewhere are not markedly different from the Mahommedan
fellahin, who, of course, are of the same stock, but mixed with
Arab blood. The Copts in the towns, who have always been
engaged in sedentary occupations, as scribes and handicraftsmen,
have a more delicate frame and complexion, and may have
mingled with Syrian and Armenian Christians.

According to the 1907 census, there were 667,036 orthodox
Copts in Egypt, or less than -^th of the total population, this
being the same proportion as in 1830, when, according to Lane,
they numbered about 150,000. The number of churches and
monasteries at the same time had risen from 146 to 450, not
including Protestant chapels nor Coptic Catholic churches. At
the 1907 census the total number of Christians in Egyot described
as Copts was 706,322; among them there were 24,710 Protestants
and 14,576 Roman Catholics.

Monogamy is strict among the Copts, and divorce is granted
only for adultery. Circumcision of both sexes is common before
baptism. In regard to dress, at present only the clergy retain
the old distinctive costume and black turban. The rest of the
Copts dress exactly like their Moslem brethren, from whom
they can be distinguished only by the cross which many of them
still have tattooed just below the palm of the right hand. Since
the British occupation of the country there has been a tendency
amongst the Coptic women to give up the veil, which they had
borrowed from the Mahommedans; this is especially noticeable
at places like Assiut, where, thanks to the efforts of American
missionaries, female education has made much progress.

In trades and professions, so long as the Copts had no foreign
competition to contend against, they maintained their supremacy
over the rest of the population. They filled government offices;
in towns and villages they monopolized trades and professions
requiring care and skill. They were the accountants, the
architects, the goldsmiths, the carpenters, the land-surveyors, the
bonesetters, &c. But, with the extension of railways and
agricultural roads and the increased facilities of communication
and prosperity, there has been a great influx of Italian, Greek,
Armenian and other Levantine workmen, who, with their better
tools, are undoubtedly superior to the Copts, and have proved
most formidable rivals. Furthermore, the importation of cheap
European wares of every description is slowly killing all native
industry. Lastly, since the British, as the dominant race, have
filled most posts of responsibility in the government, the Moslems,
in general, are obliged to content themselves with the sub-
ordinate posts which in the past they left to the Copts. Some
Copts have attained high office, and in 1908 a Copt became prime
minister. Moreover, the Copts have to a certain extent made up
for the ground they lose elsewhere by engaging in agriculture
and banking, and there are now to be found many rich Coptic
landowners and farmers, especially in Upper Egypt.

Language. — The language spoken by the Copts was of various
dialects, named Sahidic, Akhmimic, Fayumic, &c, descended
from the ancient Egyptian with more or less admixture of Greek
(for the Coptic dialects see Egypt: Language). Coptic, however,
has been entirely extinct as a spoken language for over 200 years,
having been supplanted by Arabic; in the 13th century it was
already so much decayed that Arabic translations of the liturgies
were necessary. The Gospels, however, are still read in the

churches in the Bohairic dialect. This dialect appears in litera-
ture later than the others, having become of importance only
with the extinction of Greek in Lower Egypt; for a time it shared
the field with Sahidic, after the disappearance of Akhmimic and
Fayumic, but eventually displaced it in the churches, where it now
survives alone.

Coptic literature is almost entirely religious, and consists
mainly of translations from the Greek. Such was the enthusiasm
for Christianity amongst the lower classes in Egypt that' transla-
tions of the Bible were made into three of the dialects of Coptic
before the council of Chalcedon; they probably date back at
least as early as the middle of the 4th century. For the dwellers
in the Delta the Greek version was probably sufficient, until the
break with the Greek (Melkite) Church in the 5th century
induced them to make a separate translation in their own native
northern or Bohairic dialect. The Gnostic heresy, otherwise
known only through the works of its opponents, is illustrated
in some Coptic MSS. of the 4th century, the so-called Pistis
Sophia or Askew Codex, and the Bruce Codex, respectively in
the British Museum and Bodleian Libraries. According to
Schmidt and Harnack, they are translations dating from the
3rd century and belong to an ascetic or encratitic sect of the
Gnostics which arose in Egypt itself. There is abundance of
apocryphal works, of apocalypses, of patristic writings from
Athanasius to the council of Chalcedon, homilies, lives of saints
and anecdotes of holy men, acts of martyrs extending from the
persecution of Diocletian to that of the Persians in the 7th
century, and lives of later ascetics and martyrs reaching down
to the 14th century. Unless some of the Egyptian acta sanctorum
el martyrum ■ should prove to have been originally written in
Coptic, almost the only original works in that language of any
importance are the numerous sermons and letters of Shenoute,
a monk of Atrepe near Akhmlm, written in the Sahidic dialect
in the 4th century. After the Arab conquest, as a defence to
the threatened church, language and nationality, versifications
of the Proverbs, of Solomon's Song and of various legends were
composed, with other religious songs. They are mostly anti-
phonal, a number of stresses in a line marking the rhythm.
There is no musical notation in the MSS., but traditional church
tunes are generally referred to or prescribed for the songs. Of
secular literature strangely little existed or at least has survived:
only a few magical texts, fragments of a medical treatise, of the
story of Alexander, and of a story of the conquest of Egypt by
Cambyses, are' known, apari from numerous legal and business
documents.

Coptic was occasionally employed for literary purposes as
late as the 14th century, but from the 10th century onward
the Copts wrote mostly in Arabic. Severus of Eshmunain (c. 950),
who wrote a history of the patriarchs of Alexandria, was one of
the first to employ Arabic; Cyril ibn Laklak and others in the
13th and 14th centuries translated much of the older literature
from Coptic into Arabic and Ethiopic for the use of the Egyptian
and Abyssinian churches. From this period also date the native
Coptic grammars and lexicons of Ibn 'Assal and others. At
the present time literature among the Copts is represented by
Claudius Labib, an enthusiast for the revival of the Coptic
tongue, Marcus Simaika, a leader of the progressive movement,
and others. (F. Ll. G.)

The Coptic Church.- — Up to the 5th century the church of
Alexandria played a part in the Christian world scarcely second
to that of Rome: the names of Origen, Athanasius and Cyril
bear witness to her greatness. But in the time of the patriarch
Dioscorus the church, always fond of speculation, was rent
asunder by the controversy concerning the single or twofold nature
of our Lord, as stated by Eutyches. The Eutychian doctrine,
approved by the council of Ephesus, was condemned by that
of Chalcedon in 451. But to this decision, though given by 636
bishops, the Copts refused assent — a refusal which profoundly
affected both the religious and the political history of their
country. From that moment they were treated as heretics.
The emperor appointed a new bishop of Alexandria, whose
adherents the Copts styled Melkites or Imperialists, while the

COPTS

115

Copts are distinguished as Monophysites and Jacobites. The
court party and the native party each maintained its own line
of patriarchs, and each treated the other with bitter hostility.
For nearly two centuries strife and persecution continued.
The well-meant ecthesis of Heraclius was a failure and was
followed by repression, till in 640 the Copts were released from
the Roman dominion by the Saracen invasion. But it was only
after prolonged resistance to the Arabs that the Copts accepted a
change of masters, which gave them for a while religious freedom.
The orthodox or Melkite party, consisting mostly of Byzantine
Greeks, was swept away, and the double succession of patriarchs
practically ceased. True, even now there is an orthodox
patriarch of Alexandria living in Cairo, but he has only a few
Greeks for followers, and scarcely a nominal succession has been
maintained. But the Coptic succession has been continuous and
real.

The distinctive Monophysite doctrine of the Copts is not easy
to state intelligibly, and yet they cling to it with something of
Doctrine. *-he tenacity which has marked their whole history.
They repudiate the heresy of Eutyches as strongly
as that of Nestorius, and claim to stand between the two doctrines
teaching that Christ was one person with one nature which was
made up by the indissoluble union of a divine and a human
nature,, but that notwithstanding this absolute union the two
natures remained after union distinct, unconfounded and
uncommingled, separate though inseparable. The creed thus
savours of paradox, not to say contradiction. It is set forth in
the Liturgy and recited at every Coptic mass in the following
words: — " I believe that this is the life-giving flesh which thine
only Son took from the . . . Holy Mary. He united it with
His Divinity without mingling and without confusion and without
alteration. ... I believe that His Divinity was not separated
from His Manhood for one moment or for the twinkling of an
eye." On all other points of dogma, including the single pro-
cession of the Holy Ghost, the Copts agree with the Greek
Church.

" The most holy pope and patriarch of the great city of
Alexandria and of all the land of Egypt, of Jerusalem the holy
Hierarchy. c ^y> °^ Nubia, Abyssinia and Pentapolis, and all the
preaching of St Mark," as he is still called,had originally
jurisdiction over all the places named. Jurisdiction over
Abyssinia remains, but from Nubia and Pentapolis Christianity
has disappeared. The ancient rule is that no bishop is eligible
for the patriarchate. The requirement of a period of desert life
has so far prevailed that no one but a monk from one of the
desert monasteries is now qualified. This rule, harmless perhaps
when the monasteries were the great schools of learning and
devotion, now puts a premium oh ignorance, and is disastrous
to the 1 church; more particularly as even bishops must be chosen
from the monks. The patriarch is elected by an assembly of
bishops and elders. The candidate is brought in chains from
the desert, and, if only in monk's orders, is passed through
the higher grades except that of bishop. The patriarch's seat
was transferred some time after the Arab conquest from Alex-
andria to the fortress town of Babylon (Old Cairo) , and in modern
times it was shifted to Cairo proper. The other orders and offices
in the church are metropolitan, bishop, chief priest, priest,
archdeacon, deacon, reader and monk. The number of bishoprics
in ancient times was very large — Athanasius says nearly 100. At
present there remain ten in Egypt, one at Khartum and three
in Abyssinia.

The numerous remaining churches in Egypt but faintly
represent the vast number standing in ancient times. Rufinus
says that he found 10,000 monks in the one region Bulldinzs
of Arsinoe. Later, in 616, the Persians are described
as destroying 600 monasteries near Alexandria. Abu Salih
(12th century) gives a list of churches surviving in his day, and
their number is astonishing. The earliest were cut out of rocks
and caverns. In the days of Constantine and Justinian basilicas
of great splendour were built, such as the church of St Mark
at Alexandria and the Red Monastery in Upper Egypt. This
type of architecture permanently influenced Coptic builders,

but there prevailed also a type, probably native in origin, though
possessing Byzantine features, such as the domed roofing.
There is no church now standing which bears any trace of the
fine glass mosaics which once adorned the basilicas, nor is there
any example of a well-defined cruciform ground-plan. But the
use of the dome by Coptic architects is almost universal, and
nearly every church has at least three domes overshadowing
the three altars. The domes are sometimes lighted by small
windows; but the walls are windowless, and the churches con-
sequently gloomy. Among the most interesting churches are
those of Old Cairo, those in the Wadi Natron, and the Red and
White Monasteries (Der el-Abiad and Der el-Ahmar) near
Suhag in Upper Egypt.

Every church has three altars at the eastern end in three
contiguous chapels. The central division is called the haikal
or sanctuary, which is always divided from the choir
by a fixed partition or screen with a small arched nitinga.
doorway closed by double doors. This resembles
the Greek iconostasis, the screen on which the " icons " or
sacred pictures are placed. Haikal screen and choir screen
are often sumptuously carved and inlaid. A marble basin for
the mandatum in the nave, and an epiphany tank at the west
are common features. The altar is usually built of brick or
stone, hollow within, and having an opening to the interior.
A wooden altar-slab covered with crosses, &c, lies in a rectangular
depression on the surface, and it is used in case of need as a
portable altar. Chalice and paten, ewer and basin, crewet and
chrismatory, are found as in the Western churches. The aster
consists of two crossed half-hoops of silver and is used to place
over the wafer. The fiabellum is used, though now rarely made
of precious metal. Some examples of silver-cased textus now
remaining are very fine. Every church possesses thuribles—
the use of incense being universal and frequent — and diadems
for the marriage service. The use of church bells is forbidden
by the Moslems, except in the desert, and church music consists
merely of cymbals and triangles which accompany the chanting.

The sacramental wine is usually made from raisins, but the
juice must be fermented. Churches even in Cairo have a press
for crushing the raisins. The eucharistic bread is baked
in an oven built near the sanctuary. The wafer is a ndcere~
a small loaf about 3 inches in diameter and 1 inch monies.
thick, stamped with the trisagion and with crosses.
Communion must be received fasting. Confession is required,
but has somewhat fallen into disuse. Laymen receive in both
kinds. The waier being broken into the chalice, crumbs or
" pearls " are taken out in a spoon and so administered, as in
the Greek rite. Reservation is uncanonical. Renaudot states
that it was permitted in cases of great extremity, when the host
remained upon the altar with lamps burning and a priest watching,
but it is not now practised, and there is no evidence of any such
vessel as a pyx in Coptic ritual. Small benedictional crosses
belong to each altar, and processional crosses are common. The
crucifix is unknown, for while paintings and frescoes abound, ,
graven images are absolutely forbidden. The liturgy was read
exclusively in the extinct Coptic language till the end of the
19th century, but parts are now read in Arabic, while the lessons
have long been read in Arabic as well as in Coptic. The services
are still excessively long, that of Good Friday lasting eleven
hours ; but benches are now provided in the newer churches.
Seven sacraments are recognized — baptism, confirmation,
eucharist, penance, orders, matrimony, and unction of the sick.
The chief fasts are those of Advent, of Nineveh, of Heraclius,
Lent and Pentecost. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem is a duty and
sometimes a penance.

The Coptic ritual deserves much fuller study than it ha§
received. Since the 7th century the church has been so isolated
as to be little influenced by changes affecting other communions.
Consequently it remains in many respects the most ancient
rnonument of primitive rites" and ceremonies in Christendom.
But centuries of subjection to Moslem rule have much weakened
it. For the liturgical dress see Vestments; Chasuble, &c.

The British occupation of Egypt profoundly modified Coptic

n6

COPYHOLD

religious life. Before it the Copts lived in their own semi-
fortified quarters in Cairo or Old Cairo or in country or desert
Present Dairs (Ders). Walls and gates were now thrown
state down or disused: the Copts began to mix and live

of the f r eely among the Moslems, their children to frequent
church. t j ie game scnoo ls, an( j the people to abandon their
distinctively Christian dress, names, customs and even religion.
Freedom and prosperity threatened to injure the Church more
than centuries of persecution. Many of the younger generation
of Copts began openly to boast their indifference and even
scepticism: in the large towns churches came to be too often
frequented only by the old or the uneducated, confession and
fasts fell into neglect and the number of communicants
diminished; while the facility of divorce granted by Islam
occasioned many perversions from among the Copts to that
religion. On the other hand the necessity of resistance to these
tendencies and of reform from within was strongly realized.
Unfortunately, the institution of a lay council of eminent
churchmen, which has been formed for the patriarch and for
every bishop in his own diocese, has led to prolonged struggles
and on one occasion to a serious crisis, in which the patriarch
and the metropolitan of Alexandria were for a while banished
to the desert. A principal object of these lay councils is to
control the financial and legal powers vested in patriarch and
bishops — powers which have often been greatly abused. Other
objects are (i) to provide Christian religious education in all
Coptic schools and to raise these schools to a high standard in
secular matters; (2) to promote the education of women; (3)
to apply church revenues to the maintenance of churches and
schools and to the better payment of the clergy, who are now
often compelled to live on charity; (4) to ensure prompt ad-
ministration of justice in ecclesiastical causes such as divorce,
inheritance, &c; and (5) to establish colleges for the efficient
training of the clergy. Educated Copts remember the time
when the church of Alexandria was as famous for learning as
for zeal. They desire also to resist the serious encroachments
of Roman Catholic, American Presbyterian, and other foreign
missions upon their ancient faith. (A. J. B.)

Authorities. — (1) History and Religion: Johann Michael
Wansleben (Vansleb), a Dominican and learned orientalist (1635-
1679), Hist, de Veglise d'Alexandrie (Paris, 1677), written at Cairo
in 1672 and 1673 mainly from original native sources, and Nouvelle
Relation . . . d'un voyage fait en E~gypte, fife. (Paris, 1677 and 1698,
Eng. trans., London, 1678) ; Eusebe Renaudot the younger (1646-
1720), Historia Patriarcharum Alexandrinorum (Paris, 1713); Abu
Dakn (Josephus Abudacnus), Historia Jacobitarum (Oxford, 1675,
Eng. trans, by Sir E. Sadleir, London, 1693) ; S. C. Malan, Original
Documents of the Coptic Church (London, 1874); Denzmger, Ritus
Orientalium (Wiirzburg, 1863); Hon. Robert Curzon, Vtstts to
Monasteries in the Levant (London, 1849) ; J. M. Neale, Hist, of the
Patriarchate of Alexandria (2 vols., ib., 1847), in the Hist, of the Holy
Eastern Church, coloured by the writer's Anglo-Catholic point of
view; A. J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt (Oxford, 1884);
B. T. A. Evetts and Butler, Churches and Monasteries of Egypt, by
Abu Saleh (Oxford, 1895); E. Amelineau, Monuments pour servir d
I'histoire de VfLgypte chretienne aux IV" et V' siicles, Coptic and
Arabic documents published and translated for the first time, in
Mem. de la mission archeolog. franc, au Caire, t. iv. (Paris, 1888), and
Monuments . . . au IV" siecle in the Annates du musee Guimet,
t. xvii. (Paris, 1889) ; P. Rohrbach, Die alexandrinischen Patriarchen
(Berlin, 1891); Jullien, VfLgypte: souvenirs bibliques et Chretiens
(Lille, 1 891) ; Macaire, Histoire de Veglise d'Alexandrie (Cairo, 1 894) ;
Porphyrius, The Christian East: Alexandrian Patriarchate (St
Petersburg, 1898; in Russian); Strzygowski, Orient oder Rom?
(Leipzig 1901); De Bock, Materiaux pour servir a Varcheologie de
V&gypte chretienne (St Petersburg, 1901); Kilab al Hulap al
Mukaddas (Cairo, 1902) ; A. Gayet, " Les Monuments coptes du
musee de Boulaq," in the Mem. miss, archeolog. franc, au Caire, 1. 111.
(Paris, 1889); id., V Art copte (Paris, 1902); Horner, The Statutes
of the Apostles (London, 1904); Egypt Exploration Fund Reports,
section "Christian Egypt"; W. E. Crum, article Koptische
Kirche " in RealencyHopadie filr protestantische Theologie und Kirche,
3 Aufl -J. M. Fuller's article "Coptic Church "in Smith's Dictionary
of Biography; A. J. Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt (Oxford,
1902); J. Leipoldt, Schenute von Atripe und die Entstehung des
national-agyptischen Christentums (Leipzig, 1903), Die Entstehung
der koptischen Kirche (a valuable essay printed as the introduction
to R. Haupt's Katalog 5, Halle, 1905) ; B. T. A. Evetts, The
Patriarchal History of Severus " in Graffin's Patrologia orientahs
(Paris); J. Milne, A History of Egypt under Rtxnan Rule (1898).

Literature. — See Crum's article above referred to, his Catalogue
of Coptic MSS. in the British Museum, and his annual reviews in
the Archaeological Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund; J.
Leipoldt in Geschichte der chrisllichen Literaluren des Orients (Leipzig,
1907); H. Junker, Koptische Poesie des zehnten Jahrhunderts, 1. Teil
(Berlin, 1908) ; Archdeacon Dowling, The Egyptian Church (London,

1909)-

Modern People. — E. W. Lane's description of the Copts in his
Modern Egyptians is interesting, but founded on imperfect infor-
mation, and, moreover, coloured by prejudices in favour of the
Moslems whom he studied with so much sympathy. See Klunzinger,
Upper Egypt, pp. 61 et sqq. ; also the last chapter of The Story of
the Church of Egypt, by Mrs E. L. Butcher (1897), on the social life
and customs.

COPYHOLD, in English law, an ancient form of land tenure,
legally defined as a " holding at the will of the lord according
to the custom of the manor." Though nowadays of diminishing
practical importance, its incidents are historically interesting.
Its origin is to be found in the occupation by villani, or non-
freemen, of portions of land belonging to the manor of a feudal
lord. In the time of the Domesday survey the manor was in part
granted to free tenants, in part reserved by the lord himself
for his own uses. The estate of the free tenants is the freehold
estate of English law; as tenants of the same manor they
assembled together in manorial court or court baron, of which
they were the judges. The portion of the manor reserved for
the lord (the demesne, or domain) was cultivated by labourers
who were bound to the land {adscripti glebae). They could not
leave the manor, and their service was obligatory. These villani,
however, were allowed by the lord to cultivate portions of land
for their own use. It was a mere occupation at the pleasure of
the lord, but in course of time it grew into an occupation by
right, recognized first of all by custom and afterwards by law.
This kind of tenure is called by the lawyers villenagium, and it
probably marks a great advance in the general recognition of
the right when the name is applied to lands held on the same con-
ditions not by villeins but by free men. The tenants in villenage
were not, like the freeholders, members of the court baron, but
they appear to have attended in a humbler capacity, and to have
solicited the succession to the land occupied by a deceased father,
or the admission of a new tenant who had purchased the good-
will, as it might be called, of the holding, paying for such favours
certain customary fines or dues. In relation to the tenants in
villenage, the court baron was called the customary court. The
records of the court constituted the title of the villein tenant,
held by copy of the court roll (whence the term " copyhold ") ;
and the customs of the manor therein recorded formed the real
property law applicable to his case.

Copyhold had long been established in practice before it was
formally recognized by the law. At first it was in fact, as it is
now in the fictitious theory of the law, a tenancy at will, for which
none of the legal remedies of a freeholder were available. In the
reign of Edward IV., however, it was held that a tenant in
villenage had an action of trespass against the lord. In this way
a species of tenant-right, depending on and strongly supported
by popular opinion, was changed into a legal right. But it retained
many incidents characteristic of its historical origin. The life of
copyhold assurance, it is said, is custom. Copyhold is necessarily
parcel of a manor, and the freehold is said to be in the lord of
the manor. The court roll of the manor is the evidence of title
and the record of the special laws as to fines, quit rents, heriots,
&c, prevailing in the manor. When copyhold land is conveyed
from one person to another, it is surrendered by the owner to the
lord, who by his payment of the customary fine makes a new
grant of it to the purchaser. The lord must admit the vendor's
nominee, but the form of the conveyance is still that of surrender
and re-grant. The lord, as legal owner of the fee-simple of the
lands, has a right to all the mines and minerals and to all the
growing timber, although the tenant may have planted it himself.
Hence it appears that the existence of copyhold tenures may
sometimes be traced by the total absence of timber from such
lands, while on freehold lands it grows in abundance. Hence
also the popular saying that the " oak grows not except on free
land." The copyholder must not commit waste either by cutting

COPYHOLD— COPYING MACHINES

1. 17

down timber, &c, or by neglecting to repair buildings. In such
respects the law treats him as a mere lessee, — the real owner
being supposed to be the lord. On the other hand, the lord
may not enter the land to cut his own timber or open his mines.
The limitations of estates usual in respect of other lands, as found
in copyhold, become subject of course to the operations of its
peculiar conditions as to the relation of lord and tenant. An
estate for life, or pour autre vie {i.e. for another's life), an estate
entail, cr in fee-simple, may be carved out of copyhold.

A species of tenure resembling copyhold is what is known as
customary freehold. The land is held by copy of court-roll, but
not by will of the lord. The question has been raised whether
the freehold of such lands is in the lord of the manor or in the
tenant, and the courts of law have decided in favour of the former.
In some instances copyhold for lives alone is recognized, and in
such cases the lord of the manor may ultimately, when all the
lives have dropped, get back the land into his own hands.

The feudal obligations attaching to copyhold tenure have
been found to cause much inconvenience to the tenants, while
they are of no great value to the lord. One of the most vexatious
of these is the heriot, under which name the lord is entitled to
seize the tenant's best beast or other chattel in the event of the
tenant's death. The custom dates from the time when all the
copyholder's property, including the copyholder himself, belonged
to the lord, and is supposed to have been fixed by way of analogy
to the custom which gave a military tenant's habiliments to
his lord in order to equip his successor. Instances have occurred
of articles of great value being seized as heriots for the copyhold
tenements of their owners. A race horse worth £2000 or £3000
was thus seized. The fine payable on the admission of a new
tenant, whether by alienation or succession, is to a certain extent
arbitrary, but the courts long ago laid down the rule that it must
be reasonable, and anything beyond two years' improved value
of the lands they disallowed.

The inconvenience caused by these feudal incidents of the
tenure led to a series of statutes, having for their object the
conversion of copyhold into, freehold. The first Copyhold Act,
that of 1 84 1, was consolidated by the Copyhold Act 1894.
Owing to the incidents attaching to land " holden by copy of
court roll according to the custom of the manor " in the shape of
fines and heriots, the inability to grant a lease for a term exceed-
ing a year, and to the peculiar rules as to descent, waste, dower,
curtesy, alienation, and other matters, varying often from manor
to manor and widely differing from the uniform law applicable
tc land in general, enfranchisement, or the conversion of land
held by copyhold tenure into freehold, is often desired. This could
and may still be effected at common law, but only by agreement
on the part of both the lord and the tenant. Moreover, it was
subject to other disadvantages. The cost fell on the tenant, and
the land when enfranchised was subject to the encumbrances
attaching to the manor, and so an investigation into the lord's
title was necessary. In 1841 an act was passed to provide a
statutory method of enfranchisement, removing some of the
barriers existing at common law; but the machinery created
was only available where both lord and tenant were in agreement.
The Copyhold Act 1852 went further, and for the first time
introduced the principle of compulsory enfranchisement on the
part of either party. By the Copyhold Act 1894, which now
governs statutory enfranchisement, the former Copyhold Acts
1841-1887, were repealed, and the law was consolidated and
improved. Enfranchisement is now effected under this act,
though in certain cases it is also to be obtained under special
acts, such as the Land Clauses Consolidation Act 1848; and the
old common law method with all its disadvantages is still open.
The Copyhold Act 1894 deals both with compulsory and with
voluntary enfranchisement. In either case the sanction of the
Board of Agriculture must be obtained; and powers are bestowed
on it to decide questions arising on enfranchisement, with an
appeal to the High Court. The actual enfranchisement, where
it is compelled by one of the parties, is effected by an award
made by the board; in the case of a voluntary enfranchisement
it is completed by deed. Under the act it is open to both lord

and tenant to compel enfranchisement, though the expenses are
to be borne by the party requiring it. The compensation to
the lord, in the absence of an agreement, is ascertained under the
direction of the board on a valuation made by a valuer or
valuers appointed by the lord and tenant; and may be paid
either in a gross sum or by way of an annual rent charge issuing
out of the land enfranchised, and equivalent to interest at the
rate of 4% on the amount fixed upon as compensation. This
rent charge is redeemable on six months' notice at twenty-five
times its annual amount. The tenant, even if he is the compelling
party, may elect either method; but the lord has not the same
option, and where the enfranchisement is at his instance, unless
there is either an agreement to the contrary or a notice on the
part of the tenant to exercise his option, the compensation is
a rent charge. Power is conferred on the lord to purchase the
tenant's interest where a change in the condition of the land by
enfranchisement would prejudice his mansion house, park or
gardens; while on the other hand, in the interest of the public
or the other tenants, the board is authorized to continue con-
ditions of user for their benefit.

So far the provisions relating to compulsory enfranchisement
have been dealt with; but even in the case of a voluntary agree-
ment the lord and tenant are only entitled to accept enfranchise-
ment with the consent of the Board of Agriculture. The
consideration in addition to a gross sum or a rent charge may
consist of a conveyance of land, or of a right to mines or minerals,
or of a right to waste in lands, belonging to the manor, or partly
in one way and partly in another. The effect of enfranchisement,
whether it be voluntary or compulsory, is that the land becomes
of freehold tenure subject to the same laws relating to descent,
dower and curtesy as are applicable to freeholds, and so freed
from Borough English, Gavelkind (save in Kent), and other cus-
tomary modes of descent, and from any custom relating to dower
or free-bench or tenancy by curtesy. Nevertheless, the lord is
entitled to escheat in the event of failure of heirs, just as if the land
had not been enfranchised. The land is held under the same title
as that under which it was held at the date at which the enfran-
chisement takes effect; but it is not subject to any estate right,
charge, or interest affecting the manor. Every mortgage of
copyhold estate in the land enfranchised becomes a mortgage
of the freehold, though subject to the priority of the rent charge
paid in compensation under the act. All rights and interests of
any person in the land and all leases remain binding in the same
manner. On the other hand the tenant's rights of common still
continue attached to the freehold; and, without express consent
in writing of the lord or tenant respectively, the right of either
in mines or minerals shall not be affected by the change. No
creation of new copyholds by granting land out of the waste is
permissible, save with the consent of the Board of Agriculture;
and the act enacts that a valid admittance of a new copy-
holder may be made without holding a court.

Under the earlier acts, machinery to free the land from the
burden of the old rents, fines and heriots was set up, commuting
them into a rent charge or a fine. Commutation, however, is
never compulsory, and differs from enfranchisement in that,
whereas by enfranchisement the land in question is converted
into freehold, by commutation it still continued parcel of the
manor, though subject to a rent charge or a fine, as might have
been agreed. The ordinary laws of descent, dower, and curtesy
were, however, substituted for the customs in relation to these
matters incidental to the land in question before commutation,
and the timber became the tenant's.

Authorities. — C. I. Elton, Law of Copyholds (1898) ; C. Watkins,
On Copyholds (1825); Scriven on Copyholds, ed. A. Brown (1896);
A. Brown, Copyhold Enfranchisement Acts (1895).

COPYING MACHINES. Appliances of various kinds have
been devised for producing copies of writings made by the pen
or pencil. A simple method commonly adopted when only a
single copy is required is to write the original with specially
prepared copying ink (formed by adding some thickening
substance like sugar or gum to ordinary ink), to place upon it a
damped sheet of thin absorbent paper, and to press the two

n8

COPYRIGHT

together in some way, as in a copying press. The resulting
impression, being reversed, must be read from the back of the
absorbent paper, which is thin enough to be transparent.
Another process, by which a considerable number of copies
can be made simultaneously, consists in interleaving a number
of sheets of thin white paper with sheets of paper prepared with
lampblack (" carbon paper ") and writing on the top sheet
with a " style " or other sharp-pointed instrument. The
hectograph may be taken as typical of manifolding processes
analogous to lithography. In it the writing is in first instance
done with aniline ink, and then a transfer is made to a plate of
a gelatinous composition, from which a series of duplicates can
be taken off. Another class of methods involves the preparation
of what are essentially stencils. In the cyclostyle, paper of a
special kind is stretched over a smooth metal plate, and the
writing instrument consists of a holder having at the end a
small wheel provided with a serrated edge on its periphery,
which perforates the paper with lines of minute cuts and thus
forms a stencil. When ink is passed over this stencil with a roller
it goes through the perforations and leaves an impression on a
piece of paper placed underneath. In the trypograph a similar
result is attained by using a simple style for writing, but stretch-
ing the paper over a metal plate having its surface covered with
fine sharp corrugations which pierce the paper as the style is
moved over them. In the Edison electric pen the stencil is
formed by the aid of a style containing a fine needle, which is
rapidly moved up and down by a small electric motor mounted
at the top of the pen, and thus a series of minute holes is
punctured in the paper by the act of writing. For copying plans
and drawings, engineers, architects, &c, use a "blue print"
process which depends on the action of light on certain salts of
iron (see Sun-Copying and Photography).

COPYRIGHT, in law, the right, belonging exclusively to
the author or his assignees, of multiplying for sale copies of an
original work or composition, in literature or art. As a recognized
form of property it is, compared with others, of recent origin,
being in fact, in the use of literary works, mainly the result of the
facility for multiplying copies created by the discovery of print-
ing. It is with copyright in literary compositions that we are here
primarily concerned, as it was established first, the analogous
right as regards works of plastic art, &c, following in its train.

i. Whether copyright was recognized at all by the common
law of England was long a much debated legal question. Black-
stone thinks that " this species of property, being grounded on
labour and invention, is more properly reducible to the head of
occupancy than any other, since the right of occupancy itself
is supposed by Mr Locke and many others to be founded on the
personal labour of the occupant." But he speaks doubtfully of
its existence — merely mentioning the opposing views, " that
on the one hand it hath been thought no other man can have a
right to exhibit the author's work without his consent, and that
it is urged on the other hand that the right is of too subtle and
unsubstantial a nature to become the subject of property at
the common law, and only capable of being guarded by positive
statutes and special provisions of the magistrate." He notices
that the Roman law adjudged that if one man wrote anything
on the paper or parchment of another, the writing should belong
to the owner of the blank materials, but as to any other property
in the works of the understanding the law is silent, and he adds
that " neither with us in England hath there been (till very lately)
any final determination upon the rights of authors at the common
law." The common law undoubtedly gives a right to restrain
the publication of unpublished compositions; but when a work
is once published, its protection depends on the statutes regulat-
ing copyright. The leading case on the subject of unpublished
works is Prince Albert v. Strange (1849), 2 De G. & Sm. 652.
Copies of etchings by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, which
had been lithographed for private circulation, fell into the hands
of the defendant, a London publisher, who proposed to exhibit
them, and issued a catalogue entitled A Descriptive Catalogue
of the Royal Victoria and Albert Gallery of Etchings. The court
of chancery restrained the publication of the catalogue, holding

that property in mechanical works, or works of art, does certainly
subsist, and is invaded, before publication, not only by copying
but by description or catalogue. This protection includes news
{Exchange Telegraph Co. v. Central News, 1807).

As a matter of principle, the nature of copyright itself, and the
reasons why it should be recognized in law, have, as already
stated, been the subject of bitter dispute. It was
attacked as constituting a monopoly, and it has been r /^ A "' e °
argued that copyright should be looked upon as a
doubtful exception to the general law regulating trade, and should
be strictly limited in point of duration. On the other hand, it is
claimed that copyright, being in the nature of personal property,
should be perpetual. A man's own work, in this view, is as much
his as his house or his money, and should be protected by the
state. Historically, and in legal definition, there would appear
to be no doubt that copyright, as regulated by statute, is strictly
a monopoly. The parliamentary protection of works of art for
the period of fourteen years by an act of 1 709 and later statutes
appears, as Blackstone points out, to have been suggested by
the exception in the Statute of Monopolies 1623. The object of
that statute was to suppress the royal grants of exclusive right to
trade in certain articles, and to reassert in relation to all such
monopolies the common law of the land. Certain exceptions
were made on grounds of public policy, and among others it was
allowed that a royal patent of privilege might be granted for
fourteen years " to any inventor of a new manufacture for the
sole working or making of the same." Copyright, like patent
right, would be covered by the legal definition of a monopoly.
It is a mere right to prevent other people from manufacturing
certain articles. But objections to monopolies in general do
not apply to this particular class of cases, in which the author
of a new work in literature or art has the right of preventing
others from manufacturing copies thereof and selling them to
the public. The rights of persons licensed to sell spirits, to hold
theatrical exhibitions, &c, are also of the nature of monopolies,
and may be defended on special grounds of public policy. The
monopoly of authors and inventors rests on the general sentiment
underlying all civilized law, that a man should be protected in
the enjoyment of the fruits of his own labour.

Literary Copyright

2. United Kingdom. — On the invention of printing (see Press
Laws) the crown, or other sovereign powers, granted patents
or licences with the object of restricting the right of
account, multiplying copies of literary works, and this super-
vision of publication still has certain historical results.
A special kind of what amounts to perpetual copyright in various
publications has for various reasons been recognized by the laws
(1) in the crown, and (2) in the universities and colleges. The
various copyright acts, referred to below, except from their
provisions the copyrights vested in the two English and the four
Scottish universities, Trinity College, Dublin, and the colleges of
Eton, Westminster and Winchester. Crown copyrights are saved
by the general principle which exempts crown rights from the
operation of statutes unless they are expressly mentioned.
Among the books in which the crown has claimed copyright are
the English translation of the Bible, the Book of Common
Prayer, statutes, orders of privy council,proclamations, almanacs,
Lilly's Latin Grammar, year books and law reports. The copy-
right in the Bible is rested by some on the king's position as
head of the church; Lord Lyndhurst rested it on his duties as
the chief executive officer of the state charged with the publica-
tion of authorized manuals of religion. The right of printing the
Bible and the Book of Common Prayer is vested in the king's
printer and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. These
copyrights do not extend to prohibit independent translations
from the original. The obsolete copyright of the crown in Lilly's
Latin Grammar was founded on the fact of its having been
drawn up at the king's expense. The universities have a joint
right (with the crown's patentees) of printing acts of parliment.
Law reports were decided to be the property of the crown in the
reign of Charles II.; by act of parliament they were forbidden

COPYRIGHT

119

to be published without licence from the chancellor and the
chiefs of the three courts, and this form of licence remained in use
after the act had expired. University and college copyrights
were made perpetual by an act of George III., but only on
condition of the books being printed at, their printing presses
and for their own benefit.

3. The first definite statute, or Copyright Act, in England was
passed in 1709. The preamble states that printers, booksellers
and other persons were frequently in the habit of printing,
reprinting, and publishing " books and other writings without
the consent of the authors or proprietors of such books and
writings, to their very great detriment, and too often to the
ruin of them and their families." " For preventing, therefore, such
practices for the future, and for the encouragement of learned
men to compose and write useful books, it is enacted that the
author of any book or books already printed, who hath not
transferred to any other the copy or copies of such book or books
in order to print or reprint the same, shall have the sole right and
liberty of printing such book or books for the term of one-and-
twenty years, and that the author of any book or books already
composed, and not printed and published, or that shall hereafter
be composed, and his assignee, or assignees, shall have the sole
liberty of printing and reprinting such book or books for the term
of fourteen years, to commence from the day of first publishing
the same, and no longer." The penalty for offences against the
act was declared to be the forfeiture of the illicit copies to the
true proprietor, and the fine of one penny per sheet, half to the
crown, and half to any person suing for the same. " After the
expiration of the said term of fourteen years the sole right of
printing or disposing of copies shall return to the authors thereof,
if they are then living, or their representatives, for another term
of fourteen years." To secure the benefit of the act registration
at Stationers' Hall was necessary. In section 4 was contained
the provision that if any person thought the price of a book
" too high and unreasonable," he might complain to the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the lord chancellor, the bishop of London,
the chiefs of the three courts at Westminster, and the vice-
chancellors of the two universities in England, and to the lord
president, lord justice general, lord chief baron of the exchequer,
and the~ rector of the college of Edinburgh in Scotland, who might
fix a reasonable price. Nine copies of each book were to be pro-
vided for the royal library, the libraries of the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, the four Scottish universites, Sion
College, and the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh.

It was believed for a long time that this statute had not
interfered with the rights of authors at common law. Ownership
of literary property at common law appears indeed to have been
recognized in some earlier statutes. The Licensing Act 1662
prohibited the printing of any work without the consent of the
owner on pain of forfeiture, &c. This act expired in 1679, and
attempts to renew it were unsuccessful. The records of the
Stationers' Company show that the purchase and sale of copy-
rights had become an established usage, and the loss of the protec-
tion, incidentally afforded by the Licensing Act, was felt as a
serious grievance, which ultimately led to the statute of 1709.
That statute, as the judges in Millar v. Taylor (1769, 4 Burr.
2303) pointed out, speaks of the ownership of literary property
as a known thing. Many cases are recorded in which the courts
protected copyrights not falling within the periods laid down
by the act. Thus in 1735 the master of the rolls restrained the
printing of an edition of the Whole Duty of Man, published in
1657. In 1739 an injunction was granted by Lord Hardwicke
against the publication of Paradise Lost, at the instance of persons
claiming under an assignment from Milton in 1667. In the case
of Millar v. Taylor the plaintiff, who had purchased the copy-
right of Thomson's Seasons in 1729, claimed damages for an
unlicensed publication thereof by the defendant in 1763. The
jury found that before the statute it was usual to purchase from
authors the perpetual copyright of their works. Three judges,
among whom was Lord Mansfield, decided in favour of the
common law right; one was of the contrary opinion. The
majority thought that the act of 1 709 was not intended to destroy

copyright at common law, but merely to protect it more efficiently
during the limited periods. Millar v. Taylor, however, was
speedily overruled by the case of Donaldson v. Beckett in the
House of Lords in 1774. The judges were called upon to state
their opinions. A majority (seven to four) were of opinion that
the author and his assigns had at common law the sole right
of publication in perpetuity. A majority (six to five) were of
opinion that this right had been taken away by the statute of
1709, and a term of years substituted for the perpetuity. The
decision appears to have taken the trade by surprise. Many
booksellers had purchased copyrights not protected by the
statute, and they now petitioned parliament to be relieved
from the consequences of the decision in Donaldson v. Beckett.
A bill for this purpose actually passed the House of Commons,
but Lord Camden's influence succeeded in defeating it in the
House of Lords. The result is that from that time on ordinary
copyright has been recognized except in so far as it is sanctioned
by statute. The university copyrights were, however, protected
in perpetuity by an act passed in 1775.

By an act of 1801 the penalty for infringement of copyright
was increased to threepence per sheet, in addition to the forfeiture
of the book. The proprietor was to have an action on the case
against any person in the United Kingdom, or British dominions
in Europe, who should print, reprint, or import without the
consent of the proprietor, first had in writing, signed in the
presence of two or more credible witnesses, any book or books, or
who knowing them to be printed, &c, without the proprietor's
consent should sell, publish, or expose them for sale; the
proprietor to have his damages as assessed by the jury, and
double costs of suit. A second period of fourteen years was
confirmed to the author, should he still be alive at the end of the
first. Further, it was forbidden to import into the United
Kingdom for sale books first composed, written, or printed and
published within the United Kingdom, and reprinted elsewhere.
Another change was made by the act of 1814, which in substitu-
tion for the two periods of fourteen years gave to the author and
his assignees copyright for the full term of twenty-eight years
from the date of the first publication, " and also, if the author be
living at the end of that period, for the residue of his natural life."

4. The Copyright Act of 1842 repealed the previous acts on the
same subject, and is the basis of the existing law. Its preamble
stated its object to be to encourage the production of
" literary matter of lasting benefit to the world." The
principal clause is the following (§ 3) : "■ That the copy-
right in every book which shall after the passing of this act be
published in the lifetime of its author shall endure for the natural
life of such author, and for the further term of seven years,
commencing at the time of his death, and shall be the property of
such author and his assignees; provided always that if the said
term of seven years shall expire before the end of forty-two years
from the first publication of such book the copyright shall in that
case endure for such period of forty-two years; and that the
copyright of every book which shall be published after the death
of its author shall endure for the term of forty-two years from the
first publication thereof, and shall be the property of the pro-
prietor of the author's manuscript from which such book shall be
first published and his assigns." The benefit of the enlarged period
was extended to subsisting copyrights, unless they were the
property of an assignee who had acquired them by purchase, in
which case the period of copyright would be extended only if the
author or his personal representative agreed with the proprietor
to accept the benefit of the act. By section 5 the judicial
committee of the privy council may license the republication of
books which the proprietor of the copyright thereof refuses to
publish after the death of the author. The sixth section provides
for the delivery within certain times of copies of all books
published after the passing of the act, and of all subsequent
editions thereof, at the British Museum. And a copy of every
book and its subsequent editions must be sent on demand to the
following libraries: the Bodleian at Oxford, the public library at
Cambridge, the library of the faculty of advocates in Edinburgh,
and that of Trinitv College, Dublin. Other libraries (the .libraries

Act of
1842.

I20

COPYRIGHT

of the four Scottish Universities, King's Inns, Dublin, and Sion
College) entitled to this privilege under the earlier acts had been
deprived thereof by an act passed in 1836, and grants from the
treasury, calculated on the annual average value of the books
they had received, were ordered to be paid to them as compensa-
tion. A book of registry is ordered to be kept at Stationers' Hall
for the registration of copyrights, to be open to inspection on
payment of one shilling for every entry which shall be searched
for or inspected. And the officer of Stationers' Hall shall give a
certified copy of any entry when required, on payment of five
shillings; and such certified copies shall be received in evidence
in the courts as prima facie proof of proprietorship or assignment
of copyright or licence as therein expressed, and, in the case of
dramatic or musical pieces, of the right of representation or
performance. False entries shall be punished as misdemeanours.
The entry is to record the title of the book, the time of its publica-
tion, and the name and place of abode of the publisher and
proprietor of copyright. Without making such entry no pro-
prietor can bring an action for infringement of his copyright, but
the entry is not otherwise to affect the copyright itself. Any
person deeming himself aggrieved by an entry in the registry may
complain to one of the superior courts, which will order it to be
expunged or varied if necessary. A proprietor may bring an
action on the case for infringement of his copyright, and the
defendant in such an action must give notice of the objections to
the plaintiff's title on which he means to rely. No person except
the proprietor of the copyright is allowed to import into the
British dominions for sale or hire any book first composed or
written or printed and published in the United Kingdom, and
reprinted elsewhere, under penalty of forfeiture and a fine of £10.
The proprietor of any encyclopaedia, review, magazine, periodical
work, or work published in a series of books or parts, who shall
have employed any person to compose the same, or any volumes,
parts, essays, articles, or portions thereof, for publication on the
terms that the copyright therein shall belong to such proprietor,
shall enjoy the term of copyright granted by the act. 1 But the
proprietor may not publish separately any article or review
without the author's consent, nor may the author unless he has
reserved the right of separate publication. Where neither party
has reserved the right they may publish by agreement, but the
author at the end of twenty-eight years may publish separately.
Proprietors of periodical works shall be entitled to all the benefits
of registration under the act, on entering in the registry the title,
the date of first publication of the first volume or part, and the
names of proprietor and publisher.

The interpretation clause of the act defines a book to be every
volume, part, or division of a volume, pamphlet, sheet of letter-
press, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan separately published.

5. During the last quarter of the 19th century the question of
copyright became continually more prominent, and a considerable

extension was given by judicial interpretation to the
exua- scope of the act of 1842. " Literary matter of lasting
shas. benefit to the world " came to include every publica-
tion (not being illegal) which could be described as
"literary " or " original," the criterion as to the latter qualifica-
tion being, in the last resort, whether (see Trade Auxiliary Co.
v. Middksborough Association, 1889, 40 Ch.D. 425) the author
or compiler has really put his own brain-work into it.

6. The most marked and certain progress has been in the
application of the law of copyright to the periodical press, in

order to protect within reasonable limits the labour
and expenditure of newspapers that obtain for the
public the earliest news and arrange it for publication.
It is settled law since 1881 (Walter v. Howe, 17 Ch.D. 708, over-
ruling Cox v. Land b° Water Journal Co., 1869), that a newspaper
is a book within the meaning of the act, and can claim all rights
that a Look has under the Copyright Act. Thus, leading articles,
special articles, and even news items are protected (Walter v.
Steinkcpff, 1892, 3 Ch. 489; Exchange Telegraph Co. v. Gregory

1 Such articles must be paid for, in order to vest copyright in the
proprietor. The leading case about encyclopaedias is that of
Lawrence and Bullen v. Aftalo, decided by the House of Lords in 1904.

News-
papers.

and Co., 1896, 1 Q.B. 147). Current prices of stocks and shares,
translations, the compilation of a directory, summaries of legal
proceedings, and other similar literary work, so far as the literary
form, the labour and money are concerned, are equally protected.
In short, the test may now be broadly stated to be, whether
labour of the brain and expenditure of money have been given
for the production; whilst the old requirement of original
matter is very broadly interpreted. The leading case on the
subject is Walter v. Lane (decided in the House of Lords, 6th
August 1900). The question there raised was, whether or not
copyright applied under the act of 1842 in respect of verbatim
reports of speeches. Four law lords, viz. Lord Chancellor
Halsbury, Lord Davey, Lord James of Hereford and Lord
Brampton upheld the claim to copyright in such cases, whilst
Lord Robertson was the sole dissentient.

. Apart from newspapers, protection has been extended to
publications having no literary character; Messrs Maple's
furniture catalogue, and the Stock Exchange prices on the " tape "
have been awarded the same protection as directories. The
courts have declined to protect works which are mere copies
of railway time-tables, or the " tips " of a sporting prophet, or
mechanical devices with no independent literary matter, such
as patterns for cutting ladies' sleeves.

7. The publication of lectures without consent of the authors
or their assignees is prohibited by the Lecture Copyright Act
183 5, which reinforces the common law against publica- L eciures
tion of " unpublished " matter, and gives a copyright

for 28 years. This act, however, excepts from its provisions:
(1) lectures of which notice has not been given two days before
their delivery to two justices of the peace living within 5 m.
to the place of delivery (an impracticable condition), and (2)
lectures delivered in universities and other public institutions.
Sermons by clergy of the established Church are believed to fall
within this exception. The leading cases are Nicols v. Pitman,
1884, 26 Ch.D. 374, and Caird v. Sime, 1887, 12 A.C. 326.

8. The writer of private letters sent to another person may
in general restrain their publication. It was urged in some of
the cases that the sender had abandoned his property

in the letter by the act of sending; but this was denied tetters"
by Lord Hard wick e (Pope v. Curl in 1741), who held
that at most the receiver only might take some kind of joint
property in the letter along with the author. Judge Story, in
the American case of Folsom v. Marsh, 2 Story (Amer.) 100,
states the law as follows: " The author of any letter or letters,
and his representatives, whether they are literary letters or
letters of business, possess the sole and exclusive copyright
therein; and no person, neither those to whom they are addressed,
nor other persons, have any right or authority to publish the
same upon their own account or for their own benefit." But
there may be special occasions justifying such publication. See
also the English case of Macmillan v. Dent (1905).

9. The question of what is an infringement of copyright has
been the subject of much discussion. It was decided under the
statute of 1709 that a repetition from memory was

not a publication so as to be an infringement of lairinste-
copyright. In the case of Reade v. Conquest, 1861, meat.
9 C.B., the same view was taken. The defendant had
dramatized the plaintiff's novel It's Never too Late to Mend,
and the piece was performed at his theatre. This was held to
be no breach of copyright; but the circulation of copies of a
drama, so taken from a copyright novel, whether gratuitously or
for sale, is not allowed. Then again it is often a difficult question
to decide whether the alleged piratical copyright does more than
make that fair use of the original author's materials which the law
permits. It is not every act of borrowing literary matter from
another which is piracy, and the difficulty is to draw the line
between what is fair and what is unfair. Lord Eldon put the
question thus, — whether the second publication is a legitimate
use of the other in the fair exercise of a mental operation deserving
the character of an original work. Another test proposed is
" whether you find on the part of the defendant an animus
furandi—a.n intention to take for the purpose of saving himself

COPYRIGHT

I2i

labour." No one, it has been said, has a right to take, whether
with or without acknowledgment, a material and substantial
portion of another's work, his arguments, his illustrations, his
authorities, for the purpose of makinng or improving a rival
publication. When the materials are open to all, an author may
acquire copyright in his selection or arrangement of them.
Several cases have arisen on this point between the publishers
of rival directories. Here it has been held that the subsequent
compiler is bound to do for himself what the original compiler had
done. When the materials are thus in medio, as the phrase is, it is
considered a fair test of piracy to examine whether the mistakes
of both works are the same. If they are, piracy will be inferred.
Translations stand to each other in the same relation as books
constructed of materials in common. The animus furandi,
mentioned above as a test of piracy, does not imply deliberate
intention to steal; it may be quite compatible with ignorance
even of .the copyright work. Abridgments, moreover, of
original works appear to be favoured by the courts — when the
act of abridgment is itself an act of the understanding,
" employed in carrying a large work into a smaller compass, and
rendering it less expensive." Lord Hatherley, however, in
Tinsley v. Lacy, 1863, 1 H. & M. 747, incidentally expressed his
disapproval of this feeling — holding that the courts had gone
far enough in this direction, and that it was difficult to acquiesce
in the reason sometimes given that the compiler of an abridg-
ment is a benefactor to mankind by assisting in the diffusion of
knowledge. A mere selection or compilation, so as to bring
the materials into smaller space, will not be a bona fide abridg-
ment; " there must be real substantial condensation, and
intellectual labour, and judgment bestowed thereon " (Justice
Story). A publication professing to be A Christmas Ghost Story,
Reoriginated from the Original by Charles Dickens, Esq., and
Analytically Condensed expressly for this Work, was found
(Dickens v. Lee, 1844, 8 Jur. 183) to be an invasion of Charles
Dickens's copyright in the original.

10. There can be no copyright in any but innocent publica-
tions. Books of an immoral or irreligious tendency have been

repeatedly decided to be incapable of being made the
works"* SUD J ect °f copyright. In a case (Lawrence v. Smith,

1 Jac. 471) before Lord Eldon in 1822, an injunction
had been obtained against a pirated publication of the plaintiff's
Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man,
which the judge refused to continue, " recollecting that the
immortality of the soul is one of the doctrines of the Scriptures,
and considering that the law does not give protection to those
who contradict the Scriptures." The same judge refused in
1822 to restrain a piracy of Lord Byron's Cain, and Don Juan
was refused protection in 1823. Compare also Cowan v. Milbourn,
1867, L.R. 2 Ex. 230, in which a contract to let a room for
lectures of an irreligious character was held not to be binding.

11. The quasi-copyright in titles of books, periodicals, &c.
is founded on the desirability of preventing one person from

putting off on the public his own productions as those
of another. This is, however, not copyright, but a
question of ordinary fraud. The name of a journal
(if sufficiently established) is a species of trade-mark in which
the law recognizes" what it calls a " species of property," provided
any misleading of the public is involved. Thus, the Wonderful
Magazine was invaded (1803) by a publication calling itself the
Wonderful Magazine, New Series Improved. Bell's Life in
London was pirated (1850) by a paper calling itself the Penny
Bell's Life. The proprietors of the London Journal got an
injunction (1859) against the Daily London Journal, which was
projected by the person from whom they had bought their own
paper, and who had covenanted with them not to publish any
weekly journal of a similar nature. A song published under the
title of Minnie, sung by Madame Anna Thillon and Miss Dolby
at Monsieur Jullien's concerts, was invaded (1855) by a song to
the same air published as Minnie Dale, Sung at Jullien+t Concerts
by Madame Anna Thillon. On the other hand, the Sphere and
Spear, titles of misleading similarity, assumed by two weekly
periodicals that appeared almost simultaneously in London in

Titles of
works.

1900, could not successfully attack each other, because neither
had an established reputation when first adopted.

12. Dramatic and musical compositions stand on this peculiar
footing, that they may be the subject of two entirely distinct
rights. As writings they come within the general
Copyright Act, and the unauthorized multiplication of Jn™*
copies is a piracy of the usual sort. This was decided to music.
be so even in the case of musical compositions under
the act of 1709. The Copyright Act of 1842 includes a " sheet
of music" in its definition of a book. Separate from the copy-
right thus existing in dramatic or musical compositions is the
stage-right or right of representing them on the stage; this was
the right created by the Dramatic Copyright Act of 1833, in the
case of dramatic pieces. This act gave the owner of the stage-
right (right of representation) a period of twenty-eight years, or
the duration of the author's life if longer. The Copyright Act
1842 extended this right to musical compositions, and made the
period in both cases the same as that fixed for copyright. And
the act expressly provides (meeting a contrary decision in the
courts) that the assignment of copyright of dramatic and musical
pieces shall not include the right of representation unless that
is expressly mentioned. The act of 1833 prohibited representa-
tion " at any place of public entertainment," a phrase which was
omitted in the act of 1842, and it may perhaps be inferred that
the restriction is now more general and would extend to any
unauthorized representation anywhere. A question has also
been raised whether, to obtain the benefit of the act, a musical
piece must be of a dramatic character. The dramatization of a
novel, i.e.' the acting of a drama constructed out of .materials
derived from a novel, is not necessarily an infringement of the
copyright in the novel (supposing it to be possible to do it without
making any sort of colourable copy of the literary form) , but to
publish a drama so constructed has been held to be a breach of
copyright (Tinsley v. Lacy, 1863, 1 H. & M. 747, where defendant
had published two plays founded on two of Miss Braddon's
novels, and reproducing the incidents and in many cases the
language of the original) . Where two persons dramatize the same
novel, what, it may be asked, are their respective rights? In
Toole v. Young, 1874, 9 Q.B. 523, this point actually arose.
A, the author of a published novel, dramatized, it and assigned
the drama to the plaintiff, but it was never printed, published
or represented upon the stage. B, ignorant of A's drama, also
dramatized the novel and assigned his drama to the defendant,
who represented it on the stage. It was held that any one might
dramatize A's published novel, and that the representation of
B 's drama was not a representation of A's drama. This case may
be compared with Reade v. Lacy (1861).

In the " Little Lord Fauntleroy " case (1888) the person who
dramatized the novel of another without his consent, an operation
up to that time believed to be unassailable in law, was attacked
successfully, by preventing him from using printed or written
copies of the play, either to deposit with the lord chamberlain
or as prompt-books. In every case where much of the original
dialogue of the novel is taken, this stops the production of the
dramatization.

In music, statutes of 1882 and 1888 have prevented the use
of the provisions inflicting penalties for the performance of copy-
right songs for purposes of extortion, by allowing the court to
inflict a penalty of one farthing and make the plaintiff pay the
costs, if justice requires it. Authors reserving the right of public
performance are required to print a notice to that effect on all
copies of the music.

An important decision (which appears to be a grave injustice)
on musical copyright is the case of Boosey v. Whight (1899;
followed in other cases — see Mabe v. Conner, 1909), in which it
was held that the reproduction of copyright tunes on the per-
forated slips for an Aeolian or other mechanical instrument
is not an infringement of copyright. In Germany it has been
decided (Lincke v. Gramophone Co.) that the reproduction of
copyright music on a gramophone is an infringement, and an
injunction was granted. It has also been held in France that
the production of copyright words (but not music) was an

122

COPYRIGHT

infringement, while in the United States the Copyright Act
of 1909 extended copyright control to mechanical reproductions,
and gave the copyright proprietor power to exact royalties.

The copyright in music was subject to serious injury in
England from the selling of pirated copies in the streets by
hawkers; and in 1902 an act was passed enabling summary
proceedings to be taken for having such copies seized and
destroyed. But this act had various practical defects, which
still left publishers largely at. the mercy of the pirates. In 1905
the evil had become so serious that the chief music publishers
announced their intention of not producing any further works
till the law was altered; but the new Musical Copyright Bill of
that year was obstructed and talked out in the House of Commons.
In November 1905 an important prosecution, instituted by Messrs
Chappell on behalf of the associated music-publishers and
composers, was brought against a coterie of pirates. In the
session of 1906 another attempt, this time successful, was made
to pass a Musical Copyright Bill. This act (the Musical Copy-
right Act 1906) made it a criminal offence, punishable with fine
and imprisonment, to reproduce or sell, or to possess plates for
the production of, pirated copies of musical works. The act also
gave power to a constable to arrest without warrant any person
who in any public place exposes for sale or has in his possession
for sale, or canvasses or personally advertises pirated copies,
provided that the apparent owner of the copyright signs an
authority requesting such arrest at his own risk. Also a court
of summary jurisdiction may grant a search warrant, if there
is reasonable ground for believing that an offence against the act
is being cqmmitted on any premises.

13. The right of foreigners under the English copyright acts
produced at one time an extraordinary conflict of judicial
opinion. A foreigner who during residence in the
fofe%a°rs. British dominions should publish a work was admitted
to have a copyright therein. The question was whether
residence at the time of publication was necessary. In Cocks v.
Purday, the court of common pleas held that it was not. In
Boosey v. Davidson, the court of queen's bench, following the
decision of the court of common pleas in Cocks v. Purday, held
that a foreign author might have copyright in works first pub-
lished in England, although he was abroad at the time of publica-
tion. But the court of exchequer, in Boosey v. Purday, refused
to follow these decisions, holding that the legislature intended
only to protect its own subjects, — whether subjects by birth or by
residence. The question came before the House of Lords on
appeal in the case of Boosey v. Jeffreys (1854), in which the
court of exchequer had taken the same line. The judges having
been consulted were found to be divided in opinion. Six of them
held that a foreigner resident abroad might acquire copyright
by publishing first in England. Four maintained the contrary.
The views of the minority were affirmed by the House of Lords
(Lord Chancellor Cranworth and Lords Brougham and St
Leonards). The lord chancellor's opinion was founded upon
" the general doctrine that a British senate would legislate for
British subjects properly so called, or for such persons who
might obtain that character for a time by being resident in this
country, and therefore under allegiance to the crown, and under
the protection of the laws of England." Lord Brougham said

that

" The statute of Anne had been passed for the purpose of encourag-
ing learned men, and with that view that act had given them the
exclusive right in their publications for twenty-one years. This,
however, was clear, they had no copyright at common law, for if
they had there would have been no necessity for the passing of that
statute. It could scarcely be said that the legislature had decided
a century and a half since that act was to be passed to create a
monopoly in literary works solely for the benefit of foreigners.. In
the present case he was clearly of opinion that the copyright did
not exist, and therefore that foreign law should not prevail over
British law where there was such diversity between the two."

Against the authority of this case, however, must be set the
opinion of two great lord chancellors— Lord Cairns and Lord
Westbury. In the case of Routledge v. Low, L.R. 3 H. L. 100,
1868, Lord Cairns said,

" The aim of the legislature is to increase the common stock of

the literature of the country; and if that stock can be increased by
the publication for the first time here of a new and valuable work
composed by an alien who has never been in the country, I see
nothing in the wording of the act which prevents, nothing in the
policy of the act which should prevent, and everything in the pro-
fessed object of the act and in its wide and general provisions which
should entitle such a person to the protection of the act, in return
and compensation for the addition he has made to the literature of
the country."

And Lord Westbury said, in the same case,

" The case of Jeffreys v. Boosey is a decision which is attached to
and depends on the particular statute of which it was the exponent,
and as that statute had been repealed and is now replaced by another
act, with different enactments expressed in different language,
the case of Jeffreys v. Boosey is not a binding authority in the
exposition of this later statute. The act appears to have been
dictated by a wise and liberal spirit, and in the same spirit it should
be interpreted, adhering of course to the settled rules of legal con-
struction. The preamble is, in my opinion, quite inconsistent with
the conclusion that the protection given by the statute was intended
to be confined to the works of British authors. The real condition
of obtaining its advantages is the first publication by the author of
his work in the United Kingdom. Nothing renders necessary his
bodily presence here at the time, and I find it impossible to discover
any reason why it should be required, or what it can add to the
merit of the first publication. If the intrinsic merits of the reason^
ing. on which Jeffreys v. Boosey was decided be considered, I must
frankly admit that it by no means commands my assent."

These conclusions might follow also from the Naturalization
Act of 1870, which enacts that real and personal property of
every description may be taken, acquired, held, and disposed:
of by an alien in the same manner in all respects as by a natural
born British subject. At the present time the International
Copyright Act has largely removed the question from, the area
of conflict.

14. International Copyright. — Books published in one country
and circulated in another depend for their protection in the latter
upon international copyright. Until 1886 international
copyright in Great Britain rested on a series of orders Tbe Bera
in council, made under the authority of the Inter- v ™~ tJon ,
national Copyright Act 1844 (superseding acts of 1820
and 1826), conferring on the authors of a particular foreign
country the same rights in Great Britain as British authors, on
condition of their registering their work, in Great Britain within a
year of first publication abroad. A condition of the granting of
each order was that the , sovereign should be satisfied that
reciprocal protection was given in the country in question to
British authors. As the result of conferences at Bern in 1885 and
1887, this system was simplified and made more general by the
treaty known as " The Bern Convention," signed at Bern on the
5th of September 1887. The contracting parties were the
British Empire, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain,
Switzerland, Tunis and Hayti. Luxemburg, Monaco, Norway
and Japan afterwards joined. Austria and Hungary have a
separate convention with Great Britain, concluded on the 24th of
April 1893. The notable absentees among European powers are
Holland and Russia. So far as the United States is concerned, the
matter is regulated by the American copyright acts, which are
dealt with separately below.

The basis of the Bern convention was that authors of any of the
countries of the Union, or the publishers of works first published
in one of them, should enjoy in each of the other countries of the
Union the same rights as the law of that country granted to
native authors. The only conditions were that the work should
comply with the necessary formalities, such as registration, in
tJ^ country where it was first published, in which case it was
exempt from all such formalities elsewhere; and that the
protection required from any country should not exceed that
given in the country of origin. The rights conferred included the
; sole right of making a translation of the work for ten years from
its first publication. The convention was retrospective; that is
to say, it applied to copyright works published before its coming
into existence, each country being allowed to protect vested
interests, or copies already made by others, as it should think
best.

The rights of foreign authors in Great Britain rest on legislation

COPYRIGHT

123

giving effect to the Bern convention, namely, the International
Copyright Act of 1886, and an order in council made under that
act, dated 28th November 1887. These confer on the author or
publisher of a work of literature or art first published in one of the
countries which are parties to the convention, after compliance
with the formalities necessary there, the same rights as if the work
had been first published in the United Kingdom, provided that
those rights are not greater than those enjoyed in the foreign
country.

The rights of British authors in foreign countries rest in each
country on the domestic legislation by which the particular
country has given effect to its promise contained in the Bern
convention, and are enforced by the courts of that country.
The Bern convention was revised in minor details not affecting its
broad principles by a conference meeting in 1896 in Paris, and
Great Britain adopted the results of their labours by an order in
council dated 7th March 1898. A further simplification in the
international law of copyright was expected to result from the
efforts of the international conference at Berlin in r9o8, July 1910
being the latest date at which ratification by the states concerned
might take place, but it cannot here be stated to what extent
legislation may give effect to the decisions arrived at. So far as
these decisions affect Great Britain, the greatest alterations of
existing law would be in establishing throughout the Union
protection of musical copyright, especially with regard to singing
and talking machines, and also in the matter of newspaper
copyright. The conference adopted a threefold division of
newspaper matter : (1) serial stories, tales and all other work,
literary, scientific and artistic, which is to have absolute
protection; (2) all newspaper matter, except the foregoing and
mere items of general news (faits divers), of which reproduction
is to be permitted on acknowledgment of the source, unless such
reproduction is expressly forbidden; (3) news of the day and
simple facts, to which no protection is given. An endeavour was
also made to have a uniform period throughout the Union for
copyright of the author's life and 50 years.

15. Colonial Copyright. — Under English copyright, books of
the United Kingdom were formerly protected in the colonies by
the Colonial Copyright Act of 1847, and copies of them printed or
reprinted elsewhere could not be imported into the colonies. In
1876 a royal commission was appointed to consider the whole
question of home, colonial and international copyright; and
various recommendations were made. But the matter now rests
on the English International Copyright Act 1886, which con-
tains provisions designed to extend the benefit of the British
copyright acts to works first produced in the colonies, while
allowing each colony to legislate separately for works first
produced within its own limits. The colonies at present are all
included in the system of international copyright established by
the Bern convention.

In 1875 an act was passed (re-enacted in 1886 in the revised
Canadian statutes) to give effect to an act of the parliament of the
Dominion of Canada respecting copyright. An order in council
in 1868 had suspended the prohibition against the importation of
foreign reprints of English books into Canada, and the parliament
had passed a bill on the subject of copyright as to which doubts
had arisen whether it was not repugnant to the Order in Council.
It was also enacted that, after the bill came into operation, if an
English copyright book became entitled to Canadian copyright,
no Canadian reprints thereof should be imported into the United
Kingdom, unless by the owner of the copyright. The following
points in the Canadian act are worth noting: — Any person print-
ing or publishing an unprinted manuscript without the consent
of the author or legal proprietor shall be liable in damages (§ 3).
Any person domiciled in Canada, or in any part of the British
possessions, or being a citizen of any country having an inter-
national copyright treaty with the United Kingdom, who is the
author of any book, map, &c, &c, shall have the sole right and
liberty of printing, reprinting, publishing, &c, for the term of
twenty-eight years. The work must be printed and published, or
reprinted or republished in Canada, whether before or after its
publication elsewhere : and the Canadian privilege is not to be con-

tinued after the copyright has ceased elsewhere. And"no immoral
or licentious, or irreligious, or treasonable, or seditious literary,
scientific or artistic work " shall be the subject of Copyright (§ 4).
A further period of fourteen years will be continued to the author
or his widow and children. An " interim copyright " pending
publication may be obtained by depositing in the office of the
minister of agriculture (who keeps the register of copyrights) a
copy of the title of the work; and works printed first in a series of
articles in a periodical, but intended to be published as books, may
have the benefit of this interim copyright. If a copyright work
becomes out of print, the owner may be notified of the act through
the minister of agriculture, who, if he does not apply a remedy,
may license a new edition, subject to a royalty to the owner.
Anonymous books may be entered in the name of the first
publisher. In 1889 an amending Canadian act was passed, which
led to a long controversy with the Mother Country, — the imperial
government refusing to sanction it, — till in 1900 a compromise
was effected, and a further act amending that of 1886 became
law. It applies only to books copyright in Canada, and, subject
to certain reservations, allows the minister of agriculture to
prohibit the importation, without consent of the licensees, of any
copies printed elsewhere of books published in the British
dominions licensed by the owners to be reproduced in Canada.

The Australian states all have copyright laws modelled on
the English. New Zealand provides for a term of 28 years, or
the author's life. In Cape Colony the term for books is the
author's life and 5 years, or a minimum of 30 years. The Indian
act of 1847 is modelled on the English.

16. Other Countries. — The following notes give the general
terms of the copyright law in other countries of importance.
For details reference must be made to text-books.
We only deal specifically with the history and par- hm
ticulars of American copyright.

Austria, by a law of 1895, gives copyright for thirty years
after author's death.

Belgium.— Copyright formerly perpetual, now limited to the
life of the author, and 50 years thereafter.

France. — Copyright in France is recognized in the most
ample manner. Two distinct rights are secured by law — •
1st, the right of reproduction of literary works, musical com-
positions, and works of art; and 2nd, the right of representation
of dramatic works and musical compositions. The period
is for the life of the author and fifty years after his death.
After the author's death the surviving consort .has the usuf-
ructuary enjoyment of the rights which the author has not
disposed of in his lifetime or by will, subject to reduction for the
benefit of the author's protected heirs if any. The author may
dispose of his rights in the most absolute manner in the forms
and within the limits of the Code Napoleon. Piracy is a crime
punishable by fine of not less than 100 nor more than 2000 francs;
in the case of a seller from 25 to 500 francs. The pirated edition
will be confiscated. Piracy also forms the ground for a civil
action of damages to the amount of the injury sustained — the
produce of the confiscation, if any, to go towards payment of
the indemnity (Penal Code, Art. 425-429).

Germany. — Period fixed in 1837 at ten years; but copyright
for longer periods was granted for voluminous and costly works,
and for the works of German poets. Among Others the works
of Schiller, Goethe, Wieland, &c, were protected for a period of
twenty years from the date of the decree in each case. In 1845
the period was extended in all cases to the author's life and
thirty years after. The present law rests on a Codifying Act of
1901, the term being the author's life and 30 years, or not less
than 10 years in any case.

Greece.— Copyright is for fifteen years from publication.

Holland. — Fifty years, or author's life, whichever is longer.

Hungary. — by a law of 1884, gives a copyright for the author's
life and 50 years after.

Italy. — Life of author, or 40 years from date of publication;
and afterwards a further period of 40 years, subject to a right
in others to reproduce on payment of 5 % on each copy.

Japan. — Author's life and 30 years after.

124

COPYRIGHT

American
law.

Norway, by a law of 1893, gives protection for author's life
and 50 years after.

Portugal. — Author's life and 50 years after.

Russia. — Author's life and 50 years.

Spain. — -Author's life and 80 years thereafter.

Sweden and Denmark provide for a term of the author's
lifetime and 50 years after.

Switzerland.— Author's life and 30 years after.

Turkey. — Author's life, or 40 years, whichever is the longer.

17. United States. — American copyright is provided for by
an act of March 1909, which replaced acts of July 1870 and
March 1891, both of which had introduced important
modifications in the original act of 1790. Under all
acts preceding that of 1891, copyright had been granted
to " citizens or residents of the United States," the term
" resident " having been, in decisions prior to 1891, construed
to mean a person domiciled in the United States with the
intention of making there his per/nanent abode. The works
of foreigners could thus be reproduced without authorization,
and they were so reproduced in so far as there was prospect of
financial gain. The leading publishers, however, had from the
earliest times made terms with British authors, or with their
representatives, the British publishers, for producing authorized
American editions. But at most they were only able to secure
by this means an advantage of a few weeks' priority over the
unauthorized editions, and the good-will of the conscientious
buyer; so that if they paid the author any considerable sum,
the price of the authorized editions had to be made so high that
it was not easy to secure a remunerative sale. The unauthorized
editions had the further advantage in competition, that for the
purpose of being manufactured more promptly and more
economically, they could be and often were issued in an ab-
breviated and garbled form, an injury which to not a few writers
seemed more grievous than the lack of pecuniary profit. In
Great Britain, during the first half of the 19th century, the copy-
right law had been so interpreted as to secure recognition of the
rights of American authors for such works as were produced
there not later than in any other country, so that authors like
Washington Irving and Fenimore Cooper secured for a time
satisfactory returns; but after 1850 the conditions became the
same as in the United States. Unauthorized editions were
published, and were often incomplete and garbled.

As from decade to decade the books produced on either side
of the Atlantic, which possessed interest for readers of the other
side, increased in quantity and in importance, the evil of these
unrestricted piracies increased. The injury to British authors
was greater only in proportion as the English books were more
numerous. The pressure from Great Britain during the last
half of the 19th century for international copyright was con-
tinuous; and in America it was recognized by authors, by
representative publishers, and by the more intelligent people
everywhere, that the existing conditions were of material
disadvantage. The loss to American authors was direct; and
the loss to legitimate American publishers was also clear, in that
better returns could be secured by adequate payments for
rights that could be protected by law than by " courtesy "
payments for authorizations that carried no legal rights. An
injury was being done to American literature; for, when
authorized editions of American works had to compete against
unauthorized and more cheaply produced editions of English
works, the business incentive for literary production was seriously
lessened. In fiction particularly, authors had to contend against
a flood of cheaply produced editions of " appropriated " English
books. Equally to be condemned were the ethics of a relation
under which one class of property could be appropriated while
other classes secured legal protection. On these several grounds
efforts had long been made to secure international copyright.
Between 1843 and 1886 no less than eleven international copy-
right bills were drafted, for the most part at the instance of the
copyright associations or copyright leagues. They were one
after the other killed in committee. In 1886 the twelfth inter-
national copyright bill was brought before the Senate by Senator

Jonathan Chace of Rhode Island, and was referred to the
committee on patents. In 1887 the American Publishers'
Copyright League (succeeding the earlier American Publishers'
Association) was organized, with William H. Appleton as
president and G. H. Putnam as secretary. The executive
committee of this league formed, with a similar committee of
the Author's Copyright League, a conference committee, under
the direction of which the campaign for copyright was continued
until the passage of the act of March 1891. Of the Authors'
Copyright League James Russell Lowell was the first president,
being succeeded by Edmund Clarence Stedman. The secretary
during the active work of the league was Robert U. Johnson.
Under the initiative of the conference committee copyright
leagues were organized in Boston, Chicago, St Louis, Cincinnati,
Minneapolis, Denver, Colorado City and other places. The
Chace Bill was introduced in the House in March 1888. In
May 1890 this bill, with certain modifications, came before the
House, and was there defeated. In March 1891 the same
measure, with certain further modifications, secured a favourable
vote in the House during the last hour of the last day of the
session, was passed by the Senate, and was promptly signed
by President Harrison. Thus, after a struggle extending over
fifty-three years, the United States accepted the principle at
all events of international copyright.

18. The act of 1891 was criticized in several respects': (1)
A condition was that books or works of art must be " manu-
factured " in America; consideration not being given to books
originally produced in some language other than English. (2)
It required publication in the United States simultaneously with
that in the country of origin. (3) The term of copyright (28
years, with an extension of 14 years to the author if alive, or to
widow or children) was shorter than that accorded under the law
of any other literature-producing country, excepting Greece.
Minor amending acts were passed in 1893, 1895 and 1897, that
of Feb. 19, 1897, establishing as the copyright department of
the library of Congress a Bureau of Copyrights, the head of which
bears the title of Register of Copyrights. Eventually, after hard
work by the American Authors' Copyright League
and the Publishers' Copyright League, and after Provls l° a *
sittings extending to a period of three years, a new bill ° 1909 °
submitted to Congress by the two Committees on
Patents of the House of Representatives and the Senate was
successfully passed. It came into force on the 1st of July 1909.
Its provisions may be briefly summarized as follows : —

Copyright is granted to authors for twenty-eight years from the
date of first publication, whether the copyrighted work bears the
author's true name or is published anonymously or under _
an assumed name. A further term of twenty-eight years "L"^

is granted to the author if at the expiration of the first "W*^
term he be still living, or to his widow and children if he be dead.
If the author's widow and children be dead an extension is granted
to the author's executors, or in the absence of a will, to his next of
kin. Applications for renewal and extension must be made to the
copyright office and duly registered therein within one year prior
to the expiration of the existing term. To any work in which
copyright subsists at the time the act went into force the act extends
renewal for a period of twenty-eight years at the expiration of the
time provided for under the previously existing law (first period
28 years, renewal period 14 years). The works for which copyright
may be secured under the act " shall include all the writings of an
author." For purposes of registration the act classifies (1) books,
including composite and cyclopaedic works, directories, DefinHloa
gazetteers and other compilations; (2) periodicals, includ- . -__„.
ing newspapers; (3) lectures, sermons, addresses, pre- right
pared for oral delivery; (4) dramatic or dramatico- '

musical compositions; (5) musical compositions; (6) maps; (7)
works of art; models or designs for works of art; (8) reproductions
of a work of art; (9) drawings or plastic works of a scientific or
technical character; (10) photographs and (11) prints and pictorial
illustrations. But compilations or abridgments, adaptations,
arrangements, dramatizations, translations or other versions of
copyrighted works, when produced with the consent of the proprietors
of the copyrighted work are, under the 1909 act, new works subject
to copyright. A citizen or subject of a foreign state can secure
copyright only when he is domiciled within the United States at the
time of the first publication of his work, or when the foreign state
or nation of which he is a subject grants, either by treaty, convention,
agreement or law, to citizens of the United States the benefit of

COPYRIGHT

125

copyright on substantially the same basis as to its own citizens, or
copyright protection equal to that secured by the foreign author
under the United States act, or when the foreign state is a party to
an international agreement providing for reciprocity in the grant-
ing of copyright, and the United States may, by the terms of that
agreement, become a party thereto. After copyright has been
secured by publication of a work, two complete copies of the best
edition published must be " promptly " deposited in the copyright
office, or mailed to the register of copyrights, the postmaster, on
request, giving a receipt and mailing the books without cost. If the
work be a contribution to a periodical, one copy of the issue contain-
ing it must be sent, or if it be a work not reproduced in copies for
sale, a copy, print, photograph or other identifying reproduction
must accompany the claim. Prior to 1891 the works of authors
could be put into print on either side of the Atlantic. The act of
1891 laid down that, in order to secure copyright, all editions of the
works of all authors, resident or non-resident, must be entirely
„ „ manufactured within the United States, the term " manu-

. . ,", factured " including the setting of type as well as printing
clause anc * binding. This manufacturing condition was insisted

on by the typographical unions. There is no logical
connexion, however, between the right of an author or artist to the
control of his production and the interests of American workmen;
the attempt to legislate for them jointly must bring about no little
confusion and inequity. If American working-men cannot secure a
living in competition with labourers on the other side of the Atlantic,
their needs should be cared for under the provisions of the protective
tariff. It is, however, the belief of a large number of those who are
engaged in the manufacturing of books that, with his advanced
methods of work, the skilled American labourer has no reason to
dread the competition of European craftsmen. With this manu-
facturing condition out of the way, there would be nothing to
prevent the United States from becoming a party to the Bern
Convention. This would place intellectual property on both sides
of the Atlantic on the same footing. The power of the unions was
sufficiently strong to prevent this condition being eliminated from
the act of 1909, but the just claims were met of authors whose books
are originally produced in some language other than English, the
E motion " OI "ig ma ' text °f a book of foreign origin in a language or
of text ot ' an g ua g es other than English " being exempted from the
lorelna requirements as to type-setting in the United States. On
book * ne otner hand the manufacturing condition is extended by

the act of 1909 to illustrations within a book, and also to
separate lithographs or photo-engravings, " except where in either
case the subjects represented are located in a foreign country and
illustrate a scientific work or reproduce a work of art." The notice
of copyrights required by the act consists either of the word " copy-
right or by the abbreviation " Copr.," accompanied by the name
of the copyright proprietor, and in the case of printed literary,
musical or dramatic works, the notice must include also the year in
which the copyright was secured by publication. In the case of
works specified in 6 to 1 1 inclusive, of the classification given above,
the copyright notice may consist of the letter C enclosed within a

circle, thus: (£), accompanied by the initials, monogram, mark or
symbol of the copyright proprietor, provided that on some accessible
portion of the copy or of the margin, or on the back or pedestal his
name appears.

The act of 1909 gives an interim protection to a book published
abroad in the English language before publication in the United
States, the deposit in the copyright office, not later than
Interim thirty days after its publication abroad, of one complete
tton'"" copy °f tne foreign edition, with a request for the reserva-
tion of the copyright and a statement of the name and
nationality of the author and copyright proprietor, securing copy-
right for thirty days from the date of deposit. Any person infringing

Infringe-
menu

a copyright work is liable to an injunction, and to pay such
damages as the copyright proprietor may have suffered

by the infringement ; in lieu of actual damages and profits
the courts may award such damages as appear to be just, and in
assessing them may, at its discretion, allow the amounts mentioned
below, except that in the case of a newspaper reproduction of a
copyrighted photograph such damages must not exceed the sum of
two hundred and fifty dollars nor be less than fifty dollars, and in
no other case must the damages be more than five thousand dollars
or less than two hundred and fifty dollars: (1) In the case of a
painting, statue or sculpture, ten dollars for any infringing copy
made or sold or found in the possession of the infringer or his agents
or employees; (2) in the case of any work enumerated in the classifi-
cation given before, except a painting, statue or sculpture, one dollar
for every infringing copy; (3) in the case of a lecture, sermon or
address, fifty dollars for every infringing delivery ; (4) in the case of
dramatic or dramatico-musical or a choral or orchestral composition,
one hundred dollars for the first and fifty dollars for every subsequent
infringing performance; in the case of other musical compositions,
Musical * en dollars f° r ev ery infringing performance; all infring-
comoosl- ln % co pi es an d devices must also be delivered up for de-
tlons. struction. The act gives full control over his compositions

to a musical composer, and thfi right to make any
arrangement or setting of it, or of the melody of it. in any system of

notation or form of record from which it may be read or reproduced.
His right to control the reproduction of his music by mechanical
instruments is restricted (1) to cover only music published and
copyrighted after the act went into effect ; (2) to include a musical
composition by a foreign composer only in the case of a citizen of a
foreign state that grants to citizens of the United States similar
rights; (3) where the owner of a musical copyright has permitted
the use of his work upon parts of instruments serving to reproduce
the composition mechanically, permission for a similar use of such
work must be accorded to any other person on the payment of a
fixed royalty of two cents on each part manufactured. The act makes
a clear distinction between the property in the copyright _ .
and that in the material object representing the copyright, . * _

and enacts that the sale or conveyance of the material S i snm l B t
object shall not of itself constitute a transfer of the copy- f C0Dy .
right. Transfer of copyright in the United States is to be right.
effected by an instrument in writing signed by the pro-
prietor of the copyright, or the copyright may be bequeathed by
will. Assignment of copyright executed in a foreign country must
be acknowledged by the assignor before a consular officer of the
United States. Every assignment of copyright must be recorded
in the copyright office within three calendar months after its execu-
tion in the United States or within six months without the limits of
the United States. The importation into the United States is for-
bidden of any piratical copies of a copyrighted book or of any copies
not produced in accordance with the manufacturing . .
provisions of the act (although authorized by the author fionot'
or proprietor), but importation is allowed to any society cogytleht
or institution incorporated for educational, literary, wor i [ /
philosophical, scientific or religious purposes, or for the
encouragement of the fine arts, or to any State school, college, &c,
or to free public libraries, when importation is for use and not for
sale. The act of 1891 allowed " two copies in any one invoice " to be
imported, but by, the act of 1909 not more than one copy is to be
imported in one invoice.

The provisions having to do with international copyright
become operative in the case of a foreign state only when the
president proclaims that the state has fulfilled the condition of
reciprocity. The act of 1891 was put into force with foreign
states as follows: — 1st of July 1891, Great Britain, Belgium,
France, Switzerland; 8th of March 1892, Germany (by separate
treaty); 31st of October 1892, Italy; 8th of May 1893, Denmark;
15th of July 1895, Spain; 20th of July 1895, Portugal; 27th of
February 1896, Mexico; 13th of April 1896, Sweden and Norway;
25th of May 1896, Chile; 19th of October 1899, Costa Rica; 20th
of November 1899, the kingdom of the Netherlands. In the case
of each state the territory covered by the provisions of the law
included the possessions, dependencies, &c. The copyright agree-
ment with Great Britain therefore covered the crown colonies
of the empire, including India and the self-governing dominions
and states, such as Canada, Australia, &c. An American work
duly entered for copyright in Great Britain secures, as a British
publication secures, the protection of copyright under the
provisions of the Bern convention throughout the territory of
the several states that are parties to that convention.

Artistic Copyright

19. Literary authors had protection for their literary work
much earlier than artists for their artistic productions. Pictures
and illustrations, when included in books or newspapers, are
protected by the law which applies to the latter, but that is a
separate question. It was not until the reign of George II. that
the legislature in England afforded any protection for the work
of artists. The English law on artistic copyright is alone con-
sidered in this account, the American having been included in the
section United States above (18), while for other countries the
details are so various that it is only possible to refer the reader
to the leading text-books.

The first Artists' Copyright Bill was passed in the interest
of William Hogarth, one of the greatest of English painters,
who was engraver as well as painter, and who devoted
a considerable portion of his time to engraving his 1"%™*'
own works. No sooner, however, were these published
than his market was seriously damaged by the issue of inferior
copies of his engravings by other publishers. To protect Hogarth
from such piracy the Engraving Copyright Act 1734 was passed,
which provided that " every person who should invent and
design, engrave, etch, or work in mezzotinto or chiaroscuro, any
historical or other print or prints, should have the sole right and

126

COPYRIGHT

liberty of printing and representing the same for the term of
fourteen years, to commence from the day of the first publishing
thereof, which shall be truly engraved with the name of the pro-
prietor on each plate, and printed on every such print or prints."
The penalty for piracy was the forfeiture of the plate and all
prints, with a fine of 5s. for every pirated print.

In 1766, in the reign of George III., a second Engraving
Copyright Act was passed " to amend and render more effectual"
the first act, and " for vesting and securing to Jane Hogarth,
widow, the property in certain prints," which extended the
protection beyond the designer, who was also engraver, to any
person who, not being himself a designer, made, or caused to
be made, an engraving from any picture or other work of art.
Jane Hogarth, the widow of the painter, found herself nearing
the termination of the fourteen years' term of copyright grant
by the first act, with the probability that immediately on its
expiry the engravings of her husband then on sale, and on' which
her livelihood depended, would be immediately pirated. It
was mainly to save her from the loss of her livelihood that this
second Copyright Bill extended the term of the copyright to
twenty-eight years.

The engravers and publishers of the day were not over-
scrupulous, and they sought to' evade the penalties of the copy-
right acts by taking the designs, and adding to them or taking
from them, or both, and producing fresh engravings, seeking to
make it appear that they were producing new works. These prac-
tices assumed such proportions that it became necessary, in 1777;
to call upon parliament to put through another short measure
still further to protect the engraver, by prohibiting the copying
" in whole or in part " (a clause not contained in the previous
acts), by varying, adding to, or diminishing from, the main design
of an engraving without the express consent of the proprietor or
proprietors. These three acts remain in force to the present day.
In 1852, in an international copyright act, it was declared that the
Engraving Copyright Acts collectively were intended to include
prints taken by lithography or any other mechanical process.

20. In May 1814 the Sculpture Copyright Act was passed to
give protection to sculptors. The term of copyright for sculptors
Sculpture. was a peculiar one. It was to last for fourteen years,

with the proviso that, should the author be still alive,
he should enjoy a further period of fourteen years, the copyright
returning to him for the second fourteen should he have disposed
of it for the first period. It is a condition of copyright with
the sculptor that the author must put his name with the date
upon every work before putting it forth or publishing it. A
curious and interesting point in the interpretation of this act is,
that according to the opinion of eminent jurists it is necessary to
an infringement of the copyright of a piece of sculpture that the
copy of it must take the form of another piece of sculpture;
that a photograph, drawing, or engraving of a piece of sculpture
is not to be considered a reproduction of it, and is therefore
not an infringement of the sculptor's copyright.

21. Strange as it may seem, painting was the last branch of
the arts to receive copyright protection. The cause of the
Palatine Pinters was taken up by the Society of Arts, who

endeavoured, in the first instance, to pass an amend-
ment and consolidation bill dealing with engraving, sculpture and
painting; but, failing in their first effort, they limited their
second to an attempt to pass a bill in favour of painting, drawing
and photography. It was in the year 1862 that this act, having
passed through parliament, came into force. The absence of
any antecedent protection for the painter is clearly stated in
its preamble, which reads as follows: "Whereas by law as now
established, the authors of paintings, drawings, and photographs
have no copyright in such their works, and it is expectant that
the law should in that respect be amended. Be it, therefore,
enacted," &c. This preamble makes it clear that there is no
copyright in any paintings, drawings, or photographs executed
and dealt with before the year 1862 — to be exact, 29th July of
that year. The duration of the term of copyright in this act of
1862 differs from its predecessors, by being made dependent on
the life of the author, to which life seven years were added. In

the Literary Copyright Act there are two terms — the life of the
author and seven years, or forty-two years, whichever may
prove the longer. In taking a fixed term like forty-two years
it is necessary to have something to start from, and with a
literary work it was easy to start from the date of publication.
But pictures are not published. They may pass from the studio
to the wall of the purchaser without being made public in any
way. The difficulty was evidently before the author of this act,
and the artist's term was made his life and seven years after his
death without any alternative. This term applies equally to
photographers. Perhaps no bill which ever passed through
parliament ostensibly fox the purpose of benefiting a certain set
of people has failed so completely as has this bill to accomplish
its end. It started by proposing to give copyright to authors
of paintings, drawings and photographs, and it would seem that
no difficulty ought to have arisen as to whom such copyright
should rightly belong; but the following clause of the act has
introduced confusion into the question of ownership: —

Provided that when any painting, or drawing, or the negative
of, any photograph, shall for the first time after the passing of
this act be sold or disposed of, or shall be made or executed for
op on behalf of any other person for a good or valuable considera-
tion, the person so selling or disposing of, or making or executing
the same, shall not retain the copyright thereof unless it be expressly
reserved to him by agreement in writing, signed at or before the
time of such sale or disposition, by the vendee or assignee of such
painting or drawing, or such negative of a photograph, or by the
person on whose behalf the same shall be so made or executed;
but the copyright shall belong to the vendee or assignee of such
painting or drawing, or such negative of a photograph, or to the
person for or on whose behalf the same shall have been made or
executed ; nor shall the vendee or assignee thereof be entitled to such
copyright unless at or before the time of such sale or disposition an
agreement in writing, signed by the person so selling or disposing of
the same, or by his agent duly authorized, shall have been made to
that effect.

That is to say, after promising the author copyright in his work
for life and seven years, the act stipulates that in order to get it
the author must, at the time of the first sale or disposition of his
picture, obtain a document in writing from the purchaser of the
picture, reserving the copyright to the author, and the act goes
on to say that if he does not take this step the copyright becomes
the property of the purchaser of the picture, but with the
proviso, in order to secure it to him, he must have a document
signed by the artist assigning the copyright to him; but if neither
of these things is done, and no document is signed, the copyright
does not belong to either the artist who sells or the client who
buys, and the act is silent as to whom it does belong to. It has
disappeared and belongs tojio one. There is no copyright existing
in the work for any one. It has passed into the public domain,
and any one who can get access to the work may reproduce it.
Now, as most purchases are made from the walls of exhibitions,
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the copyright is absolutely
lost. And where the sale is arranged directly between the artist
and his client, the difficulty experienced by the artist in raising
the question as to whom the copyright shall belong to is so great,
owing to the dread lest the mere mention of the signing of a
document should cause the selling of the picture to fall through,
that in numerous such cases the copyright lapses and becomes
public property. Photographers are not affected by this clause,
because they do not as a rule sell the negatives they produce, and
with them the copyright lies in the negative. They carry on their
trade in prints without the question of the negative arising.
The picture-dealer, also, who buys a picture and copyright is
not subjected to the same disability as the painter. The picture-
dealer can sell a picture without saying a word to his client as
to the copyright, which he, nevertheless, retains intact; the
provision is applicable only to the first sale of the work, which,
therefore, throws the whole of the disability upon the painter.

The act gives the copyright of every work executed on com-
mission to the person by whom it is commissioned. It makes
it compulsory upon every owner of a copyright that he should
register it at Stationers' Hall before he can take any action at
law to protect it. The copyright does not lapse if unregistered,
but so long as it remains unregistered no action at law can be

COPYRIGHT

127

taken on account of any infringement. A copyright can be
registered at any time, even after an infringement, but the owner
of the copyright cannot recover for any infringement before
registration. The act provides for both penalties and damages
in the following cases:— (1) For infringing copyright in the
ordinary way by issuing unlawful copies. (2) For fraudulently
signing or affixing a fraudulent signature to a work of art. • (3)
For fraudulently dealing with a work so signed. (4) For fraudu-
lently putting forth a copy of a work of art, whether there be
copyright in it or no, as the original work of the artist. (5) For
altering, adding to, or taking away from a work during the
lifetime of the author if it is signed, and putting it forth as the
unaltered work of the author. (6) For importing pirated works.
The incongruities of this act were so apparent that its promoters
desired to stop it, feeling that it would be-' better to have no bill at all
than one which conferred so little upon the people it, was intended to
benefit; but Lord Westbury, the lord chancellor, who had charge of
the bill in the House of Lords, advised them to let it go through with
all its imperfections, that they might get the right of the painter to
protection recognized. This advice was followed, and the bill had no
sooner become law than a fresh effort was started to have it amended.
Year by year the agitation went on, with the exception only of a
period when Irish affairs took up all the attention of parliament, and
domestic legislation was rendered impossible. But in 1898 the
Copyright Association of Great Britain promoted a bill, which
was introduced into the House of Lords by Lord Herschell. It
was a measure designed to deal with all forms of copyright — literary,
musical, dramatic and artistic — and was remitted by the House of
Lords for consideration to a committee, which, having sat for three
sessions, decided not to proceed with Lord Herschell's measure,
but to treat literature and art in separate bills. It had under its
consideration an artistic bill, drafted for and presented by the Royal
Academy, and a literary bill and an artistic bill drafted by the
committee itself. The main proposals in the latter were to give
copyright to the author of any artistic work or photograph for a
period of life and thirty years, unless; the work be commissioned,
in which case the copyright was to be the property of the employer,
■except in the case of sculpture intended to be placed in a street or
public place. The bill provided summary remedies for dealing with
pirated works. It omitted altogether any reference to registration,
and it provided for international copyright.

22. To sum up the position of artistic copyright in 1909, we
find five British acts, three dealing with engraving, one with
sculpture, and one with painting, drawing and photography,
and between them very little relation. We have three terms of
duration of copyright — 28 years for engraving, 14 for sculpture,
with a second 14 if the artist be alive at the end of the first, life
and 7 years for painting, drawing or photography. There are
two different relations of the artist to his copyright. The
sculptor's right to sell his work and retain his copyright has
never been questioned so long as he signs and dates it. The
painter's copyright is made to depend upon the signing of a
document by the purchaser of his work. The engraver and the
sculptor are. not required to register; but the author's name,
and the date of putting forth or publishing, must appear on his
work. The painter cannot protect his copyright without
registration, but this registration as it is now required is merely
a pitfall for the unwary. Designed to give the public information
as to the ownership and duration of copyrights, the uncertainty
of its operation results in the prevention of information on these
very points.

The Berlin Convention of 1908 led to the appointment of a
British committee to deal with its recommendations, and their
report in 1909 foreshadowed important changes in the law both
of literary and of artistic copyright, whenever Parliament
should give its attention seriously to the subject.

Difficult and complicated as is the whole subject of artistic
copyright, it is perhaps not to be wondered at that ignorance
of the law on the subject is very widespread, even
Practical amon g S t those who are most interested in its action.
cutties. O ne 0I tne commonest beliefs amongst artists is, that
all they have to do to secure copyright is to register a
picture at Stationers' Hall; but the authorities at Stationers'
Hall ask no questions, and simply enter any particulars submitted
to them on their printed form. Some artists make a practice,
when they send a picture away to exhibition, to fill up one of these
forrhsj reserving the copyright by their entry to themselves, in

the belief that, if accompanied by the fee required by the
Hall, its entry will reserve the copyright to them, oblivious of the
fact that the only thing which can reserve the copyright to them
is the possession of a document assigning the copyright to them
by the purchaser of the picture. Another useless method of
attempting to reserve artists' copyrights is that adopted by
the promoters of public exhibitions, with whom it is an almost
constant practice to print on some portion of the catalbgue
of the exhibition a statement that " copyrights of all pictures
are reserved," the impression apparently prevailing that a notice
of this kind effectively reserves the copyright for the artist while
selling his picture from the walls. It, of course, does no such
thing, and the copyright of any picture sold in these circum-
stances, without the necessary document from the purchaser,
must be lost to the artist, and pass irrevocably into the public
domain.

In a work.of art the work itself and the copyright are two totally
distinct properties, and may be held by different persons. The
conditions differ materially from those of a work of literature, in
which as a rule there is no value apart from publication. There is
a value in a work of art for its private enjoyment quite apart
from its commercial value in the form of reproductions; but
when the two properties exist in different hands, the person
holding the copyright has no power to force the owner of the work
of art to give him .access to it for purposes of reproduction;
this can only be effected by private arrangement. It has been
argued that, as the two properties are so distinct, the owner of the
copyright ought to have the right of access to the picture for the 1
purpose of exercising his right to reproduce it. But it is easy to
see that it would destroy the value of art property if proprietors
knew that at any moment they might be forced to surrender
their work for the purpose of reproduction, though for a time
only.

There is often a strong sympathy between the artist and the
person who buys his picture, and it is not at all unusual, when
application is made to the owner of the picture for access to it,
for him to submit the question of reproduction to the artist.
Although the latter may really have no right in it, it is felt, as
a practical matter, that he is largely interested in the character
of the reproduction it is proposed to make. Hence the courtesy
which is usually extended to him.

Owing also to the increased facilities of reproduction, the
practice has become very common of splitting up copyrights and
granting licences in what may be described as very minute forms.
It would, of course, be impossible for a publisher to pay an artist
' the sum at which he values his entire copyright, simply that he
might reproduce his picture in the form of a black-and-white
block in a magazine, and it has consequently become quite
common for the artist to grant a licence for any and every
particular form of reproduction as it may be required, so that
he may grant the right of reproduction in one particular form
in one particular publication, and even for a particular period
of time, reserving to himself thus the right to grant similar
licences to other publishers. This is apparently not to the injury
of the artist; it is probably to his advantage^ and it certainly
promotes business.

23. The great obstacle in the way of securing a really good
Artistic Bill has been the introduction into it of photography.
It was by a sort of accident that the photographer was
given the same privileges as the painter in the bill of graphs.
1862. The promoters of the bill thought that the
photographer would be protected by the Engraving Acts which
covered prints; but since the photographers feared that, as
their prints were of a different character from the prints from a
plate, the Engraving Acts might not protect them, it was at the
last moment decided to put photography into the Art Bill. The
result of this was that the painter lost his chance of copyright on
all works executed on commission. Legislators feared that if
photographers held copyright in all their works the public would
have no protection from the annoyance of seeing the photographs
of their wives and daughters exhibited and sold in shop windows'
by the side of "professional beauties " and other people, and

128

COPYRIGHT

made articles of commerce. So in the case of commissioned works
the copyright was denied to both painters and photographers.

The royal commission which reported on the subject in 1878
proposed two distinct terms of copyright for painting and
photography. The term for the painter was dependent on his
life; that for the photographer was a definitely fixed term of
years from the date of publication of his photographs; and there
can be little doubt that this is the right way to deal with the two
branches of copyright. The artist who paints a picture signs it,
and there is no difficulty in knowing who is the author of a painting
and in whom the term of copyright is vested. In a very large
number of cases a photograph is taken by an employee, who is
here to-day and gone to-morrow, and even his employer knows
nothing of his existence. Of course, it may suit an employer to be
able to maintain secrecy as to the authorship of his negative,
inasmuch as it enables him to go on claiming copyright fees
indefinitely; but it is not to the public interest. In most
countries on the continent of Europe a photographer has the fixed
term of five years' copyright in an original photograph dating
from its publication, which date, together with the name and
address of the photographer, has to be stamped on every copy
issued. In the public interest this is a good method of dealing
with photographs.

24. The " authorship " of a photograph has been much
debated in the law courts; and "author" was defined in
Nottage v. Jackson (1883) as " the man who really represents or
creates, or gives to ideas, or fancy, or imagination, true local
habitation — the man in fact who is most nearly the effective
cause of the representation ' ' {per Lord Justice Bowen) . He is not
necessarily the owner of the camera, or the proprietor of the busi-
ness; it depends on the circumstances. He is essentially the
person who groups and effectively superintends the picture. When
a photographer takes a portrait without fee, the copyright vests
in him and not in the sitter, who cannot prevent its publication;
but if the photograph is commissioned and paid for by the sitter
the copyright — in the absence of contrary stipulations — vests
in him, and he can restrain exhibition or multiplication of copies;
" the bargain includes, by implication, an agreement that the
prints taken from the negative are to be appropriated to the use
of the customer only" (Mr Justice North in Pollard v. Photo-
graphic Co., 1888). And this applies even when the sitter is not
the actual purchaser of the negative (Boucas v. Cooke, 1903).
But in several cases the " celebrity " who has sat to a photo-
grapher at his request and without payment has not been allowed
to distribute his photograph to newspapers for reproduction with-
out the photographer's consent. The fact that a sitter pays the
photographer for prints, though he has not commissioned the
sitting, would not vest the copyright in him.

25. The " Living Pictures " case in 1894 {Hanfstangel v.
Empire Palace) was a curious one. The Empire music-hall in
London produced some tableaux vivants, representing certain
pictures, of which Messrs Hanfstangel owned the copyright,
and an action was brought by them for an injunction. The
courts of chancery and of appeal decided against the plaintiffs, on
the ground that a reproduction of a painting must be by a
painting or something cognate; but in an action for infringement,
though the view already given was confirmed, the plaintiffs
succeeded so far as the backgrounds to the grouping were
concerned. Meanwhile two newspapers had published sketches
of the same tableaux vivants, and Messrs Hanfstangel brought
actions for infringement {Hanfstangel v. Newnes, and v. Baines,
1 804) . Mr Justice Stirling found for the plaintiffs, but on appeal,
and finally in the House of Lords, this decision was reversed.

26. Copyright in Designs. — An act of 1787 first gave protection
to printed designs on linen and cotton fabrics; and in 1839

a further act included designs on animal fabrics, or
mixed animal and vegetable fabrics ; while in the same
year another act protected designs for manufactured articles.
These acts had been preceded in France by laws of 1737 and
1 744 creating a property by law in manufacturers' designs. The
British law, which in various acts established a copyright (a) in
ornamental and {b) useful designs, was in 1 883 consolidated in the

Designs.

Patents, Designs and Trade Marks Act, with amending acts up to
1888; and these acts were further consolidated and amended by
an act of 1905. See Trade-marks and Patents.

British Imperial Copyright Bill of 1910

The consolidation of the British copyright law, not only in the
United Kingdom but in the Dominions, and its amendment so
as to include the recommendations of the Berlin International
Convention of 1908, were the objects of a government bill
introduced into parliament by the president of the Board of
Trade on the 26th of July 1910, discussion on which was reserved
for a later period in the year. The passing of this bill, though
the date of it was uncertain owing to the peculiar circumstances
of English politics at the moment, was practically assured by
the facts that, apart altogether from the crying need for a re-
vision of the English law, the draft had previously been considered
and accepted, not only by a Board of Trade Committee which
reported unanimously in favour of the recommendations of the
Berlin Convention, but also by an Imperial Conference. The
bill for the first time brought British copyright entirely under
statutory law and consolidated and amended all previous
enactments; it adopted the suggestions of the Imperial Con-
ference (attended by representatives of Canada, Australia, South
Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland, other interests being
covered by home representatives of the Foreign Office, India
Office, Colonial Office and Board of Trade) as to providing for
its extension by their declaration to the Dominions; and with its
enactment a great simplification of the British law of copy-
right came in sight, though for historical reasons the details given
above of the law as unamended must still remain of value.

Briefly, the new points of importance, apart from the placing
of all copyright on a purely statutory basis and the inclusion
of literary and artistic copyright within one arrangement, were
as follows. All compulsory formalities of registration were
abolished. The length of the period for which copyright lasted
was extended to the life of the author and 50 years after. This
reform was qualified, however, by a clause intended to protect
the public from its abuse, and providing that after the author's
death, if the work was withheld from the public or published
at too high a price, or if the reasonable requirements of the
public were not satisfied, a licence might be granted to publish
or perform it. These changes applied to all the subject-matters of
copyright, which were now put on the same level and treated
uniformly. In certain cases, already discussed above, protection
was extended: e.g. translations and lectures, original adapta-
tions and arrangements, works of artistic novelty, including
architectural designs; and the right to dramatize a novel or
" novelize " a drama was conferred in each case on the author.
Musical works were protected against unauthorized reproduction
by mechanical means without payment; but protection was
also extended to the mechanical record when authorized.

In including all sorts of intellectual product the bill followed
the recommendation (resolution 6) of the Imperial Conference
as to the definition of copyright (Pari. Paper Cd. 5272): " the
Conference is of opinion that, subject to proper qualifications,
copyright should include the sole right to produce or reproduce
a work, or any substantial part thereof, in any material form
whatsoever and in any language, to perform, or in the case of a
lecture, to deliver, the work or any substantial part thereof in
public, and, if the work is unpublished, to publish the work, and
should include the sole right to dramatize novels and vice versa,
and to make records, &c, by means of which a work may be
mechanically performed." As to architecture and artistic crafts
the Conference recommended (resolution 9) that " an original
work of art should not lose the protection of artistic copyright
solely because it consists of, or is embodied in, a work of archi •
tecture or craftsmanship; but it should be clearly understood that
such protection is confined to its artistic form and does not extend
to the processes or methods of reproduction, or to an industrial
design capable of registration under the law relating to designs and
destined to be multiplied by way of manufacture or trade."

As to the application of the new period of copyright to existing

COQUELIN— COQUEREL

129

works, the Conference recommended (resolution 10) " that
existing works in which copyright actually subsists at the
commencement of the new act (but no others) should enjoy,
subject to existing rights, the same protection as future works,
but the benefit of any extension of terms should belong to the
author of the work, subject, in the case where he has assigned
his existing rights, to a power on the part of the assignee at his
option either to purchase the full benefit of the copyright during
the extended term, or, without acquiring the full copyright, to
continue to publish the work on payment of royalties, the
payment in either case to be fixed by arbitration if necessary."

The Conference was also of opinion (resolution 4a) that, under
the new Imperial Act, copyright should subsist only in works
of which the author was a British subject or bona fide resident
in one of the parts of the British Empire to which it extended;
and that copyright should cease if the work were first published
elsewhere than in such parts of the Empire.

The sensible basis on which the new bill was framed, and the
authority it represented, commended it, in spite of many con-
troversial points, to the acceptance both of the public and of
the various parties concerned. But nobody who had ever wrestled
with all the difficulties of international copyright, as complicated
by the law in the United States, would suppose that it was the
last word on the subject. What the bill did was to bring British
legislation into better shape, and to amend it on certain points
which had worked unjustly. The great distinction between the
requirements for British and for American copyright still re-
mained, namely, the American manufacturing clause. Perhaps
the most notable innovation was the clause enabling a licence
to be granted for the publication of a copyright work where the
owners of the copyright had not exercised it for the " reasonable
requirements " of the public. Some such clause was clearly
called for when the period of monopoly was being extended ; but
the interpretation to be put upon the occasions which would
justify such interference might well be difficult. It may perhaps
be suggested that this innovation pointed to a reconsideration
of the true relations of " publishers " and " authors " (in the
widest sense) in respect of copyright, which sooner or later might
be approached from a different point of view. The new clause
was intended for the protection of the public from the mis-
handling of an author's work after his death, while greater
protection was given him during his life. From a purely
business point of view, the question might well be whether a
publisher or other party not the author should have a copyright
at all, and whether equity would not be satisfied if copyright
vested solely in the author and his family, with liberty to any one
to " publish " on fair terms, consideration being had to an
original publisher's reasonable claims and existing contracts.
The advisability of any such advance on the principle now
asserted must depend rather on experience of actual business
and the working of the clause; but even under the procedure
provided by the bill of 1910 it would equally be imperative for
a publisher who owned a deceased author's copyright to show
that he had given or was giving the public valuable consideration
for his monopoly, in order to uphold it against any one willing,
on payment of a reasonable royalty, to serve the public better.

Authorities. — For special points see W. A. Copinger's The Law
of Copyright in Works of Literature and Art, 4th ed., by J. M. Easton
(1904); or T. E. Scrutton's Law of Copyright (3rd ed., 1896). See
also E. J. MacGillivray, A Treatise on the Law of Copyright (1902) ;
Richard Winslow, M.A..LL.B., The Law of Artistic Copyright(hondon,
1889); A. Birrell, Copyright in Books (London, 1899); B. A. Cohen,
Law of Copyright (London, 1896) ; L. Edmunds, Copyright in Designs
(London, 1908) ; Knoxand Hind, Copyright in Designs(London, 1899) ;
W. Briggs, Law of International Copyright (1906); W. M. Colles
and H. Hardy, Playright and Copyright in all Countries (1906).

COQUELIN, BENOIT CONSTANT (1841-1909), French actor,
known as Coquelin aini, was born at Boulogne on the 23rd of
January 1841. He was originally intended to follow his father's
trade of baker (he was once called un boulanger manque by a
hostile critic) , but his love of acting led him to the Conservatoire,
where he entered Regnier's class in 1859. He won the first prize
for comedy within a year, and made his debut on the 7th of
December i860 at the Comedie Francaise as the comic valet,

vii. 5

Gros-Ren6, in Moliere : s Dipit amoureux, but his first great success
was as Figaro, in the following year. He was made societaire in
1864, and during the next twenty-two years he created at the
Francais the leading parts in forty-four new plays, including
Theodore de Banville's Gringoire (1867), Paul Ferrier's Tabarin
(1871), Emile Augier's Paul Foreslier (1871), V tltrangere (1876)
by the younger Dumas, Charles Lomon's Jean Dacier (1877),
Edward Pailleron's Le Monde ou Von s'ennuie (1881), Erckmann
and Chatrian's Les Rantzau (1884). In consequence of a dispute
with the authorities over the question of his right to make
provincial tours in France he resigned in 1886. Three years later,
however, the breach was healed; and after a successful series of
tours in Europe and the United States he rejoined the Comedie
Francaise as pensionnaire in 1890. It was during this period that
he took the part of Labussiere, in the production of Sardou's'
Thermidor, which was interdicted by the government after three
performances. In 1892 he broke definitely with the Comedifr
Francaise, and toured for some time through the capitals of
Europe with a company of his own. In 1895 he joined the
Renaissance theatre in Paris, and played there until he became
director of the Porte Saint Martin in 1897. Here he won successes
in Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac (1897), Emile Bergerats
Plus que reine (1899),' Catulle Mendes' Scarron (1905), and
Alfred Capus and Lucien Descaves' L' Attentat (1906). In 1900 he
toured in America with Sarah Bernhardt, and on their return
continued with his old colleague to appear in L'Aiglon, at the
Theatre Sarah Bernhardt. He was rehearsing for the creation
of the leading part in Rostand's Chantecler, which he was to
produce, when he died suddenly in Paris, on the 27th of January
1909. Coquelin was an Officier de l'lnstruction Publique and of
the Legion of Honour. He published L'Art et le comidien (1880),
Moliere et le misanthrope (1881), essays on Eugene Manuel (1881)
and Sully- Prudhomme (1882), L' Arnolphe de Moliere (1882),
Les Comidiens (1882), L'Art de dire le monologue (with his
brother, 1884), Tartuffe (1884), L'Art du comedien (1894).

His brother, Ernest Alexandre Honore Coquelin (1848-
1909), called Coquelin cadet, was born on the 16th of May 1848 at
Boulogne, and entered the Conservatoire in 1864. He graduated
with the first prize in comedy and made his debut in 1867 at the
Odeon. The next year he appeared with his brother at the
Theatre Francais and became a sociStaire in 1879. He played a
great many parts, in both the classic and the modern repertoire,
and also had much success in reciting monologues of his own
composition. He wrote Le Livre des convalescents (1880), Le
Monologue moderne (1881), Fairiboles (1882), Le Rire (1887),
Pirouettes (1888). He died on the 8th of February 1 909.

Jean Coquelin (1865- ), son of Coquelin aing, was also
an actor, first at the Theatre Francais (debut, 1890), later at the
Renaissance, and then at the Porte Saint Martin, where he created
the part of Raigone in Cyrano de Bergerac.

COQUEREL, ATHANASE JOSUE ( I 8 2 o-i87s), French
Protestant divine, son of A. L. C. Coquerel (q.v.), was born at
Amsterdam on the 16th of June 1820. He studied theology
at Geneva and at Strassburg, and at an early age succeeded
his uncle, C. A. Coquerel, as editor of Le Lien, a post which he
held till 1870. In 1852 he took part in establishing the Nouvelle
Revue de tkSologie, the first periodical of scientific theology
published in France, and in the same year helped to found the
" Historical Society of French Protestantism." Meanwhile
he had gained a high reputation as a preacher, and especially
as the advocate of religious freedom; but his teaching became
more and more offensive to the orthodox party, and on the
appearance (1864) of his article on Renan's Vie de Jisus in the
Nouvelle Revue de thiologie he was forbidden by the Paris con-
sistory to continue his ministerial functions. He received an
address of sympathy from the consistory of Anduze, and a
provision was voted for him by the Union Protestante Liberale,
to enable him to continue his preaching. He received the cross
of the Legion of Honour in 1862. He died at Fismes (Marne),
on the 24th of July 1875. His chief works were Jean Colas et
sa famille (1858); Des Beaux- Arts en Italie (Eng. trans. 1859);
La Saint Barthilemy (i860); Pricis de I'Sglise reformee (1862):

12

*3P

COQUEREL— COQUIMBO

Le Catholicisme et le proteslantisme consideres dans leur origine
et leur diveloppement (1864); Libres itudes, and La Conscience et
lajoi (1867).

COQUEREL, ATHANASE LAURENT CHARLES (1795-1868),
French Protestant divine, was born in Paris on the 17th of
August 1795. He received his early education from his aunt,
Helen Maria Williams, an Englishwoman, who at the dose of the
1 8th century gained a reputation by various translations and
by her Letters from France. He completed his theological studies
at the Protestant seminary of Montauban, and in 18 16 was
ordained minister. In 1817 he was invited to become pastor
of the chapel of St Paul at Jersey, but he declined, being unwilling
to subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England.
During the following twelve years he resided in Holland, and
preached before Calvinistic congregations at Amsterdam,
Leiden and Utrecht. In 1830, at the suggestion of Baron Georges
de Cuvier, then minister of Protestant worship, Coquerel was
called to Paris as pastor of the Reformed Church. In the course
of 1833 he was chosen a member of the consistory, and rapidly
acquired the reputation of a great pulpit orator, but his liberal
views brought him into antagonism with the rigid Calvinists.
He took a warm interest in all matters of education, and dis-
tinguished himself so much by his defence of the university of
Paris against a sharp attack, that in 1835 he was chosen a
member of the consistory of the Legion of Honour. In 1841
appeared his Reponse to the Leben Jesu of Strauss. After the
revolution of February 1848, Coquerel was elected a member
of the National Assembly, where he sat as a moderate republican,
subsequently becoming a member of the Legislative Assembly.
He supported the first ministry of Louis Napoleon, and gave
his vote in favour of the expedition to Rome and the restoration
of the temporal power of the pope. After the coup d'etat of the
2nd of December 1851, he confined himself to the duties of his
pastorate. He was a prolific writer, as well as a popular and
eloquent speaker. He died at Paris on the 10th of January 1868.
A large collection of his sermons was published in 8 vols, between
i8i9and 1852. Other works were Biographie sacree (1825-1826);
Histoire sainte et analyse de la Bible (1839); Orthodoxie moderne
(1842); Christologie (1858), &c.

His brother, Charles Augustin Coquerel (1797-1851), was
the author of a work on English literature (1828), an Essai sur
I'ltistoire gSnirale du christianisme (1828) and a Histoire des
iglises du disert, depuis la revocation de Fedit de Nantes (1841).
A liberal in his views, he was the founder and editor of the Annates
protestantes, Le Lien, and the Revue protestante.

COQUES (or Cocx), GONZALEZ (1614-1684), Flemish painter,
son of Pieter Willemsen Cocx, a respectable Flemish citizen, and
not, as his name might imply, a Spaniard, was born at Antwerp.
At the age of twelve he entered the house of Pieter, the son of
" Hell " Breughel, an obscure portrait painter, and at the
expiration of his time as an apprentice became a journeyman
in the workshop of David Ryckaert the second, under whom
he made accurate studies of still life. At twenty-six he matri-
culated in the gild of St Luke; he then married Ryckaert's
daughter, and in 1653 joined the literary and dramatic club
known as the " Retorijkerkamer." After having been made
president of his gild in 1665, and in 167 1 painter in ordinary to
Count Monterey, governor-general of the Low Countries, he
married again in 1674, and died full of honours in his native
place. One of his canvases in the gallery at the Hague represents
a suite of rooms hung with pictures, in which the artist himself
may be seen at a table with his wife and two children, surrounded
by masterpieces composed and signed by several contemporaries.
Partnership in painting was common amongst the small masters
of the Antwerp school; and it has been truly said of Coques
that he employed Jacob von Arthois for landscapes, Ghering
and van Ehrenberg for architectural backgrounds, Steenwijck
the younger for rooms, and Pieter Gysels for still life and flowers;
but the model upon which Coques formed himself was Van Dyck,
whose sparkling touch and refined manner he imitated with great
success. He never ventured beyond the "cabinet," but in this
limited field the family groups of his middle time are full of life,

brilliant from the sheen ef costly dress and sparkling play of
light and shade, combined with finished execution and enamelled
surface.

COQUET (pronounced Cocket), a river of Northumberland,
draining a beautiful valley about 40 m. in length. It rises in
the Cheviot Hills. Following a course generally easterly, but
greatly winding, it passes Harbottle, near which relics of the Stone
Age are seen, and Holystone, where it is recorded that Bishop
Paulinus baptized a great body of Northumbrians in the year
627. Several earthworks crown hills above this part of the valley,
and at Cartington, Fosson and Whitton are relics of medieval
border fortifications. The small town of Rothbury is beautifully
situated beneath the ragged Simonside Hills. The river dashes
through a narrow gully called the Thrum, and then passes Brink-
burn priory, of which the fine Transitional Norman church was
restored to use in 18*58, while there are fragments of the monastic
buildings. This was an Augustinian foundation of the time of
Henry I. The dale continues well wooded and very beautiful
until Warkworth is reached, with its fine castle and remarkable
hermitage. A short distance below this the Coquet has its mouth
in Alnwick Bay (North Sea), with the small port of Amble on the
south bank, and Coquet Island a mile out to sea. The river is
frequented by sportsmen for salmon and trout fishing. No
important tributary is received, and the drainage area does not
exceed 240 sq. m.

COQUET (pronounced co-kette), to simulate the arts of love-
making, generally from motives of personal vanity, to flirt; in
a figurative sense, to. trifle or dilly-dally with anything. The
word is derived from the French coqueter, which originally means,
" to strut about like a cock-bird," i.e. when it desires to attract
the hens. The French substantive coquet, in the sense of " beau "
or ''lady-killer," was formerly commonly used in English; but
the feminine form, coquette, now practically alone survives, in the
sense of a woman who gratifies, her vanity by using her powers
of attraction in a frivolous or inconstant fashion* Hence " to
coquet," the original and more correct form, has com« fre-
quently to be written " to coquette." Coquetry (Fr. coquetterie),
primarily the art of the coquette, is used figuratively of any
dilly-dallying or "coquetting" and, by transference of idea,
of any superficial qualities of attraction in persons or things.
" Coquet " is still also occasionally used adjectivally, but
the more usual form is "coquettish"; e.g. we speak of a
" coquettish manner,-" or a • " coquettish hat." The crested
humming-birds of the genus Lophornis are known as coquettes
(Fr. coquets).

COQUIMBO, an important city and port of the province and
department of Coquimbo, Chile, in 29 57' 4" S., 7i°2i' 12" W.
Pop. (1895) 7322. The railway connexions are with Ovalle to
the S., and Vicuna (or Elqui) to the E., but the proposed exten*
sion northward of Chile's longitudinal system would bring
Coquimbo into direct communication with Santiago. The city
has a good well-sheltered harbour, reputed the best in northern
Chile, and is the port of La Serena, the provincial capital, 9 m.
distant, with which it is connected by rail. There are large
copper-smelting establishments in the city, which exports a
very large amount of copper, some gold and silver, and cattle
and hay to the more northern provinces.

The province of Coquimbo, which lies between those of
Aconcagua and Atacama and extends from the Pacific inland
to the Argentine frontier, has an area of 13,461 sq. m. (official
estimate) and a population (1895) of 160,898. It is less arid
than the province of Atacama, the surface near the coast being
broken by well-watered river valleys, which produce alfalfa,
and pasture cattle for export. Near the mountains grapes are
grown, from which wine of a good quality is mad%. The mineral
resources include extensive deposits of copper, and some less
important mines of gold and silver. The climate is dry and
healthy, and there are occasional rains. Several rivers, the
largest of which is the Coquimbo (or Elqui) with a length of
125 m., cross the province from the mountains. The capital is
La Serena, and the principal cities are Coquimbo, Ovalle (pop.
5565), and Illapel (3170).

CORACLE— CORALLIAN

131

CORACLE (Welsh corwg-l, from corwg, cf . Irish and mod. Gaelic
curaeh, boat), a species of ancient British fishing-boat which is
still extensively used on the Severn and other rivers of Wales,
notably on the Towy and Teifi. It is a light boat, oval in shape,
and formed of canvas stretched on a framework of split and
interwoven rods, and well-coated with tar and pitch to render
it water-tight. According to early writers the framework was
covered with horse or bullock hide (corium). So light and
portable are these boats that they can easily be carried on the
fisherman's shoulders when proceeding to and from his work.
Coracle-fishing is performed by two men, each seated in his
coracle and with one hand holding the net while with the other
he plies his paddle. When' a fish is caught, each hauls up his
end of the net until the two coracles are brought to touch and
the fish is then secured. The coracle forms a unique link
between the modern life of Wales and its remote past; for this
primitive type of boat was in existence amongst the Britons
at the time of the invasion of Julius Caesar, who has left a
description of it, and even employed it in his Spanish campaign.

CORAfiS (Korais), ADAMANTIOS [in French, Diamant
Coray] (1748-1833), Greek scholar and patriot, was born at
Smyrna, the son of a merchant. As a schoolboy he distinguished
himself in the study of ancient Greek, but from 1772 to 1779
he was occupied with the management of his father's business
affairs in Amsterdam. In 1782, on the collapse of his father's
business, he went to Montpellier, where for six years he studied
medicine, supporting himself by translating German and English
medical works into French. He then settled in Paris, where
he lived until his death on the 10th of April 1833. Inspired
by the ideals of the French Revolution, he devoted himself to
furthering the cause of Greek independence both among the
Greeks themselves and by awakening the interest of the chief
European Powers against the Turkish rule. His great object
was to rouse the enthusiasm of the Greeks for the idea that they
were the true descendants of the ancient Hellenes by teaching
them to regard as their own inheritance the great works of
antiquity. He sought to purify the ordinary written language
by eliminating the more obvious barbarisms, and by enriching
it with classical words and others invented in strict accordance
with classical tradition (see further Greek. Language: modern).
Under his influence, though the common patois was practically
untouched, the language of literature and intellectual inter-
course was made to approximate to the pure Attic of the 5 th
and 4th centuries B.C. His chief works are his editions of Greek
authors contained in his -'EAXijwk^ B[/3\to0ijKi7 and his Hapepya;
his editions of the Characters of Theophrastus, of the De aere,
aquis, et locis of Hippocrates, and of the Aethiopica of Heliodorus,
elaborately annotated.

His literary remains have been edited by Mamoukas and Damalas
(1881-1887) ; collections of letters written from Paris at the time
of the French Revolution have been published (in English, by P. Ralli,
1898; in French, by the Marquis de Queux de Saint-Hilaire, 1880).
His autobiography appeared at Paris (1829; Athens, i89i),and his
life has been written by D. Thereianos (1889-1890); see also A. R.
Rhangabe, Histoire lilteraire de la Gr'ece moderne (1877).

CORAL, the hard skeletons of various marine organisms. It
is chiefly carbonate of lime, and is secreted from sea-water
and deposited in the tissues of Anthozoan polyps, the principal
source of the coral-reefs of the world (see Anthozoa) , of Hydroids
(see Hydromedusae), less important in modern reef -building,
but extremely abundant in Palaeozoic times, and of certain
Algae. The skeletons of many other organisms, such as Polyzoa
and Mollusca, contribute to coral masses but cannot be included
in the term " coral." The structure of coral animals (sometimes
erroneously termed "coral insects") is dealt within the articles
cited above; for the distribution and formation of reefs see
Coral-reefs.

Beyond their general utility and value as sources of lime,
few of the corals present any special feature of industrial im-
portance, excepting the red or precious coral {Cor allium rubrum)
of the Mediterranean Sea. It, however, is and has been from
remote times very highly prized for jewelry, personal orna-
mentation and decorative purposes generally. About the

beginning of the Christian era a great trade was carried on in
coral between the Mediterranean and India, where it was highly
esteemed as a substance endowed with mysterious sacred
properties. It is remarked by Pliny that, previous to the
existence of the Indian demand, the Gauls were in the habit
of using it for the ornamentation of their weapons of war and
helmets; but in his day, 30 great was the Eastern demand, that
it was rvery rarely seen even in the regions which produced it.
Among the Romans branches of coral were hung around children's
necks to preserve them from danger, and the substance had
many medicinal virtues attributed to it. A belief in its potency
as a charm continued to be entertained throughout medieval
times; and even to the present day in Italy it is worn as a
preservative from the evil eye, and by females as a cure for
sterility.

The precious coral is found widespread on the borders and
around the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. It ranges in
depth from shallow water (25 to 50 ft.) to water over 1000 ft.,
but the most abundant beds are in the shallower areas. The
most important fisheries extend along the coasts of Tunisia,
Algeria and Morocco; but red coral is also obtained in the
vicinity of Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on the coasts
of Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia and Provence. It occurs also
in the Atlantic off the north-west of Africa, and recently it
has been dredged in deep water off the west of Ireland. Allied
species of small commercial value have been obtained off
Mauritius and near Japan. The black coral {Antipathes abies),
formerly abundant in the Persian Gulf, and for which India is
the chief market, has a wide distribution and grows to a con-
siderable height and thickness in the tropical waters of the
Great Barrier Reef of Australia.

From the middle ages downwards the securing of the right
to the coral fisheries on the African coasts was an object of
considerable rivalry among the Mediterranean communities of
Europe. Previous to the 16th century they were controlled by
the Italian republics. For a short period the Tunisian fisheries
were secured by Charles V. to Spain; but the monopoly soon
fell into the hands of the French, who held the right till the
Revolutionary government in 1793 threw the trade open. For
a short period (about 1806) the British government controlled
the fisheries, and now they are again in the hands of the French
authorities. Previous to the French Revolution much of the coral
trade centred in Marseilles; but since that period, both the
procuring of the raw material and the working of it up into the
various forms in which it is used have become peculiarly Italian
industries, centring largely in Naples, Rome and Genoa. On
the Algerian coast, however, boats not flying the French flag
have to pay heavy dues for the right to fish, and in the early
years of the 20th century the once flourishing fisheries at La
Calle were almost entirely neglected. Two classes of boats
engage fn the pursuit — a large size of from 12 to 14 tons, manned
by ten or twelve hands, and a small size of 3 or 4 tons, with a
crew of five or six. The large boats, dredging from March to
October, collect from 650 to 850 lb of coral, and the small,
working throughout the year, collect from 390 to 500 lb. The
Algerian reefs are divided into ten portions, of which only one
is fished annually — ten years being considered sufficient for the
proper growth of the coral.

The range of value of the various qualities of coral, according
to colour and size, is exceedingly wide, and notwithstanding the
steady Oriental demand its price is considerably affected by tb-
fluctuations of fashion. While the price of the finest tints of ro;
pink may range from £80 to £120 per oz., ordinary red-colourea
small pieces sell for about £2 per oz., and the small fragments
called collette, used for children's necklaces, cost about 5s. per
oz. In China large spheres of good coloured coral command high
prices, being in great requisition for the button of office worn by
the mandarins. It also finds a ready market throughout India
and in Central Asia; and with the negroes of Central Africa and
of America it is a favourite ornamental substance.

CORALLIAN (Fr. Corallien), in geology, the name of one of the
divisions of the Jurassic rocks. The rocks forming this division

132

CORAL-REEFS

are mainly calcareous grits with oolites, and rubbly coral rock —
often called "Coral Rag"; ferruginous beds are fairly common,
and occasionally there are beds of clay. In England the Corallian
strata are usually divided into an upper series, characterized by
the ammonite Perisphinctes plicatilis, and a lower series with
Aspidoceras perarmatus as the zonal fossil. When well developed
these beds are seen to lie above the Oxford Clay and below the
Kimeridge Clay; but it will save a good deal of confusion if it is
recognized that the Corallian rocks of England are nothing more
than a variable, local lithological phase of the two clays which
come respectively a.bove and below them. This caution is
particularly necessary when any attempt is being made to
co-ordinate the English with the continental Corallian.

The Corallian rocks are nowhere better displayed than in the
cliffs at Weymouth. Here Messrs Blake and Huddleston recog-
nized the following beds: —

Upper Coral Rag and Abbotsbury Iron Ore.
Sandsfoot Grits.

Upper CoraUian |^? a 0t B ^-

Osmington Oolite (quarried at Marnhull and
- Todbere).
f Bencliff Grits.
Lower Corallian-/ Nothe Clay.
[Nothe Grit.

In Dorsetshire the Corallian rocks are 200 ft. thick, in Wiltshire
100 ft., but N.E. of Oxford they are represented mainly by clays,
and the series is much thinner. (At Up ware, the " Up ware
limestone " is the only known occurrence of beds that correspond
in character with the Coralline oolite between Wiltshire and
Yorkshire). In Yorkshire, however, the hard rocky beds come
on again in full force. They appear once more at Brora in
Sutherlandshire. Corallian strata have been proved by boring
in Sussex (241 ft.). In Huntingdon, Bedfordshire, parts of
Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire the
Corallian series is represented by the "AmpthiH Clay," which
has also been called " Bluntesham " or " Tetworth" Clay. Here
and there in this district hard calcareous inconstant beds appear,
such as the Elsworth rock, St Ives rock and Boxworth rock.

In Yorkshire the Corallian rocks differ in many respects from
their southern equivalents. They are subdivided as follows: —

_ Upper Calcareous Grit "1

Kimeridge g « f Coral Rag and Upper Lime-
Clay r2 .S- stone

Middle Calcareous Grit

Oxford
Clay

o"§

\-A. plicatilis.

Lower Limestone
^ Passage Beds
Lower Calcareous Grit

>A. perarmatus.

These rocks play an important part in the formation of the
Vale of Pickering, and the Hambleton and Howardian Hills;
they are well exposed in Gristhorpe Bay.

The passage beds, highly siliceous, flaggy limestones, are known
locally as "Greystone" or "Wall stones"; some portions of
these beds have resisted the weathering agencies and stand up
prominently on the moors — such are the " Bridestones." Cement
stone beds occur in the upper calcareous grit at North Grimstone;
and in the middle and lower calcareous grits good building stones
are found.

Among the fossils in the English Corallian rocks corals play
an important part, frequently forming large calcareous masses
or "doggers"; Thamnastrea, Thecosmilia and Isastrea are
prominent genera. Ammonites and belemnites are abundant
and gasteropods are very common (Nerinea,Chemnitzia, Bourgetia,
&c.) . Trigonias are very numerous in certain beds ( T. perlata and
T. mariani). Astarte ovata, Lucina aliena and other pelecypods
are also abundant. The echinoderms Echinobrissus scutatus and
Cidaris florigemma are characteristic of these beds.

Rocks of the same age as the English Corallian are widely
spread over Europe, but owing to the absence of clearly-marked
itratigraphical and palaeontological boundaries, the nomen-
clature has become greatly involved, and there is now a tendency
amongst continental geologists to omit the term Corallian
iltogether. According to A. de Lapparent's classification the

English Corallian rocks are represented by the Siquanien stage,
with two substages, an upper Astartien and lower Rauracien;
but this does not include the whole Corallian stage as defined
above, the lower part being placed by the French author in his
Oxfordien stage. For the table showing the relative position of
these stages see the article Jurassic.

See also " The Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," vol. i. (1892)
and vol. v. (1895) {Memoirs of the Geological Survey); Blake and
Huddleston, " On the Corallian Rocks of England, Q.J.G.S. vol.
xxxiii. (1877)- Q. A. H.)

CORAL-REEFS. Many species of coral (q.v.) are widely
distributed, and are found at all depths both in warmer and colder
seas. Lophohelia prolifera and Dendrophyllia ramea form dense
beds at a depth of from 100 to 200 fathoms off the coasts of
Norway, Scotland and Portugal, and the " Challenger/' and other
deep-sea dredging expeditions have brought up corals from great
depths in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. But the larger
number of species, particularly the more massive kinds, occur
only in tropical seas in shallow waters, whose mean temperature
does not fall below 68° Fahr., and they do not flourish unless
the temperature is considerably higher. These conditions of
temperature are found in a belt of ocean which may roughly be
indicated as lying between the 28th N. and S. parallels. Within
these limits there are numerous reefs and islands formed of coral
intermixed with the calcareous skeletons of other animals, and
their formation has long been a matter of dispute among
naturalists and geologists.

Coral formations may be classed as fringing or shore reefs,
barrier reefs and atolls. Fringing reefs are platforms of coral
rock extending no great distance from the shores of a continent
or island. The seaward edge of the platform is usually somewhat
higher than the inner part, and is often awash at low water.
It is intersected by numerous creeks and channels, especially
opposite those places where streams of fresh water flow down
from the land, and there is usually a channel deep enough to be
navigable by small boats between the edge of the reef and the
land. The outer wall of the reef is rather steep, but descends
into a comparatively shallow sea. Since corals are killed by
fresh water or by deposition of mud or sand, it is obvious that
the outer edge of the reef is the region of most active coral growth,
and the boat channel and the passages leading into it from the
open sea have been formed by the suppression of coral growth
by one of the above-mentioned causes, assisted by the scour
of the tides and the solvent action of sea-water. Barrier reefs
may be regarded as fringing reefs on a large scale. The great
Australian barrier reef extends for no less a distance than 1250 m.
from Torres Strait in 9-5° S. lat. to Lady Elliot island in 24 S.
lat. The outer edge of a barrier reef is much farther from the
shore than that of a fringing reef, and the channel between it and
the land is much deeper. Opposite Cape York the seaward edge
of the great Australian barrier reef is nearly 90 m. distant from
the coast, and the maximum depth of the channel at this point
is nearly 20 fathoms. As is the case in a fringing reef, the outer
edge of a barrier reef is in many places awash at low tides, and
masses of dead coral and sand may be piled up on it by the action
of the waves, so that islets are formed which in time are covered
with vegetation. These islets may coalesce and form a strip
of dry land lying some hundred yards or less from the extreme
outer edge of the reef, and separated by a wide channel from the
mainland. Where the barrier reef is not far from the land there
are always gaps in it opposite the mouths of rivers or considerable
streams. The outer wall of a barrier reef is steep, and frequently,
though not always, descends abruptly into great depths. In
many cases in the Pacific Ocean a barrier reef surrounds one or
more island peaks, and the strips of land on the edge of the reef
may encircle the peaks with a nearly complete ring. An atoll
is a ring-shaped reef, either awash at low tide or surmounted by
several islets, or more rarely by a complete strip of dry land
surrounding a central lagoon. The outer wall of an atoll generally
descends with a very steep but irregular slope to a depth of 500
fathoms or more, but the lagoon is seldom more than 20 fathoms
deep, and may be much less. Frequently, especially to the

CORAL-REEFS

133

leeward side of an atoll, there may be one or more navigable
passages leading from the lagoon to the open sea.

Though corals flourish everywhere under suitable conditions in
tropical seas, coral reefs and atolls are by no means universal in the
torrid zone. The Atlantic Ocean is remarkably free from coral
formations, though there are numerous reefs in the West Indian
islands, off the south coast of Florida, and on the coast of Brazil.
The Bermudas also are coral formations, their high land being
formed by sand accumulated by the wind and cemented into
rock, and are remarkable for being the farthest removed from the
equator of any recent reefs, being situated in 32° N. lat. In the
Pacific Ocean there is a vast area thickly dotted with coral
formations, extending from 5 N. lat. to 2 5 S. lat., and from 130
E. long, to 145° W. long. There are also extensive reefs in the
westernmost islands of the Hawaiian group in about 25 N. lat.
In the Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands are
large groups of atolls off the west and south-west of India. Still
farther south is the Chagos group of atolls, and there are numerous
reefs off the north coast of Madagascar, at Mauritius, Bourbon and
the Seychelles. The Cocos-Keeling Islands, in 1 2° S. lat. and 96°E.
long., are typical atolls in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean.

The remarkable charactersof barrier reefs and atolls, their isolat-
ed position in the midst of the great oceans the seemingly unfath-
omable depths from which they rise their peaceful and shallow
lagoons and inner channels, their narrow strips of land covered
with coco-nut palms and other vegetation, and rising but a few
feet above the level of the ocean, naturally attracted the attention
of the earlier navigators, who formed sundry speculations as to
their origin. The poet-naturalist, A. von Chamisso, was the first
to propound a definite theory of the origin of atolls and encircling
reefs, attributing their peculiar features to the natural growth of
corals and the action of the waves. He pointed out that the
larger and more massive species of corals flourish best on the
outer sides of a reef, whilst the more interior corals are killed or
stunted in growth by the accumulation of coral and other debris.
Thus the outer edge of a submerged reef is the first to reach the
surface, and a ring of land being formed by materials piled up by
the waves, an atoll with a central lagoon is produced. Chamisso's
theory necessarily assumed the existence of a great number of
submerged banks reaching nearly, but not quite, to the surface of
the sea in the Pacific and Indian oceans, and the difficulty of
accounting for the existence of so many of these led C. Darwin to
reject his views and bring forward an explanation which may be
called the theory of subsidence. Starting from the well-known
premise that reef-building species of corals do not flourish in a
greater depth of water than 20 fathoms, Darwin argued that all

™ £.«L V. „.WA

Diagram showing the formation of an atoll during subsidence.
(After C. Darwin.) The lower part of the figure represents a barrier
reef surrounding a central peak.

A,A, outer edges of the barrier reef at the sea-level; the coco-
nut trees indicate dry land formed on the edges of the reef.

L L, lagoon channel.

A',A', outer edges of the atoll formed by upgrowth of the coral
during the subsidence of the peak.

L', lagoon of the atoll.

The vertical scale is considerably exaggerated as compared with
the horizontal scale.

coral islands must have a rocky base, and that it was inconceivable
that, in such large tracts of sea as occur in the Pacific and Indian
oceans, there should be a vast number of submarine peaks or
banks all rising to within 20 or 30 fathoms of the surface and none
emerging above it. But on the supposition that the atolls and

encircling reefs were formed round land which was- undergoing
a slow movement of subsidence, their structure could easily be
explained. Take the case of an island consisting of a single high
peak. At first the coral growth would form a fringing reef
clinging to its shores. As the island slowly subsided into the
ocean the upward growth of coral would keep the outer rim of
the reef level with or within a few fathoms of the surface, so that,
as subsidence proceeded, the distance between the outer rim of
the reef and the sinking land would continually increase, with the
result that a barrier-reef would be formed separated by a wide
channel from the central peak. As corals and other organisms
with calcareous skeletons live in the channel, their remains, as well
as the accumulation of coral and other debris thrown over the
outer edge of the reef, would maintain the channel at a shallower
depth than that of the ocean outside. Finally, if the subsidence
continued, the central peak would disappear beneath the surface,
and an atoll would be left consisting of a raised margin of reef
surrounding a central lagoon, and any pause during the move-
ment of subsidence would result in the formation of raised islets or
a strip of dry land along the margin of the reef. Darwin's
theory was published in 1842, and found almost universal
acceptance, both because of its simplicity and its applicability to
every known type of coral-reef formation, including such difficult
cases as the Great Chagos Bank, a huge submerged atoll in the
Indian Ocean.

Darwin's theory was adopted and strengthened by J. D. Dana,
who had made extensive observations among the Pacific coral
reefs between 1838 and 1842, but it was not long before it was
attacked by other observers. In 1851 Louis Agassiz produced
evidence to show that the reefs off the south coast of Florida were
not formed during subsidence, and in 1863 Karl Semper showed
that in the Pelew islands there is abundant evidence of recent
upheaval in a region where both atolls and barrier-reefs exist.
Latterly, many instances of recently upraised coral formations
have been described by H. B. Guppy, J. S. Gardiner and others,
and Alexander Agassiz and Sir J. Murray have brought forward
a mass of evidence tending to shake the subsidence theory to its
foundations. Murray has pointed out that the deep-sea sound-
ings of the " Tuscarora " and " Challenger " have proved the
existence of a large number of submarine elevations rising out of a
depth of 2000 fathoms or more to within a few hundred fathoms
of the surface. The existence of such banks was unknown to
Darwin, and removes his objections to Chamisso's theory. For
although they may at first be too far below the surface for reef-
building corals, they afford a habitat for numerous echinoderms,
molluscs, Crustacea and deep-sea corals, whose skeletons
accumulate on their summits, and they further receive a constant
rain of the calcareous and silicious skeletons of minute organisms
which teem in the waters above. By these agencies the banks are
gradually raised to the lowest depth at which reef-building
corals can flourish, and once these establish themselves they will
grow more rapidly on the periphery of the bank, because they are
more favourably situated as regards food-supply. Thus the reef
will rise to the surface as an atoll, and the nearer it approaches
the surface the more will the corals on the exterior faces be
favoured, and the more will those in the centre of the reef decrease,
for experiment has shown that the minute pelagic organisms on
which corals feed are far less abundant in a lagoon than in the sea
outside. Eventually, as the margin of the reef rises to the surface
and material is accumulated upon it to form islets or continuous
land, the coral growth in the lagoon will be feeble, and the solvent
action of sea- water and the scour of the tide will tend to deepen the
lagoon. Thus the considerable depth of some lagoons, amounting
to 40 or 50 fathoms, may be accounted for. The observations of
Guppy in the Solomon islands have gone far to confirm Murray's
conclusions, since he found in the islands of Ugi, Santa Anna and
Treasury and Stirling islands unmistakable evidences of a nucleus
of volcanic rock, covered with soft earthy bedded deposits
several hundred feet thick. These deposits are highly fossili-
ferous in parts, and contain the remains of pteropods, lamelli-
branchs and echinoderms, embedded in a foraminiferous deposit
mixed with volcanic debris, like the deep-sea muds brought up by

134

CORAM^COR ANGLAIS

the "Challenger." The flanks of these elevated beds are covered
with coralline limestone rocks varying from 100 to 16 ft. in
thickness. One of the islands, Santa Anna, has the form of an
upraised atoll, with a mass of coral limestone 80 ft. in vertical
thickness, resting on a friable and sparingly argillaceous rock
resembling a deep-sea deposit. A. Agassiz, in a number of
important researches on the Florida reefs, the Bahamas, the
Bermudas, the Fiji islands and the Great Barrier Reef of
Australia, has further shown that many of the peculiar features of
these coral formations cannot be explained on the theory of
subsidence, but are rather attributable to the natural growth of
corals on banks formed by prevailing currents, or on extensive
shore platforms or submarine flats formed by the erosion of
pre-existing land surfaces.

In face of this accumulated evidence, it must be admitted
that the subsidence theory of Darwin is inapplicable to a large
number of coral reefs and islands, but it is hardly possible to
assert, as Murray does, that no atolls or barrier reefs have ever
been developed after the manner indicated by Darwin. The
most recent research on the structure of coral reefs has also been
the most thorough and most convincing. It is obvious that,
if Murray's theory were correct, a bore hole sunk deep into an
atoll would pass through some 100 ft. of coral rock, then through
a greater or less thickness of argillaceous rock, and finally would
penetrate the volcanic rock on which the other materials were
deposited. If Darwin's theory is correct, the boring would pass
through a great thickness of coral rock, and finally, if it went
deep enough, would pass into the original rock which subsided
below the waters. An expedition sent out by the Royal Society
of London started in 1896 for the island of Funafuti, a typical
atoll of the Ellice group in the Pacific Ocean, with the purpose of
making a deep boring to test this question. The first attempt
was not successful, for at a depth of 105 ft. the refractory nature
of the rock stopped further progress. But a second attempt,
under the management of Professor Edgeworth David of Sydney,
proved a complete success. With improved apparatus, the boring
was carried down to a depth of 697 ft. (116 fathoms), and a third
attempt carried it down to n 14 ft. (185 fathoms). The boring
proves the existence of a mass of pure limestone of organic origin
to the depth of n 14 ft., and there is no trace of any other rock.
The organic remains found in the core brought up by the drill
consist of corals, foraminifera, calcareous algae and other
organisms. A boring was also made from the deck of a ship
into the floor of the lagoon, which shows that Under 100 ft. of
water there exists at the bottom of the lagoon a deposit more
than 100 ft. thick, consisting of the remains of a calcareous alga,
Halimeda opuntia, mixed with abundant foraminifera. At greater
depths, down to 245 ft., the same materials, mixed with the re-
mains of branching madrepores, were met with, and further
progress was stopped by the existence of solid masses of coral,
fragments of porites, madrepora and heliopora having been
brought up in the core. These are shallow- water corals, and their
existence at a depth of nearly 46 fathoms, buried beneath a ma,ss
of Halimeda and foraminifera, is clear evidence of recent sub-
sidence. Halimeda grows abundantly over the floor of the lagoon
of Funafuti, and has been observed in many other lagoons. The
writer collected a quantity of it in the lagoon of Diego Garcia
in the Ghagos group. The boring demonstrates that the lagoon
of Funafuti has been filled up to an extent of at least 245 ft.
(nearly 41 fathoms), and this fact accords well with Darwin's
theory, but is incompatible with that of Murray. In the present
state of our knowledge it seems reasonable to conclude that coral
reefs are formed wherever the conditions suitable for growth
exist, whether in areas of subsidence, elevation or rest. A con-
siderable number of reefs, at all events, have not been formed
in areas of subsidence, and of these the Florida reefs, the
Bermudas, the Solomon islands, and possibly the Great Barrier
Reef of Australia are examples. Funafuti would appear to have
been formed in an area of subsidence, and it is quite probable
that the large groups of low-lying islands in the Pacific and
Indian oceans have been formed under the same conditions.
At the same time, it must be remembered that the atoll or barrier

reef shape is not necessarily evidence of formation during sub-
sidence, for the observations of Karl Semper, A. Agassiz, and
Guppy are sufficient to prove that these forms of reefs may be
produced by the natural growth of coral, modified by the action
of waves and currents in regions in which subsidence has certainly
not taken place.

See A. Agassiz, many publications in the Mem. Amer. Acad-
(1883) and Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard, 1889-1899); J. D.
Dana, Corals and Coral Islands (1853; 2nd ed., 1872; 3rd ed., 1890);
C. Darwin, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs (3rd ed.,
1889); H. B. Guppy, "The Recent Calcareous Formations of the
Solomon Group," Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxii. (1885); R.
Langenbeck, " Die neueren Forschungen iiber die Korallenriffe, "
Hettner geogr. Zeitsch. iii. (1897) ; J. Murray, " On the Structure
and Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands," Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. x.
(1879-1880); J. Murray and Irvine, '" On Coral Reefs and other
Carbonate of Lime Formations in Modern Seas," Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edinb. (1889) ; W. Savile Kent, The Great Barrier Reef of Australia
(London, W. H. Allen & Co., 1893); Karl Semper, Animal Life,
" Internat. Sci. Series," vol. xxxi. (1881); J. S. Gardiner, Nature,
lxix. 371. (G. C. B.)

CORAM, THOMAS (1668-1751), English philanthropist,
was born at Lyme Regis, Dorset. He began life as a seaman,
and rose to the position of merchant captain. He settled at
Taunton, Massachusetts, for several years engaging there in
farming and boat-building, and in 1703 returned to England.
His acquaintance with the destitute East End of London, and
the miserable condition of the children there, inspired him with
the idea of providing a refuge for such of them as had no legal
protector; and after seventeen years of unwearied exertion,
he obtained in 1739 a royal charter authorizing the establishment
of his hospital for foundling infants (see Foundling Hospitals) .
It was opened in Hatton Garden, on the 17th of October 1740,
with twenty inmates. For fifteen years it was supported by
voluntary contributions; but in 1756 it was endowed with a
parliamentary grant of £1 0,000 for the support of all that might
be sent to it. Children were brought, however, in such numbers,
and so few (not one-third, it is said) survived infancy, that the
grant was stopped, and the charity, which had been removed
to Guilford Street, was from that time only administered under
careful restrictions. Coram's later years were spent in watching
over the interests of the hospital; he was also one of the pro-
moters of the settlement of Georgia and Nova Scotia; and his
name is honourably connected with various other charities.
In carrying out his philanthropic schemes he spent nearly all
his private means; and an annuity of £170 was raised for him
by public subscription. He died on the 29th of March 1751.

COR ANGLAIS, or English Horn (Ger. englisches Horn or
alt Hoboe; Ital. corno inglese), a wood- wind double-reed instru-
ment of the oboe family, of which it is the tenor. It is not a horn,
but bears the same relation to the oboe as the basset horn does
to the clarinet. The cor anglais differs slightly in construction
from the oboe; the conical bore of the wooden tube is wider and
slightly longer, and there is a larger globular bell and a bent metal
crook to which the double reed mouthpiece is attached. The
fingering and method of producing the sound are so similar in
both instruments that the player of the one can in a short time
master the other, but as the cor anglais is pitched a fifth lower,
the music must be transposed for it into a key a fifth higher than
the real sounds produced. The compass of the cor anglais extends
over two octaves and a fifth:

Notation

JEL.

h*

i?

Real sounds <

5

The true quality of the cor anglais is penetrating like that of
the oboe, but mellower and more melancholy.

The cor anglais is the alto Pommer (q.v.) or haute-contre de
hautbois (see Oboe), gradually developed, improved and provided
with key-work. It is not known exactly when the change took
place, but it was probably during the 17th century, after the
Schalmey or Shawm had been transformed into the oboe. In a
17th century MS. (Add. 30,342, f. 145) in the British Museum,
written in French, giving pen and ink sketches of many instru-
ments, is an " accord de hautbois " which comprises a pMalle

CORATO— CORBEIL, WILLIAM OF

135

(bass oboe or Pommer), a sacquebute (sackbut) as basse-contre,
a taille (tenor) with a note that the haute-contre (the cor anglais)
est de tnestne sinon plus petite. The tubes of all the members of
the hautbois family are straight in this drawing. Before 1688
the French hoboy, made in four parts and having two keys, was
known in England. 1 It is probable that in France, where the
hautbois played such an important part in court music, the cor
anglais, under the name of haute-contre de hautbois, was also
provided with keys. At the end of the 17th century there were
two players of the haute-contre de hautbois among the musicians
of the Grande Ecurie du Roi. 2

The origin of the name of the instrument is also a matter of
conjecture. Two theories exist — one that cor anglais is a corruption
of cor angle, a name given on account of
the angular bend of the early specimens.

In that case the name,

but not necessarily the

instrument, probably

originated in France

early in the 1 8th century,

for Gluck scored for two

cors anglais in his Italian

version of Alceste played

in Vienna in 1767. When

a French version of this

opera was given in Paris

two years later, the cor

anglais, not being known

or available there, was

replaced by oboes. It

was not until 1808 that

the cor anglais was

heard at the Paris Opera,

when it was played by

the oboist Vogt in Catel's

Alexandre chez Apelle.

This, however, proves

only that the name was

not familiar in France,

where the oboe of the

same pitch was called

haute-contre de hautbois.

The bending of the tube

and the development of

the cor anglais as solo

instrument originated in

Germany, unless the

oboe da caccia was identi-
cal with the cor anglais,

in which case Italy

would be the country of

origin. Thomas

Stanesby, junior, made

an oboe da caccia in

1740 of straight pattern

in four pieces, having a

bent metal crook for the

insertion of the reed and

two saddle keys> but

the bell was like the bell

of the oboe, not globular

like that of the cor

anglais, a form to which

the veiled quality of its

timbre is due. It is in-
teresting in this con-
nexion to recall some

experiments in bending

the cor anglais, which

do not appear to have
led to any practical result. A French broadside (c. 1650), " La
Musique," preserved in the British Museum, contains drawings
of many musical instruments in use in the 17th century;
among them are an oboe with keys in a perforated case, and two
other wood 1 wind instruments of the same family, which may be
taken to represent attempts to dispose of the inconvenient length of
the haute-contre (1) by bending the tube at right angles for about one
quarter of its length from the mouthpiece, which contains a large

1 See Harleian MS. 2034, f. 207b, British Museum, in the third
part of Randle Holme's Academy of Armoury, written before 1688,
where an outline sketch in ink is also given.

2 See J. Ecorcheville, " Quelques documents sur la musique de la
Grande ficurie du Roi," Sammelband intern. Musikges. ii. 4, pp.
609 and 625. Deeds exist creating charges for four hautbois and
musettes de Poitou in the hand of King John, middle of 14th century,
see p. 633.

Fig. 1. — Modern

Cor anglais.
(Besson&Co.)

From Richard' Hofmann's
Katechismus der Musik-
instmtnenle.

Fig. 2. — Cor angle\
1 8th century.

double reed, (2) by bending the tube in the elongated " S " shape of
the corno torto or bass Zinke, for which the drawing in question
might be mistaken but for the bent crook inserted in the end for the
reception of the reed, which, however, is missing. The other hypo-
thesis is that when the cor anglais was given a bend in order to
facilitate the handling, the name was adopted to mark its resemblance
to a kind of hunting-horn said to be in use in England at the time.
This suggestion does not seem to be a happy one ; for if the reference
be to the crescent-shaped horn, that instrument was in use in all
countries at various periods before the 17th century, while if it be
to the angular form, then a reproduction of such a horn should be
forthcoming to support the statement.

The idea of bending the instrument is attributed to Giovanni or
Giuseppe Ferlendis of Bergamo, 3 brothers and virtuosi on the oboe.
One of these had settled in Salzburg, and both were equally renowned
as performers on the English horn. They visited Venice, Brescia,
Trieste, Vienna, London (in 1795) and Lisbon, where Giuseppe died.
In this case we might expect the name to have been given in Italian,
corno inglese; yet Gluck in his Italian edition used the French name
already in 1767, when Giuseppe was but twelve years old. We must
await some more conclusive explanation, but we may suppose that
the new name was bestowed when the instrument assumed a form
entirely new to the family of hautbois or oboes. The cor anglais
was well known in England before 1774, for in a quaint book of travels
through England, published in that year, we read that Signor
Sougelder, 4 " an eminent surgeon of Bristol," was a performer " on
the English horn."

The experiment of bending the cor anglais did not prove satis-
factory, for the tube instead of being bored had to be cut out of two
pieces of wood which were then glued together and covered with
leather. Even the most skilful craftsman did not succeed in making
the inside of the tube quite smooth ; the roughness of the wood was
detrimental to the tone and gave the cor anglais a veiled, somewhat
hoarse quality, and makers before long reverted to the direct or
vertical form. (K. S.).

CORATO, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Bari,
26 m. W. of Bari by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 4 J >S73- It
is situated in the centre of an agricultural district. It contains
no buildings of great interest, but is a clean and well-kept town.

CORBAN (W.ii), an Aramaic word meaning " a conse-
crated gift." Josephus uses the word of Nazirites and of the
temple treasure of Jerusalem. Such a votive offering lay under
a curse if it were diverted to ordinary purposes, like the spoil
of Jericho which Achan appropriated (Josh, vii.), or the temple
treasure of Delphi which was seized by the Phocians, 356 B.C.
The word is found in Mark vii. n, the usual interpretation of
which is that Jesus refers to an abuse — a man might declare
that any part of his property which came into his parents' hands
was corban, consecrated, i.e. that a curse rested on any benefit
they might get from it. The Jewish scribes thus fenced the law
of vows with a traditional interpretation which made men break
the most binding injunctions of the Mosaic Law, in this case
the fifth commandment. A totally different explanation of the
passage is put forward by J. H. A. Hart in The Jewish Quarterly
Review for July 1907, the gist of which is that Jesus commends
the Pharisees for insisting that when a man has vowed a
vow to God he should pay it even though his parents should
suffer.

CORBEIL, WILLIAM OF (d. 1136), archbishop of Canterbury,
was born probably at Corbeil on the Seine, and was educated
at Laon. He was soon in the service of Ranulf Flambard,
bishop of Durham; then, having entered the order of St
Augustine, he became prior of the Augustinian foundation at
St Osyth in Essex. At the beginning of 11 23 he was chosen
from among several candidates to be archbishop of Canterbury,
and as he refused to admit that Thurstan, archbishop of York,
was independent of the see of Canterbury, this prelate refused
to consecrate him, and the ceremony was performed by his own
suffragan bishops. Proceeding to Rome the new archbishop
found that Thurstan had anticipated his arrival in that city and
had made out a strong case against him to Pope Calixtus II.;
however, the exertions of the English king Henry I. and of the
emperor Henry V. prevailed, and the pope gave William the
pallium. The archbishop's next dispute was with the papal

3 See Henri Lavoix, Histoire de V instrumentation, p. 1 1 1 ; Gerber,
Lexikon, " Giuseppe Ferlendis "; Robert Eitner, Quellen-Lexikon der
Tonkunstler, " Gioseffo Ferlendis." Fetis and Pohl also* refer to
him.

4 See Musical Travels thro' England (London, 1 774), p. 56.

136

CORBEIL— CORBULO

legate, Cardinal John of Crema, who had arrived in England
and was acting in an autocratic manner. Again travelling to
Rome, William gained another victory, and was himself appointed
papal legate (legatus natus) in England and Scotland, a precedent
of considerable importance in the history of the English Church.
The archbishop had sworn to Henry I. that he would support
the claim of his daughter Matilda to the English crown, but
nevertheless he crowned Stephen in December 1135. He died
at Canterbury on the 21st of November 1136. William built
the keep of Rochester Castle, and finished the building of the
cathedral at Canterbury, which was dedicated with great pomp
in May 1130.

See W. F. Hook, Lives of the A rchbishops of Canterbury (1 860-1 884) ;
and W. R. W. Stephens, History of the English Church (1901).

CORBEIL, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Seine-et-Oise, at the confluence of
the Essonne with the Seine, 21 m. S. by E. of Paris on the
Orleans railway to Nevers. Pop. (1906) 9756. A bridge across
the Seine unites the main part of the town on the left bank with
a suburb on the other side; handsome boulevards lead to the
village of Essonnes (pop. 7255), about a mile to the south-west.
St Spire, the only survivor of the formerly numerous churches
of Corbeil, dates from the 12th to the 15th centuries. Behind
the church there is a Gothic gateway. A monument has been
erected to the brothers Galignani, publishers of Paris, who gave
a hospital and orphanage to the town. Corbeil is the seat of a
sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce
and a chamber of commerce. It has important flour-mills,
tallow-works, printing-works, large paper-works at Essonnes,
and carries on boat and carriage-building, and the manufacture
of plaster. The Decauville engineering works are in the vicinity.
There is trade in grain and flour.

From the 10th to the 12th century Corbeil was the chief town
of a powerful countship, but it was united to the crown by
Louis VI.; it continued for a long time to be an important
military post in connexion with the commissariat of Paris. In
1258 St Louis concluded a treaty here with James I. of Aragon.
Of the numerous sieges to which it has been exposed the most
important were those by the Huguenots in 1 562, and by Alexander
Farnese, prince of Parma, in 1 590.

CORBEL (Lat. corbellus, a diminutive of corvus, a raven, on
account of the beak-like appearance; Ital. mensola, Fr. corbeau,
cul-de-lampe, Ger. Kragstein) , the name in medieval architecture
for a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any super-
incumbent weight. A piece of timber projecting in the same
way was called a tassel or a bragger. Thus the carved ornaments
from which the vaulting shafts spring at Lincoln are corbels.
Norman corbels are generally plain. In the Early English period
they are sometimes elaborately carved, as at Lincoln above
cited, and sometimes more simply so, as at Stone. They some-
times end with a point apparently growing into the wall, or
forming a knot, as at Winchester, and often are supported by
angels and other figures. In the later periods the foliage or
ornaments resemble those in the capitals. The corbels carrying
the arches of the corbel tables in Italy and France were often
elaborately moulded, and sometimes in two or three courses
projecting over one another; those carrying the machicolations
oi English and French castles had four courses. The corbels
carrying balconies in Italy and France were sometimes of great
size and richly carved, and some of the finest examples of the
Italian CinquecentO style are found in them. Throughout
England, in half-timber work, wood corbels abound, carrying
window-sills or oriels in wood, which also are often carved. A
" corbel table " is a projecting moulded string course supported
by a range of corbels. Sometimes these corbels carry a small
arcade under the string course, the arches of which are pointed
and trefoiled. As a rule the corbel table carries the gutter, but
in Lombard work the arcaded corbel table was utilized as a
decoration to subdivide the storeys and break up the wall surface.
In Italy sometimes over the ccr.bels will be a moulding, and above
a plain piece of projecting wall forming a parapet (see also
Masonry).

CORBET, RICHARD (1582-1635), English bishop and poet,
was born in 1582, the son of a nurseryman at Ewell, Surrey. At
Oxford, to which he proceeded from Westminster school in
1597, he was noted as a wit. On taking orders he continued to
display this talent from the pulpit, and James I., in consideration
of his " fine fancy and preaching," made him one of the royal
chaplains. In 1620 he became vicar of Stewkley, Berkshire,
and in the same year was made dean of Christchurch, Oxford.
In 1628 he was made bishop of Oxford, and in 1632 translated
thence to the see of Norwich. Corbet was the author of many
poems, for the most part of a lively, satirical order, his most
serious production being the Fairies' Farewell. His verses
were first collected and published in 1647. His conviviality
was famous, and many stories are told of his youthful merry-
making in London taverns in company with Ben Jonson, who
always remained his close friend, and other dramatists. He
died at Norwich on the 28th of July 1635.

CORBIE (Lat. corvus), a crow or raven. In architecture,
" corbie steps " is a Scottish term (cf. Corbel) for the steps
formed up the sides of the gable by breaking the coping into
short horizontal beds.

CORBRIDGE.. a small market town in the Hexham parlia-
mentary division of Northumberland, England; 35 m. E. of
Hexham, on the north bank of the river Tyne, which is here crossed
by a fine seven-arched bridge dating from 1674. Pop. (1901)
1647. Corbridge was formerly of greater importance than at
present. Its name, derived from the small river Cor, a tributary
of the Tyne, is said to be associated with the Brigantian tribe
of Corionototai. About 760 it became the capital of Northum-
bria; later it was a borough and was long represented in parlia-
ment. . In 1138 David of Scotland made it a centre of military
operations, and it was ravaged by Wallace in 1296, by Bruce in
13 1 2, and by David II. in 1346. Its chief remains of antiquity are
a square peel-tower and the cruciform church of St Andrew,
of which part of the fabric is of pre-Conquest date, though the
building is mainly Early English. Extensive use is made of
building materials from the Roman station of Corstopitum (also
called Corchester), which lay half a mile west of Corbridge at
the junction of the Cor with the Tyne. This site has from time
to time yielded many valuable relics, notably a silver dish,
discovered in 1734, 148 oz. in weight and ornamented with
figures of deities; but the first-rate importance of the station
was only revealed by careful excavations undertaken in 1907 seq.
There were then unearthed remains of several buildings fronting
a broad thoroughfare, one of which is the largest Roman building,
except the baths at Bath, yet discovered in England. Two of
these buildings were granaries, and indicate the importance of
Corstopitum as a base of the northward operations of Antoninus
Pius. After his conquests had been lost, and Corstopitum
ceased to be a military centre, its military buildings passed into
civilian occupation, of which many evidences have been found.
A fine hoard of gold coins, wrapped in lead-foil and hidden in a
wall, was discovered in 1908. Corstopitum ceased to exist
early in the 5th century, and the site was never again occupied.

CORBULO, GNAEUS DOMITIUS (1st century a.d.), Roman
general, was the half-brother of Caesonia, one of the wives of the
emperor Caligula. In the reign of Tiberius he held the office
of praetor, and was appointed to the superintendence of the
roads and bridges. Under Claudius he was governor of lower
Germany (a.d. 47). He punished the Frisii who refused to pay
the tribute, and was on the point of advancing against the Chauci,
but was recalled by the emperor and ordered to withdraw behind
the Rhine. In order to provide employment for his soldiers,
Corbulo made them cut a canal from the Mosa (Meuse) to the
northern branch of the Rhine, which still forms one of the chief
drains between Leiden and Sluys, and before the introduction
of railways was the ordinary traffic road between Leiden and
Rotterdam. Soon after the accession of Nero, Vologaeses (Volo-
gasus), king of Parthia, overran Armenia, drove out Rhadamistus,
who was under the protection of the Romans, and set his own
brother Tiridates on the throne. Corbulo was thereupon sent out
to the East with full military powers. After some delay, he took

CORD— CORDAY

137

the offensive in 58, and, reinforced by troops from Germany,
attacked Tiridates. Artaxata and Tigranocerta were captured,
and Tigranes, who had been brought up in Rome and was
the obedient servant of the government, was installed king
of Armenia. In 61 Tigranes invaded Adiabene, an integral
portion of the Parthian kingdom, and a conflict between
Rome and Parthia seemed unavoidable. Vologaeses, how-
ever, thought it better to come to terms. It was agreed
that both the Roman and Parthian troops should evacuate
Armenia, that Tigranes should be dethroned, and the position
of Tiridates recognized. The Roman government declined to
accede to these arrangements, and L. Caesennius Paetus, governor
of Cappadocia, was ordered to settle the question by bringing
Armenia under direct Roman administration. The protection
of Syria in the meantime claimed all Corbulo's attention. Paetus,
a weak and incapable man, suffered a severe defeat at Rhande.a
(62), where he was surrounded and forced to capitulate and to
evacuate Armenia. The command of the troops was again
entrusted to Corbulo. In 63, with a strong army, he crossed the
Euphrates, but Tiridates declined to give battle and concluded
peace. At Rhandea he laid down his diadem at the foot of the
emperor's statue, promising not to resume it until he received
it from the hand of Nero himself in Rome. In 67 disturbances
broke out in Judaea, but Nero, jealous of Corbulo's success and
popularity, ordered Vespasian to take command of the forces and
summoned Corbulo to Greece. On his arrival at Cenchreae, the
port of Corinth, messengers from Nero met Corbulo, and ordered
him to commit suicide. Without hesitation he obeyed, ex-
claiming, " I have deserved it." Whether he had really given
any grounds for suspicion is unknown; but there is no doubt,
so great was his popularity with the soldiers and such the hatred
felt for Nero, that he could easily have seized the throne.
Corbulo wrote an account of his Asiatic experiences, which
is lost.

See Tacitus, Annals, xii.-xv. ; Dio Cassius lix. 15, lx. 30, Ixii.
19-23, lxiii. 6, 17, lxvi. 3; H. Schiller, Ceschichte des romischen
Kaiserreichs unter der Regierung des Nero (1872) ; E. Egli, " Feldzuge
in Armenien von 41-63," in M. Biidinger's Untersuchungen zur
romischen Kaisergeschichte, i. (1868); Mommsen, Hist, of the Roman
Provinces, ii. (1886); for the Armenian campaigns see B. W.
Henderson in Classical Review (April, May, June, 1901); in general
D. T. Schoonover, A Study of Cn. Domitius Corbulo (Chicago, 1909).

CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda,
Gr. xop^V, the string of a musical instrument) , a length of twisted
or woven strands, in thickness coming between a rope and a
string, a smaller kind of rope (q.v.). From the use of such a
cord for measuring, the word is applied to a quantity of cut wood,
differing according to locality. The variant " chord," which, in
spelling, reverts to the original Latin, is used in particular senses,
as, in physiology, for such cord-like structures as the vocal
chords; in the case of the " umbilical cord," the other spelling
is usually retained. In mathematics a " chord " is a straight line
joining any two points' on the same curve, and, in music, the word
is used of several musical notes sounded simultaneously and in
harmony (q.v.). In this last sense, " chord " is properly a
shortened form of " accord," agreement, from Late Lat. accordare,
and the spelling with h is due to a confusion.

CORDAY D'ARMONT, MARIE ANNE CHARLOTTE (1768-
!793)i French revolutionary heroine, the murderess of Marat,
born at St Saturnin des Lignerets, near Seez in Normandy,
was descended from a noble but poor family, and numbered
among her ancestors the dramatist Corneille. Charlotte Corday
was educated in the convent of the Holy Trinity at Caen, and
then sent to live with an aunt. Here she saw hardly any one
but her relative, and passed her lonely hours in reading the
works of the philosophes, especially Voltaire and the Abbe
Raynal. Another of her favourite authors was Plutarch, from
whose pages she doubtless imbibed the idea of classic heroism
and civic virtue which prompted the act that has made her
name famous. On the outbreak of the Revolution she began to
study current politics, chiefly in the papers issued by the party
afterwards known as the Girondins. On the downfall of this
party, on May 31, 1793, many of the leaders took refuge in Nor-

mandy, and proposed to make Caen the headquarters of an army
of volunteers, at the head of whom Felix de Wimpffen, wQo com-
manded the army assembled for the defence of the coasts at
Cherbourg, was to have marched upon Paris. Charlotte attended
their meetings, and heard them speak; but we have no reason to
believe that she saw any of them privately, till the day when she
went to ask for introductions to friends of theirs in Paris. She
saw that their efforts in Normandy were doomed to fail. She
had heard of Marat as a tyrant and the chief agent in their over-
throw, and she had conceived the idea of going alone to Paris
and assassinating him, — doubtless thinking that this would
break up the party of the Terrorists and be the signal of a
counter-revolution, and ignorant of the fact that Marat was ill
almost to the point of death, and that others were more in-
fluential than he.

Apparently she had thought of going to Paris in April, before
the fall of the Girondins, for she had then procured a passport
which she used in July. It contained the usual description of the
bearer, and ran thus: Laissez passer la citoyenne Marie, &c,
Corday, dgSe de 24 ans, taille de 5 pieds 1 pouce, cheveux et sourcils
chdtains, yeux gris, front tteve', nez long, louche moyenne, menton
rond fourchu, visage ovale. Arrived in Paris she first attended to
some business for a friend at Caen, and then she wrote to Marat:
" Citizen, I have just arrived from Caen. Your love for your
native place doubtless makes you desirous of learning the events
which have occurred in that part of the republic. I shall call at
your residence in about an hour; have the goodness to receive me
and to give me a brief interview. I will put you in a condition to
render great service to France." On calling she was refused
admittance, and wrote again, promising to reveal important
secrets, and appealing to Marat's sympathy on the ground that
she herself was persecuted by the enemies of the republic. She
was again refused an audience, and it was only when she called a
third time (July 13) that Marat, hearing her voice in the ante-
chamber, consented to see her. He lay in a bathing tub, wrapped
in towels, for he was suffering from a horrible disease which had
almost reduced him to a state of putrefaction. Our only source of
information as to what followed is Charlotte's own confession.
She spoke to Marat of what was passing at Caen, and his only
comment on her narrative was that all the men she had mentioned
should be guillotined in a few days. As he spoke she drew from
her bosom a dinner-knife (which she had bought the day before
for two francs) and plunged it into his left side. It pierced the lung
and the aorta. He cried out, "A moi, ma ch'ere amiel" and
expired. Two women rushed in, and prevented Charlotte from
escaping. A crowd collected round the house, and it was with
difficulty that she was escorted to the prison of the Abbaye.
On being brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal she gloried
in her act, and when the indictment against her was read, and the
president asked her what she had to say in reply, her answer was,
" Nothing, except that I have succeeded." Her advocate,
Claude Frangois Chauveau Lagarde, put forward in vain the plea
of insanity. She was sentenced to death, and calmly thanked her
counsel for his efforts on her behalf, adding that the only
defence worthy of her was an avowal of the act. She was then
conducted to the Conciergerie, where at her own desire her
portrait (now in the museum of Versailles) was painted by the
artist Jean Jacques Hauer. She preserved her perfect calmness
to the last. When she saw the guillotine, she placed herself in
position under the fatal blade without assistance from any one.
The knife fell, and one of the executioners held up her head by the
hair, and had the brutality to strike it with his fist. Many
believed they saw the dead face blush, — probably an effect of the
red stormy sunset. It was the 17th of July 1793. It is difficult
to analyse the character of Charlotte Corday; but there was in it
much that was noble and exalted. Her mind had been formed
by her studies on a pagan type. To C. J. M. Barbaroux and the
Girondins of Caen she wrote from her prison, anticipating
happiness " with Brutus in the Elysian Fields " after her death,
and with this letter she sent a simple loving farewell to her father,
revealing a tender side to her character that otherwise we would
hardly have looked for in such a woman. Lamartine called her

i 3 8

CORDELIERS— CORDITE

I'ange de I'assassinat, and Vergniaud said, " Elle nous perd, mais
elle nous apprend a mourir."

See (Euvr.es politiques de Charlotte Corday (Caen, 1863; some
letters and an Adresse aux Francois amis des his et de la paix), with a
supplement printed in the same year; Louvet de Couvrai, Memoires
(ed. Aulard, Paris, 1889); Alphonse Esquiros, Charlotte Corday
(2nd ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1841); Cheron de Villiers, Marie Anne
Charlotte Corday (Paris, 1865); Casiinir Perier, "La Jeunesse de
Charlotte Corday " {Revue des deux mondes, 1862) ; G. Vatel, Dossiers
du proces criminel de Charlotte de Corday . . . extraits des archives
impericles (Paris, 1861), and Dossier historique de Charlotte Corday
(Paris, 1872); Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (London, 1890);
A. Ducos, Les Trois Girondines, Mme Roland, Charlotte Corday . . .
(Paris, 1896); Dr Cabanes, "La vraie Charlotte Corday," in Le
Cabinet secret de Vhistoire (4 vols., 1897-1900). Her tragic history
was the subject of two anonymous tragedies, Charlotte Corday (1795),
said to be by the Conventional F. J. Gamon, and Charlotte Corday
(Caen, 1797), neither of which have any merit; another by J. B:
Salles is published by C. Vatel in Charlotte de Corday et les Girondins
(1864-1872). See further bibliographical articles in M. Tourneux,
Bibl. de Vhist. de Paris . . . (vol. iv., 1906), and in the Bibliographie
des femmes celebres (3 vols., Turin and Rome, 1892-1905); and also
E. Defrance, Charlotte Corday et la mort de Marat (1909).

CORDELIERS, CLUB OF THE, or Society of the Friends of
the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a popular society of the
French Revolution. It was formed by the members of the district
of the Cordeliers, when the Constituent Assembly suppressed the
60 districts of Paris to replace them with 48 sections (21st of May
1 790) . It held its meetings at first in the church of the monastery
of the Cordeliers, — the name given in France to the Franciscan
Observantists, — now the Dupuytren museum of anatomy in
connexion with the school of medicine. From 1 791 , however, the
Cordeliers met in a hall in the rue Dauphine. The aim of the
society was to keep an eye on the government; its emblem on its
papers was simply an open eye. It sought as well to encourage
revolutionary measures against the monarchy and the old regime,
and it was it especially which popularized the motto " Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity." It took an active part in the movement
against the monarchy of the 20th of June and the 10th of August
1792; but after that date the more moderate leaders of the club,
Danton, Fabre d'Eglantine, Camille Desmoulins, seem to have
ceased attending, and the " enrages " obtained control, such as
J. R. Hebert, F. N. Vincent, C. P. H. Ronsin and A. F. Momoro.
Its influence was especially seen in the creation of the revolu-
tionary army destined to assure provisions for Paris, and in the
establishment of the worship of Reason. The Cordeliers were
combated by those revolutionists who wished to end the Terror,
especially by Danton, and by Camille Desmoulins in his journal
Le Vieux Cordelier. The club disowned Danton and Desmoulins
and attacked Robespierre for his " moderation," but the new
insurrection which it attempted failed, and its leaders were
guillotined on the 24th of March 1 794, from which date nothing is
known of the club. We know little of its composition.

The papers emanating from the Cordeliers are enumerated in M.
Tourneux, Bibliographie de Vhistoire de Paris pendant la Revolution
(1894), i. (on the trial of the Hebertists) Nos. 4204-4210, ii. Nos.
9795-9834 and 11,813. See also A. BoUgeart,' Les Cordeliers, docu-
ments pour servir a V histoire de la Revolution (Caen, 1891) ; G. Lenotre,
Paris revolutionnaire (Paris, 1895) ; G. Tridon, Les Hebertists, plainte
contre une calomnie de Vhistoire (Paris, 1864). The last-named author
was condemned to four months' prison; his work vvasreprinted in 187 1.
The inventory of the pictures found in 1790 in the monastery of the
Cordeliers was published by J. Guiffrey in Nouvelles archives de Vart
francais, viii., 2nd series, iii. (1880). (R. A.*)

CORDERIUS, the Latinized form of name used by Mathurin
Cordier (c. 1480-1564), French schoolmaster, a native of
Normandy or Perche. He possessed special tact and liking for
teaching children, and taught first at Paris, where Calvin was
among his pupils, and, after a number of changes, finally at
Geneva, where he died on the 8th of September 1564. He wrote
several books for children; the most famous is his Colloquia
{Colloquiorum scholasticorum libri quatuor), which has passed
through innumerable editions, and was used in schools for three
centuries after his time. He also wrote: Principia Latine
loquendi scribendique, sive selecta quaedam ex Epislolis Ciceronis;
De corrupti sermonis apud Gallos emendatione et Latine loquendi
Ratione; De syllabarum quantitate; Condones sacrae viginti
sex Galliae; Calonis disticha de moribus (with Latin and French

translation) ; Remontrances et exhortations au roi et aux grands de
sonroyaume.

See monograph by E. A. Berthault, De M. Corderio et creatis apud
Protestantes litterarum studiis (1875).

CORDES, a town of southern France, in the department of
Tarn, 15 m. N.W. of Albi by road. Pop. (1906) 1619. Cordes,
which covers the summit and slopes of an isolated hill, was a
bastide founded by Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, in the first
half of the 13th century. It preserves its medieval aspect to a
remarkable degree, a large number of houses of the 13th and 14th
centuries, with decorated fronts, forming its chief attraction. A
church of the same periods and remains of the original ramparts
are also to be seen.

CORDILLERA, a Spanish term for a range or chain of
mountains, derived from the Old Spanish cordilla, the diminutive
of cuerda, a cord or rope. The name was first given to the Andes
ranges of South America, Las Cordilleras de los Andes, and
applied to the extension of the system into Mexico. In North
America the parallel ranges of mountains running between and
including the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada are known
as the " Cordilleras," and that part of the western continent
crossed by them has been termed the " Cordilleran region."
Although the name has been applied to the eastern mountain
system of Australia, the word is not, outside America, used as a
generic term for parallel ranges of mountains.

CORDITE, the name given to the smokeless propellant in use
in the British army and navy. The material is produced in the
form of cylindrical rods or strings of varying thicknesses by
pressing the material, whilst in a soft and pasty state, through
dies or perforations in a steel plate by hydraulic or screw pressure,
hence the name cordite. The thickness or size of the rods varies
from about 1 mm. diameter to 5 or more mm. according, to the
nature of the charge for which it is intended. The smallest
diameter is used for revolver cartridge and the largest for heavy
guns. When first devised by the Ordnance Committee, presided
over by Sir Frederick Abel, in 1891, this explosive consisted of
58% of nitro-glycerin, 37% of gun-cotton, and 5% of mineral
jelly. This variety is now known as Cordite Mark 1. At the
present time a modification is made which contains gun-cotton
65 %, nitro-glycerin 30 %, and mineral jelly 5 %. This is known
as Cordite M.D. The advantages of Cordite M.D. over Mark 1
are slightly reduced rate of burning, higher velocities and
more regular pressure in the gun, and lower temperature.

Cordite of either mark is a perfectly waterproof substance,
containing only traces of water remaining from the manufactur-
ing processes. It has a density of about 1-56 at the ordinary
temperature (15° C), and, as its coefficient of expansion is small,
this density does not change to any serious extent under climatic
temperature variations. A rod may be bent to a moderate
extent without breaking, and Cordite M.D. especially shows
considerable elasticity. It can be impressed by the nail and cut
with a knife, but is not in the least sticky, nor does the nitro-
glycerin exude to any appreciable extent. It can be obtained
in a finely-divided state by scraping with a sharp knife, or on a
new file, or by grinding in a mill, such as a coffee-mill, but can
scarcely be pounded in a mortar. Cordite is of a brownish
colour in mass, but is much paler when finely ground or scraped.
The rods easily become electrified by gentle friction with a dry
substance. Like all colloidal substances it is an exceedingly
bad conductor of heat. A piece ignited in air burns with a
yellowish flame. With the smaller sizes, about 2 mm. diameter
or less, this flame may be blown out, and the rod will continue
to burn in a suppressed manner without actual flame, fumes
containing oxides of nitrogen being emitted. Temperature
appears to have an effect on the rate of burning. When much
cooled it certainly burns more slowly than when at the ordinary
air temperature, and is also more difficult to ignite. Rods of
moderate thickness, say from 5 mm. diameter, will continue to
burn under water if first ignited in air and the burning portion
slowly immersed. The end of a rod of cordite may be struck a
moderately heavy blow on an anvil without exploding or igniting.
The rod will first flatten out. A sharp blow will then detonate

CORDOBA, G. F. DE

1 $9

or explode the portion immediately under the hammer, the
remainder of the rod remaining quite intact. Bullets may be
fired through a bundle or package of cordite without detonating
or inflaming it. This is of course a valuable quality. The
exact temperature at which substances ignite or take fire is in
all cases difficult to determine with any exactness. Gordite is
not instantly ignited on contact with a flame such as that of a
candle, because, perhaps, of the condensation of some moisture
from the products of burning of the candle upon it. A blow-pipe
flame or a red-hot wire is more rapid in action. The ignition
temperature may be somewhere in the region of 180° C.

All the members of this class of explosive when kept for some
time at (for them) moderately high temperatures, such as the
boiling-point of water (ioo° C.), show signs of decomposition;
oxides of nitrogen are liberated, and some complex oxidation
processes are started. Carefully prepared gun-cotton and nitro-
glycerin will, however, withstand this temperature for a long
time without serious detriment, excepting that nitro-glycerin
is slightly volatilized. When incorporated in cordite, however,
the nitro-glycerin appears to be much less volatile than when
free at this temperature. Under reduced pressure (3 or 4 in.
only of mercury instead of 30) it is possible to distil away a
considerable amount of nitro-glycerin from cordite at 100° C.
It is very doubtful whether at ordinary temperatures and
pressures any nitro-glycerin whatever evaporates.

Cordite may be kept in contact with clean, dry metals, wood,
paper, and a number of ordinary substances without deteriora-
tion. In contact with damp and easily oxidizable metals all the
substances of the gun-cotton class are liable to a slight local
action, but the colloid nature, and probably also the contained
mineral jelly, protect cordite considerably in these circumstances.
Ammonia has a deleterious action, but even this proceeds but
slowly. Cordite does not appear to change when kept under
water.

The manufacturing processes comprise: drying the gun-
cotton and nitro-glycerin; melting and filtering the mineral
jelly ; weighing and mixing the nitro-glycerin with the gun-cotton;
moistening this mixture with acetone until it becomes a jelly;
and then incorporating in a special mixing mill for about three
hours, after which the weighed amount of mineral jelly is
added and the incorporation continued for about one hour
or until judged complete. The incorporating or mixing machine
is covered as closely as possible to prevent too great evaporation
of the very volatile acetone. Before complete incorporation
the mixture is termed, in the works, " paste," and, when finally
mixed, " dough."

The right consistency having been produced, the material is
placed in a steel cylinder provided with an arrangement of dies
or holes of regulated size at one end, and a piston or plunger
at the other. The plunger is worked either by hydraulic power
or by a screw (driven from ordinary shafting). Before reaching
and passing through the holes in the die, the material is filtered
through a disk of fine wire gauze to retain any foreign substances,
such as sand, bits of wood or metal, or unchanged fibres of
cellulose, &c, which might choke the dies or be otherwise
dangerous. The material issues from the cylinders in the form
of cord or string of the diameter of the holes of the die. The
thicker sizes are cut off, as they issue, into lengths (of about
3 ft.), it being generally arranged that a certain number of these—
say ten — should have, within narrow limits, a definite weight.
The small sizes, such as those employed for rifle cartridges, are
wound on reels or drums, as the material issues from the press
cylinders, in lengths of many yards.

Some of the solvent or gelatinizing material (acetone) is lost
during the incorporating, and more during the pressing process
and the necessary handling, but much still remains in the
cordite at this stage. It is now dried in heated rooms, where
it is generally spread out on shelves, a current of air passing
through carrying the acetone vapour with it. In the more
modern works this air current is drawn, finally, through a solution
of a substance such as sodium bisulphite; a fixed compound
is thus formed with the acetone, which by suitable treatment

may be recovered. The time taken in the drying, varies with
the thickness of the cordite from a few days to several: weeks.
For several reasons it is desirable that this process should go on
gradually and slowly.

After drying, all the various batches of cordite cf the sanle
size are carefully " blended, " so that any slight differences in
the manufacture of one batch or one day's output may be equal-
ized as much as possible. Slight differences may arise from the
raw materials, cotton waste or glycerin, or in the making of these
into gun-cotton or nitro-glycerin respectively. To help in con-
trolling the blending, each " make " of gun-cotton and nitro-
glycerin is " marked " or numbered, and carries its mark to the
cordite batch of which it is an ingredient. The history of each
box of large-sized or reel of small-sized cordite is therefore known
up to the operation of blending and packing. The final testing,
is by firing proofs, as in the case of the old gunpowders.

The gun-cotton employed for cordite is made in the usual way
(see Gun-Cotton), with the exception of treating with alkali.
It is also after complete washing with water gently pressed into
small cylinders (about 3 in. diameter and 4 in. high) whilst wet,
and these are carefully dried before the nitro-glycerin is added.
The pressure applied is only sufficient to make the gun-cotton
just hold together so that it is easily mixed with the nitro-glycerin.
The mineral jelly or vaseline is obtained at a certain stage of
distillation of petroleum, and is a mixture of hydrocarbons,
paraffins, olefines and some other unsaturated hydrocarbons,
possibly aromatic, which no doubt play a very important. part
as preservatives in cordite.

The stability of cordite, that is, its capability of keeping
without chemical or ballistic changes, is judged of by certain
" heat tests." The Abel heat test consists in subjecting a weighed
quantity, 2 grams, of the finely divided cordite contained in a
test tube, to a temperature of 70 C. maintained constant by a
water bath. The test tube is about 6Xf in., and dips into the
water sufficiently to immerse about 2 in., viz. the part containing
the cordite. In the upper free portion a piece of filter-paper
impregnated with a mixture of potassium iodide and starch
paste is suspended by a platinum wire from the stopper of the
tube. A portion of the test paper is moistened with a solution
of glycerin to render it more sensitive than the dry part. A
faint brown colour appearing on the moistened portion indicates
that some oxides of nitrogen have been evolved from the cordite.
This brown tint is compared with a standard, and the time taken
before the standard tint appears is noted. The time fixed upon
as a test of relative stability is an arbitrary one determined
by examination of well-known specimens. Should the cordite
or other explosive contain traces of mercury salts, such as
mercuric chloride, which is sometimes added as a preservative,
this test is rendered nugatory, and no coloration may appear
(or only after a long exposure) , although the sample may be of
indifferent stability. It is now customary to examine specially
for mercury, either by heating the explosive in contact with
gold leaf or silver foil, or by' burning the substance and
examining the flame in the spectroscope.

The method of examination known as the vacuum silvered
vessel process is probably not interfered with by the presence
of very small quantities of mercury. It consists in heating
50 grams of the finely divided explosive in a Dewar's silvered
vacuum glass bulb to a rigidly constant temperature of 8b° C.
for many hours. A sensitive thermometer having its bulb
immersed in the centre of the cordite shows when the temperature
rises above 80°. Such a rise indicates internal oxidation or
decomposition of the explosive; it is accompanied by an evolu-
tion of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, the depth of colour of which is
noted through a side tube attached to the bulb. As all explosives
of this class would in time decompose sufficiently to give these
indications, time periods or limits have been fixed at which an
appreciable and definite rise in temperature and production of
red fumes indicate relative stability or instability. (W. R. E. H.)

C6RD0BA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1453-1515), Spanish
general and statesman, usually spoken of by the Italianized
form of his Christian name as Gonsalvo de Cordoba, or as " the

140

CORDOBA

Great Captain," was the second son of Don Pedro Fernandez
de Cordoba, count of Aguilar, and of his wife Elvira de Herrera,
who belonged to the family of Enriquez, the hereditary admirals
of Castile, a branch of the royal house. Gonzalo was born at
Montilla near the city of Cordova (Cordoba) on the 16th of March
1453. The father died when he and his elder brother, Don
Alonso, were mere boys. The counts of Aguilar carried on an
hereditary feud with the rival house of Cabra, and the children
were carried by their vassals into the faction fights of the two
families. As a younger son Gonzalo had his fortune to make, but
he was generously aided by the affection of his elder brother,
who was very wealthy. War and service in the king's court
offered the one acceptable career outside the church to a gentle-
man of his birth.

He was first attached to the household of Don Alphonso, the
king's brother, and upon his death devoted himself to Isabella,
afterwards the queen. During the civil war, and the conflict
with Portugal which disturbed the first years of her reign, he
fought under the grand master of Santiago, Alonso de Cardenas.
After the battle of Albuera, the grand master gave him especial
praise, saying that he could always see Gonzalo to the front
because he was conspicuous by the splendour of his armour.
Indeed the future Great Captain, who, as a general, was above
all things astute and patient, could, and habitually did, display
the most reckless personal daring, going into a fight as if he loved
it, and having a shrewd sense that a reputation for intrepidity,
a free-handed profusion, and the personal magnificence which
strikes the eye, would secure him the devotion of his soldiers.
During the ten years' war for the conquest of Granada he com-
pleted his apprenticeship under his brother, the count of Aguilar,
the grand master of Santiago, and the count of Tendilla, of whom
he always spoke as his masters. It was a war of surprises and
defences of castles or towns, of skirmishes, and of ambuscades
in the defiles of the mountains. The military engineer and the
" guerrillero " were about equally employed. Gonzalo's most
distinguished single feat was the defence of the advanced post of
Illora, but he commanded the queen's escort when she wished
to take a closer view of Granada, and he beat back a sortie of the
Moors under her eyes. When Granada surrendered, he was one
of the officers chosen to arrange the capitulation, and on the
peace he was rewarded by a grant of land.

So far he was only known as an able subordinate, but his
capacity could not be hidden from such an excellent judge of
character as Isabella, to whom as a woman he appealed by a
chivalrous union of devotion and respect. When, therefore, the
Catholic sovereigns decided to support the Aragonese house of
Naples against Charles VIII. of France, Gonzalo was chosen
by the influence of the queen, and in preference to older men,
to command the Spanish expedition. It was in Italy that he won
the title of the Great Captain; Guicciardini says that it was
given him by the customary arrogance of the Spaniards, but it
was certainly accepted as just by all the soldiers of the time of
whatever nationality. A detailed account of his campaigns
cannot be given here. He held the command in Italy twice. In
1495 he was sent with a small force of little more than five
thousand men to aid Ferdinand of Naples to recover his kingdom,
and he returned home after achieving success, in 1498. After a
brief interval of service against the conquered Moors who had
risen in revolt, he returned to Italy in 1501. Ferdinand of Spain
had entered into his iniquitous compact with Louis XII. of France
for the spoliation and division of the kingdom of Naples. The
Great Captain was chosen to command the Spanish part of this
robber coalition. As general and as viceroy of Naples he re-
mained in Italy till 1507. During his first command he was
mostly employed in Calabria in mountain warfare which bore
much resemblance to his former experience in Granada. There
was, however, a material difference in the enemy. The French
forces, commanded by the Scotsman Stuart d'Aubigny, con-
sisted largely of Swiss pikemen, and of their own men-at-arms.
With his veterans of the Granadine war, foot soldiers armed with
sword and buckler, or arquebuses and crossbows, and light
cavalry, trained to unsleeping vigilance, capable of long marches,

and of an endurance unparalleled among the soldiers of the time,
he could carry on a guerrillero warfare which wore down his
opponents, who suffered far more than the Spaniards from the
heat. But he saw clearly that this was not enough. His ex-
perience in Seminara showed him that something more was
wanted on the battlefield. The action was lost mainly because
King Ferdinand, disregarding the advice of Gonzalo, persisted
in fighting a pitched battle with inferior numbers, some of whom
were untrustworthy Neapolitans. The Spanish foot behaved
excellently, but the result showed that in the open field their loose
formation and their swords put them at a disadvantage as against
a charge of heavy cavalry or pikemen. Gonzalo therefore
introduced a much more strict formation, and adopted the pike
as the weapon of a part of his foot. The division of the Spanish
infantry into the " battle " or main central body of pikemen,
and the wings (alas) of " shot " to be employed in outflanking the
enemy, was primarily due to the Great Captain.

The French were expelled by 1498 without another battle.
When the Great Captain reappeared in Italy he had first to
perform the congenial task of driving the Turk from Cephalonia,
then to aid in robbing the king of Naples, Frederick, brother of
his old ally Ferdinand. When the king of Naples had [been
despoiled, the French and Spaniards quarrelled over the booty.
The Great Captain now found himself with a much outnumbered
army in the presence of the French. The war was divided into
two phases very similar to one another. During the end of 1502
and the early part of 1303 the Spaniards stood at bay in the
entrenched camp at Barletta near the Ofaiito on the shores of
the Adriatic. He resolutely refused to be tempted into battle
either by the taunts of the French or the discontent of his own
soldiers. Meanwhile he employed the Aragonese partisans in
the country, and flying expeditions of his own men, to harass
the enemy's communications. When he was reinforced, and
the French committed the mistake of scattering their forces too
much to secure supplies, he took the offensive, pounced on the
enemy's depot of provisions at Cerignola, took a strong position,
threw up hasty field works, and strengthened them with a species
of wire entanglements. The French made a headlong front
attack, were repulsed, assailed in flank, and routed. The later
operations on the Garigliano were very similar, and led to the
total expulsion of the French from Naples. Gonzalo remained
as governor of Naples till 1507. But he had become too great
not to arouse the jealousy of such a typical king of the Renais-
sance as Ferdinand the Catholic. The death of the queen in 1504
had deprived him of a friend, and it must be allowed that he was
profuse in rewarding his captains and his soldiers out of the
public treasury. Ferdinand loaded him with titles and fine
words, but recalled him so soon as he could, and left him un-
employed till his death on the 2nd of December 1515.

The Great Captain is sometimes spoken of as the first of modern
generals. The expression is uncritical, for modern generalship
arose from many sides, but he was emphatically a general.
There is much in his methods which bears a curious likeness
to those of the duke of Wellington; Barletta, for instance, has a
distinct resemblance to the Torres Vedras campaign, and the
battle on the Garigliano to Assaye. As an organizer he founded
the Spanish infantry of the 16th and 17th centuries, and he gave
the best proof of his influence by forming a school of officers.
The best generals of Charles V. were either the pupils of the
Great Captain or were trained by them.

There is no life of Gonzalo de Cordoba written by a scholar who
was also a good judge of war. The dull Cronica del Gran Capitan
gives the bare events of his campaigns rather wearisomely but fully.
Paulus Govius, Vitae illustrium virorum, translated by Domenichi
(Florence, 1550), is elegant and very readable, Don Jose Quintana
includes bim in his Espanoles celebres (Rivadeneyra Biblioteca de
aulores espanoles, vol. xix., Madrid, 1846-1880); and Prescott
collected the authorities, and made good use of them in his Ferdinand
and Isabella. See also P. du Poncet, Histoire de Gonsahe de Cordoue
(Paris, 1714). The Gonsalve de Cordoue, ou Grenade reconquise of
Florian (Paris, 1791) is a romance. (D. H.)

C6RD0BA, a large central province of the Argentine Republic,
bounded N. by Santiago del Estero, E. by Santa F6, S. by Buenos
Aires and La Pampa, W. by San Luis and Rioja, and N.W. by

CORDOBA— CORDOVA

141

Catamarca. Pop. (1895) 35 I , 22 35 ( r 9 4, estimate) 465,464;
jirea, 62,160 sq. m. The greater part of the province belongs to
the pampas, though less fertile and grassy than the plains
farther E. and S. It likewise includes large saline and swampy
areas. The N.W. part of the province is traversed by an isolated
mountain system made up of the C6rdoba, Pocho and Ischilin
sierras, which extend for a distance of some 200 m. in a N. and
S. direction. These ranges intercept the moist winds from the
Atlantic, and receive on their eastern slopes an abundant rainfall,
which gives them a strikingly verdant appearance in comparison
with the surrounding plains.' West and N.W. of the sierras
are extensive saline basins called Las Salinas Grandes, which
extend into the neighbouring provinces and are absolutely
barren. In the N.E. the land is low and swampy; here are
the large saline lagoons of Mar Chiquita and Los Porongos.
The principal rivers, which have their sources in the sierras and
flow eastward, are the Primero and Segundo, which flow north-
easterly into the lacustrine basin of Mar Chiquita; the Tercero
and Quarto, which unite near the Santa Fe frontier to form the
Carcarafia, a tributary of the Parana; and the Quinto, which
flows south-easterly into the swamps of the Laguna Amarga in
the S. part of the province. Countless small streams also descend
the eastern slopes of the sierras and are lost in the great plains.
The eastern districts are moderately fertile, and are chiefly
devoted to cattle-breeding, though cereals are also produced.
In the valleys and well-watered foothills of the sierras, however,
cereals, alfalfa and fruit are the principal products. The rainfall
is limited throughout the province, and irrigation is employed
in but few localities. The mineral resources include gold, silver,
copper, lead and iron, but mining is carried on only to a very
limited extent. Salt and marble are also produced. Cordoba
is traversed by several railway lines — those running westward
from Buenos Aires and Rosario to Mendoza and the Chilean
frontier, those connecting the city of Cordoba with the same
cities, and with Tucuman on the N. and Catamarca and Rioja
on the N.W. The chief towns are Cordoba, the capital, Rio
Quarto, Villa Maria, an important railway centre 82 m. S.E.
of C6rdoba, and Cruz del Eje on the W. slopes of the sierras,
no m. N.W. of C6rdoba.

C6RD0BA, a city in the central part of the Argentine Re-
public, capital of the above province, on the Rio Primero, 435 m.
by rail N.W. of Buenos Aires by way of Rosario, 246 m. from
the latter. Pop. (1895) 42,783 — the suburbs having 11,679
more — (1905, estimate) 60,000. The city is connected by
railway with Buenos Aires and Rosario, and with the capitals
of all the surrounding provinces. C6rdoba stands on a high
eastward-sloping plain called the "Altos," 1240 ft. above sea-
level, and is built in a broad river bottom washed out by
periodical inundations and the action of the rains on the alluvial
banks. The inundations have been brought under control by
the construction of barriers and dams, but the banks are con-
stantly broken down. The city is regularly laid out, and contains
many fine edifices and dwellings. Several suburban settlements
surround the city, the more important of which are served by
the urban tramway lines. The streets are lighted by gas and
electricity, and an excellent telephone service is maintained.
The noteworthy public buildings include the cathedral, a hand-
some edifice curiously oriental in appearance, a massive old
Jesuit church with a ceiling of richly carved and gilded cedar, the
old university, founded in 1613, which still occupies the halls
built by the Jesuits around a large quadrangle, the fine old
cabildo, or government house, of Moorish appearance, and the
national observatory on the barranca overlooking the city.
There are, also, two national normal schools, a national college,
an episcopal seminary, an endowed Carmelite orphanage, a
national meteorological station, a national academy of sciences,
and a good public library. Among the attractive features of
the city is an alameda of about six acres, within which is a square
artificial lake of 4 acres, surrounded by shrubbery and shaded
walks; the alameda dates from the time when the Jesuits ruled
the city, and to them also are due the tiled baths, supplied with
running water. A short avenue connects the alameda with the

principal plaza, a pretty garden and promenade. The water
supply of Cordoba is derived from the Rio Primero, 12 m. above
the city, where an immense dam (Dique San Roque), one of the
largest of its kind in South America, has been built across the
river valley. This dam also serves to irrigate the valley below,
and to furnish power for the electric plant which provides
Cordoba with light and electric power. In and about the city
there are several industrial establishments which have sprung
into existence since the opening of the first railway in 1870. The
surrounding country is irrigated and well cultivated, and pro-
duces an abundance of fruit and vegetables.

The city was founded in 1573 by Luis Geronimo de Cabrera
and was for a long time distinguished for its learning and piety.
It was the headquarters of the Jesuits in this part of South
America for two centuries, and for a time the capital of the
Spanish intendencia of Tucuman. The expulsion of the Jesuits
in 1767 proved to be a serious blow to the academic reputation
of the city, from which it did not recover until 1870, when
President Sarmiento engaged some eminent scientific men from
Europe to teach modern science in the university.

C6RD0BA, a town of the state of Vera Cruz, Mexico, 55 m.
W.S.W. of the port of Vera Cruz, in a highly fertile valley, near
the volcano of Orizaba, and 2880 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895)
7974. The surrounding district produces sugar, tobacco and
coffee, C6rdoba being one of the principal coffee-producing
centres of Mexico. It also manufactures cotton and woollen
fabrics. The town is regularly laid out and built of stone, and
contains several handsome edifices, chief of which is the old
cathedral. C6rdoba was a town of considerable importance in
colonial times, but fell into decay after the revolution. The rail-
way from Vera Cruz to Mexico, which passes through it, and the
development of coffee production, have helped the city to recover
a part of its lost trade.

CORDON (a French derivative of corde, cord) , a wordusedin many
applications of its meaning of " line " or " cord," and particularly
of a cord of gold or silver lace worn in military and other uniforms.
The word is especially used of the sash or ribbon worn by members
of an order of knighthood, crossing from one shoulder to the
opposite hip. The cordon bleu, the sky-blue ribbon of the knight's
grand cross of the order of the Holy Spirit, the highest order of the
Bourbon kings of France, was, like the " blue ribbon " of the
English Garter, taken as a type of the highest reward or prize
to which any one can attain (see also Cookery). In heraldry,
" cordons " are the ornamental cords which, with the hats to
which they are attached, ensign the shields of arms of certain
ecclesiastical dignitaries; they are interlaced to form a mesh
or network and terminate in rows of tassels. A cardinal's cordon
is gules with five rows of fifteen tassels, an archbishop's vert with
four rows of ten, and a bishop's also vert, with three rows of six.
In architecture a " cordon " is a projecting band of stone along
the outside of a building, a string-course. The word is frequently
used in a transferred sense of a line of posts or stations to guard
an enclosed area from unauthorized passage, e.g. a military or
police cordon, and especially a sanitary cordon, a line of posts to
prevent communication from or with an area infected with
disease.

CORDOVA (Span. Cordoba), an inland province of southern
Spain, bounded on the N.E. by Ciudad Real, E. by Jaen, S.E.
by Granada, S. by Malaga, S.W. and W. by Seville, and N.W.
by Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 455,859; area, 5299 sq. m. The river
Guadalquivir divides the province into two very dissimilar
portions. On the right bank is the mountainous region of the
Sierra Morena, less peopled and fertile than the left bank, with
its great plains (La Campina) and slightly undulating country
towards the south and south-east, where the surface again
becomes mountainous with the outlying ridges of the Sierra
Nevada. The Guadalquivir, flowing from E.N.E. to W.S.W.,
waters the richest districts of Cordova, and has many tributaries,
notably the Bembezar, Guadiato and Guadamellato, on the right,
and the Genii and Guadajoz on the left. The northern districts
(Los Pedroches) are drained by several small tributaries of the
Guadiana. The climate is much varied. Snow is to be found

142

CORDOVA

for months en the highest peaks of the mountains; mild tempera-
ture in the plains, except in the few torrid summer months, when
rain seldom falls. The peasantry are chiefly occupied in various
branches of husbandry; sheep-farming and the culture of the
olive employ large numbers. The agricultural wealth of Cordova
is, however, not fully exploited, owing to the conservatism and
backward education of the peasantry. There are no great manu^
facturing towns, but mining is an industry of some importance.
In 1903 coal was obtained in considerable quantities in the
Belmez district; argentiferous lead and zinc near Pozoblanco
and elsewhere; iron ore at Luque, near Baena. A small amount
of bismuth is also obtained. Mining is facilitated by a fairly
complete and well-kept system of communication by road and
railway. The main line Madrid-Linares-Seville follows the
Guadalquivir valley throughout the province, passing through the
capital, Cordova. Here it meets the line from Almorchon, on
the north, to Malaga, on the south, which has three important
branches — Belmez-Fuente del Arco, Cordova-Utrera, and
Puente Genii- Jaen. After the capital, the principal towns are
Aguilar de la Frontera (13,236), Baena (14,539), Cabra (13,127),
Fuente Ovejuna (11,777), Lucena (21,179), Montilla (13,603),
Montoro (14,581), Pozoblanco (12,792), Priego de Cordoba
(16,904) and Puente Genii (12,956). These are described under
separate headings. Other towns of less importance are Adamuz
(6974), Belalcazar (7682), Belmez (8978), Bujalance (10,756),
Castro del Rio (11,821), Hinojosa del Duque (10,673), Palma
del Rio (7914), Rute (10,740) and Villafranca de Cordoba (9771).

CORDOVA (Span. Cdrdoba; Lat. Corduba), the capital of the
Spanish province of Cordova, on the southern slopes of the Sierra
de Cordova, and the right bank of the river Guadalquivir. Pop.
(1900) 58,275. At Cordova the Madrid-Seville railway meets the
branch line from Almorchon to Malaga. The city is an episcopal
see. Few fragments remain of its Moorish walls, which were
erected on Roman foundations and enclosed a very wide area,
now largely occupied by garden-ground cleared from the ruins
of ancient buildings. On the outskirts are many modern factories
in striking contrast with the surrounding orange, lemon and olive
plantations, and with the pastures which belong to. the celebrated
Cordovan school of bull-fighting. Nearer the centre the streets
are for the most part narrow and crooked. Almost every
building, however, is profusely covered with whitewash, and thus
there is little difference on the surface between the oldest and the
most modern houses. The southern suburb communicates with
the town by means of a bridge of sixteen arches across the river,
exhibiting the usual combination of Roman and Moorish masonry
and dominated at the one end by an elevated statue of the patron
saint, St Raphael, whose effigy is to be seen in various other
quarters of the city. The most important of the public buildings
are the cathedral, the old monastic establishments, the churches,
the bishop's palace, the city hall, the hospitals and the schools and
colleges, including the academy for girls founded in 1590 by
Bishop Pacheco of Cordova, which is empowered to grant degrees.
The Alcazar, or royal palace, stands on the south-west amid the
gardens laid out by its builder, the caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III.
(912-961). Its older parts are in ruins, and even the so-called
New Alcazar, erected by Alphonso XI. of Castile in 1328, and
long used as the offices of the Holy Inquisition, has only one wing
in good repair, which serves as a prison.

But the glory of Cordova, surpassing all its other Moorish or
Christian buildings, is the mezquita, or mosque, now a cathedral,
but originally founded on the site of a Roman temple and a
Visigothic church by Abd-ar-Rahman I. (756-788); who wished
to confirm the power of his caliphate by making its capital a
great religious centre. Immigration from all the lands of Islam
soon rendered a larger mosque necessary, owing to the greatly
increased multitude of worshippers, and, by orders of Abd-ar-
Rahman II. (822-852) and Al-Hakim II. (961-976), the original
size was doubled. After various minor additions, Al-Mansur,
the vizier of the caliph Hisham II. (976-1009), again enlarged
the Zeca, or House of Purification, as the mosque was named,
to twice its former size, rendering it the largest sacred building
cf Islam, after the Kaaba at Mecca. The ground plan of the

completed mosque forms a rectangle, measuring 5.70 ft. in length
and 425 in breadth, or little less than St Peter's in Rome.
About one-third of this area is occupied by the courtyard, and
the cloisters which surround it on the north, west and east.
The exterior, with the straight lines of its square buttress towers,
has a heavy and somewhat ungainly appearance; but the
interior is one of the most beautiful specimens of Moorish
architecture. Passing through a grand courtyard about 500 ft.
in length, shady with palm and cypress and orange trees and
watered by five fountains, the visitor enters on the south a
magnificent and bewildering labyrinth of pillars in which por-
phyry, jasper and many-coloured marbles are boldly combined.
Part came from the spoils of Nimes or JNarbonne, part from
Seville or Tarragona, some from the older ruins of Carthage,
and others as a present to Abd-ar-Rahman I. from the East
Roman emperor Leo IV., who sent also from Constantinople
his own skilled workmen, with 16 tons of tesserae for the mosaics.
Originally of different heights, the pillars have been adjusted
to their present standard of 12 ft. either by being sunk into
the soil or by the addition of Corinthian capitals. Twelve
hundred was the number of the columns in the original building,
but many have been destroyed. The pillars divide the area
of the building from north to south, longitudinally into nineteen
and transversely into twenty-nine aisles — each row supporting a
tier of open Moorish arches of the same height (12 ft.) with a
third and similar tier superimposed upon the second. The full
height of the ceiling is thus about 35 ft. The Moorish character
of the building was unfortunately impaired in the 16th century
by the formation in the interior of a crucero, or high altar and
cruciform choir, by the addition of numerous chapels along the
sides of the vast quadrangle, and by the erection of a belfry
300 ft. high in room of the old minaret. The crucero in itself
is no disgrace to the architect Hernan Ruiz, but every lover of
art must sympathize with the rebuke administered by the
emperor Charles V. (1500-1558) to the cathedral authorities:
" You have built here what could have been built as well any-
where else; and you have destroyed what was unique in the
world." Magnificent, indeed, as the cathedral still is, it is
almost impossible to realize what the mosque must have been
when the worshippers thronged through its nineteen gateways
of bronze, and its 4700 lamps, fed with perfumed oil, illuminated
its brilliant aisles. Of the exquisite elaboration bestowed on
the more sacred portions abundant proof is afforded by the
third Mihrab, or prayer-recess, a small 10th-century chapel,
heptagonal in shape, roofed with a single shell-like block of
snow-white marble, and inlaid with Byzantine mosaics of glass
and gold.

Cordova was celebrated in the time of the Moors for its silver-
smiths, who are said to have come originally from Damascus;
and it exported a peculiar kind of leather which took its name
from the city, whence is derived the word cordwainer. Fine
silver filigree ornaments are still produced; and Moorish work
in leather is often skilfully imitated, although this handicraft
almost disappeared in the 15th century. The chief modern
industries of Cordova are distillation of spirits and the manu-
facture of woollen, linen and silken goods.

Corduba, probably of ' Carthaginian origin, was occupied by
the Romans under Marcus Marcellus in 152 B.C.. and shortly
afterwards became the first Roman colonia in Spain. From the
large number of men of noble rank among the colonists, the city
obtained the title of Patricia; and to this day the Cordovese
pride themselves on the purity and antiquity of their descent.
In the rst century B.C. Cordova aided the sonsof Pompey against
Caesar; but after the battle of Munda, in 45 B.C., it fell into the
hands of Caesar, who avenged the obstinacy of its resistance
by massacring 20,000 of the inhabitants. Under Augustus,
if not before, it became a municipality, and was the capital of
the thoroughly Romanized province of Baetica. In the lifetime
of Strabo, however (c. 63 b.c.-a.d. 21), it still ranked as the
largest city of Spain. Its prosperity was due partly to its
position on the Baetis, and on the Via Augusta, the great com-
mercial road "from northern Spain built by Augustus, and partly

CORDUROY— CORELLI

H3

to its proximity to mines and rich grazing and grain-producing
districts. Hosius, its bishop, presided over the first council of
Nieaea in 345; and its importance was maintained by the
Visigothic kings, whose rule lasted from the 5th to the beginning
of the 8th century. Under the Moors, Cordova was at first an
appanage of the caliphate of Damascus; but after 756 Abd-ar-
Rahman I. made it the capital of Moorish Spain, and the centre
of an independent caliphate (see Abd-ar-Rahman) . It reached
its zenith of prosperity in the middle of the 10th century, under
Abd-ar-Rahman III. At his death, it is recorded by native
chroniclers, probably with Arabic exaggeration, that Cordova
contained within its walls 200,000 houses, 600 mosques, 900
baths, a university ,_ and numerous public libraries; whilst on
the bank of the Guadalquivir, under the power of its monarch,
there were eight cities, 300 towns and 12,000 populous villages.
A period of decadence began in 1016, owing to the claims of
the rival dynasties which aimed at succeeding to the line of
Abd-ar-Rahman; the caliphate never won back its position, and
in 1236 Cordova was easily captured by Ferdinand III. of Castile.
The substitution of Spanish for Moorish supremacy rather
accelerated than arrested the decline of art, industry and popula-
tion; and in the 19th century Cordova never recovered from the
disaster of 1808, when it was stormed and sacked by the French.
Few cities of Spain, however, can boast of so long a list of
illustrious natives in the Moorish and Roman periods, and even,
to a less extent, in modern times. It was the birthplace of the
rhetorician Marcus Annaeus Seneca, and his more famous son
Lucius (c. 3 b.c.-a.d. 65); of the poet Lucan (a.d. 39-65); of
the philosophers Averroes (1126-1198) and Maimonides (1135-
1204); of the Spanish men of letters Juan de Mena (c. 1411-
1456), Lorenzo de Sepulveda (d. 1574) and Luis de Gongora
y Argote (1561-1627); and the painters Pablo de Cespedes
(1538-1608) and Juan de Valdes Leal (1630-1691). The cele-
brated captain Gonzalo Fernandez de C6rdoba (q.v.), the con-
queror of Naples (1495-1498), was born in the neighbouring
town of Montilla.

, See Estudio descriptivo de los monumentos drabes de Granada y
Cordoba, by R. Contreras (Madrid, 1885) ; Cordoba, a large illustrated
volume of the series Espana, by P. de Madrazo (Barcelona, 1884);
Inscripciones drabes de Cordoba, by R. Amador de los Rios y Villalta
(Madrid, 1886).

CORDUROY, a cotton cloth of the fustian kind, made like a
ribbed velvet. It is generally a coarse heavy material and is
used largely for workmen's clothes, but some finer kinds are used
for ladies' dresses, &c. According to the New English Dictionary
the word is understood to be of English invention, " either
originally intended, or soon after assumed, to represent a
supposed French corde du roi." It is said that a coarse woollen
fabric called duroy, made in Somerset durjng the 18th century,
has no apparent connexion with it. From the ribbed appearance
of the cloth the name corduroy is applied, particularly in Amercia,
to a rough road of logs laid transversely side by side, usually
across swampy ground.

CORDUS, AULUS CREMUTIUS, Roman historian of the later
Augustan age. He was the author of a history (perhaps called
Annates) of the events of the civil wars and the reign of Augustus,
embracing the period from at least 43-18 B.C. In a^d. 25 he was
brought to trial for having eulogized Brutus and spoken of
Cassius as the last of the Romans. His real offence was a witti-
cism at the expense of Sejanus, who put up two of his creatures
to accuse him in the senate. Seeing that nothing could save him,
Cordus starved himself to death. A decree of the senate ordered
that his works should be confiscated and burned by the aediles.
Some copies, however, were saved by the efforts of Cordus's
daughter Marcia, and after the death of Tiberius the work was
published at the express wish of Caligula. It is impossible to form
an opinion of it from the scanty fragments (H. Peter, Historicorum
Romanorum Fragmenta,.i&&3) . According to ancient authorities,
the writer was very outspoken in his denunciations, and his
relatives considered it necessary to strike out the most offensive
passages of the work before it was widely circulated (Quintilian,
Instil, x. 1, 104). Two passages in Pliny (Nat. Hist. x. 74 [37],
xvi. 108 L45]) seem to refer to a work of a different nature from

the history — perhaps a treatise on Admiranda or remarkable
things.

See Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34, 35; Suetonius, Tiberius, 61, Caligula,
16; Seneca, Suasoriae, vii., esp. the Consolatio to Cordus's daughter
Marcia; Dio Cassius lvii. 24. There are monographs by J. Held
(1841) and C. Rathlcf (i860). Also H. Peter, Die geschichtliche
Literatur ilber die rbmische Kaiserzeit (1897); Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist,
of Roman Lit., Eng. trans., 277, I.

CORELLI, ARCANGELO (1653-1713), Italian violin-player
and composer, was born on tlie 12th or 13th of February 1653,
at Fusignano near Imola, and died in 17 13. Of his life little
is known. His master on the violin was Bassani. Matteo
Simonelli, the well-known singer of the pope's chapel, taught
him composition. His first decided success was gained in Paris
at the age of nineteen. To this he owed his European reputation.
From Paris Corelli went to Germany. In 1681 he was in the
service of the electoral prince of Bavaria; between 1680 and 1685
he spent a considerable time in the house of his friend Farinelli.
In 1685 he was certainly in Rome, where he led the festival
performances of music for Queen Christine of Sweden and was
also a favourite of Cardinal Ottoboni. From 1689 to 1690 he
was in Modena, the duke of which city made him handsome
presents. In 1708 he went once more to Rome, living in the
palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. His visit to Naples, at the invita-
tion of the king, took place in the same year. The style of execu-
tion introduced by Corelli and preserved by his pupils, such as
Geminiani, Locatelli, and many others, has been of vital import-
ance for the development of violin-playing, but he employed
only a limited portion of his instrument's compass, as may be
seen by his writings, wherein the parts for the violin never
proceed above D on the first string, the highest note in the third
position; it is even said that he refused to play, as impossible,
a passage which extended to A in altissimo in the overture to
Handel's Trionfo del Tempo, and took serious offence when the
composer played the note in evidence of its practicability. His
compositions for the instrument mark an epoch in the history
of chamber music; for his influence was not confined to his
own country. r Even Sebastian Bach submitted to it. Musical
society iri Rome owed much to Corelli. He was received in the
highest circles of the aristocracy, and arranged and for a long
time presided at the celebrated Monday concerts in the palace
of Cardinal Ottoboni. Corelli died possessed of a sum of 1 20,000
marks and a valuable collection of pictures, the only luxury
in which he had indulged. He left both to his benefactor and
friend, who, however, generously made over the money to'Corelli's
relations. Corelli's compositions are distinguished by a beautiful
flow of melody and by a masterly treatment of the accompanying
parts, which he is justly said to have liberated from the strict
rules of counterpoint. Six collections of concerti, sonatas and
minor pieces for violin, with accompaniment of other instruments,
besides several concerted pieces for strings, are authentically
ascribed to this composer. The most important of these is the
XII. Suonati a violino eviolone dimbalo (Rome, 1700).

CORELLI, MARIE (1864- ), English novelist, was the
daughter of an Italian father and a Scottish mother, but in infancy
was adopted by Charles Mackay (q.v.), the" song- writer and
journalist, whose son Eric, at his death, became her guardian.
She was sent to be educated in a French convent with the object
of training her for the musical profession, and while still a girl
composed various pieces of music. But her journalistic con-
nexion proved a stronger stimulus to expression, and editors
who were friends of her adopted father printed some of her
early poetry. Then she produced what was at least a clever, if
not a remarkably well written, romantic story, on the theme of
a self -revelation connecting the Christian Deity with a world
force in the form of electricity, which was published in 1886
under the title of A Romance of Two Worlds. It had an im-
mediate and large sale, which resulted, naturally, in her devoting
her inventive faculty to satisfy the public demand for similar
work. Thus she wrote in succession a series of melodramatic
romantic novels, original in some aspects of their treatment,
daring in others, but all combining a readable plot with enough
au fond of what the majority demanded in ethical and religious

1 44

CORENZIO— CORFINIUM

correctness to suit a widespread contemporary taste; these were
Vendetta (1886), Thelma (1887), Ardath (1889), The Soul of Lilith
(1892), Barabbas (1893), The Sorrows of Satan (1895), — the very
titles were catching, — The Mighty Atom (1896), — which appealed
to all who knew enough of modern science to wish to think it
wicked, — and others, down to The Master Christian (1900), again
satisfying the socio-ethico-religious demand, and Temporal
Power (1902), with its contemporary suggestion from the acces-
sion of Edward VII. Miss Corelli had the advantage of writing
quite sincerely and with conviction, amid what superior critics
sneered at as bad style and sensationalism, on themes which
conventional readers nevertheless enjoyed, and round plots which
were dramatic and vigorous. Her popular success was great and
advertised itself. It was helped by a well-spread belief that
Queen Victoria preferred her novels to any other. Reviewers
wrote sarcastically, and justly, of her obvious literary lapses and
failings; she retorted by pitying the poor reviewers and letting
it be understood that no books of hers were sent to the Press for
criticism. When she went to live at Stratford-on-Avon, her
personality, and her importance in the literary world, became
further allied with the historic associations of the place; and
in the public life of women writers her utterances had the reclame
which is emphasized by journalistic publicity. Such success is
not to be gauged by purely literary standards ; the popularity of
Miss Corelli's novels is a phenomenon not so much of literature as
of literary energy — entirely creditable to the journalistic resource
of the writer, and characteristic of contemporary pleasure in
readable .fiction.

CORENZIO, BELISARIO (c. 1558-1643), Italian painter, a
Greek by birth, studied at Venice under Tintoretto, and then
settled at Naples, where he became famous for unscrupulous
conduct as a man and rapid execution as an artist. Though
careless in composition and a mannerist in style, he possessed
an acknowledged fertility of invention and readiness of hand;
and these qualities, allied to a certain breadth of conception,
seem in the eyes of his contemporaries to have atoned for many
defects. When Guido Reni came in 162 1 to Naples to paint in
the chapel of St Januarius, Corenzio suborned an assassin to take
his life. The hired bravo killed Guido's assistant, and effectually
frightened Reni, who prudently withdrew to Rome. Corenzio,
however, only suffered temporary imprisonment, and lived long
enough to supplant Ribera in the good graces of Don Pedro di
Toledo, viceroy of Naples, who made him his court painter.
Corenzio vainly endeavoured to fill Guido's place in the chapel
of St Januarius. His work was adjudged to have been under
the mark, and yet the numerous frescoes which he left in Nea-
politan churches and palaces, and the large wall paintings which
still cover the cupola of the church of Monte Casino are evidence
of uncommon facility, and show that Corenzio was not greatly
inferior to the fa prestos of his time. His florid style, indeed,
seems well in keeping with the overladen architecture and full-
blown decorative ornament peculiar to the Jesuit builders of
the 17th century. Corenzio died, it is said, at the age of eighty-
five by a fall from a scaffolding.

CO-RESPONDENT, in law, generally, a person made respondent
to, or called upon to answer, along with another or others, a
petition or other proceeding. More particularly, since the
Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, the term is applied to the person
charged by a husband, when presenting a petition praying for
the dissolution of his marriage on the ground of adultery, with
misconduct with his wife, and made, jointly with her, a
respondent to the suit. (See also Divorce.)

CORFE CASTLE, a town in the eastern parliamentary division
of Dorsetshire, England, in the district called the Isle of Purbeck,
1 291 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-
western railway. Pop. (1901) 1440. The castle, through which
the town is famous, guarded a gap in the line of considerable
hills which rise in the centre of Purbeck. It is strongly placed
on an eminence falling almost sheer on three sides. Its ruins are
extensive, and date for the most part from the Norman period
to the reign of Edward I. There is, however, a trace of early
masonry which may have belonged to the Saxon house where,

in 978, King Edward the Martyr was murdered. Corfe Castle
was held for the empress Maud against King Stephen in 1139,
was frequently the residence-of King John, and was a stronghold
of the barons against Henry III. Edward II. was imprisoned
here for a short period. The castle withstood a protracted
siege by the Parliamentarians in 1643, and fell to them by
treachery in 1646, after which it was dismantled and wrecked.
The church in the town, almost wholly rebuilt, is dedicated to
St Edward the Martyr. The quarrying of Purbeck stone and
the raising of potters' clay are the chief industries.

Probably Corfe Castle (Corfes geat, Corf geat, Corve, Corph) was
an early Anglo-Saxon settlement. According to William of
Malmesbury the church was founded by St Aldhelm in the 7 th
century. In 1086 the abbey of Shaftesbury held the manor,
which afterwards passed to the Norman kings, who raised the
castle. Its date is disputed, but the town dependent on it seems
to have grown up during the 13th century, being first mentioned
in 1290, when an inquisition states that the mayor has pesag«
of wool and cheese. The rights of the burgesses seem to have
been undefined, for frequent commissions attest to encroach-
ments on the rights of warren, forest and wreckage belonging
to the royal manor. In 1380-1381 at an inquisition into the
liberties of Corfe Castle, the jurors declared that from time
immemorial the constable and his steward had held all pleas and
amerciaments except those of the mayor's court of Pie Powder,
but that the town had judgment by fire, water and combat.
The tenants, or " barons," elected themselves a mayor and
coroners, but the constable received the assize of ale. Elizabeth
in 1577 gave exclusive admiralty jurisdiction within the island
of Purbeck to Sir Christopher Hatton, and granted the mayor
and " barons " of Corfe the rights they enjoyed by prescription
and charter and that of not being placed on juries or assizes in
matters beyond the island. Charles II. incorporated Corfe
Castle in 1663, the mayor being elected at a court leet from three
nominees of the lord of the manor. Corfe Castle first returned
two representatives to parliament in 1572, but was disfranchised
in 1832. A market for each Saturday was granted to Corfe in
1 214, and in 1248 the town obtained a fair and a market on each
Thursday, while Elizabeth granted fairs on the feasts of St
Philip and St James and of St Luke; both of these still survive.
As early as the 14th century the quarrying and export of marble
gave employment to the men of Corfe, and during the 18th
century the knitting of stockings was a flourishing industry.

See T. Bond, History and Description of Corfe Castle (London and
Bournemouth, 1883).

CORFINIUM, in ancient Italy, the chief city of the Paeligni,
7 m. N. of Sulmona in the valley of the Aternus. The site of
the original town is occupied by the village of Pentima. It
probably became subject to Rome in the 4th century B.C.,
though it does not appear in Roman history before the Social
War (90 B.C.), in which it was at first adopted by the allies as
the capital and seat of government of their newly founded state
under the name Italia (this form, not Italica, is vouched for by
the coins). It appears also as a fortress of importance in the
Civil War, though it only resisted Caesar's attack for a week
(49 B.C.). Whether the Via Valeria ran as far as Corfinium
before the time of Claudius is uncertain: he, however, certainly
extended it to the Adriatic, and at the same time constructed
a cross road, the Via Claudia Nova, which diverged from the
Via Claudia Valeria at a point 6 m. farther north, and led past
Peltuinum and Aveia to Foruli on the Via Salaria. Another
road ran S.S.E. past Sulmo to Aesernia. It was thus an im-
portant road centre, and must have been, in the imperial period,
a town of some size, as may be gathered from the inscriptions
that have been discovered there, and from the extent rather
than the importance of the buildings visible on the site (among
them may be noted the remains of two aqueducts), which has,
however, never been systematically excavated. Short accounts
of discoveries will be found in Notizie degli Scavi, passim, and a
museum, consisting chiefly of the contents of tombs, has been
formed at Pentima. In one corner of a large enclosed space
(possibly a palaestra) was constructed the church of S. Pelino,

CORFU

145

The present building dates from the 13th century, though its
origin may be traced to the end of the 5th when it was the
cathedral of the see of Valva, which appears to have been the
name of Corfinium at the close of the Roman period. (T. As.)

CORFU (anc. and mod. Gr. Kep/cupa. or KopKvpa, Lat. Corcyra),
an island of Greece, in the Ionian Sea, off the coast of Albania
or Epirus, from which it is separated by a strait varying in
breadth from less than 2 to about 15 m. The name Corfu is an
Italian corruption of the Byzantine Kopv<£<&, which is derived
from the Greek Kopv<t>ai (crests). In shape it is not unlike the
sickle (drepane), to which it was compared by the ancients, — the
hollow side, with the town and harbour of Corfu in the centre,
being turned towards the Albanian coast. Its extreme length
is about 40 m. and its greatest breadth about 20. The area is
estimated at 227 sq. m., and the population in 1907 was 99,571,
of whom 28,254 were in the town and suburbs of Corfu. Two
high and well-defined ranges divide the island into three districts,
of which the northern is mountainous, the central undulating
and the southern low-lying. The most important of the two
ranges is that of San Salvador, probably the ancient Istone,
which stretches east and west from Cape St Angelo to Cape
St Stefano, and attains its greatest elevation of 3300 ft. in the
summit from which it takes its name. The second culminates in
the mountain of Santi Deca, or Santa Decca, as it is called by
misinterpretation of the Greek designation oi "Ayioi Ako, or
the Ten Saints. The whole island, composed as it is of various
limestone formations, presents great diversity of surface, and
the prospects from the more elevated spots are magnificent.

Corfu is generally considered the most beautiful of all the
Greek isles, but the prevalence of the olive gives some monotony
to its colouring. It is worthy of remark that Homer names,
as adorning the garden of Alcinous, seven plants only — wild olive,
oil olive, pear, pomegranate, apple, fig and vine. Of these the
apple and the pear are now very inferior in Corfu; the others
thrive well and are accompanied by all the fruit trees known in
southern Europe, with addition of the Japanese medlar(or loquat),
and, in some spots, of the banana. When undisturbed by
cultivation, the myrtle, arbutus, bay and ilex form a rich
brushwood and the minor flora of the island is extensive.

The common form of land tenure is the colonia perpelua, by
which the landlord grants a lease to the tenant and his heirs for
ever, in return for a rent, payable in kind, and fixed at a certain
proportion of the produce. Of old, a tenant thus obtaining half
the produce to himself was held to be co-owner of the soil to
the extent of one-fourth; and if he had three-fourths of the
crop, his ownership came to one-half. Such a tenant could
not be expelled except for non-payment, bad culture or the
transfer of his lease without the landlord's consent. Attempts
have been made to prohibit so embarrassing a system; but as
it is preferred by the agriculturists, the existing laws permit it.
The portion of the olive crop due to the landlord, whether by
colonia or ordinary lease, is paid, not according to the actual
harvest, but in keeping with the estimates of valuators mutually
appointed, who, just before the fruit is ripe, calculate how much
each tree will probably yield. The large old fiefs (baronie) in
Corfu, as in the other islands, have left their traces in the form
of quit-rents (known in Scotland by the name of feu-duties),
generally equal to one-tenth of the produce. But they have
been much subdivided, and the vassals may by law redeem them.
Single olive trees of first quality yield sometimes as much as
2 gallons of oil, and this with little trouble or expense beyond the
collecting and pressing of the fallen fruit. The trees grow
unrestrained, and some are not less than three hundred years old.
The vineyards are laboured by the broad heart-shaped hoe.
The vintage begins on the festival of Santa Croce, or the 26th of
September (O.S.). None of the Corfu wines is much exported.
The capital is the only city or town of much extent in the island;
but there are a number of villages, such as Benizze, Gasturi, Ipso,
dypho, with populations varying from 300 to 1000. Near
Gasturi stands the Achilleion, the palace built for the Empress
Elizabeth of Austria, and purchased in 1907 by the German
emperor, William II.

The town of Corfu stands on the broad part of a peninsula,
whose termination in the citadel is cut from it by an artificial
fosse formed in a natural gully, with a salt-water ditch at the
bottom. Having grown up within fortifications, where every
foot of ground was precious, it is mostly, in spite of recent im-
provements, a labyrinth of narrow, tortuous, up-and-down streets,
accommodating themselves to the irregularities of the ground,
few of them fit for wheel carriages. There is, however, a
handsome esplanade between the town and the citadel, and
a promenade by the seashore towards Castrades. The palace,
built by Sir Thomas Maitland (?i 759-1824; lord high com-
missioner cf the Ionian Islands, 181 5), is a large structure of
white Maltese stone. In several parts of the town may be found
houses of the Venetian time, with some traces of past splendour,
but they are few, and are giving place to structures in the modern
and more convenient French style. Of the thirty-seven Greek
churches the most important are the cathedral, dedicated to
Our Lady of the Cave (17 Uavayla S7njXt<oTta-(ro) ; St Spiridion's,
with the tomb of the patron saint of the island; and the suburban
church of St Jason and St Sosipater, reputed the oldest in the
island. The city is the seat of a Greek and a Roman Catholic
archbishop; and it possesses a gymnasium, a theatre, an
agricultural and industrial society, and a library and museum
preserved in the buildings formerly devoted to the university,
which was founded by Frederick North, 5th earl of Guilford
(1766-1827, himself the first chancellor in 1824,) in 1823, but
disestablished on the cessation of the English protectorate.
There are three suburbs of some importance — Castrades, Man-
duchio and San Rocco. The old fortifications of the town,
being so extensive as to require a force of from 10,000 to 20,000
troops to man them, were in great part thrown down by the
English, and a simpler plan adopted, limiting the defences to
the island of Vido and the old citadel; these are now dismantled.

History. — According to the local tradition Corcyra was the
Homeric island of Scheria, and its earliest inhabitants the
Phaeacians. At a date no doubt previous to the foundation of
Syracuse it was peopled by settlers from Corinth, but it appears
to have previously received a stream of emigrants from Eretria.
The splendid commercial position of Corcyra on the highway
between Greece and the West favoured its rapid growth, and,
influenced oerhaps by the presence of non-Corinthian settlers,
its people, quite contrary to the usual practice of Corinthian
colonies, maintained an independent and even hostile attitude
towards the mother city. This opposition came to a head in
the early part of the 7th century, when their fleets fought the
first naval battle recorded in Greek history (about 664 B.C.).
These hostilities ended in the conquest of Corcyra by the
Corinthian tyrant Periander (c. 600), who induced his new
subjects to join in the colonization of Apollonia and Anactorium.
The island soon regained its independence and henceforth
devoted itself to a purely mercantile policy. During the Persian
invasion of 480 it manned the second largest Greek fleet (60
ships), but took no active part in the war. In 435 it was again
involved in a quarrel with Corinth and sought assistance from
Athens. This new alliance was one of the chief immediate
causes of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.), in which Corcyra wa9
of considerable use to the Athenians as a naval station, but did
not render much assistance with its fleet. The island was nearly
lost to Athens by two attempts of the oligarchic faction to effect
a revolution; on each occasion the popular party ultimately
won the day and took a most bloody revenge on its opponents
(427 and 425). During the Sicilian campaigns of Athens
Corcyra served as a base for supplies; after a third abortive rising
of the oligarchs in 410 it practically withdrew from the war.
In 375 it again joined the Athenian alliance; two years later it
was besieged by a Lacedaemonian armament, but in spite of the
devastation of its flourishing countryside held out successfully
until relief was at hand. In the Hellenistic period Corcyra was
exposed to attack from several sides; after a vain siege by
Cassander it was occupied in turn by Agathocles and Pyrrhus.
It subsequently fell into the hands of Illyrian corsairs, until in
229 it was delivered by the Romans, who retained it as a naval

146

CORI— CORINGA

station and gave it the rank of a free state. In 31 B.C. it served
Octavian (Augustus) as a base against Antony.

Eclipsed by the foundation of Nicopolis, Corcyra for a long
time passed out of notice. With the rise of the Norman kingdom
in Sicily and the Italian naval powers, it again became a frequent
object of attack. In 1081-1085 it was held by Robert Guiscard,
in 1147-1154 by Roger II. of Sicily. During the break-up of
the Later Roman Empire it was occupied by Genoese privateers
(1197-1207) who in turn were expelled by the Venetians. In
1 2 14-12 59 it passed to the Greek despots of Epirus, and in 1267
became a possession of the Neapolitan house of Anjou. Under
the latter's weak rule the island suffered considerably from the
inroads of various adventurers ; hence in 1386 it placed itself
under the protection of Venice, which in 1401 acquired formal
sovereignty over it. Corcyra remained in Venetian hands till
1797, though several times assailed by Turkish armaments and
subjected to two notable sieges in 1536 and 1716-1718, in which
the great natural strength of the city again asserted itself. The
Venetian feudal families pursued a mild but somewhat enervating
policy towards the natives, who began to merge their nationality
in that of the Latins and adopted for the island the new name
of Corfu. The Corfiotes were encouraged to enrich themselves
by the cultivation of the olive, but were debarred from entering
into commercial competition with Venice. The island served
as a refuge for Greek scholars, and in 1732 became the home
of the first academy of modern Greece, but no serious impulse
to Greek thought came from this quarter.

By the treaty of Campo Formio Corfu was ceded to the French,
who occupied it for two years, until they were expelled by a
Russo-Turkish armament (1799). For a short time it became
the capital of a self-governing federation of the Hephtanesos
("Seven Islands"); in 1807 its faction-ridden government
was again replaced by a French administration, and in 1809 it
was vainly besieged by a British fleet. When, by the treaty of
Paris of November 5, 181 5, the Ionian Islands were placed under
the protectorate of Great Britain, Corfu became the seat of the
British high commissioner. The British commissioners, who
were practically autocrats in spite of the retention of the native
senate and assembly, introduced a strict method of government
which brought about a decided improvement in the material
prosperity of the island, but by its very strictness displeased the
natives. In 1864 it was, with the other Ionian Islands, ceded
to the kingdom of Greece, in accordance with the wishes of the
inhabitants. The island has again become an important point
of call and has a considerable trade in olive oil; under a more
careful system of tillage the value of its agricultural products
might be largely increased.

Corf u contains very few and unimportant remains of antiquity.
The site of the ancient city of Corcyra(K£p/ci;pa) is wellascertained,
about i| m. to the south-east of Corfu, upon the narrow piece
of ground between the sea-lake of Calichiopulo and the Bay of
Castrades, in each of which it had a port. The circular tomb of
Menecrates, with its well-known inscription, is on the Bay of
Castrades. Under the hill of Ascension are the remains of a
temple, popularly called of Neptune, a very simple Doric struc-
ture, which still in its mutilated state presents some peculiarities
of architecture. Of Cassiope, the only other city of ancient im-
portance, the name is still preserved by the village of Cassopo,
and there are some rude remains of building on the site; but
the temple of Zeus Cassius for which it was celebrated has totally
disappeared. Throughout the island there are numerous
monasteries and other buildings of Venetian erection, of which
the best known are Paleocastrizza, San Salvador and Pelleka.

Authorities. — Strabo vi. p. 269; vii. p. 329; Herodotus viii.
168; Thucydides i.-iii. ; Xenophon, Hellenica, vi. 2; Polybius ii.
9-1 1 ; Plutarch, Quaestiones Graecae, ch. xi. ; H. Jervis, The Ionian-
Islands during the Present Century (London, 1863); D. F. Ansted,
The Ionian Islands in the Year 1863 (London, 1863) ; Riemann,
Recherches archeologiques sur les lies ioniennes (Paris, 1 879-1 880);
J. Partsch, Die Insel Korfu (Gotha, 1887) ; B. Schmidt, Korkyraische
Studien (Leipzig, 1890); B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford,
1887), pp. 275-277; H. Lutz in Philologus, 56 (1897), pp. 71-77;
also art. Numismatics: Greek, § " Epirus." (E. Gr. ; M. O. B. C.)

CORI (anc. Cora), a town and episcopal see of the province of
Rome, Italy, 36 m, S.E. by rail from the town of Rome, on the
lower slopes of the Volscian mountains, 1300 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 6463. It occupies the site of the ancient Volscian
town of Cora, the foundation of which is by classical authors
variously ascribed to Trojan settlers, to the Volscians (with a later
admixture of Latins), and to the Latins themselves. The last
is more probable (though in that case it was the only town of
the Prisci Latini in the Volscian hills), as it appears among the
members of the Latin league. Coins of Cora exist, belonging
at latest to 350-250 B.C. It was devastated by the partisans
of Marius during the struggle between him and Sulla. Before
the end of the Republic it had become a municipium. It lay
just above the older road from Velitrae to Terracina, which
followed the foot of the Volscian hills, but was 6 m. from the
Via Appia, and it is therefore little mentioned by classical
writers. It is comparatively often spoken of in the 4th century,
but from that time to the 13th we hear hardly anything of it,
as though it had almost ceased to exist. The remains of the
city walls are considerable : three different enceintes, one within
the other, enclose the upper and lower town and the acropolis.
They are built in Cyclopean work, and different parts vary con-
siderably in the roughness or fineness of the jointing and hewing
of the blocks; but explorations at Norba (q.v.) have proved that
inferences as to their relative antiquity based upon such con-
siderations are not to be trusted. There is a fine single-arched
bridge, now called the Ponte della Catena, just outside the town
on the way to Norba, to which an excessively early date is often
assigned.

At the summit of the town is a beautiful little Doric tetrastyle
temple, belonging probably to the 1st century B.C., built of
limestone with an inscription recording its erection by the
duumviri. It is not known to what deity it was dedicated; and
there is no foundation for the assertion that the porphyry
statue of Minerva (or Roma) now in front of the Palazzo del
Senatore, at Rome, was found here in the 16th century. Lower
down are two columns of a Corinthian temple dedicated to Castor
and Pollux, as the inscription records. The church of Santa
Oliva stands upon the site of a Roman building. The cloister,
constructed in 1466-1480, is in two storeys; the capitals of the
columns are finely sculptured by a Lombard artist (G. Giovan-
noni in L" 'Arte, 1906, p. 108). There are remains of several other
ancient buildings in the modern town, especially of a series of
large cisterns probably belonging to the imperial period. Some
interesting frescoes of the Roman school of the 15 th century
are to be found in the chapel of the Annunziata outside the town
(F. Hermanin in L' Arte, 1906, p. 45).

See G. B. Piranesi, Antichitd, di Cora (Rome, n.d., c. 1770); A.
Nibby, Analisi della Carta dei Dintorni di Roma (Rome, 1848),
i. 487 seq. (T. As.).

CORIANDER, the fruit, improperly called seed, of an umbelli-
ferous plant (Coriandrum sativum), a native of the south of
Europe and Asia Minor, but cultivated in the south of England,
where it is also found as an escape, growing apparently wild.
The name is derived from the Gr. /copts (a bug), and was given
on account of its foetid, bug-like smell. The plant produces
a slender, erect, hollow stem rising 1 to 2 ft. in height, with
bipinnate leaves and small flowers in pink or whitish umbels.
The fruit is globular and externally smooth, having five indistinct
ridges, and the mericarps, or half-fruits, do not readily separate
from each other. It is used in medicine as an aromatic and
carminative, the active principle being a volatile oil, obtained
by distillation, which is isomeric with Borneo camphor, and may
be given in doses of J to 3 minims. On account of its pleasant
and pungent flavour it is a favourite ingredient in hot curries
and sauces. The fruit is also used in confectionery, and as a
flavouring ingredient in various liqueurs. The essential oil on
which its aroma depends is obtained from it by distillation.
The tender leaves and shoots of the young plant are used in
soups and salads.

CORINGA, a seaport of British India, in the district of Godavari
and presidency of Madras, on the estuary of a branch of the

CORINNA— CORINTH

H7

Godavari river. The harbour is protected from the swell of the
sea by the southward projection of Point Godavari, and affords
a shelter to vessels during the south-west monsoon; but though
formerly the most important on this coast it has been silted up
and lost its trade. The repairing and building of small coasting
ships is an industry at Tallarevu in the vicinity. In 1787 a
gale from the north-east occasioned an inundation which swept
away he greater part of Coringa with its inhabitants; and in
1832 another storm desolated the place, carrying vessels into
the fields and leaving them aground. Of Europeans the Dutch
were the first to establish themselves at Coringa. In 1759 the
English took possession of the town, and erected a factory 5 m.
to the south of it.

CORINNA, surnamed "the Fly," a Greek poetess, born at
Tanagra in Boeotia, flourished about 500 B.C. She is chiefly
known as the instructress and rival of Pindar, over whom she
gained the. victory in five poetical contests. According to
Pausanias (ix. 22. 3), her success was chiefly due to her beauty
and her use of the local Boeotian dialect. The extant fragments
of her poems, dealing chiefly with mythological subjects, such as
the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, will be found in
Bergk's Poetae Lyrici Graeci.

Some considerable remains of two poems on a 2nd-century
papyrus (Berliner Klassikertexte, v., 1907) have also been attributed
to Corinna (W. H. D. Rouse's Year's Work in Classical Studies,
1907; J. M. Edmonds, New Frags, of . . . and Corinna, 1910).

CORINTH, a city of Greece, situated near the isthmus (see
Corinth, Isthmus of) which connects Peloponnesus and central
Greece, and separates the Saronic and the Corinthian gulfs
on E. and W. The ancient town stood 15 m. from the latter,
in a plain extending westward to Sicyon. The citadel, or Acro-
corinthus, rising precipitously on the S. to a height of 1886 ft.
was separated by a ravine from Oneium, a range of hills which
runs E. to the isthmus entrance. Between this ridge and the
offshoots of Geraneia opposite a narrow depression allowed of
easy transit across the Isthmus neck. The territory of Corinth
was mostly rocky and unfertile; but its position at the head
of two navigable gulfs clearly marked it out as a commercial
centre. Its natural advantages were enhanced by the " Diolcus "
or tram-road, by which ships could be hauled across the Isthmus.
It was connected in historic times with its western port of
Lechaeum by two continuous walls, with Cenchreae and Schoenus
on the east by chains of fortifications. The city walls attained
a circuit of 10 m.

I. History. — In mythology, Corinth {originally named Ephyre)
appears as the home of Medea, Sisyphus and Bellerophon, and
already has over-sea connexions which illustrate its primitive
commercial activity. Similarly the early presence of Phoenician
traders is attested by the survival of Sidonian cults (Aphrodite
Urania, Athena Phoenicice, Melicertes, i.e. Melkarth). In the
Homeric poems Corinth is a mere dependency of Mycenae;
nor does it figure prominently in the tradition of the Dorian
migrations. Though ultimately conquered by the invaders it
probably retained much of its former " Ionian " population,
whose god Poseidon continued to be worshipped at the national
Isthmian games throughout historic times; of the eight com-
munal tribes perhaps only three were Dorian. Under the new
dynasty of Aletes, which reigned according to tradition from
1074 to 747, Corinthian history continues obscure. The govern-
ment subsequently passed into the hands of a small corporation
of nobles descended from a former king Bacchis, and known as
the Bacchidae, who nominated annually a Prytanis (president)
from among their number. The maritime expansion of Corinth
at this time is proved by the foundation of colonies at Syracuse
and Corcyra, and the equipment of a fleet of triremes (the newly
invented Greek men-of-war) to quell a revolt of the latter city.

But Corinth's real prosperity dates from the time of the
tyranny (657-581), established by a disqualified noble Cypselus
{q.v.). and continued under his son Periander (q.v.). Under
these remarkable men, whose government was apparently mild,
the city rapidly developed. She extended her sphere of influence
throughout the coast-lands of the western gulf; by the settle-

ment of numerous colonies in N.W. Greece she controlled the
Italian and Adriatic trade-routes and secured a large share of
the commerce with the western Greeks. In Levantine waters
connexions grew up with the great marts of Chalcis and Miletus,
with the rulers of Lydia, Phrygia, Cyprus and Egypt. As an
industrial centre Corinth achieved pre-eminence in pottery,
metal-work and decorative handicraft, and was the reputed
" inventor " of painting and tiling; her bronze and her pottery,
moulded from the soft white clay of Oneium, were widely
exported over the Mediterranean. The chief example of her
early art was the celebrated " chest of Cypselus " at Olympia,
of carved cedar and ivory inlaid with gold. The city was enriched
with notable temples and public works (see § Archaeology) , and
became the home of several Cyclic poets and of Arion, the
perfecter of the dithyramb.

The tyranny was succeeded by an oligarchy based upon a
graduated money qualification, which ruled with a consistency
equalling that of the Venetian Council, but pursued a policy
too purely commercial to the neglect of military efficiency.
Late in the 6th century Corinth joined the Peloponnesian league
under Sparta, in which her financial resources and strategic
position secured her an unusual degree of independence. Thus
the city successfully befriended the Athenians against
Cleomenes I. (q.v.), and supported them against Aegina, their
common commercial rival in eastern waters. In the great
Persian war of 480 Corinth served as the Greek headquarters:
her army took part at Thermopylae and Plataea and her navy
distinguished itself at Salamis and Mycale. Later in the century
the rapid development of Athenian trade and naval power
became a serious menace. In 459 the Corinthians, in common
with their former rivals the Aeginetans, made war upon Athens,
but lost both by sea and land. Henceforward their Levantine
commerce dwindled, and in the west the Athenians extended
their rivalry even into the Corinthian Gulf. Though Syracuse
remained friendly, and the colonies in the N.W. maintained a
close commercial alliance with the mother-city, the disaffection of
Corcyra hampered the Italian trade. The alliance of this latter
power with Athens accentuated the rising jealousy of the
Corinthians, who, after deprecating a federal war in 440, virtually
forced Sparta's hand against Athens in 432. In the subsequent
war Corinth displayed great activity in the face of heavy losses,
and the support she gave to Syracuse had no little influence
on the ultimate issue of the war (see Peloponnesian War).
In 395 the domineering attitude of Sparta impelled the
Corinthians to conclude an alliance with Argos which they had
previously contemplated on occasions of friction with the former
city, as well as with Thebes and with Athens, whose commercial
rivalry they no longer dreaded. In the ensuing " Corinthian
War " the city suffered severely, and the war-party only main-
tained itself by the help of an Argive garrison and a formal
annexation to Argos. Since 387 the Spartan party was again
supreme, and after Leuctra Corinth took the field against the
Theban invaders of Peloponnesus (371-366). In 344 party
struggles between oligarchs and democrats led to a usurpation
by the tyrant Timophanes, whose speedy assassination was
compassed by his brother Timoleon (q.v.).

After the campaign of Chaeronea, Philip II. of Macedon
summoned a Greek congress at Corinth and left a garrison on
the citadel. This citadel, one of the "fetters of Greece," was
eagerly contended for by the Macedonian pretenders after
Alexander's death; ultimately it fell to Antigonus Gonatas,
who controlled it through a tyrant. In 243 Corinth was freed
by Aratus and incorporated into the Achaean league. After a
short Spartan occupation in 224 it was again surrendered to
Macedonia. T. Quinctius Flamininus, after proclaiming the
liberty of Greece at the Isthmus, restored Corinth to the league
(196). With the revival of its political and commercial import-
ance the city became the centre of resistance against Rome.
In return for the foolish provocation of war in 146 B.C. the Roman
conquerors despoiled Corinth of its art treasures and destroyed
the entire settlement: the land was partly made over to Sicyon
and partly became public domain.

14-8

CORINTH

In 46 Julius Caesar repeopled Corinth with Italian freedmen
and dispossessed Greeks. Under its new name Laus Julii and
an Italian constitution it rapidly recovered its commercial
prosperity. Augustus made it the capital of Achaea; Hadrian
enriched it with public works. Its prosperity, as also its pro-
fligacy, is attested by the New Testament, by Strabo and
Pausanias. After the Gothic raids of 267 and 395 Corinth was
secured by new fortifications at the Isthmus. Though restricted
to the citadel, the medieval town became the administrative
and ecclesiastical capital of Peloponnesus, and enjoyed a thriving
trade and silk industry until in 1147 it was sacked by the
Normans. In 1210 it was joined to the Latin duchy of the
Morea, and subsequently was contended for by various Italian
pretenders. Since the Turkish conquest (1459) the history of
Corinth has been uneventful, save for a raid by the Maltese in
161 1 and a Venetian occupation from 1687 to 1715.

Authorities. — Strabo, pp. 378-382; Pausanias ii. 1-4; Curtius,
Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1851), ii. 514-556; E. Wilisch, Die Altkorin-
thische Thonindustrie (Leipzig, 1892) and Geschickte Korinth's (1887,
1896, 1901); G. Gilbert, Griechische Staatsaltertilmer (Leipzig, 1885),
li. pp. 87-91. (M. O. B. C.)

II. Archaeology and Modern Town. — The modern town of New
Corinth, the head of a district in the province of Corinth (pop.
71,229), is situated on the Isthmus of Corinth near the south-
eastern recess of the Gulf of Corinth, 35 m. N.E. from the site
of the ancient city. It was founded in 1858, when Old Corinth
was destroyed by an earthquake. It is connected by railway
-with Athens (57 m.), with Patras (80 m.), and with Nauplia
(40 m.), the capital of Argolis. Communication by sea with
Athens, Patras, the Ionian Islands and the shores of the
Ambracian Gulf, is constant since the opening of the Corinthian
ship canal, in 1893. It has not, however, attained great pros-
perity. It has broad streets and low houses, but is architec-
turally unattractive, like most of the creations of the time of
King Otto. Its chief exports are seedless grapes (" currants "),
olive-oil, silk and cereals. Pop. (1905) about 4300.

Old Corinth passed through its various stages, Greek, Roman,
Byzantine, Turkish. After the War of Liberation it was again
Greek, and, being a considerable town, was suggested as the
capital of the new kingdom of Greece. The earthquake of 1858
levelled it to the ground with the exception of about a dozen
houses. A mere handful of the old inhabitants remained on the
site. But fertile fields and running water made it attractive;
and outsiders gradually came in. At present it is an untidy,
poverty-stricken village of about 1000 inhabitants, mostly of
Albanian blood. Like the ancient city, it spreads out over two
terraces, one about 100 ft. above the other. These were formed
in different geological ages by the gulf, which had in historical
times receded to a distance of 1 \ m. from the city. At the nearest
point to the city was laid out the harbour, Lechaeum, a basin dug
far into the shore and joined with the city by long walls. At
about the middle of the two terraces, 15 m. long, the edge of the
upper one was worn back into a deep indentation, probably
by running water, possibly by quarrying. Here was the heart
of the ancient city. At the lower end of the indentation is the
modern public square, shaded by a gigantic and picturesque
plane tree, nourished by the surplus water of Pirene. As the
visitor looks from the square up the indentation he sees on a
height to the right a venerable temple ruin, and, directly in front,
Aero-Corinth, rising over 1 500 ft. above the village. Even from
the village, the view over the gulf , including Parnassus with its
giant neighbours on the N., Cyllene and its neighbours on the
W., and Geraneia on the N.E., is very fine. But from Acro-
Corinth the view is still finer, and is perhaps unsurpassed in
Greece.

The excavations begun in 1896 by the American school of
Classical Studies at Athens, under the direction of Rufus B.
Richardson, have brought to light important monuments of
the ancient city, both Greek and Roman.

The first object was the locating of the agora, or public square,
first because Pausanias says that most of the important monu-
ments of the city were either on or near the agora; and secondly
because, beginning with the agora, he mentions, sometimes with

a brief description, the principal monuments in order along three
of the principal thoroughfares radiating from it. In the first
year's work twenty-one trial trenches were dug in the hope
of finding a clue to its position. Somewhat less than a quarter
of a mile to the N.W. of the temple, set back into the edge of the
upper terrace, there was found, under 20 ft. of soil, a ruined
Roman theatre built upon the ruins of a Greek theatre. This
theatre was, according to Pausanias, on the street leading from
the agora towards Sicyon, and so to the west of the agora.
Another trench dug across the deep indentation to the E. of the
temple revealed a broad limestone pavement leading from the
very northern edge of the city up through the indentation, in
the direction of Aero-Corinth. It required little sagacity to

CORINTH

showing sites of excavations

Theatre

Yards
100

Metres

Clauce

Baths of
Eurycles

Greek Temple

^Roman Building
.ferine
Pr °pylae*- }

I

identify it with the street mentioned by Pausanias as leading
from the agora towards Lechaeum. It was practically certain
that by following up this pavement to its point of intersection
with the road from Sicyon the agora would be discovered.

The limestone pavement, with long porches on either side, was
found to stop at the foot of a marble staircase of thirty-four
steps of Byzantine construction, underneath which appeared a
Roman arrangement of the two flights with a platform halfway
up. The top flight led up to the propylaea. The remains of the
propylaea above ground are few; but the foundations are
massive and well laid, at the end of the upper terrace where it
is farthest worn back. These foundations are clearly those of
a Roman triumphal arch, which perhaps took the name " pro-
pylaea " from an ancient Greek structure on the same spot. This
arch appears on Roman coins from Augustus to Commodus;
according to Pausanias it bore two four-horse chariots, one
driven by Helios and the other by Phaethon, his son, all in gilded
bronze.

Although a considerable part of the agora has been excavated,
none of the statues which Pausanias saw in it have been dis-
covered. On the upper (S.) side are excellent foundations of
a long porch. On the N. side, stretching westward from the

CORINTH

149

propylaea, are two porches of different periods. The older one,
which still existed in Roman times, was backed up against the
temple hill, which was cut away to make room for it. An ancient
staircase, 15 ft. broad, led down from the temple hill into the
lower area of the broad pavement, from which access to the agora
and the Pirene was easy.

To the E. of the paved road and close up against the agora
itself, only at a much lower level, was found, buried under
35 ft. of earth, the famous fountain Pirene, tallying exactly
with the description of Pausanias, as " a series of chambers that
are like caves, and bearing a facade of white marble." This
Pirene originally had a two-storey facade of Roman fashion
made of limestone, but, before the time of Pausanias, it had
received a covering of marble which has now fallen off, but has
left traces of itself in the holes drilled into the limestone, in the
rough hacking away of the half columns, and in the numerous
marble fragments which lay in front of the f acade. This was not,
however, the earliest form of Pirene. It was built up in front of
a more simple Greek fountain-structure which consisted of seven
cross-walls placed under the edge of the stratum forming the
upper terrace. Six chambers were thus formed which showed
the chaste beauty of Greek workmanship-, while the stratum
of native rock which covered them gave a touch of nature and
made them caves. The walls ended at the front in the form of an
anta delicately carved. On a parapet at the rear of each chamber
a single slender Ionic column between two antae supported an
Ionic entablature. The stuccoed walls were striped horizontally
and vertically with red on a blue field, on which appear fishes
swimming. The chambers were really reservoirs, filled by the
water which flowed along their backs.

We know nothing further about the Greek system, but in
the Roman adjustment the water was led from this series of
cisterns into a large rectangular basin which formed the centre of
a quadrangle 50 ft. square. In the N.E. corner is a hole through
which it was drained, and at the N. end a flight of five steps led
down into it. Besides the four orifices through which water
'flowed into it there were two other holes about 4 in. lower down
to keep the basin from overflowing. Two uses of water are
mentioned by Pausanias. " The water," he says, " was sweet
to drink," and also good for tempering bronze. It seems clear
then, that the basin was at stated times used for the latter
purpose, and was converted into a tank. The bronze was
plunged into the water in a red hot condition, and thus acquired
its peculiar excellence.

In Byzantine times five columns, of various diameters, with
no two bases of the same size, bearing Corinthian capitals, were
set up about 6 ft. in front of the facade. Blocks of marble
which had seen use elsewhere ran from them back into the
facade, which was hacked away in rough fashion to receive them.
Probably these blocks formed the floor of a balcony, a tawdry
marble addition.

Pirene was at all times the heart of the city. Here it was that
Athena helped Bellerophon to bridle Pegasus; and hence she
received the epithet of " the Bridler," Chalinitis. The importance
of the fountain is attested by the fact that the Greek poets and
the Delphic oracle instead of saying Corinth said, " the city of
Pirene." That it was a place of common resort is shown by
Euripides {Medea, 68 f.), where it is said that the elders were to be
found " near the august waters of Pirene, playing draughts
(ire<rcroi)." The quadrangle, with its walls 20 ft. high, and its
three apses probably covered with half domes, provided con-
siderable shade. There is reason for supposing that the marble
coating of the fagade, and perhaps the erection of the quadrangle,
also covered with marble, were the work of Herodes Atticus,
and therefore just completed when Pausanias saw them. A base
on which stood a statue of Herodes' wife, Regilla, was found
close to the facade, inscribed with fulsome praise, stating that
the statue was " set up by order of the Sisyphaean Senate at
the outpouring of the streams." Two inscriptions of Roman
times make the identity of Pirene certain, if there could be any
doubt in the face of the exact agreement of Pausanias's descrip-
tion with the structure.

Of the surviving monuments of the Greek city the most
important is the temple of Apollo. While it was probably badly
wrecked by the Romans at the sack of the city, its massive
columns with the entablature survived. That it was restored
and was in use in Roman time is shown by the fact that both
the seven columns still standing and two fallen columns dis-
covered in the excavations, to say nothing of several fragments
of others, have a thick coating of Roman stucco laid over the
finer Greek. The style of the temple points to 600 B.C., when
Periander was at the height of his power. According to
Herodotus he made his doubtful adherents deposit pledges of
faithfulness in the temple of Apollo. Quite near the W. end of
the temple is the fountain Glauce cut out of a cube of rock,
apparently left standing when the material for the temple was
quarried around it. In it were carved out four chambers or
reservoirs all connected and a porch consisting of three pillars
between two antae in which the side walls ended. The water
coming down from Aero-Corinth was introduced from behind.
Approached by a flight of steps partly rock-cut, it had at the
rear of the porch a balustrade with marble lions' heads through
which the water overflowed. Two of these heads were found.
The top of the system of reservoirs was too heavy for the slender
cross walls and pillars, only the stumps of which remain; a
collapse took place, by which the porch and the W. compartment
were carried away. From its location only about 50 yds. from
the temple it seems to have been the temple fountain. It was
named after the second wife of Jason, Glauce, who plunged into
it to quench the fire of the poisoned bridal garments given her
by Medea.

It is not surprising that monuments were found of which there
is no record in ancient writings. Such was a very ancient
fountain W. of the propylaea, 25 ft. below the surface. Under
remains of the Roman city appeared a triglyphon of porous stone
with an extent from N. to S. of about 30 ft. At the N. end it
turned westward at an obtuse angle and extended about 10 ft.
in that direction. The system is about 4 ft. high. While the
colours on the metopes and triglyphs had faded somewhat,
the border above them, topped with a cornice projecting 6 in.,
retained a most brilliant maeander pattern of red, blue and
yellow, while below these were two bands of godroons of blue and
red. On the top of this system as a foundation were set several
statue bases, one bearing the signature of Lysippus, which shows
that the system stood there at least as early as the 4th century
B.C. Some parts of it may have been taken from older buildings,
but not the cornice nor the corner metope block which formed
an obtuse angle. Near the middle of the long side is an opening;
and from it a flight of seven steps led down to a trapezoidal
chamber, on the back wall of which are two lions' heads of bronze,
through which water, conducted in long semi-cylindrical channels
of bronze, from behind the wall, poured out into pitchers for
which holes are cut in the floor. Channels for the overflow were
cut along the back and sides of the chamber. All this was
once approached from the front at the level of the floor, long
before the triglyphon was set up, 7 ft. above it. Considering
its depth this fountain must be dated back to the 5th century,
probably near the beginning. The style of the lions' heads would
hardly admit a later date. This is the only case of an ancient
Greek fountain of such an early date, unaltered and intact.
The pains taken to preserve it suggest that it was invested with
a sacred character.

Sculptures in large numbers, both of the Greek city and the
Roman, are collected in the new museum erected by the Greek
government near the plane tree. The finest of the Greek
sculptures is the head of a youth found in the orchestra of the
theatre at a depth of 23 ft. It lacks only the lower part of the
bridge of the nose, and has style and character, resembling
Myron's heads in shape and in the hair. A large fragment of a
relief also of early" date, represents two dancing maenads half
life-size. Most impressive is a colossal female figure of grand
style and excellent drapery. If not an original of the 5th century
it is one of the finest of copies. Of the great amount of Roman
sculpture the best single piece is a head of Dionysus under, the

■ISO

CORINTH— CORINTHIANS

influence of wine, crowned with a wreath of ivy, his right hand
thrown carelessly over his head. The fine execution is all that
differentiates it from the numerous copies in various museums.
The most important sculptures of the Roman period, however,
are a group of colossal figures supporting an entablature, a
large part of which has been recovered. One of the figures,
a barbarian captive, effeminate like those which appear on
Roman triumphal arches, is practically intact. Another, its
counterpart, is preserved down to the hips. These differ from
Caryatids, which bear the architrave on their heads. Here a
pilaster forming the back of the figure receives a Corinthian
capital, upon which the architrave rests; and the figures merely
brace up the pilaster. Two of these figures stood at the end of
a re-entrant curve, several pieces of which are preserved. Two
female heads of like proportions belong to the system, since the
backs of their heads are cut away in the same manner as the
male heads. The building to which the figures' belonged, a
porch, extended westward from the propylaea; and may be
traced for 45 ft. All that is left of it is the core of opus incertum.

The excavations brought to light vases and fragments of vases,
of nearly every period except the Mycenaean. On the N. side
of the hill on which stands the village schoolhouse, from which
one looks across the indentation to the Apollo temple, several
vertical shafts in the limestone stratum were found, and under-
neath it in horizontal passages were bodies surrounded with
vases. These are pre-Mycenaean, and their only ornament
is scratches, into which white matter has been pressed. There
are over fifty of these vases, of multiform shapes. By the side
of the Lechaeum road, near the steps leading to the propylaea,
were found in deep diggings thirteen early Geometric vases.
Proto-Corinthian vases also were everywherestronglyrepresented.
The best find of pottery, however, was an Old Corinthian celebe
(KeXej3ij, drinking vessel) , about a foot high, in forty-six fragments,
found in a well, 30 ft. below the surface. On one side are a boar
and a leopard confronting each other, and on the other sidetwo
cocks in the same heraldic arrangement. On the projecting
plates supported by the handles are palmettes.

Two inscriptions in the Old Corinthian alphabet came to light.
But, on the whole, inscriptions before the Roman times were
almost entirely lacking. One inscription, though of late date,
deserves mention. On a marble block broken away at both ends,
which in a second use was a lintel, we read ATOrHEBP, which
can only be avvayuyfi 'Eppaiwv (synagogue of the Hebrews).

The excavations were confined to a small part of the city,
but there is little doubt that it was the most important part.
By good fortune the earth here was very deep. On the higher level
of the agora and the Apollo temple, where the depth of earth
is comparatively slight, there is little hope of important finds.
There is no hope of finding the great bronze Athena, which stood
in the middle of the agora. To the west, beyond the theatre, one
might find the temple of Athena Chalinitis and the fountain
Lerna, and somewhere near Glauce, the Odeum and the tomb
of Medea's children; but it is more likely that they have dis-
appeared. On the Lechaeum road, on which a bewildering
wealth of fountains and statues is enumerated, only the Baths
of Eurycles below the plane tree were found; deep diggings
were made into them, and the foundations of the facade laid
bare. This great complex was apparently supplied with water
from Hadrian's aqueduct from Lake Stymphalus. On the street
going eastward from the agora nothing is mentioned between
it and the city wall. This level eastern part was probably given
up to fine houses, all traces of which have perished. Outside
the gate, apparently, was the famous Craneion, shaded by
cypress trees, and near it the tombs of Lais and Diogenes, a
precinct of Bellerophon and of Athena Melaenis. The
number of temples and shrines enumerated by Pausanias
along the road leading up to Aero-Corinth is bewildering.
Here were represented Isis and Serapis, Helios, the Mother of
the Gods, the Fates, Demeter and Persephone; but no trace
of these temples remains. At the highest point of the road,
according to Pausanias, there stood the famous temple of
Aphrodite, but the remains excavated at this point seem to be

those of a late tower, and the few foundations below it do not
resemble those of a temple. We are equally unfortunate in
regard to Strabo's splendid marble Sisyphaeum just below
the summit. The fountain Pirene, " behind the temple," still
exists, hut so much earth has accumulated about' it that one
now approaches it by going down a ladder. The water is so
crystal clear that one inadvertently steps into it. The identity
of name with that of Pirene in the city is justified by the fact
that the upper spring is the source of the Pirene below.

See, for details, the American Journal of Archaeology (from 1896).

(R. B. R.)

CORINTH, a city and the county-seat of Alcorn county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., situated in the N.E. part of the state, about
90 m. E. by S. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 21 n; (1900)
3661 (1174 negroes); (1910) 5020. It is served by the Mobile
& Ohio and the Southern railways; and by a branch of the
Illinois Central connecting Jackson, Miss., and Birmingham,
Ala. It has woollen mills, cotton compresses, clothing,
furniture, and spoke and stave factories and machine shops,
and is a cotton market. Because of its situation and its import-
ance as a railway junction, Corinth played an important part
in the western campaigns of the Civil War. After the first Con-
federate line of defence had been broken by the capture of Fort
Henry and Fort Donelson (February 1862), Corinth was fortified
by General P. G. T. Beauregard, and was made the centre of the
new line along the Memphis & Charleston railway, " the great
East and West artery of the Confederacy." Grant's advance
on this centre, then defended by General A. S. Johnston, led to
the battle of Shiloh, fought on April 6/7 about 20 m. N.E. of
Corinth; after this engagement Beauregard withdrew to Corinth.
General H. W. Halleck, with a greatly superior force, cautiously
and slowly advanced upon the Confederate position, consuming
more than a month in the operation. During the night of the
29th of May Beauregard evacuated the place (which was occupied
by the Federals on the following day) , and re-established his line
at Tupelo. Corinth then became the headquarters of the Union
forces under General W. S. Rosecrans, who on the 3/4 of October
1862 was fiercely attacked here by General Earl von Dorn, whom
he repulsed, both sides suffering considerable losses in killed and
wounded, and the Confederates leaving many prisoners behind.

CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF, an isthmus of Greece, dividing the
Gulf of Corinth from the Saronic Gulf. Ships were sometimes
dragged across it in ancient times at a place called the Diolcus
{faehKuv, to pull or cut through). Nero, in a.d. 67, began cutting
a canal through it; but the project was abandoned. In 1893
a ship canal was opened, with its western entrance about i\ m.
N.E. of the little town of New Corinth. It was begun in 1881
by a French company, which ceased operations in 1889, a Greek
company completing the undertaking. The canal is about
70 ft. broad, nearly 4 m. long, and 26 ft. deep. It shortens the
journey from the Adriatic to the Peiraeus by 202 m., but foreign
steamships seldom use it, as the narrowness of the canal and the
strength of the current at times render the passage dangerous.
About 1 m. from its western end it is crossed by the iron bridge
of the Athens and Corinth railway. Traces of the Isthmian wall
may still be seen parallel to the canal; it was constructed, at an
unknown date, for the fortification of the Isthmus. Just to the
S. of it, and about 5 m. from the sea are the remains of the
Isthmian precinct of Poseidon and its stadium, where the
Isthmian games were celebrated. This precinct served also
as a fortress. Within it have been found traces of the temple
of Poseidon and other buildings. (E. Gr.)

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, two books of the Bible
(New Testament). The two letters addressed to the Christian
church at Corinth are, with Romans, the longest of the Pauline
epistles. They possess a singular interest and value, due to the
apostle's close acquaintance with the members of the church
addressed and their circumstances. In consequence of this
intimate character the First Epistle to the. Corinthians presents
a picture, unrivalled in fulness and colour, of the life of a Pauline
church, while the Second Epistle, written out of strong feeling
gives a revelation of the innermost feelings and characteristic

CORINTHIANS

i5t

temperament of Paul himself, such as is not elsewhere to be found.
Dealing, as both epistles do, with concrete problems of morals
and with such tendencies of thought and life as find their parallel
in all times, they are full of instruction to the modern Church ;
and this instruction increases in effectiveness the better we come
to understand ancient modes of thought in their diversity from
our own.

Lofty and vivid expression of the apostle's thought on the
highest themes is also to be found here — witness the "Hymn
to Love " (1 Cor. xiii.), the declaration of the resurrection
(1 Cor. xv. ' 51-57), or the list of signatures of the true servant
of God (2 Cor. vi. 3-10). In important historical statements,
also, these epistles stand second to none, not even to Galatians^-
as may be indicated by a reference to the words about the institu-
tion of the Lord's supper (1 Cor. xi. 23-26) and the death and
resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Cor. xv. 1-8); or to the auto-
biographical utterances in which Paul explains that he was once
a persecutor of Christians (1 Cor. xv. 9), mentions his escape from
Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 32 f.), describes his coming to Corinth
(1 Cor. ii. 1 ff.), enumerates his sufferings for the Gospel (2 Cor.
xi. 16-31), tells of his visions (2 Cor. xii. 1-9). In the Corinthian
epistles we come in contact, as nowhere else, with the man Paul
and his daily life.

The history of Paul's relations with Corinth can be made out
from the Acts and the Epistles with considerable clearness.
The chronology of Paul's life is not at any point surely determin-
able within a range of less than five years, but it must have been
in the autumn of one of the years a.d. 49-53 (the usual chronology
has fixed on a.d. 52) that the arrival of Paul in Corinth took
place as described in Acts xviii. 1. In his so-called second
missionary journey Paul had been driven by irresistible inner
impulses to push on into Greece the missionary work already
begun in Asia Minor. First he preached in the province of
Macedonia, where the work opened auspiciously at Philippi,
Thessalonica and Beroea; then, apparently driven out by the
violent opposition of the Jews, he moved on to Achaea, and after
rather unsuccessful attempts to secure converts among the
philosophers of Athens came to Corinth.

This ancient city, taken and destroyed by the Romans in
146 B.C., had been refounded by Julius Caesar as a Roman
colony in 46 B.C., settled with Italian colonists, and made a
residence of the Roman governor. Its situation on the isthmus
of Corinth made it a stage on the greatest of the trade routes
between Rome and the East, and it was at this time the com-
mercial capital of Greece. The traditions of licentiousness and
sensuality associated with the worship of Aphrodite, which had
given rise to the sinister word corinthianize, increased the natural
tendencies of a great city to wickedness and wanton luxury.
Here, as in all great centres of trade and industry, there was a
body of Jews, with a synagogue. The conditions of life in
Corinth — the heathen surroundings, the temptations to vice,
the competition and disputes of trading life, the controversial
arguments of Jews, the alertness of mind of a lively city people,
the haughty temper of the inhabitants of the capital — all these
are to be seen reflected in the earnest paragraphs of Paul's
two epistles.

The founding of the church in Corinth (cf. 1 Cor. iv. 15) and
nearly everything important that we know of Paul's first visit
there will be found, well told, in Acts xviii. 1-18, a passage for
which, evidently, the writer of the history had excellent sources
of information. Of the somewhat chastened spirit with which
Paul came he himself tells in 1 Cor. ii. 1-5. His success was
prompt and large, and in the year and six months of his stay
a vigorous church was gathered, including Aquila and Priscilla,
as well as Crispus, the ruler of the synagogue, of whom we hear
again in 1 Cor. i. 14; whether Sosthenes, who seems to have
succeeded Crispus in his office (Acts xviii. 17), was afterwards
converted and became the Christian brother mentioned in
1 Cor. i. 1 cannot be known. The church evidently consisted
mainly of Gentile converts, but with some Jews (1 Cor. x. 14,
" flee from idolatry "; xii. 2, " when ye were Gentiles "; vii. .18,
" was any man called being circumcised ?") .

The apostle's next long stay was at Ephesus, whither he seems
to have gone in the course of the same year- in which he left
Corinth (a.d. 51-55) and where he stayed three years. Before
he arrived at Ephesus Aquila and Priscilla, who had settled
there, made the acquaintance of Apollos, a Jew from Alexandria,
well-educated and zealous, who with imperfect Christian know-
ledge was preaching the gospel of Jesus to his fellow-countrymen
in the synagogue. He presently went to Corinth and carried
on Christian work there with success (Acts xviii. 24-28). " I
planted," says Paul (1 Cor. iii. 6), " Apollos watered." From
this point on our information comes from the epistles, of which
the first was written from Ephesus before Pentecost of the year
in which Paul left that city, i.e. a.d. 54-58 (1 Cor. xvi. 8).

It appears that the church grew in numbers, for Paul refers
in 2 Cor. i. 1 to " saints who are in all Achaea." Its membership
was mostly of humble people (1 Cor. i. 26-29), but probably
not exclusively so, for Crispus and Stephanas (who with his
household was able to render services that may well have been
costly, 1 Cor. xvi. 15), Gaius and Erastus (Rom. xvi. 23), would
appear to have been persons of substance. The references to
law-suits perhaps imply fairly prosperous traders, the tone of
the letters suggests considerable education and a reasonable
degree of property on the part of many (though not all) of the
readers.

The first need of the church for help from Paul seems to have
grown out of the dangers from surrounding heathenism. In
1 Cor. v. 9 we read of a letter in which Paul had directed the
Christians " not to have company with fornicators." This
letter, so far as we know, opened the correspondence which
was maintained during the three years of Paul's stay in Ephesus,
whence there was easy and frequent communication with
Corinth. He refers to it in order to explain the injunction which
had been (perhaps wilfully) misunderstood and exaggerated. 1

While at Ephesus Paul was visited by persons of the household
of Chloe (1 Cor. i. n), and by Stephanas with Fortunatus and
Achaicus (probably his slaves, xvi. 17). From them and from a
letter (vii. 1), which was brought perhaps by Stephanas, he was
able to gain the intimate knowledge which the epistles everywhere
reveal. The letter from Corinth must have contained inquiries
as to practical conduct with regard to marriage (vii. t), meat
offered to idols (viii. 1), and the " spiritual gifts " (xii. 1), and
may well have related to other matters, such as the collection
of money for Jerusalem (xvi. 1), the visit of Apollos (xvi. 12),
the position of women (xi. 2). Paul's reply includes many
other topics. When it was sent, his trusted helper Timothy
had also started on his way (probably through Macedonia) to
Corinth, to contribute there to the edification of the Christians
(iv. 17, xvi. 10). The letter itself was doubtless sent by the hand
of returning Corinthians, possibly by the unnamed brethren
referred to in xvi. 1 1 , and was expected to arrive before Timothy.

First Epistle. — The first epistle (in many respects the most
systematic of all Paul's letters) is a pastoral letter, dealing both
with positive evils that need correction, and with difficult
questions of practice and of thought upon which advice may be
valued. Through it all there is a genial undercurrent of con-
fidence in the personal loyalty of the Corinthian church to Paul,
its founder and father. We shall be aided to understand its
contents by a brief summary of the tendencies and conditions
at Corinth which it reflects.

First of all there was a lack of supreme devotion to the Cause
itself, which led the Corinthians to forget that they were first,
last and always Christians, and so to form factions and parties.
Of these there were distinguished at least three, attached to
the names respectively of the founder Paul, of the learned
Apollos, and of the great pillar-apostle at Jerusalem, Peter,
besides, as many hold, a fourth, which arrogantly claimed to be
the party of Christ (i. 12). What were the precise motives and
principles of these parties cannot be determined. They do not
in any case seem to represent recognizable definite points of view

1 Hilgenfeld, Bacon and others hold that this letter is partly
preserved in 2 Cor. vi. 14-vii. 1, bat the evidence for removing those
verses from their present position is insufficient.

!52

CORINTHIANS

with regard to the controverted matters that are taken up in the
epistle. Yet some conjectures are possible. Paul and Apollos
were personally on friendly terms (xvi. 12, cf. iii. 5-9, iv. 6),
and were understood to be in fundamental agreement. But
doubtless the more elaborate discourses of Apollos were admired,
and Paul's teaching seemed in contrast bare, plain and crude
(cf. 2 Cor. x. 10). The contrast between the Hellenic and Jewish
types of thought may well have played a part also. Paul seems
to be replying to such criticisms brought against him when he
declares that he deliberately chose to bring to Corinth not the
" wisdom of men " but the " power of God " (i. 17, ii. 1-5), and
informs them that he has a store of wisdom for those who are
ready for it (ii. 6). On the other hand the party of Cephas must
have had Jewish-Christian leanings. A little later, in the second
epistle, such a tendency is seen breaking out into violent opposi-
tion to Paul. The " Christ-party," if, as is probable, it existed,
must also have been a party with a Judaizing turn (cf . 2 Cor. x.
7, xi. 22 f.), perhaps of a more extreme character. The danger
of shattering the solid front of the Christian church against
surrounding heathenism was keenly felt by Paul, as nearly
every one of his epistles testifies. How serious it was at. Corinth
is shown by the long passage (chaps, i.-iv.) in which he points
out that sectarianism is a mark not of superior but of inferior
maturity and devotion.

Other difficulties arose from various causes. The influences of
the heathen world, from which most of the Corinthian Christians
had come and to which their friends and neighbours belonged,
were always with them, and the problems created by these re-
lations were very numerous. Christianity had brought over
and had even intensified the moral code of Judaism, and, especi-
ally in the relations of the sexes, this brought a strain upon the
naturalistic impulses and lower standards of converts trained
in a different system.

Again, there were law-suits in the ordinary courts, a natural
result of the frictions and strains of an oriental trading com-
munity. To Paul this was abhorrent, and here too he urges a
complete break with their past. With regard to the social
customs of meals at which meat that had been offered in heathen
sacrifices was a part, and of feasts actually at heathen temples,
doubtful questions arose. Was it a denial of the faith to eat
such food or not? Mixed marriages, too, had their problems;
ought the believing wife to separate herself? Ought the believing
husband to insist that his heathen wife stay with him against her
will? And, further, in the case of slaves, does the consciousness
of Christian manhood give a new motive for trying to gain
worldly freedom? In all these matters Paul gives sensible
advice. There were clearly two groups of Christians, the " weak,"
or scrupulous, whose principle was to abstain, and the " strong,"
or free, who maintained that the morally insignificant must not
usurp a place to which it has no right. Paul sides with neither,
but follows two principles, one that the church and its members
must be kept pure, the other that the moral welfare not only
of the individual but of his neighbour must be the controlling
motive.

Not due so much to heathen influences as to the natural
tendencies of imperfect and passionate human nature were other
conditions. The most striking incident here, and one which gave
Paul much concern, was the case of a man who after his father's
death had married his own stepmother (" the case of incest ").
That this was rare in the ancient world and generally abominated
both by Jews and Greeks made it seem to Paul the more impera-
tive that this stain on the Christian church should be removed.
His language shows his indignation and grief that the Corinthians
themselves have not already taken the matter in hand.

Besides these troubles from heathenism there were questions
of asceticism; the Greek reaction against naturalism held that
nature was vile and marriage wrong. Paul had a qualified
tendency to asceticism, but he shows excellent good sense in
his discussion of these delicate matters.

A different set of difficulties arose from the freedom into which
Christianity had introduced persons from all classes of life.
What degree of freedom was permissible to a Christian woman?

How far must a woman of the lower classes who became a
Christian subject herself to the restrictions of a higher class of
society? Might a woman, as a free child of God, take part in
the Christian public meeting?

Also in matters pertaining to the common religious life of the
new society the new situation raised new problems. How should
reasonable order be maintained in the wholly democratic forms
of the church devotional meeting? What value should be
assigned to the different religious functions or " spiritual
gifts "? Did any of them confer the right to a conscious-
ness of God's special favour? Again, the celebration of the
Lord's supper, which was associated with a proper meal, was
marred by exhibitions of selfishness and irreverence that needed
correction.

The great variety of practical problems present to the anxious
minds of the Corinthians themselves and of germinant abuses
revealed to the paternal scrutiny of the apostle, opens to us
some notion of the exciting times in which the Corinthian
Christians stood, and explains the intensity and detailed concern
of the apostle. From every side and at every moment new and
often difficult questions were arising; to every one of them
belonged remoter relations that made it profoundly important.
It is by no accident that Paul is in the habit of treating the
simplest moral issues by reference to the highest principles of
his theology. From the situation at Corinth we gain an idea of
what was taking place in many cities, but in the seething life
of so great a capital with more rapid and varied development.

Of strictly intellectual and theological problems or errors only
one is treated systematically, although at many other points in
the practical discussions we can detect the theoretical basis
cf the errors combated and the theological foundations of Paul's
own judgments. Questions about the resurrection, however,
had appeared, of a rationalistic nature and evincing an Hellenic
failure to understand the Jewish view. In his reply Paul shows
that he too recognizes the significance of the Greek's difficulties
and he presents a conception which, fortunately for the later
Church, does some measure of justice to the superior scientific
insight of their attitude.

Second Epistle. — After the despatch of First Corinthians
there took place, it would appear, the riot in the theatre at
Ephesus (Acts xix. 23 ff.), to which 2 Cor. i. 8 seems to refer.
On leaving Ephesus Paul went to Troas (2 Cor. ii. 12), then to
Macedonia, and from Macedonia (2 Cor. vii. 5, viii. 1, ix. 2)
he wrote Second Corinthians. This must have been in the autumn
of one of the years a.d. 54-58, nearly or quite a year after
First Corinthians was written (cf. " a year ago," 2 Cor. viii. 10,
ix. 2 and 1 Cor. xvi. 1-4). In the meantime there had been
exciting developments in Paul's relations with Corinth, the course
of which we can partly trace by the aid of the second epistle.
These events explain the great difference in tone between the
second epistle and the first.

Several allusions in Second Corinthians show that Paul had
already twice visited Corinth (2 Cor. ii. 1, xii. 14, xii. 21, xiii.
2). The second of these visits is not mentioned in Acts; it is
referred to by Paul as having a painful character. The most
natural hypothesis is that, in consequence of a growing spirit
of insubordination on the part of the Corinthians, Paul found it
necessary to go to Corinth from Ephesus (probably by sea direct)
at some time after First Corinthians was written. Of what
happened on this visit, which the writer of Acts has naturally
enough thought it unnecessary to mention, we seem to learn
further from certain passages in the letter (2 Cor. ii. 5-1 1, vii. o)
which refer to some sort of an insult to Paul for which there has
now been repentance and which the apostle heartily forgives.
For the offender he entreats also the pardon of the church. It
may well be that the sad affair had to do with the gross offender
of the " case of incest " (1 Cor. v. 1-8), who with the support
of his fellow Christians may have refused to conform to Paul's
imperative commands. We may suppose an angry scene,
possibly an attack of Paul's bodily ailment (especially if the
" thorn in the flesh " be understood to be epilepsy) , the immediate
triumph of the adversaries, Paul's speedy departure in grief.

CORINTHIANS

153

If, as other scholars hold, the offender was not the same as in
the first epistle, the general picture of the visit will not have to
be much changed.

Besides making this visit it is probable that Paul also wrote
to Corinth a letter, now lost, intended to secure the result of
which the unfortunate visit had failed (ii. 3, 4, 9, vii. 8, 12).
It, is, however, possible that the allusions merely refer to 1 Cor. v.,
in which case it is not necessary to assume this intermediate
letter. The letter, if there was one, may have been sent by Titus,
whom Paul in any case commissioned to go to Corinth and try
to mend matters. Paul describes his anxiety over this last
resource in touching language (ii. 12, 13). Disappointed that
Titus did not meet him at Troas, he moved on to Macedonia,
and there (vii. 5-9) was rejoiced by the coming of the envoy with
good news of the complete return of the Corinthians to integrity
and loyalty.

Second Corinthians was Paul's response to this friendly
attitude reported by Titus. It went by the hand of Titus, who
was promptly sent back to complete the work he had so well
begun (viii. 6, 16-24). In company with him (viii. 18) was sent
a brother (unnamed) who had already been appointed as the
representative of the churches to accompany Paul in carrying
to Jerusalem the great collection of money now nearly completed.
The greater part of the epistle consists of the outpouring of
Paul's thankful and loving heart (chaps, i.-vii.), together with
directions and exhortations relating to the collection.

But the epistle contains evidence of another and a disagreeable
side to the affairs of the Corinthian church. Especially the last
four chapters, but also references in the earlier chapters, show
that virulent personal opponents of Paul and his "work had been
exercising an evil activity. It is not easy to discover the precise
relation of these persons to the parties at Corinth or to the series
of events which have just been sketched, but we can well under-
stand that their presence and efforts played a large part in the
history. We learn that Jewish Christians (xi. 22) had come to
Corinth, doubtless from Jerusalem, with letters of recommenda-
tion (iii. 1). They urged their own claims as apostles (though
not of the twelve), and set themselves up as superior to Paul
(xi. s, xii. n, v. 12, xi. 18). Paul calls them " false apostles"
(xi. 13-15), and declares that they preach "another Jesus,
another Spirit, another Gospel " (xi. 4). That in Paul's judg-
ment his influence with the Corinthian church depended on
overthrowing the power of these disturbers of the peace is plain,
and this accounts for the strenuous, and occasionally violent,
tone of his polemic in chapters x.-xiii. As we compare them
with the Judaizers of Galatia it seems that their polemic was
less on the ground of principles and doctrines, and more a
personal attack. Paul does not much argue, as he does in
Galatians, against the inclination of Gentile Christians to subject
themselves to the Law (yet note the contrast of the old veiled
covenant and the new open revelation, iii. 4-18, esp. iii. 6); he
is engaged in personal defence against charges of carnal motives
(x. 2), perhaps even of embezzlement (xii. 16-18), and also of
fickleness (i. 12-ii. 4). When he ironically calls himself a " fool "
(xi. 1, 16, 17, 19, 21, xii. 6-11), he is doubtless taking up their
term of abuse, and in many of the hard passages of this most
difficult of all Paul's epistles we may suspect that half-quoted
flings of the enemy glimmer through his retort. From 2 Cor.
x. 7, xi. 22 it may be inferred that these Jewish Christians had
something to do with the " Christ-party " of which we seem to
hear in the first epistle.

To the tact and firmness of Titus must be ascribed much of
the successful issue of these dealings with the Corinthians. Paul
spent the following winter at Corinth (Acts xx. 2, 3) ; while there
he wrote the Epistle to the Romans, which in its milder tone
gives clear indication that the day of violent controversy with
Judaizing emissaries like those who came to Galatia had passed.
There was indeed, as might have been expected, trouble from
enemies among the Jews, but Paul escaped the danger, and with
the money for the mother church, the collection of which had
so long lain near his heart, he was able to start for Jerusalem
in the spring of one of the years 55-59 (See Paul).

In later time (circ. a.d. 95) we hear from the epistle of Clement
of Rome that the Corinthian church paid full honour to Paul's
memory; and circ. a.d. 139, the excellent Catholic (though
Hebrew) Christian Hegesippus found himself deeply refreshed
by the honest life and the fidelity to Christian truth of the de-
scendants and successors of the Christians over whom Paul had
laboured with such faithful oversight and so many anxious tears.

Critical Questions. — The manuscript evidence for the
Corinthian epistles is the same as for the other epistles of Paul
(see Bible: New Testament). Of early attestation the amount
is rather greater for First Corinthians than for other epistles.
Not only were both epistles included without question in the
Pauline canon of Marcion (circ. a.d. i 50) and in the Muratorian
list (end of 2nd century), and known to various Gnostic sects
of the 2nd century, but Clement of Rome (circ. a.d. 95) makes
a specific reference (xlvii. 1) to the fact that the Corinthians
" received the Epistle of the blessed Apostle Paul," and pro-
ceeds with an unmistakable quotation from 1 Cor. i. 11-13.
Other quotations from First Corinthians are found in Clement,
Ignatius, Polycarp, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Irenaeus, Clement
of Alexandria, Tertullian, while use of the epistle can probably
be detected in Hermas. Second Corinthians was, and still
remains, less quotable, but it is probably used by Polycarp,
perhaps by Ignatius, and by the presbyters known to Irenaeus,
and it was freely used by Theophilus, Irenaeus, Clement of
Alexandria and Tertullian.

The only serious doubt of the genuineness of First and Second
Corinthians has been that of the so-called Dutch school of critics,
in the latter part of the 19th century, and forms a part of their
attempt (the first since that of Baur) entirely to reconstruct
the history of early Christianity. Their view that the Corinthian
epistles are the product of a body of progressive Christians in
the 2nd century, who ascribed to a legendary Paul the advanced
views they had themselves developed, has not commended
itself to critics, and seems to be burdened by nearly all possible
difficulties. The genuineness of both epistles is, in fact, amply
attested not only by early writers, but by the surer proof of
complicated and consistent concreteness, with perfect adaptation
to all we know of Paul and of the passing circumstances of the
earliest days of Christianity in Greece. For a writer a century
later to have composed the Corinthian epistles and then success-
fully passed them off as the work of Paul could be explained
only by an hypothesis of inspiration! It would have been as
difficult as to forge a daily newspaper. It is to be observed that
the two epistles are so intimately connected by their contents
with Romans and Galatians that the four together support one
another's genuineness.

In Second Corinthians two important questions of integrity
have been much discussed. (1) 2 Cor. vi. 14-vii. 1 is a passage
somewhat distinct from its context, and introduced by a seem-
ingly abrupt break in the sequence of thought. It is, therefore,
held by some (including G. Heinrici) to be an interpolation by
another writer, by others (as A. Hilgenfeld) to be a part of the
letter referred to in 1 Cor. v.' 9. But the arguments against
Pauline authorship are not convincing; there is after all a certain
real connexion to be traced between the section and vi. 1 ; and
the resemblance to the substance of 1 Cor. v. 9 is natural in any
case. (2) More important is the question as to 2 Cor. x.-xiii.
Since J. S. Semler (1776) it has been held by careful scholars that
these chapters are written in a tone of excited irritation which
is out of accord with the genial tone of gratified affection and
confidence that pervades chaps, i.-ix. Hence such scholars as
A. Hausrath, R. A. Lipsius, O. Pfleiderer, P. W. Schmiedel, A. C.
M'Giffert have adopted the view that these four chapters were
not written as part of Second Corinthians, but, while unquestion-
ably from Paul's hand, were from a separate letter (the " Vier-
kapitel-Brief ") , probably the same as that supposed to be referred
to in 2 Cor. ii. 3-9, vii. 8-12. This theory is, however, probably
not correct, for while, on the one hand, it is based on an exaggera-
tion of the differences and a neglect of certain lines of connexion
between the chaps, x.-xiii. and chaps, i.-ix., on the other hand
the identification supposed is made difficult by several facts.

i54

CORINTO— GORIOLI

Thus these chapters contain no mention whatever of the offender
of 2 Cor. ii, 5-1 1 > of whose case the intervening letter must have
mainly treated; again, x. 1, 9, 10, n imply a previous sharp
rebuke already administered, such as is hardly accounted for
merely by First Corinthians; and finally, xii. 18 implies that
these four chapters were not written until after Titus's visit,
that is, that they were written at just the same time as Second
Corinthians.

An apocryphal correspondence of Paul and the church at
Corinth, consisting of the church's letter and Paul's reply, had
canonical authority in the Syrian church in the 4th century
(Aphraates, Ephraem). It is preserved in Armenian and Latin
manuscripts, and is now known to have been a part of the Acts of
Paul, written in the 2nd century. The letters relate to the con-
demnation of certain Gnostic views. For a translation see
Stanley's Epistles of St Paul to the Corinthians (4th ed., 1876),
pp. 593-598. See Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litera-
tur, i. pp. 37-39, ii. 1, pp. 506-508; Bardenhewer, Geschichte
der altkirchlichen Literatur, i. pp. 463-467; Hennecke, Neutesta-
mentliche Apokryphen, pp. 362-364, 378-380.

Bibliography. — On the Corinthian Epistles consult the Introduc-
tions to the New Testament of H. Holtzmann (1885, 3rd ed. 1892);

B. Weiss (1886, 3rd ed. 1897, Eng. trans. 1887); G. Salmon
(1887); A. Julicher (1894, 5th and 6th ed. 1906, Eng. trans. 1964);
T. Zahn (1897-1899, 2nd ed. 1900); and the articles in the Bible
dictionaries, especially those by A. Robertson in Hastings's Dic-
tionary. See also Lives of Paid ; and the general works on the
Apostolic Age of C. von Weizsacker (1886, 2nd ed. 1892); O.
Pfleiderer, Das Urchristentum (1887, 2nd ed. 1902, Eng. trans.
1906) ; and A. C. M'Giffert (1897). Especially valuable for I and 2
Corinthians is E. von Dobschiitz, Christian Life in the Primitive
Church (1902, Eng. trans. 1904).

In English, Dean Stanley's work (1855, 4th ed. 1876) is now out
of date. On First Corinthians reference may be made to the works
of T. Evans in Speaker's Commentary (1881) ; T. C. Edwards (1885) ;

C. J. Ellicott (1887); Fr. Godet (1886-1887, Eng. trans. 1887);
on both epistles to those of H. A. W. Meyer (sth.ed. 1870, Eng. trans.
1877-1879) and J. J. Lias, in Cambridge Greek Testament (1886-
1892). F. W. Robertson's classic Sermons on St Paul's Epistles to
the Corinthians (1859) should not be neglected. In German there
are commentaries of much value by G. Heinrici (1880-1887) and in
Heinrici's revision of Meyer's Kommentar (8th ed., 1896-1900), and by
P. W. Schmiedel in Hand-Commentar (1891, 2nd ed. 1892). For
further literature see Robertson's art. " Corinthians, First Epistle
to the," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible. On early attestation
see A. H. Charteris, Canonicity (1880), and the Oxford Committee's
New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers (1905). (J. H. Rs.)

CORINTO, a seaport on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua,. in the
department of Chinandega, built on the small island of Asserra-
dores or Corinto, at the entrance to Realejo Bay, 65 m. by rail
N.W. of Managua. Pop. (1900) about 3000. The town, which
was founded in 1849, and first came into prominence as a port
in 1863, has a spacious and sheltered harbour, the best in
Nicaragua. It possesses no docks or wharves, and vessels
anchor some 500 yds. off-shore to load or discharge cargo by
means of lighters. On the mainland is the terminus of a railway
to Leon, Managua and other commercial centres. Coffee, gold,
mahogany, rubber and cattle are largely exported; and more
than half the foreign trade of Nicaragua passes through this port,
which has completely superseded the roadstead of Realejo, now
partly filled with sandbanks, but from 1550 to 1850 the principal
seaport of the country. About 450 ocean-going ships, of some
450,000 tons, annually enter the port. Most of the foreign
vessels are owned in Germany or the United States. The coasting
trade is restricted to Nicaraguan boats. •

CORIOLANUS, GAIUS (or Gnaeus) MARCIUS, Roman legend-
ary hero of patrician descent. According to tradition, his surname
was due to the bravery displayed by him at the siege of Corioli
(493 B.C.) during the war against the Volscians (but see below).
In 492, when there was a famine in Rome, he advised that the
people should not be relieved out of the supplies obtained from
Sicily, unless they would consent to the abolition of their tribunes.
For this he was accused by the tribunes, and, being condemned
to exile, took refuge with his friend Attius Tullius, king of the
Volscians. A pretext for a quarrel with Rome was found, and
Coriolanus, in command of the Volscian army, advanced against
his native city. In vain the first men of Rome prayed for

moderate terms. He would agree to nothing less than the
restoration to the Volscians of all their land, and their admission
among the Roman citizens. A mission of the chief priests also
failed. At last, persuaded by his mother Veturia and his wife
Volumnia, he led back the Volscian army, and restored the
conquered towns. He died at an advanced age in exile amongst
the Volscians; according to others, he was put to death by them
as a traitor; a third tradition (mentioned, but ridiculed, by
Cicero) represents him as having taken his own life.

The whole legend is open to serious criticism. At the tradi-
tional date (493 B.C.) Corioli was not a Volscian possession,
but one of the Latin cities which had concluded a treaty of
alliance with Rome; further, Livy himself states that the
chroniclers knew nothing of a campaign carried on by the consul
Postumus Cominius Auruncus (under whom Coriolanus is said
to have served) against the Volscians. Only one of the consuls
was mentioned as having concluded the treaty;- the absence of
the other was consequently assumed, and a reason- for it found in
a Volscian war. The bestowal of a cognomen from a captured
city was unknown at the time, the first instance being that of
Scipio; in. any case, it would have been conferred upon the
commander-in-chief, Postumus Cominius Auruncus, not upon a
subordinate. The conquest of Corioli by Coriolanus is invented
to explain the surname. The details of the famine are borrowed
from those of later years, especially 433 and 411. The incident
of Coriolanus taking refuge with the Volscian king, who, according
to Plutarch, was his bitter enemy, curiously resembles the appeal
of Themistocles to the Molossian king Admetus. Further, the
tradition that Coriolanus, like Themistocles, committed suicide,
renders it a probable conjecture that these incidents are derived
from a Greek source. The contradictions in the accounts of the
campaign against Rome and its inherent improbability give
further ground fqr suspicion. Twelve important towns are taken
in a single summer apparently without resistance on the part of
the Romans, and after the retirement of Coriolanus they are
immediately abandoned by the conquerors. It is' strange that
the Volscians should have entrusted a stranger with the command
of their army, and it is possible that the attribution of their
successes to a Roman general was intended to gratify the national
pride and obliterate the memory of a disastrous war. It is sug-
gested that: Coriolanus never commanded the Volscian army at
all, but that, like Appius Herdonius — the Sabine chieftain who
in 460, with a band of fugitives and slaves, obtained possession
of the capitol — he appeared at the gates of Rome at the head of
a body of exiles (but at a much later date, c. 443), at a time when
the city was in great distress, perhaps as the result of a pestilence,
and only desisted from making himself master of Rome at the
earnest entreaty of his mother. This seems to be the historical
nucleus of the tradition, which accentuates' the great influence
exercised by and the respect shown to the Roman matrons in
early times.

Ancient Authorities. — Plutarch's Life; Livyii. 34-40; Dion.
Halic. vj. 92-94, vii. 21-27, 4i-47> viii. 1-60; Cicero, Brutus, x. 42.
The story is the subject of Shakespeare's Coriolanus. For a critical
examination of the story see Schwegler, Rbmische Geschichte, bk.
xxiv. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History,
ch. xii. 19-23; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; T. Mommsen, " Die
Erzahlung von Cn. Marcius Coriolanus," in Hermes, iv. (1869);
E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. ch. 4 (1898).

CORIOLI, an ancient Volscian city in Latium adiectum, taken,
according to the Roman annals in 493 B.C., with Longula and
Pollusca, and retaken (but see above) for the Volsci by Gaius
Marcius Coriolanus, its original conqueror, who, in disgust at
his treatment by his countrymen, had deserted to the enemy,
After this it does not appear in history, and we hear soon after-
wards (443 B.C.) of a dispute between Ardea and Aricia about
some land which had been part of the territory of Corioli, but had
at an unknown date passed to Rome with Corioli. The site is ap-
parently to be sought in the N.W. portion of the district between
the sea, the river Astura and the Alban Hills; but it cannot
be more accurately fixed (the identification with Monte Giove, S.
of the Valle-Aricciana, rests on no sufficient evidence), and even
in the time of Pliny it ranked among the lost cities of Latium.

CORIPPUS— CORK, ist EARL OF

155

CORIPPUS, FLAVIUS CRESCONIUS, Roman epic poet of the
6th century a.d. He was a native of Africa, and in one of the
MSS. is called grammaticus (teacher). He has been identified,
but on insufficient grounds, with Cresconius, an African bishop
(7th century), author of a Concordia Canonum, or collection of
the laws of the church. Nothing is known of Corippus beyond
what is contained in his own poems. He appears to have held
the office of tribune or notary {scriniarius) under Anastasius,
imperial treasurer and chamberlain of Justinian, at the end of
whose reign he left Africa for Constantinople, in consequence
of having lost his property during the Moorish and Vandal wars.
He was the author of two poems, of considerable importance
for the history of the times, one of which was not discovered till
the beginning of the 10th century. The latter poem, dedicated
to the nobles of Carthage, which comes first in point of time,
is called Johannis or De bellis Libycis, and relates the overthrow
of the Moors by a certain Johannes, magister militum in 546; it
is in eight books (the last is unfinished) and contains about
5000 hexameters. The narrative commences with the despatch
of Johannes to the theatre of war by Justinian, and ends with
the decisive victory near Carthage (548). The other poem {In
laudem Justini minoris), in four books, contains the death of
Justinian, the coronation of his successor Justin II, (14th of
November 565), and the early events of his reign. It is preceded
by a preface, and a short and fulsome panegyric on Anastasius,
the poet's patron. The Laus was published at Antwerp in 1581
by Michael Ruyz Azagra, secretary to the emperor Rudolf II.,
from a 9th or 10th century MS. The preface contains a reference
to a previous work by the author on the wars in Africa,- and
although Johannes Cuspinianus (1473-1529) in his De Caesaribus
ei Imperatoribus professed to have seen a MS. of it in the library
at Buda (destroyed by Suleiman II. in 1527), it was not till 1814
that it was discovered at Milan by Cardinal Mazzucchelli,
librarian of the Ambrosian library, from the codex Trivultianus
(in the library of the marquis Trivulzi), the only MS. of the
Johannis still extant.

The Johannis is of great value, not only from a purely historical
point of view, but also as giving a description of the land and
people of Africa, which conscientiously records the impressions
of an intelligent native observer; many of his statements as
to manners and customs are confirmed both by independent
ancient authorities (such as Procopius) and by our knowledge
of the modern Berbers. Virgil, Lucan, and Claudian were the
poet's chief models. The Laus, which was written when he was
advanced in years, although marred by Byzantine servility and
gross flattery of a by no means worthy object, throws much light
upon Byzantine court ceremony, as in the account of the accession
of Justin and the reception of the embassy of the Avars. On
the whole the language and metre of Corippus, considering the
age in which he lived and the fact that he was not a native
Italian, is remarkably pure. That he was a Christian is rendered
probable by negative indications, such as the absence of all the
usual mythological accessories of an epic poem, positive allusions
to texts of Scripture, and the highly orthodox passage Laus iv.
294 ff.

The editions of the Johannis by P. Mazzucchelli (1820) and of the
Laus by P. F. Foggini (1777) are still valuable for their commentaries.
They are both included in the 28th volume of the Bonn Corpus
scriptorum historiae Byzantinae. The best modern editions, are by
J. Partsch (in Monumenta Germaniae historica, 1879), with very
valuable prolegomena, and M. Petschenig {Berliner Studien fiir
klassische Philologie, iv., 1886); see also Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
ch. xlv.

CORISCO, the name of a bay and an island on the Guinea
Coast, West Africa. The bay is bounded N. by Cape San Juan
(i° 10' N:) and S. by Cape Esterias (o° 36' N.), and is about 31m.
across, while it extends inland some 15 m. The bay is much
encumbered with sandbanks, which impair its value as a harbour.
Whereas the Muni river or estuary, which enters the bay on its
northern side, has a maximum depth of over 100 ft., vessels
entering it have to come by a channel with an average depth of
six fathoms. The entrance to the southern part of the bay is
obstructed by the Bana Bank, which extends for 9 m., rendering

navigation dangerous. The bay encloses many small islands
and islets, some hardly distinguishable from sandbanks and
submerged at high water, giving rise to a native saying that
" half the islands live under water." The principal islands
are four, Bana, Great and Little Elobey, and Corisco, the last-
named lying farthest to seaward and giving its name to the
bay.

Corisco Island, the largest of the group, is some 3 m. long by
if m. in breadth and has an area of about si sq. m. The surface
of the island is very diversified. On a miniature scale it possesses
mountains and valleys, rivers, lakes, forests and swamps, grass-
land and bushland, moorland and parkland. The forests supply
ebony and logwood for export. The natives are a Bantu-Negro
tribe called Benga. There are among them many converts to
Roman Catholicism and a few Protestants. Corisco and the
other islands named are Spanish possessions and are governed
as dependencies of Fernando Po.

See Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, ch. xvii. (London,
1897); E. L. Perea, " Guinea espanola: La isla de Corisco," in
Revista de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1906).

CORK, RICHARD BOYLE, ist Earl or (1 566-1643), Irish
statesman, second son of Roger Boyle of Faversham in Kent,
a descendant of an ancient Herefordshire family, and of Joan,
daughter of Robert Naylor of Canterbury, was born at Canterbury
on the 3rd of October 1566, and was educated at the King's
school and at Bennet (Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge,
where he was admitted in 1 583 . He afterwards studied law at the
Middle Temple and became clerk to Sir Richard Manwood, chief
baron of the exchequer; but finding his position offered little
opportunity for advancement he determined to make a new
start in Ireland: He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of June 1588,
as he relates himself, with £27, 3s. in money, a gold bracelet
worth £10, and a diamond ring, besides some fine wearing
apparel. He began to make his fortune almost immediately.
In 1590 he obtained the appointment of deputy escheator to
John Crofton, the escheator-general, and in 1595 he married
Joan, daughter and co-heiress of William Appsley of Limerick,
who died in 1599, having brought him an estate of £500 a
year.

Meanwhile he had been the object of the attacks of Sir Henry
Wallop and others, incited, according to his own account, by
envy at his success and increasing prosperity, and was appre-
hended on various charges of fraud in his office, being more than
once thrown into prison. He was on the point of leaving for
England to justify himself to the queen, when the rebellion in
Munster in October 1598 again reduced him to poverty and
obliged him to return to London to his chambers at the Temple.
He was, however, almost immediately taken by Essex into his
service, when Sir Henry Wallop again renewed his prosecution,
with the result that Boyle was summoned before the star
chamber. His enemies appear to have failed in substantiating
their accusations, and in the course of the inquiry, at which he
had secured the presence of the queen herself, he was able
to expose several instances of malversation on the part of his
opponent, who was dismissed in consequence from his office of
treasurer, while Boyle himself, who had favourably impressed
the queen, was declared by her as " a man fit to be employed by
ourselves " and was at once made clerk of the council of Munster.
He brought to Elizabeth the news of the victory near Kingsale
in December 1601, and in October 1602 was again sent over by
Sir George Carew, the president of Munster, on Irish affairs;
and on this occasion, at the instance of Carew, he bought for
£1000 the whole of Sir Walter Raleigh's lands in Cork, Waterford
and Tipperary, consisting of 12,000 acres with immense capa-
bilities of development. This offered a splendid opportunity
for the exercise of his genius for business and administration.
Manufactures were established, the breeding of cattle and fish
introduced, mines opened, colonists from England encouraged
to come over, the natural resources of the land developed,
bridges, harbours and roads constructed, and towns settled,
order being maintained by 13 castles garrisoned by retainers.

While himself quickly accumulating vast riches, the services

r 5 6

CORK

which Boyle rendered to the government and to the nation at
such a time of disorder and transition were incalculable. He
soon became the most powerful subject in Ireland. On the
25th of July 1603 he married, as his second wife, Catherine,
daughter of Sir Geoffrey Fenton, secretary of state, and was
knighted. In 1606 he became a privy councillor for Munster
and in 1613 for Ireland. On the 6th of September 1616 he
was raised to the peerage as Lord Boyle, baron of Youghal, and
on the 26th of October 1620 was created earl of Cork and Viscount
Dungarvan. He was appointed on the 26th of October 1629
a lord justice, and on the 9th of November 163 1 lord high
treasurer. Though no peer of England, he was " by writ called
into the Upper House by His Majesty's great grace," and took
his place as an " assistant sitting on the inside of the Woolsack." 1
The appointment of Wentworth (Lord Strafford), however, as
lord deputy in 1633 put an end to the predominant power and
influence of Cork in Ireland. " A most cursed man," he writes
in his diary on Wentworth's arrival, " to all Ireland and to me
in particular." In reality these two great men had much in
common, held similar views of administration, and had the same
talents for practical statesmanship. Cork had already carried
out in Munster the policy which Strafford desired to see extended
to the whole of Ireland. But Cork belonged to the " spacious
days of great Elizabeth," and for such a man there was no room
within the narrow despotism and intolerance of the government
of Charles. The subjection of the great was part of Strafford's
settled policy, and consequently, instead of seeking his collabora-
tion in developing the country and in maintaining order, he
studied merely to diminish his influence. He subjected him to
various humiliations. He forced him to remove his wife's tomb
from the choir in St Patrick's at Dublin, and deprived him
arbitrarily of the greater part of the revenues of Youghal, a
portion of the Raleigh estates. " No physic," wrote Laud,
delighted, " better than a vomit if it be given in time, and there-
fore you have taken a very judicious course to administer one so
early to my Lord of Cork. I hope it will do him good. . . ." 2
Cork, however, refrained from any systematic or retaliatory
resistance, and even simulated an admiration for Strafford's
rule. At the latter's trial he was an important witness, but
took no active part in the prosecution, though he thoroughly
approved of his condemnation and execution. Scarcely had he
returned to Ireland from witnessing his rival's destruction when
the rebellion broke out, but his influence and preparations,
supported by the military prowess of his sons, were sufficient to
offer a successful resistance to the rebels in Munster and to save
the province from ruin. This was his last great service to the
state. He died about the 15th of September 1643, leaving a
large and illustrious family by his second wife.

Four of his seven sons received independent peerages, —
Richard, created Baron Clifford and earl of Burlington; Lewis,
Viscount Kinalmeaky, killed in 1642 at the battle of Liscarrol;
Roger, baron of Broghill and earl of Orrery; and Francis,
Viscount Shannon. Another son was Robert Boyle (q.v.), the
famous natural philosopher and chemist.

The title passed to the eldest surviving son, Richard Boyle,
1st earl of Burlington and 2nd earl of Cork (1612-1698), who
matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, and was knighted in
1624. Returning home after travelling abroad he married in
1635 Elizabeth, daughter and heir of Henry, Lord Clifford, later
earl of Cumberland. On the outbreak of the rebellion he sup-
ported his father in Munster, fought at the battle of Liscarrol,
and raised forces for the first war with the Scots. In 1640 he
represented Appleby in the Long Parliament, and in the civil
war he supported zealously the royal cause, being created in
1643 Baron Clifford of Lanesborough in the peerage of England,
in addition to the earldom of Cork which he inherited from his
father the same year. At the Restoration he obtained also the
earldom of Burlington (or Bridlington), and was appointed
lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, resigning this
office through opposition to the government of James II. He
held the office of lord treasurer of Ireland from 1680 till 1695.
1 Lords Journals. 2 Strafford Letters, i. 156.

He died on th" 5th of January 1698. His two sons having
predeceased him, he was succeeded in his titles by- his grandson
Charles, issue of his eldest son Charles, as 2nd earl of Burlington
and 3rd earl of Cork; and on the extinction of the direct male
line in the person of Richard, the 4th earl, in 1753 the earldom
of Cork fell to the younger branch of the Boyle family, in the
person of John, 5th earl of Orrery, he and later earls being " of
Cork and Orrery."

John Boyle, 5th earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), only
son of the 4th earl of Orrery, »was born on the 2nd of January
1707. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and was led
by indifferent health and many untoward accidents to cultivate
in retirement his talents for literature and poetry. His trans-
lation of the Letters of Pliny the Younger, with various notes,
for the use of his eldest son, was published in 1751. He also
published Remarks on the Life and Writings of Jonathan Swift
(1 751), in several letters addressed to his second son, and Memoirs
of Robert Carey, earl of Monmouth, from the original manuscript,
with preface and notes. He died on the 16th of November 1762,
His Letters from Italy appeared in 1774, edited, with memoir,
by the Rev. J. Duncombe. The earldom continued in later >
years in the Boyle family, being held in 1909 by the 10th earl
(b. 1861). The wife of the 7th earl (see Cork and Orrery,
Mary, Countess as) was a famous figure in society in the, early
19th century.

Bibliography for ist Earl. — True Remembrances, written by
himself and printed by Birch in his edition of the works of Robert
Boyle; Lismore Papers, ed. by A. B. Grosart (10 vols., 1886-1887),
Ist series consisting of the diary from 161 1 to his death and of
autobiographical notes, and 2nd series of correspondence; Life of
Lord Cork, by Dorothea Townshend (1904) ; article in the Diet, of
Nat. Biog., with authorities there given; Egerton MSS. 80 (copies
of correspondence) ; Add. MSS., Brit. Mus., 19831-19832 (rebellion
in Munster, examination before the Star Chamber, correspondence)
and 18023; Strafford's Letters ; Calendars of State Papers, Domestic
and Irish, and Carew Papers; E. Lodge's Irish, Peerage, i. 144;
E. Budgell's Memoirs of the Boyles (1737); Ed. Edwards's Life of
Raleigh; Gardiner's Hist, of England; Charles Smith's History of
Cork (1893); R. Caulfield's Council Book of Youghal; also the
biography in Biographia Britannica, Kippis, vol. ii.

CORK, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster, bounded
S. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the counties Waterford and
Tipperary, N. by Limerick, and W. by Kerry. It is the largest
county in Ireland, having an area of 1,849,686 acres, or about
2890 sq. m. The outline is irregular; the coast is for the most
part bold and rocky, and is intersected by the bays of Bantry,
Dunmanus, and Roaring Water. The southern part of the coast
projects several headlands into the Atlantic, and its south-
eastern side is indented by Cork Harbour, and Ballycotton and
Youghal Bays. The surface is undulating. It consists of low
rounded ridges, with corresponding valleys, running east and
west, except in the western portion of the county, which is more
mountainous. The principal rivers are the Blackwater, the Lee,
and the Bandon, flowing generally eastward from their sources
in the high ground of the west. The most elevated part of the
county is in the Boggeragh Mountains, in the north-west, which
reach an extreme height of 2 118 ft. To the south are the Shehy
Mountains, at the root of the two promontories flanking Bantry
Bay, the Caha Mountains forming the backbone of the northern
of these promontories, and the hills of the district of Corbery
to the south of the Shehy range. North of the Blackwater the
country is comparatively level, being a branch of the great plain
which occupies a large part of the centre of Ireland. Of the
principal rivers the Blackwater has its source in the county
Limerick. The Lee originates in the wild and picturesque
Gouganebarra Lough, and the Bandon river rises in the Cullinagh
Lough. There are also some smaller streams which flow directly
into the sea, the more important of these being in the south-west
portion of the county. No lakes of any magnitude occur, the
largest being Lough Allua, or Inchigeelagh, an expansion of the
river Lee. The scenery of the western parts of the county is
bold and rugged. In the central and eastern parts, especially,
in the valleys, it is green and quiet, and in some spots well
wooded.

CORK

157

Geology. — The county presents a remarkable simplicity of geo-
logical structure. Its surface is controlled throughout by the
" Hercynian " folds, running from the Kerry border eastward to the
sea at Youghal. The Old Red Sandstone comes out in the north,
forming the heather-clad Ballyhoura Hills, which are repeated across
the limestone hollow of Mitchelstown.by the western spur of the
Knockmealdown Mountains. On the west, beds as high as the
Millstone Grit and Coal Measures remain above the limestone,
extending from Mallow and Kanturk to the Limerick and Kerry
borders. Another synclinal of Carboniferous Limestone runs from
Millstreet through Lismore, and the Blackwater has worn out an easy
course along it. Then the Old Red Sandstone again rises as an
undulating upland through the centre of the county, with a few
synclinal patches of Carboniferous Shale and Limestone caught in
on its back. Cork city lies on the north slope and in the floor of a
larger synclinal, and the Yellow Sandstone, which forms the passage-
beds from the Old Red Sandstone to the Carboniferous, appears near
the city. This hollow continues across the Lee through Middleton.
The limestone in it has become crystalline, veined and brecciated,
while a fine red staining, especially at Little Island, adds to its value
as a marble. After another anticlinal of Old Red Sandstone, the
Carboniferous Slate occupies most of the country southward, with
occasional appearances of the basal Coomhola Grits and of the under-
lying Old Red Sandstone along anticlinals. The soils thus vary from
sandy loams, usually on the higher ground, to stiff clays along the
limestone hollows. '

This country admirably illustrates the system of river-develop-
ment originally traced out by Prof. J. B. Jukes in 1862, and further
explained by Prof. W. M. Davis and others. The folded series,
culminating originally in Upper Carboniferous strata, was worn down,
perhaps as far back as Permian times, until it possessed a fairly
uniform surface. This surface, or " peneplain," was probably the
result of denudation working away the beds almost to sea-level.
A subsequent elevation enabled the streams, as in so many cases
now recognized, to cut into the surface along the direction of greatest
inclination, which here happened to be southward. When the higher
strata had been worn away, the rivers and their tributaries worked
upon rocks of very various hardness, but with a common strike from
east to west. The tributaries, running along the strike, speedily
confined themselves to the synclinals of limestone, along which they
could erode and dissolve long valleys. The present surface of anti-
clinal sandstone ridges and synclinal limestone hollows thus began
to arise ; but the main streams still held on their courses across the
strike, that is, from north to south. Here and there a more active
tributary worked its way back at its head into the basin of one of the
cross-streams, and drew off into its own system the head-waters of
this other stream. With this new flood of water the strengthened
system still further deepened its original ravine across the strike,
while the beheaded' cross-stream or streams rapidly dwindled in
importance. Ultimately, the tributaries of the surviving river-
systems appeared as the most important feature, stretching far west
— in the case of county Cork— along the synclinal hollows; while
the original cross-ravine remained in the course of each river, a right-
angled bend occurring thus in the lower portion of the valleys.
Jukes urged that the upper part of the original cross-ravine can be
traced above the bend in each case, though the stream now descend-
ing along it seems merely a tributary entering parallel with the
north-and-south portion of the main stream. Moreover, the tribu-
taries on the north side of the great synclinal valleys may in many
cases be the relics of original cross-streams that once flowed directly
to the sea until captured by the growth along the synclinal of the
tributary of another stream. The Blackwater, rising on Upper
Carboniferous beds on the Kerry border, thus falls steeply southward
to Rathmore, and then turns eastward along the synclinal valley
of limestone from Millstreet to Cappoquin. Here it abruptly turns
south, keeping, in fact, to that part of its valley which was first
developed. The Lee, rising in the Old Red Sandstone moors of
Gouganebarra, runs east, encountering one or two patches of lime-
stone in the floor of the synclinal on its way, mere residues of the
rock that once occupied the hollow. Near Cork, the limestone and
accompanying shale are better preserved; but the river, instead
of continuing along the synclinal through Middleton to Youghal,
turns south, and forms the now submerged valley of Cork Harbour.
Observations have shown that the coast lay much at its present level
in pre-Glacial times, and that Cork Harbour was thus a marine inlet
before the ice descended into it. The synclinal valleys of Bantry
Bay and Dunmanus Bay were also, in all probability, submerged
at this same early epoch.

The county has been famous for its copper-mines, notably at
Allihies in the extreme west. The region south-west of B antr y
has been mined in several places. Both gold and silver have been
found in the copper-ores of this latter area. Barytes has been mined
near Bantry, Schull and Clonakilty, and manganese-ore at Glandore.
Anthracite has been raised from time to time in the band of Coal
Measures south-west of Kanturk. The marble of Little Island near
Cork is quarried under the name of " Cork Red," and the veined
pink and grey marble of Middleton is also much esteemed.

Climate and Watering-places. — The climate is moist and warm,
the prevailing winds being from the west and south-west. The

annual rainfall in the city of Cork is about 40 in., that of the
whole county being somewhat higher. The mean annual
temperature is about 52° F. The snow-fall during the winter is
usually slight, and snow rarely remains long on the ground except
in sheltered places. The thermal spring of Mallow was formerly
in considerable repute; it is situated in a basin on the banks
of the Blackwater, rising from the base of a limestone hill. The
chief places for sea-bathing are Blackrock, Passage, Monkstown,
Queenstown, and other waterside villages in the vicinity of Cork;
Bantry, Baltimore, Kinsale, Glengarrif and Youghal are also
much frequented during the summer months.

Industries. — The soils of the county exhibit no great variety.
They may be reduced in number to four: the calcareous in the
limestone districts; the deep mellow loams found in districts
remote from limestone, and generally occurring in the less
elevated parts of the grey and red sandstone districts; the light
shallow soils, and the moorland or peat soils, the usual substratum
of which is coarse retentive clay. About one-sixth of the total
area is quite barren. In a district of such extent and variety of
surface, the state of agriculture must be liable to much variation.
The more populous parts near the sea, and in the vicinity of the
great lines of communication, exhibit favourable instances of
agricultural improvement. Oats, potatoes and turnips are the
principal crops, but the extent of land under tillage shows a
general decrease. Pasture land, however, extends, and the
number of cattle, sheep and poultry rises; for dairies are
numerous and the character of the Cork butter and farmyard
produce stands high in English and foreign markets.

Youghal, Kinsale, Queenstown, Castletown and Bearhaven
are the deep-sea and coast fishing district centres of the county;
while the salmon fishing is distributed among the districts of
Cork, Bandon, Skibbereen and Bantry. The mackerel fishery
is especially productive from mid-March to mid-June. The
Blackwater, Lee and Bandon, apart from the netting industry,
afford good rod-fishing for salmon, especially the first, on which
Lismore, Fermoy and Mallow are the principal centres. The
loughs, the upper waters of these rivers and their tributaries,
frequently abound in trout. Macroom, Inchigeelagh, Bandon,
Dunmanway and Glandore, with Bantry and Skibbereen, are
all good stations.

Communications. — The main line of the Great Southern &
Western railway, entering the county from the north at Charle-
ville, serves Cork and Queenstown. The Cork, Bandon &
South Coast line runs west to Skibbereen, Baltimore, Bantry,
Clonakilty and Kinsale; and there are also the Cork &
Macroom line to Macroom; the Cork, Blackrock & Passage
to the western waterside villages of Cork Harbour, and the
Great Southern & Western branch eastward from Cork to
Youghal; while from Mallow a branch of the same system
continues towards Killarney and the south-western coast of
Ireland. There is also connexion from this junction with Fermoy,
Mitchelstown and county Waterford eastward. The Timoleague
and Courtmacsherry line connects these villages with the Clona-
kilty branch of the Cork, Bandon & South Coast Railway.

Population. — The population (438,432 in 1891; 404,611 in
1 901) exhibits a decrease among the most serious of the Irish
counties, and emigration is correspondingly heavy. Of the total
about 90% are Roman Catholics, and about 70% constitute
the rural population. The principal towns are Cork (pop. 76,122,
a county of a city); Queenstown (7909), Fermoy (6126);
Kinsale (4250), Bandon (2830), Youghal (5393), Mallow (4542),
Skibbereen (3208), Macroom (3016), Bantry (3109), Middleton
(3361), Clonakilty (3098), and among smaller towns Charleville,
Mitchelstown, Passage West, Doneraile and Kanturk. Crook-
haven in the extreme S.W. is of importance as a harbour of
refuge, but the chief ports are Cork and Queenstown. The county
is divided into east and west ridings, and contains twenty-three
baronies and 249 parishes. Assizes are held at Cork, and quarter-
sessions at Cork, Fermoy, Kanturk, Kinsale, Mallow, Middleton,
and Youghal in the east riding; and Bandon, Bantry, Clonakilty,
Macroom and Skibbereen in the west riding. The county is in
the Protestant diocese of Cork, and the Roman Catholic diocese

iS»

CORK

of Cork, Cloyne, Kerry and Ross. There are seven parliamentary
divisions, east, mid, north, north-east, south, south-east and
west, each returning one member.

History. — Cork is one of the counties which is generally
considered to have been instituted by King John. It had not
always its present extent, for its existing boundaries include
part of the ancient territory of Desmond (q.v.), which, in the
later half of the 16th century, ranked as a separate county.
In 1598, however, there were two sheriffs in the county Cork,
one especially for Desmond, which was then included in Cork,
but was afterwards amalgamated with the county Kerry. In
the same period wide lands in the county were given to settlers
under the crown, and among these were Sir Walter Raleigh
and Edmund Spenser the poet, who received 40,000 acres and
3028 acres respectively. In 1602 a large portion of the estates
of Sir Walter Raleigh and Fane Beecher were purchased by
Richard Boyle, 1st earl of Cork, who had them colonized with
English settlers; and by founding or rebuilding the towns of
Bandon, Clonakilty, Baltimore, Youghal, and afterwards those
of Middleton, Castlemartyr, Charleville and Doneraile, which
were incorporated and made parliamentary boroughs, the family
of Boyle became possessed of nearly the entire political power
of the county.

Antiquities. — The earlier antiquities of the county are rude
monuments of the Pagan era. There are two so-called druids'
altars, the most perfect near Cloyne, and certain pillar stones
scattered through the county, with straight marks cut on the
edges called Ogham inscriptions, the interpretation of which is
a subject of much controversy. The remains of the old ecclesi-
astical buildings are in a very ruinous condition, being used as
burial-places by the country people. The principal is Kilcrea,
founded by Cormac M'Carthy about 1485, some of the tombs
of whose descendants are still in the chancel ; the steeple is still
nearly perfect, and chapter-house, cloister, dormitory and
kitchen can be seen. Timoleague church, situated on a romantic
spot on rising ground at the extreme end of Courtmacsherry
Bay, contains some tombs of interest, and is still in fair condition.
Buttevant Abbey (13th century) contains some tombs of the
Barrys and other distinguished families. There is a good crypt
here. All these were the property of the Franciscans. There
are two round towers in the county, one in a fine state of
preservation opposite Cloyne Cathedral, the other at Kinneigh.
On the chapter seal at Ross, which is dated 1661, and seems to
have been a copy of a much earlier one, there is a good example
of a round tower and stone-roofed church, with St Fachnan, to
whom the church is dedicated, standing by, with a book in one
hand and a cross in the other. The present church dates from
1837, but is on the site of a former cathedral united to Cork in
1 583. Of Mourne Abbey, near Mallow, once a preceptory of the
Knights Templars, and Tracton Abbey, which once sent a prior
to parliament, the very ruins have perished. On an island of
Lough Gouganebarra are remains of an oratory of St Finbar.

Of the castles, Lohort, built in the reign of King John, is by far
the oldest, and in its architectural features the most interesting ;
it is still quite perfect and kept in excellent repair by the owner,
the Earl of Egmont. Blarney Castle, built by Cormac M'Carthy
about 1449, has a wide reputation (see Blarney). Castles
Mahon and Macroom have been incorporated into the residences
of the earls of Bandon and Bantry. The walls of Mallow Castle
attest its former strength and extent, as also the castle of
Kilbolane. The castles of Buttevant, Kilcrea and Dripsy are
still in good condition. At Kanturk is a huge Elizabethan castle
still known as " M'D'onagh's Folly," left unfinished owing to
objections raised by a jealous government. At Kilcolman castle
near Doneraile the " Faerie Queene " was written by Spenser.

CORK, a city, county of a city, parliamentary and municipal
borough and seaport of Co. Cork, Ireland, at the head of the
magnificent inlet of Cork Harbour, on the river Lee, 1655 m.
S.W. of Dublin by the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 76,122. Until the middle of the 19th century it ranked
second only to Dublin, but is now surpassed by Belfast in
commercial importance. It is the centre of a considerable

railway system, including the Great Southern & Western, the
Cork, Bandon & South Coast, the Cork & Macroom Direct,,
the Cork,Blackrock & Passage railways, and the Cork&Muskerry
light railway; each of which companies possesses a separate
station in the city. The passenger steamers to Great Britain,
mainly under the control of the City of Cork Steam Packet
Company, serve Fishguard, Glasgow, Liverpool, Plymouth and
Southampton, London and other ports, starting from Penrose
Quay on the North Channel.

The nucleus of the city occupies an island formed by the North
and South Channels, two arms of the river. Lee, and in former
times no doubt merited its name, which signifies a swamp. In
the beginning of the 18th century, indeed, this island' was broken
up into many parts connected by drawbridges, by numerous
small channels navigable at high tide. It now includes most
of the principal thoroughfares, which form a notable contrast
to many of the smaller streets and alleys, in which good building
and cleanliness are lacking. Three bridges cross the North
Channel, a footbridge, North Gate bridge and St Patrick's bridge,
the last a handsome three-arch structure leading to St Patrick's
Street, a wide and pleasant thoroughfare, containing a statue
of Father Mathew, the celebrated Capuchin advocate of
temperance, born in 1790. It communicates with the Grand
Parade and this in turn with Great George's Street, to the west,
and the South Mall to the east, the last containing the principal
banks, the County Club house, and good commercial buildings.
The Clarks, South Gate, Parliament and Parnell bridges cross
the South Channel to the southern parts of the city. Public
grounds are few, but on the outskirts of the city are a park and
race-course, with the fashionable Marina promenade; while the
Mardyke walk, on the west of the island, is pleasantly shaded
by a fine avenue, and was the site of the International exhibition
held in 1902. Electric tramways connect the city and suburbs
and traverse the principal streets and the St Patrick's and
Parnell bridges. Both branches of the Lee are lined with fine
quays of cut limestone, extending in total length over 4 m.

The principal church is the Protestant cathedral, founded
in 1865, and consecrated on St Andrew's Day 1870; while the
central tower was completed in 1879. It is dedicated to St Fin
Barre or Finbar, who founded the original cathedral in the
7 th century. The present building is in the south-west part
of the city, and replaces a somewhat mean structure erected in
1735 on the site. of the ancient cathedral, which suffered during
the siege of Cork in September 1689. Money for the erection of
the building of 1735 was raised by the curious method of a tax
on imported coal. The new cathedral is in the Early French
(pointed) style, with an eastern apse and a striking west front.
Its design was by William Burges (d. 1881), and its erection was
due to the indefatigable exertions and munificence of Dr John
Gregg, bishop of Cork, Cloyne and Ross; while the tower and
spires were the gift of two merchants of Cork. The other
principal Protestant churches are St Luke's, St Nicholas and
St Anne Shandon, with its striking tower of parti-coloured stones;
and its peal of bells extolled in Father Prout's lyric " The Bells
of Shandon." The Roman Catholic cathedral, also dedicated
to St Finbar, is conspicuous on the north side of the city; it
dates from 1808, but has been since restored. Other fine churches
of this faith are St Mary, St Peter and Paul, St Patrick, Holy
Trinity and St Vincent de Paul. St Finbar's cemetery has
handsome monuments, and St Joseph's, founded by Father
Mathew in 1830 on the site of the old botanic gardens of the
Cork Institution, is beautifully planted. The court house in
Great George's Street has a good Corinthian portico, happily
undamaged in a fire which destroyed the rest of the building
in 1 891 . The custom-house commands the river in a fine position
at the lower junction of the branches. The usual commercial
and public buildings are mainly on the island. The most notable
educational establishment is the University College, founded as
Queen's College (1849), with those of the same name at Belfast
and Gal way, under an Act of 1845. A new charter was granted
to it under letters patent pursuant to the Irish Universities
Act 1908, when it was given its present name. The building,

CORK

r 59

CORK

and

QUEENSTOWN

English RTiles
o y ti y ; J

Contours at intervals of 100 feet

Based on information embodied from the Ordnance Survey, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.

designed by Sir Thomas Deane, occupies a beautiful site on the
river in the west of the city, where Gill Abbey, of the 7 th century,
formerly stood. It is a fine building in Tudor Style, " worthy,"
said Macaulay, "to stand in the High Street of Oxford." A
large library, museum and well-furnished laboratory are here.
The Crawford School of Science (1885); and the Munster Dairy
and Agricultural School, 1 m. west of the city, also claim
notice; while besides parochial and industrial schools several
of the religious orders located here devote themselves to education.
The Cork library (founded 1790) contains a valuable collection
of books. The Royal Cork Institution (1807), in addition to an
extensive library and a rare collection of Oriental MSS., possesses
a valuable collection of minerals, and the collections of casts
from the antique presented by the pope to George IV. There
are numerous literary and scientific societies, including the Cork
Cuvierian and Archaeological Society. The principal clubs are
the County and the Southern in South Mall, and the City in
Grand Parade; while for sport there are the Cork Golf Club,
Little Island, three rowing clubs, and the Royal Munster and
Royal Cork Yacht clubs, the latter located at Queenstown. The
theatres are the opera-house in Nelson's Place, and the Theatre
Royal.

The country neighbouring to Cork is highly attractive. The
harbour, with the ceaseless activity of shipping, its calm waters,
sheltered by many islands, and its well-wooded shores studded
with pleasant watering-places, affords a series of charming views,
apart from its claim to be considered one of the finest natural
harbours in the kingdom. Military depots occupy several of
the smaller islets, and three batteries guard the entry. This
is about 1 m. wide, but within the width increases to 3 m. while
the length is about 10 m. The Atlantic port of Queenstown
{q.v.) is on Great Island at the head of the outer harbour. Tivoli
(the residence of Sir Walter Raleigh) , Fort William, Lota Park,
and Blackrock Castle are notable features on the shore; and
Passage, Blackrock, Glenbrook and Monkstown are waterside

resorts. Inland from Cork runs the picturesque valley of the
Lee, and low hills surround the commanding situation of the
port.

The harbour is by far the most important on the south coast
of Ireland, and dredging operations render the quays approach-
able for vessels drawing 20 ft. at all states of the tide. Its trade
is mainly with Bristol and the ports of South Wales. The imports,
exceeding £1,000,000 in annual value, include large quantities
of wheat and maize, while the exports (about £9000 annually)
are chiefly of cattle, provisions, butter and fish. The Cork
Butter Exchange, where classification of the various qualities
is carried out by branding under the inspection of experts, was
important in the early part of the 17th century, and an unbroken
series of accounts dates from 1769 when the present market was
founded. There are distilleries, breweries, tanneries and iron
foundries in the city; and manufactures of woollen and leather
goods, tweeds, friezes, gloves and chemical manure. Nearly
six-sevenths of the population are Roman Catholics. The city
does not share with the county the rapid decrease of population.
It is governed by a lord mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors.
The parliamentary borough returns two members.

The original site of Cork seems to have been in the vicinity
of the Protestant cathedral; St Finbar's ecclesiastical foundation
attracting many students and votaries. In the 9th century the
town was frequently pillaged by the Northmen. According to
the Annals of the Four Masters a fleet burned Cork in 821; in
846 the Danes appear to have been in possession of the town,
for a force was collected to demolish their fortress; and in 1012
Cork again fell in flames. The Danes then appear to have founded
the new city on the banks of the Lee as a trading centre. It was
anciently surrounded with a wall, an order for the reparation
of which is found so late as 1 748 in the city council books (which
date from 1610). Submission and homage were made to Henry
II. on his arrival in 1172, and subsequently the English held
the town for a long period against the Irish, by constant and

i6o

CORK— CORMENIN

careful watch. Cork showed favour to Perkin Warbeck in 1492,
and its mayor was hanged in consequence. In 1649 it surrendered
to Cromwell, and in 1689 to the earl of Marlborough after five
days' siege, when Henry, duke of Grafton, wasmortally wounded.
Cork was a borough by prescription, and successive charters
were granted to it from the reign of Henry II. onward. By a
charter of Edward IV. the lord mayor of Cork was created admiral
of the port, and this office is manifested in a triennial ceremony
in which the mayor throws a dart over the harbour.

See C. Smith, Ancient and Present State of the County and City of
Cork (1750), edited by R. Day and W. A. Copinger (Cork, 1893);
C. B. Gibson, History of the City and County of Cork (London, 1861) ;
M. F. Cusack, History of the City and County of Cork, 1875.
' CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark,
but possibly connected with quercus, oak), the outer layer of
the bark of an evergreen species of oak (Quercus Suber). The
tree reaches the height of about 30 ft., growing in the south of
Europe and on the North African coasts generally; but it is
principally cultivated in Spain and. Portugal. The outer layer
of bark in the cork oak by annual additions from within gradually
becomes a thick soft homogeneous mass, possessing those com-
pressible and elastic properties upon which the economic value
of the material chiefly depends. The first stripping of cork from
young trees takes place when they are from fifteen to twenty
years of age. The yield, which is rough, unequal and woody in
texture, is called virgin cork, and is useful only as a tanning
substance, or for forming rustic work in ferneries, conservatories,
&c. Subsequently the bark is removed every eight or ten years,
the quality of the cork improving with each successive stripping;
and the trees continue to live and thrive under the operation for
150 years and upwards. The produce of the second barking is
still so coarse in texture that it is only fit for making floats for
nets and for similar applications. The operation of stripping
the trees takes place during the months of July and August.
Two cuts are made round the stem — one a little above the
ground, and the other immediately under the spring of the main
branches. Between these three or four longitudinal incisions are
then made, the utmost care being taken not to injure the inner
bark. The cork is thereafter removed in the sections into which
it has been cut, by inserting under it the wedge-shaped handle
of the implement used in making the incisions. After the outer
surface has been scraped and cleaned, the pieces are flattened
by heating them over a fire and submitting them to pressure on
a flat surface. In the heating operation the surface is charred,
and thereby the pores are closed up, and what is termed " nerve "
is given to the material. In this state the cork is ready for
manufacture or exportation.

Though specially developed in the cork-oak, the substance
cork is an almost universal product in the stems (and roots) of
woody plants which increase in diameter year by year. Generally
towards the end of the first year the original thin protective
layer of a stem or branch is replaced by a thin layer of " cork,"
that is a layer of cells the living contents of which have dis-
appeared while the walls have become thickened and toughened
as the result of the formation in them of a substance known as
suberin. Fresh cork is formed each season by an active form-
ative layer below the layer developed last season, which generally
peels off. Where the formation is extensive and persistent as
in the cork-oak, a thick covering of cork is formed. In some
cases, as on young shoots of the cork-elm, the development
is irregular and wing-like outgrowths of cork are formed. In
northern Russia a similar method to that used for obtaining
cork from the cork-oak is employed with the birch.

Cork possesses a combination of properties which peculiarly
fits it for many and diverse uses, for some of which it alone is
found applicable. The leading purpose for which it is used is
for forming bungs and stoppers for bottles and other vessels
containing liquids. Its compressibility, elasticity and practical
imperviousness to both air and water so fit it for this purpose
that the term cork is even more applied to the function than to
the substance. Its specific lightness, combined with strength
and durability, recommend it above all other substances for
forming life-buoys, belts and jackets, and in the construction

of life-boats and other apparatus for saving from drowning.
On account of its lightness, softness and non-conducting pro-
perties it is used for hat-linings and the soles of shoes, the latter
being a very ancient application of cork. It is also used in
making artificial limbs, for lining entomological cases, for
pommels in leather-dressing, and as a medium for making
architectural models. Chips and cuttings are ground up and
mixed with india-rubber to form kamptulicon floor-cloth,
or " cork-carpet." The inner bark of the cork-tree is a valuable
tanning material.

Certain of the properties and uses of cork were known to the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and the latter, we find by Horace
(Odes iii. 8), used it as a stopper for wine-vessels: —
" corticem adstrictum pice dimovebit
amphorae " —

It appears, however, that cork was not generally used for
stopping bottles till so recent a period as near the end of the
17th century, and bottles themselves were not employed for
storing liquids till the 15th century. Many substitutes have
been proposed for cork as a stoppering agent; but except in the
case of aerated liquids none of these has recommended itself
in practice. For aerated water bottles several successful devices
have been introduced. The most simple of these is an india-
rubber ball pressed upwards into the narrow of the bottle neck
by the force of the gas contained in the water; and in another
system a glass ball is similarly pressed against an india-rubber
collar inserted in the neck of the bottle. By analogy the term
" to cork " is used of any such devices for sealing up a bottle or
aperture.

CORK AND ORRERY, MARY, Countess of (Mary Monckton)
(1746^1840), was born on the 21st of May 1746, the daughter
of the first Viscount Galway. From her early years she took a
keen interest in literature, and through her influence her mother's
house in London became a favourite meeting-place of literary
celebrities. Dr Johnson was a frequent guest. According to
Boswell, Miss Monckton's "vivacity enchanted the sage, and
they used to talk together with all imaginable ease." Sheridan,
Reynolds, Burke and Horace Walpole were among her constant
visitors, and Mrs Siddons was her closest friend. In 1786 she
married the seventh earl of Cork and Orrery, who died in 1798.
As Lady Cork, her love of social " lions " became more pro-
nounced than ever. Among her regular guests were Canning
and Castlereagh, Byron, Sir Walter Scott, Lord John Russell,
Sir Robert Peel, Theodore Hook and Sydney Smith. She is
supposed to have been the original of Lady Bellair in Disraeli's
Henrietta Temple, and Dickens is believed to have drawn on her
for some of the peculiarities of Mrs Leo Hunter in Pickwick.
Lady Cork had a remarkable memory, and was a brilliant con-
versationalist. She died in London on the 30th of May 1840.
She was then ninety-four, but within a few days of her death
had been either dining out or entertaining every night. There
is a fine portrait of her by Reynolds.

CORLEONE (Saracen, Korliun), a town of Sicily, in the
province of Palermo, 42 m. S. of Palermo by rail and 21 m.
direct, 1949 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 14,803. The town
was a Saracen settlement, but a Lombard colony was introduced
by Frederick II. Two medieval castles rise above the town,
and there are some churches of interest.

CORMENIN, LOUIS MARIE DE LA HA YE, Vicomte de
(1788-1868), French jurist and political pamphleteer, was bom
at Paris on the 6th of January 1788. His father and his grand-
father both held the rank of lieutenant-general of the admiralty.
At the age of twenty he was received advocate, and about the
same time he gained some reputation as a writer of piquant
and delicate poems. In 1810 he received from Napoleon I. the
appointment of auditor to the council of state; and after the
restoration of the Bourbons he became master of requests.
During the period of his connexion with the council he devoted
himself zealously to the study of administrative law. He was
selected to prepare some of the most important reports of the
council. Among his separate publications at this time are noted,
— Du conseil d'etat envisage comme conseil et comme juridiction

COR MON— CORMORANT

161

dans notre monarchic constitutionnelle (1818), and De la responsa-
btiitt des agents du gouvernement. In the former he claimed, for
the protection of the rights of private persons in the administra-
tion of justice, the institution of a special court whose members
should be irremovable, the right of oral defence, and publicity
of trial. In 1822 appeared his Questions de droit administratis ,
in which he for the first time brought together and gave scientific
shape to the scattered elements of administrative law. These he
arranged and stated clearly in the form of aphorisms, with logical
deductions, establishing them by proofs drawn from the archives
of the council of state. This is recognized as his most important
work as a jurist. The fifth edition (1840) was thoroughly
revised.

In 1828 Cormenin entered the Chamber of Deputies as member
for Orleans, took his seat in the Left Centre, and began a vigorous
opposition to the government of Charles X. As he was not
gifted with the qualifications of the orator, he seldom appeared
at the tribune; but in the various committees he defended all
forms of popular liberties, and at the same time delivered, in a
series of powerful pamphlets, under the pseudonym of " Timon,"
the most formidable blows against tyranny and all political
and administrative abuses. After the revolution of July 1830,
Cormenin was one of the 221 who signed the protest against the
elevation of the Orleans dynasty to the throne; and he resigned
both his office in the council of state and his seat in the chamber.
He was, however, soon re-elected deputy, and now voted with
the extreme Left. The discussions on the budget in 1831 gave
rise to the publication of his famous series of Lettres sur la liste
civile, which in ten years ran through twenty-five editions. In
the following year he was elected deputy for Belley. In 1834 he
was elected by two arrondissements, and sat for Joigny, which
he represented till 1846. In this year he lost his seat in con-
sequence of the popular prejudice aroused against him by his
trenchant pamphlet Oui etnon (1845) against attacks on religious
liberty, and a second entitled Feu! Feu! (1845), written in
reply to those who demanded a retractation of the former.
Sixty thousand copies were rapidly sold.

Cormenin was an earnest advocate of universal suffrage before
the revolution of February 1848, and had remorselessly exposed
the corrupt practices at elections in his pamphlet — Ordre dujour
sur la corruption ilectorale. After the revolution he was elected
by four departments to the Constituent Assembly, and became
one of its vice-presidents. He was also member and president
of the constitutional commission, and for some time took a leading
part in drawing up the republican constitution. But the disputes
which broke out among the members led him to resign the
presidency. He was soon after named member of the council
of state and president of the comite du contentieux. It was at
this period that he published two pamphlets — Sur V ind&pendance
de I Italic After the coup d'Uat of December 2, 1851, Cormenin,
who had undertaken the defence of Prince Louis Napoleon after
his attempt at Strassburg, accepted a place in the new council
of state of the empire. Four years later, by imperial ordinance,
he was made a member of the Institute. One of the most
characteristic works of Cormenin is the Livre des orateurs, a
series of brilliant studies of the principal parliamentary orators
of the restoration and the monarchy of July, the first edition
of which appeared in 1838, and the eighteenth in i860. In 1846
he published his Entretiens de village, which procured him the
Montyon prize, and of which six editions were called for the
same year. His last work was Le Droit de tonnage en AlgSrie
(i860). He died at Paris, on the 6th of May 1868. Two volumes
jf his Reliquiae were printed in Paris in the same year.

CORMON, FERN AND (1845- ), French painter, was born
in Paris. He became a pupil of Cabanel, Fromentin and Portaels,
and one of the leading historical painters of modern France.
At an early age he attracted attention by the better class of
sensationalism in his art, although for a time his powerful brush
dwelled with particular delight on scenes of bloodshed, such as
the" Murder in the Seraglio " (1868) and the " Death of Ra vara,
Queen of Lanka " at the Toulouse Museum. The Luxembourg
has his " Cain flying before Jehovah's Curse " ; and for the
vii. 6

Mairie of the fourth arrondissement of Paris he executed in
grisaille a series of Panels: " Birth," " Death," " Marriage,"
" War," &c. " A Chief's Funeral," and pictures having the
Stone Age for their subject, occupied him for several years.
He was appointed to the Legion of Honour in 1880. Subse-
quently he also devoted himself to portraiture.

CORMONTAINGNE, LOUIS DE (c. 1697-1752), French military
engineer, was born at Strassburg. He was present as a volun teer
at the sieges of Freiburg and Landau in the later years of the
War of the Spanish Succession, and in 1715 he entered the
engineers. After being stationed for some years at Strassburg
he became captain, and was put in charge (at first in a sub-
ordinate capacity, and subsequently as chief engineer) of the
new works, Forts Moselle and Bellecroix, at Metz, which he
built according to his own system of fortification. He was present
at the siege of Philipsburg in 1733, and as a lieutenant-colonel
took part in most of the sieges in the Low Countries during the
War of the Austrian Succession. He attained the rank of
brigadier and finally that of martchal de camp, and was employed
in fortification work until his death. His Architecture militaire,
written in 17 14, was long kept secret by order of the authorities,
but, an unauthorized edition having appeared at the Hague
in 1 741, he himself prepared another version called Premier
mimoire sur la fortification, which from 1 741 onwards was followed
by others. His ideas are closely modelled on those of Vauban
iq.v.), and in his lifetime he was not considered the equal of such
engineers as d'Asfeld and Filley. It was not until twenty years
after his death that his system became widely known. Fourcroy
de Rainecourt, then chief of engineers, searching the archives
for valuable matter, chose the numerous memoirs of Cormon-
taingne for publication amongst engineer officers in 1776. Even
then they only circulated privately, and it was not until the
engineer Bousmard published Cormontaingne's Memorial de
Vattaque des places (Berlin, 1803) that Fourcroy, and after him
General La Fitte de Clave, actually gave to the general public
the CEuvres posthumes de Cormontaingne (Paris, 1 806-1 809).

His system of fortification was not marked by any great
originality of thought, which indeed could not be expected of
a member of the corps du ginie, the characteristics of which were
a close caste spirit and an unquestioning reverence for the
authority of Vauban. Forts Moselle and Bellecroix are still
in existence.

See Von Brese-Winiari, t)ber Entstehen etc. der neueren Befestigungs-
methode (Berlin, 1844); Prevost du Vernois, De la fortification depuis
Vauban (Paris, 1861) ; Cosseron de Villenoisy, Essai historique sur la
fortification (Paris, 1869).

CORMORANT (from the Lat. corvus marinus, 1 through the
Fr., in some patois of which it is still " cor marin "; in certain
Ital. dialects are the forms " corvo marin " or " corvo marino "),
a large sea-fowl belonging to the genus Phalacrocorax 2 (Carbo,
Halieus and Graculus of some ornithologists) , and that group of
the Linnaean order Anseres, now partly generally recognized by
Illiger's term Steganopodes, of which it with its allies forms a
family Phalacrocoracidae.

The cormorant (P. carbo) frequents almost all the sea-coast
of Europe, and breeds in societies at various stations, most
generally on steep cliffs, but occasionally on rocky islands as well
as on trees. The nest consists of a large mass of sea-weed, and,
with the ground immediately surrounding it, generally looks as
though bespattered with whitewash, from the excrement of the
bird, which lives entirely on fish. The eggs, from four to six in
number, are small, and have a thick, soft, calcareous shell, bluish-
white when first laid, but soon becoming discoloured. The young
are hatched blind, and covered with an inky-black skin. They
remain for some time in the squab-condition, and are then highly
esteemed for food by the northern islanders, their flesh being
said to taste as well as a roasted hare's. Their first plumage
is of a sombre brownish-black above, and more or less white
beneath. They take two or three years to assume the fully adult

1 Some authors, following Caius, derive the word from corvtn
vorans and spell it corvorant, but doubtless wrongly.

2 So spelt since the days of Gesner; but possibly Phalarocorax
would be more correct.

12

ib -2

CORN— CORNARO/ C.

dress, which is deep black, glossed above with bronze, and varied
in the. breeding-season with white on the cheeks and flanks,
besides being adorned by filamentary feathers on the head, arid
further set off by a bright yellow gape. The old cormorant looks
nearly as big as a goose, but is really much smaller; its flesh is
quite uneatable.

Taken when young from the nest, this bird is'easily tamed and
can be trained to fish for its keeper, as was of old time commonly
done in England, where the: master of the cormorants was one
of the officers of the royal household. Nowadays the practice
is nearly obsolete. When taken out to furnish sport, a strap is
fastened round the bird's neck so as, without impeding its breath,
to hinder it from swallowing its captures. 1 Arrived at the
waterside, it is cast off. It at once dives and darts along the
bottom as swiftly as an arrow in quest of its prey, rapidly scanning
every hole or pool. A fish is generally seized within a few seconds
of its being sighted, and as each is taken the bird rises to the
surface with its capture in its bill. It does not take much longer
to dispose of the prize in the dilatable skin of its throat so far
as the strap will allow, and the pursuit is recommenced until
the bird's gular pouch, capacious as it is,, will hold no more.
It then returns to its keeper, who has been anxiously watching
and- encouraging its movements, and a little manipulation of
its neck effects the delivery of the booty. It may then be let
loose again, or, if considered to have done its work, it is fed and
restored to its perch. The activity the bird displays under water
is almost incredible to those who. have not seen its performances,
and in a shallow river scarcely a fish escapes its keen eyes, and
sudden turns, except by taking refuge under a stone or root, or
in the mud that may be stirred up during the operation, and so
avoiding observation (see Salvin and Freeman, Falconry, 1859).
Nearly allied to the cormorant, and having much the same
habits, is the shag, or green cormorant of some writers (P..
graculus): The shag (which name in many parts of the world
is used in a generic sense) is, however, about one-fourth smaller
in linear dimensions, is much more glossy in plumage, and its
nuptial embellishment is a nodding plume instead of the white
patches of the cormorant. The easiest diagnostic on examination
will be found to be the number of tail-feathers, which in the
former are fourteen and in the shag twelve. The latter, too, is
more marine in the localities it frequents, scarcely ever entering
fresh or indeed inland waters.

In the south of Europe a much smaller species (P.pygmaeus)
is found. " This is almost entirely a fresh- water bird, and is not
uncommon on the lower Danube. Other species, to the number
perhaps of thirty or more, have been discriminated from other
parts of the world, but all have a great general similarity to one
another. New Zealand and the west coast of northern America
are particularly rich in birds of this genus, and the species found
there are the most beautifully decorated of any. All, however,
are remarkable for their curiously-formed feet, the four toes
of each being connected by a web, for their long stiff tails, and
for the absence, in the adult, of any exterior nostrils. When
gorged, or when the state of the tide precludes fishing, they are
fond of sitting on an elevated perch, often with extended wings,
and in this attitude they will remain motionless for a considerable
time, as though hanging themselves out to dry. It was perhaps
this peculiarity that struck the observation of Milton, and
prompted his well-known similitude of Satan to a cormorant
{Par ad. Lost, iv. 194); but when not thus behaving they them-
selves provoke the more homely comparison of a row of black
bottles. Their voracity is proverbial. (A. N.)

CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed,
grain), originally meaning a small hard particle or grain, as of
sand, salt, gunpowder, &c. It thus came to be applied to the
small hard seed of a plant, as still used in the words barley-corn
and pepper-corn. In agriculture it is generally applied to the
seed of the cereal plants. It is often locally understood to mean
that kind of cereal which is the leading crop of the district;

1 According to Willoughby it was formerly the custom to carry the
cormorant hooded till it was required ; in modern practice the.bearer
wears a face-mask to protect himself from its beak.

thus in England it refers to wheat, in Scotland and Ireland to
oats, and in the United States to maize (Indian corn). See
Grain Trade; Corn Laws; Agriculture; Wheat;
Maize; &c.

The term " corned " is given to a preparation of meat (especi-
ally beef) on account of the original manner of preserving it by
the use of salt in grains or " corns."

CORN (from Lat. cornu, horn), in pathology (technically
clavus), a localized outgrowth of the epidermic layer of the skin,
most commonly of the toe, with a central ingrowth of a hard
horny plug. The underlying papillae are atrophied, causing a
cup-shaped hollow, whilst the surrounding papillae are hyper-
trophied. The condition is mainly caused by badly fitting boots,
though any undue pressure, of insufficient power to give rise
to ulceration, may be the cause of a corn. Corns may be hard
or soft. The hard corn usually occurs on one of the toes, is a
more or less conical swelling and may be extremely painful at
times. If suppuration occurs around the corn, it is apt to
burrow, and if unattended to may give rise to arthritis or even
necrosis. The best treatment is to soften the corn with hot
water, pare it very carefully with a sharp knife, and then paint
it with a solution of- salicylic acid in collodion. The painting
must be repeated three times a day for a week or ten days. The
soft corn occurs between the toes and is usually a more painful
condition. Owing to the absorption of sweat its surface may
become white and sodden in appearance. The treatment is
much the same, but spirits of camphor should be painted on
each night, and a layer of cotton wool placed between the toes
during the daytime.

CORNARO, CATERINA (1454-151°), queen of Cyprus, was
the daughter of Marco Cornaro, a Venetian noble, whose brother
Andrea was an intimate friend of James de Lusignan, natural
son of King John II. of Cyprus. In the king's death in 1458
the succession was disputed, and James , with the help of the
sultan of Egypt, seized the island. But several powers were
arrayed against him— the duke of Savoy, who claimed the island
on the strength of the marriage of his son Louis to Charlotte,
the only legitimate daughter of John II.,* the Genoese, and the
pope. It was important that he should make a marriage such
as would secure him powerful support. Andrea Cornaro suggested
his niece Caterina, famed for her beauty, as that union would
bring him Venetian help. The proposal was agreed to, and
approved of by Caterina herself and the senate, and the contract
was signed in 1468, But further intrigues caused delay, arid
it was not until 147 1 that James's hesitations were overcome.
Caterina was solemnly adopted by the doge as a " daughter of
the Republic " and sailed for Cyprus in 1472 with the title of
queen of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia. But she only enjoyed
one year of happiness, for in 1473 her husband died of fever,
leaving his kingdom to his queen and their child as yet unborn.
Enemies and rival claimants arose on all sides, for Cyprus was
a tempting bait. In August the child James III. was born, but
as soon as the Venetian fleet sailed away a plot to depose him
in favour of Zarla, James's illegitimate daughter, broke out,
and Caterina was kept a prisoner. The Venetians returned,
and order was soon restored, but the republic was meditating
the seizure of Cyprus, although it had no valid title whatever^
and after the death of Caterina's child in 1474 it was Venice
which really governed the island. The poor queen was surrounded
by intrigues and plots, and although the people of the coast
towns loved her, the Cypriot nobles were her bitter enemies and
hostile to Venetian influence. In 1488 the republic, fearing that
Sultan Bayezid II. intended to attack Cyprus, and having also
discovered a plot to marry Caterina to King Alphonso II. of
Naples, a proposal to which she seemed not averse, decided to
recall the queen to Venice and formally annex the island.
Caterina at first refused, for she clung to her royalty, but Venice
was a severe parent to its adopted daughter and would not be
gainsaid; she was forced to abdicate in favour of the republic,
and returned to Venice in 1489. The government conferred on
2 Whence the kings of Italy derive their title of kings of Cyprus
and Jerusalem.

CORNARO, L.— CORNEILLE, PIERRE

163

her the castle and town of Asolo for life, and there in the midst
of a learned and brilliant little court, of which Cardinal Bembo
(q.v.) was a shining light, she spent the rest of her days in idyllic
peace. She died in July 1510. Titian's famous portrait of her
is in the Uffizi gallery in Florence.

Bibliography. — A. Centelli, Caterina Cornaro e il suo regno
(Venice, 1892); S. Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia, vol. iv.
(Venice, 1855), and his Lezioni di storia Veneta (Florence, 1875);
L. de Mas Latrie, Histoire de Vile de Chypre (Paris, 1852-1861);
and Horatio Brown's essay in his Studies in Venetian History (London,
1907), which gives the best sketch of the queen's career and a list of
authorities. (L. V.*)

CORNARO, tUIGI (1467-1566), a Venetian nobleman, famous
for his treatises on a temperate life. In his youth he lived freely,
but after a severe illness at the age of forty, he began under
medical advice gradually to reduce his diet. For some time he
restricted himself to a daily allowance of 1 2 oz. of solid food and
14 oz. of wine; later in life he reduced still further his bill of
fare, and found he could support his life and strength with no
more solid meat than an egg a day. At the age of eighty-three
he wrote his treatise on The Sure and Certain Method of Attaining
a Long and Healthful Life, the English translation of which went
through numerous editions; and this was followed by three
others on the same subject, composed at the ages of eighty-six,
ninety-one and ninety-five respectively. The first three were
published at Padua in 1558. They are written, says Addison
{Spectator, No. 195), " with such a spirit of cheerfulness, religion
and good sense, as are the natural concomitants of temperance
and sobriety." He died at Padua at the age of ninety-eight.

CORNBRASH, in geology, the name applied to the uppermost
member of the Bathcnian stage of the Jurassic formation in
England. It is an old English agricultural name applied in
Wiltshire to a variety of loose rubble or " brash " which, in that
part of the country, forms a good soil for growing corn. The
name was adopted by William Smith for a thin band of shelly
limestone which, in the south of England, breaks up in the
manner indicated. Although only a thin group of rocks (10-25
f t.) , it is remarkably persistent ; it may be traced from Weymouth
to the Yorkshire coast, but in north Lincolnshire it is very thin,
and probably dies out in the neighbourhood of the Humber.
It appears again, however, as a thin bed in Gristhorpe Bay,
Cayton Bay, Wheatcroft, Newton Dale and Langdale. In , the
inland exposures in Yorkshire it is difficult to follow on account
of its thinness, and the fact that it passes up into dark shales
in many places — the so-called " clays of the Cornbrash," with
Avicula echinata.

The Cornbrash is a very fossiliferous formation; the fauna
indicates a transition from the Lower to the Middle Oolites,
though it is probably more nearly related to that of the beds
above than to those below. Good localities for fossils are
Radipole near Weymouth, Closworth, Wincanton, Trowbridge,
Cirencester, Witney, Peterborough and Sudbrook Park near
Lincoln. A few of the important fossils are: Waldheimia
lagenalis, Pecten levis, Avicula echinata, Ostrea flabelloides,
Myacites decurtatus, Echinobrissus clunicularis ; Macrocephalites
macrocephalus is abundant in the midland counties but rarer
in the south; belemnites are not known. The remains of
saurians (Steneosaurus) are occasionally found. The Cornbrash
is of little value for building or road-making, although it is used
locally; in the south of England it is not oolitic, but in York-
shire it is a rubbly, marly, frequently ironshot oolitic limestone.
In Bedfordshire it has been termed the Bedford limestone.

See Jurassic; also H. B. Woodward, "The Jurassic Rocks of
Britain," vol. iv. (1894) ; and C. Fox Strangways, vol. i. ; both
Memoirs of the Geological Survey. (J. A. H.)

CORNEILLE, PIERRE (1606-1684), French dramatist and
poet, was born at Rouen, in the rue de la Pie, on the 6th of June
1606. The house, which was long preserved, was destroyed
not many years ago. His father, whose Christian name was the
same,, was avocat du roi a la Table de Marbre du Palais, and also
held the position of maitre des eaux et forets in the vicomtt
(or bailliage, as some say) of Rouen. In this latter office he is
said to have shown himself a vigorous magistrate, suppressing

brigandage and plunder without regard to his personal safety.
He was ennobled in 1637 (it is said not without regard to his
son's distinction), and the honour was renewed in favour of his
sons Pierre and Thomas in 1669, when a general repeal of the
letters of nobility recently granted had taken place. There
appears, however, to be no instance on record of the poet himself
assuming the " de " of nobility. His mother's name was Marthe
le Pesant.

After being educated by the Jesuits of Rouen, Corneille at
the age of eighteen was entered as avocat, and in 1624 took the
oaths, as we are told, four years before the regular time, a dis-
pensation having been procured. He was afterwards appointed
advocate to the admiralty, and to the "waters and forests,"
but both these posts must have been of small value, as we find
him parting with them in 1650 for the insignificant sum of 6000
livres. In that year and the next he was procureur-syndic des
Etats de Normandie. His first play, MSlite, was acted in 1629.
It is said by B. le B. de Fontenelle (his nephew) to have been
inspired by personal experiences, and was extremely popular,
either because or in spite of its remarkable difference from the
popular plays of the day, those of A. Hardy. In 1632 Clitandre,
a tragedy, was printed (it may have been acted in 163 1); in
1633 La Veuve and the Galerie du palais, in 1634 La Suivante and
La Place Royale, all the: last-named plays being comedies, saw
the stage. In 1634 also, having been selected as the composer
of a Latin elegy to Richelieu on the occasion of the cardinal
visiting Rouen, he was introduced to the subject of his verses,
and was soon after enrolled among the "five poets." These
officers (the others being G. Colletet, Boisrobert and C. de
l'Etoile, who in no way merited the title, and J. de Rotrou,
who was no unworthy yokefellow even of Corneille) had for task
the more profitable than dignified occupation: of working up
Richelieu's ideas into dramatic form.' No one could be less
suited for such work than Corneille, and he soon (it is said)
incurred his employer's displeasure by altering the plan of the
third act of Les Thuileries, which had been entrusted to him.

Meanwhile the year 1635 saw the production of MSdSe, a
grand but unequal tragedy. In the next year the singular
extravaganza entitled L'lllusion comique followed, and was
succeeded about the end of November by the Cid, based on the
Mocedades del Cid of Guillem de Castro. The triumphant success
of this, perhaps the most " epoch-making " play in all literature,
the jealousy of Richelieu and the Academy, the open attacks of
Georges de Scudery and J. de Mairet and others, and the pamphlet-
war which followed, are among the best-known incidents in the
history of letters. The trimming verdict of the Academy,
which we have in J. Chapelain's Sentiments de I'AcadSmie
francaise sur la tragi-comSdie du Cid (1638), when its arbitration
was demanded by Richelieu, and not openly repudiated by
Corneille, was virtually unimportant; but it is worth remember-
ing that no less a writer than Georges de Scudery, in his Observa-
tions sur le Cid (1637), gravely and apparently sincerely asserted
and maintained of this great play that the subject was utterly
bad, that all the rules of dramatic composition were violated,
that the action was badly conducted, the versification constantly
faulty, and the beauties as a rule stelen! Corneille himself was
awkwardly situated in this dispute. The esprit bourru by which
he was at all times distinguished, and which he now displayed
in his rather arrogant Excuse a Ariste, unfitted him for contro-
versy, and it was of vital importance to him that he should not
lose the outward marks of favour which Richelieu continued to
show him. Perhaps the pleasantest feature in the whole matter
is the unshaken and generous admiration with which Rotrou,
the only contemporary whose genius entiled him to criticise
Corneille, continued to regard his friend, rival, and in some
sense (though Rotrou was the younger of the two) pupil. Finding
it impossible to make himself fairly heard in the matter, Corneille
(who had retired from his position among the " five poets ")
withdrew to Rouen and passed nearly three years in quiet there,
perhaps revolving the opinions afterwards expressed in his
three Discours and in the Examens of his plays, where he bows,
somewhat as in the house of Rimmon, to " the rules." In 1639,

164

CORNEILLE, PIERRE

or at the beginning of 1640, appeared Horace with a dedication to
Richelieu. The good offices of Madame de Combalet, to whom
the Cid had been dedicated, and perhaps the satisfaction of the
cardinal's literary jealousy, had healed what breach there may
have been, and indeed the poet was in no position to quarrel
with his patron. Richelieu not only allowed him 500 crowns a
year, but soon afterwards, it is said, though on no certain
authority, employed his omnipotence in reconciling the father
of the poet's mistress, Marie de Lamperiere, to the marriage
of the lovers (1640). In this year also Cinna appeared. A
brief but very serious illness attacked him, and the death of his
father the year before had increased his family anxieties by
leaving his mother in very indifferent circumstances. It has,
however, been recently denied that he himself was at any time
poor, as older traditions asserted.

In the following year Corneille figured as a contributor to
the Guirlande de Julie, a famous album which the marquis de
Montausier, assisted by all the literary men of the day, offered to
his lady-love, Julie d'Angennes. 1643 was, according to the
latest authorities (for Cornelian dates have often been altered),
a very great year in the dramatist's life. Therein appeared
Polyeucte, the memorable comedy of Le Menteur, which though
adapted from the Spanish stood in relation to French comedy
very much as Le Cid, which owed less to Spain, stood to French
tragedy; its less popular and far less good Suite, — and perhaps
La Mart de Pompie. Rodogune (1644) was a brilliant success;
Thiodore (1645), a tragedy on a somewhat perilous subject, was
the first of Corneille's plays which was definitely damned.
Some amends may have been made to him by the commission
which he received next year to write verses for the Triomphes
poitiques de Louis XIII. Soon after (22nd of January 1647)
the Academy at last (it had twice rejected him on frivolous pleas)
admitted the greatest of living French writers. HSraclius (1646) ,
Andromede (1650), a spectacle-opera rather than a play, Dow
Sanche d'Aragon (1650) and Nicomede (1651) were the products
of the next few years' work; but in 1632 Pertharite was received
with decided disfavour, and the poet in disgust resolved, like
Ben Jonson, to quit the loathed stage. In this resolution he
persevered for six years, during which he worked at a verse
translation of the Imitation of Christ (finished in 1656), at his
three Discourses on Dramatic Poetry, and at the Examens which
are usually printed at the end of his plays. In 1659 Fouquet,
the Maecenas of the time, persuaded him to alter his resolve,
and CEdipe, a play which became a great favourite with Louis
XIV., was the result. It was followed by La Toison d'or (1660),
Sertorius (1662) and Sophonisbe (1663). In this latter year
Corneille (who had at last removed his residence from Rouen to
Paris in 1662) was included among the list of men of letters
pensioned at the proposal of Colbert. He received 2opo livres.
Othon (1664), Agisilas (1666), Attila (1667), and Tite el Berenice
(1670), were generally considered as proofs of failing powers, —
the cruel quatrain of Boileau —

" Apres YAgSsilas
Helas!
Mais apres V Attila
• Hola!"

in the case of these two plays, and the unlucky comparison with
Racine in the BSrinice, telling heavily against them. In 1665
and 1670 some versifications of devotional works addressed to
the Virgin had appeared. The part which Corneille took in
Psychi (1671), Moliere and P. Quinault being his coadjutors,
showed signs of renewed vigour; but PulchSrie (1672) and
SurSna (1674) were allowed even by his faithful followers to be
failures. He lived for ten years after the appearance of Surina,
but was almost silent save for the publication, in 1676, of some
beautiful verses thanking Louis XIV. for ordering the revival
of his plays. He died at his house in the rue d'Argenteuil on
the 30th of September 1684. For nine years (1674-1681), and
again in 1683, his pension had, for what reason is unknown,
been suspended. It used to be said that he was in great straits,
and the story went (though, as far as Boileau is concerned, it
has been invalidated), that at last Boileau, hearing of this,

went to the king and offered to resign his own pension if there
were not money enough for Corneille, and that Louis sent the
aged poet two hundred pistoles. He might, had it actually been
so, have said, with a great English poet in like case, " I have no
time to spend them." Two days afterwards he was dead.

Corneille was buried in the church of St Roch, where no
monument marked his grave until 1821. He had six children,
of whom four survived him. Pierre, the eldest son, a cavalry
officer who died before his father, left posterity in whom the
name has continued; Marie, the eldest daughter, was twice
married, and by her second husband, M. de Farcy, became the
ancestress of Charlotte Corday. Repeated efforts have been
made for the benefit of the poet's descendants, Voltaire, Charles
X. and the ComSdie franQaise having all borne part therein.

The portraits of Corneille (the best and most trustworthy of
which is from the burin of M. Lasne, an engraver of Caen),
represent him as a man of serious, almost of stern countenance,
and this agrees well enough with such descriptions as we have
of his appearance, and with the idea of him which we should form
from his writings and conduct. His nephew Fontenelle admits
that his general address and manner were by no means pre-
possessing. Others use stronger language, and it seems to be
confessed that either from shyness, from pride, or from physical
defects of utterance, probably from all three combined, he did
not attract strangers. Racine is said to have assured his son
that Corneille made verses "cent fois plus beaux" than his own,
but that his own greater popularity was owing to the fact that
he took some trouble to make himself personally agreeable.
Almost all the anecdotes which have been recorded concerning
him testify to a rugged and somewhat unamiable self-content-
ment. " Je n'ai pas le merite de ce pays-ci," he said of the
court. " Je n'en suis pas moins Pierre Corneille," he is said
to have replied to his friends as often as they dared to suggest
certain shortcomings in his behaviour, manner or speech. " Je
suis saoul de gloire et aflame d'argent " was his reply to the
compliments of Boileau. Yet tradition is unanimous as to his
affection for his family, and as to the harmony in which he lived
with his brother Thomas who had married Marguerite de Lam-
periere, younger sister of Marie, and whose household both at
Rouen and at Paris was practically one with that of his brother.
No story about Corneille is better known than that which tells
of the trap between the two houses, and how Pierre, whose
facility of versification was much inferior to his brother's, would
lift it when hard bestead, and call out " Sans-souci, une rime!"
Notwithstanding this domestic felicity, an impression is left on
the reader of Corneille's biographies that he was by no means
a happy man. Melancholy of temperament will partially explain
this, but there were other reasons. He appears to have been
quite free from envy properly so called, and to have been always
ready to acknowledge the excellences of his contemporaries.
But, as was the case with a very different man — Goldsmith —
praise bestowed on others always made him uncomfortable
unless it were accompanied by praise bestowed on himself.
As Guizot has excellently said, " Sa jalousie fut celle d'un enfant
qui veut qu'un sourire le rassure contre les caresses que recoit
son frere."

Although his actual poverty has been recently denied, he
cannot have been affluent. His pensions covered but a small
part of his long life and were most irregularly paid. He was no
"dedicator," and the occasional presents of rich men, such as
Montauron (who gave him a thousand, others say two hundred,
pistoles for the dedication of Cinna), and Fouquet (who com-
missioned CFdipe), were few and far between, though they have
exposed him to reflections which show great ignorance of the
manners of the age. Of his professional earnings, the small sum
for which, as we have seen, he gave up his offices, and the expres-
sion of Fontenelle that he practised " sans gofit et sans succes,"
are sufficient proof. His patrimony and his wife's dowry must
both have been trifling. On the other hand, it was during the
early and middle part of his career impossible, and during the
later part very difficult, for a dramatist to live decently by his
pieces. It was not till the middle of the century that the custom

CORNEILLE, PIERRE

165

of allowing the' author two shares in the profits during the first
run of the piece was observed, and even then revivals profited
him nothing. Thomas Corneille himself, who to his undoubted
talents united wonderful facility, untiring industry, and (gift
valuable above all others to the playwright) an extraordinary
knack of hitting the public fancy, died, notwithstanding his
simple tastes, " as poor as Job." We know that Pierre received
for two of his later pieces two thousand livres each, and we do not
know that he ever received more.

But his reward in fame was not stinted. Corneille, unlike
many of the great writers of the world, was not driven to wait
for " the next age " to do him justice. The cabal or clique which
attacked the Cid had no effect whatever on the judgment of the
public. All his subsequent masterpieces were received with the
same ungrudging applause, and the rising star of Racine, even
in conjunction with the manifest inferiority of Corneille's last
five or six plays, with difficulty prevailed against the older poet's
towering reputation. The great men of his time — Conde,
Turenne, the marechal de Grammont, the knight-errant due de
Guise— were his fervent admirers. Nor had he less justice done
him by a class from whom less justice might have been expected,
the brother men of letters whose criticisms he treated with such
scant courtesy. The respectable mediocrity of Chapelain might
misapprehend him; the lesser geniuses of Scudery and Mairet
might feel alarm at his advent; the envious Claverets and
D'Aubignacs might snarl and scribble. But Balzac did him
justice; Rotrou, as we have seen, never failed in generous
appreciation; Moliere in conversation and in print recognized
him as his own master and the foremost of dramatists. We have
quoted the informal tribute of Racine; but it should not be
forgotten that Racine, in discharge of his duty as respondent at
the Academical reception of Thomas Corneille, pronounced upon
the memory of Pierre perhaps the noblest and most just tribute
of eulogy that ever issued from the lips of a rival. Boileau's
testimony is of a' more chequered character; yet he seems never
to have failed in admiring Corneille whenever his principles would
allow him to do so. Questioned as to the great men of Louis
XIV.'s reign, he is said to have replied: " I only know three, —
Corneille, Moliere and myself." "And how about Racine?"
his auditor ventured to remark. " He was an extremely clever
fellow to whom I taught the art of elaborate rhyming " (rimer
difficilement). It was reserved for the 18th century to exalt
Racine above Corneille. Voltaire, who was prompted by his
natural benevolence to comment on the latter (the profits went
to a relation of the poet), was not altogether fitted by nature to
appreciate Corneille, and moreover, as has been ingeniously
pointed out, was not a little wearied by the length of his task.
His partially unfavourable verdict was endorsed earlier by
Vauvenargues, who knew little of poetry, and later by La Harpe,
whose critical standpoint has now been universally abandoned.
Napoleon I. was a great admirer of Corneille (" s'il vivait, je le
ferais prince," he said) , and under the Empire and the Restoration
an approach to a sounder appreciation was made. But it was
the glory of the romantic school, or rather of the more catholic
study of letters which that school brought about, to restore
Corneille to his true rank. So long, indeed, as a certain kind of
criticism was pursued, due appreciation was impossible. When
it was thought sufficient to say with Boileau that Corneille
excited, not pity or terror, but admiration which was not a
tragic passion; or that

" D'un seul nom quelquefois le son dur ou bizarre
Rend un poeme entier ou burlesque ou barbare ;"

when Voltaire could think it crushing to add to his exposure of
the " infamies " of Theodore — " apres cela comment osons-nous
condamner les pieces de Lope de Vega et de Shakespeare? " — it
is obvious that the Cid and Polyeucte, much more Don Sanche
d'Aragon and Rodogune, were sealed books to the critic.

Almost the first thing which strikes a reader is the singular
inequality of this poet, and the attempts to explain this in-
equality, in reference to his own and other theories, leave the
fact untouched. Producing, as he certainly has produced, work
which classes him with the greatest names in literature, he has

also signed an extraordinary quantity of verse which has not
merely the defects of genius, irregularity, extravagance, bizarrete,
but the faults which we are apt to regard as exclusively belonging
to those who lack genius, to wit, the dulness and tediousness of
mediocrity. Moliere's manner of accounting for this is famous
in literary history or legend. " My friend Corneille," he said,
" has a familiar who inspires him with the finest verses in the
world. But sometimes the familiar leaves him to shift for
himself, and then he fares very badly." That Corneille was by
no means destitute of the critical faculty his Discourses and the
Examens of his plays (often admirably acute, and, with Dryden's
subsequent prefaces, the originals to a great extent of specially
modern criticism) show well enough. But an enemy might
certainly contend that a poet's critical faculty should be of the
Promethean, not be Epimethean order. The fact seems to be
that the form in which Corneille's work was cast, and which by an
odd irony of fate he did so much to originate and make popular,
was very partially suited to his talents. He cou'd imagine
admirable situations, and he could write verses of incomparable
grandeur — verses that reverberate again and again in the
memory, but he could not, with the patient docility of Racine,
labour at proportioning the action of a tragedy strictly, at
maintaining a uniform rate of interest in the course of the plot
and of excellence in the fashion of the verse. Especially in his
later plays a verse and a couplet will crash out with fulgurous
brilliancy, and then be succeeded by pages of very second-rate
declamation or argument. It was urged against him also by the
party of the Doucereux, as he called them, that he could not
manage, or did not attempt, the great passion of love, and that
except in the case of Chimene his principle seemed to be that of
one of his own heroines:—

" Laissons, seigneur, laissons pour les petites ames
Ce commerce rampant de soupirs et de flammes."

(Aristie in Sertorius.)

There is perhaps some truth in this accusation, however much
some of us may be disposed to think that the line just quoted
is a fair enough description of the admired ecstasies of Achille
and Bajazet. But these are all the defects which can be fairly
urged against him; and in a dramatist bound to a less strict
service they would hardly have been even remarked. They
certainly neither require, nor are palliated by, theories of his
" megalomania," of his excessive attention to conflicts of will
and the like. On the English stage the liberty of unrestricted
incident and complicated action, the power of multiplying
characters and introducing prose scenes, would have exactly
suited his somewhat intermittent genius, both by covering
defects and by giving greater scope for the exhibition of power.

How great that power is can escape no one. The splendid
soliloquies of Medea which, as Voltaire happily says, " annoncent
Corneille," the entire parts of Rodogune and Chimene, the final
speech of Camille in Horace, the discovery scene of Cinna, the
dialogues of Pauline and Severe in Polyeucte, the magnificently-
contrasted conception and exhibition of the best and worst forms
of feminine dignity in the Cornelie of PompSe and the Cleopatre
of Rodogune, the singularly fine contrast in Don Sanche d'Aragon,
between the haughtiness of the Spanish nobles and the unshaken
dignity of the supposed adventurer Carlos, and the characters
of Aristie, Viriate and Sertorius himself, in the play named after
the latter, are not. to be surpassed in grandeur of thought,
felicity of design or appropriateness of language. "Admira-
tion " may or may not properly be excited by tragedy, and until
this important question is settled the name of tragedian may be
at pleasure given to or withheld from the author of Rodogune.
But his rank among the greatest of dramatic poets is not a
matter of question. For a poet is to be judged by his best things,
and the best things of Corneille are second to none.

The Plays. — It was, however, some time before his genius
came to perfection. It is undeniable that the first six or seven
of his plays are of no very striking intrinsic merit. On the other
hand, it requires only a very slight acquaintance with the state of
the drama in France at the time to see that these works, poor as
they may now seem, must have struck the spectators as something

1 66

CORNEILLE,; PIERRE

new and surprising. The language and dialogue of Milite are
on the whole simple and natural, and though the construction is
not very artful (the fifth act being, as is not unusual in Corneille,
superfluous and clumsy), it is still passable. The fact that one
of the characters jumps on another's back, and the rather
promiscuous kissing which takes place, are nothing to the
liberties usually taken in contemporary plays. A worse fault
is the (TTixofivdia, or, to borrow Butter's expression, the Cat-and-
Puss dialogue, which abounds. But the common objection to
the play at the time was that it was too natural and too devoid
of striking incidents. Corneille accordingly, as he tells us, set
to work to cure these faults, and produced a truly wonderful
work, Clitandre. Murders, combats, escapes and outrages of all
kinds are provided; and the language makes The Rehearsal no
burlesque. One of the heroines rescues herself from a ravisher
by blinding him with a hair-pin, and as she escapes the seducer
apostrophizes the blood which trickles from his eye, and the
weapon which has wounded it, in a speech forty verses long.
This, however, was his only attempt of the kind. For his next
four pieces, which were comedies, there is claimed the introduction
of some important improvements, such as the choosing for scenes
places well known in actual life (as in the Galerie dupalais), and
the substitution of the soubrette inplace of the old inconvenient
and grotesque nurse. It is certain, however, that there is more
interval between these six plays and Medie than between the
latter and Corneille's greatest drama. Here first do we find
those sudden and magnificent lines : which characterize the poet.
The title-role is, however, the only good one, and as a whole the
play is heavy'. Much the same may be saidof its curious successor
V Illusion comique. This is not only a play within a play, but
in part of it there is actually a third involution, one set of characters
beholding another set discharging the parts of yet another.
It contains, however, some very fine lines, in particular, a
defence of the stage and some heroics put into the mouth of a
braggadocio. We have seen it said of the Cid that it is difficult
to understand the enthusiasm ■ it excited. But the difficulty
Can only exist for persons who are insensible to dramatic ex-
cellence, or who so strongly object to the forms of the French
drama that they cannot relish anything so presented. Rodrigue,
Chimene, Don Diegue are not of any age, but of all time. The
conflicting passions of love, honour, duty, are here represented
as they never had been on a French stage, and in the " strong
style" which was Corneille's own. Of the many objections
urged against the play, perhaps the weightiest is that which
condemns the frigid and superfluous part of the Infanta. Horace,
though more skilfully constructed, is perhaps less satisfactory.
There is a hardness about the younger Horace which might have
been, but is not made, imposing, and Sabine's effect on the action
is quite out of proportion to the space she occupies. The splendid
declamation of Camille, and the excellent part of the elder
Horace, do not altogether atone for these defects. Cihna is
perhaps generally considered the poet's masterpiece, and it
undoubtedly contains the finest single scene in all French
tragedy. The blot on it is certainly the character > of Emilie,
who is spiteful and thankless, not heroic. Polyeucte has some-
times been elevated to the same position. There is, however,
a certain coolness about the hero's affection for his wife which
somewhat detracts from the merit of his sacrifice; while the
Christian part of the matter is scarcely so well treated as in the
Saint Genest Of Rotrou or the Virgin Martyr of Massinger. On
the other hand, the entire parts of Pauline and Severe are beyond
praise, and the manner in which the former reconciles her duty
as a wife with her affection for her lover is an astonishing success.
In Pompee (for La Mort de Pomp&e, though the more appropriate,
was not the original title) the splendid declamation of Cornelie is
the chief thing to be remarked. Le Menteur fully deserves the
honour which Moliere paid to it. Its continuation, notwithstand-
ing the judgment of some French critics, we cannot think so
happy. But TModore is perhaps the most surprising of literary
anomalies. The central situation, which so greatly shocked
Voltaire and indeed all French critics from the date of the piece,
does not seem to blame. A virgin martyr who is threatened

with loss of honour as a bitterer punishment than loss of life
offers points as powerful as they are perilous. But the treatment
is thoroughly bad. From the heroine who is, in a phrase of
Dryden's, " one of the coolest and most insignificant' " heroines
ever drawn, to the undignified Valens, the termagant Marcelle,
and the peevish Placide, there is hardly a good character. Im-
mediately upon this in most printed editions, though older in
representation, follows the play which (therein agreeing rather
with the author than with his critics) we should rank as his
greatest triumph, Rodogune. Here there is hardly a weak point.
The magnificent and terrible character of Cleop&tre, and the
contrasted dispositions of the two princes, of course attract
most attention. But the character of Rodogune herself, which
has not escaped criticism, comes hardly short of these. Heraclius,
despite great art and much fine poetry, is injured by the extreme
complication of its argument and by the blustering part of
Pulcherie. Andromide, with the later spectacle piece, the
Toison d'or, do not call for comment, and we ■ have already
alluded to the chief merit of Don Sanche. Nicomede, often
considered one of Corneille's best plays, is chiefly remarkable
for the curious and unusual character of its hero; Of Pertharite
it need only be said that no single critic has to our knowledge
disputed the justice of its damnation. (Edipe is certainly
unworthy of its subject and its author, but in Sertorius we have
one of Corneille's finest plays. It is remarkable not only for
its many splendid verses and for the nobility of its sentiment,
but from the fact that not one of its characters lacks interest, a
commendation not generally to be bestowed on its author's
work. Of the last six plays we may say that perhaps only one
of them; AgSsilas, is almost wholly worthless. Not a few
speeches of Surena and of Othon are of a very high order. As to
the poet's non-dramatic works, we have already spoken of his
extremely interesting critical dissertations. His minor poems
and poetical devotions are not likely to be read save from
motives of duty or curiosity. The verse translation of a. Kempis,
indeed, which was in its day immensel^xspopular (it passed
through many editions), condemns itself.

Bibliography. — The subject of the bibliography of Corneille was
treated in the most exhaustive manner by M. E. Picot in his Biblio-
graphic Cornelienne (Paris, 1875-^1876)., Less elaborate, but still
ample information may. be found in J. A. Taschereau's Vie and in
Jyl. Marty-Laveaux's edition of the Works. The individual plays
were usually printed a year or two after their first appearance:
but these dates have been subjected to confusion and to controversy,
and it seems better to refer for them to the works quoted and to be
quoted. The chief collected editions in the poet's lifetime were
those of 1644, 1648, 1652, 1660 (with important corrections), 1664
and 1682, which gives the definitive text. In 1692 T. Corneille pub-
lished a complete Thedtre in 5 vols. l2mo. Numerous editions
appeared in the early part of the 18th century, that of 1740 (6 vols.
l2rno, Amsterdam) containing the (Euvres diverses as well as the
plays. Several editions are recorded between this and that of
Voltaire (12 vols. 8vo; Geneva, 1764, 1776, 8 vols. 4to), whose
Commentaires have often been reprinted separately. In the year IX.
(1801) appeared an edition of the Works with Voltaire's commentary
and criticisms thereon by Palissot (12 vols. 8vo, Paris). Since this
the editions have been extremely numerous. Those chiefly to be
remarked are the following. Lefevre's (12 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1854),
well printed and with a useful variorum commentary, lacks biblio-
graphical- information and is disfigured by hideous engravings.
Of: Taschereau's, in the Bibliotheque elzevirienne, only two volumes
were published. Lahure's appeared in 5 vols. (1857-1862) and 7
vols. (1864-1866). The edition of Ch. Marty-Laveaux in Regnier's
Grands Hcrivains de la France (1862-1868), in 12 vols. 8vo, is still the
standard. In appearance and careful editing it leaves nothing to
desire, containing the entire works, a lexicon, full bibliographical
information, and an album of illustrations of the poet's places of
residence, his arms, some title-pages of his plays, facsimiles of his
writings, &c. Nothing is wanting but variorum comments, which
Lefevre's edition supplies. Fontenelle's life of his uncle is the chief
original authority on that subject, but Taschereau's Hisioire de la vie
et des ouvrages de P. Corneille (1st ed. 1829; 2nd in the Bibl- elzeviri-
enne, 1 855) is the standard work. Its information has been corrected
and augmented in various later publications, but not materially.
Of the exceedingly numerous writings relative to Corneille we may
mention the Recueil de dissertations sur plusieurs tragSdies de Corneille
et de Racine of the abbe Granet (Paris, 1740), the criticisms already
alluded to of Voltaire, La Harpe and Palissot, the well-known woric
of Guizot, first published as Vie de Corneille in 1 813 and revised as
Corneille etson temps in 1852, and the essays, repeated in his Portraits

CORNEILLE/ THOMAS— CORNELIUS, C. A. P.

167

litteraires, in Port-Royal, and in the Nouveaux Lundis of Sainte-Beuve.
More recently, besides essays by MM. Brunetiere, Faguet and
Lemaitre and the part appurtenant of M. E. Rigal's work on 1 6th
century drama in France, see Gustave Lanson's " Corneille " in the
Grands Ecrivains frangais (1898); F. Bouquet's Points obscurs el
nouveaux de la vie de Pierre Corneille (1888); Corneille inconnu, by
J. Levallois (1876); J. Lemaitre, Corneille et la poetique d'Aristote
(1888); J. B. Segall, Corneille and the Spanish Drama (1902); and
the recently discovered and printed Fragments sur Pierre et Thomas
Corneille of Alfred de Vigny (1905). On the Cid quarrel E. H.
Chardon's Vie de Rotrou (1884) bears mainly on a whole series of
documents which appeared at Rouen in the proceedings of the
Societe des bibliophiles normands during the years 1 891-1894. The
best-known English criticism, that of Hallam in his Literature of
Europe, is inadequate. The translations of separate plays are very
numerous, but of the complete Theatre only one version (into Italian)
is recorded by tfte French editors. Fontenelle tells us that his uncle
had translations of the Cid in every European tongue but Turkish
and Slavonic, and M. Picot's book apprises us that the latter want,
at any rate, is now supplied. Corneille has suffered less than some
other writers from the attribution of spurious works. Besides a
tragedy, Sylla, the chief piece thus assigned is L'Occasion perdue
recouverte, a rather loose tale in verse. Internal evidence by no
means fathers it on Corneille, and all external testimony is against
it. It has never been included in Corneille's works. It is curious
that a translation" of Statius {Thebaid, bk. hi.), an author of whom
Corneille was extremely fond, though known to have been written,
printed and published, has entirely dropped out of sight. Three
verses quoted by Menage are all we possess. (G. Sa.)

CORNEILLE/ THOMAS (1625-1709), French dramatist, was
born at Rouen on the 20th of August 1625, being nearly twenty
years younger than his brother, the great Corneille. His skill
in verse-making seems to have shown itself early, as at the age
of fifteen he composed a piece in Latin which was represented
by his fellow-pupils at the Jesuits' college of Rouen. His first
French play, Les Engagements du hasard, was acted in 1647.
Le Feint Astrologue, imitated from the Spanish, and imitated by
Dryden, came next year. At his brother's death he succeeded
to his vacant chair in the Academy. He then turned his attention
to' philology, producing a new edition of the Remarques of C. F.
Vaugelas ii^i687, and in 1694 a dictionary of technical terms,
intended to supplement that of the Academy. A complete
translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses (he had published six books
with the Heroic Epistles some years previously) followed in 1697.
In 1704 he lost his sight and was constituted a "veteran," a
dignity which preserved to him the privileges, while it exempted
him from the duties, of an academician. But he did not allow
his misfortune td put a stop to his work, and in 1708 produced a
large Dictionnaire universel geographique et historique in three
volumes folio. This was his last labour. He died at Les Andelys
on the 8th of December 1709, aged eighty-four. It has been the
custom to speak of Thomas Corneille as of one who, but for the
name he bore, would merit no notice. This is by no means the
case; on the contrary, he is rather to be commiserated for, his
connexion with a brother who outshone him as he would have
outshone almost any one. But the two were strongly attached
to one another, and practically lived in common. Of his forty-
two plays (this is the utmost number assigned to him) the last
edition of his complete works contains only thirty-two, but he
wrote several in conjunction with other authors. Two are
usually reprinted as his masterpieces at the end of his brother's
selected works. These are Ariane (1672) and the Comte d' Essex,
in the former of which Rachel attained success. But of Laodice,
Camma, Stilico and some other pieces, Pierre Corneille himself
said that " he wished he had written them," and he was not
wont to speak lightly. Camma (1661, on the same story as
Tennyson's Cup) especially deserves notice. Thomas Corneille is
in many ways remarkable in the literary gossip-history of his
time. His Timocrate boasted of the longest run (80 nights)
recorded of any play in the century. For La Devineresse'he
and his coadjutor de Vise (1638-1710, founder of the Mercure
galant, to which Thomas contributed) received above 6000 liVres, ,
the largest sum known to have been thus paid. Lastly, one of
his pieces (Le Baron des Fondrieres) contests the honour of being
the first which was hissed off the stage.

There is a monograph, Thomas Corneille, sa vie et ses ouvrages (1892),
by G. Reynier. See also the Fragments inedits de critique sur Pierre et
Thomas Corneille of Alfred de Vigny, published in 1905. (G. Sa.)

CORNELIA (2nd cent, k.c), daughter of Scipio Africanus the
Elder,mdther of the Gracchiand of Sempronia, the wifeof Scipio
Africanus the Younger. On the death of her husband, refusing
numerous offers of marriage,: she devoted herself to the education
of her twelve children. She was so devoted to her sons Tiberius
and Gaius that it was even asserted that she was concerned in
the death of her son-in-law Scipio, who by his achievements had
eclipsed the fame of the Gracchi, and was said to have approved
of the murder of Tiberius. When asked to show her jewels she
presented her sons, and on her death a statue was erected to her
memory inscribed, " Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi."
After the murder of her second son Gaius she retired 'to Misenum,
where she devoted herself to Greek and Latin literature, and to
the society of men of letters. She was a highly educated woman,
and her letters were celebrated for their beauty of style. The
genuineness of the two fragments of a letter from her to her son
Gaius, printed in some editions of Cornelius Nepos, is disputed. ' :

See L. Mercklin, De Corneliae vita (1844), of no great value;
J. Sorgel, Cornelia, die Mutter der Gracchen. (1868), a short popular
sketch. . . V . ■

CORNELIUS, pope, was elected, in 251 during the lull in the
persecution of the emperor Decius. Two years afterwards, under
the emperor Gallus, he was exiled to Centumcellae (Civita
Vecchia) , where he, died.. He was very intimate with St Cyprian,
and is commemorated with him on the 16th of September, which
is not, however, the anniversary of his death. He died in June
253--

CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874), German
musician and poet, son, of an actor at Wiesbaden, grandson of
the engraver Ignaz Cornelius, and nephew of Cornelius the:
painter, was born at Mainz on the 24th of December 1824. In
his childhood his bent was towards languages, but his musical
gifts were carefully, cultivated and he learned to sing and to
play the violin. Cornelius the elder, anxious for his son to
become an actor, himself taught the boy the elements of the art..
These: theatrical studies, however, were interrupted early by a
visit paid by Peter Cornelius to England as second violin in the
Mainz orchestra. On returning home young Cornelius made his
stage debut as John Cook in Kean. But after two more appear-
ances, as the lover in the comedy Das war Ich and as Perin in
Moreto's Donna Diana, he practically abandoned the stage for >
music, his idea being to become a comic opera composer. In
1843 his father died. Hitherto Cornelius's musical studies had
been unsystematic. Now opportunity served to remedy this,
for his relative, Cornelius the painter, summoned him in 1844
to Berlin, and enabled him a year later to become a pupil of
Siegfried Wilhelm Dehn (1799-1858), counterpoint and theory
generally being worked at laboriously. After leaving Dehn,
Cornelius proved his independence by writing a trio in A minor,
a quartet in C, ;as well as two comic opera texts. In 1847 he
returned to Dehn and immediately composed an enormous mass
of music, including a second trio, 30 vocal canons, several sonatas,
a Mass, a Stabat Mater; he also wrote a number of translations
of old French poems, which are classics of their kind. In 1852
he first came in touch with Liszt, through his uncle's instrumen-
tality. At Weimar, whither he went in 1852, he heard Berlioz's
delightful Benvenuto Cellini, a work which ultimately exercised
great influence over him.: For the time, however, he devoted
himself, on Liszt's advice, to further . Church compositions, the
influence of the Church, on him at that time being so great that
he applied, but vainly, for a place in a Jesuit college. Still his
mind was bent on the production of a comic opera, but the
composition was long delayed by the work of translating the
prefaces for Liszt's symphonic poems and the texts of works by
Berlioz and Rubinstein. Between October 1855 and September
in the following year, Cornelius wrote the book of the Barbier von
Bagdad, and on December 15, 1858, the opera was produced at
Weimar under Liszt, and hissed off the stage. Thereupon Liszt
resigned his post, and shortly afterwards Cornelius went to
Vienna and Munich, and still later came very much under
Wagner's influence. Cornelius's Cid was completed and produced
at Weimar in 1865. For the last nine years of his life (1865-1874)

i68

CORNELIUS, P. VON

Cornelius was occupied with his opera Gunlod and other com-
positions, besides writing ably and abundantly on Wagner's
music-dramas. In 1867 he became teacher of rhetoric and
harmony at the Musikschule, Munich, and married Berthe Jung.
He died on the 26th of October 1874. Not the least of Cornelius's
many claims to fame was his remarkable versatility. Many of
his original poems, as well as his translations from the French,
rank high. Among his songs, special mention may be made of
the lovely " Weihnachtslieder," and of the " Vatergruft," an
unaccompanied vocal work for baritone solo and choir.

CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784-1867), German painter,
was born in Diisseldorf in 1784. ■ His father, who was inspector
of the Diisseldorf gallery, died in 1709, and the young Cornelius
was stimulated to extraordinary exertions. In a letter *to the
Count Raczynski he says, " It fell to the lot of an elder brother
and myself to watch over the interests of a numerous family.
It was at this time that it was attempted to persuade my mother
that it would be better for me to devote myself to the trade of
a goldsmith than to continue to pursue painting — in the first
place, in consequence of the time necessary to qualify me for the
art, and in the next, because there were already so many painters.
My dear mother, however, rejected all this advice, and I felt
myself impelled onward by an uncontrollable enthusiasm, to
which the confidence of my mother gave new strength, which
was supported by the continual fear that I should be removed
from the study of that art I loved so much." His earliest work
of importance was the decoration of the choir of the church of
St Quirinus at Neuss. At the age of twenty-six he produced
his designs from Faust. On October 14, 1811, he arrived in
Rome, where he soon became one of the most promising of that
brotherhood of young German painters which included Overbeck,
Schadow, Veit, Schnorr and Ludwig Vogel (1788-1879), — a
fraternity (some of whom selected a ruinous convent for their
home) who were banded together for resolute study and mutual
criticism. Out of this association came the men who, though
they were ridiculed at the time, were destined to found a new
German school of art.

At Rome Cornelius participated, with other members of his
fraternity, in the decoration of the Casa Bartoldi and the Villa
Massimi, and wh^le thus employed he was also engaged upon
designs for the illustration of the Nibelungenlied. From Rome
he was called to Diisseldorf to remodel the Academy, and to
Munich by the then crown-prince of Bavaria, afterwards Louis
I., to direct the decorations for the Glyptothek. Cornelius,
however, soon found that attention to such widely separated
duties was incompatible with the just performance of either,
and most inconvenient to himself; eventually, therefore, he
resigned his post at Diisseldorf to throw himself completely and
thoroughly into those works for which he had been commissioned
by the crown-prince. He therefore left Diisseldorf for Munich,
where he was joined by those of his pupils who elected to follow
and to assist him. At the death of Director Langer, 1824-182 5,
he became director of the Munich Academy.

The fresco decorations of the Ludwigskirche, which were for
the most part designed and executed by Cornelius, are perhaps
the most important mural works of modern times. The large
fresco of the Last Judgment, over the high altar in that church,
measures 62 ft. in height by 38 ft. in width. The frescoes of the
Creator, the Nativity, and the Crucifixion in the same building
are also upon a. large scale. Amongst his other great works in
Munich may be included his decorations in the Pinakothek and
in the Glyptothek; those in the latter building, in the hall of
the gods and the hall of the hero-myths, are perhaps the best
known. About the year 1839-1840 he left Munich for Berlin
to proceed with that series of cartoons, from the Apocalypse,
for the frescoes for which he had been commissioned by Frederick
William IV., and which were intended to decorate the Campo
Santo or royal mausoleum. These were his final works.

Cornelius, as an oil painter, possessed but little technical skill,
nor do his works exhibit any instinctive appreciation of colour.
Even as a fresco painter his manipulative power was not great.
And in critically examining the execution in colour of some of

his magnificent designs, one cannot help feeling that he was, in
this respect, unable to do them full justice. Cornelius and his
associates endeavoured to follow in their works the spirit of the
Italian painters. But the Italian strain is to a considerable
extent modified by the Diirer heritage. This Diirer influence
is manifest in a tendency to overcrowding v\ composition, in a
degree of attenuation in the proportions of, and a poverty of
contour in, the nude figure, and also in a leaning to the selection
of Gothic forms for draperies. These peculiarities are even
noticeable in Cornelius's principal work of the " Last Judgment,"
in the Ludwigskirche in Munich. The attenuation and want
of flexibility of contour in the nude are perhaps most conspicuous
in his frescoes of classical subjects in the Glyptothek, especially
in that representing the contention for the body of Patroclus.
But notwithstanding these peculiarities there is always in his
works a grandeur and nobleness of conception, as all must
acknowledge who have inspected his designs for the Ludwigs-
kirche, for the Campo Santo, &c. If he were not dexterous in
the handling of the brush, he could conceive and design a subject
with masterly purpose. If he had an imperfect eye for colour,
in the Venetian, the Flemish, or the English sense, he had vast
mental foresight in directing the German school of painting;
and his favourite motto of Deutschland uber alles indicates the
direction and the strength of his patriotism. Karl Hermann
was one of Cornelius's earliest and most esteemed scholars, a
man of simple and fervent nature, painstaking to the utmost,
a very type of the finest German student nature; Kaulbach
and Adam Eberle were also amongst his scholars. Every public
edifice in Munich and other German cities which were embellished
with frescoes, became, as in Italy, a school of art of the very best
kind; for the decoration of a public building begets a practical
knowledge of design. The development of this institution of
scholarship in Munich was a work of time. The cartoons for
the Glyptothek were all by Cornelius's own hand. In the
Pinakothek his sketches and small drawings sufficed; but in the
Ludwigskirche the invention even of some of the subjects was
entrusted to his scholar Hermann.

To comprehend and appreciate thoroughly the magnitude of
the work which Cornelius accomplished for Germany, we must
remember that at the beginning of the 19th century Germany
had no national school of art. Germany was in painting and
sculpture behind all the rest of Europe. Yet in less than half
a century Cornelius founded a great school, revived mural
painting, and turned the gaze of the art world towards Munich.
The German revival of mural painting haditseffectupon England,
as well as upon other European nations, and led to the famous
cartoon competitions held in Westminster Hall, and ultimately
to the partial decoration of the Houses of Parliament. When
the latter work was in contemplation, Cornelius, in response to
invitations, visited England (November 1841). His opinion
was in every way favourable to the carrying out of the project,
and even in respect of the durability of fresco in the climate of
England. Cornelius, in his teaching, always inculcated a close
and rigorous study of nature, but he understood by the study of
nature something more than what is ordinarily implied by that
expression, something more than constantly making studies from
life; he meant the study of nature with an inquiring and
scientific spirit. " Study naflire," was the advice he once gave,
" in order that you may become acquainted with its essential
forms."

The personal appearance of Cornelius could not but convey
to those who were fortunate enough to come into contact with
him the impression that he was a man of an energetic, firm and
resolute nature. He was below the middle height and squarely
built. There was evidence of power about his broad and over-
hanging brow, in his eagle eyes and firmly gripped attenuated
lips, which no one with the least discernment could misinterpret.
Yet there was a sense of humour and a geniality which drew
men towards him; and towards those young artists who sought
his teaching and his criticism he always exhibited a calm
patience.

See Forster, Peter von Cornelius (Berlin, 1874). (W. C. T.)

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

169

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, one of the largest of American
institutions of higher education, situated at Ithaca, New York.
Its campus is finely situated on a hill above the main part of the
city; it lies between Fall Creek and Cascadilla Creek (each of
which has cut a deep gorge), and commands a beautiful view
of the valley and of Lake Cayuga. The university is co-educa-
tional (since 1872), and comprises the graduate school, with
306 students in 1909; the college of arts and sciences (902
students); the college of law (225 students), established in 1887;
the medical college (217 students, of whom 29 were taking
freshman or sophomore work in Ithaca, where all women entering
the college must pursue the first two years of work) — this college
was established in 1898 by the gift of Oliver Hazard Payne, and
has buildings opposite Bellevue hospital on First Avenue and
28th Street, New York city; the New York state veterinary
college (94 students), established by the state legislature in 1894;
the New York state college of agriculture (413 students), estab-
lished as such by the state legislature in 1904, — the teaching
of agriculture had from the beginning been an important part
of the university's work, — with an agricultural experiment
station, established in 1887 by the Federal government; the
college of architecture (133 students) ; the college of civil engineer-
ing (569 students) ; and the Sibley College of mechanical engineer-
ing and mechanic arts ( 1 1 63 students) , named in honour of Hiram
Sibley (1807-1888), a banker of Rochester, N.Y., who gave
$180,000 for its endowment and equipment and whose son
Hiram W. Sibley gave $130,000 to the college. A state college
of forestry was established in connexion with the university in
1898, but was discontinued after several years. The total
enrolment of regular students in 1909 was 3980; in addition,
841 students were enrolled in the 1908 summer session (which
is especially for teachers) and 364 in the " short winter course
in agriculture " in 1909. Nearly all the states and territories
of the United States and thirty-two foreign countries were
represented — e^. there were 33 students from China, 12 from
the Argentine Republic, 6 from India, 10 from Japan, 10 from
Mexico, s from Peru, &c.

In the W. central part of the campus is the university library
building, which, with an endowment (1891) of $300,000 for the
purchase of books and periodicals, was the gift of Henry Williams
Sage (1814-1897), second president of the board of trustees;
in 1906 it received an additional endowment fund of about
$500,000 by the bequest of Prof. Willard Fiske. The building,
of light grey Ohio sandstone, houses the general library (300,050
volumes in 1909), the seminary and department libraries (7284
volumes), and the forestry library (1007 volumes). Among the
special collections of the general library are the classical library
of Charles Anthon, the philological library of Franz Bopp, the
Gold win Smith library (1869), the White architectural and
historical libraries, the Spinoza collection presented by Andrew
D. White (1894), the library of Jared Sparks, the Samuel J. May
collection of works on the history of slavery, the Zarncke library,
especially rich in Germanic philology and literature, the Eugene
Schuyler collection of Slavic folk-lore, literature and history, the
Willard Fiske Rhaeto-Romanic, Icelandic, Dante and Petrarch
collections, and the Herbert H. Smith collection of works on
Latin America (in addition there are college and department
libraries — that of the college of law numbers 38,735 volumes —
bringing the total to 353,638 bound volumes in 1909). Among
the other buildings are: Morse Hall, Franklin Hall, Sibley
College, Lincoln Hall (housing the college of civil engineering),
Goldwin Smith Hall (for language and history), Stimson Hall
(given by Dean Sage to the medical college), Boardman Hall
(housing the college of law) , Morrill Hall (containing the psycho-
logical laboratory), McGraw Hall and White Hall — these, with
the library, forming the quadrangle; S. of the quadrangle,
Sage chapel (with beautiful interior decorations), Barnes Hall
(the home of the Cornell University Christian Association),
Sage College (a dormitory for women), and the armoury and
gymnasium; E. of the quadrangle, the Rockefeller Hall of Physics
(1906) and the New York State College of Agriculture (completed
in 1907); and S.E. of the quadrangle the New York State

Veterinary College and the Fuertes Observatory. The university
is well-equipped with laboratories, the psychological laboratory,
the laboratories of Sibley college and the hydraulic laboratory
of the college of civil engineering being especially noteworthy;
the last is on Fall Creek, where a curved concrete masonry dam
has been built, forming Beebe Lake. East of the campus is
the university playground and athletic field (55 acres), built
with funds raised from the alumni. Cayuga Lake furnishes
opportunity for rowing, and the Cornell crews are famous.
During their first two years all undergraduates, unless properly
excused, must take a prescribed amount of physical exercise.
Normally the first year's exercise for male students is military
drill under the direction of a U.S. army officer detailed as com-
mandant.

The reputation of the university is particularly high in
mechanical engineering; Sibley college was built up primarily
under Prof. Robert Henry Thurston (1839-1903), a well-known
engineer, its director in 1885-1903. The college includes the
following departments: machine design and construction,
experimental engineering, power engineering, and electrical
engineering. The " Susan Linn Sage School of Philosophy,"
so called since the gift (1891) of $200,000 from Henry W. Sage
in memory of his wife, issues The Philosophical Review and Cornell
Studies in Philosophy, and is well known for the psychological
laboratory investigations under Prof. E. B. Titchener (b. 1867).
Equally well known are the college of agriculture under Prof.
Liberty Hyde Bailey (b. 1858); the " Cornell School " of Latin
grammarians, led first by Prof. W. G. Hale and then by Prof.
C. E. Bennett; the department of entomology under Prof.
J. H. Comstock (b. 1849), the department of physics under
Prof. E. L. Nichols (b. 1854), and other departments. The uni-
versity publishes Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, the Journal
of Physical Chemistry, the Physical Review, Publications of Cornell
University Medical College, various publications of the college of
agriculture, and Studies in History and Political Science (of
" The President White School of History and Political Science ").
Among the student publications are The Cornell Era (1868,
weekly), The Cornell Daily Sun (1880), The Sibley Journal of
Engineering (1882), The Cornell Magazine, a literary monthly,
and The Cornell Widow (1892), a comic tri- weekly. The regular
annual tuition fee is $100, but in medicine, in architecture, and in
civil and mechanical engineering it is $150. In the veterinary
and agricultural colleges there are no tuition fees for residents of
New York state. There are 150 free- tuition state scholarships
(one for each of the state assembly districts), and, in addition,
there are 36 undergraduate university scholarships (annual
value, $200) tenable for two years, and 23 fellowships and 17
graduate scholarships (annual value, $300-600 each). In the
college of arts and sciences the elective system, with certain
restrictions, obtains.

The university has always been absolutely non-sectarian;
its charter prescribes that " persons of every religious denomina-
tion, or of no religious denomination, shall be equally eligible to
all offices and appointments " and that " at no time shall a
majority of the board (of trustees) be of one religious sect or of no
religious sect." There is, however, an active Christian Association
andreligious services — provided for bytheDean Sage Preachership
Endowment — are conducted in Sage chapel by eminent clergy-
men representing various sects and denominations.

The affairs of Cornell university are under the administration
of a board which must consist of forty trustees, of whom ten
are elected by the alumni. The following are ex officio members
of the board: the president of the university, the librarian of
the Cornell Library (in Ithaca), the governor and the lieutenant-
governor of the state, the speaker of the state assembly, the state
commissioners of education and of agriculture, and the president
of the state agricultural society. The internal government is
in the hands of the university faculty (which consists of the
president, the professors and the assistant professors, and has
jurisdiction over matters concerning the university as a whole),
and of the special faculties, which consist of the president, the
professors, the assistant professors, and the instructors ol

170

CORNET

the several colleges, and which have jurisdiction over distinctively
collegiate matters.

In 1909 the invested funds of the university amounted taabout
$8, 594,300, yielding an annual income. of about $428,800; the
income from state and nation was about: $232,050, and from
tuition fees about $336,100; the campus and buildings were
valued at about $4,263,400, and the Library; collections,
apparatus, &c> at about $1,826,100.

The university was incorporated by the legislature of New
York state on the 27 th of April 1865, andwajs named in honour
of Ezra Cornell, 1 its principal benefactor. In 1864 Cornell, at
the suggestion of Andrew D. White, his fellow member of the
state senate, decided to found a university of a new : type^-which
should be broad and liberal in its scope, should be absolutely non-
sectarian, and which should recognize and meet the growing
need for practical training and adequate instruction in the
sciences as well as in the humanitiesv He offered to the state
as an endowment $500,000 (with 200 acres of land) on condition
that the state add to this fund the proceeds of the sales of public
lands granted to it by the Morrill Act of 1862 for "the endow-
ment, support and maintenance of at least one college, where
the leading object shall be . . . to teach such branches of learn-
ing as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts . . . " 2
The charter provided that "such other branches of science
and knowledge may be embraced in the plan of instruction
and investigation pertaining to the university as the trustees
may deem useful and proper," and Ezra Cornell expressed
his own ideal in the oft-quoted words; "I would found an in-
stitution where any person can find, instruction in any study."
The opposition to Cornell's plan was bitter, especially on the part
of : denominational schools and press, but incorporation was
secured, and the trustees first met on the 5th of September 1865.
Andrew D. White was elected president and the entire educational
scheme was left to him. Dr White's ideals in part were: a closer
union between the advanced and the general educational system
of the state; liberal instruction of the industrial classes;
increased stress on technical instruction; unsectarian control;
" a course in history and political and social science adapted to
the practical needs of men worthily ambitious in public affairs ";
a more thorough study of modern languages and literatures,
especially English; the "steady effort to abolish monastic
government and pedantic instruction " ; the elective system of
studies; and the stimulus of non-resident lecturers. On the
7 th of October 1868 the Cornell University opened with some
confusion due to the condition of the campus, and to the presence
of 412 would-be pupils, many of whom expected to " work their
way through." The brilliance of the faculty and especially of its
non-resident members (including J. R. Lowell, Louis Agassiz,
G. W. Curtis, Bayard Taylor, Theodore D. Dwight, and Goldwin
Smith, who was a resident professor in 1866-18.69), was to a
degree over-shadowed during the fifteen years 1868-1882 by
financial difficulties. But Ezra Cornell himself , paid many
salaries during early years, and provided much valuable equip-
ment solely at his own expense; and because the state's land
scrip was selling too low to secure an adequate endowment for
the University, in 1866 he bought the land scrip yet unsold

1 Ezra Cornell (1807-1874) was born in Westchester county, New
York, on the nth of January 18O7'.' His parents were Quakers
from Massachusetts. He received a scanty education ; worked as a
carpenter in Syracuse and as a machinist in Ithaca ; became interested
(about 1842) in the development of the electric telegraph; and after
unsuccessful or over-expensive attempts to ground the telegraph
wires in 1844 solved the difficulty by stringing them on poles. He
organized many telegraph construction companies^ was one of the
founders of the Western Union TelegraphCompany, and accumulated
a large fortune. He was a delegate to the first national convention
of the Republican party (1856) and was a member of the New York
assembly in 1862-1863 and of the state senate in 1864-1867. He
founded a public library (dedicated in 1866) in Ithaca, and died
there on the 9th of December 1874. Consult Alonzo B. Cornell,
True and Firm: A Biography of Ezra Cornell (New York, 1884).

2 New York's share amounted to 990,000 acres. The Morrill Act
prescribed that the proceeds from the sale of this land should not be
used for the purchase, erection or maintenance of any building or
buildings.

(819,920 acres) 3 by the state at the fate:o£ sixty; cents an acre
on the understanding that all profits, in excess of the purchase
money, should constitute a separate endowment, fund to which
the restrictions in the Morrill Act should not apply; and in
i866-i867.he " located " 512,000 acres in Wisconsin, Minnesota,
and Kansas. In November 1.874 he . transferred these lands,
which had cost him $576,953 more than he had received from
them, to the university. This actual deficit on the lands
owned by the university steadily increased up to 1881, when,
after the trustees had refused (in t88q) an offer of $1,250,000
for 275,000 acres of pine lands, they sold about 140,600 acres
for $2,319,296; ultimately 401,296 acres of the land turned
over to the university by Cornell were sold, bringing a net
return of about $4,800,000. The university, was put on a
sound financial footing; the number of students, less in 1881-
1882 than in 1868 at the opening of the university, again
increased, so that it was 585 in 1884-1885, and 2120 in 1897-
1898. The presidents of the university have been: Andrew
Dickson White, 1865-1885; Charles Kendall Adams, 1885-1892;
and Jacob Gould Schurman.

CORNET, , a word having two distinct, significations and two
etymological histories, both, however, ultimately referable to
the same Latin origin: — -

1. (Fr. comette, dim. of come, from Lat. cornu, a horn), a
small standard, formerly carried by a troop of cavalry, and
similar to, the pennon in form, narrowing gradually to a point.
The term was then applied to the body. of cavalry which carried
a, cornet. In this sense it is used in the military literature of the
16th century and, less frequently, in that of the 17th. Before
the close of the 16th century, however, the world had also come
to mean a junior officer of a troop of cavalry who, like the
" ensign " of foot, carried the colour. The spelling " coronet "
occurs in the 16th century, and has perhaps contributed to
obscure the derivation of " colonel " or " coronel." The rank
of " cornet " remained in the British cavalry until the general
adoption of the term "second lieutenant." In the Boer republics
" field-cornets " were local subordinate officers of the commando
(q.v.), the unit of , the military forces. Elected for three years by
the wards into which the electoral districts w^ere divided, they
had administrative as well as military duties, and acted as
magistrates, inspectors of natives and registration officers for
their respective wards. In 1907, the , " field-cornet " system
was re-established in the Transvaal; the new duties of the
"field-cornets" are those performed by assistant magistrates,
viz. petty jurisdiction, registration of voters, births and deaths*
the carrying out of regulations as to animal diseases, and main-
tenance of roads. : The " field-cornets " are appointed by govern-
ment for three years.

2.. (Fr. cornet, Ital. cornetto, Med. Lat. cornelum, a bugle, from
Lat. cornu, a horn), in music, the name of two varieties of wind
instruments (see below), and also of certain stops of the organ.
The great organ " solo cornet " was a mixture or compound stop,
having either 5, 4, or 3 ranges of pipes; occasionally it was
placed on a separate soundboard, when it was known as a
" mounted cornet." The " echo cornet " was a similar stop, but
softer and enclosed in a box. In German and Dutch organs the
term cornet is sometimes applied to a pedal reed stop.

(a). Cornet or Cornett (Fr. cornet, cornet d bouquin; Ger.
Zinck; Zincken; Ital. cornetto) is the name given to a family of
wopd wind instruments, now obsolete, having a cup-shaped
mouthpiece and a conical bore without a bell, and differing
entirely from the modern cornet a pistons. The old cornets
were pf two kinds, the straight and the curved, characterized
by radical differences in construction. There' were two very
different kinds of straight cornets (Ger. gerader Zinck, Ital.
cornetto diretto or recto), the one most commonly used having a
detachable cup-,shaped mouthpiece similar to that of the trumpet,
while the other was made to all apoearance without mouthpiece,
there being not even a moulded rim at the end of the tube to

'He had previously — in 1865 — bought scrip for 100,000 acres for
$50,000, on the understanding that all profits which might accrue
from the sale of the land should be paid to the university.

CORNET

171

break the rigid straight line. Examination of the tube, however,
reveals the secret of the characteristic sweet tone of this latter
kind of cornet; unsuspected inside the top of the tube is cut out
of the thickness of the wood a mouthpiece, not cup-shaped, but
like a funnel similar to that of the French horn, which merges
gradually into the bore of the instrument. This mode of con^
struction, together with the narrower bore adopted, greatly
influenced the timbre of the instrument, whose softer tone was
thus due mainly to the substitution of the funnel for the sharp
angle of incidence at the bottom of the cup mouthpiece known
as the throat (see Mouthpiece), where it communicates with the
tube. It is this sharp angle, which in the other cornets with
detachable mouthpiece; causes the column of air to break,
producing a shrill quality of tone, while the wider bore and
slightly rough walls of the tube account for the harshness. In
Germany the sweet-toned cornet was known as stiller or sanfter
Zinck, and in Italy as cornetto muto (fig. 1), while in France the
instruments with detachable mouthpiece were distinguished
by the adition of a bouquin ( = with mouth-
piece). The curved cornet (Ger. krummer
Zinck or Stadtkalb ; Ital. cornetto curvo) could
riot for obvious reasons have the bore" pierced
through a single piece of
wood; the channel for
the vibrating column'of air
was, therefore, hollowed
out of two pieces of wood/
the diameter increasing
from the mouthpiece to
the lower end. The two
pieces of wood thus pre-
pared were joined together
with glue and covered
with leather, the outer
surface of the tube being
finished off in octagonal
shape. The separate
mouthpiece, made in-
differently of wood, horn,
ivory or metal, 1 analogous
to that of the trumpet,
was distinctly cup-shaped
and fixed by a tenon to
the upper extremity of
the pipe. The primitive
instrument was an
animal's horn.

Pipes of such short
length give only, besides
the first or fundamental,
the second and sometimes
the third note of the
harmonic series. Thus a
pipe that has forits funda-
mental A will, if the pressure of breath and tension of the
lips be steadily increased, give the octave A and the twelfth E.
In order to connect the first and second harmonics diatonically,
the length of the pipe was progressively shortened by boring
lateral holes through the tube for the fingers to cover. The
successive opening of these holes furnished the instrumentalist
with the different intervals of the scale, six holes sufficing for
this purpose:

The fundamental was thus connected with its octave by all the :
degrees of a diatonic scale, which became chromatic by the help
of cross-fingering and the greater or less tension of the lips
stretched as vibrating reeds across the opening of the mouth-
piece. This increased compass of twenty-seven notes obtained
. '.See Marin Mersenne, L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636-1637),
bk. v., pp. 273-274.

: From Capt. C. R. Day's Descriptive Catalogue
oj Musical Instruments, by permission of Messrs.
Eyre & Spottiswoode. :

Fig. 1.— Cornetto Fig. 2. — Cornetto
Muto. Curvo.

by cross-fingering. is very' clearly shown in a table by Eisel.?
The fingering was completed by a seventh hole, which had for its
object the production of the octave without the necessity of
closing all the holes in order to produce the second note of the
harmonic series. The first complete octave, thus obtained by a
succession of fundamental notes, was easily octaved by a stronger
pressure of breath and tension of the lips across the mouthpiece,
and thus the ordinary limits of the compass of a Zinck or cornet
could be extended to a fifteenth. Whether straight or curved'
it was pierced laterally with seven holes, six through the front,'
and the seventh, that nearest the mouthpiece, through the back.
The first three holes wereusually covered with the third, second:
and first fingers of the right hand, the next four with the third;
second and first fingers and the thumb of the left hand. But
some instrumentalists inverted the position of the hands.
Virdung 3 shows, besides: the cornetto recto, a kind of Zinck made
of an animal's horn with only four holes, three in the front of
the pipe and one at the back. Such an instrument as this had
naturally a very limited compass, since these four holes only
sufficed to produce the intermediate notes between the second
and third proper tones of the harmonic scale, the lower octave
comprised between the first and second remaining' incomplete;'
by overblowing, however, the next octave would be obtained
in addition, : - ,

At the beginning of the 17th century Praetorius 4 represents the
Zincken as a complete family comprising: (1) the little Zinck with

the lowest note

note

r, (2) the ordinary Zinck with the lowest

(3) the great Zinck, cornon or corno torto, a great

cornet in the shape of an 3 with the lowest, note Efc: pr:orz_» " : rrl. In
France 5 the family was composed of the following instruments :

(1) The [dessus or treble cornet with the lowest note

(2) the haute-contre . or alto cornet with the lowest note

3=

(3) the tattle or tenor cornet with the lowest note

e 6 cornet with the lowest note

and the

basse or bass or

The cornets of the lowest pitch were sometimes furnished with an'
open key which, when closed, lengthened the . tube, and extended
the compass downwards by a note. Mersenne figures a cornon with'
a key. -

During the middle ages these instruments were in ; such favour
that an important part was given to them in all instrumental com-
binations. At Dresden, 7 between 1647 and 165 1, the Kapelle of the
electoral prince of Saxony- included two cornets, the bass beirig
supplied by the trombone. Monteverde introduced two cornets in
the 3rd and 4th acts of his Orfeo (1607). In France the charges for
the Chapelle-Musique of the kings of France for the year 1.619 contain
two entries of the sum of 450 livres lournois, salary paid to one Marcel
Cayty, joueur de cornet, a post held by htm from 1604 until at least
163-1, when another cornet player, Jean Daneau, is also mentioned. 8

In Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries, Zincken were used
with trombones in the churches to accompany the chorales. There
are examples of this use of the instrument in the sacred cantatas
of J. S. Bach, where the cornet is added to the upper voice parts
to strengthen them, Johann Mattheson, conductor of the opera at

. 2 See Eisel's (Anon.) Musicus AiiTodlS&KTds, oder der sfch selbst
informirende Musicus (Erfurt, 1738), p. 93 and table vi.

3 Sebastian Virdung, Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel,
1511).

4 Michael Praetorius, Syntag. Music, vol. ii. De Organograpkia
(Wolfenbtittel, 1618), pp. 25 and 41, pis. 8 and 13.

6 See Mersenne, he. cit. .

6 See Ad. MS. 30342, Brit. Museum, fol. 145. A tract in French
containing pen and ink sketches of musical instruments, which dates
from the 17th or perhaps the 1 8th century, and was formerly in the
possession of the Jesuit college in Paris. Here the pedalle is the bass
pommer, or kautbois, and the sackbut is indicated as second bass or
basse-contre. As also in Mersenne, the cornets are curved.

7 See MoritziFiirstenau, Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am
Hofe zu Dresden (Dresden, 1861-1862), p. 28.

8 See Michel Brenet, " Deux comptes de la Chapelle MusiqUe des
rois de France," Sammelband der Intern. Mus. Ges., vi. I (Leipzig,
1904), pp. 20, 21, 29; and Archives nationales (Paris), Z. la. 486;

172

CORNET

Hamburg, writing on the orchestra in 17 13 ' gives a description of
the Zinck as a member of the orchestra, but in 1739, 2 in his work
on the perfect conductor, he deplores the decrease of its popularity
in church music, from which it seems to be banished as useless.
Gluck was the last composer of importance who scored for the cornet,
as for instance in Orfeo, in Paride ed Elena, in Alceste and in Armide,
&c. The great vogue of the curved cornet is not to be accounted for
by its musical qualities, for it had a hard, hoarse, piercing sound,
and it failed utterly in truth of intonation; these natural defects,
moreover, could only be modified with great difficulty. Mersenne's
eulogium of the dessus, then more employed than the other cornets,
can only be appreciated at its full value if we look upon the art of
cornet playing as a lost art. " The dessus," he says, " was used
in the vocal concerts and to make the treble with the organ, which
is ravishing when one knows how to play it to perfection like the
Sieur Guiclet;" and again further on, "the character of its tone
resembles the brilliance of a sunbeam piercing the darkness, when it is
heard among the voices in churches, cathedrals or chapels." 3
Mersenne further observes that the serpent is the true bass of the
•cornet, that one without the other is like body without soul.
A drawing in pen and ink of a curved cornet is given by Randle
Holme in his Academy of Armoury (1688) ; * and at the end of the
description of the instrument he adds, " It is a delicate pleasant wind
musick, if well played and humoured." Giovanni Maria Artusi 6 of
Bologna, writing at the end of the 16th century, devotes much
space to the cornet, explaining in detail the three kinds of tonguing
used with the instrument. By tonguing is understood a method of
articulation into the mouthpiece of flute, cornet a pistons or trumpet,
of certain syllables which add brilliance to the tone. Artusi advocates
(1) for the guttural effect, ler, ler, ler, der, ler, der, ler; ter, ler, ter;
ler, ter, ler; (2) for the tongue effect, tere, tere, tere; (3) for the dental
effect, teche, teche, teche, used by those who wish to strike terror into
the hearts of the hearers — an effect, however, which offends the ear.
A clue to the popularity of the instrument during the middle ages
may perhaps be found in Artusi's remark that this instrument is
the most apt in imitating the human voice, but that it is very
difficult and fatiguing to play; the musician, he adds elsewhere,
should adopt an instrument to imitate the voice as much as possible,
such as the cornetto and the trombone. He mentions two players
in Venice, II Cavaliero del Cornetto and M. Girolamo da Udine, who
excelled in the art of playing the cornet.

Being derived from the horn of an animal through which lateral
holes had been pierced, the curved cornet was probably the earlier,
and when the instrument came to be copied in metal and in wood
the straight cornet was the result of an attempt to simplify the
construction. The evolution probably took place in Asia Minor,
where tubes with conical bore were the rule, and the instrument .was
thence introduced into Europe. A straight Zinck, having a grotesque
animal's head at the bell-end, and six holes visible, is pictured in a
miniature of the nth century. 6 What appears to be precisely the
same kind of instrument, although differing widely in reality, the
chaunter being reed-blown, is to be found in illuminated MSS. as the
chaunter of the bagpipe, as for example in a royal roll of Henry III.
at the British Museum, 7 where it occurs twice played by a man on
stilts. The grotesque was probably added to the chaunter in imita-
tion of that on the straight Zinck. Two stille Zincken or cornetti muti
are among the musical instruments represented in the triumphal
procession of the emperor Maximilian I. 8 (d. 1519), designed at his
command by H. Burgmair under the superintendence of Albrecht
Diirer.

(b) Cornet A Pistons, Cornet, Cornopaean (Fr. cornet a
pistons; Ger. Cornett; Ital. cornetto), are the names of a modern
brass wind instrument of the same pitch as the trumpet. Being
a transformation of the old post-horn, the cornet should have a
conical bore of wide diameter in proportion to the length of
tube, but in practice usually only a small portion of the tube
is conical, i.e. from the mouthpiece to the slide of the first valve
and from the slide of the third valve to the bell. The tube of
the cornet is doubled roujwl upon itself. The cup-shaped mouth-
piece is larger than that of the trumpet; the shape of the cup
in conjunction with the length of the tube and the proportions

1 Das neu-eroffnete Orchester (Hamburg, 1713), p. 253.

2 Der vollkommene Kapellmeister (Hamburg, 1739).

3 See Mersenne, op. cit., bk. v., p. 274.

4 Part of book iii. in MS. Harleian, 2034, fol. 207b. Brit. Museum.

6 Delle imperfettioni delta moderna musica (Venice, 1600), pp. 4,
5, 6 and 12b.

• Grafl. Schonborn Bibl. Pommersfelden, Cod. 2776, reproduced
in E. Buhle's Die musikalischen Inslrumente in den Miniatur-Hand-
schriften des Mittelalters, part i. (Leipzig, 1903) pi. 6 and p. 24,
where other references will be found.

7 Royal Roll, 14 B. v. 13th century. See also Augustus Hughes-
Hughes, Catalogue of MS. Music in the British Museum, part iii.

8 See " Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilians I.," Beilage zum
isten Bd. d. Jahrbuch der Samml. des Allerhochsten Kaiserhauses
(Vienna, 1883), part i. p. 26, and letterpress, Bd. i. pp. 154- 181.

of the bore determines the timbre of the instrument. The outline
of the bottom of the cup, where it communicates with the bore,
is of the greatest importance. 9 If, as in the trumpet, it piesents
angles against which the column of air breaks, it produces a
brilliant tone quality. In the cornet mouthpiece there are no
angles at the bottom of the cup, which curves into the bore;
hence the cornet's loose, coarse quality of tone. The sound is
produced by stretching the lips across the mouthpiece, and
making them act as double reeds, set in vibration by the breath.
There are no fixed notes on the cornet as in instruments with
lateral holes, or with keys; the musical scale is obtained by means
of the power the performer possesses — once he has learned how
to use it — of producing the notes of the harmonic series by over-
blowing, i.e. by varying the tension of the lips and the pressure
of breath. In the cornet this series is short, comprising only
the harmonics from the 2nd to the 8th :

{Harmonic series of the B b cornet
— the 7th is slightly flat, a defect
which the performer corrects, if he
uses the note at all.

»»=

B*" 3 4

£

:A^t=

The intermediate notes completing the chromatic scale are
obtained by means of three pistons which, on being depressed,
open valves leading into supplementary wind-ways, which
lengthen the original tube. The pitch of the instrument is thus
lowered respectively one tone, half a tone, and one tone and a
half. The action of the piston temporarily changes the key of
the instrument and with it the notes of the harmonic series.
Before a performer, therefore, can play a note he must know
in which harmonic series it is best obtained and use the proper
piston in conjunction with the requisite lip tension. By means
of the pistons the compass of the cornet is thus extended from

Real sounds for the cornet in C.

^EE3i

S^Z- -\z~

C (Theminimsindicatethe practical
J compass but the extension shown
1 by the crotchets is possible to all
$*"- L good players.)

The treble clef is used in notation, and in England the music
for the cornet is usually written as sounded, but most French
and German composers score for it as for a transposing instru-
ment; for example, the music for the Bt> cornet is written in
a key one tone higher than that of the composition.

The timbre of the cornet lies somewhere between that of the
horn and the trumpet, having the blaring, penetrating quality
of the latter without its brilliant noble sonorousness. The great
favour with which the cornet meets is due to the facility with
which it speaks, to the little fatigue it causes, and to the simpli-
city of its mechanism. We must, however, regret from the point
of view of art that its success has been so great, and that it has
ended in usurping in brass bands the place of the bugles, the
tone colour of which is infinitely preferable as a foundation for
an ensemble composed entirely of brass instruments. Even
the symphonic orchestra has not been secure from its intrusion,
and the growing tendency in some orchestras, notably in France,
to allow the cornet to supersede the trumpet, to the great de-
triment of tone colour, is to be deplored. The cornet used in a
rich orchestral harmony is of value for completing the chords
of trumpets, or to undertake diatonic and chromatic passages
which on account of their rapidity cannot easily be fingered by
trombones or horns. The technical possibilities of the instru-
ment are very great, almost unrivalled in the brass wind: — notes
sustained, crescendo or diminuendo; diatonic and chromatic
scale and arpeggio passages; leaps, shakes, and in fact all kinds
of musical figures in any key, can be played with great facility
on the three-valved cornet. Double tonguing is also practic-
able, the articulation with the tongue of the syllables ti-ke for
double, and of ti-ke-ti for triple time producing a striking staccato
effect.

The cornet was evolved in Germany, at the beginning of the
19th century, from the post-horn, by the application of the

9 See Victor Mahillon, Elements d'acoustique musicale et instru-
mental (Brussels, 1874), pp. 96, 97, &c, with diagrams, and Friedrich
Zamminer, Die Musik und die musikalischen Instrument, &c.
(Giessen, 1855), p. 310, &c, with diagrams.

CORNETO— CORNIFICIUS

!73

newly invented pistons of Stoelzel and Bluemel patented in 1815.
It was introduced into Great Britain and France about 1830.
There were at first only two pistons — for a whole tone and for
a half tone — from which there naturally resulted gaps in the
chromatic scale of the instrument. The use of a combination
of pistons (see Bombardon and Valves) fails to give acoustically
correct intervals, because the length of tubing thus thrown open
is not of the theoretical length required to produce the interval.
A tube about 4 ft. long, such as that of the Bb cornet, needs an
additional length of about 3 in. to lower the pitch a semitone ;
but, if this cornet has already been lowered one tone to the key
of Ab, the length of tube has increased some 6 in., and the
3-in. semitone piston no longer adds sufficient tubing to

produce a semitone
of correct intona-
tion. To the per-
former falls the task
of concealing the
shortcomings of his
instrument, and he
therefore corrects
the intonation by
varying the lip ten-
sion. At first the
cornet was supplied
with a great many
crooks for A, At>, G, F, E, Eb and D, but from the explanation
but now given, it will be readily understood that they were
found unpractical for valve instruments, and all but the first
two mentioned have been abandoned. The history of the cornet
is a record of the endeavours of successive musical instrument
makers to overcome this inherent defect in construction. The
most ingenious and successful of these improvements are the
following: — (1) The six-valve-independent system 1 of Adolphe
Sax, designed about 1850, by which a separate valve was used
for each position, thus obviating the necessity of using combina-
tions of pistons. This theoretically perfect system unfortunately
introduced great difficulties in practice, the valves being made
ascending instead of descending, and each piston cutting off a
definite length of wind-way from the open tube, instead of adding
to it. The system was eventually abandoned. (2) The Besson

FlG. 3. — Bt> Cornet with enharmonic
valves (Besson & Co.).

Fig. 4. — B\> Cornet with strictly conical bore throughout,
Klussmann's patent (Rudall, Carte & Co.).

Registre giving eight independent positions, afterwards modified
as the (3) Besson compensating system transpositeur, patented
in England in 1859, which was considered so successful that the
idea was extensively used by other makers. (4) The Boosey
automatic compensating piston, invented by D. J. Blaikley, and
patented in 1878, a very ingenious device whereby when two
or more pistons are used simultaneously the length of the air
column is automatically adjusted to the theoretical length
required to ensure correct intonation. (5) Victor Mahillon's
automatic regulating pistons {pistons regulateur automatiqut)
produced about 1886, the result of independent efforts in the
same direction as Blaikley, and equally ingenious and effectual. 2
Finally we have (6) more recently the Besson enharmonic valve
system (fig. 3) with three pistons and six independent tuning

1 For a fuller description of this system see Capt. C. R. Day,
Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments (London, 1891), p. 207,
No. 406.

2 Id., pp. 192-193.

slides which give the seven positions independently, thus realiz-
ing in a simple effectual manner all that Sax strove to accomplish
with his six pistons. The enharmonic valves give all notes
theoretically true; there are in addition separate means for
adjusting each of the first six lengths, for although these lengths
are theoretically correct there are always certain modifying
conditions connected with brass instruments which render it
essential to provide means for adjustment. All notes being true
on this Besson cornet, they can be fingered to the greatest
advantagefor smoothness and rapidity. (7) Rudall, Carte & Co.'s
cornet (fig. 4), with strictly conical bore (Klussmann's patent)
throughout the open tube and additional lengths from the mouth-
piece to the bell, gives a perfect intonation and is at the same
time easy to blow. There are no crooks to this cornet when
constructed in Bb, but it may be instantaneously transposed
into the key of A major by means of an undetachable slide
guided by a piston rod. (V. M.; K. S.)

CORNETO TARQUINIA (anc. Tarquinii), a town of Italy,
in the province of Rome, 62 m. N.W. by rail from the town of
Rome, 490 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5273. Corneto
probably arose after the ancient town had been destroyed by
the Saracens. In the 10th century it began to acquire import-
ance, and for some time was an independent commune. It is
picturesquely situated, and commands a fine view. It possesses
medieval fortifications, and no less than twenty-five towers are
still standing in various parts of the town, which thus has a
remarkably medieval appearance. The castle on the N. contains
the Romanesque church of S. Maria in Castello, begun in 11 21,
with a fine portal of 1143, a cibonum of 1168 and a pulpit of
1209, both in " cosmatesque " work: the" pavement in marble
mosaic also is fine. There are several other Romanesque and
Gothic churches in the town more or less restored. The oldest
parts of the Palazzo Comunale date from about 1000. The
Gothic Palazzo Vitelleschi (1439) contains remarkably rich
windows. The municipal museum (which is to be transferred to
this palace) and the Palazzo Bruschi, contain fine collections
of Etruscan antiquities from the tombs of Tarquinii. Four
miles to the S.W. is the Porto Clementino (perhaps the ancient
Graviscae, the port of Tarquinii), with government saltworks,
in which convicts are employed.

See L. Dasti, Notizie sloriche archeologiche di Tarquinia e Corneto
(Rome, 1878); for the cemeteries, Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, 1907.

CORNICE (Fr. corniche, Ital. cornice), in architecture, the
projection at the top of a wall, which is provided to throw off
the rain water from the roof, beyond the face of the building.
As employed in classic architecture it forms the upper part of
the entablature of an order, and is there subdivided into bed
mould, corona and cymatium. The term is also generally
applied to any moulding projection which crowns the feature to
which it is attached; thus doors and windows, internally as well
as externally, have each their cornice, and the same applies
to pieces of furniture (see also Masonry).

CORNIFICIUS, the author of a work on rhetorical figures,
and perhaps of a general treatise (ars, Ttx vr l) on the art of
rhetoric (Quintilian, Instit., iii. 1. 21, ix. 3. 89). He has been
identified with the author of the four books of Rhetorica dedicated
to a certain Q. Herennius and generally known under the title
of Auctor ad Herennium. The chief argument in favour of this
identity is the fact that many passages quoted by Quintilian
from Cornificius are reproduced in the Rhetorica. Jerome,
Priscian and others attributed the work to Cicero (whose De
inventione was called Rhetorica prima, the Auctor ad Herennium,
Rhetorica secunda), while the claims of L. Aelius Stilo, M. Antonius
Gnipho, and Ateius Praetextatus to the authorship have been
supported by modern scholars. But it seems improbable that
the question of authorship will ever be satisfactorily settled.
Internal indications point to the date of compositions as 86-82
B.C., the period of Marian domination in Rome. The unknown
author, as may be inferred from the treatise itself, did not write
to make money, but to oblige his relative and friend Herennius,
. for whose instruction he promises to supply other works on
I grammar, military matters and political administration. He

174

CORNING^-GORN LAWS

expresses his -contempt for the ordinary school rhetorician, the
hair-splitting dialecticians and their " sense of inability to speak,
since they dare not even pronounce their own name for fear of
expressing themselves ambiguously." Finally, he admits that
rhetoric is not the highest accomplishment, and that philosophy
is far more deserving of attention. Politically, it is evident that
he was a staunch supporter of the popular party.

The first and second books of the Rhetorica treat of inventio
and forensic rhetoric; the third, of dispositio, pronuntiatio,
memoria, deliberative and demonstrative rhetoric; the fourth,
of docutio. The chief aims of the author are conciseness and
clearness (breviter et dilucide scribere). In accordance with this,
he ignores all rhetorical subtleties, the useless and irrelevant
matter introduced by the Greeks to make the art appear more
difficult of acquisition; where possible, he uses Roman ter-
minology for technical terms, and supplies his own examples
of the various rhetorical figures. • The work as a whole is con-
sidered very valuable. The question of the relation of Cicero's
De inventione to the Rhetorica has been much discussed. Three
views were held: that the Auctor copied from Cicero; that they
were independent of each other, parallelisms being due to their
having been taught by the same rhetorician at Rome; that
Cicero made extracts from the Rhetorica, as well as from other
authorities, in his usual eclectic fashion. The latest editor,
F. Marx, puts forward the theory that Cicero and the Auctor have
not produced original works, but have merely given the substance
of two Ttxvaj. (both emanating from the Rhodian school); that
neither used the rexvai directly, but reproduced the revised
version of the rhetoricians whose school they attended, the
introductions alone being their own work; that the lectures on
which the Ciceronian treatise was based were delivered before
the lectures attended by the Auctor.

The best modern editions are by C. L. Kayser (i860), in the
Tauchnitz, and W. Friedrich (1889), in the Teubner edition of
Cicero's works, and separately by F. Marx (1894); see also
De scholiis Rhetorices ad Herennium, by M. Wisen (1905). Full
references to authorities will be found in the articles by Brzoska in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie (1901); M. Schanz, Geschichte
der romischen Litt., i. (2nd ed., pp. 387-394) ; and Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Lit. (Eng. trans., p. 162) ; see also Mommsen, Hist,
of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 13.

CORNING, ERASTUS (1794-187 2), American capitalist, was
born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 14th of December 1794.
In 1807 he became a clerk in a hardware store at Troy, New
York, but in 1814 he removed to Albany, where he eventually
became the owner of extensive ironworks, obtained a controlling
interest in various banking institutions, and accumulated a
large fortune. He was prominently connected with the early
history of railway development in New York, became president
of the Utica & Schenectady line, and was the principal factor
in the extension and consolidation of the various independent
lines that formed the New York Central system, of which he
was president from 1853 to 1865. He was also interested in the
building of the Michigan Central and the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy railways, and was president of the company which
constructed the Sault Sainte Marie ship canal, providing a navig-
able waterway between Lakes Huron and Superior. He was
prominent in politics as a Democrat, and, after serving as mayor
of Albany from 1834 to 1837, and as state senator from 1842 to
1845, ne was a representative in Congress in 1857-1859 and in
1861-1863, being re-elected for a third term in 1862, but resigning
before the opening of the session. In 1861 he was a delegate
to the Peace Congress, but when the Civil War actually began
he loyally supported the Lincoln administration. He was a
delegate to the New York constitutional convention of 1867,
and was for many years vice-chancellor of the board of regents
of the University of the State of New York. He died at Albany,
New York, on the 9th of April 1872.

CORNING, a city of Steuben county, New York, U.S.A., in
the S. part of the state, on the Chemung river, 10 m. W.N.W.
of Elmira. Pop. (1890) 8550; (1900) 11,061, of whom 1410
were foreign-born; (1910) 13,730. Corning is served by the
Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and the New

York Central & Hudson River railways. Among the principal
buildings and institutions are a fine city hall, a Federal building;
a county court house, the Corning hospital, a free public library
and St Mary's orphan asylum (Roman Catholic) . Corning is one
of the principal markets in New York state for tobacco, which
is extensively produced in the surrounding country. The
principal industry is the making of cut and flint glass, and, of
the several extensive plants devoted to this industry, that of
the Corning Glass Works is one of the largest in the world. The
city also has railway car shops and foundries, and among its
manufactures are pressed brick, tile and terra-cotta, papier-
mache and lumber. The total value of the factory products in
1905 was $3,083,515, 35-7% more than in 1900. There were
settlers on the site of Corning as early as 1789, but it was not
until 1848 that it was incorporated as a village under its present
name, given in honour of Erastus Corning, the railway builder.
Corning was chartered as a city in 1890.

See C. H. M'Master, History of the Settlement of Steuben County
(Bath, N.Y., 1853)-

CORN LAWS. In England, legislation on corn was early
applied both to home and foreign trade in this essential produce.
Roads were so bad, and the chain of home trade so feeble, that
there was often scarcity of grain in one part, and plenty in another
part of the same kingdom. Export by sea or river to some foreign
market was in many cases more easy than the carriage of corn
from one market to another within the country. The frequency
of local dearths, and the diversity and fluctuation of prices, were
thus extreme. It was out of this general situation that the first
corn laws arose, and they appear to have been wholly directed
towards lowering the price of corn. Exportation was prohibited,
and home merchandise in grain was in no repute or toleration.
As long as the rent of land, including the extensive domains of
the crown, was paid in kind, the sovereign, the barons and other
landholders had little interest in the price of corn different from
that of other classes of people, the only demand for corn being
for consumption and not for resale or export. But as rents
of land came to be paid in money, the interest of the farmer to
be distinguished by a remove from that of the landowner, the
difference between town and country to be developed, and the
business of society to be more complex, the ruling powers of the
state were likely to be actuated by other views; and hence the
force which corn legislation afterward assumed in favour of what
was deemed the agricultural interest. But during four centuries
after the Conquest the corn law of England simply was that
export of corn was prohibited, save in years of extreme plenty
under forms of state licence, and that producers carried their
surplus grain into the nearest market town, and sold it there
for what it would bring among those who wanted it to consume;
and the same rule prevailed in the principal countries of the
continent of Europe. This policy, though, as one may argue
from its long continuance, probably not felt to be acutely
oppressive, was of no avail in removing the evils against which
it was directed. On the contrary it prolonged and aggravated
them. The prohibition of export discouraged agricultural im-
provement, and in so much diminished the security and liberality
even of domestic supply; while the intolerance of any home
dealing or merchandise in corn prevented the growth of a com-
mercial and financial interest strong enough to improve the means
of transport by which the plenty of one part of the same country
could have come to the aid of the scarcity in another.

Apart from this general feudal germ of legislation on corn,
the history of the British corn laws may be said to have begun
with the statute in the reign of Henry VI. (1436), by Eag n sb
which exportation was permitted without state licence, corn laws,
when the price of wheat or other corn fell below certain 1436-
prices. The reason given in the preamble of the
statute was that the previous state of the law had compelled
farmers to sell their corn at low prices, which was no doubt true,
but which also showed the important turn of the tide that had
set in. J. R. M'Culloch, in an elaborate article in the Commercial
Dictionary, says that the fluctuation of the prices of corn in that
age was so great, and beyond all present conception, that " it is

CORN LAWS

*7S

not easy to determine whether the exportation price of 6s.< 8d.
for wheat " [12s. iod. in present money per quarter ] " was above
or below the medium price." But while the medium price of
the kingdom must be held to be unascertainable in a remote
time, when the medium price in any principal market town of
England did not agree with that of another for any year or series
of years, one may readily perceive that the cultivators of the
wheat lands in the south-eastern counties of England, for example,
who could frequently have sold their produce in that age to
Dutch merchants to better advantage than in their own market
towns, or even in London, but were prohibited to export abroad,
and yet had no means of distributing their supplies at home so
as to realize the highest medium price in England, must have
felt aggrieved, and that their barons and knights of the shire
would have a common interest in making a strong effort to
rectify the injustice in parliament. This object appears to have
been in some measure accomplished by this statute, and twenty-
seven years afterwards (1463) a decided step was taken towards
securing to agriculturists a monopoly of the home market by a
statute prohibitory of importation from abroad. Foreign import
was to be permitted only at and above the point of prices where
the export of domestic produce was prohibited. The landed
interest had now adopted the idea of sustaining and equalizing
the value of corn, and promoting their own. industry and gains,
which for four centuries, under various modifications of plan,
and great changes of social and political condition, were to
maintain a firm place in the legislation and policy of England.
But there were many reasons why this idea, when carried into
practice, should not have the results anticipated from it.

The import of grain from abroad, even in times of dearth and
high prices at home, could not be considerable as long as the
policy of neighbouring countries was to prohibit export; nor
could the export of native corn, even with the Dutch and other
European ports open to such supplies, be effective save in limited
maritime districts, as long as the internal corn trade was sup-
pressed, not only by want of roads, but by legal interdict. The
regulation of liberty of export and import by rates of price,
moreover, had the same practical objection as the various sliding-
scales, bounties, and other legislative expedients down to 1846,
viz. that they failed, probably more in that age than in later
times, to create a permanent market, and aimed only at a casual
trade. When foreign supplies were needed, they were often not
to be found; and when there was an excess of corn in the country
■a profitable outlet was both difficult and uncertain. It would
appear, indeed, that during the Wars of the Roses the statutes
of Henry VI. and Edward IV. had become obsolete; for a law
regulating export prices in identical terms of the law of 1436
was re-enacted in the reign of Philip and Mary (1554). In the

, preceding reign of Edward VI., as well as in the succeeding long
reign of Elizabeth, there were unceasing complaints of the decay
of tillage, the dearth of corn, and the privations of the labouring
classes; and these complaints were met by the same kind
of measures — by statutes encouraging tillage, forbidding the
enlargement of farms, imposing severer restrictions on storing ■
and buying and selling of grain, and by renewed attempts to
regulate export and import according to prices. In 1562 the
price at which export might take place was raised to 10s. per
quarter for wheat, and 6s. 8d. for barley and malt. This only

, lasted a few years, and in 1570 the export of wheat and barley
was permitted from particular districts on payment of a duty
of is. 8d. per quarter, although still liable to prohibition by the
government or local authority, while it was entirely prohibited
under the old regulations from other districts. Only at the close
of Elizabeth's reign (1603) did a spark of new light appear in a
further statute, which removed the futile provisions in favour
of tillage and against enlargement of pastoral farms, and rested

, the whole policy for promoting an equable supply of corn, while
encouraging agriculture, on an allowed export of wheat and
other grain at a duty of 2s. and is. 4d. when the price of wheat
was not more than 20s., and of barley and malt 12s. per quarter.
The import of corn appears to have been much lost sight of from
the period of the statute of 1463. The internal state of England,

as well as the policy of other countries of Europe,' was unfavour-
able to any regular import of grain, though 'many parts of the
kingdom were often suffering from dearth bf corn. It is obvious
that this legislation, carried over more than a century and a half,
failed of its purpose, and that it neither. promoted agriculture
nor increased the supply of bread. : So great a variance and
conflict between the intention of statutes and the actual course
of affairs might be deemed inexplicable, but for an explanation
which a close economic study of the circumstances of the times
affords.

Besides the general reasons of the failure already indicated,
there were three special causes in active operation, which, though
not seen at the period, have become distinct enough' since. (1)
A comparatively free, export of wool had been permitted in
England from time immemorial. It was subject neither to
conditions of price nor to duties in the times under consideration,
was easier of transport and much less liable to damage than corn,
and, under the extending manufactures of France and; the Low
Countries, was sure of a foreign as well as a domestic market.
Here was one description of rural produce on- which there was
the least embargo, and on which some reliance could be placed
that it would in all circumstances bring a fair value; while corn,
the prime rural produce, was subject as a commodity of mer-
chandise to every difficulty, internally and externally,; which
meddling legislation and popular prejudice could impose. The
numerous statutes enjoining tillage and discouraging pastoral
farms — or in other words requiring that agriculturists should
turn from what was profitable . to what was unprofitable — had
consequently no substantial effect, save in the many individual
instances in which the effect may have been injurious. (2) The
value of the standard money of the kingdom had been under-
going great depreciation from two opposite quarters at once.
The pound sterling of England was reduced in weight of pure
metal from £1 : 18 : 9 in 1436, the date of the first of the corn
statutes, to 4s. 7fd. in 1551, as far as can be estimated in present
money, and to £1 : q : 6f under the restoration of the coinage
in the following year. At the same time the greater abundance
of silver, which now began to be experienced in Europe from the
discovery of the South American mines, was steadily reducing
the intrinsic value of the metal. Hence a general rise of prices
remarked by Hume and other historians; and hence also it
followed that a price of corn fixed for export or import at one
period became always at another period more or less restrictive
of export than had been designed. (3) The wages of labour
would have followed the advance in the prices of commodities
had wages been left free, but they were kept down by statute
to the three or four pence per day at which they stood when
the pound sterling contained one-fourth more silver, and silver
itself was much more valuable. This was a. refinement of
cruelty. The feudal system was breaking up; a wage-earning
population was rapidly increasing both in the farms and
in the towns; but the spirit of feudalism remained, and
the iron collar of serfdom was riveted round the necks of
the labourers by these statutes many generations after they had
become nominally freemen. 1 The result was chronic privation
and discontent among the common people, by which all, the
conditions of agriculture and trade in corn were further straitened
and barbarized; and an age, in some high respects among the
most brilliant in the annals of England, "was marked by an
enormous increase of pauperism, and by the introduction of the
merciful but wasteful remedy of the Poor Laws.

The corn legislation of Elizabeth remained without change
during the reign of James, the civil wars and the Commonwealth.
But on the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, the question was
resumed, and an act was passed of a more prohibitory char-
acter. Export and import of corn, while nominally permitted

1 M'Culloch found from, a comparison of the prices of corn and
wages of labour in the reign of Henry VII. and the latter part of the
reign of Elizabeth, that in the former period a labourer could earn
a quarter of wheat in 20, a quarter of rye in 12, and a quarter of
barley in 9 days; whereas, in the latter period, to earn a quarter of
wheat required 48, a quarter of rye 32, and a quarter of barley 29
days' labour.

176

CORN LAWS

1660-
1773.

were alike subjected to heavy duties — the need of the exchequer
being the paramount consideration, while the agriculturists were
no doubt pleased with the complete command secured
to them in the home market. This act was followed
by such high prices of corn, and so little advantage
to the revenue, that parliament in 1663 reduced the duties on
import to 9% ad valorem, while at the same time raising the
price at which export ceased to 48s., and reducing the duty
on export from 20s. to 5s. 4d. per quarter. In a few years
this was found to be too much free- trade for the agricultural
liking, and in 1670 prohibitory duties were re-imposed on import
when the home price was under 53s. 4d., and a duty of 8s.
between that price and 80s., with the usual make-weight in
favour of home supply, that export should be prohibited when
the price was 53s. 4d. and upwards. But complaints of the
decline of agriculture continued to be as rife under this act as
under the others, till on the accession of William and Mary, the
landed interest, taking advantage of the Revolution as they
had taken advantage of the Restoration to promote their own
interests, took the new and surprising step of enacting a bounty
on the export of grain. This evil continued to affect the corn
laws of the kingdom, varied, on one occasion at least, with the
further complication of bounties on import, until the 1 9th century.
The duties on export being abolished, while the heavy duties
on import were maintained, this is probably the most one-sided
form which the British corn laws ever assumed, but it was
attended with none of the advantages anticipated. The prices
of corn fell, instead of rising. There had occurred at the period
of the Revolution a depreciation of the money of the realm,
analogous in one respect to that which marked the first era of
the corn statutes (1436-1551), and forming one of the greatest
difficulties which the government of William had to encounter.
The coin of the realm was greatly debased, and as rapidly as
the mint sent out money of standard weight and purity, it was
melted down, and disappeared from the circulation. The influx
of silver from South America to Europe had spent its action on
prices before the middle of the century; the precious metals
had again hardened in value; and for forty years before the
Revolution the price of corn had been steadily falling in money
price. The liberty of exporting wool had also now been cut
down before the English manufactures were able to take up the
home supply, and agriculturists were consequently forced to
extend their tillage. When the current coin of the kingdom
became wholly debased by clipping and other knaveries, there
ensued both irregularity and inflation of nominal prices, and
the producers and consumers of corn found themselves equally
ill at ease. The farmers complained that the home-market for
their produce was unremunerative and unsatisfactory; the
masses of the people complained with no less reason that the
money wages of labour could not purchase them the ustial
necessaries of life. Macaulay, in his History of England, says
of this period, with little exaggeration, that " the price of the
necessaries of life, of shoes, of ale, of oatmeal, rose fast. The
labourer found that the bit of metal which, when he received it,
was called a shilling, would hardly, when he purchased a pot
of beer or a loaf of rye bread, go as far as sixpence." The state
of agriculture could not be prosperous under these conditions.
But when the government of William surmounted this difficulty
of the coinage, as they did surmount it, under the guidance of
Sir Isaac Newton, with remarkable statesmanship, it necessarily
followed that prices, so far from rising, declined, because, for one
reason, they were now denominated in a solid metallic value.
The rise of prices of corn attending the first years of the export
bounty was consequently of very brief duration. The average
price of wheat in the Winchester market, which in the ten years
1690-1699 was £2: ios., fell in the ten years 1716-1725 to
£1: 5:4, and in the ten years 1746-1755 to £1:1:2$. The
system of corn law established in the reign of William and Mary
was probably the most perfect to be conceived for advancing
the agricultural interest of any country. Every stroke of the
legislature seemed complete to this end. Yet it wholly failed
of its purpose. The price of wheat again rose in 17 50-1 760 and

1760-1770 to £1:19 :3i and £2:11:3!, but many causes
had meanwhile been at work, as invariably happens in such
economic developments, the operation of which no statutes
could embrace, either to control or to prevent. Between the
reign of William and Mary and that of George III., the question
of bounty on export of grain had, in the general progress of the
country, fallen into the background, while that of the heavy
embargoes on import had come to the front. Therefore it is
that Burke's Act of 1773, as a deliberate attempt to bring the
corn laws into some degree of reason and order, is worthy of
special mention. This statute permitted the import of foreign
wheat at a nominal duty of 6d. when the home price was 48s.
per quarter, and it stopped both the liberty to export and the
bounty on export together when the home price was 44s. per
quarter. The one blemish of this statute was the stopping
export and cutting off bounty on export at the same point of
price.

Few questions have been more discussed or more differently
interpreted than the elaborate system of corn laws dating from
the reign of William and Mary. So careful an observer as
Malthus was of opinion that the bounty on export had enlarged
the area of subsistence. That it had large operation is sufficiently
attested by the fact that, in the years from 1 740 to 175 r, bounties
were paid out of the exchequer to the amount of £1,515,000,
and in 1749 alone they amounted to £324,000. But the trade
thus forced was of no permanence, and the British exports of
corn, which reached a maximum of 1,667,778 quarters in 1749-
1750, had fallen to 600,000 quarters in 1760 and continued to
decrease.

Burke's Act lasted long enough to introduce a regular import
of foreign grain, varying with the abundance or scarcity of the
home harvest, yet establishing in the end a systematic
preponderance of imports over exports. The period, t £^

moreover, was marked by great agricultural improve-
ments, by extensive reclamation of waste lands, and by an
increased home produce of wheat, in the twenty years from
1773 to 1793, of nearly 2,000,000 quarters. Nor had the course
of prices been unsatisfactory. The average price of British
wheat in the twenty years was £2:6:3, an d in only three
years of the twenty was the price a fraction under £2. But the
ideas in favour of greater freedom of trade, of which the act of
1773 was an indication, and of which another memorable example
was given in Pitt's commercial treaty with France, were over-
whelmed in the extraordinary excitement caused by the French
Revolution, and all the old corn law policy was destined to have
a sudden revival. The landowners and farmers complained that
an import of foreign grain at a nominal duty of 6d., when the
price of wheat was only 48s., deprived them of the ascending
scale of prices when it seemed due; and on this instigation an
act was passed in 1791, whereby the price at which importation
could proceed at the nominal duty of 6d. was raised to 54s., with
a duty of 2s. 6d. from 54s. to 50s., and at 50s. and under 50s. a
prohibitory duty of 24s. 3d. The bounty on export was main-
tained by this act, but exportation was allowed without bounty
till the price reached 46s.; and the permission accorded by the
statue of 1773 to import foreign corn at any price, to be re-
exported duty free, was modified by a warehouse duty of 2s. 6d.
in addition to the duties on import payable at the time of sale,
when the corn, instead of being re-exported, happened to be sold
for home consumption. The legislative vigilance in this statue
to prevent foreign bread from reaching the home consumer is
remarkable. There were deficient home harvests for some years
after 1791, particularly in 1795 and 1797, and parliament was
forced to the new expedient of granting high bounties on im-
portation. At this period the country was involved in a great
war; all the customary commercial relations were violently
disturbed; freight, insurance and other charges on import and
export were multiplied fivefold; heavier and heavier taxes were
imposed; and the capital resources of the kingdom were poured
with a prodigality without precedent into the war channels.
The consequence was that the price or corn, as of all other
commodities, rose greatly: and the Bank of England having

CORN LAWS

177

stopped paying in specie in 1797, this raised nominal prices still
more under the liberal use of bank paper in loans and discounts,
and the difference that began to be established in the actual
value of Bank of England notes and their legal par in
bullion'.

The average price of British wheat rose to £5 : 19 : 6 in 1801.
So unusual a value must have led to a large extension of the area
under wheat, and to much corn-growing on land that after great
outlay was ill prepared for it. .In the following years there were
agricultural complaints; and in 1804, though in 1803 the average
price of wheat had been as high as £2 : 18 : 10, an act was
passed, so much more severe than any previous statute, that
its object would appear to have been to keep the price of corn
somewhere approaching the high range of 180 1. A prohibitory
duty of 24s. 3d. was imposed on the import of foreign wheat
when the home price was 63s. or less; and the price at which
the bounty was paid on export was lowered to 40s., while the
price at which export might proceed without bounty was raised
to 54s. Judging from the prices that ruled during the remaining
period of the French wars, this statute would appear to have
been effective for its end, though, under all the varied action
of the times on a rise of prices, it would be difficult to assign its
proper place in the general effect. The average price of wheat
rose to £4 : 9 : 9 in 1805, and the bank paper price in 1812
was as high even as £6 : 6 : 6. The bullion prices from 1809
to 1813 ranged from 86s. 6d. to 100s. 3d. But it was foreseen
that when the wars ended a serious reaction would ensue, and
that the rents of land, and the general condition of agriculture,
under the warlike, protective and monetary stimulation they had
received, would be imperilled. In the brief peace of 1814 the
average bullion price of British wheat fell to 55s. 8d. All the
means of select committees of inquiry on agricultural distress,
and new modifications of the corn laws, were again brought into
requisition. The first idea broached in parliament was to raise
the duties on foreign imports, as well as the prices at which they
were to be leviable, and to abolish the bounty on export, while
permitting freedom of export whatever the home price might
be. The latter part of the scheme was passed into law in the
session of 1814; but the irritation of the manufacturing districts
against the new scale of import duties was too great to be
resisted. In the subsequent session an act was passed, after much
opposition, fixing 80s. (14s. more than during the wars) as the
price at which import of wheat was to become free of duty.

This act of 181 5 was intended to keep the price of wheat in the
British markets at about 80s. per quarter; but the era of war and
great expenditure of money raised by public loans had ended, the
ports of the continent were again open to some measure of trade
and to the equalizing effect of trade upon prices, the Bank of
England and other banks of issue had to begin the uphill course of
a resumption of specie payments, the nation had to begin to feel
the whole naked weight of the war debt, and the idea of the
protectors of a high price of corn was proved by the event to be
an utter hallucination. The corn statutes of the next twenty
years, though occupying an enormous amount of time and
attention in the Houses of Parliament, may be briefly treated, for
they are simply a record of the impotence of legislation to maintain
the price of a commodity at a high point when all the natural
economic causes in operation are opposed to it. In 182 2 a statute
was passed reducing the limit of prices at which importation
could proceed to 70s. for wheat, 35s. for barley, 25s. for oats;
but behind the apparent relaxation was a new scale of import
duties, by which foreign grain was subjected to heavy three-month
duties up to a price of 85s., — 17s. when wheat was 70s., 12s. when
between 70s. and 80s., and 10s. when 85s., showing the grasping
spirit of the would-be monopolizers of the home supply of corn,
and their reluctance to believe in a lower range of value for corn
as for all other commodities. This act never operated, for the
reason that, with the exception in some few instances of barley,
prices never were so high as its projectors had contemplated.
The corn trade had passed rapidly beyond reach of the statutes
by which it was to be so painfully controlled; and as there were
occasional seasons of scarcity, particularly in oats, the king in

council was authorized for several years to override the statutes,
and do whatever the public interests might require.

In 1827 Canning introduced a new system of duties, under
which there would have been a fixed duty of is. per quarter
when the price of wheat was at or above 70s., and an increased
duty of 2s. for every shilling the price fell below 69s. ; but though
Canning's resolutions were adopted by a large majority in the
House of Commons, his death and the consequent change of
ministers involved the failure of his scheme of corn duties. In
the following year Charles Grant introduced another scale of
import duties on corn, by which the duty was to be 23s. when the
price was 64s., 16s. 8d. when the price was 69s., and only is.
when the price was 73s. or above 73s. per quarter; and this
became law the same year. This sliding scale was more objection-
able, as a basis of foreign corn trade, than that of Canning,
though not following so closely shilling by shilling the variation of
prices, because of the abrupt leaps it made in the amount of
duties leviable. For example, a merchant who ordered a ship-
ment of foreign wheat when the home price was 70s. and rising to
73s., instead of having a duty of is. to pay, should on a backward
drop of the home price to 69s. have 16s. 8d. of duty to pay. The
result was to introduce wide and incalculable elements of specula-
tion into all transactions in foreign corn. The prices during most
part of this period were under the range at which import was
practically prohibited. The average price of British, wheat was
96s. nd. in 1817, but from that point there was in succeeding
years a rapid and progressive decline, varied only by the results
of the domestic harvests, till in 1835 the average price of wheat
was 39s. 4d., of barley 29s. nd. and oats 22s. The import of
foreign grain in these years consisted principally of a speculative
trade, under a privilege of warehousing accorded in the statute of
1773, and extended in subsequent acts, by which the grain might
be sold for home consumption on payment of the duties, or
re-exported free, as suited the interest of the holders.

The act of 1822 admitted corn of the British possessions in
North America under a favoured scale of duties, and in 1825 a
temporary act was passed, allowing the import of wheat from
these provinces at a fixed duty of 5s. per quarter, irrespective of
the home price, which, if maintained, would have given some
stability to the trade with Canada. The idea of a fixed duty on
all foreign grain, however, appears to have grown in favour from
about this period. It was included in the programme of import
duty reforms of the Whig government in 1841, and fell with its
propounders in the general election of that year. Sir Robert
Peel, on succeeding to office, and commencing his remarkable
career as a free-trade statesman, introduced and carried in 1842
a new sliding scale of duties somewhat better adjusted to the
current values. But public opinion by this time was changing,
and the prime minister, convinced, as he confessed, by the
arguments of Cobden and the Anti-Corn-Law League, and
stimulated into action by the failure of the potato crop in
Ireland, put an effectual end to the history of the corn laws by
the famous act of 1846. It was provided under this measure that
the maximum duty on foreign wheat was to be immediately
reduced to 10s. per quarter when the price was under 48s., to 5s.
on barley when the price was under 26s., and to 4s. on oats when
the price was under 18s., with lower duties as prices rose above
these figures; but the conclusive part of the enactment was that
in three years — on the 1st of February 1849 — these duties were
to cease, and all foreign corn to be admitted at a duty of is. per
quarter, and all foreign meal and flour at a duty of 4! d. per cwt. —
the same nominal imposts which were conceded to grain and flour
of British possessions abroad from the date of the act. Ih 1869
even these nominal duties were abolished by Robert Lowe in a
Customs Duties Act. In 1902 a registration duty of 3d. per cwt.
was imposed on imported corn, and $d. per cwt. on imported
flour, in the expectation that such a duty would broaden the
basis of taxation. The duty was, however, repealed the following
year. But a low duty on imported foreign corn was made an
essential part of the tariff reform scheme advocated by Mr. J.
Chamberlain (q.v.) from 1903 onwards.

Foreign Corn Laws. — Freedom of export of corn from customs

178

CORN-SALAD

Portugal.

France.

duties has become the general rule of nearly all foreign countries.
It is somewhat curious that Spain saw the advantage to her wheat-
producing provinces of freedom of export of wheat as
early as 1820, and three years afterwards extended
this freedom to all " fruits of the soil " in Spain. The import
duty on wheat, as on other grain, has varied from time to time.
The tariff of 1882 fixed the duty at 2s. 3fd. per cwt.; a law of
February 1895 raised the duty to 4s. $jd. per cwt., at which rate
it remained till 1898, when it was reduced to 2s. sid., though in
this same year, that of the war with the United States, it was for
some three months suspended, owing to distress in the country.
In 1899 it was raised to 3s. 3d., and by a law of March 1904 fixed
at 6-oo pesetas per 100 kilos (2s. 5jd. per cwt.) as long as the
average price of wheat in the markets of Castile does not fall
below 27-00 pesetas per 100 kilos (us. per cwt.). The duty on
rye, oats, barley and maize is is. 9§d. per cwt. The duty on
flour varied from 3s. 4§d. per cwt. in 1882 to 7s. ojd. in 1895; by
the law of March 1904 it was fixed at 4s. of d. per cwt. The duty
on rice is 2s. if d. per cwt. in the husk and 4s. 3jd. not in the husk.
In Portugal the import duty on wheat was fixed by a
law of May 1888 at 20 reis per kilo (4s. 7d. per cwt.).
By a law of July 1889, as amended by laws of August 1891 and
July 1899, importation is prohibited except in the event of the
home-grown crop being insufficient, and even then permission is
confined to millers. The duty, in the event of permission to
import being accorded, is to be charged on a sliding scale intended
to keep the cost of wheat to the millers, including the duty, at
60 reis (3id.) per kilo (2-2 lbs.). Maize is subject to a duty of
4s. ijd. per cwt., and rye, oats and barley to one of 3s. 8d. per cwt.
By laws of July 1889 and August 1891 the importation of flour
was prohibited except in the event of a strike of the mill-hands,
and the duty was fixed at 6s. 2d. per cwt. Export and import of
grain in France were prohibited down to the period of
the repeal of the British corn laws, save when prices
were below certain limits in the one case and above certain other
limits in the other. But export of grain and flour from France has
long been free of duty. On the other hand, import duties have
varied considerably. By a law of 1881, the duty on wheat was
fixed at 3d. per cwt.; this duty was raised in 1885 to is. 2jd. per
cwt. and again in 1887 to 2s. ofd. By a law of 1894 the duty was
fixed at 2s. iofd. per cwt. In 1898, owing to the sudden rise in
the price of corn occasioned by the war between Spain and the
United States, the duty was temporarily (the 4th of May to the
30th of June) suspended. By a law of 1873 free importation of
rye, barley, maize and oats was permitted, but by a law of 1885
a duty was fixed at 7jd. per cwt., and this was subsequently (1887)
increased to is. 2|d. In 1881 the duty on imported flour was as
low as 5! d. per cwt., but this was increased successively by laws
of 1885, 1887, 1891 and 1892, and in 1894 was fixed at 4s. 5fd. per
cwt. at the rate of extraction of 70% and over; 5s. 5fd. at 70 to
60%; and 6s. 6d. at 60% and under. In Belgium both the
export and import of wheat, rye, barley and maize are
free of duty; so also were oats and flour. Since 1895,
however, there has been a duty of is. 2§d. on oats, and of gf d. on
flour. The policy of the Netherlands was, owing to the advantages
possessed by its ports, long favourable to the import
lands?" an d export of grain. But for some years prior to 1845
there was a moderate sliding scale of import duties,
and this gave place, on the ravages of the potato disease, to a low
fixed duty; since 1877, however, the importation of cereals and
flour has been free. In Italy there are no duties on the
export of grain. The import duties show a progressive
increase. In 1878 the import duty on wheat was 6fd. per cwt.;
this was increased to is. 2|d. in 1888, and in 1894 to 3s. oJd. As
in Spain and France, there was a temporary reduction and
suspension during 1898, on the Spanish- American war. The
duty on rye, barley, oats and maize was fixed by the tariff of 1878
at 5^d. per cwt. By a decree of 1894 the duty on rye was raised
to is. jod.; that on barley, by a decree of 1896, to is. 7|d.; that
on oats, by a decree of 1888, to is. 7|d.; and that on maize, by a
decree of 1896, to 3s. ofd. The duty on flour, fixed at is. i|d.,
by the tariff of 1878, was raised to 2s. sid. in 1888, to 3s. 6^d. in

Italy.

1888, and to 5s. in 1894. In Germany, the duty on wheat and
rye, as fixed by the tariff of 1879, was 6d. per cwt. In 1885 this
was raised to is. 6jd., and in 1888 to 2s. 6|d. By treaty
in 1892 this was decreased to is. 9jd. On oats the
duty in 1879 was 6d. per cwt., increased to 9jd. in 1885, and
again, in 1888, to 2s. o-jd., but reduced to is. 5d. in 1892. On
barley the duty in 1879 was 3d., in 1885 g\d., in 1888 is. if d., and
in 1892 is. oJd. On maize, 3d. in 1879, 6d. in 1885, is. oJd. in
1888, and 9fd. in 1892. On flour, is. oJd. in 1879, 3s. 9fd. in
1885, 5s. 4d. in 1888, and 3s. 8|d. in 1892. The new German
tariff of 1906 which formed the basis for the new German com-
mercial treaties with Russia, Italy, Austria-Hungary, &c, and
which was passed when the influence of the agrarian party was
predominant, increased still more the import duties on cereals.
Under this tariff there are two rates of duties: (1). Those of the
new " general " tariff as applied to imports from all countries
entitled to most favoured-nation treatment. (2). " Conven-
tional " tariff rates, conceded to other states as the result of
treaties. Under this tariff the " general " and " conventional "
duties, respectively, on wheat are 3s. 9§d. and 2s. 9d.; on oats
and rye, 3s. 6jd. and 2s. 6Jd.; on " common baker's
produce," 8s. 3d. and 5s. 2d. In Austria-Hungary the Hungary.
import duty on wheat and rye is, under the tariff of
1887, is. 6jd. per cwt.; on barley and oats, 9|d.; on maize,
6d., and on flour, 3s. 9fd.

The great countries, famous for a production of raw materials
much beyond their own means of consumption, are favourable, of
course, to the utmost freedom of export. The empire
of China itself was never unwilling to sell to foreigners states
tea for which there was no domestic use. The United
States promotes transit and export of grain, internally and
externally, with all the intelligence and resources of a civilized
people. Although the import duty on " breads tuffs " imposed
by the United States tariff is very high, and is, possibly, a
useful protection against the importation of " baker's products,"
yet it is to a certain extent unnecessary for a country which must
dispose of its surplus by exportation. The same remark applies
to Russia, whose exportation and importation are
alike free, though there is an import duty on wheat
flour of 2s. nfd. per cwt. In the British colonies probably the
only example of an export duty is that on rice in British India;
it amounts to 3 annas per maund (4d. per cwt.). The
import of grain into India is free. In Australia, New
Zealand, Canada, and all mainly agricultural countries, there is
no export duty. In each of these countries, however, there is an
import duty; in the cases of Australia and New Australia
Zealand, designed, to a certain extent, as a precaution New
against possible rivalry on the part of the other. The Zealand,
Australian import duty is is. 6d. per cental (100 lb av.), ana a '
and the New Zealand 9d. per cental. The Canadian import
duties on grain are important only in the light of being a species of
retaliation against similar duties imposed by the United States
with the design of restricting inter-frontier exchange. The
Canadian import duty is, on barley, 30% ad valorem; on
buckwheat, rye and oats, 4-93d. per bushel, and on wheat,
S-92d. per bushel. The South African production of
cereal is still insufficient to meet the demand for home
consumption, and there is a considerable grain importa-
tion. The import duty, which undoubtedly acts as an encourage-
ment to home agriculture, is is. per cental. (See also Grain
Trade.) (R. So.; T. A. I.)

CORN-SALAD, or Lamb's Lettuce, Valerianella olitoria
(natural order Valerianaceae) , a weedy annual, native of southern
Europe, but naturalized in cornfields in central Europe, and not
infrequent in Britain. In France it is used in salads during
winter and spring as a substitute for lettuces, but it is less
esteemed in England. The plant is raised from seed sown on a '
bed or border of light rich earth, and should be weeded and
watered, as occasion requires,, till winter, when it should be
protected with long litter during severe frost. The largest
plants should be drawn for use in succession. Sowing may be
made every two or three weeks from the beginning of August till

Russia.

India.

South
Africa.

CORNU— CORNWALL

179

October, and again in March, if required in the latter part of the
spring. The sorts principally grown are the Round-leaved and
the Italian ; the last is a distinct species, Valerianella eriocarpa.

CORNU, MARIE ALFRED (1841-1902), French physicist, was
born at Orleans on the 6th of March 1841, and after being
educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Mines,
became in 1867 professor of experimental physics in the former
institution, where he remained throughout his life. Although he
made various excursions into other branches of physical science,
undertaking, for example, with J. B. A. Bailie about 1870 a
repetition of Cavendish's experiment for determining the mean
density of the earth, his original work was mainly concerned with
optics and spectroscopy. In particular he carried out a classical
redetermination of the velocity of light by A. H. L. Fizeau's
method, introducing various improvements in the apparatus,
which added greatly to the accuracy of the results. This achieve-
ment won for him, in 1878, the prix Lacaze and membership of the
Academy of Sciences in France, and the Rumford medal of the
Royal Society in England. In 1899, at the jubilee commemora-
tion of Sir George Stokes, he was Rede lecturer at Cambridge,
his subject being the undulatory theory of light and its influence
on modern physics; and on that occasion the honorary degree of
D.Sc. was conferred on him by the university. He died at Paris
on the nth of April 1902.

CORNU COPIAE, later Cornucopia (" horn of plenty "), a
horn; generally twisted, filled with fruit and flowers, or an
ornament representing it. It was used as a symbol of prosperity
and abundance, and hence in works of art it is placed in the hands
of Plutus, Fortuna and similar divinities (for the mythological
account see Amaltheia). The symbol probably originated in the
practice of using the horns of oxen and goats as drinking-cups;
hence the rhyton (drinking-horn) is often confounded with the
cornu copiae. For its representation in works of art, in which it is
very common, especially in those belonging to the Roman period,
see article in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Anliquites.

CORNUS, an ancient town of Sardinia, of Phoenician origin, on
the west coast, 18 m. from Tharros, and the same from Bosa.
At the time of the Second Punic War it is spoken of as the
principal city of the district, and its capture by the Romans was
the last act in the suppression of the rebellion of 215 B.C., it
having served as a place of refuge for the fugitives after the
defeat of the combined forces of the rebels and the Carthaginians.
The site of the ancient acropolis, covered with debris, may still be
made out. Here were found three inscriptions in 1831, with
dedications by the ordo, or town council, of Cornus to various
patrons, from one of which it seems that it was a colony, though
when it became so is unknown (Th. Mommsen, Corp. Inscr. Lat.
x. 7915 sqq.). Unimportant remains of an aqueduct and
(perhaps) of a church exist. ■ Excavations in the necropolis of
the Roman period are recorded by F. Nissardi, Notizie degli
Scavi, 1887, p. 47. Phoenician rock-cut tombs may also be seen.

CORNUTUS, LUCIUS ANNAEUS, Stoic philosopher, flourished
in the reign of Nero. He was a native of Leptis in Libya, but
resided for the most part in Rome. He is best known as the
teacher and friend of Persius, whose satires he revised for publica-
tion after the poet's death, but handed them over to Caesius
Bassus to edit, at the special request of the latter. He was
banished by Nero (in 66 or 68) for having indirectly disparaged
the emperor's projected history of the Romans in heroic verse
(Dio Cassius lxii. 29), after which time nothing more is heard
of him. He was the author of various rhetorical works in both
Greek and Latin ('P^ropocai Texrai, De figuris sententiarum).
Another rhetorician, also named Cornutus, who flourished a.d.
200-250 (or in the second half of the 2nd century) was the author
of a treatise Tex>^7 tov ttoXitlkov \6yov (ed. J. Graeven, 1890).
A philosophical treatise, Theologiae Graecae compendium (of
which the Greek title is uncertain; perhaps, 'EXXijwi) OedKoyla,
or Hepl tt)s tuv de&v <f>vo~eo}S, though the latter may be the title of
an abridgment of the former) is still extant. It is a manual of
" popular mythology as expounded in the etymological and
symbolical interpretations of the Stoics " (Sandys), and although
marred by many absurd etymologies, abounds in beautiful

thoughts (ed. C. Lang, 1881). Simplicius and Porphyry refer
to his commentary on the Categories of Aristotle, whose philosophy
he is said to have defended against an opponent Athenodorus
in a treatise 'Avnypa(f>V irpos 'AdrjvoSwpov. His Aristotelian studies
were probably his most important work. A commentary on
Virgil (frequently quoted by Servius) and Scholia to Persius arc
also attributed to him; the latter, however, are of much later
date, and are assigned by Jahn to the Carolingian period.
Excerpts from his treatise De enuntiatione vel orthographia are
preserved in Cassiodorus. The so-called Disticha Cornuti (ed.
Liebl, Straubing, 1888) belong to the late middle ages.

See G. Martini, De L. Annaeo Cornuto (1825); O. Jahn, Prolego-
mena to his edition of Persius; H. von Arnim in Pauly-Wissowa's
Realencyclopadie, i. pt. ii. (1894) ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen
Litteratur, i. 2 (1901), p. 285; W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen
Litteratur (1898), pp. 702, 755; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Literature (Eng. trans.), § 299, 2.

CORNWALL, the capital of the united counties of Stormont,
Dundas and Glengarry, Ontario, Canada, 67 m. S. W. of Montreal,
on the left bank of the St Lawrence river. Pop. (1901) 6704.
It is an important station on the Grand Trunk and the Ottawa
& New York railways, and is a port of call for all steamers between
Montreal and Lake Ontario ports. The surplus from the Cornwall
canal furnishes excellent water privileges for its factories, which
include cotton and woollen mills and grist and saw mills. The
town has long been celebrated for its lacrosse club. On the
opposite bank of the river is St Regis, inhabited chiefly by
Indians of the Iroquois tribe.

CORNWALL, the south-westernmost county of England,
bounded N. and N.W. by the Atlantic Ocean, E. by Devonshire,
and S. and S.W. by the English Channel. The area is 1356-6
sq. m. The most southerly extension is Lizard Point, and the
most westerly point of the mainland Land's End, but the county
also includes the Scilly Isles (q.v.), lying 25 m. W. by S. of Land's
End. No county in England has a stronger individuality than
Cornwall, whether in economic or social conditions, in history,
nomenclature, tradition, or even in the physical characteristics
of the land. Such individuality is hardly to be compassed
within political boundaries, and in some respects it is shared by
the neighbouring county of Devon, yet the traveller hardly feels
its influence before passing west of the Tamar.

Physically, Cornwall is a great promontory with a direct
length of 75 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and an extreme breadth,
at the junction with Devonshire, of 45 m. The river Tamar
here forms the greater part of the boundary, and its valley
divides the high moors of Devonshire and the succession of similar
broad-topped hills which form the backbone of the Cornish
promontory. The scenery is full of contrast. To the west of
Launceston the principal mass of high land rises to 1375 ft. in
Brown Willy, the highest point in the county. This district is
broken and picturesque, with rough tors or hills and boulders.
A remarkable pile of rocks called the Cheese-wring, somewhat
resembling an inverted pyramid in form, is seen on the moor
north of Liskeard. This district is for the most part a region of
furze and heather; but after passing Bodmin, the true Cornish
moorland asserts itself, bare, desolate and impracticable, broken
and dug into hillocks, which are sometimes due to early mining
works, sometimes to more modern search for metals. The
seventy miles from Launceston to Mount's Bay have been called
not untruly " the dreariest strip of earth traversed by any
English high road." There is hardly more cultivation on the
higher ground west of Mount's Bay, or in the Meneage or " rocky
country," the old Cornish name for the promontory which ends
in the Lizard. Long combes and valleys, however, descend
from this upper moorland towards the coast on both sides. These
are in general well wooded, and, in the luxuriance of their vegeta-
tion, strongly characteristic. The small rivers traversing them
in several cases enter fine estuaries, which ramify deeply into the
land. Such are, on the south coast, the great estuary of the
Tamar, and other streams, on which the port of Plymouth is
situated (but only the western shore is Cornish), the Looe and
Fowey rivers, F'almouth Harbour, the most important of the
purely Cornish inlets and accessible for the largest vessels, and

i8o

CORNWALL

the Helford river. On the north are the estuaries of the Camel
and the Hayle, debouching into Padstow Bay and St Ives Bay
respectively. The Fowey and Camel valleys almost completely
break the continuation of the central high ground, and the up-
lands west of Mount's Bay are similarly parted from the main
mass by the low tract between Hayle and Marazion. Except at
the mouth of a stream or estuary the coast is almost wholly
rock-bound, and the cliff scenery is unsurpassed in England.
Three different types are found. On the north coast, from
Tintagel Head and Boscastle northward to Hartland Point in
Devonshire, the dark slate cliffs, with their narrow and distorted
strata, are remarkably rugged of outline, owing to the ease with
which the waves fret the loosely-bound rock. On the south,
in the beautiful little bays in the neighbourhood of the Lizard
Point, the serpentine rock is noted for its exquisite colouring.
Between Treryn and Land's End, at the south-west, a majestic
barrier of granite is presented to the sea. The beautiful Scilly
Isles continue the line of the granite, and the intervening sea
is said to have submerged a tract of land named Lyonesse,
containing, according to tradition, 140 parish churches, and
intimately connected with the Arthurian romances.

Geology. — One of the most striking features of Cornwall is the
presence of the four great masses of granite which rise up and form
as many elevated areas out of a lower-lying region occupied by rocks
almost entirely slaty in character, generally known as " Killas."
The granite is not the oldest of the Cornish rocks ; these are found
in the Lizard peninsula and are represented by serpentine, gabbro
and metamorphic schists. With the exception of a small tract about
Veryan and Gorran, of Ordovician age, all the sedimentary rocks,
as far as a line joining Boscastle and South Petherwin, were formerly
classed as Devonian; to the north of the line are the Culm measures
— slates, grits and limestones — of Carboniferous age. The extensive
spread of Killas is not, however, entirely Devonian, as it is shown
on most maps. In the northern portion, Lower, Middle and Upper
Devonian can be distinguished; the lower beds at Polperro, Looe
and Watergate, the higher beds along the line indicated above.
Farther south it has been shown that an older set of Palaeozoic rocks
constitutes at least a part of the Killas; the Veryan series, with
Caradoc fossils, is succeeded in descending order by the Portscatho
series, the Falmouth series and the Mylor series ; the lowest Devonian
beds represented here by the Menaccan series, rest unconformably
upon these Ordovician beds. Upper Silurian fossils have been found
near Veryan. All these rocks have been subjected to severe thrusting
from the south, consequently they are much contorted and folded.
After this thrusting and folding had taken place, intrusions of diabase,
&c, penetrated the sedimentary strata in numerous places, but it
was not until post-Carboniferous times that the granite masses were
intruded. The principal granite masses are those of St Just and
Land's End, Penryn, St Austell and Bodmin Moor. To the granite
Cornwall owes much of its prosperity; it has altered the Killas for
some distance around each mass, and the veins of tin and copper ore,
though richest in the Killas, are evidently genetically related to the
granite. The principal metalliferous districts, Camborne, Redruth,
St Just, &c, all lie near the granite margins. The china clay and
china stone industry is dependent on the fact that the granite was
itself altered in patches during the later phases of eruptive activity
by the agency of boric and fluoric vapours which kaolinized the
felspar of the granite. Later eruptions produced dykes of quartz-
porphyry and other varieties, all locally called " elvans," which
penetrate both the granite and the Killas. Small patches of Pliocene
strata are found at St Erth and St Agnes Beacon. Blown sand is an
important feature at St Pirran, Lelant, Gwythian and elsewhere,
and raised beaches are frequent round the coast. A characteristic
Cornish deposit is the " Head," an old consolidated scree or talus.
Many rare minerals have been obtained from the mines and much
tin ore has been taken from the river gravels. The river gravel at
Carnon has yielded native gold.

Climate. — The climate of Cornwall is peculiar. Snow seldom
lies for more than a few days, and the winters are less severe
than in any other part of England, the average temperature
for January being 34° F. at Bude and 43-7° at Falmouth. The
sea- winds, except in a few sheltered places, prevent timber trees
from attaining to any great size, but the air is mild, and the
lower vegetation, especially in the Penzance district, is almost
southern in its luxuriance. Geraniums, fuchsias, myrtles,
hydrangeas and camellias grow to a considerable size, and
flourish through the winter at Penzance and round Falmouth;
and in the Scilly Isles a great variety of exotics may be seen
flourishing in the open air. Stone fruit, and even apples and
pears, do not attain the same full flavour as in the neighbouring
county, owing to the want of dry heat. The pinaster, the Pinus

austriaca, Pinus insignis and other firs succeed well in the
western part of the county. All native plants display a per-
fection of beauty hardly to be seen elsewhere, and the furze,
including the double-blossomed variety, an4 the heaths, among
which Erica vagans and ciliaris are characteristic, cover the
moorland and the cliff summits with a blaze of the richest colour.
On the whole the climate is healthy, though the prevalent westerly
and south-westerly winds, bringing with them great bodies of
cloud from the Atlantic, render it damp; the mean annual
rainfall, though only 32-85 in. at Bude, reaches 44-41 atFalmouth,
and 50-57 at Bodmin.

Agriculture. — About seven-tenths of the total area is under
cultivation, but oats form the only important grain-crop. Turnips,
swedes and mangolds make up the bulk of the green crops.
The number of cattle (chiefly of the Devonshire breed) is large,
and many sheep are kept; nearly 60,000 acres of hill pasture
being recorded. As regards agricultural produce, however,
Cornwall is chiefly famous for the market-gardening carried on
in the neighbourhood of Penzance, where the climate is specially
suitable for the growth of early potatoes, broccoli and asparagus.
These are despatched in large quantities to the London market;
the Scilly Isles sharing in the industry. Fruit and flowers are
also grown for the market. In the valleys the soil is frequently
rich and deep; there are good arable and pasture farms, and
the natural oak-wood of these coombes has been preserved and
increased by plantation.

Mining. — The wealth of Cornwall, however, lies not so much in
the soil, as underground and in the surrounding seas. Hence the
favourite Cornish toast, " fish, tin and copper." The tin of
Cornwall has been known and worked from a period anterior to
certain history. There is no direct proof that the Phoenician
traders came to Cornwall for tin; though it has been sought to
identify the Cassiterides {q.v.) or Tin Islands with the county
or the Scilly Isles. By ancient charters the " tinners " were
exempt from all jurisdiction (save in cases affecting land, life and
limb) other than that of the Stannary Courts, and peculiar laws
were enacted in the Stannary parliaments (see Stannaries).
For many centuries a tax on the tin, after smelting, was paid to
the earls and dukes of Cornwall. The smelted blocks were
carried to certain towns to be coined, that is, stamped with the
duchy seal before they could be sold. By an act of 1838 the dues
payable on the coinage of tin were abolished, and a compensation
was awarded to the duchy instead of them. The Cornish miners
are an intelligent and independent body, and the assistance of a
Cornishman has been found necessary to the successful develop-
ment of mining in many parts of the world, while many miners
have emigratedfrom Cornwall to more remunerative fields abroad.
The industry has suffered from periods of depression, as before
the accession of Queen Elizabeth, who introduced miners from
Germany to resuscitate it; and in modern times the shallow
workings, from which tin could be easily " streamed," have
become practically exhausted. The deeper workings to which
the miners must needs have recourse naturally render production
more costly, and the competition of foreign mines has been
detrimental. The result is that the industry is comparatively
less prosperous than formerly, and employs far fewer of the
inhabitants. However, in the district of Camborne, Cam Brea,
Ulogan and Redruth, and near St Just in the extreme west, the
mines are still active, while there are others of less importance
elsewhere, as near Callington in the south-east. And when, as in
1906, circumstances affecting the production of foreign mines
cause a rise in the price of tin, the Cornish mines enjoy a period of
greater prosperity; the result being the recent reopening of many
of the mines which had been closed for twenty years. The largest
tin-mine is that of Dolcoath near Camborne. Copper is extracted
at St Just and at Cam Brea; but the output has decreased much
further than that of tin. As it lies deeper in the earth, and
consequently could not be " streamed " for, it was almost
unnoticed in the county until the end of the 15th century, and
little attention was paid to it until the last years of the 17th.
No mine seems to have been worked exclusively for copper before
the year 1770; and up to that time the casual produce had been

CORNWALL

181

bought by Bristol merchants, to their great gain, at rates from
£2 : 1 os. to £4 per ton. In 1718 John Coster gave a great
impulse to the trade by draining some of the deeper mines, and
instructing the men in an improved method of dressing the ore.
The trade thereafter progressively increased, and in 185 1 the
mines of Devon and Cornwall together were estimated to
furnish one-third of the copper raised throughout Europe,
including the British Isles. Antimony ores and manganese are
found, and some lead occurs, being worked without great result.
Iron in lodes, as brown haematite, has been worked near Lost-
withiel and elsewhere. In the St Austell district the place of tin
and copper mining has been taken by that of the raising and
preparation of china clay. Granite is largely quarried in various
districts, as at Luxulian (between St Austell and Lostwithiel),
and in the neighbourhood of Penryn. This is the material of
London and Waterloo Bridges, the Chatham docks, and many
other great works. It is for the most part coarse-grained, though
differing greatly in different places in this respect. Fine slate is
quarried and largely exported, as from the Delabole quarries near
Tintagel. These slates were in great repute in the 16th century
and earlier. Serpentine is quarried in the Lizard district, and is
worked there into small ornamental objects for sale to visitors;
it is in favour as a decorative stone. Pitchblende also occurs,
and is mined for the extraction of radium.

Fisheries. — The fisheries of Cornwall and Devon are the most
important on the south-west coasts. The pilchard is in great
measure confined to Cornwall, living habitually in deep water not
far west of the Scilly Isles, and visiting the coast in great shoals,
— one of which is described as having extended from Mevagissey
to the Land's End, a distance, including the windings of the coast,
of nearly 100 m. In summer and autumn pilchards are caught
by drift nets; later in the year they are taken off the northern
coast by seine nets. Forty thousand hogsheads, or 120 million
fish, have been taken in the course of a single season, requiring
20,000 tons of salt to cure them. Twelve millions have been
taken in a single day; and the sight of this great army of fish
passing the Land's End, and pursued by hordes of dog-fish, hake,
and cod, besides vast flocks of sea-birds, is most striking. The
principal fishing stations are on Mount's Bay and at St Ives, but
boats are employed all along the coast. When brought to shore
the pilchards are carried to the cellars to be cured. They are
then packed in hogsheads, each containing about 2400 fish.
These casks are largely exported to Naples and other Italian ports
— whence the fisherman's toast, "Long life to the pope, and death
to thousands." Besides pilchards, mackerel and herring are taken
in great numbers, and conger eels of great size; mullet and John
Dory may be mentioned. There is also a trade in " sardines,"
young pilchards taking the place of the real Mediterranean fish.

Communications. — The principal ports are Falmouth and
Penzance, but that of Hayle is of some importance, and there are
large engineering works here. It lies on the estuary of the Hayle
river, which opens into St Ives Bay, the township of Phillack
adjoining on the north-east. A brisk coasting trade is maintained
at many small ports along the coast. Communications are
provided chiefly by the Great Western railway, the main line of
which passes through the county and terminates at Penzance.
Fowey, Penryn and Falmouth, and Helston on the south, and
Bodmin and Wadebridge, Newquay and St Ives, are served by
branch lines. A light railway runs from Liskeard to Looe.
The north-eastern parts of the county (Launceston, Bude,
Wadebridge) are served by the London & South- Western
railway. Coaches are run in several districts during the summer,
and in some parts, as in the neighbourhood of Penzance, and
between Helston and the Lizard, the Great Western company
provides a motor-car service to places beyond the reach of the
railway. Many of the small seaside towns have become favourite
holiday resorts, such as Bude, Newquay and St Ives, and the
south-coast ports.

Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 868,220 acres, with a population in 1891 of 322,571, and
in 1001 of 322,334. In 1861 the population was 369,390, and had
shown an increase up to that census. The area of the adminis-

trative county is 886,384 acres. The county contains 9 hundreds.
The municipal boroughs are Bodmin (pop. 5353), the county
town; Falmouth (11,789), Helston (3088), Launceston (4053),
Liskeard (4010), Lostwithiel (1331), Penryn (3190), Penzance
(13,136), St Ives (6699), Saltash (3357), Truro (11,562), an
episcopal city. The other urban districts are Callington (17 14),
Camborne (14,726), Hayle (1084), Looe (2548), Ludgvan (2274),
Madron (3486), Newquay (3 n 5), Padstow (1566), Paul (6332),
Phillack (3881), Redruth (10,451), St Austell (3340), St Just
(5646), Stratton and Bude (2308), Torpoint (4200), Wadebridge
(2186). Small market and other towns, beyond those in the
above lists, are numerous. Such are Calstock in the east, St
Germans in the south-east near Saltash, St Blazey near St
Austell, Camelford, St Columb Major, and Perranzabuloe in the
north, with the mining towns of Gwennap and Illogan in the
Redruth district and Wendron near Helston, all inland towns;
while on the south coast may be mentioned Fowey and Meva-
gissey, on either side of St Austell Bay, and Marazion on Mount's
Bay, close by St Michael's Mount. Cornwall is in the western
circuit, and assizes are held at Bodmin. It has one court of
quarter sessions, and is divided into 1 7 petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Bodmin, Falmouth, Helston, Launceston,
Liskeard, Penryn, Penzance, St Ives and Truro have separate
commissions of the peace, and Penzance has a separate court of
quarter sessions. The Scilly Isles are administered by a separate
council, and form one of the petty sessional divisions. There are
239 civil parishes, of which 5 are in the Scilly Isles. Cornwall is
in the diocese of Truro, and there are 227 ecclesiastical parishes or
districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary
divisions are the North-Eastern or Launceston, South-Eastern or
Bodmin, Mid or St Austell, Truro, North- Western or Camborne,
and Western or St Ives, each returning one member; while the
parliamentary borough of Penryn and Falmouth returns one
member.

Language. — The old Cornish language survives in a few words
still in use in the fishing and mining communities, as well as in
the names of persons and places, but the last persons who spoke
it died towards the end of the 18th century. It belonged to the
Cymric division of Celtic, in which Welsh and Armorican are
also included. The most important relics of the language known
to exist are three dramas or miracle plays, edited and translated
by Edwin Norris, Oxford, 1859. A sketch of Cornish grammar
is added, and a Cornish vocabulary from a MS. of the 13th
century (Cotton MSS. Vespasian A. 14, p. 70). (See Celt:
Language and Literature.) It may be mentioned that the great
numbers of saints whose names survive in the topography of the
county are largely accounted for by the fact that here, as in
Wales, it was the practice to canonize the founder of a church.
The natives have many traits in common with the Welsh, such
as their love of oratory and their strong tribal attachment to
the county.

History. — Cornwall was the last portion of British territory
in the south to submit to the Saxon invader. Viewed from its
eastern boundary it doubtless appeared less attractive than the
rich, well-wooded lands of Wessex, while it unquestionably
afforded greater obstacles in the way of conquest. In 815
Ecgbert directed his efforts towards the subjugation of the
West- Welsh of Cornwall, and after eight years' fighting compelled
the whole of Dyvnaint to acknowledge his supremacy. Assisted
by the Danes the Cornish revolted but were again defeated,
probably in 836, at the battle of Hengestesdun, Hingston Down
in Stoke-Climsland. Ninety years later Aethelstan banished
the West- Welsh from Exeter and made the Tamar the boundary
of their territory. The thoroughness of the Saxon conquest is
evident from the fact that in the days of the Confessor nearly
the whole of the land in Cornwall was held by men bearing
English names. As the result of the Norman conquest less than
one-twelfth of the land (exclusive of that held by the Church)
remained in English hands. Six-sevenths of the manors were
assigned to Robert, count of Mortain, and became the foundation
of the territorial possessions and revenues of the earldom which
was held until 1337, usually by special grant, by the sons or

182

CORNWALL

near relatives of the kings of England. On the death of John
of Eltham the last earl, in 1337, Edward the Black Prince was
created duke of Cornwall. By the terms of the statute under
which the dukedom was created the succession was restricted
to the eldest son of the king, but in 16 13, on the death of Prince
Henry, an extended interpretation, given by the king's advisers,
enabled his brother Charles (afterwards Charles I.) to succeed
as son of the king and next heir to the realm of England.

Traces of jurisdictional differentiation anterior to Domesday
survive in the names of at least five of the hundreds, although
these names do not appear in the Survey itself. The hundreds
into which the ccuuty was divided at the time of the Inquisitio
Geldi were as follows: — Straton, which embraced the present
hundreds of Stratton, Lesnewth and Trigg; Fawiton, approxi-
mately conterminous with West; Panton, now included in
Pydasr, Tibeste, Wineton, Conarditon and Rileston, very nearly
identical with Powder, Kerrier, Penwith and East. The shire
court was held at Launceston except from about 1260 to 1386,
when it was held at Lostwithiel. In 1716 the summer assize
was transferred to Bodmin. Since 1836 both assizes have been
held at Bodmin. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts became
early attached to various manors, and their bailiwicks and
bedellaries descended with the real estate of their owners. There
is much obscurity concerning theearly ecclesiastical organization.
It is certain, however, that Cornwall had its own bishops from
the middle of the 9th century until the year 1018, when the see
was removed to Crediton. During the interval the see had been
placed sometimes at Bodmin and sometimes at St Germans. In
1049 the see of the united dioceses of Devon and Cornwall was
fixed at Exeter. Cornwall was formed into an archdeaconry
soon after, and, as such, continued until 1876, when it was re-
constituted a diocese with its see at Truro. The parishes of
St Giles-on-the-Heath, North Petherwin and Werrington, wholly
in Devon, and Boyton, partly in Devon and partly in Cornwall,
which were portions of the ancient archdeaconry, and also the
parishes of Broadwoodwidger and Virginstowe, both in Devon,
which had been added to it in 1875, thus came to be included
in the Truro diocese. The present archdeaconries of Bodmin
embracing the eastern, and of Cornwall embracing the western
portion of the newly constituted diocese were formed, by order
in council, in 1878. Aethelstan's enactment had doubtless
roughly determined the civil boundary of the Celtic-speaking
county. In 1386 disputes having arisen, a commission was
appointed to determine the Cornish border between North
Tamerton and Hornacot.

For the first four centuries after the Norman conquest the
part played by Cornwall in England's political history was com-
paratively unimportant. In her final attempt in 1471 to restore
the fortunes of the house of Lancaster, Queen Margaret received
the active support of the Cornish, who, under Sir Hugh Courtenay
and Sir John Arundell, accompanied her to the fatal field of
Tewkesbury, and in 1473 John de Vere, earl of Oxford, held
St Michael's Mount in her behalf until the following February,
when he surrendered to John Fortescue. A rising of considerable
magnitude in 1497 a t the instigation of Thomas Flamank,
occasioned by the levy of a tax for the Scottish war, was only
repelled after the arrival of the insurgents at Blackheath in Kent.
Perkin Warbeck, who landed at Whitsand Bay in the parish of
Sennen, obtained general support in the same year. The im-
position of the Book of Common Prayer and the abrogation of
various religious ceremonies led to a rebellion in 1549 under Sir
Humphry Arundell of Lanherne, the rebels, who knew little
English, demanding the restoration of the Latin service, but a
fatal delay under the walls of Exeter led to their early defeat
and the execution of their leaders. During the Civil War of the
17th century Cornwall won much glory in the royal cause. In
1643 Sir Ralph Hopton, who commanded the king's Cornish
troops, defeated General Ruthen on Bradoc Down, while General
Chudleigh, another parliamentary general, was repulsed near
Launceston, and the earl of Stamford at Stratton. The whole
county was thereby secured to the king. Led by Sir Beville
Grenville of Stow the Cornish troops now marched into Somerset-

shire, where in the indecisive battle of Lansdowne they greatly
distinguished themselves, but lost their brave leader. In July
1644 the earl of Essex marched intc- Cornwall and was followed
soon afterwards by the king's troops in pursuit. Numerous
engagements were fought, in which the latter were uniformly
successful. The troops of Essex were surrounded and their
leader escaped in a boat from Fowey to Plymouth. In 1646,
owing to dissensions amongst the king's officers, and in particular
to the refusal of Sir Richard Grenville to serve under Lord
Hopton, and to the defection of Colonel Edgcumbe, the royal
cause declined and became desperate. On the 16th of August
1646 articles of capitulation were signed by the defenders of
Pendennis Castle.

Two members for the county were summoned by Edward I.
to the parliament of 1295, an d two continued to be the number
of county members until 1832. Six boroughs — Launceston,
Liskeard, Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Truro and Helston — were granted
the like privilege by the same sovereign. To strengthen and
augment the power of the crown as against the House of Commons,
between 1547 and 1584, fifteen additional towns and villages
received the franchise, with the result that, between the latter
date and 1821, Cornwall sent no less than forty-four members
to parliament. In 182 1 Grampound lost both its members, and
by the Reform Act in 1832 fourteen other Cornish boroughs
shared the same fate. Cornwall was, in fact, notorious for the
number of its rotten boroughs. In the vicinity of Liskeard
" within an area, which since 1885 ... is represented by only
one member, there were until 1832 nine parliamentary boroughs
returning eighteen members. In this area, on the eve of the
Reform Act, there was a population of only 14,224 " (Porrit,
Unreformed House of Commons, vol. i. p. 92) . Bossiney, a village
near Camelford, Camelford itself, Lostwithiel, East Looe, West
Looe, Fowey and several others were disfranchised in 1832, but
even until the act of 1885 Bodmin, Helston, Launceston, Liskeard
and St Ives were separately represented, whereas Penzance was
not. Until this act was passed Truro, and Penryn with Falmouth,
returned two members each.

Antiquities. — No part of England is so rich as Cornwall in
prehistoric antiquities. These chiefly abound in the district
between Penzance and the Land's End, but they occur in all the
wilder parts of the county. They may be classed as follows.
(1) Cromlechs. These in the west of Cornwall are called " quoits,"
with reference to their broad and flat covering stones. The
largest and most important are those known as Lanyon, Mulfra,
Chun and Zennor quoits, all in the Land's End district. Of these
Chun is the only one which has not been thrown down. Zennor is
said to be the largest in Europe, while Lanyon, when perfect, was
of sufficient height for a man on horseback to ride under. Of
those in the eastern part of Cornwall, Trevethy near Liskeard and
Pawton in the parish of St Breock are the finest. (2) Rude
uninscribed monoliths are common to all parts of Cornwall.
Those at Boleigh or Boleit, in the parish of St Buryan, S.W. of
Penzance, called the Pipers, are the most important. (3)
Circles, none of which is of great dimensions. The principal are
the Hurlers, near Liskeard; the Boskednan, Boscawen-un, and
Tregeseal circles; and that called the Dawns-un, or Merry
Maidens, at Boleigh. All of these, except the Hurlers, are in the
Land's End district. Other circles that may be mentioned are the
Trippet Stones, in the parish of Blisland, near Bodmin, and one at
Duloe, near Liskeard. (4) Long alignments or avenues of stones,
resembling those on Dartmoor, but not so perfect, are to be
found on the moors near Rough Tor and Brown Willy. A very
remarkable monument of this kind exists in the neighbourhood of
St Columb Major, called the Nine Maidens. It consists of nine
rude pillars placed in a line, but now imperfect, while near them
is a single stone known as the Old Man. (5) Hut dwellings. Of
these there are at least two kinds, those in the eastern part of
the county resembling the beehive structures and enclosures of
Dartmoor, and those in the west comprising " hut-clusters,"
having a central court, and a surrounding wall sometimes of
considerable height and thickness. The beehive masonry is
also found in connexion with these, as are also (6) Caves, or

CORNWALLIS

183

subterraneous structures, resembling those of Scotland and
Ireland. (7) Cliff castles are a characteristic feature of the
Cornish coast, especially in the west, such as Treryn, Men,
Kenedjack, Bosigran and others. These are all fortified on the
landward side. At Treryn Castle is the Logan Stone, a mass of
granite so balanced as to rock upon its support. (8) Hill castles,
or camps, are very numerous. Castelan-Dinas, near St Columb,
is the best example of the earthwork camp, and Chun Castle,
near Penzance, of the stone.

Early Christian remains in Cornwall include crosses, which
occur all over the country and are of various dates from the 6th
century onward; inscribed sepulchral stones, generally of the
7th and 8th centuries; and oratories. These last have their
parallels in Ireland, which is natural, since from that country and
Wales Cornwall was christianized. The buildings (also called
baptisteries) are very small and rude, a simple parallelogram in
form, always placed near a spring. The best example is St
Piran's near Perranzabuloe, which long lay buried in sand dunes.
St Piran was one of the missionaries sent from Ireland by St
Patrick in the 5th century, and became the patron saint of the
tin-miners.

The individuality of Cornwall is reflected in its ecclesiastical
architecture. The churches are generally massive, plain struc-
tures of granite, built as it were to resist the storms which
sweep up from the sea, low in the body, but with high unadorned
towers. Within, a common feature is the absence of a chancel
arch. In a few cases, of which Gwennap church is an illustration,
where the body of the church lies low in a valley, there is a
detached campanile at a higher level. The prevalent style is
Perpendicular, much rebuilding having taken place in this period,
but there are fine examples of the earlier styles. The west front
and part of the towers of the church of St Germanus of Auxerre
at St Germans form the best survival of Norman work in the
county; there are good Norman doorways at Manaccan and
Kilkhampton churches, and the church of Morwenstow, near the
coast north of Bude, is a remarkable illustration of the same style.
This church has the further interest of having had as its rector
the Cornish poet Robert Stephen Hawker (1803-1875). The
Early English style is not commonly seen, but the small church
of St Anthony in Roseland, near the east shore of Falmouth
harbour (with an ornate Norman door), and portions of the
churches of Camelford and Manaccan, are instances of this period.
Decoratad work is similarly scanty, but the churches of Sheviock,
in the south-east, and St Columb Major have much that is good,
and that of St Bartholomew, Lostwithiel, has a beautiful and rich
lantern and spire in this style surmounting an Early English
tower, while the body of the church is also largely Decorated.
Perpendicular churches are so numerous that it is only needful to
mention those possessing some peculiar characteristic. Thus,
the high ornamentation of Launceston and St Austell churches is
unusual in Cornwall, as is the rich and graceful tower of Probus
church. St Neot's church, near Liskeard, has magnificent stained
glass of the 15th and 16th centuries.

The ruined castles of Launceston, Trematon near Saltash,
Restormel near Lostwithiel, and Tintagel, date, at least in part,
from Norman times. St Michael's Mount was at once a fortress
and an ecclesiastical foundation. Pendennis Castle, Falmouth,
is of the time of Henry VIII. The mansions of Cornwall are
generally remarkable rather for their position than for archi-
tectural interest, but Trelawne, partly of the 15th century, near
Looe, and Place House, a Tudor building, at Fowey, may be
noted.

Authorities. — See Richard Carew, Survey of Cornwall (London,
1602) ; W. Borlase, Antiquities of Cornwall (Oxford, 1754 and 1769) ;
D. Gilbert, Parochial History of Cornwall (London, 1837-1838),
incorporating collections of W. Hals and Tonkin; J. T. Blfght,
Ancient Crosses in the East of Cornwall (London, 1858), and Churches
of West Cornwall (London, 1865) ; G. C. Boase and W. P. Courtney,
Bibliotheca Cornubiensis, a catalogue of the writings, both MS. and
printed, of Cornishmen, and of works relating to Cornwall (Truro
and London, 1864-1881); R. Hunt, Popular Romances and Drolls
of the West of England (London, 1865); W. Bottrell, Traditions and
Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall (Penzance, 1870-1873); J. H.
Collins, .Handbook to the Mineralogy of Cornwall and Devon (Truro,

1871); W. C. Borlase, Naenia Cornubiae (1872); Early Christianity
in Cornwall (London, 1893) ; J. Bannister, Glossary of Cornish Names
(London, 1878); W. P. Courtney, Parliamentary Representation of
Cornwall to 1832 (London, 1889) ; G. C. Boase, Collectanea Cornubi-
ensia (Truro, 1890); J. R. Allen, Old Cornish Crosses (Truro, 1896);
A. H. Norway, Highways and Byways in Cornwall (1904); Lewis
Hind, Days in Cornwall (1907) ; Victoria County History, Cornwall.

CORNWALLIS, CHARLES CORNWALLIS, 1st Marquess
(1738-1805), eldest son of Cnarles, 1st earl of Cornwallis (1700-
1762), was born on the 31st of December 1738. Having been
educated. at Eton and Clare College, Cambridge, he entered
the army. For some time he was member of parliament for Eye;
in 1 761 he served a campaign in Germany, and was gazetted to a
lieutenant-colonelcy in the 12th Foot. In 1762 he succeeded to
the earldom and estates of his father; in 1765 he was made aide-
de-camp to the king and gentleman of the bedchamber; in 1766
he obtained a colonelcy in the 33rd Foot; and in 1770 he was
appointed governor of the Tower. In public life he was dis-
tinguished by independence of character and inflexible integrity;
he voted without regard to party, and opposed the ministerial
action against Wilkes and in the case of the American colonies.
But when the American War of Independence broke out, he
accompanied his regiment across the Atlantic, and served not
without success as major-general. In 1780 he was appointed to
command the British forces in South Carolina, and in the same
year he routed Gates at Camden. In 178 1 he defeated Greene at
Guilford Court House, and made a destructive raid into Virginia;
but he was besieged at Yorktown by French and American armies
and a French fleet, and was forced to capitulate on the 19th of
October 1781. With him fell the English cause in the United
States. He not only escaped censure, however, but in 1786
received a vacant Garter, and was appointed governor-general of
India and commander-in-chief in Bengal. As an administrator
he projected many reforms, but he was interrupted in his work by
the quarrel with Tippoo Sahib. In 1 791 he assumed in person the
conduct of the war and captured Bangalore; and in 1792 he
laid siege to Seringapatam, and concluded a treaty with Tippoo
Sahib, which stripped the latter of half his realm, and placed
his two sons as hostages in the hands of the English. For the
permanent settlement of the land revenue under his administra-
tion, see Bengal. He returned to England in 1793, received a
marquessate and a seat in the privy council, and was made
master-general of the ordnance with a place in the Cabinet.
In June 1 798 he was appointed to the viceroyalty of Ireland, and
the zeal with which he strove to pacify the country gained him the
respect and good-will of both Roman Catholics and Orangemen.
On the 17 th of July a general amnesty was proclaimed, and a
few weeks afterwards the French army under Humbert was
surrounded and forced to surrender. In 1801 Cornwallis was
replaced by Lord Hardwicke, and soon after he was appointed
plenipotentiary to negotiate the treaty of Amiens (1802). In
1805 he was again sent to India as governor-general, to replace
Lord Wellesley, whose policy was too advanced for the directors of
the East India Company. He was in ill-health when he arrived
at Calcutta, and while hastening up the country to assume
command of the troops, he died at Ghazipur, in the district of
Benares, on the 5th of October 1805. He was succeeded as 2nd
marquess by his only son, Charles (1774-1823). On his death the
marquessate became extinct, but the title of Earl Cornwallis
passed to his uncle, James (1 743-1824), who was bishop of
Lichfield from 1781 until his death. His son and successor,
James, the 5th earl, whose son predeceased him in 1835, died in
May 1852, when the Cornwallis titles became extinct.

See W. S. Seton-Karr, The Marquess Cornwallis, " Rulers of
India " series (1890).

CORNWALLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1744-1819), British admiral,
was the brother of the 1st Marquess Cornwallis, governor-general
of India. He was born on the 20th of February 1 744, and entered
the navy in 1755. His promotion was naturally rapid, and in
1766 he had reached post-rank. Until 1779 he held various
commands doing the regular work of the navy in convoy. In
that year he commanded the " Lion " (64) in the fleet of Admiral
Byron. The "Lion" was very roughly handled in the battle

1 84

CORO— CORONA

off Grenada on the 6th of July 1779, and had to make her way-
alone to Jamaica. In March 1 780 he fought an action in company
with two other vessels against a much superior French force off
Monti Cristi, and had another encounter with them near Bermuda
in June. The force he engaged was the fleet carrying the troops
of Rochambeau to North America, and was too strong for his
squadron of two small liners, two fifty-gun ships and a frigate.
After taking part in the second relief of Gibraltar, he returned
to North America, and served with Hood in the actions at the
Basse Terre of St Kitts, and with Rodney in the battle of Dominica
on the 12th of April 1782. Some very rough verses which he wrote
on the action have been printed in Leyland's " Brest-Papers,"
published for the Navy Record Society, which show that he
thought very ill of Rodney's conduct of the battle. In 1788 he
went to the East Indies as commodore, where he remained till

1794. He had some share in the war with Tippoo Sahib, and
helped to reduce Pondicherry. His promotion to rear-admiral
dates from the 1st of February 1793, and on the 4th of July
1 794 he became vice-admiral.

In the Revolutionary War his services were in the Channel.
The most signal of them was performed on the 16th of June

1795, when he carried out what was always spoken of with respect
as " the retreat of Cornwallis." He was cruising near Brest with
four sail of the line and two frigates, when he was sighted by a
French fleet of twelve sail of the line, and many large frigates
commanded by Villarst Joyeuse. The odds being very great
he was compelled to make off. But two of his ships were heavy
sailers and fell behind. He was consequently overtaken, and
attacked on both sides. The rearmost ship, the " Mars " (74),
suffered severely in her rigging and was in danger of being
surrounded by the French. Cornwallis turned to support her,
and the enemy, impressed by a conviction that he must be
relying on help within easy reach, gave up the pursuit. The
action affords a remarkable proof of the moral superiority which
the victory of the 1st of June, and the known efficiency of tfie
crews, had given to the British navy. The reputation of Corn-
wallis was immensely raised, and the praise given him was no
doubt the greater because he was personally very popular with
officers and men. In 1796 he incurred a court-martial in conse-
quence of a misunderstanding and apparently some temper on
both sides, on the charge of refusing to obey an order from the
Admiralty. He was practically acquitted. The substance of the
case was that he demurred on the ground of health at being
called upon to go to the West Indies, in a small frigate, and
without " comfort." He became full admiral in 1799, and held
the Channel command for a short interval in 1801 and from 1803
to 1806, but saw no further service. He was made a G.C.B. in
181 s, and died on the 5th of July 1819. His various nicknames
among the sailors, " Billy go tight," given on account of his
rubicund complexion, " Billy Blue," " Coachee," and " Mr
Whip," seem to show that he was regarded with more of affection
than reverence.

See also Ralfe, Nav. Biog. i. 387 ; Naval Chronicle, vii. I ; Char-
nock, Biogr. Nav. vi. 523.

CORO, a small city and the capital of the state of Falcon,
Venezuela, 7 m. W. of La Vela de Coro (its port on the Caribbean
coast), with which it is connected by rail, and 199 m. W.N.W.
of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 9500. Coro stands on a sandy
plain between the Caribbean and the Gulf of Venezuela, and
near the isthmus connecting the peninsula of Paraguana, with the
mainland. Its elevation above sea-level is only 105 ft., and its
climate is hot but not unhealthy. The city is badly built, its
streets are unpaved, and it has no public buildings of note except
two old churches. Its water-supply is derived from springs
some distance away. Coro is the commercial centre for an
extensive district on the E. side of Lake Maracaibo and the
Gulf of Venezuela, which exports large quantities of goat-skins,
an excellent quality of tobacco, and some coffee, cacao, castor
beans, timber and dyewoods. It was founded in 1527 by Juan
de Ampues, who gave to it the name of Santa Ana de Coriana
(afterwards corrupted to Santa Ana de Coro) in honour of the
day and of the tribe of Indians inhabiting this locality It was

also called Venezuela (little Venice) because of an Indian village
on the gulf coast built on piles over the shallow water; this
name was afterwards bestowed upon the province of which
Coro was the capital. Coro was also made the chief factory of
the Welsers, the German banking house to which Charles V.
mortgaged this part of his colonial possessions, and it was the
starting-point for many exploring and colonizing expeditions
into the interior. It was made a bishopric in 1536, and for a
time Coro was one of the three most important towns on the
northern coast. The seat of government was removed to
Caracas in 1578 and the bishopric five years later. Coro is
celebrated in Venezuelan history as the scene of Miranda's first
attempt to free his country from Spanish rule. It suffered
greatly in the war which followed.

COROMANDEL COAST, a name formerly applied officially
to the eastern seaboard of India approximately between Cape
Calimere, in 10° 17' N., 79° 56' E., and the mouths of the Kistna
river. The shore, which is low, is without a single good natural
harbour, and is at all times beaten by a heavy sea. Communica-
tion with ships can be effected only by catamarans and flat-
bottomed surf-boats. The north-east monsoon, which lasts
from October till April, is exceedingly violent for three months
after its commencement. From April till October hot southerly
winds blow by day ; at night the heat is tempered by sea-
breezes. The principal places frequented by shipping are Pulicat,
Madras, Sadras, Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Tranquebar, Nagore,
and Negapatam. The name Coromandel is said to be derived
from Cholamandal, the mandal or region of the ancient dynasty
of the Chola. Its official use has lapsed.

CORONA (Lat. for " crown "), in astronomy, the exterior
envelope of the sun, being beyond the photosphere and chromo-
sphere, invisible in the telescope and unrecognized by the
spectroscope, except during a total eclipse (see Sun; Eclipse).

Corona Borealis, also known as the Corona septentrionalis,
and the Northern Crown or Garland, is a constellation of the
Northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th cent. B.C.) and
Aratus (3rd cent. B.C.). In the catalogues of Ptolemy, Tycho
Brahe, and Hevelius, eight stars are mentioned; but recent
uranographic surveys have greatly increased this number. The
mftst interesting members are: a Coronae, a binary consisting
of a yellow star of the 6th magnitude, and a bluish star of the
7 th magnitude ; R Coronae, an irregular variable star ; and
T Coronae or Nova Coronae, a temporary or new star, first
observed in 1866. Corona Australis, also known as Corona
meridionalis, or the Southern Crown, is a constellation of the
Southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus and Aratus. In
Ptolemy's catalogue thirteen stars are described.

In physical science, coronae (or " glories ") are the coloured
rings frequently seen closely encircling the sun or moon. Formerly
classified by the ancient Greeks with halos, rainbows, &c, under
the general group of " meteors," they came to receive considerable
attention at the hands of Descartes, Christiaan Huygens, and
Sir Isaac Newton ; but the correct explanation of coronae was
reserved until the beginning of the 19th century, when Thomas
Young applied the theories of the diffraction and interference
of light to this phenomenon. Prior to Young, halos and coronae
had not been clearly differentiated ; they were both regarded as
caused by the refraction of light by atmospheric moisture and
ice, although observation had shown that important distinctions
existed between these phenomena. Thus, while halos have
certain definite radii, viz. 22 and 46 , the radii of coronae
vary very considerably ; also, halos are coloured red on
the inside, whereas coronae are coloured red on the outside
(see Halo).

It has now been firmly established, both experimentally and
mathematically, that coronae are due to diffraction by the
minute particles of moisture and dust suspended in the atmo-
sphere, and the radii of the rings depend on the size of the
diffracting particles. (See Diffraction of Light.)

Other meteorological phenomena caused by the diffraction of
light include the anthelia, and the chromatic rings seen encircling
shadows thrown on a bank of clouds, mist or fog. These appear-

CORONACH— CORONATION

185

ances differ from halos and coronae inasmuch as their centres are
at the anti-solar point; they thus resemble the rainbow. The
anthelia (from the Greek avri, opposite, and tjXios, the sun) are
coloured red on the inside, the outside being generally colour-
less owing to the continued overlapping of many spectra. The
diameter increases with the size of the globules making up the
mist. The chromatic rings seen encircling the " spectre of the
Brocken " are similarly explained.

The blue colour of the sky (q.v.), supernumerary rainbows, and
the gorgeous sunsets observed after intense volcanic disturbances,
when the atmosphere is charged with large quantities of extremely
minute dust particles (e.g. Krakatoa), are also explicable by the
diffraction of light. (See Dust.)

See E. Mascart, Traite d' optique (1899-1903); J. Pernter, Meteoro-
logische Optik (1902-1905).

In architecture, the term " corona " is used of that part of a
cornice which projects over the bed mould and constitutes the
chief protection to the wall from rain; it is always throated, and
its soffit rises towards the wall. The term is also given to the
apse or semicircular termination of the choir; as at Canterbury in
the part called " Becket's crown." The large circular chandelier
suspended in churches, of which the finest example is that given
by Barbarossa to Aix-la-Chapelle, is often called a corona. The
term is also used in botany of the crown-like appendage at the
top of compound flowers, the diminutive being coronule.

CORONACH (a Gaelic word, from comh, with, and ranach,
wailing), the lamentation or dirge for the dead which accom-
panied funerals in the Highlands of Scotland and in Ireland.
The more usual term in Ireland is " keen " or " keening."

C0RONAD0, FRANCISCO VASQUEZ DE (c. 1500-e. 1545),
Spanish explorer of the south-western part of the United States of
America. He accompanied Antonio de Mendoza to New Spain in
1535; by a brilliant marriage, became a leading grandee, and in
1539 was appointed governor of the province of New Galicia.
The report presented by Fray Marcos de Niza concerning the
" Seven cities of Cibola " (now identified almost certainly with
the Zuni pueblos of New Mexico) aroused great interest in
Mexico; Melchior Diaz was sent late in 1539 to retrace Fray
Marcos 's route and report on his story; and an expedition under
Coronado left Compostela for the " Seven Cities " in February
1 540. This expedition consisted of a provision train and droves
of live-stock; several hundred friendly Indians, Spanish footmen,
and more than 250 horsemen. Coronado, with a part of this
force, captured the " Seven Cities." The fabled wealth, however,
was not there. In the autumn ( 1 540) Coronado was joined by the
rest of his army. Meanwhile exploring parties were sent out:
Tusayan, the Hopi or Moki (Moqui) country of north-eastern
Arizona, was visited; Garcia Lopez de Cardenas discovered and
described the Grand Canyon of the Colorado; and expeditions
were sent along the Rio Grande (Tuguez), where the army
wintered. The Indians revolted but were put down. The army,
reinspirited by the tales of a plains-Indian slave 1 about vast
herds of cows (bison) on the plains, and about an Eldorado called
" Quivira " far to the N.E., started thither in April 1541, and,
with a few horsemen, penetrated at least to what is now central
Kansas. Here Coronado found a few permanent settlements of
Indians; in October he was again on the Rio Grande; and in the
spring of 1542 he led his followers home. Thereafter he practi-
cally disappears from history. The first description of the bison
and the prairie plains, the first trustworthy account of the Zuni
pueblos, the discovery of the Grand Canyon, a vast increase of
the nominal dominion of Spain and Christianity (the priests did
not return from Cibola), and a notable addition to geographical
knowledge, which, however, was long forgotten, were the results
of this expedition; which is, besides, for its duration and the vast.
distance covered, over mountains, desert and plains, one of the
most remarkable expeditions in the history of American dis-
covery. In connexion with it, in 1540, Hernando de Alarcon
ascended the Gulf of California to its head and the Colorado river
for a long distance above its mouth.

1 He was later killed for deception, and confessed that the Pecos
Indians induced him to lure Coronado to destruction.

All the essential sources with a critical narrative are available in
G. P. Winship's The Coronado Expedition (in the 14th Report of the
United States Bureau of Ethnology, for 1892-1893, Washington.
1896), except the Tratado del descubrimiento de las Yndias y sti
conquesta of Juan Suarez de Peralta (written in the last third of the
1 6th century, republished at Madrid, 1878). See also especialh
Justo Zaragoza, Noticias historicas de la Nueva Espana (Madrid,
1878), the various writings of A. F. A. Bandelier (q.v.) ; General
J. H. Simpson in Smithsonian Institution Report (Washington, 1869),
with an excellent map; and Winship for a full bibliography. H. H.
Bancroft's account in his Pacific States (vols. 5, 10, 12) i« less
authoritative.

CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown), a solemnity whereby
sovereigns are inaugurated in office. In pre-Christian times in
Europe the king or ruler, upon his election, was raised on a shield,
and, standing upon it, was borne on the shoulders of certain
of the chief men of the tribe, or nation, round the assembled
people. This was called the gyratio, and it was usually performed
three times. At its conclusion a spear was placed in the king's
hand, and the diadem, a richly wrought band of silk or linen,
which must not be confused with the crown (see Crown and
Coronet), was bound round his forehead, as a token of regal
authority. When Europe became Christian, a religious service of
benediction was added to the older form, which, however, was not
abandoned. Derived from the Teutons, the Franks continued the
gyratio, and Clovis, Sigebert, Pippin and others were thus
elevated to the royal estate. From a combination of the old
custom with the religious service, the later coronation ceremonies
were gradually developed. In the ceremonial procession of the
English king from the Tower to Westminster (first abandoned at
the coronation of James II.), in the subsequent elevation of the
king into what was known as the marble chair in Westminster
Hall, and in the showing of the king of France to the people, as
also in the universal practice of delivering a sceptre to the new
ruler, traces, it is thought, may be detected of the influence of the
original function.

The added religious service was naturally derived from the
Bible, where mention is frequently made, in the Old Testa-
ment, of the anointing and crowning of kings. The anointing
of the king soon came to be regarded as the most important, if
not essential, feature of the service. By virtue of the unction
which he received, the sovereign was regarded, in the middle
ages, as a mixta persona, in part a priest, and in part a layman.
It was a strange theory, "and Lyndwode, the great English
canonist, is cautious as to it, and was content to say that it was
the opinion of some people. It gained very wide acceptance, and
the anointed sovereign was generally regarded as, in some degree,
possessed of the priestly character. By virtue of the unction he
had received, the emperor was made a canon of St John Lateran
and of St Peter at Rome, and also of the collegiate church of
Aachen, while the king of France was premier chanoine of the
primatial church of Lyons, and held canonries at Embrun, Le
Mans, Montpellier, St Pol-de-Leon, Lodeve, and other cathedral
churches in France. There are, moreover, trustworthy records
that, on more than one occasion, a king of France, habited in a
surplice and choir robes, .took part with the clergy in the services
of some of those churches. Martene quotes an order, which
directs that at the imperial coronation at Rome, the pope ought
to sing the mass, the emperor read the gospel, and the king of
Sicily, or if present the king of France, the epistle. Nothing like
this was known in England, and a theory, which has prevailed of
late, that the English sovereign is, in a personal sense, canon of
St David's, is based on a misconception. The canonry in question
was attached to St Mary's College at St David's before the
Reformation, and, at the dissolution of the college, became crown
property, which it has remained ever since; but the king of
England is not, and never was personally, a canon of St David's,
nor did he ever perform any quasi-clerical function.

At first a single anointing on the head was the practice, but
afterwards other parts of the body, as the breast, arms, shoulders
and hands received the unction. From a very early period in
the West three kinds of oil have been blessed each year on
Maundy Thursday, the oil of the catechumens, the oil of the
sick, and the chrism. The last, a compound of olive oil and

i86

CORONATION

balsam, is only used for the most sacred purposes, and the oil
of the catechumens was that used for the unction of kings. In
France, however, a legend gained credence that, as a special
sign of divine favour, the Holy Dove had miraculously descended
from heaven, bearing a vessel (afterwards called the Sainte
Ampoule), containing holy oil, and had placed it on the altar
for the coronation of Clovis. A drop of oil from the Sainte
Ampoule mixed with chrism was afterwards used for anointing
the kings of France. Similarly the chrism was introduced into
English coronations, for the first time probably at the coronation
of Edward II. To rival the French story another miracle was
related that the Virgin Mary had appeared to Thomas Becket,
and had given him a vessel with holy oil, which at some future
period was to be used for the sacring of the English king. A full
account of this miracle, and the subsequent finding of the vessel,
is contained in a letter written in 1318 by Pope John XXII. to
Edward II. The chrism was used in addition to the holy oil.
The king was first anointed with the oil, and then signed on
the head with the chrism. In all other countries the oil of the
catechumens was alone used. In consequence of the use of
chrism the kings of England and France were thought to be
able to cure scrofula by the imposition of their hands, and hence
arose the practice in those countries of touching for the king's
evil, as it was called. In England the chrism disappeared at
the Reformation, but touching for the evil was continued till the
accession of the house of Hanover in 1714.

The oldest of all existing rituals for the coronation of a king
is contained in what is known as the Pontifical of Egbert, who
was archbishop of York in the middle of the 8th century. The
coronation service in it is entitled Missa pro rege in die bene-
dictionis ejus, and the coronation ceremony is interpolated in
the middle of the mass. After the Gospel the officiant recites
some prayers of benediction, and then pours oil from a horn on
the king's head, while the anthem " Zadok the priest," &c, is
sung. After this the assembled bishops and nobles place a
sceptre in the king's hands, while a form of intercessory bene-
diction is recited. Then the staff (baculus) is delivered to him,
and finally a helmet (galea) is set upon his head, the whole
assembly repeating thrice " May King N. live for ever. Amen.
Amen. Amen." The enthronement follows, with the kisses
of homage and of fealty, and the mass, with special prayers,
is concluded. ' '. ■

Another coronation service of Anglo-Saxon~'date bearing, but
with no good reason, the name of ^Ethelred II., has also been
preserved, and is of importance as it spread from England to
the continent, and was used for the coronations of the kings of
France. It differs from the Egbert form as the coronation
precedes the mass, while the use of a ring, and the definite
allusion to a crown (corona not galea) occur in it. Joined
to it is the form for the coronation of a queen consort. It may
have been used for the crowning of Harold and of William the
Conqueror.

A third English coronation form, of the 12th century, bears
the name of Henry I., but also without good reason. The
ceremonial is more fully developed, and the king is anointed
on the head, breast, shoulders and elbows. The royal mantle
appears for the first time, as does the sceptre. The queen consort
is to be crowned secundum ordinem Romanum, and the whole
function precedes the mass.

The fourth and most important of all English coronation
services is that of the Liber Regalis, a manuscript still in the
keeping of the dean of Westminster. It was introduced in 1307,
and continued in use till the Reformation, and, in an English
translation and with the Communion service substituted for
the Latin mass, it was used for the coronation of James I. In it
the English coronation ceremonies reached their fullest develop-
ment. The following is a bare outline of its main features: —

The ceremonies began the day before the coronation, the king
being ceremonially conducted in a procession from the Tower
of London to Westminster. There he reposed for the night,
and was instructed by the abbot as to the solemn obligations
of the kingly office. Early next morning he went to Westminster

Hall-, and there, among other ceremonies, as rex regnaturus
was elevated into a richly adorned seat on the king's bench,
called the Marble Chair. Then a procession with the regalia was
marshalled, and led into the abbey church, the king wearing
a cap of estate on his head, and supported by the bishops of
Bath and Durham. A platform with thrones, &c, having been
previously prepared under the crossing, the king ascended it,
and all being in order, the archbishop of Canterbury called for
the Recognition, after which the king, approaching the high
altar, offered a pall to cover it, and a pound of gold. Then a
sermon appropriate to the occasion was preached by one of the
bishops, the oath was administered by the archbishop, and the
Veni Creator and a litany were sung. Then the king was anointed
with oil on his hands, breast, between the shoulders, on the
shoulders, on the elbows, and on the head; finally he was
anointed with the chrism on his head. Thus blessed and anointed,
the king was vested, first with a silk dalmatic, called the colobium
sindonis, then a long tunic, reaching to the ankles and woven
with great golden images before and behind, was put upon him.
He then received the buskins (caligae), the sandals (sandalia),
and spurs (calcaria), then the sword and its girdle; after this the
stole, and finally the royal mantle, four-square in shape and
woven throughout with golden eagles. Thus vested, the crown
of St Edward was set on his head, the ring placed on his wedding
finger, the gloves drawn over his hands, and the golden sceptre,
in form of an orb and cross, delivered to him. Lastly, the golden
rod with the dove at the top was placed in the king's left hand.
Thus consecrated, vested and crowned, the king kissed the
bishops who, assisted by the nobles, enthroned him, while the
Te Deum was sung. When a queen consort was also crowned,
that ceremony immediately followed, and the mass with special
collect, epistle, gospel and preface was said, and during it both
king and queen received the sacrament in one kind. At the
conclusion the king retired to a convenient place, surrounded
with curtains, where the great chamberlain took off certain of
the robes, and substituted others for them, and the archbishop,
still wearing his mass vestments, set other crowns on the heads
of the king and queen, and with these they left the church.

This service, in English, was used at the coronation of James
I., Elizabeth having been crowned with the Latin service.
Little change was made till 1685, when it was considerably
altered for the coronation of James II. The Communion was
necessarily omitted in the case of a Roman Catholic, but other
changes were introduced quite needlessly by Archbishop Sancrof t,
and four years later the 'old order was still more seriously changed,
with the result that the revisions of 1685 and 1689 have grievously
mutilated the service, by confusing the order of its different
sections, while the meaning of the prayers has been completely
changed for no apparent reason. Alterations since then have
been verbal rather than essential, but at each subsequent
coronation some feature has disappeared, the proper preface
having been abandoned at the coronation of Edward VII.

In connexion with the English coronation a number of claims
to do certain services have sprung up, and before each coronation
a court of claims in constituted, which investigates and adjudi-
cates on the claims that are made. The most striking of all these
services is that of the challenge made by the king's champion, an
office which has been hereditary in the Dymoke family for many
centuries. Immediately following the service in the church a
banquet was held in Westminster Hall, during the first course of
which the champion entered the hall on horseback, armed cap-a-
pie, with red, white and blue feathers in his helmet. He was
supported by the high constable on his right, and the earl marshal
on his left, both of whom were also mounted. On his appearance
in the hall a herald in front of him read the challenge, the words
of which have not materially varied at any period, as follows:
" If any person, of what degree soever, high or low, shall deny or
gainsay our sovereign lord . . ., king of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, defender of the faith (son and), next
heir unto our sovereign lord the last king deceased, to be the right
heir to the imperial crown of this realm of Great Britain and
Ireland, or that he ought not to enjoy the same; here is his

CORONER

187

champion, who saith that he lieth, and is a false traitor, being
ready in person to combat with him; and in this quarrel will
adventure his life against him, on what day soever he shall be
appointed." The champion then threw down the gauntlet. The
challenge was again made in the centre of the hall, and a third
time before the high table, at which the king was seated. The
king then drank to the champion out of a silver-gilt cup, with a
cover, which he handed to him as his fee. The banquet was last
held, and the challenge made, at the coronation of George IV. in
1821. The champion's claim was admitted in 1902, but as there
was no banquet the duty of bearing the standard of England was
assigned to him. There is no record of the challenge having been
ever accepted.

The revival of the western empire under Charlemagne was
marked by his coronation by the pope at Rome in the year 800.
His successors, for several centuries, went to Rome, where they
received the imperial crown in St Peter's from the pope, the
crown of Lombardy being conferred in the church of St Ambrose
(Sant' Ambrogio) at Milan, that of Burgundy at Aries, and the
German crown, which came to be the most important of all, most
commonly at Aix-la-Chapelle. It must suffice to speak of the
coronations at Rome and Aix-la-Chapelle. From Martene we
learn the early form of the ceremony at Rome. The emperor
was met at the silver door of St Peter's, where the first coronation
prayer was recited over him by the bishop of Albano. He was then
conducted within the church, where in medio rotae majoris, the
bishop of Porto said the second prayer. Thence the emperor
went to the confessio of St Peter, where the litany was said, and
there, or before the altar of St Maurice, the bishop of Ostia
anointed him on the right arm and between the shoulders. Then
he ascended to the high altar, where the pope delivered the naked
sword to him. This he flourished, and then sheathed in its
scabbard. The pope then delivered the sceptre to the emperor, and
placed the crown on his head. The ceremony was concluded by
the coronation mass said by the pope. The custom of the emperors
going to Rome to be crowned was last observed by Frederick III.
in 1440, and after that the German coronation was alone cele-
brated. The form followed was mainly thus: the electors first
met at Frankfort, under the presidency of the elector-archbishop
of Mainz, and, the election having been made, the emperor was led
to the high altar of the cathedral and seated at it. He was then
conducted to a gallery over the entrance to the choir, where,
seating himself with the electors, proclamation was made of the
election, and on a subsequent day the coronation took place.
If the coronation was performed, as it most commonly was, at
Aix-la-Chapelle, then the archbishop of Cologne, as diocesan, was
the chief officiant, and the emperor was presented to him by the
two other clerical electors, the archbishops of Mainz and Trier.
The emperor was anointed on the head, the nape of the neck, the
breast, the right arm between the wrist and the elbow, and on the
palms of both hands. After this, he was vested in what were
called the imperial and pontifical robes, which included the
buskins, a long alb, the stole crossed priest -wise over the breast,
and the mantle. The regalia were then delivered to him, and the
crown was set on his head conjointly by the three archbishop-
electors. Mass was then said, during which the emperor com-
municated in one kind. When the coronation was performed at
Aix-la-Chapelle, the emperor was at once made, at its conclusion,
a canon of the church.

The coronation form in France bore much resemblance, in its
general features, to the English coronation, and was, it is believed
originally based on the English form. The unction was given,
first on the top of the head in the form of a cross, on the breast,
between the shoulders, and at the bending and joints of both arms.
Then, standing up, the king was vested in the dalmatic, tunic and
royal robe, all of purple velvet sprinkled with fleurs-de-lys of gold,
and representing, it was said, the three orders of subdeacon,
deacon and priest. Then, kneeling again, he was anointed in the
palms of the hands, after which the gloves, ring and sceptre were
delivered. Then the peers were summoned by name to come
near and assist, and the archbishop of Reims, taking the crown of
Charlemagne from the altar, set it on the king's head. After

which the enthronement, and showing of the king to the people,
took place. All the unctions were made with the chrism, mixed
with a drop of oil from the Sainte Ampoule. After the enthrone-
ment, mass was said, and at its conclusion the king communicated
in both kinds. The third day after the coronation, the king
touched for the evil.

On the "n Frimaire an 13" Napoleon and Josephine were
jointly crowned at Paris, by the pope. Napoleon entered Notre-
Dame wearing a crown, and before him were carried the imperial
ornaments, to wit: " la couronne de Vempereur, Vtpee, la main de
justice, le sceptre, le manteau de I'empereur, son anneau, son collier,
le globe imperial, la couronne de I'imperalrice, son manteau, son
anneau." Each of these was blessed, and delivered with a
benediction to the emperor and empress, kneeling, side by side, to
receive them, both having previously received the unction on the
head and on each hand. Napoleon placed the crown on his
head himself. Mass with special prayers followed.

In Spain the coronation ceremony never assumed the fullness,
or magnificence, that might have been expected. It was usually
performed at Toledo, or in the church of St Jerome at Madrid, the
king being anointed by the archbishop of Toledo. The royal
ornaments were the sword, sceptre, crown of gold and the apple
of gold, which the king himself assumed after the unction. In
recent years the unction and coronation have been disused.

In Sweden the king was anointed and crowned at Upsala by the
archbishop. The ceremony is now performed in the Storkyrka,
at Stockholm, where the archbishop of Upsala anoints the king on
the breast, temples, forehead and palms of both hands. The
crown is placed on the king's head by the archbishop and the
minister of justice jointly, whereupon the state marshal pro-
claims: " Now is crowned king of the Swedes, Goths and Wends,
he and no other." When there is a queen consort, she is then
anointed, crowned and proclaimed, in the same manner.

In Norway, according to the law of 18 14, the coronation is
performed in the cathedral at Trondhjem, when the Lutheran
superintendent, or bishop, anoints the king. The crown is
placed on the king's head jointly by the bishop and the prime
minister.

In Russia the coronation is celebrated at Moscow, and is full of
religious significance. The tsar is anointed by the metropolitan,
but places the crown on his head himself. He receives the
sacrament among the clergy, the priestly theory of his office being
recognized. In some other European countries the coronation
ceremony, as in Austria and Hungary, is also performed with
much significant ritual. In other countries, as Prussia, it is
retained in a modified form; but in the remaining states such as
Denmark, Belgium, Italy, &c, it has been abandoned, or never
introduced.

Authorities. — L. G. Wickham Legg, English Coronation Records;
Roxburgh Club — Liber Regalis; Anon., A Complete Account of the
Ceremonies observed in the Coronations of the Kings and Queens of
England (London, 1727); F. Sandford, Description of the Coronation
of James II. (1687); Menin, The Form, Order and Ceremonies of
Coronations, trans, from the French (1727); Martene, De Antiquis
Ecclesiae Ritibus, lib. ii. (T. M. F.)

CORONER, an ancient officer of the English common law,
so called, according to Coke, because he was a keeper of the pleas
of the crown (custos placitorum coronae). At what period the
office of coroner was instituted is a matter of considerable doubt;
some modern authorities (Stubbs, Select Charters, 260; Pollock
and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, i. 519) date its origin from 1194,
but C. Gross (Political Science Quarterly, vol. vii.) has shown
that it must have existed before that date. The office was always
elective, the appointment being made by the freeholders of the
county assembled in county court. By the Statute of West-
minster the First it was ordered that none but lawful and discreet
knights should be chosen as coroners, and in one instance a
person was actually removed from office for insufficiency of
estate. Lands to the value of £20 per annum (the qualification
for knighthood) were afterwards deemed sufficient to satisfy
the requirements as to estate which ought to be insisted on in
the case of a coroner. The complaint of Blackstone shows the
transition of the office from its original dignified and honorary

i88

CORONIUM— COROT

character to a paid appointment in the public service. " Now,
indeed, through the culpable neglect of gentlemen of property,
this office has been suffered to fall into disrepute, and get into
low and indigent hands; so that, although formerly no coroners
would condescend to be paid for serving their country, and they
were by the aforesaid Statute of Westminster expressly forbidden
to take a reward, under pain of a great forfeiture to the king;
yet for many years past they have only desired to be chosen
for their perquisites; being allowed fees for their attendance
by the statute 3 Henry VII. c. 1 , which Sir Edward Coke com-
plains of heavily; though since his time those fees have been
much enlarged." The mercenary character of the office, thus
deprecated by Coke and Blackstone, is now firmly established,
without, however (it need hardly be said), affording the slightest
ground for such reflections as the above. The coroner is in fact a
public officer, and like other public officers receives payment for
his services. The person appointed is almost invariably a qualified
legal or medical practitioner; how far one is a more " fit person "
than another has frequently been a matter of dispute — a Bill
of 1879, which, however, failed to pass, decided in favour of
the legal profession. The property qualification for a county
coroner (" having land in fee sufficient in the same county
whereof he may answer to all manner of people," 14 Ed. III.
st. 1, c. 8), although re-enacted in the Coroners Act 1887, is now
virtually dispensed with. The appointment is for life, but is
vacated by the holder being made sheriff. A coroner may be
removed by the writ de coronatore exonerando, for sufficient
cause assigned, or the lord chancellor may, if he thinks fit, remove
any coroner from his office for inability or misbehaviour in the
discharge of his duty.

Coroners are of three kinds: (1) coroners by virtue of their
office, e.g. the lord chief justice of the king's bench is the principal
coroner of England; the puisne judges of the king's bench are
sovereign coroners — they may exercise their jurisdiction within
any part of the realm, even in the verge * or other exempt
liberties or franchises; (2) coroners by charter or commission,
e.g. in certain liberties and franchises coroners are appointed
by the crown or by lords holding a charter from the crown;
(3) coroners by virtue of election, e.g. county and borough
coroners. County coroners in England were, until 1888, elected
by the freeholders, but by the Local Government Act r888 the
appointment was given to the county council, who may appoint
any fit person, not being a county alderman or county councillor,
to fill the office. By an act of i860 the system of payment by
fees, established by an act of 1843, was abolished and payment
made by salary calculated on the average amount of the fees,
mileage, and allowances usually received by the coroner for a
period of five years, and the calculation revised every five years.
In boroughs having a separate court of quarter sessions, and
whose population exceeds 10,000, the coroner is appointed by
the town council and is paid by fees. A county coroner must
reside within his district or not more than two miles out of it.
Deputy coroners are also appointed in both counties andboroughs,
and the law relating to their appointment is contained in the
Coroners Act 1892. The duties of a coroner were ascertained
by 4 Edward I. st. 2: — " A coroner of our Lord the king ought
to inquire of these things, first, when coroners are commanded
by the king's bailiffs or by the honest men of the county, they
shall go to the places where any be slain, or suddenly dead or
wounded, or where houses are broken, or where treasure is said
to be found, and shall forthwith command four of the next
towns, or five, or six, to appear before him in such a place; and
when they are come thither, the coroner upon the oath of them
shall inquire in this manner, that is, to wit, if it concerns a man
slain, if they know when the person was slain, whether it were
in any house, field, bed, tavern, or company, and if any, and

1 Coroner of the Verge. — The verge comprised a circuit of 12 m.
round the king's court, and the coroner of the king's house, called
the coroner of the verge, has jurisdiction within this radius. By the
Coroners Act 1887 the jurisdiction of the verge was abolished and
became absorbed in that of the county, but the appointment of the
king's coroner was left with the lord steward, while his jurisdiction
was limited to the precincts of the palace.

who, were there, &c. It shall also be inquired if the dead person
were known, or else a stranger, and where he lay the night before.
And if any person is said to be guilty of the murder, the coroner
shall go to their house and inquire what goods they have, &c."
Similar directions were given for cases of persons found drowned
or suddenly dead, for attachment of criminals in cases of violence,
&c. His functions are now, by the Coroners Act 1887, limited
to an inquiry upon " the dead body of a person lying within his
jurisdiction, where there is reasonable cause to suspect that such
person has died either a violent or an unnatural death, or has
died a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, or that such
person has died in prison, or in such place or under such circum-
stances as to require an inquest in pursuance of any act " (s. 3),
and upon treasure-trove (s. 36). The inquisition must be
super visum corporis (that is, after " viewing the body ") ; the
evidence is taken on oath; and any party suspected may tender
evidence. The Coroners Act 1887, s. 21, gives power to the
coroner to summon medical witnesses and to direct the per-
formance' of a post-mortem examination. The verdict must
be that of twelve at least of the jury. If any person is found
guilty of murder or other homicide, the coroner shall commit
him to prison for trial; he shall also certify the material evidence
to the court, and bind over the proper persons to prosecute or
to give evidence at the trial. He may in his discretion accept
bail for a person found guilty of manslaughter. Since the aboli-
tion of public executions, the coroner is required to hold an
inquest on the body of any criminal on whom sentence t>f death
has been carried into effect. The duty of coroners to inquire
into treasure-trove {q.v.) is still preserved by the Coroners Act
1887, which, however, repealed certain other jurisdictions, as, —
inquests of royal fish (whale, sturgeon) thrown ashore or caught
near the coast; inquest of wrecks, and of felonies, except felonies
on inquisitions of death. By the City of London Fire Inquests
Act 1888 the duty is imposed upon the coroner for the city to
hold inquests in cases of loss or injury by fire in the city of London
and the liberties thereof situated in the county of Middlesex.
This is a practice which exists in several European countries.

In Scotland the duties of a coroner are performed by an officer
called a procurator-fiscal.

In the United States and in most of the colonies of Great
Britain the duties of a coroner are substantially the same. In
some cases his duties are more enlarged, his inquisition embracing
the origin of fires; in others they are confined to holding
inquests in cases of suspicious deaths. Unlike a coroner in
England, he is elected generally only for a specified period.

Authorities. — Jervis, Office and Duties of Coroners (6th ed.,
1898); R. H. Wellington, The King's Coroner (2 vols., 1905-1906).
In 1908 a committee was appointed to inquire into the law relating
to coroners and coroners' inquests and into the practice in coroners'
courts. • (T. A. I.)

CORONIUM, that constituent (otherwise unknown) of the
sun's corona, which emits the characteristic green coronal ray,
of which the wave-length is 5303.

COROT, JEAN-BAPTISTE CAMILLE (1796-1875), French
landscape painter, was born in Paris, in a house on the Quai by the
rue du Bac, now demolished, on the 26th of July 1796. His
family were well-to-do bourgeois people, and whatever may have
been the experience of some of his artistic colleagues, he never,
throughout his life, felt the want of money. He was educated at
Rouen and was afterwards apprenticed to a draper, but hated
commercial life and despised what he called its " business tricks,"
yet he faithfully remained in it until he was twenty-six, wher his
father at last consented to his adopting the profession of art.
Corot learned little from his masters. He visited Italy on three
occasions: two of his Roman studies are now in the Louvre.
He was a regular contributor to the Salon during his lifetime, and
in 1846 was " decorated " with the cross of the Legion of Honour.
He was promoted to be officer in 1867. His many friends
considered nevertheless that he was officially neglected, and in
1874, only a short time before his death, they presented him with
a gold medal. He died in Paris, on the 22nd of February 1875,
and was buried at Pere Lachaise.

Of the painters classed in the Barbizon school it is probable

CORPORAL— CORPORAL PUNISHMENT

189

that Corot will live the longest, and will continue to occupy the
highest position. His art is more individual than Rousseau's,
whose works are more strictly traditional; more poetic than that
of Daubigny, who is, however, Corot's greatest contemporary
rival; and in every sense more beautiful than J. F. Millet, who
thought more of stern truth than of aesthetic feeling.

Corot's works are somewhat arbitrarily divided into periods,
but the point of division is never certain, as he often completed a
picture years after it had been begun. In his first style he
painted traditionally and " tight " — that is to say, with minute
exactness, clear outlines, and with absolute definition of objects
throughout. After his fiftieth year his methods changed to
breadth of tone and an approach to poetic power, and about
twenty years later, say from 1865 onwards, his manner of
painting became full of " mystery " and poetry. In the last ten
vears of his work he became the Pere Corot of the artistic circles
of Paris, in which he was regarded with personal affection, and he
was acknowledged as one of the five or six greatest landscape
painters the world has ever seen, along with Hobbema, Claude,
Turner and Constable. During the last few years of his life he
earned large sums by his pictures, which became greatly sought
after. In 1871 he gave £2000 for the poor of Paris (where he
remaine'd during the siege), and his continued charity was long
the subject of remark. Besides landscapes, of which he painted
several hundred, Corot produced a number of figure pictures
which are much prized. These were mostly studio pieces,
executed probably with a view to keep his hand in with severe
drawing, rather than with the intention of producing pictures.
Yet many of them are fine in composition, and in all cases the
colour is remarkable for its strength and purity. Corot also
executed a few etchings and pencil sketches. In his landscape
pictures Corot was more traditional in his method of work than is
usually believed. If even his latest tree-painting and arrange-
ment are compared with such a Claude as that which hangs in the
Bridgewater gallery, it will be observed how similar is Corot's
method and also how masterly are his results.

The works of Corot are scattered over France and the Nether-
lands, Great Britain and America. The following may be
considered as the first half-dozen : " Une Matinee " (1850), now in
the Louvre; " Macbeth " (1859), in the Wallace collection; " Le
Lac " (1861); " L'Arbre brise " (1865); "Pastorale — Souvenir
d'ltalie " (1873), in the Glasgow Corporation Art Gallery;
" Biblis " (1875). Corot had a number of followers who called
themselves his pupils. The best known are Boudin, Lepine,
Chintreuil, Francais and Le Roux.

Authorities. — H. Dumesnil, Souvenirs intimes (Paris, 1875) ;
Roger-Miles, Les Artistes celebres: Corot (Paris, 1891); Roger-
Miles, Album classique des chefs-d'eeuvres de Corot (Paris, 1895) '•
J. Rousseau, Bibliotheque d'art moderne : Camille Corot (Paris, 1884) ;
J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains : Corot (Paris,
1884) ; Ch. Bigot, Peintres francais contemporains: Corot (Paris,
1888); Geo. Moore, Ingres and Corot in Modern Painting (London,
1893); David Croal Thomson, Corot (4to, London, 1892); Mrs
Schuyler van Rensselaer, " Corot," Century Magazine (June 1889);
Corot, The Portfolio (1870), p. 60, (l875)_p. 146; R. A. M. Stevenson,
" Corot as an Example of Style in Painting," Scottish Art Review
(Aug. 1888); Ethel Birnstigl and Alice Pollard, Corot (London,
1904) ; Alfred Robaut, VCEuvre de Corot, catalogue raisonne et
illustre, precede de I'histoire de Corot et de ses ceuvres par Etienne
Morceau-Nelaton (Paris, 1905). (D. C. T.)

CORPORAL. 1. (From Lat. corporalis, belonging to the
corpus or body), an adjective appearing in several expressions,
such as "corporal punishment" (see below), or in "corporal
works of mercy," for those acts confined to the succouring of the
bodily needs, such as feeding the hungry, visiting the sick,
rescuing captives. A " corporal oath " was sworn with the body
in contact with a sacred object (see Oath).

2. (From Lat. corporalis, sc. palla, or corporale, sc. pallium), in
the Roman Catholic Church, a small square linen cloth, which at
the service of the Mass is placed on the altar under the chalice and
paten. It was originally large enough to cover the whole surface
of the altar, and was folded over so as to cover the chalice — a
custom still observed by the Carthusians. The chalice is now,
however, covered by another small square of linen, stiffened with

cardboard, &c, known as the pall {palla). When not in use both
corporal and pall are carried in a square silken pocket called the
burse. The corporal must be blessed by the bishop, or by a priest
with special faculties, the ritual prayers invoking the divine
blessing that the linen may be worthy to cover and enwrap the
body and blood of the Lord. It represents the winding-sheet in
which Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the body of the dead
Christ.

3. (Of uncertain derivation; the French form caporal, and
Ital. caporale, point to an origin from capo, Italian for head; the
New English Dictionary, however, favours the derivation from
Lat. corpus, Ital. corpo, body), a non-commissioned officer of
infantry, cavalry and artillery, ranking below a sergeant. This
rank is almost universal in armies. In the i6thand 17th centuries
there were corporals but no sergeants in the cavalry, and this
custom is preserved in the three regiments of British household
cavalry, the rank of sergeant being replaced by that of " corporal
of horse," and that of sergeant-major by " corporal-major." In
the 16th and early 17th centuries the title " corporal of the field "
was often given to a superior officer who acted as a staff -officer to
the sergeant-major-general. In the navy the " ship's corporal,"
formerly a semi-military instructor to the crew, is now a petty
officer charged with assisting the master-at-arms in police duties
on board ship.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, chastisement inflicted by one
person on the body {corpus) of another. By the common law of
England, Scotland and Ireland, the infliction of corporal punish-
ment is illegal unless it is done in self-defence or in defence of
others, or is done either by some person having punitive authority
over the person chastised or under the authority of a competent
court of justice. Corporal punishment in defence of self or
others needs no comment, except that, like all other acts done in
defence, its justification depends on whether or not it was
reasonably necessary for the protection of the person attacked.
Among persons invested with punitive authority, mention must
first be made of parents and guardians, and of teachers, who
have, by implied delegation from the parents, and as incidental
to the relation of master and pupil, powers of reasonable corporal
punishment. Such powers are not limited to offences committed
by the pupil upon the premises of the school, but extend to acts
done on the way to and from school and during what may be
properly regarded as school hours {Cleary v. Booth, 1893, 1
Q.B. 465). The rights of parents, guardians and teachers, in
regard to the chastisement of children, were expressly recognized
in English law by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1904
(§ 28). Poor law authorities and managers of reformatories are in
the same position in this respect as teachers. The punitive
authority of elementary school teachers is subject to the regula-
tions of the education authority: that of poor law authorities to
the regulation of the Home Office and the Local Government
Board. A master has a right to inflict moderate chastisement
upon his apprentice for neglect or other misbehaviour, provided
that he does so himself, and that the apprentice is under age
(Archbold, Cr . PI., 23rd ed., 795). Where a legal right of chastise-
ment is exercised immoderately, the person so exercising it incurs
both civil and criminal liability.

In some of the older English legal authorities {e.g. Bacon,
Abridg. tit. " Baron and Feme," B), it was stated that a husband
might inflict moderate corporal punishment on his wife in order
to keep her " within the bounds of duty." But these authorities
were definitely discredited in 1891 in the case of R. v. Jackson
(1 Q.B. 671). By the unmodified Mahommedan law, a husband
may administer moderate corporal punishment to his wife; but
it is doubtful whether this right could be legally exercised in
British India (Wilson, Digest of Anglo-M ahommedan Law, 2nded.,
PP- J53, IS4)- In Hawkins's Pleas of the Crown (Bk. 1, c. 63,
§ 29) it is laid down that " churchwardens, and perhaps private
persons, may whip boys playing in church" during divine
service. But while the right to remove such offenders is un-
doubted, the right of castigation could not now safely be
exercised. At common law the master of a ship is entitled to
inflict reasonable chastisement on a seaman for gross breach of

190

CORPORATION

duty. But such offences are now specially provided for by the
Merchant Shipping Act 1894 (§§ 220-238); and where the
provisions of that statute are available, corporal punishment
would probably be illegal.

As to corporal punishment in the army and navy, see articles
Military Law; Navy. In civil prisons, whether they are convict
prisons or local prisons, corporal punishment may not be inflicted
except under sentence of a competent court, or except in the case
of prisoners under sentence of penal servitude, or convicted of
felony, or sentenced to hard labour, who have been guilty of mutiny
or incitement to mutiny, or of gross personal violence to an officer
or servant of the prison (Act of 1898, § 5). Flogging for these offences
in prison may not be inflicted except by order of the board of visitors
or visiting committee of the prison, made at a meeting specially
constituted, and confirmed by a secretary of state (Prison Act of
1898, § 5; Convict Prison Rules 1899; Stat. R. and O. 1899, No.

321, rr. 77-79; Local Prison Rules 1899; Stat. R. and 0. 1899, No.

322, rr. 84, 85). The mode of inflicting the punishment is prescribed
by the Convict Prison Rules (rr. 82-85) an d the Local Prison Rules
(rr. 88-91), which limit the number of strokes and prescribe the
instrument to be used for inflicting them, the cat or birch for prisoners
over 18, and the birch for prisoners under 18.

Corporal punishment for breaches of prison discipline in Scottish
prisons is not authorized by any statute nor under the Scottish Prison
Rules (see Stat. R. and 0. Revised, ed. 1904, vol. x. tit. " Prison,
Scotland," p. 60). In Irish convict prisons corporal punishment
may be inflicted by order of justices specially appointed by the lord-
lieutenant under § 3 of the Penal Servitude Act 1864, but the Irish
PrisonRulesof i902(Stat.R.and 0. 1902, No. 59o)contain no reference
to this power.

At common law, courts of justice had jurisdiction to impose a
sentence of whipping on persons convicted on indictment for
petty larceny or misdemeanours of the meaner kind (see 1
Bishop, Amer. Cr. Law, 8th ed., § 942). But they do not now
impose such sentence except under statutory authority. The
whipping of women was absolutely prohibited in 1820 by the
Whipping of Female Offenders Abolition Act of that year. But
there are numerous statutes authorizing the imposition of a
sentence of whipping on male offenders. The following cases
may be noted. 1. Adults: '(a) who are incorrigible rogues
(Vagrancy Act 1824, § 10); (6) who discharge fire-arms, &c, with
intent to injure or alarm the sovereign (Treason Act 1842, § 2,
and see 8 St. Tr. N.S. 1, and O'Connor's Case, 1872, ib. p. 3 n.);
(c) who are guilty of robbery with violence (Larceny Act 1861,
§ 43), or offences against § 21 of the Offences against the Person
Act of 1 861; there has been much controversy as to whether
the Garrotters Act of 1861, which authorized the ordering of more
than one whipping in the case of an offender over 16 years of
age, was the effective cause of the diminution of the offences
against which it was directed, but the best judicial opinion is in
the affirmative. 2. Males under sixteen: (a) in any of the cases
above noted ; (b) for many statutory offences, e.g. larceny
(Larceny Act 1861), malicious damage (Malicious Damage Act
1861, § 75; Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, § 4); (c) by
courts of summary jurisdiction (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879,
§§ 10, 11, and 1899; First Offenders Act 1887); if a boy is over
7 and under 1 2, not more than 6 strokes, if he is over 12, but under
14, not more than 12 strokes may be inflicted ; the birch-rod is
to be used, and the punishment is to be given by a police
constable in the presence of a superior officer, and of the parent or
guardian if he desire it.

In Scotland the whipping of male offenders under 14 is regulated
by the Prisons (Scotland) Act i860, § 74^, the Whipping Act 1862,
and § 514 of the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892; and offenders
over 16 may not be whipped for offences against person or property
(Whipping Act 1862, § 2).

In Ireland the law is in substance the same as in England; for
special statutes see official Index to Statutes (ed. 1905), p. 985, art.
Punishment, 6.

The flogging of women is prohibited throughout British India
(Code of Criminal Procedure, Act v. of 1898, § 393) and the British
colonies, where the infliction of corporal punishment by judicial
order is in the main regulated on the lines of modern English legisla-
tion. In some British colonies the list of offences punishable by
whipping is larger than in England (see Queensland Criminal Code
1899, arts. 212, 2'i3, 216).

In the United States whipping is not a legal punishment under
the Federal Law (Revised Stats. U.S. § 5327). But in some of the
states of the Union whipping is inflicted under statute, and is not
held cruel or unusual within the Federal Constitution (1 Bishop,

A mer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., § 947) . In Delaware wife-beating and
certain offences against property by males are punishable with
flogging ; and in Maryland the same punishment is applicable
for wife-beating. Flogging is in force as a disciplinary measure
in some penal institutions.

It has been suggested by Laurent (Principes de droit civil
francais (1870), vol. iv. § 275) that the express definition in the
French Code Civil (arts. 371 et seq.) of parental rights over
children excludes the power of corporal punishment. But this
view is not generally accepted. The parental right of moderate
chastisement is expressly reserved in the Civil Code of Spain
(art. 155, 2). Flogging is not recognized as a legal punish-
ment by the French Code Penal, nor by the Penal Codes
of Germany, Italy, Spain or Portugal. (See also Whipping
or Flogging.) (A. W. R.)

CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body,
corpus, corporis), in English law, an association of persons which
is treated in many respects as if it were itself a person. It has
rights and duties of its own which are not the rights and duties of
the individual members thereof. Thus a corporation may own
land, but the individual members of the corporation have no
rights therein. A corporation may owe money, but the
corporators as individuals are under no obligation to pay the
debt. The rights and duties descend to the successive members
of the corporation. This capacity of perpetual succession is
regarded as the distinguishing feature of corporations as com-
pared with other societies. One of the phrases most commonly
met with in law-books describes a corporation as a society with
perpetual succession and a common seal. The latter point,
however, is not conclusive of the corporate character.

The legal attributes of a corporation have been worked out
with great fulness and ingenuity in English law, but the con-
ception has been taken full-grown from the law of Rome. The
term in Roman law corresponding to the modern corporation is
collegium; a more general term is universitas. A collegium or
corpus must have consisted of at least three persons, who were
said to be corporati — habere corpus. They could hold property in
common and had a common chest. They might sue and be sued
by their agent {syndicus or actor). There was a complete separa-
tion in law between the rights of the collegium as a body and
those of its individual members. The collegium remained in
existence although all its original members were changed. It
was governed by its own by-laws, provided these were not
contrary to the common law. The power of forming collegia was
restrained, and societies pretending to act as corporations were
often suppressed. In all these points the collegia of Roman
closely resemble the corporations of English law. There is a
similar parallel between the purposes for which the formation of
such societies is authorized in English and in Roman law. Thus
among the Roman collegia the following classes are distin-
guished : — (1) Public governing bodies, or municipalities, civitales;
(2) religious societies, such as the collegia of priests and Vestal
Virgins ; (3) official societies, e.g. the scribae, employed in the
administration of the state ; (4) trade societies, e.g. fabri, pictores,
navicularii, &c. This class shades down into the societates not
incorporated, just as our own trading corporations partake
largely of the character of ordinary partnerships. In the later
Roman law the distinction of corporations into civil and ecclesi-
astical, into lay and eleemosynary, is recognized. The latter
could not alienate without just cause, nor take land without
a licence — a restriction which may be compared with modern
statutes of mortmain. All these privileged societies are what we
should call corporations aggregate. The corporation sole (i.e. con-
sisting of only a single person) is a later refinement, for although
Roman law held that the corporation subsisted in full force,
notwithstanding that only one member survived, it did not
impute to the successive holders of a public office the character
of a corporation. When a public officer in English law is said to
be a corporation sole, the meaning is that the rights acquired by
him in that capacity descend to his successor in office, and not
(as the case is where a public officer is not a corporation) to his
ordinary legal representative. The best known instances of

CORPORATION

191

corporation sole are the king and the parson of a parish. The
Conception of the king as a corporation is the key to many of his
paradoxical attributes in constitutional theory — his invisibility,
immortality, &c.

The term quasi-corporation is applied to holders for the time
being of certain official positions, though not incorporated, as
the churchwardens of a parish, guardians of the poor, &c.

The Roman conception of a corporation was kept alive by
ecclesiastical and municipal bodies. When English lawyers
came to deal with such societies, the corporation law of Rome
admitted of easy application. Accordingly, in no department
has English law borrowed so copiously and so directly from the
civil law. The corporations known to the earlier English law
were mainly the municipal, the ecclesiastical, and the educational
and eleemosynary. To all of these the same principles, borrowed
from Roman jurisprudence, were applied. The different purposes
of these institutions brought about in course of time differences
in the rules of the law applicable to each. In particular, the
great development of trading companies under special statutes
has produced a new class of corporations, differing widely from
those formerly known to the law. The reform of municipal
corporations has also restricted the operation of the principles of
the older corporation law. These principles, however, still
apply when special statutes have not intervened.

The legal origin of corporation is ascribed by J. Grant ( Treatise
on the Law of Corporations, 1850) to five sources, viz. common
law, prescription, act of parliament, charter and implication.
Prescription in legal theory implies a grant, so that corporations
by prescription would be reducible to the class of chartered or
statutory corporations. A corporation is said to exist by implica-
tion when the purposes of a legally constituted society cannot be
carried out without corporate powers. Corporations are thus
ultimately traceable to the authority of charters and acts of
parliament. The power of creating corporations by charter is an
important prerogative of the crown, but in the present state of
the constitution, when all the powers of the crown are practically
exercised by parliament, there is no room for any jealousy as to
the manner in which it may be exercised. The power of charter-
ing corporations belonged also to subjects who had jura regalia,
e.g. the bishops of Durham granted a charter of incorporation to
the city of Durham in 1565, 1602 and 1780. The charter of a
corporation is regarded as being of the nature of a contract
between the king and the corporation. It will be construed
more favourably for the crown, and more strictly as against the
grantee. It cannot alter the law of the land, and it may be
surrendered, so that, if the surrender is accepted by the crown
and enrolled in chancery, the corporation is thereby dissolved.
Great use was made of this power of the crown in the reigns
of Charles II. and James II.

Every corporation, it is said, must have a name, and it may
have more names than one, but two corporations cannot have
the same name. And corporations cannot change their name
save by charter or some equivalent authority.

The possession of a common seal, though, as already stated,
not conclusive of the corporate character, is an incident of
every corporation aggregate. The inns of courts have common
seals, but they are only voluntary societies, not corporations.
Generally speaking, all corporate acts affecting strangers must
be performed under the common seal; acts of internal administra-
tion affecting only the corporators, need not be under seal. The
rule has been defended as following necessarily from the im-
personal character of a corporation; either a seal or something
equivalent must be fixed upon so that the act of the corporation
may be recognized by all.

A corporation may be abolished by statute, but not by the
mere authority of the crown. It may also become extinct by the
disappearance of all its members or of any integral part, by
surrender of charter if it is a chartered society, by process of
law, or by forfeiture of privileges.

The power of the majority to bind the society is one of
the first principles of corporation law, even in cases where
the corporation has a head. It is even said that only by an

act of parliament can this rule be avoided. The binding
majority is that of the number present at a corporate meeting
duly summoned. p

In corporations which have a head (as colleges), although the
head cannot veto the resolution of the majority, he is still
considered an integral part of the society, and his death suspends
its existence, so that a head cannot devise or bequeath to the
corporation, nor can a grant be made to a corporation during
vacancy of the headship.

A corporation, has power to make such regulations (by-laws)
as are necessary for carrying out its purposes, and these are
binding on its members and on persons within its local jurisdic-
tion if it has any.

The power to acquire and hold land was incident to a corpora-
tion at common law, but its restriction by the statutes of mort-
main dates from a very early period. The English law against
mortmain was dictated by the jealousy of the feudal lords, who
lost the services they would otherwise have been entitled to,
when their land passed into the hands of a perpetual corporation.
The vast increase in the estates of ecclesiastical corporations
constituted by itself a danger which might well justify the
operation of the restricting statutes.

The Mortmain Acts applied only to cases of alienation inter
vivos. There was no power to devise lands by will until 3 2 Henry
VIII. c. 1 (1540), and when the power was granted corporations
were expressly excluded from its benefits. No devise to a
corporation, whether for its own use or in trust, was allowed to
be good; land so devised went to the heir, either absolutely or
charged with the trusts imposed upon it in the abortive devise.
A modification, however, was gradually wrought by the judicial
interpretations of the Charitable Trusts Act 1601, and it was
held that a devise to a corporation for a charitable purpose
might be a good devise, and would stand unless voided by the
Mortmain Acts; so that no corporation could take land, without
a licence, for any purpose or in any way; and no localised
corporation could take lands by devise, save for charitable
purposes. Then came the act of 1 736, commonly but improperly
called the Mortmain Act. Its effect was generally to make it
impossible for land to be left by will for charitable uses, whether
through a corporation or a natural person. 1 The Wills Act 1837
did not renew the old provision against devises to corporations,
which therefore fell under the general law of mortmain. The law
was consolidated by the Mortmain and Charitable Uses Act 1888,
and the result is simply that corporations cannot take land for any
purpose without a licence, and no licence in mortmain is granted
by the crown, except in certain statutory cases in the interests
of religion, charity or other definite public object.

The power of corporations at common law to alienate their
property is usually restricted, as is their power to lease it for more
than a certain number of years, except by sanction of a public
authority. The more important classes of corporations, how-
ever, are now governed by special statutes which exclude or
modify the operation of the common law principles. The most
considerable class of societies still unaffected by such special
legislation are the Livery Companies (q.v.). Under Company
will be found an account of the important enactments regulating
joint-stock companies.

The question to what extent the common law incidents of a
corporation have been interfered with by special legislation has
become one of much importance, especially under the acts
relating to joint-stock companies. The most important case
on this subject is that of Riche v. The Ashbury Railway Carriage
Company, 1875 (L.R. 9 Ex. 224; L.R. 7 H.L. 653), in. which, the
judges of the exchequer chamber being equally divided, the
decision of the court below was affirmed. The view taken by the
affirming judges, viz. that the common law incidents of a corpora-
tion adhere unless expressly removed by the legislature, may be

1 Devises to colleges are excepted from the operation of the act,
but such devises must be for purposes identical with or closely
resembling the original purposes of the college; and the exception
from this act does not supersede the necessity for a licence in
mortmain.

192

CORPS— CORPULENCE

illustrated by a short extract from the judgment of Mr Justice
Blackburn : —

" If I thought it was at common law an incident to a corporation
that its capacity should be limited by the instrument creating it, I
should agree that the capacity of a company incorporated under
the act of 1862 was limited to the object in the memorandum of
association. But if I am right in the opinion which I have already
expressed, that the general power of contracting is an incident to a
corporation which it requires an indication of intention in the
legislature to take away, I see no such indication here. If the
question was whether the legislature had conferred on a corporation,
created under this act, capacity to enter into contracts beyond
the provisions of the deed, there could be only one answer. The
legislature did not confer such capacity. But if the question be,
as I apprehend it is, whether the legislature have indicated an
intention to take away the power of contracting which at common
law would be incident to a body corporate, and not merely to limit
the authority of the managing body and the majority of the share-
holders to bind the minority, but also to prohibit and make illegal
contracts made by the body corporate, in such a manner that they
would be binding on the body if incorporated at common law, I
think the answer should be the other way."

On the other hand, the House of Lords, agreeing with the
three dissentient judges in the exchequer chamber, pronounced
the effect of the Companies Act to be the opposite of that indi-
cated by Mr Justice Blackburn. " It was the intention of the
legislature, not implied, but actually expressed, that the corpora-
tions, should not enter, having regard to this memorandum of
association, into a contract of this description. The contract in
my judgment could not have been ratified by the unanimous
assent of the whole corporation." In such companies, therefore,
objects beyond the scope of the memorandum of association are
ultra vires of the corporation. The doctrine of ultra vires, as it is
called, is almost wholly of modern and judicial creation. The
first emphatic recognition of it appears to have been in the case
of companies created for special purposes with extraordinary
powers, by act of parliament, and, more particularly, railway
companies. The funds of such companies, it was held, must be
applied to the purposes for which they were created, and to no
other. Whether this doctrine is applicable to the older or, as
they are sometimes called, ordinary corporations, appears to be
doubtful. S. Brice {Ultra Vires) writes: —

" Take, as a strong instance, a university or a London guild.
Either can undoubtedly manage, invest, transform and expend
the corporate property in almost any way it pleases, but if they
proposed to exhaust the same on the private pleasures of existing
members, or to abandon the promotion, the one of education, the
other of their art and mystery, it is very probable, if not absolutely
certain, that the court of chancery would restrain the same, as
being ultra vires."

CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being
a late spelling of cors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse "),
a word in very general use since the 1 7 th century to denote a body
of troops, varying from a few hundred to the greater part of an
army. In a special sense " corps " is used as synonymous with
" army corps " (corps d'armie). The word is applied to any
organized body, as in corps diplomatique, the general body of
foreign diplomatic agents accredited to any government (see
Diplomacy), or corps de ballet, the members of a troop of dancers
at a theatre; so in esprit de corps, the common spirit of loyalty
which animates any body of associated persons.

CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body), a dead human body. By the
common law of England a corpse is not the subject of property
nor capable of holding property. It is not therefore larceny to
steal a corpse, but any removal of the coffin or grave-cloths is
otherwise, such remaining the property of the persons who
buried the body. It is a misdemeanour to expose a naked corpse
to public view, to prevent the burial of a dead body, or to
disinter it without authority; also to bury or otherwise dispose
of a dead body on which an inquest ought to be held, without
giving notice to a coroner. Anyone who, having the means,
neglects to bury a dead body which he is legally bound to bury,
is guilty of a misdemeanour, but no one is bound to incur a debt
for such a purpose. It is incumbent on the relatives and friends
of a deceased person to provide Christian burial for him ; failing
relatives and friends, the duty devolves upon the parish. No
corpse can be attached, taken in execution, arrested or detained

for debt. See further Body-snatching, and Burial and
Burial Acts.

CORPULENCE (Lat. corpus, body), or Obesity (Lat. ob,
against, and edere, to eat), a condition of the animal body
characterized by the over-accumulation of fat under the skin and
around certain of the internal organs. In all healthy persons a
greater or less amount of fat is present in these parts, and serves
important physiological ends, besides contributing to the proper
configuration of the body (see Nutrition) . Even a considerable
measure of fatness, however inconvenient, is not inconsistent
with a high degree of health and activity, and it is only when in
great excess or rapidly increasing that it can be regarded as a
pathological state (see Metabolic Diseases). The extent to
which excess of fat may proceed is illustrated by numerous well-
authenticated examples recorded in medical works, of which only
a few can be here mentioned. Thus Bright, a grocer of Maldon,
in Essex, who died in 1750, in his twenty-ninth year, weighed
616 lb. Dr F. Dancel (Traile de I'obesite, Paris, 1863) records the
case of a young man of twenty-two, who died from excessive
obesity, weighing 643 lb. In the Philosophical Transactions for
181 3 a case is recorded of a girl of four years of age who weighed
256 lb. But the most celebrated case is that of Daniel Lambert
(q.v.) of Leicester, who died in 1809 in his fortieth year. He is
said to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, his weight
being 739 lb (52 st. 11 lb). Health cannot be long maintained
under excessive obesity, for the increase in bulk of the body,
rendering exercise more difficult, leads to relaxation and defective
nutrition of muscle, while the accumulations of fat in the chest
and abdomen occasion serious embarrassment to the functions of
the various organs in those cavities. In general the mental
activity of the highly corpulent becomes impaired, although
there have always been many notable exceptions to this rule.

Various causes are assigned for the production of corpulence
(see Metabolic Diseases). In some families there exists an
hereditary predisposition to an obese habit of body, the mani-
festation of which no precautions as to living appear capable of
averting. But it is unquestionable that certain habits favour
the occurrence of corpulence. A luxurious, inactive, or sedentary
life, with over-indulgence in sleep and absence of mental occu-
pation, are well recognized predisposing causes. The more
immediate exciting causes are over-feeding and the large use of
fluids of any kind, but especially alcoholic liquors. Fat persons
are not always great eaters, though many of them are, while
leanness and inordinate appetite are not infrequently associated.
Still, it may be stated generally that indulgence in food, beyond
what is requisite to repair daily waste, goes towards the increase
of flesh, particularly of fat. This is more especially the case
when the non-nitrogenous (the fatty, saccharine and starchy)
elements of the food are in excess. The want of adequate bodily
exercise will in a similar manner produce a like effect, and it is
probable that many cases of corpulence are to be ascribed to this
cause alone, from the well-known facts that many persons of
sedentary occupation become stout, although of most abstemious
habits, and that obesity frequently comes on in the middle-aged
and old, who take relatively less exercise than the young, in
whom it is comparatively rare. Women are more prone to
become corpulent than men, and appear to take on this condition
more readily after the cessation of the function of menstruation.

For the prevention of corpulence and the reduction of super-
fluous fat many expedients have been resorted to, and numerous
remedies recommended. These have included bleeding, blister-
ing, purging, starving (see Fasting), the use of different kinds of
baths, and of drugs innumerable. The drinking of vinegar was
long popularly, but erroneously, supposed to be a remedy for
obesity. It is related of the marquis of Cortona, a noted general
of the duke of Alva, that by drinking vinegar he so reduced his
body from a condition of enormous obesity that he could fold his
skin about him like a garment.

In 1863 a pamphlet entitled " Letter on Corpulence, Addressed
to the Public by William Banting," in which was narrated the
remarkable experience of the writer in accomplishing the reduc-
tion of his own weight in a short space of time by the adoption of a

CORPUS CHRISTI— CORREA DA SERRA

193

particular kind of diet, started the modern dietetic treatment, at
first called " Banting " after the author. After trying almost
every known remedy without effect, Banting was induced, on the
suggestion of Mr Harvey, a London aurist, to place himself upon
an entirely new form of diet, which consisted chiefly in the
removal, as far as possible, of all saccharine, starchy and fat food,
the reduction of liquids, and the substitution of meat or fish and
fruit in moderate quantity at each meal, together with the daily
use of an antacid draught. Under this regimen his weight was
reduced 46 lb in the course of a few weeks, while his health
underwent a marked improvement. His experience, as might
have been expected, induced many to follow his example; and
since then various regimens have been propounded, all aiming
at treating corpulence on modern physiological principles (see also
Dietetics, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition). It is
important, however, to bear in mind that the treatment should
be followed under medical advice and observation; for, however
desirable it be to get rid of superabundant fat, it would be
manifestly no gain were this to be achieved by the sacrifice of the
general health.

CORPUS CHRISTI, a city and the county-seat of Nueces
county, Texas, U.S.A., situated on Corpus Christi Bay opposite
the mouth of the Nueces river, 192 m. W.S.W. of Galveston and
about 150 m. S.S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1890) 4387; (1900)
4703, including 963 foreign-born and 460 negroes; (1910) 8299.
Itis served by the National of Mexico, the St Louis, Brownsville &
Mexico, and the San Antonio & Aransas Pass railways. In 1908
the Federal government began work on a project to connect
Corpus Christi harbour with Aransas Pass by a channel 85 ft.
deep at low water and 75 ft. wide at the bottom, following a
natural depression between the two bays. Corpus Christi is a
summer and winter resort, with a very dry equable climate
(average annual mean, 70- 2° F.) and good bathing on the horse-
shoe beach of Corpus Christi Bay. The city has an extensive
coasting trade, and exports fruit, early vegetables, fish and
oysters. There was a small Spanish settlement here at an
early date, but no American settlement was made until after the
Mexican War. Corpus Christi was the base from which General
Zachary Taylor made his forward movement to the Rio Grande
in 1846. It was chartered as a city in 1876,

CORPUS CHRISTI, FEAST OF (Lat. festum corporis Christi,
i.e. festival of the Body of Christ, Fr. fite-Dieu orjUe du sacrement,
Ger. Frohnleichnamsfest), a festival of the Roman Catholic
Church in honour of the Real Presence of Christ in the sacrament
of the altar, observed on the first Thursday after Trinity Sunday.
The doctrine of transubstantiation was defined by the Lateran
Council in 12 15, and shortly afterwards the elevation and adora-
tion of the Host were formally enjoined. This naturally stimu-
lated the popular devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, which had
been already widespread before the definition of the dogma.
The movement was especially strong in the diocese of Liege, and
when Julienne, prioress of Mont-Cornillon near Liege (1222-
1258), had a vision in which the need for the establishment of a
festival in honour of the Sacrament was revealed to her, the
matter was taken up with enthusiasm by the clergy, and in 1 246
Robert de Torote, bishop of Liege, instituted such a festival for
his diocese. The idea, however, did not spread until, in 1261,
Jacob Pantaleon, archdeacon of Liege, ascended the papal
throne as Urban IV. By a bull of 1 264 Urban made the festival,
hitherto practically confined to the diocese of Liege, obligatory on
the whole Church, 1 and a new office for the festival was written
by Thomas Aquinas himself. As yet the stress was laid on
reverence for the Holy Sacrament as a whole ; there is no mention
in Urban's bull of the solemn procession and exposition of the
Host for the adoration of the faithful, which are the main
features of the festival as at present celebrated. Urban's bull
was once more promulgated, at the council of Vienne in 131 1, by

1 The pope's decision, so the story goes, was hastened by a miracle.
A priest, saying mass at the church of Santa Christina at Bolsena,
was troubled, after the consecration, with grave doubts as to the
truth of the doctrine of transubstantiation. His temptation was
removed by the Host beginning to bleed, the blood soaking through
the corporal into the marble of the altar.

VII. 7

Pope Clement V.; and the procession of the Host in connexion
with the festival was instituted, if the accounts we possess are
trustworthy, by Pope John XXII.

From this time onwards the festival increased in popularity
and in splendour. It became in effect the principal feast of the
Church, the procession of the Sacrament a gorgeous pageant, in
which not only the members of the trade and craft gilds, with
the magistrates of the cities, took part, but princes and
sovereigns. It thus became in a high degree symbolical of the
exaltation of the sacerdotal power. 2 In the 15th century the
custom became almost universal of following the procession with
the performance of miracle-plays and mysteries, generally
arranged and acted by members of the gilds who had formed
part of the pageant.

The rejection of the doctrine of transubstantiation at the
Reformation naturally involved the suppression of the festival of
Corpus Christi in the reformed Churches. Luther, in spite of his
belief in the Real Presence, regarded it as the most harmful of all
the medieval festivals and, though he fully realized its popularity,
it was the first that he abolished. This attitude of the reformers
towards the festival, however, intensified by their abhorrence of
the traffic in indulgences with which it had become closely
associated, only tended to establish it more firmly among the
adherents of the " old religion." The procession of the Host on
Corpus Christi day became, as it were, a public demonstration of
Catholic orthodoxy against Protestantism and later against
religious Liberalism. In most countries where religious opinion
is sharply divided the procession of Corpus Christi is therefore
now forbidden, even when Catholicism is the dominant religion.
In England occasional breaches of the law in this respect have
been for some time tolerated, as in the case of the Corpus Christi
procession annually held by the Italian community in London.
An attempt to hold a public procession of the Host in connexion
with the Eucharistic Congress at Westminster in 1908, however,
was the signal for the outburst of a considerable amount of
opposition, and was eventually abandoned owing to the personal
intervention of the prime minister.

CORRAL (Span, from corro, a circle), a word used chiefly in
Spanish America and the United States for an enclosure for
cattle and horses, and also for a defensive circle formed of
wagons against attacks from Indians. It is also used as a verb,
meaning to drive into a corral, and so figuratively to enclose,
hem in. The word is probably connected with the South African
Dutch word kraal (q.v.). In Ceylon it is especially used for an
enclosure meant for the capture of wild elephants. In this last
sense of the word the corresponding term in India is keddah (q.v.).

CORREA, a genus of Australian plants belonging to the
natural order Rutaceae, named after the Portuguese botanist
Jose Francisco Correa da Serra. The plants are evergreen shrubs
and extremely useful for winter flowering. They are increased by
cuttings, and grown in a cool greenhouse in rough peaty soil,
with a slight addition of loam and sand. After the plants have
done flowering, they should all get a little artificial warmth,
plenty of moisture, and a slight shade, while they are making
their growth, during which period the tips of the young shoots
should be nipped out when 6 or 8 in. long. When the growth is
complete, a half-shady place outdoors during August and
September will be suitable, with protection from parching winds
and hot sunshine.

CORREA DA SERRA, JOSfc FRANCISCO (1750-1823),
Portuguese politician and man of science, was born at Serpa, in
Alemtejo, in 1750. Educated at Rome, he took orders under the
protection of the duke of Alafoes, uncle of Mary I. of Portugal.
In 1777 he returned to Lisbon, where he resided with his patron,
with whose assistance he founded the Portuguese Academy of
Sciences. Of this institution he was named perpetual secre-
tary, and he received the privilege of publishing its trans-
actions without reference to any censor whatever. His use of
this right brought him into conflict with the Holy Office; and

2 Nothing caused more offence to Liberal sentiment in France after
the Restoration than the spectacle of King Louis XVIII. walking
and carrying a candle in the procession through the streets of Paris.

i 9 4

CORREGGIO

consequently in 1786 he fled to France, and remained there till
the death of Pedro III., when he again took up his residence
with Alafoes. But having given a lodging in the palace to a
French Girondist, he was forced to flee to England, where he
found a protector in Sir Joseph Banks, and became a member
of the Royal Society. In 1797 he was appointed secretary to the
Portuguese embassy, but a quarrel with the ambassador drove
him once more to Paris (1802), and in that city he resided till
1813, when he crossed over to New York. In 1816 he was made
Portuguese minister-plenipotentiary at Washington, and in 1820
he was recalled home, appointed a member of the financial
council, and elected to a seat in the a Cortes. Three years after,
and in the same year with the fall of the constitutional govern-
ment, he died. Correa da Serra ranks high as a botanist, though
he published no great special work. His principal claim to
renown is the Colecqao de livros ineditos da historia Portugueza,
(4 vols., 1790-1816), an invaluable selection of documents,
exceedingly well edited.

CORREGGIO, or Coreggio, the name ordinarily given to
Antonio Allegri (1494-1534), the celebrated Italian painter, one
of the most vivid and impulsive inventors in expression and pose
and the most consummate executants. The external circum-
stances of his life have been very diversely stated by different
writers, and the whole of what has been narrated regarding him,
even waiving the question of its authenticity, is but meagre.

The first controversy is as to his origin. Some say that he was
born of poor and lowly parents; others, that his family was noble
and rich. Neither account is accurate. His father was Pelle-
grino Allegri, a tradesman in comfortable circumstances, living
at Correggio, a small city in the territory of Modena; his mother
Bernardina Piazzoli degli Aromani, also of a creditable family of
moderate means. Antonio was born at Correggio, and was
carefully educated. He was not (as has been often alleged)
strictly self-taught in his art — a supposition which the internal
evidence of his pictures must of itself refute. They show a
knowledge of optics, perspective, architecture, sculpture and
anatomy. The last-named science he studied under Dr Giovanni
Battista Lombardi, whom he is believed to have represented in
the portrait currently named " II Medico del Correggio "
(Correggio's physician). It is concluded that he learned the first
elements of design from his uncle, Lorenzo Allegri, a painter of
moderate ability at Correggio, and from Antonio Bartolotti,
named Tognino, and that he afterwards went to the school of
Francesco Ferrari Bianchi (named Frare), and perhaps to that of
the successors of Andrea Mantegna in Mantua. He is said to have
learned modelling along with the celebrated Begarelli at
Parma; and it has even been suggested that, in the " Pieta. "
executed by Begarelli for the church of Santa Margherita, the
three finest figures are the work of Correggio, but, as the group
appears to have been completed three years after the painter's
death, there is very little plausibility in this story. Another
statement connecting Begarelli with Correggio is probably true,
namely, that the sculptor executed models in relief for the figures
which the painter had to design on the cupolas of the churches in
Parma. This was necessarily an expensive item, and it has been
cited as showing that Correggio must have been at least tolerably
well off, — an inference further supported by the fact that he used
the most precious and costly colours, and generally painted on
fine canvases or sometimes on sheets of copper.

The few certain early works of, Correggio show a rapid pro-
gression towards the attainment of his own original style.
Though he never achieved any large measure of reputation
during his brief lifetime, and was perhaps totally unknown
beyond his own district of country, he found a sufficiency of
employers, and this from a very youthful age. One of his early
pictures, painted in 1514 when he was nineteen or twenty years
old, is a large altar-pit ce commissioned for the Franciscan
convent at Carpi, representing the Virgin enthroned, with
Saints; it indicates a predilection for the style of Leonardo da
Vinci, and has certainly even greater freedom than similarly
early works of Raphael. This picture is now in the Dresden
gallery. Another painting of Correggio's youth is the " Arrest of

Christ." A third 'is an Ancona (or triple altar-piece — the
" Repose in Egypt, with Sts Bartholomew and John ") in the
church of the Conventuali at Correggio, showing the transition
from the painter's first to his second style. Between 15 14 and
1 5 20 Correggio worked much, both in oil and in fresco, for churches
and convents. In 1521 he began his famous fresco of the
" Ascension of Christ," on the cupola of the Benedictine church of
San Giovanni in Parma; here the Redeemer is surrounded by
the twelve apostles and the four doctors of the church, supported
by a host of wingless cherub boys amid the clouds. This he
finished in 1524, and soon afterwards undertook his still vaster
work on another cupola, that of the cathedral of the same city,
presenting the " Assumption of the Virgin," amid an un-
numbered host of saints and angels rapt in celestial joy. It
occupied him up to 1 530. The astounding boldness of scheme in
these works, especially as regards their incessant and audacious
f oreshortenings — the whole mass of figures being portrayed as in
the clouds, and as seen from below — becomes all the more
startling when we recall to mind the three facts — that Correggio
had apparently never seen any of the masterpieces of Raphael or
his other great predecessors and contemporaries, in Rome,
Florence, or other chief centres of art; that he was the first
artist who* ever undertook the painting of a large cupola; and
that he not only went at once to the extreme of what can be
adventured in foreshortening, but even forestalled in this attempt
the mightiest geniuses of an elder generation — the " Last
Judgment " of Michelangelo, for instance, not having been
begun earlier than 1533 (although the ceiling of the Sixtine
chapel, in which foreshortening plays a comparatively small part,
dates from 1508 to 1512). The cupola of the cathedral has
neither skylight nor windows, but only light reflected from below;
the frescoes, some portions of which were ultimately supplied by
Giorgio Gandini, are now dusky with the smoke of tapers, and
parts of them, in the cathedral and in the church of St John,
have during many past years been peeling off. The violent
foreshortenings were not, in the painter's own time, the object of
unmixed admiration; some satirist termed the groups a " guaz-
zetto di rane," or " hash of frogs." This was not exactly the
opinion of Titian, who is reported to have said, on seeing the
pictures, and finding them lightly esteemed by local dignitaries,
" Reverse the cupola, and fill it with gold, and even that will not
be its money's worth." Annibale Caracci and the Eclectics
generally evinced their zealous admiration quite as ardently.
Parma is the only city which contains frescoes by Correggio.
For the paintings "of the cupola of San Giovanni he received the
moderate sum of 472 sequins; for those of the cathedral, much
less proportionately, 350. On these amounts he had to subsist,
himself and his family, and to provide the colours, for about ten
years, having little time for further work meanwhile. Parma was
in an exceedingly unsettled and turbulent condition during some
of the years covered by Correggio's labours there, veering
between the governmental ascendancy of the French and of the
Pope, with wars and rumours of wars, alarms, tumults and
pestilence.

Other leading works by Correggio . are the following : — The
frescoes in the Camera di San Paolo (the abbess's saloon) in the
monastery of S. Lodovico at Parma, painted towards 1319 in
fresco, — " Diana returning from the Chase," with auxiliary
groups of lovely and vivacious boys of more than life size, in
sixteen oval compartments. In the National Gallery, London,
the " Ecce Homo," painted probably towards 1520 (authenticity
not unquestioned); and "Cupid, Mercury and Venus," the
latter more especially a fine example. The oil-painting of the
Nativity named " Night " ("La Notte "), for which 40 ducats
and 208 livres of old Reggio coin were paid, the nocturnal scene
partially lit up by the splendour proceeding from the divine
Infant. This work was undertaken at Reggio in 1 5 2 2 for Alberto
Pratoneris, and is now in the Dresden gallery. The oil-painting
of St Jerome, termed also " Day " (" II Giorno "), as contrasting
with the above-named " Night." Jerome is here with the
Madonna and Child, the Magdalene, and two Angels, of whom
one points out to the Infant a passage in the book held by the

CORRENTI

*95

Saint. This was painted for Briseida Bergonzi from 1527 on-
wards, and was remunerated by 400 gold imperials, some cartloads
of faggots and measures of wheat, and a fat pig. It is now in
the gallery at Parma. The " Magdalene lying at the entrance
of her Cavern " : this small picture (only 18 in. wide) was bought
by Augustus III. of Saxony for 6000 louis d'or, and is in Dresden.
In the same gallery, the two works designated " St George "
(painted towards 1532) and " St Sebastian." In the Parma
gallery, the Madonna named " della Scala," a fresco which was
originally in a recess of the Porta Romana, Parma; also. the
Madonna " della Scodella " (of the bowl, which is held by the
Virgin — the subject being the Repose in Egypt) : it was executed
for the church of San Sepolcro. Both these works date towards
1526. In the church of the Annunciation, " Parma," a fresco
of the Annunciation, now all but perished. Five celebrated
pictures painted or begun in 1532, — "Venus," "Leda," "Danae,"
" Vice," and " Virtue " : the " Leda," with figures of charming
girls bathing, is now in the Berlin gallery, and is a singularly
delightful specimen of the master. In Vienna, "Jupiter and
Io." In the Louvre, " Jupiter and Antiope," and the " Mystic
Marriage of St Catharine." In the Naples Museum, the
" Madonna Reposing," commonly named " La Zingarella," or
the " Madonna del Coniglio " (Gipsy-girl, or Madonna of the
Rabbit). On some of his pictures Correggio signed " Lieto,"
as a synonym of " Allegri." About forty works can be con-
fidently assigned to him, apart from a multitude of others
probably or manifestly spurious.

The famous story that this great but isolated artist was once,
after long expectancy, gratified by seeing a picture of Raphael's,
and closed an intense scrutiny of it by exclaiming " Anch' io son
pittore " (I too am a painter), cannot be traced to any certain
source. It has nevertheless a great internal air of probability;
and the most enthusiastic devotee of the Umbrian will admit
that in technical bravura, in enterprizing, gifted, and consummated
execution, not Raphael himself could have assumed to lord it
over Correggio.

In 1520 Correggio married Girolama Merlino, a young lady
of Mantua, who brought him a good dowry. She was but sixteen
years of age, very lovely, and is said by tradition to have been
the model of his Zingarella. They lived in great harmony
together, and had a family of four children. She died in 1529.
Correggio himself expired at his native place on the 5th of March
1534. His illness was a short one, and has by some authors been
termed pleurisy. Others, following Vasari, allege that it was
brought on by his having had to carry home a sum of money,
50 scudi, which had been paid to him for one of his pictures, and
paid in copper coin to humiliate and annoy him; he carried the
money himself, to save expense, from Parma to Correggio on a
hot day, and his fatigue and exhaustion led to the mortal illness.
In this curious tale there is no symptom of authenticity, unless
its very singularity, and the unlikelihood of its being invented
without any foundation at all, may be allowed to count for
something. He is said to have died with Christian piety; and
his eulogists (speaking apparently from intuition rather than
record) affirm that he was a good citizen, an affectionate son and
father, fond and observant of children, a sincere and obliging
friend, pacific, beneficent, grateful, unassuming, without mean-
ness, free from envy and tolerant of criticism. He was buried
with some pomp in the Arrivabene chapel, in the cloister of the
Franciscan church at Correggio.

Regarding the art of Correggio from an intellectual or emotional
point of view, his supreme gift may be defined as suavity, — a
vivid, spontaneous, lambent play of the affections, a heartfelt
inner grace which fashions the forms and features, and beams
like soft and glancing sunshine in the expressions. We see
lovely or lovable souls clothed in bodies or corresponding loveli-
ness, which are not only physically charming, but are so informed
with the spirit within as to become one with that in movement
and gesture. In these qualities of graceful naturalness, not
heightened into the sacred or severe, and of joyous animation,
in momentary smiles and casual living turns of head or limb,
Correggio undoubtedly carried the art some steps beyond any-

thing it had previously attained, and he remains to this day the
unsurpassed or unequalled model of pre-eminence. From a
technical point of view, his supreme gift — even exceeding his
prodigious faculty in foreshortening and the like — is chiaroscuro,
the power of modifying every tone, from bright light to depth
of darkness, with the sweetest and most subtle gradations, all
being combined into harmonious unity. In this again he far
distanced all predecessors, and defied subsequent competition.
His colour also is luminous and precious, perfectly understood
and blended; it does not rival the superb richness or deep intense
glow of the Venetians, but on its own showing is a perfect achieve-
ment, in exact keeping with his powers in chiaroscuro and in
vital expression. When we come, however, to estimate painters
according to their dramatic faculty, their power of telling a story
or impressing a majestic truth, their range and strength of mind,
we find the merits of Correggio very feeble in comparison with
those of the highest masters, and even of many who without,
being altogether great have excelled in these particular qualities.
Correggio never means much, and often, in subjects where fulness
of significance is demanded, he means provokingly little. He
expressed his own miraculous facility by saying that he always
had his thoughts at the end of his pencil; in truth, they were
often thoughts rather of the pencil and its controlling hand than
of the teeming brain. He has the faults of his excellences —
sweetness lapsing into mawkishness and affectation, empty in
elevated themes and lasciviously voluptuous in those of a
sensuous type, rapid and forceful action lapsing into posturing
and self-display, fineness and sinuosity of contour lapsing into
exaggeration and mannerism, daring design lapsing into incorrect-
ness. No great master is more dangerous than Correggio to
his enthusiasts; round him the misdeeds of conventionalists
and the follies of connoisseurs cluster with peculiar virulence,
and almost tend to blind to his real and astonishing excellences
those practitioners or lovers of painting who, while they can
acknowledge the value of technique, are still more devoted to
greatness of soul, and grave or elevated invention, as expressed
in the form of art.

Correggio was the head of the school of painting of Parma,
which forms one main division of the Lombardic school. He
had more imitators than pupils. Of the latter one can name
with certainty only his son Pomponio, who was born in 1521
and died at an advanced age; Francesco Capelli; Giovanni
Giarola; Antonio Bernieri (who, being also a native of the town
of Correggio, has sometimes been confounded with Allegri);
and Bernardo Gatti, who ranks as the best of all. The Par-
migiani (Mazzuoli) were his most highly distinguished imitators.

A large number of books have been written concerning Correggio.
The principal modern authority is Conrado Ricci, Life and Times of
Correggio (1896); see also Pungileoni, Memorie storiche di Antonio
Allegri (1817); Julius Meyer, Antonio Allegri (1870, English trans-
lation, 1876); H. Thode, Correggio (1898); Bigi, Vita ed opere
(1881); Colnaghi, Correggio Frescoes at Parma (1845); Fagan,
Works of Correggio (1873); and T. Sturge Moore, Correggio (1906)
(a work which includes some adverse criticism on the views
of Bernhard Berenson, in his Study of Italian Art, 1901, and else-
where). • (W. M. R.)

■■ CORRENTI, CESARE (1815-1888), Italian revolutionist and
politician, was born on the 3rd of January 1815, at Milan, of a
poor but noble family. While employed in the public debt
administration, he flooded Lombardy with revolutionary
pamphlets designed to excite hatred against the Austrians, and in
1848 proposed the general abstention of the Milanese from
smoking, which gave rise to the insurrection known as the Five
Days. During the revolt he was one of the leading spirits of the
operations of the insurgents. Until the reoccupation of Milan by
the Austrians he was secretary-general of the provisional govern-
ment, but afterwards he fled to Piedmont, whence he again
distributed his revolutionary pamphlets throughout Lombardy,
earning a precarious livelihood by journalism. Elected deputy in
1849, he worked strenuously for the national cause, supporting
Cavour in his Crimean policy, although he belonged to the Left.
After the annexation of Lombardy he was made commissioner for
the liquidation of the Lombardo- Venetian debt, in i860 was

ig6

CORRESPONDENCE— CORRIENTES

appointed councillor of state, and received various other public
positions, especially in connexion with the railway and financial
administration. He veered round to the Right, and in 1867 and
again in 1869 he held the portfolio of education; he played an
important part in the events consequent upon the occupation of
Rome, and helped to draft the Law of Guarantees. As minister
of education he suppressed the theological faculties in the Italian
universities, but eventually resigned office and allied himself
with the Left again on account of conservative opposition to his
reforms. His defection from the Right ultimately assured the
advent of the Left to power in 1876; and while declining office,
he remained chief adviser of Agostino Depretis until the latter's
death. On several occasions — notably in connexion with the
redemption of the Italian railways, and with the Paris exhibition
of 1878 — he acted as representative of the government. In 1877
he was given the lucrative appointment of secretary of the order
of Saints Maurice and Lazarus by Depretis, and in 1886 was
created senator. He died at Rome on the 4th of October 1888.
He left a considerable body of writings on a variety of subjects,
none of which is of exceptional merit.

See E. Massarani, Cesare Correnli nella vita e nelle opere
(1890); and L. Carpi, 77 Risorgimento italiano, vol. iv. (Milan,
1888). (L. V.*)

CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondenlia,
corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respondere, to
answer; cf. Fr. correspondence), strictly a mutual agreement or
fitness of parts or character, that which fits or answers to a
requirement in another, or more generally a similarity or parallel-
ism. In the 17th and 18th centuries the word was frequently
applied to relations and communications between states. It is
now, outside special applications, chiefly applied to the inter-
change of communications by letter, or to the letters themselves,
between private individuals, states, business houses, or from
individuals to the press. The " doctrine of correspondence or
correspondences," one of the leading tenets of Swedenborgianism,
is that every natural object corresponds to and typifies some
spiritual principle or truth, this being the only key to the true
interpretation of Scripture. In mathematics, the term " corre-
spondence " implies the existence of some relation between the
members of two groups of objects. If each object of one group
corresponds to one and only one object of the second, and vice
versa, then a one-to-one correspondence exists between the
groups. If each object of the first group corresponds to /3 objects
of the second group, and each object of the second group corre-
sponds to a objects of the first group, then an a to (3 corre-
spondence exists between the two groups. For examples of the
application of this notion see Curve.

CORREZE, a department of south-central France, formed
from the southern portion of the old province of Limousin,
bounded N. by the departments of Haute- Vienne and Creuse, E.
by Puy-de-D6me, S.E. by Cantal, S. by Lot, and W. by Dordogne.
Area, 2273 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 317,430. Correze is situated on
the western fringe of the central plateau of France. It forms a
hilly tableland elevated in the east and north, and intersected by
numerous fertile river valleys, trending for the most part to the
south and south-west. The highest points, many of which
exceed 3000 ft., are found in the north, where the Plateau de
Millevaches separates the basins of the Loire and the Garonne.
Except for a small district in the extreme north, which is watered
by the Vienne, Correze belongs to the basin of the Garonne. The
Dordogne waters its south-eastern region. The Correze, from
which the department takes its name, and the Vezere, of which
the Correze is the chief tributary, rise in the Plateau de Mille-
vaches, flow south-west, and unite to the west of Brive. The
climate of Correze is, in general, cold, damp and variable, except
in the south-west, where it is mild and agreeable. The majority
of the inhabitants live by agriculture. About one-third of the
department is arable land, most of which is found in the south-
west. Rye, buckwheat and wheat (in the order named) are the
most abundant cereals. Hemp, flax and tobacco are also grown.
The mor „ elevated regions of the north and east are given over to
pasture, sheep being specially numerous on the Plateau de

Millevaches. Pigs and goats are reared to a considerable extent;
and poultry-farming and cheese-making are much practised.
The vineyards of the neighbourhood of Brive produce wine of
medium quality. Chestnuts, largely used as an article of food,
walnuts and cider-apples are the chief fruits. Coal in small
quantities, slate, building-stone and other stone are the mineral
products, and clay, used in potteries and tile-works, is also
worked. The most important industrial establishment is the
government manufactory of fire-arms at Tulle. There are
flour-mills, breweries, oil- works, saw-mills and dye-works; and
hats (Bort), coarse woollens, silk, preserved foods, wooden shoes,
chairs, paper and leather are manufactured. Coal and raw
materials for textile industries are leading imports; live stock
and agricultural products are the chief exports. The department
is served by the Orleans railway, and the Dordogne is navigable.
The department is divided into the arrondissements of Tulle,
Brive and Ussel, containing 29 cantons and 289 communes. It
belongs to the archdiocese of Bourges, the region of the XII.
army corps, and the Acadimie (educational division) of Clermont-
Ferrand. Its court of appeal is at Limoges. Tulle, the capital,
and Brive are the principal towns of the department. Uzerche is
a picturesque old town on the Vezere, with a Romanesque church,
old houses, a gate and other remains of medieval fortifications.
At Aubazine (or Obazine) there is a Romanesque church of the
12th century, formerly belonging to the celebrated Cistercian
abbey, of which Etienne " of Obazine " (d. 1 1 59 and subsequently
beatified) was the founder and first abbot. It contains the fine
sculptured tomb of the founder. To the same style belong the
abbey church of Beaulieu, the south portal of which is elaborately
carved, the abbey church of Meymac, and the abbey church of
Vigeois. Treignac, with its church, bridge and ramparts of the
15th century, and Turenne, dominated by the ruins of the castle
of the famous family of that name, are ancient and interesting
towns. The dolmen at Espartignac and the cromlech of Aubazine
are the chief megalithic remains in the department. A Roman
eagle and other antiquities have been found close to Ussel, which
at the end of the 16th century became the centre of the duchy of
Ventadour.

C0RRI8, LOUGH, a lake of western Ireland, in the counties
Galway and Mayo. It lies N.W. and S.E., and is 27 m. long,
including a long projecting arm at the north-west. The extreme
breadth is 7 m., but the outline is extremely irregular, and the
lough narrows near the centre to a few hundred yards. Lough
Corrib is very shallow, hardly exceeding 30 ft. in depth at any
point, and it is covered with islands, of which there are some
300. It lies 29 ft. above sea-level, and drains by the short river
Corrib to Galway Bay. The large Lough Mask lies to its north
and is connected with it by a partly subterranean channel.
The scenery is pleasant, but the shores are low, except at the
north-west, where the wild foothills of Joyce's Country rise.

CORRIDOR (Fr. corridor, from Ital. corridore, Med. Lat. corri-
dorium, a " running-place," from currere, to run), a main passage
in a large building, on which various apartments open. In public
offices, prisons, workhouses, hospitals, &c, the corridors are
usually of severe simplicity; but in mansions and palaces large
corridors (galleries) are often adorned with works of art, whence
comes the term " picture gallery " applied to many collections.
The term " corridor carriage " is applied to the modern style of
railway carriage in which a narrow passage connects the separate
compartments, the object being to combine a certain degree of
privacy for the traveller with access from one compartment to
another whilst the train is in motion.

CORRIE (Gaelic coire, cauldron; hence whirlpool, or circular
hollow), a term used in the Highlands of Scotland for a steep-
sided, rounded hollow in a mountain-side, from the lower part
of which a stream usually issues as the outlet of a small lake
ponded by glacial debris. Corrie-lakes are common in all
glaciated mountain regions. (See Cirque.)

CORRIENTES, a north-eastern province of the Argentine
Republic, and part of a region known as the Argentine Mesopo-
tamia, bounded N. by Paraguay, N.E. by Misiones (territory),
E. by Brazil, S. by Entre Rios, and W. by Santa Fe and the

CORRIENTES— CORRUPT PRACTICES

197

Chaco. Pop. (1895) 239,618; (1904 estimate) 299,479; area,
32,580 sq. m. Nearly one-third of the province is covered by
swamps and lagoons, or is so little above their level as to be
practically unfit for permanent settlement unless drained. The
Ibera lagoon (c. 8500 sq. m., according to the Argentine Year
Book for 1905-1906) includes a large part of the central
and north-eastern departments, and the Maloya lagoon covers
a large part of the north-western departments. Several streams
flowing into the Parana and Uruguay have their sources in these
lagoons, the Ibera. sending its waters in both directions. The
southern districts of the province, however, are high and rolling,
similar to the neighbouring departments of Entre Rios, and
are admirably adapted to grazing and agriculture. The north-
eastern corner is also high, but it is broken by ranges of hills
and is heavily forested, like the adjacent territory of Misiones.
The climate on the higher plains is sub-tropical, but in the
northern swamps it is essentially tropical. Corrientes is the
hottest province of Argentina, notwithstanding its large area of
water and forest. The exports include cattle and horses, jerked
beef, hides, timber and firewood, cereals and fruit. The principal
towns are Corrientes, the capital; Goya, a flourishing agri-
cultural town (1906 estimate, 7000) on a side channel of the
Parana, 150 m. S. of Corrientes, the seat of a modern normal
school and the market-town of a prosperous district; Bella
Vista (pop. 1906 estimate, 3000), prettily situated on the Parana,
80 m. S. of Corrientes, the commercial centre of a large district;
Esquina (pop. 1906 estimate, 3000) on the Parana at the mouth
of the Corrientes river, 86 m. S. of Goya, which exports timber
and firewood from the neighbouring forest of Payubre; Monte
Caseros (pop. 1906 estimate, 4000) on the Uruguay river, from
which cattle are shipped to Brazil, the eastern terminus of the
Argentine North-Eastern railway (which crosses the province
in a N.W. direction to Corrientes), and a station on the East
Argentine railway (which runs northward to Paso de Los Libres,
opposite Uruguayana, Brazil and to San Tome, and southward
to a junction with the Entre Rios railways). A considerable
district on the upper Uruguay was once occupied by prosperous
Jesuit missions, all of which fell into decay and ruins after the
expulsion of that order from the Spanish possessions in 1767.
The population of the province is composed very largely of
Indian and mixed races, and Guarani is still the language of the
country people.

CORRIENTES (San Juan de Corrientes), a city and river port,
and the capital of the above province, in the north of the
Argentine Republic, on the left bank of the Parana river, 20 m.
below the junction of the Upper Parana and Paraguay, and
832 m. N. of Buenos Aires. The name is derived from the siete
corrientes (seven currents) caused by rocks in the bed of the
river just above the town. Pop. (1895) 16,129; (1907 local
estimate) 30,172, largely Indian and of mixed descent. The
appearance of Corrientes is not equal to its commercial and
political importance, the buildings both public and private
being generally poor and antiquated. There are four churches,
the more conspicuous of which are the Matriz and San Francisco.
The government house, originally a Jesuit college, is an anti-
quated structure surrounding an open court (patio). There is
a national college. The commercial importance of Corrientes
results from its unusually favourable situation near the con-
fluence of the Upper Parana and Paraguay, and a short distance
below the mouth of the Bermejo. The navigation of the Upper
Parana and Bermejo rivers begins here, and freight for the
Upper Parana and Chaco rivers is transhipped at Corrientes,
which practically controls the trade of the extensive regions
tributary to them. Corrientes is the western terminus of the
Argentine North-Eastern railway, which crosses the province S.E.
to Monte Caseros, where it connects with the East Argentine
line running S. to Concordia and N. to San Tome. The principal
exports are timber, cereals, mate, sugar, tobacco, hides, jerked
beef, jEru.it and quebracho.

CORRIGAN, MICHAEL AUGUSTINE (1839-1902), third
archbishop of the Roman Catholic archdiocese of New York,
in the United States, was born in Newark, New Jersey, on the

13th of August 1839. In 1859 he graduated at Mount St Mary's
College, Emmittsburg, Maryland, and began his studies for the
priesthood as the first of the twelve students with whom the
American College at Rome was opened. On the 19th of September
1863 he was ordained priest, and in 1864 obtained the degree
of D.D. Returning to America, he was appointed professor of
Dogmatic Theology and Sacred Scripture, and director of the
ecclesiastical seminary of Seton Hall College at South Orange,
New Jersey; soon afterwards he was made vice-president of
the institution; and in 186S became president, succeeding Rev.
Bernard J. M'Quaid (b. 1823), the first Roman Catholic bishop
of Rochester. In October 1868 Corrigan became vicar-general
of Newark, a diocese then including all the state of New Jersey.
When Archbishop Bayley was transferred to the see of Baltimore
in 1873, Pius IX. appointed Corrigan bishop of Newark. In
1876 he resigned the presidency of Seton Hall College. In 1880
Bishop Corrigan was made coadjutor, with the right of succession,
to Cardinal McCloskey, archbishop of New York, under the
title of archbishop of Petra; and thereafter nearly all the practical
work of the archdiocese fell to his hands. He was at the time
the youngest archbishop in the Catholic Church in America.
On the death of Cardinal McCloskey in 1885 Archbishop Corrigan
became metropolitan of the diocese of New York. He died on
the 5th of May 1902. He was a scholar of much erudition, with
great power of administrative organization, simple, generous and
kindly in character. The earlier years of his archiepiscopate
were disturbed by his controversy with Edward McGlynn
(1839-1900), a New York priest (and a fellow-student with
Corrigan at Rome), who disapproved of parochial schools,
refused to go to Rome for examination, and was excom-
municated in July 1887, but returned to the church five years
later.

See Michael Augustine Corrigan: A Memorial, with biographical
sketch by John A. Mooney (New York, 1902).

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, Mercuric Chloride, Per-
chloride or Mercury (HgCl 2 ), a white solid obtained by the
action of chlorine on mercury or calomel, by the addition of
hydrochloric acid to a hot, strong solution of mercurous nitrate,
Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 +4HCl = 2HgCl 2 +2H 2 0+2N0 2 , and, commercially,
by heating a mixture of mercuric sulphate and common salt, the
mercuric chloride subliming and being condensed in the form of
small rhombic crystals. It melts at 288 , and boils at 303 ; it is
sparingly soluble in cold water, more so in hot; it is very soluble
in alcohol and ether. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid forming com-
pounds such as HgCl 2 -2HCl, 3HgCl 2 -4HCl, 2HgCl 2 -HCl; accord-
ing to the temperature and concentration; it also forms double
salts with many chlorides; sal alembroth, 2NH 4 Cl-HgCl 2 -H 2 0,
is the compound with ammonium chloride. It absorbs ammonia
to form HgCl 2 -NH 3 , which may be distilled without decomposi-
tion. Various oxychlorides are formed by digesting corrosive
sublimate with mercuric oxide. Corrosive sublimate has im-
portant applications in medicine — as an astringent, stimulant,
caustic and antiseptic (see Mercury).

CORRUPT PRACTICES, a term used in English election law, as
defined by the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883,
to include bribery, treating, undue influence, personation, and
aiding, abetting, counselling and procuring personation. Bribery"
and corruption at elections have been the subject of much
legislation, statutes for their prevention have been passed in 1729,
1809, 1827, 1842, 1854, 1868 and 1883.

By the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883
(which incorporated the Corrupt Practices Prevention Act 1854,
an act that repealed all former legislation) the following persons
are to be deemed guilty of bribery: —

1. Every person who shall directly or indirectly, by himself
or by any other person on his behalf, give, lend, &c, or offer,
promise, or promise to procure, &c, any money or valuable con-
sideration to or for any voter or any other person in order to
.induce any voter to vote or refrain from voting, or shall corruptly

do any such act on account of such voter having voted or refrained
from voting at any election.

2. Every person who shall similarly give or procure or promise,

i 9 8

GORRY

&c, any office, place or employment to or for any voter or other
person in order to induce him to vote, &c.

3. Every person who shall make any gift, loan, promise, &c, as
aforesaid to any person to induce such person to procure the
return of any person to serve in parliament or the vote of any
voter.

4. Every person who shall, in consequence of such gift, procure
or engage, promise or endeavour to procure the return of any
person or the vote of any voter.

5. Every person who shall pay any money with the intent that
it should be spent in bribery, or who shall pay money in repay-
ment of any money wholly or in part expended in bribery.

6. Every person who before or during an election shall receive
or contract for any money, &c, for voting, or refraining, or
agreeing to vote or to refrain from voting.

7. Every person who, after the election, receives money, &c,
on account of any person having voted or refrained, &c.

Treating. — Any person who corruptly by himself or by any
other person either before, during or after an election, directly or
indirectly gives or provides, or pays wholly or in part the expense
of giving or providing any meat, drink or entertainment, or
provision to or for any person in order to be elected, or for being
elected, or for the purpose of corruptly influencing such person to
give or refrain from giving his vote at an election, &c, shall be
deemed guilty of treating, and every elector corruptly accepting
such meat, drink, &c, shall also be guilty of treating.

Undue Influence. — Every person who shall directly or in-
directly make use of or threaten to make use of any force,
violence, &c, or inflict or threaten to inflict any temporal or
spiritual injury, &c, upon any person to induce or compel such
person to vote or refrain from voting, or who shall by abduction,
duress, or any fraudulent device or contrivance impede or
prevent the exercise of the franchise of any elector, or shall
thereby compel, induce, &c, any elector to give or refrain from
giving his vote, shall be guilty of undue influence.

Illegal, as distinguished from " corrupt," practices are certain
acts and omissions in regard to an election which are now
prohibited, whether done or omitted, honestly or dishonestly.
They may be classified under the following heads: — (1) Acts
which are illegal practices by whomsoever committed. These are
as follows: Payment or receipt or contracts to pay or receive
money for conveyance of voters to or from the poll, on account of
any committee room beyond the number allowed by the act, or
to an elector for use of house or land to exhibit addresses, &c, or
for exhibition by him (otherwise than in the ordinary course of
his business of advertising agent) of such addresses, &c; pay-
ment of election expenses otherwise than by or through the
election agent, and payment otherwise than to a candidate or
election agent of money provided by any other person for election
expenses; voting or procuring to vote of any person prohibited
from voting, if the person offending knows of the prohibition;
knowingly publishing a false statement that a candidate has
withdrawn, or publishing with a view to affect the return of a
candidate a false statement as to his character or conduct. (2)
Acts and omissions which are illegal practices in the case of
candidates and agents only, being breaches of duties specially
imposed on them. These are the payment or incurring expenses
in excess of the maximum authorized by the legislature, the
omitting without lawful excuse to make a return and declaration
of expenses in due time, and the payment by an election agent
of any election expense amounting to 46s. not vouched by bill of
particulars and receipt, of any claim for expenses not sent in in
due time, or of any such claim after the time allowed for payment
thereof. (3) Acts which are illegal practices when done by a
candidate or agent, and are a minor offence when done by any one
else. These are illegal payments, employment and hiring, and
printing, publishing or posting a bill, placard or poster not
bearing on its face the name of the printer or publisher. Illegal
payments are knowingly providing money for prohibited pay-*
ments or expenses in excess of the maximum, corruptly inducing
a candidate to withdraw by payment or promise of payment (the
candidate so induced being guilty of the like offence), paying or

agreeing to pay for torches, flags, banners, cockades, ribbons and
other marks of distinction (the receiver being guilty of the like
offence if he is aware of the illegality). Illegal employment is the
employment for payment or promise of payment of persons
beyond the number allowed by the legislature or for purposes not
authorized. The employe is guilty of the like offence if he knows
of the illegality. Illegal hiring is the letting or lending, or the
employing, hiring, borrowing or using to carry voters to the poll
of stage, or hackney carriages, or horses, or of carriages or horses
ordinarily let for hire, and the hiring of committee rooms in
premises licensed for the sale of intoxicants, in a club (not being a
permanent political club) where intoxicants are sold, in premises
where refreshments are ordinarily sold, or in a public elementary
school in receipt of a parliamentary grant. Personation and
aiding, abetting, &c, of personation are felonies punishable with
two years' imprisonment with hard labour. All other corrupt
practices are indictable misdemeanours (in Scotland, crimes and
offences) punishable with one year's imprisonment, with or
without hard labour, or a fine not exceeding £200. Conviction of
any corrupt practice also renders the offender incapable for seven
years of being registered as an elector, or voting at any election,
parliamentary or other, in the United Kingdom, or of holding any
public or judicial office, or of being elected to or sitting in the
House of Commons; and any such office or seat held by him at
the time is vacated. In the case of a parliamentary candidate, if
an election court finds that there has been treating or undue
influence by him, or any other corrupt practice with his know-
ledge or consent, he becomes incapable of ever being elected for
the same constituency, and incurs the like incapacities as if he
had been convicted on indictment; if it is found by the election
court that he has been guilty by his agents of a corrupt practice,
he becomes incapable for seven years of being elected for the
same constituency. Illegal practices are offences punishable on
summary conviction with a fine not exceeding £100, and with
five years' incapacity for being registered or voting as a parlia-
mentary elector, or an elector to public office within the county
or borough where the offence was committed. Illegal payments,
employment and hiring, and printing and publishing of bills, &c,
not bearing the printer's or publisher's name, are, when com-
mitted by any one who is not a candidate or agent, offences
punishable on summary conviction with a fine not exceeding
£100, but carry with them no incapacities. Where an election
court finds that any illegal practice has been committed with the
knowledge or consent of a parliamentary candidate, he becomes
incapable for seven years of being elected to or sitting in the
House of Commons for the same constituency. He incurs the
like incapacity, limited to the duration of the parliament for
which the election was held, if the election court finds that he was
guilty by his agents of an illegal practice. A prosecution for any
of the above offences cannot be instituted more than a year after
the offence was committed, unless an inquiry by election com-
missioners takes place, in which case it may be instituted at any
time within two years from the commission of the offence, not
being more than three months after the date of the commissioners'
report.

The law as to corrupt and illegal practices, as above stated,
applies equally to parliamentary, municipal, county and parish
council elections. Incapacities corresponding to those incurred
by parliamentary candidates found guilty by an election court are
incurred by municipal and other candidates in the like case,
e.g. a municipal candidate found personally guilty of a corrupt
practice is incapacitated forever, and a candidate found guilty by
his agents is incapacitated for three years from holding corporate
office in the borough.

See Rogers, On Elections, 3 vols. ; Fraser, Law of Parliamentary
Elections.

CORRY, a city of Erie county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 37 m.
S.E. of Erie, in the N.W. part of the state, at an elevation of
about 1430 ft. Pop. (1890) 5677; (1900) 5369 (671 foreign-
born); (1910) 5991. It is served by the Erie and the Penn-
sylvania railways. Corry is situated in the midst of a fine
farming region, which is rich in petroleum and natural gas, and

CORSAIR— CORSICA

199

is widely known for its mineral springs. One mile W. of the city
is a state fish hatchery, and there are fine trout streams in
the neighbourhood. Among the city's manufactures are steel,
engines, locomotives, radiators, shovels, bricks, flour, furniture
and leather. Corry was settled in i860, and was incorporated
as a borough in 1863 and as a city in 1866.

CORSAIR (through the Fr. from the Med. Lat. cursarius, a
pirate; cursus, or cursa, from currere, to run, being Late Latin
for a plundering foray), the name given by the Mediterranean
peoples to the privateers of the Barbary coast who plundered
the shipping of Christian nations; they were not strictly
pirates, as they were commissioned by their respective govern-
ments, but the word came to be synonymous, in English,
with " pirate." The French word corsaire is still used for
" privateer," and guerre de course is applied to the use in naval
warfare of " commerce-destroyers." (See Pirate, Barbary
Pirates and Privateer.)

CORSICA (Fr. Corse), a large island of the Mediterranean,
forming a department of France. It is situated immediately
to the north of Sardinia (from which it is separated by the narrow
strait of Bonifacio), between 41 21' and 43 N. and 8° 30' and
9° 30' E. Area, 3367 sq.m. Pop. (1906) 291,160. Corsica lies
within 54 m. W. of the coast of Tuscany, 98 m. S. of Genoa and
106 m. S.E. of the French coast at Nice. The extreme length
of the island is 114 m. and its breadth 52 m. The greater part
of the surface of Corsica is occupied by forest-clad mountains,
whose central ridge describes a curve from N.W. to S.W., pre-
senting its convexity towards the E. Secondary chains diverge
in all directions from this main range, enclosing small basins
both geographically and socially isolated; on the west and. south
of the island they either terminate abruptly on the shore or
run out to a great distance into the sea, forming picturesque
bays and gulfs, some of which afford excellent harbours. The
highest peaks are the Monts Cinto (8881 ft.), Rotondo (8612),
Paglia Orba (8284), Padro (7851) and d'Oro (784s). On the
eastern side of the island, between Bastia and Porto Vecchio,
there intervenes between the mountains and the sea a considerable
tract of low and unhealthy, but fertile country, and the coast is
fringed in places by lagoons.

Geology. — Corsica may be divided into two parts, which are geo-
logically distinct, by a line drawn from Belgodere through Corte
to the east coast near Favone. West of this line the island is com-
posed chiefly of granite, with a large mass of granophyres, quartz
porphyries and similar rocks forming the high mountains around
Mt. Cinto; but between the Gulfs of Porto and Galeria, schists,
limestones and anthracite, containing fossils of Upper Carboniferous
age, occur. The famous orbicular diorite of Corsica is found near
Sta. Lucia-di-Tallano in the arrondissement of Sartene. In the
eastern part of the island the predominant rocks are schists of
unknown age, with intrusive masses of serpentine and euphotide.
Folded amongst the schists are strips of Upper Carboniferous beds
similar to those of the west coast. Overlying these more ancient
rocks are limestones with Rhaetic and Liassic fossils, occurring in
small patches at Oletta, Morosaglia, &c. Nummulitic limestone of
Eocene age is found near St Florent, and occupies several large
basins near the boundary between the granite and the schist. Mio-
cene molasse with Clypeaster, &c, forms the plain of Aleria on the
east coast, and occurs also at St Florent in the north and Bonifacio
in the south. A small patch of Pliocene has been found near Aleria.
The caves of Corsica, especially in the neighbourhood of Bastia,
contain numerous mammalian remains, the commonest of which
belong to Lagomys corsicanus, Cuv.

See Hollande, " Geologie de la Corse," Ann. set. gSol., vol. ix.
(1877) ; Nentien, " fitudes sur les gites mineraux de la Corse," Ann.
Mines Paris, ser. 9, vol. xii. pp. 231-296, pi. v. (1897).

Corsica is well watered by rivers and torrents, which, though
short in their course, bring down large volumes of water from
the mountains. The longest is the Golo, which rises in the
pastoral region of Niolo, isolated among the mountains to the
west of Corte and inhabited by a distinct population of obscure
origin. It enters the sea on the east coast to the south of
the salt-water lake of Biguglia; farther south, on the same
side of the island, is the Tavignano, while on the west there
are the Liamone, the Gravone and the Taravo. The other
streams are all comparatively small. Owing to the rugged and
indented outline of the western coast there are an unusual number
of bays and harbours. Of the bays the most important are

Porto, Sagone, Ajaccio and Valinco; of the ports, St Florent
(San Fiorenzo), He Rousse (Isola Rossa), Calvi, Ajaccio and
Propriano. On the eastern side, which is much less rugged and
broken, the only harbours worth mentioning are those of Bastia
and Porto Vecchio (the Portus Syracusanus of the ancients),
and the only gulfs those of Porto Vecchio and Santa Manza.
At the extreme south are the harbour and town -of Bonifacio,
giving name to the strait which separates Corsica from Sardinia.

The climate of the island ranges from warmth in the low-
lands to extreme rigour in the mountains. The intermediate
region is the most temperate and healthy. The mean annual
temperature at Ajaccio is 63 F. The dominant winds are those
from the south-west and south-east.

There are mines of anthracite, antimony and copper; the
island produces granite, building stone, marble, and amianthus,
and there are salt marshes. Among other places Guagno,
Pardina Guitera, and Orezza have miijeral springs.

The agriculture of Corsica suffers from scarcity of labour, due
partly to the apathy of the inhabitants, and from scarcity of
capital. The cultivation of cereals, despite the fertility of the
soil, is neglected; wheat is grown to some extent, but in this
respect, the population is dependent to a large degree on outside
supplies. The culture of fruit, especially of the vine, cedrates,
citrons and olives (for which the Balagne region, in the north-
west, is noted), of vegetables and of tobacco, and sheep and goat
rearing are the main rural industries, to which may be added
the rearing of silk-worms. The exploitation of the fine forests,
which contain the well-known Corsican pine, beeches, oaks and
chestnuts, is also an important resource, but tends to proceed
too rapidly. Chestnuts are exported, and, ground into flour,
are used as food by the mountaineers. Most of the inhabitants
are proprietors of land, but often the properties are so split
up that many hours, or even a whole day, are spent in going
from the vineyard or olive plantation to the arable land in the
plain or the chestnut-wood in the mountain. A great part of the
agricultural labour is performed by labourers from Tuscany
and Lucca, who periodically visit the island for that purpose.
Sheep of a peculiar breed, resembling chamois and known as
mouflons, inhabit the more inaccessible parts of the mountains.
The uncultivated districts are generally overgrown with a thick
tangled underwood, consisting of arbutus, myrtle, thorn, laurel
broom and other fragrant shrubs, and known as the maquis, the
fragrance of which can be distinguished even from the sea.

Fishing and shooting are allowed almost everywhere to the
possessor of a government licence; special permission, where
it is necessary, is easily obtained. Wild boars, stags, in the
eastern districts, and hares as well as the mouflon are found,
while partridges, quail, woodcock, wild duck and water-fowl
are abundant. Trout and eels are the chief fish. The flesh of
the Corsican blackbird is considered a delicacy. The fisheries
of tunny, pilchard and anchovy are extensively prosecuted for
the supply of the Italian markets; but comparatively few of
the natives are engaged in this industry.

The Corsican is simple and sober but unenterprising; dignified
and proud, he is possessed of a native courtesy, manifested in
his hospitality to strangers, the refusal of which is much resented.
He is, however, implacable towards his own countrymen when
his enmity is once aroused, and the practice of the blood-feud
or vendetta has not died out. Each individual is attached to
some powerful family, and the influence of this usage is specially
marked in politics, the individual voting with his clan on pain
of arousing the vindictiveness of his fellow-members. Another
dominant factor in social life in Corsica is the almost universal
ambition on the part of the natives towards an official career,
a tendency from which commerce and agriculture inevitably
suffer.

The manufactures of the island are of small importance.
They include the extraction of gallic acid from chestnut-bark,
the preparation of preserved citrons and other delicacies, and
of macaroni and similar foods and the manufacture of fancy
goods and cigars.

The chief ports are Bastia, Ajaccio and He Rousse. A railway

200

CORSICA

runs from Bastia to Ajaccio with branches to Calvi and Ghiso-
naccia, but, in general, lack of means of communication as well
as of capital are a barrier to commercial activity. In 1905
imports reached a value of £113,000. The chief were tobacco,
furniture and wooden goods, wine, cereals, coal, cheese and bran.
Exports were valued at £336,000, and included chestnut-extract,
charcoal, timber, citrons and other fruits, seeds, casks, skins,
chestnuts and tanning bark.

Corsica is divided into five arrondissements (chief towns —
Ajaccio, Bastia, Calvi, Corte and Sartene), with 62 cantons
and 364 communes. It forms part of the academic, (educational
circumscription) and archiepiscopal province of Aix (Bouches-du-
Rhone) and of the region of the XV. army corps. The principal
towns are Ajaccio, the capital and the seat of the bishop of the
island and of the prefect ; Bastia, the seat of the court of appeal and
of the military commander; Calvi, Corte and Bonifacio. Other
places of interest are St Jlorent, near which stand the ruins of
the cathedral (12th century) of the vanished town of Nebbio;
Murato, which has a church (12th or 13th century) of Pisan
architecture, which is exemplified in other Corsican churches; and
Cargese, where there is a Greek colony, dating from the 17th
century. Near Lucciana are the ruins of a fine Romanesque church
called La Canonica. Megalithic monuments are numerous, chief
among them being the dolmen of Fontanaccia in the arrondisse-
ment of Sartene.

History. — The earliest inhabitants of Corsica were probably
Ligurian. The Phocaeans of Ionia were the first civilized people
to establish settlements there. About 560 B.C. they landed in the
island and founded the town of Alalia. By the end of the 6th
century, however, their power had dwindled before that of the
Etruscans, who were in their turn driven out by the Carthaginians.
The latter were followed by the Romans, who gained a footing in
the island at the time of the First Punic War, but did not estab-
lish themselves there till the middle of the 2nd century B.C. Both
Marius and Sulla founded colonies — the one 1 at Mariana (near
Lucciana) in 104, the second at Aleria in 88. In the early
centuries of the Christian era Corsica formed one of the senatorial
provinces of the Empire, but though it was in continuous
commercial communication with Italy, it was better known as a
place of banishment for political offenders. One of the most
distinguished of those was the younger Seneca, who spent in
exile there the eight years ending a.d. 49.

During the break-up of the Roman empire in the West the
possession of Corsica was for a while disputed between the
Vandals and the Gothic allies of the Roman emperors, until in
469 Genseric finally made himself master of the island. For
65 years the Vandals maintained their domination, the Corsican
forests supplying the wood for the fleets with which they terror-
ized the Mediterranean. After the destruction of the Vandal
power in Africa by Belisarius, his lieutenant Cyril conquered
Corsica (534) which now, under the exarchate of Africa, became
part of the East Roman empire. The succeeding period was
one of great misery. Goths and Lombards in turn ravaged the
island, which in spite of the prayers of Pope Gregory the Great
the exarch of Africa did nothing to defend; the rule of the
Byzantines was effective only in grinding excessive taxes out of
the wretched population; and, to crown all, in 713 the Mussul-
mans from the northern coast of Africa made their first descent
upon the island. Corsica remained nominally attached to the
East Roman empire until Charlemagne, having overthrown the
Lombard power in Italy (774), proceeded to the conquest of the
island, which now passed into the hands of the Franks. In 806,
however, occurred the first of a series of Moorish incursions from
Spain. Several times defeated by the emperor's lieutenants, the
Moors continually returned, and in 810 gained temporary
possession of the island. They were crushed and exterminated
by an expedition under the emperor's son Charles, but none the
less returned again and again. In 828 the defence of Corsica was
entrusted to Boniface II., count of the Tuscan march, who
conducted a successful expedition against the African Mussul-
mans, and returning to Corsica built a fortress in the south of the
island which formed the nucleus of the town (Bonifacio) that

bears his name. Boniface's war against the Saracens was
continued by his son Adalbert, after he had been restored to his
father's dignities in 846; but, in spite of all efforts, the Mussul-
mans seem to have remained in possession of part of the island
until about '930. Corsica, of which Berengar II., king of Italy,
had made himself master, became in 962, after his dethronement
by Otto the Great, a place of refuge for his son Adalbert, who
succeeded in holding the island and in passing it on to his son,
another Adalbert. This latter was, however, defeated by the
forces of Otto II., and Corsica was once more attached to the
marquisate of Tuscany, of which Adalbert was allowed to hold
part of the island in fee.

The period of feudal anarchy now began, a general mellay
of petty lords each eager to expand his domain. The counts
of Cinarca, especially, said to be descended from
Adalbert, aimed at establishing their supremacy over a/ ^J^ a
the whole island. To counteract this and similar muae.
ambitions, in the nth century, a sort of national diet
was held, and Sambucuccio, lord of Alando, put himself at the
head of a movement which resulted in confining the feudal lords
to less than half of the island to the south, and in establishing in
the rest, henceforth known as the Terra di Comune, a sort of
republic composed of autonomous parishes. This system, which
survived till the Revolution, is thus described by Jacobi (torn. i.
p. 137). " Each parish or commune nominated a certain number
of councillors who, under the name of ' fathers of the commune,'
were charged with the administration of justice under the
direction of a podesta, who was as it were their president. The
podestas of each of the states or enfranchised districts chose a
member of the supreme council charged with the making of
laws and regulations for the Terra di Comune. This council or
magistracy was called the Twelve, from the number of districts
taking a share in its nomination. Finally, in each district the
fathers of the commune elected a magistrate who, under the
name of caporale, was entrusted with the defence of the interests
of the poor and weak, with seeing that justice was done to them,
and that they were not made the victims of the powerful and
rich."

Meanwhile the south remained under the sway of the counts of
Cinarca, while in the north feudal barons maintained their
independence in the promontory of Cape Corso. In-
ternal feuds continued; William, marquis of Massa, of S over-
the family known later as the Malaspina, was called in eigaty.
by the communes (1020), drove out the count of
Cinarca, reduced the barons to order, and in harmony with the
communes established a dominion which he was able to hand on
to his son. Towards the end of the nth century, however, the
popes laid claim to the island in virtue of the donation of Charle-
magne, though the Frankish conqueror had promised at most the
reversion of the lands of the Church. The Corsican clergy sup-
ported the claim, and in 1077 the Corsicans declared themselves
subjects of the Holy See in the presence of the apostolic legate
Landolfo, bishop of Pisa. Pope Gregory VII. thereupon invested
the bishop and his successors with the island, an investiture
confirmed by Urban II. in 1 190 and extended into a concession of
the full sovereignty. The Pisans now took solemn possession of
the island and their " grand judges " (judices) took the place of
the papal legates. Corsica, valued by the Pisans as by
the Vandals as an inexhaustible storehouse of materials
for their fleet, flourished exceedingly under the en-
lightened rule of the great commercial republic. Causes of
dissension remained, however, abundant. The Corsican bishops
repented their subjection to the Pisan archbishop; the Genoese
intrigued at Rome to obtain a reversal of the papal gift to the
rivals with whom they were disputing the supremacy of the seas.
Successive popes followed conflicting policies in this respect;
until in 1138 Innocent II., by way of compromise, divided the
ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the island between the archbishops
of Pisa and Genoa. This gave the Genoese great influence in
Corsica, and the contest between the Pisans and Genoese began to
distract the island. It was not, however, till n 95 that the
Genoese, by capturing Bonifacio — a nest of pirates preying on the

Rule oi
Pisa.

CORSICA

20I

commerce of both republics — actually gained a footing in the
country. For twenty years the Pisans fought to recover the
fortress for themselves, until in 12 17 the pope settled the matter
by taking it into his own hands.

Throughout the 13th century the struggle between Pisans
and Genoese continued, reproducing in the island the feud of
Ghibellines and Guelphs that was desolating Italy. In order
to put a stop to the ruinous anarchy the chiefs of the Terra di
Comune called in the marquis Isnard Malaspina; the Pisans
set up the count of Cinarca once more; and the war between
the marquis, the Pisans and Genoese dragged on with varying
fortunes, neither succeeding in gaining the mastery. Then, in
1 298, Pope Boniface VIII. added to the complication by investing
King James of Aragon with the sovereignty of Corsica and of
Sardinia. In 1325, after long delay, the Aragonese attacked
and reduced Sardinia, with the result that the Pisans, their
sea-power shattered, were unable to hold their own in Corsica.
A fresh period of anarchy followed until, in 1347, a great assembly
of caporali and barons decided to offer the sovereignty of the
island to Genoa. A regular tribute was to be paid to the re-
public; the Corsicans were to preserve their laws and customs,
under the council of Twelve in the north and a council of Six
in the south; Corsican interests were to be represented at
Genoa by an orator.

The Genoese domination, which began under evil auspices —
for the Black Death killed off some two-thirds of the population — ■
was not destined to bring peace to the island. The
Genoese fgudgj barons of the south and the hereditary caporali
tion. ' 0I the north alike resisted the authority of the Genoese
governors ; and King Peter of Aragon took advantage
of their feuds to reassert his claims. In 1372 Arrigo, count of
La Rocca, with the assistance of Aragonese troops, made himself
master of the island; but his very success stirred up against
him the barons of Cape Corso, who once more appealed to Genoa.
The republic, busied with other affairs, hit upon the luckless
expedient of investing with the governorship of the island a' sort
of chartered company, consisting of five persons, known as the
Maona. They attempted to restore order by taking Arrigo
della Rocca into partnership, with disastrous results. In 1380
four of the " governors of the Maona " resigned their rights to
the Genoese republic, and Leonello Lomellino was left as sole
governor. It was he who, in 1383, built Bastia on the north
coast, which became the bulwark of the Genoese power in the
island. It was not till 1401, after the death of Count Arrigo,
that the Genoese domination was temporarily re-established.

Meanwhile Genoa itself had fallen into the hands of the French,
and in 1407 Leonello Lomellino returned as governor with the
title of count of Corsica bestowed on him by Charles VI. of France.
But Vincentello d' Istria, who had gained distinction in the
service of the king of Aragon, had captured Cinarca, rallied round
him all the communes of the Terra di Comune, proclaimed him-
self count of Corsica at Biguglia and even seized Bastia. Lomel-
lino was unable to make headway against him, and by 1410 all
Corsica, with the exception of Bonifacio and Calvi, was lost to
Genoa, now once more independent of France. A feud of
Vincentello with the bishop of Mariana, however, led to the
loss of his authority in the Terra di Comune ; he was compelled
to go to Spain in search of assistance, and in his absence the
Genoese reconquered the island. Not, however, for long. The
Great Schism was too obvious an opportunity for quarrelling
for the Corsicans to neglect; and the Corsican bishops and clergy
were more ready with the carnal than with spiritual weapons.
The suffragans of Genoa fought for Benedict XIII., those of
Pisa for John XXIII.; and when Vincentello returned with an
Aragonese force he was able to fish profitably in troubled waters.
He easily captured Cinarca and Ajaccio, came to terms with the
Pisan bishops, mastered the Terra di Comune and built a strong
castle at Corte; by 1419 the Genoese possessions in Corsica
were again reduced to Calvi and Bonifacio.

At this juncture Alphonso of Aragon arrived, with a large
fleet, to take possession of the island. Calvi fell to him; but
Bonifacio held out, and its resistance gave time for the

The bank
of San

Corsicans, aroused by the tyranny and exactions of the
Aragonese, to organize revolt. In the end the siege of
Bonifacio was raised, and the town, confirmed in its
privileges, became practically an independent republic ; a ™^" ese
under Genoese protection. As for Vincentello he vention.
managed to hold his own for a while; but ultimately
the country rose against him, and in 1435 he was executed as a
rebel by the Genoese, who had captured him by surprise in the
port of Bastia.

The anarchy continued, while rival factions, nominal adherents
of the Aragonese and Genoese, contended for the mastery.
Profiting by the disturbed situation, the Genoese doge, Janus
da Fregoso, succeeded in reducing the island, his artillery secur-
ing him an easy victory over the forces of Count Paolo della
Rocca (1441). To secure his authority he built and fortified
the new city of San Fiorenzo, near the ruins of Nebbio. But again
the Aragonese intervened, and the anarchy reached its height.
An appeal to Pope Eugenius IV. resulted in the despatch of a
pontifical army of 14,000 men (1444), which was destroyed
in detail by a league of some of the caporali and most of the barons
under the bold leadership of Rinuccio da Leca. A second
expedition was more fortunate, and Rinuccio was killed before
Biguglia. In 1447 Eugenius was succeeded on the papal throne
by Nicholas V., a Genoese, who promptly made over his rights
in Corsica, with all the strong places held by his troops, to Genoa.
The island was now, in effect, divided between the Genoese
republic; the lords of Cinarca, who held their lands in the south
under the nominal suzerainty of Aragon; and Galeazzo da
Campo Fregoso, who was supreme in the Terra di Comune.

An assembly of the chiefs of the Terra di Comune now decided
to offer the government of the island to the Company or Bank
of San Giorgio, a powerful commercial corporation
established at Genoa in the 14th century. 1 The bank
accepted; the Spaniards were driven from the country; o/wyto.
and . a government was organized. But the bank
soon fell foul of the barons, and began a war of extermination
against them. Their resistance was finally broken in 1460,
when the survivors took refuge in Tuscany. But order had
scarcely been established when the Genoese Tommasinoda Campo
Fregoso, whose mother was a Corsican, revived the claims of
his family and succeeded in mastering the interior of the island
(1462). Two years later the duke of Milan, Francesco Sforza,
overthrew the power of the Fregoso family at Genoa, and promptly
proceeded to lay claim to Corsica. His lieutenant had no
difficulty in making the island accept the overlordship of the
duke of Milan; but when, in 1466, Francesco Sforza died, a
quarrel broke out, and Milanese suzerainty became purely
nominal save in the coast towns. Finally, in 1484,
Tommasino da Campo Fregoso persuaded the duke to Milanese
grant him the government of the island. The strong vention.
places were handed over to him; he entered into
marriage relations with Gian Paolo da Leca, the most powerful
of the barons, and was soon supreme in the island.

Within three years the Corsicans were up in arms again. A
descendant of the Malaspinas who had once ruled in Corsica,
Jacopo IV. (d'Appiano), was now prince of Piombino, and to him
the malcontents applied. His brother Gherardo, count of
Montagnano, accepted the call, proclaimed himself count of
Corsica, and, landing in the island, captured Biguglia and San
Fiorenzo; whereupon Tommasino da Campo Fregoso discreetly
sold his rights to the bank of San Giorgio. No sooner, however,
had the bank — with the assistance of the count of Leca — beaten
Count Gherardo than the Fregoso family tried to repudiate their
bargain. Their claims were supported by the count of Leca, and
it cost the agents of the bank some hard fighting before the
turbulent baron was beaten and exiled to Sardinia. Twice he
returned, and he was not finally expelled from the country till
1501; it was not till 1511 that the other barons were crushed and

1 See " Conventions entre quelques seigneurs Corses et l'ofnce de
St Georges (1453)," in Bulletin soc. scientif. Corse (1881-1882), pp.
286, 305, 413, 501, 549 and (1883) 147; also the report of the
deputies sent by the bank to Pope Nicholas V. in 1453, ib. p. 141.

202

CORSICA

that the bank could consider itself in secure possession of the
island.

If the character of the Corsicans has been distinguished in
modern times for a certain wild intractableness and ferocity, the
cause lies in their unhappy past, and not least in the character
of the rule established by the bank of San Giorgio. The power
which the bank had won by ruthless cruelty, it exercised in the
spirit of the narrowest and most short-sighted selfishness. Only
a shadow of the native institutions was suffered to survive, and
no adequate system of administration was set up in the place of
that which had been suppressed. In the absence of justice the
blood-feud or vendetta grew and took root in Corsica just at the
time when, elsewhere in Europe, the progress of civilization was
making an end of private war. The agents of the bank, so far
from discouraging these internecine quarrels, looked on them as
the surest means for preventing a general rising. Concerned,
moreover, only with squeezing taxes out of a recalcitrant
population, they neglected the defence of the coast, along
which the Barbary pirates harried and looted at will; and to
all these woes were added, in the 16th century, pestilences and
disastrous floods, which tended scill further to impoverish and
barbarize the country.

In these circumstances King Henry II. of France conceived the
project of conquering the island. From Corsican mercenaries in
First French service, men embittered by wrongs suffered at

French the hands of the Genoese, he obtained all the necessary
interven- information; by a treaty of alliance concluded at Con-
Uon,l553. s tantinople (February i, 1553) with Sultan Suleiman
the Magnificent he secured the co-operation of the Turkish
fleet. The combined forces attacked the island the same
year; the citadel of Bastia fell almost without a blow, and siege
was at once laid simultaneously to all the other fortresses. The
capitulation of Bonifacio to the Turks, after an obstinate resist-
ance, was followed by the treacherous massacre of the garrison;
soon, of all the strong places, the Genoese held Calvi alone. At
this juncture the emperor Charles V. intervened; a strong force
of imperial troops and Genoese was poured into the island, and
the tide of war turned. The details of the struggle that followed,
in which the Corsican national hero Sampiero da Bastelica gained
his first laurels, are of little general importance. Fortresses were
captured and recaptured; and for three years French, Germans,
Spaniards, Genoese and Corsicans indulged in a carnival of
mutual slaughter and outrage. The outcome of all this was a
futile reversion to the status quo. In 1 5 36, indeed, the conclusion
of a truce left Corsica — with the exception of Bastia — in the
hands of the French, who proceeded to set up a tolerable govern-
ment; but in 1559, by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, the
island was restored to the bank of San Giorgio, from which it
was at once taken over by the Genoese republic.

Trouble at once began again. The Genoese attempted to levy
a tax which the Corsicans refused to pay; in violation of the

terms of the treaty, which had stipulated for a uni-
Sampiero versa i amnesty, they confiscated the property of
Bastelica. Sampiero da Bastelica. Hereupon Sampiero again put

himself at the head of the national movement. The
suzerainty of the Turk seemed preferable to that of Genoa, and,
armed with letters from the king of France, he went to Constanti-
nople to ask the aid of a fleet for the purpose of reducing Corsica
to the status of an Ottoman province. 1 All his efforts to secure
foreign help were, however, vain; he determined to act alone,
and in June 1564 landed at Valinco with only fifty followers.
His success was at first extraordinary, and he was soon at the
head of 8000 men; but ultimate victory was rendered impossible
by the indiscipline among the Corsicans and by the internecine
feuds of which the Genoese well knew how to take advantage.
For over two years a war was waged in which quarter was given
on neither side; but after the assassination of Sampiero in 1567
the spirit of the insurgents was broken. In 1568 an honourable
peace, including a general amnesty, was arranged with the
Genoese commander Giorgio Doria by Sampiero's son Alphonso

1 Haramer-Purgstall, Gesch. des Osmanischen Reichs (Pest, 1840),
ii. 288.

d'Ornano, who with 300 of his friends emigrated to Fiance,
where he rose to be a marshal under Henry IV.

From this time until 1729 Corsica remained at peace under
the government of Genoa. It was, however, a peace due to
lassitude and despair rather than contentment. The settlement
of 1568 had reserved a large measure of autonomy to the
Corsicans; during the years that followed this was withdrawn
piecemeal, until, disarmed and powerless, they were excluded
from every office in the administration. Nor did the Genoese
substitute any efficient system for that which they had destroyed.
In the absence of an effective judiciary the vendetta increased; in
the absence of effective protection the sea-board was exposed to
the ravages of the Barbary pirates, so that the coast villages and
towns were abandoned and the inhabitants withdrew into the
interior, leaving the most fertile part of the country to fall into
the condition of a malarious waste. To add to all this, in 1576
the population had been decimated by a pestilence. Emigration
en masse continued, and an attempt to remedy this by introducing
a colony of Greeks in 1688 only added one more element of
discord to the luckless island. To the Genoese Corsica continued
to be merely an area to be exploited for their profit; they
monopolized its trade; they taxed it up to and beyond its
capacity; they made the issue of licences to carry firearms a
source of revenue, and studiously avoided interfering with the
custom of the vendetta which made their fiscal expedient so
profitable. 2

In 1729 the Corsicans, irritated by a new hearth-tax known as
the due seini, rose in revolt, their leaders being Andrea Colonna
Ceccaldrand Luigi Giafferi. As usual, the Genoese
were soon confined to a few coast towns; but the ti729
intervention of the emperor Charles VI. and the
despatch of a large force of German mercenaries turned the
tide of war, and in 1732 the authority of Genoa was re-estab-
lished. Two years later, however, Giacinto Paoli once more
raised the standard of revolt; and in 1735 an assembly at Corte
proclaimed the independence of Corsica, set up a constitution, and
entrusted the supreme leadership to Giafferi, Paoli and Ceccaldi.
Though the Genoese were again driven into the fortresses, lack of
arms and provisions made any decisive success of the insurgents
impossible, and when, on the 12th of March 1736, the German
adventurer Baron Theodor von Neuhof arrived with a shipload of
muskets and stores and the assurance of further help j^iag
to come, leaders and people were glad to accept his aid Theodore
on his own conditions, namely that he should be ot
acknowledged as king of Corsica. On the 15th of Corsica.
April, at Alesani, an assembly of clergy and of representatives
of the communes, solemnly proclaimed Corsica an independent
kingdom under the sovereignty of Theodore "I." and his heirs.
The new king's reign was not fated to last long. The Optra
bouffe nature of his entry on the stage — he was clad in a scarlet
caftan, Turkish trousers and a Spanish hat and feather, and girt
with a scimitar — did not, indeed, offend the unsophisticated
islanders; they were even ready to take seriously his lavish
bestowal of titles and his knightly order "della Liberazione";
they appreciated his personal bravery; and the fact that the
Genoese government denounced him as an impostor and set a
price on his head could only confirm him in their affection. But
it was otherwise when the European help that he had promised
failed to arrive, and, still worse, the governments with which he
had boasted his influence disclaimed him. In November he
thought it expedient to proceed to the continent, ostensibly in
search of aid, leaving Giafferi, Paoli and Luca d'Ornano as
regents. In spite of several attempts, he never succeeded in
returning to the island. The Corsicans, weary of the war,
opened negotiations with the Genoese; but the refusal of the
latter to regard the islanders as other than rebels made a mutual
agreement impossible. Finally the republic decided to seek the
aid of France, and in July 1737 a treaty was signed by which the
French king bound himself to reduce the Corsicans to order, t

2 Father Cancellotti, who visited every part of the island, estimated
the number of murders committed in 20 years at 28,000 (quoted in
the article on Corsica in La Grande Encyclopedic).

CORSICA

203

Sardinian
and
British
Intervene
tlon, 1746.

The object of the French in assisting the Genoese was not the
acquisition of the island for themselves so much as to obviate
inter- the danger, of which they had long been aware, of its
vention of falling into the hands of another power, notably Great
France, Britain. The Corsicans, on the other hand, though
lT38 ' ready enough to come to terms with the French king,

refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of Genoa even when
backed by the power of France. A powerful French force, under
the comte de Boissieux, arrived in the spring of 1738, and for
some months negotiations proceeded. But the effect of the French
guarantee of Corsican liberties was nullified by the demand that
the islanders should surrender their arms, and the attempt of
Boissieux to enforce the order for disarmament was followed, in
the winter of 1738-39, by his defeat at the hands of the Cor-
sicans and by the cutting up of several isolated French detach-
ments. In February 1739 Boissieux died. His successor, the
marquis de Maillebois, arrived in March with strong reinforce-
ments, and by a combination of severity and conciliation soon
reduced the island to order. Its maintenance, however, depended
on the presence of the French troops, and in October 1740 the
death of the emperor Charles VI. and the outbreak of the War of
the Austrian Succession necessitated their withdrawal. Genoese
and Corsicans were once more left face to face, and the perennial
struggle began anew.

In 1743 " King Theodore," supported by a British squadron,
made a descent on the island, but finding that he no longer
possessed a following, departed never to return. The
Corsicans, assembled in diet at Casinca, now elected
Giampietro Gaffori and Alerio Matra as generals and
" protectors of the fatherland " (protettori della p atria) ,
and began a vigorous onslaught on the Genoese strong-
holds. They were helped now by the sympathy and active aid
of European powers, and in 1746 Count Domenico Rivarola, a
Corsican in Sardinian service, succeeded in capturing Bastia and
San Fiorenzo with the aid of a British squadron and Sardinian
troops. The factious spirit of the Corsicans themselves was,
however, their worst enemy. The British commander judged it
inexpedient to intervene in the affairs of a country of which the
leaders were at loggerheads; Rivarola, left to himself, was unable
to hold Bastia — a place of Genoese sympathies — and in spite of
the collapse of Genoa itself, now in Austrian hands, the Genoese
governor succeeded in maintaining himself in the island. By the
time of the signature of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the
situation of the island had again changed. Rivarola and Matra
had departed, and Gaffori was left nominally supreme over a
people torn by intestine feuds. Genoa, too, had expelled the
Austrians with French aid, and, owing to a report that the king
of Sardinia was meditating a fresh attempt to conquer the island,
a strong French expedition under the marquis de Cursay had,
at the request of the republic, occupied Calvi, Bonifacio, Ajaccio
and Bastia. By the terms of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,
Renewed Corsica was once more assigned to Genoa, but the
French French garrison remained, pending a settlement
inter- between the republic and the islanders. In view of the
vea on. intractable temper of the two parties no agreement
could be readied; but Cursay 's persona] popularity served to
preserve the peace for a while. His withdrawal in 1752, however,
was the signal for a general rising, and once more, at a diet held
at Orezza, Gaffori was elected general and protector. In October
of the following year, however, he fell victim to a vendetta and the
nation was once more leaderless. His place was taken for a while
*by Clemente Paoli, son of Giacinto, who for a year or two suc-
ceeded, with the aid of other lieutenants of Gaffori, in holding the
Genoese at bay. He was, however, by temperament unfitted to
lead a turbulent and undisciplined people in time of stress, and in
1755, at his suggestion, his brother Pasquale was invited to come
from Naples and assume the command.

The first task of Pasquale Paoli, elected general in April at an
assembly at San Antonio della Casabianca, was to suppress the
rival faction led by Emanuele Matra, son of Gaffori's former
colleague. By the spring of 1756 this was done, and the Cor-
sicans were able to turn a united front against the Genoese. At

this juncture the French, alarmed by a supposed understanding
between Paoli and the British, once more intervened, and occupied
Calvi, Ajaccio and San Fiorenzo until 1757, when their
forces were once more called away by the wars on the p^l"
continent. In 1758 Paoli renewed the attack on the
Genoese, founding the new port of Isola Rossa as a centre whence
the Corsican ships could attack the trading vessels of Genoa. The
republic, indeed, was now too weak to attempt seriously to re-
assert its sway over the island, which, with the exception of the
coast towns, Paoli ruled with absolute authority and with con-
spicuous wisdom. In the intervals of fighting he was occupied
in reducing Corsican anarchy into some sort of civilized order.
The vendetta was put down, partly by religious influence, partly
with a stern hand; the surviving oppressive rights of the feudal
signori were abolished; and the traditional institutions of the
Terra di Comune were made the basis of a democratic constitution
for the whole island.

As regarded the relations of Corsica all now depended on the
attitude of France to which both Paoli and the republic made
overtures. In 1764 a French expedition under the
comte de Marbeuf arrived, and, by agreement with C °,^ ca
Genoa, garrisoned three of the Genoese fortresses. France.
Though Genoese sovereignty had been expressly
recognized in the agreement authorizing this, it was in effect
non-existent. French and Corsicans remained on amicable terms,
and the inhabitants of the nominally Genoese towns actually
sent representatives to the national consulta or parliament. The
climax came early in 1767 when the Corsicans captured the
Genoese island of Capraja, and occupied Ajaccio and other places,
evacuated by the French as a protest against the asylum given to
the Jesuits exiled from France. Genoa now recognized that she
had been worsted in the long contest, and on the 1 5th of May 1768
signed a treaty selling the sovereignty of the island to France.

The Corsicans, intent on independence, were now faced with a
more formidable enemy than the decrepit republic of Genoa.
A section of the people indeed, were in favour of submission;
but Paoli himself declared for resistance; and among those who
supported him at the consulta summoned to discuss the question
was his secretary Carlo Buonaparte, father of Napoleon Bona-
parte, the future emperor of the French. Into the details of the
war that followed, it is impossible to e"hter here; in the absence
of the hoped-for help from Great Britain its issue could not be
doubtful; and, though the task of the French was a hard one,
by the summer of 1769 they were masters of the island. On the
1 6th of June Pasquale and Clemente Paoli, with some
400 of their followers, embarked on a British ship for Vaguest
Leghorn. On the 15th of September 1770, a general
assembly of the Corsicans was summoned and the deputies
swore allegiance to King Louis XV.

For twenty years Corsica, while preserving many of its old
institutions, remained a dependency of the French crown.
Then came the Revolution, and the island, conformed Corsica
to the new model, was incorporated in France as a and the
separate department (see Renucci, ii. p. 271 seq.). revolution
Paoli, recalled from exile by the National Assembly otl7S9,
on the motion of Mirabeau, after a visit to Paris, where
he was acclaimed as "the hero and martyr of liberty " by the
National Assembly and the Jacobin Club, returned in 1790 to
Corsica, where he was received with immense enthusiasm and
acclaimed as " father of the country." With the new order
in the island, however, he was little in sympathy. In the towns
branches of the Jacobin Club had been established, and these
tended, as elsewhere, to usurp the functions of the regular organs
of government and to introduce a new element of discord into
a country which it had been Paoli's life's work to unify.
Suspicions of his loyalty to revolutionary principles had already
been spread at Paris by Bartolomeo Arena, a Corsican deputy
and ardent Jacobin, so early as 1791; yet in 1792, after the fall
of the monarchy, the French government, in its anxiety to secure
Corsica, was rash enough to appoint him lieutenant-general of
the forces and governor (capo comandante) of the island. Paoli
accepted an office which he had refused two years before at the

204

CORSICANA— CORSSEN

hands of Louis XVI. With the men and methods of the Terror,
however, he was wholly out of sympathy. Suspected of throwing
obstacles in the way of the expedition despatched in 1793 against
Sardinia, he was summoned, with the procurator-general Pozzo
di Borgo, to the bar of the Convention. Paoli now openly defied
the Convention by summoning the representatives of the com-
. munes to meet in diet at Corte on the 27th of May.
under ^° t ' le remonstrances of Saliceti, who attended the
Paoli. meeting, he replied that he was rebelling, not

against France, but against the dominant faction of
whose actions the majority of Frenchmen disapproved. Saliceti
thereupon hurried to Paris, and on his motion Paoli and his
sympathizers were declared by the Convention hors la loi (June 26) .

Paoli had already made up his mind to raise the standard
of revolt against France. But though the consulta at Corte
British elected him president, Corsican opinion was by no
occupa- 'means united. Napoleon Bonaparte, whom Paoli had
Hon, 1794- expected to win over to his views, indignantly rejected
the idea of a breach with France, and the Bonapartes
were henceforth ranked with his enemies. Paoli now appealed
for assistance to the British government, which despatched a
considerable force. By the summer of 1 794, after hard fighting,
the island was reduced, and in June the Corsican assembly
formally offered the sovereignty to King George III. The
British occupation lasted two years, the island being administered
by Sir Gilbert Elliot. Paoli, whose presence was considered
inexpedient, was invited to return to England, where he remained
till his death. In 1796 Bonaparte, after his victorious Italian
campaign, sent an expedition against Corsica. The British,
weary of a somewhat thankless task, made no great resistance,
and in October the island was once more in French hands. It
was again occupied by Great Britain for a short time in 1814,
but in the settlement of 1815 was restored to the French crown.
Its history henceforth is part of that of France.

See F. Girolami-Cortona, Geographic generate de la Corse (Ajaccio,
1893); A. Andrei, A travers la Corse (Paris, 1893); Forcioli-Conti,
Notre Corse (Ajaccio, 1897); R. Le Joindre, La Corse et les Corses
(Paris, 1904) ; F. O. Renucci, Storia di Corsica (2 vols., Bastia, 1833),
fervidly Corsican, but useful; Antonio Pietro Filippini, Istoria di
Corsica (1st ed., 1594; 2nd ed., corrected and illustrated with un-
published documents by G. C. Gregori, 5 vols., Pisa, 1827-1832);
J. M. Jacobi, Hist. gen. de la Corse, 2 vols., Paris, 1833-1835), with
many unpublished documents; L. H. Caird, History of Corsica
(London, 1899). Further works and references to articles in reviews,
&c, are given in Ulysse Chevalier's Repertoire des sources, &c,
Topo-bibliographie, t. ii. s.v.

CORSICANA, a city and the county-seat of Navarro county,
Texas, U.S.A., situated in the N.E. part of the state, about
55 m-. S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 6285; (1900) 9313, of whom
2399 were of negro descent; (1910 census) 9749. It is
served by the Houston & Texas Central, the St Louis South
Western, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. It is the
centre of a large and productive wheat- and cotton-growing
region, which has also numerous oil wells (with a total produc-
tion in 1907 of 226,311 barrels). The city has two oil refineries,
a large cotton j gin and a cotton compress, and among its
manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton-cloth, flour and ice.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,796,805,
being an increase of 50-3% since 1900. Natural gas is ex-
tensively used for fuel and for lighting. Corsicana is the seat
of the Texas state orphan home and of an Odd Fellows widows'
and orphans' home, and has a Carnegie library. Corsicana was
named in honour of the wife of a Mexican, Navarro, who owned
a large tract of land in the county and from whom the county
was named. The first permanent settlement here was made
in 1848, and Corsicana was incorporated as a village in 1850
and chartered as a city in 1871.

CORSINI, the name of a Florentine princely family, of which
the founder is said to be Neri Corsini, who flourished about the
year n 70. Like other Florentine nobles the Corsini had at
first no titles, but in more recent times they received many from
foreign potentates and from the later grand dukes of Tuscany.
The emperor Charles IV. created the head of the house a count
palatine in 137 1; the marquisate of Sismano was conferred on

them in 1620, those of Casigliano and Civitella in 1629, of
Lajatico and Orciatico in 1644, of Giovagallo and Tresana in
1652; in 1730 Lorenzo Corsini was elected pope as Clement
XII., and conferred the rank of Roman princes and the duchy
of Casigliano on his family, and in 1732 they were created
grandees of Spain. They own two palaces in Florence, one of
which on the Lung' Arno Corsini contains the finest private
picture gallery in the city, and many villas and estates in
various parts of Italy.

See L. Passerini, Genealogia e storia delta famiglia Corsini (Florence,
1858); A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868);
Almanack de Goiha. (L. V.*)

CORSON, HIRAM (1828- ), American scholar, was born
on the 6th of November 1828, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
He held a position in the library'of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington D. ^1849-1856), was a lecturer on English literature
in Philadelphia (1859-1865), and was professor of English at
Girard College, Philadelphia (1865-1866), and in St John's Col-
lege, Annapolis, Maryland (1866-1870). In 1870-1871 he was
professor of rhetoric and oratory at Cornell University, where he
was professor of Anglo-Saxon and English literature ( 1 87 2-1 886) ,
of English literature and rhetoric (1886-1890), and from 1890
to 1903 (when he became professor emeritus) of English literature,
a chair formed for him. He edited Chaucer's Legende of Goode
Women (1863) and Selections from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
(1896), and wrote a Hand- Book of Anglo-Saxon and Early English
(1871), and, among other text-books, An Elocutionary Manual
(1864), A Primer of English Verse (1892), and Introductions to
the study of Browning (1886, 1889), of Shakespeare (1889) and
of Milton (1899). The volume on Shakespeare and the Jottings
on the Text of Macbeth (1874) contain some excellent Shake-
spearian criticism. He also published The University of the
Future (1875), The Aims of Literary Study (1895), and The
Voice and Spiritual Education (1896). He translated the
Satires of Juvenal (1868) and edited a translation by his wife,
Caroline Rollin (d. 1901), of Pierre Janet's Mental State of
Hystericals (1901).

CORSSEN, WILHELM PAUL (1820-1875), German philologist,
was born at Bremen on the 20th of January 1820, and received
his school education in the Prussian town of Schwedt, to which
his father, a merchant, had removed. After spending some
time at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, where his
interest in philological pursuits was awakened by the rector,
Meinike, he proceeded to the university, and there came especi-
ally under the influence of Bockh and Lachmann. His first
important appearance in literature was as the author of Origines
poesis romanae, by which he had obtained the prize offered by
the " philosophical " or " arts " faculty of the university. In
1846 he was called from Stettin, where he had for nearly two
years held a post in the gymnasium, to occupy the position of
lecturer in the royal academy at Pforta (commonly called
Schulpforta), and there he continued to labour for the next
twenty years. In 1854 he won a prize offered by the Royal
Prussian Academy of Sciences for the best work on the pronuncia-*
tion and accent of Latin, a treatise which at once took rank, on
its publication under the title of Uber Aussprache, Vocalismus,
und Betonung der lateinischen Sprache (1858-1859), as one of
the most erudite and masterly works in its department. This
was followed in 1863 by his Kritische Beitrdge zur lat. Formen-
lehre, which were supplemented in 1866 by Kritische Nachtrage
zur lat. Formenlehre. In the discussion of the pronunciation of
Latin he was naturally led to consider the various old Italian'
dialects, and the results of his investigations appeared in miscel-
laneous communications to Kuhn's Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende
Schriftforschung. Ill-health obliged him to give up his professor-
ship at Pforta, and return to Berlin, in 1866; but it produced
almost no diminution of his literary activity. In 1867 he pub-
lished an elaborate archaeological study entitled the Alterthiimer
und Kunstdenkmale des Cistercienserklosters St Marien und der
Landesschule Pforta, in which he gathers together all that can be
discovered about the history of the Pforta academy, the German
" Eton," and in 1868-1869 he brought out a new edition of his

CORT— CORTES

205

work on Latin pronunciation. From a very early period he had
been attracted to the special study of Etruscan remains, and had
at various times given occasional expression to his opinions on
individual points; but it was not till 1870 that he had the
opportunity of visiting Italy and completing his equipment for a
formal treatment of the whole subject by personal inspection of
the monuments. In 1874 appeared the first volume of Uber die
Sprache der Etrusker, in which with great ingenuity and erudition
he endeavoured to prove that the Etruscan language was cognate
with that of the Romans. Before the second volume (published
posthumously under the editorship of Kuhn) had received the
last touches of his hand, he was cut off in 187s by a compara-
tively early death.

CORT, CORNELIS (1536-1578), Dutch engraver, was born at
Horn in Holland, and studied engraving under Hieronymus
Cockx of Antwerp. About 1565 he went to Venice, where Titian
employed him to execute the well-known copperplates of St
Jerome in the Desert, the Magdalen, Prometheus, Diana and
Actaeon, and Diana and Calisto. From Italy he wandered back
to the Netherlands, but he returned to Venice soon after 1567,
proceeding thence to Bologna and Rome, where he produced
engravings from all the great masters of the time. At Rome he
founded the well-known school in which, as Bartsch tells us, the
simple line of Marcantonio was modified by a brilliant touch of
the burin, afterwards imitated and perfected by Agostino
Caracci in Italy and Nicolas de Bruyn in the Netherlands.
Before visiting Italy, Cort had been content to copy Michael
Coxcie, F. Floris, Heemskerk, G. Mostaert, Bartholomaus
Spranger and Stradan. In Italy he gave circulation to the
works of Raphael, Titian, Polidoro da Caravaggio, Baroccio,
Giulio Clovio, Muziano and the Zuccari. His connexion with
Cockx and Titian is pleasantly illustrated in a letter addressed to
the latter by Dominick Lampson of Liege in 1567. Cort is said
to have engraved upwards of one hundred and fifty-one plates.
In Italy he was known as Cornelio Fiammingo.

CORTE, a town of central Corsica, 52 m. N.E. of Ajaccio by the
railway between that town and Bastia. Pop. (1906) 4839. The
upper town is situated on a precipitous rock overhanging the
confluence of the Tavignano and Restonica, the rest of the town
lying below it on both banks of the rivers. On the summit of the
rock stands a citadel built by Vincentello d'Istria (see Corsica).
Other interesting buildings are the house in which Pasquale
Paoli lived while Corte was the seat of his government (1755
to 1769), and the house of another patriot, Giampietro Gaffori,
whose wife defended it from the Genoese in 1750. There are
statues of Paoli, of General Gaffori, and of General Arrighi di
Casanova, duke of Padua (d. 1853). Corte is capital of an
arrondissement of the island, has a subprefecture, a tribunal
of first instance and a communal college, and manufactures
alimentary paste. There are marble quarries in the vicinity, and
the town has trade in wine and timber. In the 18th century
Corte was the centre of the resistance to the Genoese, and it
was the seat of a university erected by Paoli.

CORTE-REAL, JERONYMO (1533-1588), Portuguese epic
poet, came of a noble Portuguese stock. Of the same family
were Gaspar Corte-Real, who in 1500 and 1501 sailed to
Labrador and the Arctic seas; and his brothers Miguel and
Vasco. Their voyages opened the way for important Portuguese
fisheries on the Newfoundland coast (see Henry Hamsse, Les
Corte-Real et leurs voyages au Nouveau-Monde, and Gasper
Corte-Real: la dale exacte de sa derniere expedition au Nouveau-
Monde, Paris, 1883). In his youth Jeronymo fought in Africa and
Asia according to the custom of noblemen in that age. There is a
tradition that he was present at the affair of Tangier on the 18th
of May 1 5 53 , when D . Pedro de Menezes met his death. Return-
ing home, it is supposed about 1570, he spent the rest of his days
in retirement. In 1578 he placed his sword at the disposal of
King Sebastian for the fatal expedition to Africa, but the
monarch dispensed him from the journey (it is said) on account of
his age, and in 1586 we find him acting as provedor of the Miseri-
cordia of Evora. He married D. Luiza da Silva, but left no
legitimate issue. Corte-Real was painter as well as soldier and

poet, and one of his pictures is still preserved in the church of
S. Antao at Evora. His poetical works are believed to have been,
composed in his old age at the mansion on his estate near Evora,
known as " Valle de Palma." O Segundo cerco de Diu, an epic in
21 cantos, deals with the historic siege of that Indian island-
fortress of the Portuguese. First printed in 1 5 74, it had a second
edition in 1783, while a Spanish version appeared at Alcala in
1597. Austriada, an epic in 15 cantos celebrating the victory of
Don John of Austria over the Turks at Lepanto, was written in
Spanish and published in 1578. King Philip 1L accepted the
dedication in flattering terms and visited the poet when he
came to Portugal. Naufragio de Sepulveda, an epic in 17 cantos,
describes the tragic shipwreck on the South African coast and
the death of D. Manoel de Sepulveda with his beautiful wife and
young children, a disaster which drew some feeling stanzas from
Camoens (Lusiads, v. 46) . The poem was published four years
after the death of Corte-Real by his heirs, and had two later
editions, while a Spanish version appeared in Madrid in 1624 and
a French in Paris in 1844. Auto dos quatro novissimos do homem
is a short poem printed in 1768. Except the Naufragio de
Sepulveda, which is highly considered in Portugal, Corte-ReaPs
poetry has hardly stood the test of time, and critics of later
generations have refused to ratify the estimate formed by
contemporaries, who considered him the equal, if not the superior,
of Camoens. His lengthy epics suffer from a want of sustained
inspiration, and are marred by an abuse of epithet, though they
contain episodes of considerable merit, vigorous and well-
coloured descriptive passages, and exhibit a pure diction.

See Subsidios para a biographia do poeta Jeronymo Corte-Real
(Evora, 1899); also Ernesto do Canto's Memoir on the family in
Nos. 23 and 24 of the Archivo dos Azores, and Dr Sousa Viterbo's
Trabalhos nauticos dos Portuguezes, ii. 153 et seq. (E. Pr.)

CORTES, HERNAN or HERNANDO (1485-1547), Spanish
soldier, the conqueror of Mexico, was born at Medellin, a small
town,of Estremadura, in 1485. He belonged to a noble family of
decayed fortune, and, being destined for the law, was sent, at
fourteen years of age, to the university of Salamanca; but study
was distasteful to him, and he returned home in 1501, resolved
to enter upon a life of adventure. He arranged to accompany
Ovando, who had been appointed to the command of San Domingo,
but was prevented from joining the expedition by an accident
that happened to him in a love adventure. He next sought
military service under the celebrated Gonsalvo de Cordoba, but
a serious illness frustrated his purpose. At last, in 1504, he set
out, according to his first plan, for San Domingo, where he was
kindly received by Ovando. He was then only nineteen, and
remarkable for a graceful physiognomy and amiable manners,
as well as for skill and address in all military exercises. He
remained in San Domingo, where Ovando had successively con-
ferred upon him several lucrative and honourable employments,
until 151 1, when he accompanied Diego Velazquez in his ex-
pedition to the island, of Cuba. Here he became alcalde of
Santiago, and displayed great ability on several trying occasions.

An opportunity was soon afforded him of showing his powers
as a military leader. Juan Grijalva, lieutenant of Velazquez,
had just discovered Mexico, but had not attempted to effect a
settlement. This displeased the governor of Cuba, who super-
seded Grijalva, and entrusted the conquestof the newly discovered
country to Cortes. The latter hastened his preparations, and, on
the 18th of November 1518, he set out from Santiago, with 10
vessels, 600 or 700 Spaniards, 18 horsemen and some pieces of
cannon. Scarcely had he set sail, however, when Velazquez re-
called the commission which he had granted to Cortes, and even
ordered him to be put under arrest; but the attachment of the
troops, by whom he was greatly beloved, enabled him to persevere
in spite of the governor; and on the 4th of March 15 19 he landed
on the coast of Mexico. Advancing along the gulf, sometimes
taking measures to conciliate the natives, and sometimes spread-
ing terror by his arms, he took possession of the town of Tobasco.
The noise of the artillery, the appearance of the floating for-
tresses which had transported the Spaniards over the ocean,
and the horses on which they fought, all new objects to the

2o6

CORTES

natives, inspired them with astonishment mingled with terror
and admiration; they regarded the Spaniards as gods, and sent
them ambassadors with presents. Cortes here learned that the
native sovereign was called Montezuma; that he reigned over
an extensive empire, which had lasted for three centuries; that
thirty vassals, called caciques, obeyed him; and that his riches
were immense and his power absolute. No more was necessary
to inflame the ambition of the invader, who did not hesitate to
undertake the conquest of this great empire, which could only be
effected by combining stratagem and address with force and
courage. He laid the foundation of the town of Vera Cruz,
caused himself to be elected captain-general of the new colony, and
burned his vessels to cut off the possibility of retreat and show
his soldiers that they must either conquer or perish. He then
penetrated into the interior of the country, drew to his camp
several caciques hostile to Montezuma, and induced these native
princes to facilitate his progress. The republic of Tlaxcala,
which was hostile to Montezuma, opposed him; but he routed
its army, which had resisted all the forces of the Mexican empire,
dictated peace on moderate terms and converted the people
into powerful auxiliaries. His farther advance was in vain
attempted to be checked by an ambuscade laid by the inhabitants
of Cholula, on whom he took signal vengeance.

Surmounting all other obstacles he arrived, with 6000 natives
and a handful of Spaniards, in sight of the immense lake on which
was built the city of Mexico, the capital of the empire. Monte-
zuma received him with great pomp, and his subjects, believing
Cortes to be a descendant of the sun, prostrated themselves
before him. The first care of Cortes was to fortify himself in one
of the beautiful palaces of the prince, and he was planning how
to possess himself of the riches of so opulent an empire, when
intelligence reached him that a general of the emperor, who had
received secret orders, had just attacked the garrison of Vera
Cruz and killed several of his soldiers. The head of one of the
Spaniards was sent to the capital. This event undeceived the
Mexicans, who had hitherto believed the Spaniardstobeimmortal,
and necessarily altered the whole policy of Cortes. Struck with
the greatness of the danger, surrounded by enemies, and having
only a handful of soldiers, he conceived and instantly executed a
most daring project. Having repaired with his officers to the
palace of the emperor, he announced to Montezuma that he must
either accompany him or perish. Being thus master of the per-
son of the monarch, he next demanded that the Mexican general
and his officers who had attacked the Spaniards should be de-
livered into his hands; and when this had been done he caused
these unfortunate men, who had only obeyed the orders of their
sovereign, to be burned alive before the gates of the imperial
palace. During this cruel execution Cortes entered the apartment
of Montezuma, and caused him to be loaded with irons, in order
to force him to acknowledge himself a vassal of Charles V. The
unhappy prince yielded, and was restored to a semblance of liberty
on presenting the fierce conqueror with 600,000 marks of pure
gold, and a prodigious quantity of precious stones. Scarcely had
he reaped the fruits of his audacity, however, when he was in-
formed of the landing of a Spanish army, under Narvaez, which
had been sent by Velazquez to compel him to renounce his
command. In this emergency Cortes acted with his usual
decision and courage. Leaving 200 men at Mexico, under the
orders of his lieutenant (Alvarado), he marched against Narvaez,
whom he defeated and made prisoner, and he then enlisted under
his standard the Spanish soldiers who had been sent to attack
him! On his return to the capital, however, he found that the
Mexicans had revolted against the emperor and the Spaniards,
and that dangers thickened around him. Montezuma perished
in attempting to address his revolted subjects; the latter, hav-
ing chosen a new emperor, attacked the headquarters of Cortes
with the utmost fury, and, in spite of the advantage of firearms,
forced the Spaniards to retire, as the only means of escaping
destruction. Their rear-guard, however, was cut in pieces, and
they suffered severely during the retreat, which was continued
during six days. Elated with their success, the Mexicans offered
battle in the plain of Otumba. This was what Cortes desired, and

it proved their destruction. Cortes gave the signal for battle,
and, on the 7th of July 1520, gained a victory which decided
the fate of Mexico. Immediately afterwards he proceeded to
Tlaxcala, assembled an auxiliary army of natives, subjected
the neighbouring provinces, and then marched a second time
against Mexico, which, after a gallant defence of several
months, was retaken on the 13th of August 1521.

These successes were entirely owing to the genius, valour and
profound but unscrupulous policy of Cortes; and the account of
them which he transmitted to Spain excited the admiration of his
countrymen. The extent of his conquests, and the ability he
had displayed, effaced the censure which he had incurred by the
irregularity of his operations; and public opinion having declared
in his favour, Charles V., disregarding the pretensions of Velaz-
quez, appointed him governor and captain-general of Mexico, at
the same time conferring on him the valley of Oaxaca, which was
erected (1529) into a marquisate, with a considerable revenue.
But although his power was thus confirmed by royal authority,
and although he exerted himelf to consolidate Spanish domina-
tion throughout all Mexico, the means he employed were such that
the natives, reduced to despair, took arms against the Spaniards.
This revolt, however, was speedily subdued, and the Mexicans
were everywhere forced to yield to the ascendancy of European
discipline and valour. Guatemotzin, who had been recognized
as emperor, and a great number of caciques, accused of having
conspired against the conquerors, were publicly executed, with
circumstances of great cruelty, by order of Cortes. Meanwhile
the court of Madrid, dreading the ambition and popularity of
the victorious chief, sent commissioners to watch his conduct
and thwart his proceedings; and whilst he was completing the
conquest of New Spain his goods were seized by the fiscal of
the Council of the Indies, and his retainers imprisoned and put
into irons'. Indignant at the ingratitude of his sovereign, Cortes
returned in person to Spain to appeal to the justice of the emperor,
and appeared there with great splendour. The emperor received
him with every mark of distinction, and decorated him with the
order of St Iagb. Cortes returned to Mexico with new titles
but diminished authority, a viceroy having been entrusted with
the administration of civil affairs, whilst the military department,
with permission to push his conquests, was all that remained to
Cortes. This division of powers became a source of continual
dissension, and caused the failure of the last enterprises in which
he engaged. Nevertheless, in 1536, he discovered the peninsula
of Lower California, and surveyed a part of the gulf which
separates it from Mexico.

At length, tired of struggling with adversaries unworthy of
him, whom the court took care to multiply, he returned to Europe,
'hoping to confound his enemies. But Charles V. received him
coldly. Cortes dissembled, redoubled the assiduity of his attend^
ance on the emperor, accompanied him in the disastrous expedi-
tion to Algiers in 1541, served as a volunteer, and had a horse
killed under him. This was his last appearance in the field, and
if his advice had been followed the Spanish arms would have been
saved from disgrace, and Europe delivered nearly three centuries
earlier from the scourge of organized piracy. Soon afterwards
he fell into neglect, and could scarcely obtain an audience. The
story goes that, having forced his way through the crowd which
surrounded the emperor's carriage, and mounted on the door-
step, Charles, astonished at an act of such audacity, demanded
to know who he was. " I am a man," replied the conqueror of
Mexico proudly, " who has given you more provinces than your
ancestors left you cities." So haughty a declaration of important
services ill-requited could scarcely fail to offend a monarch
on whom fortune had lavished her choicest favours. Cortes,
overwhelmed with disgust, withdrew from court, passed the
remainder of his days in solitude, and died, near Seville, on the
2nd of December 1547.

The only writings of Cortes are five letters on the subject of his
conquests, which he addressed to Charles V. The best edition of
them is that of Don Francisco Antonio Lorenzana, archbishop of
Mexico, entitled Historic, de Nueva-Espana escrita por su esclarecido
conquistador, Hernan Cortes, aumentada con otros documientos y notas
(Mexico, 1770, 4to), a work the noble simplicity of which attests

CORTES— CORUNDUM

207

the truth of the recital it contains. An English translation of the
letters, edited by Francis A. MacNutt, was published in 1908. The
conquests of Cortes have been described with pompous elegance by
Antonio de Solis in his Historia de la conquista de Mejico (1684), and
with more truth and simplicity by Bernardo Diaz del Castillo in his
work under the same title (1632). See also Sir Arthur Helps's Life
of Hernando Cortes (2 vols., London, 1871), F. A. MacNutt's Fernando
Cortes (" Heroes of the Nations " Series, 1909), and the bibliography
to Mexico.

CORTES, a Spanish term literally signifying the " courts," and
applied to the states, or assembly of the states, of the kingdom.
(See Spain and Portugal.)

CORTI, LODOVICO, Count (1823-1888), Italian diplomatist,
was born at Gambarano on the 28th of October 1823. Early
involved with Benedetto Cairoli in anti-Austrian conspiracies,
he was exiled to Turin, where he entered the Piedmontese foreign
office. After serving as artillery officer through the campaign
of 1848, he was in 1850 appointed secretary of legation in London,
whence he was promoted minister to various capitals, and in
1875 ambassador to Constantinople. Called by Cairoli to the
direction of foreign affairs in 1878, he took part in the congress
of Berlin, but unwisely declined Lord Derby's offer for an Anglo-
Italian agreement in defence of common interests. At Berlin
he sustained the cause of Greek independence, but in all other
respects remained isolated, and excited the wrath of his country-
men by returning to Italy with " clean hands." For a time he
withdrew from public life, but in 1881 was again sent to Con-
stantinople by Cairoli, where he presided over the futile conference
of ambassadors upon the Egyptian question. In 1886 he was
transferred to the London embassy, but was recalled by Crispi
in the following year through a misunderstanding. He died
in Rome on the 9th of April 1888.

CORTLAND, a city and the county-seat of Cortland county,
New York, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on Tiough-
nioga river, at the junction of its E. and W. branches. Pop.
(1890) 8590; (1900) 9014, of whom 682 were foreign born;
(1905) 11,2725(1910) 11,504. It is served by the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western and the Lehigh Valley railways. The Franklin
Hatch library and a state normal and training school (opened
in 1869) are in Cortland. The city has important manufactories
of wire, and wire-cloth and netting (one of the largest in' America),
cabs, carriages and waggons, iron and steel, wall-paper, dairy
supplies, corundum wheels, and clothing. The value of the city's
factory products increased from $3,063,828 in 1900 to $4,574,191
in 1905 or 49-3%. The town of Cortlandville, which formed a
part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase, was first settled in
1792, and until 1829 was a part of the town of Homer; from
which in the latter year it was separated, and made the county-
seat. In 1 900 the village of Cortland in the town of Cortlandville
was chartered as a city.

See H. C. Goodwin, Cortland County and the Border Wars of New
York (New York, 1859).

CORTONA, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
of Arezzo, 18 m. S. by E. from the town of Arezzo by rail. The
ancient and modern names are identical. Pop. (1901) of town,
3579; commune, 29,296. The highest point of Cortona, a
medieval castle (Fortezza), is situated 2130 ft. above sea-level
on a hill commanding a splendid view, and is approached by a
winding road. It is surrounded by its ancient Etruscan walls,
which for the greater part of the circuit are fairly well preserved.
They are constructed of parallelepipedal blocks of limestone,
finely jointed (though the jointing has often been spoilt by
weathering), and arranged in regular courses which vary in
size in different parts of the enceinte. Near the N.W. angle
some of the blocks are 7 to 8| ft. long and 25 ft. high, while on
the W. side they are a good deal smaller — sometimes only 1 ft.
high (see F. Noackin Romische Mitleilungen, 1897, 184). Within
the town are two subterranean vaulted buildings in good masonry,
of uncertain nature, some other remains under modern buildings,
and a concrete ruin known as the "Bagni di Bacco." The
museum of the Accademia Etrusca, a learned body founded by
Ridolfino Venuti in 1726, is situated in the Palazzo Pretorio;
it contains some Etruscan objects, among which may be specially
noted a magnificent bronze lamp with 16 lights, of remarkably

fine workmanship, found in 1740, at the foot of the hill, two
votive hands and a few other bronzes, and a little gold jewellery.
The library has a good MS. of Dante. The cathedral, originally
a Tuscan Romanesque building of the nth-i2th centuries, is
now a fine Renaissance basilica restored in the 18th century,
containing some paintings by Luca Signorelli, a native of the
place. Opposite is the baptistery, with three fine pictures by
Fra Angelico. S. Margherita, just below the Fortezza, is an
ugly modern building occupying the site of a Gothic church of
1294, and containing a fine original rose window and reliefs
from the tomb of the saint by Angelo e Francesco di maestro
Pietro d'Assisi. Other works by Signorelli are to be seen else-
where in the town, especially in S. Domenico; Pietro Berettini
(Pietro da Cortona, 1 596-1669) is hardly represented here at all.
Below the town is the massive tomb chamber (originally sub-
terranean, but now lacking the mound of the earth which covered
it) known as the Grotta di Pitagora (grotto of Pythagoras). To
the E. is the church of S. Maria del Calcinaio, a fine early Re-
naissance building by Francesco di Giorgio Martini of Siena,
with fine stained glass windows.

The foundation of Cortona belongs to the legendary period
of Italy. It appears in history as one of the strongholds of the
Etruscan power; but in Roman times it is hardly mentioned.
Dionysius's statement that it was a colony (i. 26) is probably
due to confusion.

See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii.
394 seq. ; A. Delia Cella, Cortona Antica (Cortona, 1900). (T. As.)

CORUMBA, a town and river port of Brazil on the W. bank
of the Paraguay river, 1986 m. above Buenos Aires and 486 m.
above the Paraguayan frontier. Pop. (1890) 8414. Corumba
is a fortified military post, has the large Ladario naval arsenal,
where small river boats are built and repaired, and is the com-
mercial entrepot of the state of Matto Grosso. It is near the
Bolivian frontier and is strongly garrisoned. Although the
climate is extremely hot, the neighbouring country has many
large cattle farms. Corumba is one of the most important places
in the interior of Brazil.

CORUNDUM, a mineral composed of native alumina (AI2O3),
remarkable for its hardness, and forming in its finer varieties
a valuable gem-stone. Specimens were sent from India to
England in the 18th century, and were described in 1798 by the
Hon. C. Greville under the name of corundum — a word which
he believed to be the native name of the stone (Hindi, kurund;
Tamil,, kurundam; Sanskrit, kuruvinda, "ruby"). The finely
coloured, transparent varieties include such gem-stones as the
ruby and sapphire, whilst the impure granular and massive forms
are known as emery. The term corundum is often restricted to
the remaining kinds, i.e. those crystallized and crystalline
varieties which are not sufficiently transparent and brilliant
for ornamental purposes, and which were known to the older
mineralogists as " imperfect corundum." Such varieties were
termed by J. Black, in con-
sequence of their hardness,
adamantine spar, but this
name is now usually re-
stricted to a hair-brown
corundum, remarkable for a
pearly sheen on the basal
plane.

Corundum crystallizes in
the hexagonal system. In
fig. 1, which is a form of
ruby, the prism a is com-
bined with a hexagonal pyra-
mid n, a rhombohedron R,
and the basal pinacoid C. In
fig. 2, which represents a typical crystal of sapphire, the prism
i is associated with the acute pyramids b, r, and a rhombohedron
a. Other crystals show a tabular habit, consisting usually of
the basal pinacoid with a rhombohedron, and it is notable that
this habit is said to be characteristic of corundum which has
consolidated from a fused magma. Corundum has no true

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

208

CORUNNA

cleavage, but presents parting planes due to the structure of
the crystal, which have been studied by Prof. J. W. Judd.

Next to diamond, corundum is the hardest known mineral.
Its hardness is generally given as 9, but there are slight variations
in. different stones, sapphire being rather harder than ruby, and
ruby than common corundum. The colours are very varied,
and it is probable that iron is responsible for many of the
tints, though chromium is a possible agent in certain cases. The
transparent varieties are often distinguished as " Oriental "
stones. (See Ruby and Sapphire.) Corundum is used largely
for watch-jewels, and for bearings in electrical apparatus.

The coloured corundums fit for gem-stones come chiefly from
Ceylon, Burma, Siam and Montana. Coarse dull corundum is
found in many localities, and usually has higher commercial
value as an abrasive agent than emery, which is less pure. The
coarse corundum, however, is often partially hydrated or other-
wise altered, whereby its hardness is diminished. In India,
where the native lapidaries use corundum-sticks and rubbers
formed of the powdered mineral cemented with lac, it occurs
in the Salem district, Madras, in Mysore and in Rewa. Large
deposits of corundum exist in the United States, especially in N.
Carolina and Georgia, where they are associated with peridotites,
often near contact with gneiss. The mineral has been extensively
worked, as at Corundum Hill, Macon county, N.C., near which,
in 1871, were discovered numerous rubies, sapphires and pebbles
of coarse corundum in the bed of a river. Corundum occurs also
at many localities in Montana, where the crystals are often of gem
quality. They are found mostly as loose crystals in gravel, but
are known also in igenous rocks like andesite and lamprophyre.
Prof. J. H. Pratt, who has studied the occurrence both in Montana
and in N. Carolina, considers that the alumina was dissolved in
a molten magma, from which it separated at an early period of
consolidation, as illustrated by the experiments of J. Morcze-
wicz. Corundum occurs also in Canada in an igneous rock, a
nepheline-syenite, associated with Laurentian gneiss. Important
deposits were discovered by the Geological Survey in 1896, in
Hastings county, Ontario; and corundum is now worked there
and in Renfrew county. New South Wales, Queensland and
Victoria are other localities for corundum. The mineral is found
also in the Urals and the Ilmen Mountains, in the Alps (in
dolomite), in the basalts of the Rhine, and indeed as a subordinate
rock-constituent corundum seems to enjoy a wide distribution,
being found even in the British Isles.

See Joseph Hyde Pratt, "Corundum and its Occurrence and
Distribution in the United States," Bulletin U.S. Geol. Surv., No.
269 (1906) ; T. H. Holland, Economic Geology of India (2nd ed.),
part i. (1898). (F. W. R.*)

CORUNNA, a maritime province in the extreme north-west of
Spain; forming part of Galicia, and bounded on the E. by Lugo,
S. by Pontevedra, W. and N. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900)
653,556; area, 3051 sq. m. The coast of Corunna is exposed to
the full force of the Atlantic; it forms one succession of fantastic-
ally shaped promontories, divided by bays and estuaries which
often extend for many miles inland, with reefs and small islands
in their midst. Though well lighted, this coast is very dangerous
to navigation, gales and fogs being frequent in winter and spring.
The most conspicuous headlands are Cape Ortegal and Cape de
Vares, the most northerly points of the Spanish seaboard, and
Capes Finisterre and Torinana in the extreme west. The
principal bays are those of Santa Marta, Ferrol and Corunna,
on the north ; Corcubion, Muros y Noya and Arosa, on the west.
Wild and rugged though this region appears to travellers at sea,
the mountains which overspread the interior are covered with
forests and pastures, and watered by an abundance of small
rivers and streams. The climate is mild and singularly equable,
but the rainfall is very heavy. All the fruits and vegetables
of northern Europe thrive in the sheltered valleys, and the
cultivation of cherries, strawberries, peas and onions, for export,
ranks among the most profitable local industries. Heavy crops
of wheat, rye, maize and sugar-beet are raised. The wines of
Corunna are heady and of inferior flavour. Cattle-breeding,
once a flourishing industry, had greatly decUsed by the beginning

of the 20th century, owing to foreign competition. All along
the coast there are valuable fisheries of sardines, lobsters, cod,
hake and other fish. Copper, tin and gold ace procured in small
quantities, and other minerals undoubtedly exist. The exports
consist chiefly of farm produce and fish; the imports, of coal and
textiles from England, petroleum from the United States, marble
from Italy, salt fish from Norway and Newfoundland, and hides.
The principal towns are Corunna, the capital and chief port (pop.
1900, 43,97i); Ferrol (25,281), another seaport; Santiago de
Compostela (24,120), famous as a place of pilgrimage; Carballo
(13,032); Ortigueira (18,426) and Ribeira (12,218). These are
described under separate headings. Along the coast there are
numerous trading and fishing stations of minor importance.
Railway communication is very defective. From Corunna a line
passes south-eastward to Lugo and Madrid, and from Santiago
another line goes southward to Vigo and Oporto; but the centre
and the north-west of the province are, to a great extent, in-
accessible except by road; and many, even of the main highways,
are ill-constructed and ill-kept. Very few Spanish provinces
have so high a birthrate, but the population increases very
slowly owing to emigration. For a description of the peasantry,
who are distinguished in may respects from those inhabiting
other parts of Spain, see Galicia.

CORUNNA (Span. La Corutia; Fr. La Corogne; Eng. formerly
often The Groyne), the capital of the province described above;
in 43° 22' N., and 8° 22' W.; on the bay of Corunna, an inlet of the
Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 43,97i- The principal railways of
north-westem Spain converge on Corunna, and afford direct
communication with Madrid and Oporto. Corunna consists of
an upper and a lower town, built respectively on the eastern side
of a small peninsula, and on the isthmus connecting the peninsula
with the mainland. The upper town is the more ancient, and is
still surrounded by walls and bastions, and defended by a citadel;
but it has been gradually outgrown by the lower, which, though
at first a mere fishing village, as its name of Pescaderia implies,
is now comparatively well built, and has many broad and hand-
some streets. There is little remarkable in the public buildings,
although the churches of Santiago and the Colegiata date respec-
tively from the 12th and 13th centuries, and there are several
convents, two hospitals, a palace for the captain-general of
Galicia, a theatre, a school of navigation, an arsenal and barracks.
The harbour is on the east. Though difficult to approach in
stormy weather, it is completely sheltered, and accommodates
vessels drawing 22 ft. It is defended by several forts, of which
the most important are San Diego, on the east, and San Antonio,
on the west. These fortifications are of little practical value on
the landward side, as they are commanded by a hill which over-
looks the town. The so-called Tower of Hercules, on the north,
has been increased by modern additions to a height of nearly
400 ft., and is surmounted by a fine revolving light. Many
foreign steamers call here, for emigrants or mails, on their way
to South America. Upwards of 1200 merchant ships, mostly
British, entered the port in 1905. The exports are chiefly
agricultural produce, wine and fish; the imports are coal,
colonial products, and manufactured goods. Chief among the
industrial establishments is a state tobacco factory; the sardine
and herring fisheries also employ alarge number of the inhabitants.

Corunna, possibly at first a Phoenician settlement, is usually
identified with the ancient Ardobrica, a seaport mentioned by
the ist-century historian, Pomponius Mela, as in the country of
the Artabri, from whom the name of Partus Artabrorum was
given to the bay on which the city is situated. In the middle
ages, and probably at an earlier period, it was called Caronium;
and this name is much more probably the origin of the present
designation than the Latin Columna which is sometimes put
forward. The harbour has always been of considerable import-
ance, but it is only in comparatively modem times that it has
made a figure in history. In 1 588 it gave shelter to the Invincible
Armada; in 1598 the town was captured and burned by the
British under Drake and Norris. In 1747, and again in 1805,
the bay was the scene of a naval victory of the British over the
French; and on the 16th of January 1809 a battle took place

CORVEE

209

in the neighbourhood, which is celebrated in British military-
annals (see Peninsular War). The French under Marshal
Soult attempted to prevent the embarcation of the English
under Sir John Moore, but were successfully repulsed in spite of
their superior numbers. Moore was mortally wounded and
died shortly afterwards. He was hastily buried in the ramparts
near the sea; a monument in the Jardin de San Carlos raised
by the British government commemorates his death. The town
joined the revolutionary movement of 1820, but in 1823 it was
forced to capitulate by French troops. In 1836 it was captured
by the Carlists. Corunna suffered heavily when Spain was de-
prived of Cuba and Porto Rico by the Spanish-American War
of 1898, for it had hitherto had a thriving trade with these
colonies.

CORVlJE, in feudal law, the term used to designate the unpaid
labour due from tenants, whether free or unfree, to their lord;
hence any forced labour, especially that exacted by the state,
the word being applied both to each particular service and to the
system generally. Though the corvee formed a characteristic
feature of the feudal system, it was, as an institution, much older
than feudalism, and was already developed in its main features
under the Roman Empire. Thus, under the Roman system,
personal services (operae) were due from certain classes of the
population not only to the state but to private proprietors.
Apart from the obligations (operae officiates) imposed on freed-
raen as a condition of their enfranchisement, which in the country
usually took the form of unpaid work on the landlord's domain,
the semi-servile coloni were bound, besides paying rent in money
or kind, to do a certain number of days' unremunerated labour on
that part of the estate reserved by the landed proprietor. The
state also exacted personal labour (operae publicae), in lieu of
taxes, from certain classes for such purposes as the upkeep of
roads, bridges and dykes; while the inhabitants of the various
regions were responsible for the maintenance of the posting
system (cursus publicus), for which horses, carts or labour would
be requisitioned.

Under the Frankish kings, who in their administration
followed the Roman tradition, this system was preserved. Thus
for the repair of roads, or other public works, within their
jurisdiction the counts were empowered to requisition the labour
of the inhabitants of the pagus, while the missi and other
public functionaries on their travels were entitled to demand
from the population en route entertainment and the means of
transport for themselves and their belongings. It was, however,
the economic revolution which between the 6th and 10th centuries
converted the Gallo-Roman estates into the feudal model, and
the political conditions under which the officials of the Frankish
empire developed into hereditary feudal nobles, that evolved the
system of the corvee as it existed throughout the middle ages
and, in some countries, survived far into the 19th century.
The Roman estate had been cultivated by free farmers, by
coloni, and by slave labour. Under Frankish rule the farmers
became coloni or hospites, the slaves, serfs. The estate was now
habitually divided into the lord's domain (terra indominicata,
dominicum) and a series of allotments (mansi), parcels of land
distributed by lot to the cultivators of the domain, who held
them, partly by payment of rent in money or kind, partly by
personal service and labour on the domain, these obligations
both as to their nature and amount being very rigorously defined
and permanently fixed in the case of each mansus and passing
with the land to each new tenant. They varied, of course, very
greatly according to the size of the holding and the needs of the
particular estate, but they possessed certain common character-
istics which are everywhere found. Luchaire (Manuel, p. 346)
divides all corvees into two broad categories, (1) corvees properly
so called, (2) military services. The second of these, so far as the
obligation to serve in the host (Hostis et equitatus) is concerned,
was common to all classes of feudal society; though the obliga-
tion of villeins to keep watch and ward (gueta, warda) and to
labour at the building or strengthening of fortifications (muragium,
munitio castri) are special corvees. We are, however, mainly
concerned with the first category, which may again be subdivided

into two main groups, (1) personal service of men and women
(manoperae, manuum operae, Fr. manoeuvres, manual labour),
(2) carriage (carroperae, carragia, carrala, &c, Fr. charrois), i.e.
service rendered by means of carts, barrows or draught animals.
These again were divided into fixed services (operae rigae) and
exceptional services, demanded when the others proved in-
sufficient. To these latter was given in the 8th century the name
of operae corrogatae (i.e. requisitioned works, from rogare, to
request. From this term (corrupted into corvatae, curvadae,
corveiae, &c.) is derived the word corvee, which was gradually
applied as a general term for all the various services.

As to the nature of these corvees it must be noted that in the
middle ages the feudal lords had replaced the centralized state
for all administrative purposes, and the services due to them
by their tenants and serfs, were partly in the nature of rent in
the form of labour, partly those which under the Roman and
Frankish monarchs had been exacted in lieu of taxes, and which
the feudal lords continued to impose as sovereigns of their
domains. To the former class belonged the service of personal
labour in the fields, of repairing buildings, felling trees, threshing
corn, and the like, as well as the hauling of corn, wine or wood;
to the latter belonged that of labouring on the roads, of building
and repairing bridges, castles and churches, and of carrying
letters and despatches. Corvees were further distinguished as
real, i.e. attached to certain parcels of land, and personal, i.e. due
from certain persons.

In spite of the fact that the corvees were usually strictly
defined by local custom and by the contracts of tenancy, and that,
in an age when currency was rare, payment in personal labour
was a convenience to the poor, the system was open to obvious
abuses. With the growth of communal life in the towns the
townsmen early managed to rid themselves of these burdensome
obligations either by purchase, or by exchanging the obligation
of personal work for that of supplying carts, draught animals and
the like. In the country, however, the system survived all but
intact; and, so far as it was modified, was modified for the worse.
Whatever safeguards the free cultivators may have possessed,
the serfs were almost everywhere — especially in the 10th and
nth centuries — actually as well as nominally in this respect at
the mercy of their lords (corviables a merci) , there being no limit
to the amount of money or work that could be demanded of
them. The system was oppressive even when the nobles to
whom these services were paid gave something in return, namely,
protection to the cultivator, his family and his land; they
became intolerable when the development of the modern state
deprived the land-owners of their duties, but not of their rights.
In the case of France, in the 17th century the so-called corvee
royale was added to the burden of the peasants, i.e. the obligation
to do unpaid labour on the public roads, an obligation made
general in 1738; and this, together with the natural resentment
of men at the fact that the land which their ancestors had bought
was still subject to burdensome personal obligations in favour
of people whom they rarely saw and from whom they derived
no benefit, was one of the most potent causes of the Revolution.
By the Constituent Assembly personal corvees were abolished
altogether, while owners of land were allowed the choice of
continuing real corvees or commuting them for money. The
corvee as an incident of land tenure has thus disappeared in
France. The corvee royale of repairing the roads, however,
abolished in 1789, was revived, under the name of prestation,
under the Consulate, by the law of 4 Thermidor an X., modified
by subsequent legislation in 1824, 1836 and 1871. Under
these laws the duty of keeping the roads in repair is still
vested in the local communities, and all able-bodied men are
called upon either to give three days' work or its equivalent
in money to this purpose. It is precisely the same system
as that in force under the Roman Empire, and if it differ
from the corvee it is mainly in the fact that the burden is
equitably distributed, and that the work done is of actual value
to those who do it.

As regards other countries, the corvee was everywhere, sooner
or later, abolished with the serfdom of which it was the principal

2IO

CORVEY— CORWEN

incident (see Serfdom) . Though so early asiy72Maria Theresa
had endeavoured to mitigate its hardships in her dominions (in
Hungary unpaid labour was only to be demanded of the serfs on
52 days in the year!) it survived longest in the Austrian empire,
being finally abolished by the revolution of 1848. The duty of
personal labour on the public roads is, however, still maintained
in other countries besides France. This was formerly the case in
England also, where the occupiers of each parish who, by the
common law, had access to the roads were responsible also for
their upkeep. An act of 1555 imposed four days of forced labour
for the repair of roads, and an act of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c. 13)
raised the number of days to six, or the payment of a composition
instead. Ths system of turnpikes, dating from 1663, which
gradually extended over the whole of England, lessened the
burden of this system of taxation, so far as main roads were
concerned, but the greater number of the local roads were subject
to repair by statutory labour until the Highways Act 1835, by
which highways were put under the direction of aparish surveyor,
and the necessary expenses met by a rate levied on the occupiers
of land. In Scotland, statutory labour on highways was created
by an act of 1719, and abolished in 1883.

In Egypt, the corvee has been employed from time immemorial,
more especially for the purpose of cleaning out the irrigation
canals. In the days when only one harvest a year was reaped,
this forced labour was not a very great burden, but the intro-
duction of cotton and the sugar-cane under Mehemet Ali changed
the conditions. These latter are crops which require watering
at various seasons of the year, and very often the fellah was
called away for work in the canals at times when his own crops
required the utmost attention. Moreover, the inequality of
the corvee added to the evil. In some districts it was possible
to purchase exemption, and the more wealthy paid no more for
the privilege than the humblest fellah, consequently the corvee
fell with undue hardship on the poorer classes. Under the
premiership -of Riaz Pasha the corvee was gradually abolished
in Egypt between the years 1888 and 1891, and a small rate on
the land substituted to provide the labour necessary for cleaning
the canals. The corvee is now employed only to a limited
extent to guard the banks of the Nile during flood.

See Du Cange, Glossarium inf. et med. Lat. s.v. " Corvatae " ;
A Luchaire, Manuel des institutions francaiscs (Paris, 1892), pp.
346-349; La Grande Encyclopedic, s.v., with bibliography. For
further works see the bibliography to the article Serfdom.

CORVEY, a place in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on
the Weser, a mile north of the town of Hoxter, with which it
communicates by an avenue of lime trees. During the middle
ages it was famous for its great Benedictine abbey, which was
founded and endowed by the emperor Louis the Pious about
820, and received its name from having been first occupied by
a body of monks coming from Corbie in Picardy. The bones
of St Vitus, the patron saint of Saxony, were removed thither
. according to legend in 836, but apart from this attraction, Corvey
became the centre of Christianity in Saxony and a nursery of
classical studies. The abbot was a prince of the Empire, and
Corvey was made a bishopric in 1783. In 1803 the abbey was
secularized, in 1815 its lands were given to Prussia, and in 1822
they were bestowed on Victor Amadeus, landgrave of Hesse-
Rotenburg, by whom they were bequeathed, in 1834,10 Prince
Victor of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst, duke of Ratibor. The
abbey, which is now used as a residence, possesses a magnificent
library of 150,000 volumes especially rich in old illustrated
works, though the ancient collection due to theliterary enthusiasm
of the Benedictines is no longer extant. Here in 1517 the
manuscript of the five first books of the Annals of Tacitus was
discovered. Here Widukind wrote his Res gestae Saxonicae.
Here, also, the librarian and poet Hoffmann von Fallersleben
lived and worked. The Annales Corbejenses 648-1148 of the
monks can be read in the Monumenta Gertnaniae historica, Band
iii. The Chronicon Corbejense, published by A. C. Wedekind
in 1823, has been declared by S. Hirsch and Waitz (Kritische
Priifung, Berlin, 1839) to be a forgery.

See P. Wigand, Geschichte der Abtci Korvey (Hoxter, 1819) ; and M.
Meyer, Zur altern Geschichte Corveys und Hoxters (Paderborn, 1893).

CORVINUS, JANOS [John] (1473-1 504), illegitimate son of
Matthias Hunyadi, king of Hungary, and one Barbara, supposed
to be the daughter of a burgess of Breslau. He took his name
from the raven {corvus) in his father's escutcheon. Matthias
originally intended him for the Church, but on losing all hope
of offspring from his consort Queen Beatrice, determined, towards
the end of his life, to make the youth his successor on the throne.
He loaded him with honours and riches, till he was by far the
wealthiest magnate in the land. He publicly declared him his
successor, created him a prince with vast apanages in Silesia,
made the commandants of all the fortresses in ,the kingdom
take an oath of allegiance to him, and tried to arrange a marriage
for him with Bianca Maria Sforza of Milan, a project which was
frustrated by the intrigues of Queen Beatrice. Matthias also
intended to make the recognition of Janos as prince royal of
Hungary by the emperor Frederick a condition precedent of
relinquishing all or part of the conquered hereditary domains
of the house of Habsburg; but his sudden death left the matter
still pending, and the young prince suddenly found himself
alone in the midst of enemies. The inexperienced and irresolute
youth speedily became the victim of the most shameful chicanery.
He was first induced formally to resign his claims to the throne,
on the understanding that he was to be compensated with the
crown of Bosnia. He was then persuaded to retire southwards
with the royal treasures which Matthias had confided to him,
whereupon an army immediately started in pursuit, scattered
his forces, and robbed him of everything. Meanwhile the diet
had elected Vladislav of Bohemia king (July 15, r49o), to whom
Janos hastened to do homage, in order to save something from
the wreck of his fortunes. He was also recognized as prince of
Slavonia and duke of Troppau, but compelled to relinquish both
titles five years later. On the invasion of Hungary by Maxi-
milian, he shewed his loyalty to the crown by relinquishing into
the hands of Vladislav the three importantfortressesof Pressburg,
Komarom and Tata, which had been entrusted to him by his
father. But now, encouraged by his complacency, the chief
dignitaries, headed by the palatine Stephen Zapolya, laid claim
to nearly all his remaining estates and involved him in a whole
series of costly processes. This they could do with perfect
impunity, as they had poisoned the mind of the indolent and
suspicious king against their victim. In 1496 Corvinus married
Beatrice, the daughter of Bernard Frangepan. His prospects
now improved, and in 1498 he was created perpetual ban of
Croatia and Slavonia. From 1499 to 1502 he successfully
defended Bosnia against the Turks, and in the following year
aspired to the dignity of palatine, but was defeated by a com-
bination of Queen Beatrice and his other enemies. He died on
the 1 2th of October 1504, leaving one son, Prince Christopher,
who died on the 17th of March 1505.

See Gyula Schonherr, Janos Corvinus Hunyadi (Hung.) (Budapest,
1894). (R. N. B.)

CORVUS, MARCUS VALERIUS (c. 370-270 B.C.), Roman
general of the early republican period. According to the legend
a raven settled on his helmet during his combat with a gigantic
Gaul, and distracted the enemy's attention by flying in his face.
He was twice dictator and six times consul, and occupied the
curule chair twenty-one times. In his various campaigns he
defeated successively the Gauls, the Volscians, the Samnites,
the Etruscans and the Marsians. His most important victory
(343) was over the Samnites at Mount Gaurus.

See Livy vii. 26-42, x. 2-1 1.

CORWEN (" the white choir "), a market town of Merioneth-
shire, Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and
the Great Western railways; 10 m. from Llangollen, through
the Glyn Dyfrdwy (Dee Vale). Pop. (1901) 2680. Telford's
road, raised on the lower Berwyn range side and overlooking
the Dee, opens up the picturesqueness of Corwen, historically
interesting from the reminiscences of Wales's last struggle for
independence under Owen Glendower. In the old parish church
was traditionally Owen's pew; his knife, fork and dagger, are
at the neighbouring Rug (Rhug); his palace, 3 m. distant
at Sychnant (dry stream). Here is the church dedicated to St

CORWIN— CORYBANTES

21 I

Julian, archbishop of St David's (d. 1009), with " the college,"
an almshouse endowed by William Eyton of Plas Warren,
Shropshire. The old British fort, Caer Drewyn, one of a chain
of forts from Dyserth to Canwyd, is the supposed scene of Glen-
dower's retreat under Henry IV., and herej Owen Cwynedd is
said to have prepared to repulse Henry II. To the N.E. are the
Clwyd hills; to the S. the Berwyn range, to the S.W. Arran
Mawddy and Cadair (Cader) Idris; to the W. the two Arenigs;
to the N.W. Snowdon. Corwen is a favourite station for artists
and anglers. Besides the Dee, there are several streamlets, such
as the Trystion, which forms the Rhaiadr Cynwyd (waterfall),
the Ceudiog, and the Alwen.

CORWIN, THOMAS (1794-1865), American statesman and
orator, was born in Bourbon county, Kentucky, on the 29th
of July 1794. In 1798 his father, Matthias Corwin (1761-1829),
removed to what later became Lebanon, Ohio, where the son
worked on a farm, read much, and in 1817 was admitted to
the bar. As an advocate he was at once successful, but after
183 1 he devoted his attention chiefly to politics, identifying
himself first with the Whig and after 1858 with the Republican
party. He was a member of the lower house of the Ohio legis-
lature in 1821, 1822 and 1829, and of the national House of
Representatives from 183 1 to 1840; was governor of Ohio in
1840-1842; served in the United States Senate from 1845 to
1850; was secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of President
Fillmore in 1850-1853; was again a member of the national
House of Representatives from 1859 to 1861; and from 1861
to 1864 was minister of the United States to Mexico — a position
of peculiar difficulty at that time. As a legislator he spoke
seldom, but always with great ability, his most famous speech
being that of the nth of February 1847 opposing the Mexican
War. In i860 he was chairman of the House " Committee of
Thirty-three," consisting of one member from each state, and
appointed to consider the condition of the nation and, if possible,
to devise some scheme for reconciling the North and the South.
He is remembered chiefly as an orator. Many anecdotes have
been told to illustrate his kindliness, his inimitable humour, and
his remarkable eloquence. He died at Washington, D.C., on the
18th of December 1865.

Seethe Life and Speeches of Thomas Corwin (Cincinnati, 1896),
edited by Josiah Morrow; and an excellent character sketch, Thomas
Corwin (Cincinnati, 1 881), by A. P. Russell.

CORY, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1823-1892), English school-
master and author, son of Charles Johnson of Torrington, Devon-
shire, was born on the 9th of January 1823. He was educated at
Eton and King's College, Cambridge. At Cambridge he gained
the chancellor's medal for an English poem on Plato in 1843,
and the Craven Scholarship in 1844. In 1845, after graduating
at the university, he was made an assistant master at Eton,
where he remained for some twenty-six years. He has been
called " the most brilliant Eton tutor of his day." He had a
great influence on his pupils, and he defended the Etonian
system against the criticism of Matthew James Higgins. In
1872, having inherited an estate at Halsdon and assumed the
name of Cory, he left Eton. He married late in life, and after four
years spent in Madeira he settled in 1882 at Hampstead. He died
on the nth of June 1892. He proved his genuine lyrical power
in Ionica (1858), which was republished with some additional
poems in 1891. He also produced Lucretilis (1871), a work on
the writing of Latin verses; Iophon {1873), on Greek Iambics;
and Guide to Modern History from 1815 to 1835 (1882). Extracts
from the Letters and Journals of William Cory, which contains
much paradoxical and suggestive criticism, were edited by F.W.
Cornish and published by private subscription in 1897.

His elder brother, Charles Wellington Johnson Furse (1821-
1900), who, on the death of his father in 1854, took the name
of Furse, was canon and archdeacon of Westminster from 1894
till his death. The artist Charles Wellington Furse, A.R.A.
(1868-1904), was a son of Archdeacon Furse.

CORYATE, THOMAS (1577 ?-i6i7), English traveller arid
writer, was born at Odcombe, Somersetshire, where his father,
the Rev. George Coryate, prebendary of York Cathedral, was

rector. Educated at Westminster school and at Oxford, he
became a kind of court fool, eventually entering the household
of Prince Henry, the eldest son of James I. In 161 1 he published
a curious account of a prolonged walking tour undertaken in
1608, under the title of Coryate's Crudities hastily gobbled up
in Five Months Travels in France, Italy, &c. At the command
of Prince Henry, verses in mock praise of the author, and in-
tended originally to persuade some bookseller to undertake the
publication of the Crudities, were added to the volume. These
commendatory verses, written in a number of languages, and
some in a mixture of languages, by Ben Jonson, Donne, Chapman,
Drayton and others, were afterwards published (161 1) by them-
selves as the Odcombian Banquet. The book contains a clear and
interesting account of Coryate's travels, and, being the first of its
kind, was extremely popular. It is now very rare, and the copy
in the Chetham library is said to be the only perfect one. In the
same year was published a second volume of a similar kind,
Coryats Crambe, or his Coleworte twice Sodden. In 16 12 he set
out on another journey, which also was mostly performed
on foot. He visited Greece, the Holy Land, Persia and
India; from Agra and Ajmere he sent home an account of his
adventures. Some of his letters were published in 1 6 1 6 under the
title of Letters from Asmere, the Court of the Great Mogul, to several
Persons of Quality in England, and some fragments of his writings
were included in Purchas his Pilgrimes in 1625. Coryate was a
curious and observant traveller; he gives accounts of inscrip-
tions he had copied, of the antiquities of the towns he passed
through, and of manners and customs, from the Italian pronuncia-
tion of Latin to the new-fangled use of forks. He acquired a
knowledge of Turkish, Persian and Hindustani in the course of
his travels, and on being presented by the English ambassador,
Sir Thomas Roe, to the Great Mogul, he delivered a speech in
Persian. His journeys were performed at small expense, for he
says that he spent only three pounds between Aleppo and Agra,
and often lived " competently " for a penny a day. Coryate died
at Surat in 1617.

Coryate's Crudities, with his letters from India, was reprinted
from the edition of 161 1 in 1776, and at the Glasgow University Press
(2 vols., 1905). The Odcombian Banquet was ridiculed by John
Taylor, the Water Poet, in his Laugh and be Fat, or a Commentary on
the Odcombian Banket (1613) and two other satires.

CORYBANTES (Gr. KopvPavres) , in Greek mythology, half
divine, half demonic beings, bearing the same relation to the
Asiatic Great Mother of the Gods that the Curetes bear to Rhea.
From their first appearance in literature, they are already often
identified or confused with them, and are distinguished only by
their Asiatic origin and by the more pronouncedly orgiastic nature
of their rites. Various accounts of their origin are given: they
were earth-born, sons of Cronus, sons of Zeus and Calliope, sons
of Rhea, of Ops, of the Great Mother and a mystic father, of
Apollo and Thalia, of Athena and Helios. Their names and
number were as indistinct even to the ancients as those of the
Curetes and Idaean Dactyli. Like the Curetes, Dactyli, Telchines
and Cabeiri (q.v.), however, they represent primitive gods of
procreative significance, who survived in the historic period as
subordinate deities associated with a form of the Great Mother
goddess, their relation to the Great Mother of the Gods, Cybele,
being comparable with that of Attis (q.v.). They may have been
represented or impersonated by priests in her rites as Attis
was, but they were also, like him, not actual priests in the first
instance, but objects of worship in which a frenzied dance, with
accompaniment of flute music, the beating of tambourines, the
clashing of cymbals and castanets, wild cries and self-infliction
of wounds — the whole culminating in a state of ecstasy and
exhaustion — were the most prominent features. The dance of
the Corybantic priests, like that of the priests who represented
the'^Curetes, may have originated in a primitive faith in the
power of noise to avert evil. Its psychic effect, both upon the
dancer and upon the mystic about whom he danced during the
initiation of the Cybele- Attis mysteries, made it a widely known
and popular feature of the cult.

In art the Corybantes appear, usually not more than two or
three in number, fully armed and executing their orgiastic

212

CORYDON— COSA

dance in the presence of the Great Mother, her lions and Attis.
They sometimes appear with the child Dionysus, between whose
cult and that of the Mother there was a close affinity. (G. Sn.)

CORYDON, a town and the county-seat of Harrison county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on Indian Creek, about 21 m. W. by S. of
Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1900) 1610; (1010) 1703. Corydon
is served by the Louisville, New Albany & Corydon railway,
which connects at Corydon Junction, 8 m. N., with the Southern
railway. There are sulphur springs here, and the town is a
summer and health resort. Wyandotte Cave is several miles
W. of Corydon. Corydon is in an agricultural region, and there
are valuable quarries in the neighbourhood; among the town's
manufactures are waggons, and building and lithographic stone.
Corydon was settled about 1805, and was the capital of Indiana
Territory from 1813 to 1816, and of the state until 1824. The
convention which framed the first state constitution met here
in June 18 16. The original state house, an unpretentious two-
storey stone building, is still standing. Corydon was captured
by the Confederates during Gen. Morgan's raid on the 9th of
July 1863.

CORYPHAEUS (from Gr. Kopv<f>ri, the top of the head), in
Attic drama, the leader of the chorus. Hence the term (some-
times in an Anglicized form " coryphe ") is used for the chief
or leader of any company or movement. In 1856 in the university
of Oxford there was founded the office of Coryphaeus or Prae-
centor, whose duty it was to lead the musical performances
directed by the Choragus (q.v.) . The office ceased to exist in 1899.

COS, or Stanko (Ital. Stanchio, Turk. Istan-keui, by corruption
from Eis rav Kw) , an island in that part of the Turkish archi-
pelago which was anciently known as the Myrtoan Sea, not far
from the south-western corner of Asia Minor, at the mouth of
the Gulf of Halicarnassus, or Bay of Budrum. Its total length is
about 25 m. and its circumference about 74. Its population is
estimated at about 10,000, of whom nearly all are Greeks.

A considerable chain of mountains, known to the ancients as
Oromedon, or Prion, extends along the southern coast with
hardly a break except near the island of Nisyros; so that the
greatest versant and most important streams turn towards the
north. The whole island is little more than a mass of limestone,
and consequently unites great aridity in the drier mountain
regions with the richest fertility in the alluvial districts. As the
attention of the islanders is mainly directed to 'the culture of
their vineyards, which yield the famous sultana raisins, a
considerable proportion of the arable land is left untouched,
though wheat, barley and maize are sown in some quarters, and
melons and sesamum seed appear among the exports. The Cos
lettuce is well known. Fruit, especially grapes, is exported in
large quantities to Egypt, mostly in local sailing boats. The
wild olive is abundant enough, but neglected; and cotton,
though it thrives well, is grown only in small quantities. As the
principal harbour, in spite of dredging operations, is fit only for
smaller vessels, the island is not of so much commercial import-
ance as it would otherwise be; but since 1868 it has been
regularly visited by steamers. The only town in the island is Cos,
or Stanko, at the eastern extremity, remarkable for its fortress,
founded by the knights of Rhodes, and for the gigantic plane-
tree in the public square. The fortress preserves in its walls a
number of interesting architectural fragments. The plane-tree
has a circumference of about 30 ft., and its huge and heavy
branches have to be supported by pillars ; of its age there is no
certain knowledge, but the popular tradition connects it with
Hippocrates. The town is supplied by an aqueduct, about 4 m.
in length, with water from a hot chalybeate spring, which is
likewise named after the great physician of the island. The
villages of Pyli and Kephalas are interesting, the former for the
Greek tomb of a certain Charmylos, and the latter for a castle of
the knights of St John and the numerous inscriptions that prove
that it occupies the site of the chief town of the ancient deme of
Isthmos. The most interesting site on the island is the precinct
of Asclepius, which was excavated in 1900-1904 on the slope of
Mount Prion, about 2 m. from the town of Cos. It consists of
three terraces, the uppermost containing a temple, a cypress

grove and porticoes; the middle, which is the earliest portion,
two or three temples, an altar, and other buildings; and the
lower a kind of sacred agora enclosed by porticoes. The precinct
had been enlarged and reconstructed at various times. The
earliest buildings on the middle terrace probably date from the
6th century B.C. The temple on the upper terrace, with the
imposing flight of steps by which it is approached, seems to
belong to the 2nd century B.C. when the whole precinct was
enlarged and reconstructed. After a destructive earthquake, the
whole appears to have been rebuilt by Xenophon, the physician
and poisoner of the emperor Claudius. The final destruction was
brought about by the earthquake of a.d. 554. Among other
things the precinct contains a fountain of water with medicinal
properties. It is doubtful whether this water is brought from
Burinna, the famous fountain of Hippocrates in the mountain
above.

History. — Cos was a Dorian colony with a large contingent of
settlers from Epidaurus who took with them their Asclepius
cult and made their new home famous for its sanatoria. The
other chief sources of the island's wealth lay in its wines, and in
later days, in its silk manufacture. Its early history is obscure.
During the Persian wars it was ruled by tyrants, but as a rule it
seems to have been under an oligarchic government. In the 5th
century it joined the Delian League, and after the revolt of
Rhodes served as the chief Athenian station in the south-eastern
Aegean (411-407). In 366 a democracy was instituted. After
helping, in the Social War (357—355), to weaken Athenian
power it fell for a few years to the Carian prince Maussollus.
In the Hellenistic age Cos attained the zenith of its prosperity.
Its alliance was valued by the kings of Egypt, who used it as
an outpost for their navy to watch the Aegean. As a seat of
learning it rose to be a kind of provincial branch of the museum of
Alexandria, and became a favourite resort for the education of
the princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty; among its most famous
sons were the physician Hippocrates, the painter Apelles, the
poets Philetas and, perhaps, Theocritus (q.v.). Following the
lead of its great neighbour, Rhodes, Cos generally displayed a
friendly attitude towards the Romans; in a.d. 53 it was made a
free city. In a.d. 13 15 it was occupied by the Knights of St
John; in 1523 it passed under Ottoman sway. Except for
occasional incursions by corsairs and some severe earthquakes
the island has rarely had its peace disturbed.

Authorities. — L. Ross, Reisen nach Kos, &c. (Halle, 1852), pp.
11-29, an d Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln (Stuttgart, 1 840-1845),
ii. 86 ff. ; O. Rayet, Memoire sur Vile de Cos (Paris, 1876); M.
Dubois, De Co Insula (Paris and Nancy, 1884); W. Paton and E.
Hicks, The Inscriptions of Cos (Oxford, 1891); B. V. Head, Historia
Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 535-537; Archaol. Anzeiger, 1905, i. ;
for coins see also Numismatics: Greek, § " Calymna and Cos."

(E.Gr.;M.O. B.C.)

COSA, an ancient city of Etruria, on the S.W. coast of Italy,
close to the Via Aurelia, 45 m. E.S.E. of the modern town of
Orbetello. Apparently it was not an independent Etruscan
town, but was founded as a colony by the Romans in the territory
of the Volceientes, whom they had recently conquered, in 273
B.C. The town was strongly fortified, and the walls, about a mile
in circuit, with three gates, and seventeen projecting rectangular
towers at intervals, are in places preserved to a height of over
30 ft. on the outside, and 15 on the inside. The lower part is
built of polygonal, the upper of rectangular, blocks, and the
masonry is of equal fineness all through, so that a difference of
date cannot be assumed; such a change of technique is not
without parallel in Greece (F. Noack in Romische Mitteilungen,
1897, 194). Within the city no remains are visible. The place
was of importance as a fortress; it was approached by a branch
road which diverged from the Via Aurelia at the post station of
Succosa, at the foot of the hill on which the town stood. The
harbour, too, was of some importance. In the 5th century we
hear of it as deserted, and in the 9th a town called Ansedonia
took its place for a short time, but itself soon perished, though it
has left its name to the ruins.

See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etritria (London, 1883), ii.
245- (T. As.)

COSEL— COSIN

213

COSEL, or Kosel, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, at the junction of the Klodnitz'and the Oder, 29 m.
S.E. of Oppeln by rail. Pop. (1905) 7085. It has an Evangelical
and a Roman Catholic church, an old chateau and a grammar-
school (Progymnasium). Its industries are of some importance,
including a manufactory of cellulose (employing 1200 hands),
steam saw- and flour-mills and a petroleum refinery. There is a
lively trade by river.

The first record of Cosel dates from 1286. From 1306 to 1359
it was the seat of an independent duchy held by a cadet line of the
dukes of Teschen. In 1 53 2 it fell to the emperor, was several times
besieged during the Thirty Years' War, and came into Prussian
possession by the treaty of Breslau in 1742. Frederick II,
converted it into a fortress, which was besieged in vain by the
Austrians in 1758, 1759, 1760 and 1762. In 1807 it withstood
another siege, by the Bavarian allies of Napoleon. The fortifica-
tions were razed and their site converted into promenades in 1874.

COSENZ, ENRICO (1812-1898), Italian soldier, was born at
Gaeta, on the 12th of January 1812. As captain of artillery in
the Neapolitan army he took part in the expedition sent by
Ferdinand II. against the Austrians in 1848; but after the
coup d'&tat at Naples he followed General Guglielmo Pepe in
disobeying Ferdinand's order for the withdrawal of the troops,
and proceeded to Venice to aid in defending that city. As
commandant of the fort of Marghera, Cosenz displayed dis-
tinguished valour, and after the fall of the fort assumed the
defence of the Piazzale, where he was twice wounded. Upon the
fall of Venice he fled to Piedmont, where he remained until, in
1859, he assumed the command of a Garibaldian regiment. In
i860 he conducted the third Garibaldian expedition to Sicily,
defeated two Neapolitan brigades at Piale (August 23), and
marched victoriously upon Naples, where he was appointed
minister of war, and took part in organizing the plebiscite.
During the war of 1866 his division saw but little active service.
After the war he repeatedly declined the portfolio of war. In
1 88 1, however, he became chief of the general staff, and held that
position until a short time before his death at Rome on the 7th of
August 1898.

COSENZA (anc. Consentia), a town and archiepiscopal see of
Calabria, Italy, the capital of the province of Cosenza, 755 ft.
above sea-level, 43 m. by rail S. by W. of Sibari, which is a station
on the E. coast railway between Metaponto and Reggio. Pop.
(1901) town, 13,841; commune, 20,857. It is situated on the
slope of a hill between the Crati and Busento, just above the
junction, and is commanded by a castle (1250 ft.). The Gothic
cathedral, consecrated in 1 2 2 2 , on the site of another ruined by an
earthquake in n 84, goes back to French models in Champagne,
and is indeed unique in Italy. It contains the Gothic tomb of
Isabella of Aragon, wife of Philip III. of France, and also the
tomb of Louis III., duke of Anjou; but it has been spoilt by
restoration both inside and out. S. Domenico has a fine rose
window. The Palazzo del Tribunale (law courts) is a fine
building, and the upper town contains several good houses of
rich proprietors of the province; while the lower portion is
unhealthy. Earthquakes, and a fire in 1901, have done con-
siderable damage to the town.

The ancient Consentia is first named as the burial place of
Alexander of Epirus in about 330 B.C. In 204 it became Roman,
though it was more under the influence of Greek culture. It is
mentioned by Strabo as the chief town of the Bruttii, and
frequently spoken of in classical authors as an important place.
It lay on the Via Popillia. Varro speaks of its apple trees which
gave fruit twice in the year and Pliny praises its wine also. It
is the more surprising that in the whole of its territory no in-
scriptions, either Greek or Latin, have ever been found, those
that are recorded by some writers being fabrications. In a.d. 410
Alaric fell in battle here and was buried, it is said, in the bed of
the Busento, which was temporarily diverted and then allowed
to resume its natural course. Cosenza became an archbishopric
in the nth century. In 1461 it was taken by Roberto Orsini,
and suffered severely. It was the home of a scientific academy
founded by the philosopher Bernardino Telesio (1509-1588).

In 1 5 5 5-1 56 1 it was the centre of the persecution by the Inquisi-
tion of the Waldenses who had settled there towards the end of
the 14th century. (T. As.)

COSHOCTON, a city and the county-seat of Coshocton county,
Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Tuscarawas and the Wal-
honding rivers, with the Muskingum river, and about 70 m. E.N.E.
of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 3672; (1900) 6473 (364 foreign-
born) ; (1910) 9603. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Pitts-
burg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (controlled by the Penn-
sylvania), and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The city is
built on a series of four broad terraces, the upper one of which has
an elevation of 824 ft. above sea-level, and commands pleasant
views of the river and the valley. It has a public library.
Coshocton is the commercial centre of an extensive agricultural
district and has manufactories of paper, glass, flour, china-ware,
cast-iron pipes and especially of advertising specialities. The
municipality owns and operates its water- works. Coshocton
occupies the site of a former Indian village of the same name —
the chief village of the Turtle tribe of the Delawares. This
village w as destroyed by the whites in 1 7 8 1 . The first settlement
by whites was begun in 1801; and in 1802 the place was laid
out as a town and named Tuscarawas. In 181 1, when it was
made the county-seat, the present name was adopted. Coshocton
was first incorporated in 1833.

COSIN, JOHN (1594-1672), English divine, was born at Nor-
wich on the 30th of November 1594. He was educated at
Norwich grammar school and at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he was scholar and afterwards fellow. On taking orders
he was appointed secretary to Bishop Overall of Lichfield, and
then domestic chaplain to Bishop Neile of Durham. In December
1624 he was made a prebendary of Durham, and in the following
year archdeacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire. In 1628 he
took his degree of D.D. He first became known as an author in
1627, when he published his Collection of Private Devotions, a
manual stated to have been prepared by command of Charles I.,
for the use of the queen's maids of honour. 1 This book, together
with his insistence on points of ritual in his cathedral church and
his friendship with Laud, exposed him to the suspicions and
hostility of the Puritans; and the book was rudely handled by
William Prynne and Henry Burton. In 1628 Cosin took part
in the prosecution of a brother prebendary, Peter Smart, for a
sermon against high church practices: and the prebendary was
deprived. In 1634 Cosin was appointed master of Peterhouse,
Cambridge; and in 1640 he became vice-chancellor of the univer-
sity. In October of this year he was promoted to the deanery
of Peterborough. A few days before his installation the Long
Parliament had met; and among the complainants who hastened
to appeal to it for redress was the ex-prebendary, Smart. His
petition against the new dean was considered; and early in 164 1
Cosin was sequestered from his benefices. Articles of impeach-
ment, were, two months later, presented against him, but he
was dismissed on bail, and was not again called for. For sending
the university plate to the king, he was deprived of the mastership
of Peterhouse (1642). He thereupon withdrew to France, preached
at Paris, and served as chaplain to some members of the house-
hold of the exiled royal family. At the Restoration he returned
to England, was reinstated in the mastership, restored to all his
benefices, and in a few months raised to the see of Durham
(December 1660). At the convocation in 1661 he played a
prominent part in the revision of the prayer-book, and endeavoured
with some success to bring both prayers and rubrics into com-
pleter agreement with ancient liturgies. He administered his
diocese with conspicuous ability and success for about eleven
years; and applied a large share of his revenues to the promotion
of the interests of the Church, of schools and of charitable
institutions. He died in London on the 15th of January 1672.

Cosin occupies an interesting and peculiar position among the
churchmen of his time. Though a ritualist and a rigorous
enforcer of outward conformity, he was uncompromisingly
hostile to Roman Catholicism, and most of his writings illustrate
this antagonism. In France he was on friendly terms with
1 See John Evelyn's Diary (Oct. 12, 1651).

214

COSMAS— COSMIC

Huguenots, justifying himself on the ground that their non-
episcopal ordination had not been of their own seeking, and at
the Savoy conference in 1661 he tried hard to effect a reconcilia-
tion with the Presbyterians. He differed from the majority of his
colleagues in his strict attitude towards Sunday observance
and in favouring, in the case of adultery, both divorce and the
re-marriage of the innocent party. He was a genial companion,
frank and outspoken, and a good man of business.

Among his writings (most of which were published posthumously)
are a Historia Transubstantiationis Papalis (1675), Notes and Collec-
tions on the Book of Common Prayer (1710) and A Scholastical History
of the Canon of Holy Scripture (1657). A collected edition of his
works, forming 5 vols, of the Oxford Library of Anglo- Catholic
Theology, was published between 1 843 and 1855; and his Correspond-
ence (2 vols.) was edited by Canon Ornsby for the Surtees Society
(1868-1870).

COSMAS, of Alexandria, surnamed from his maritime ex-
periences Indicopleustes, merchant and traveller, flourished
during the 6th century a.d. The surname is inaccurate, since
he never reached India proper; further, it is doubtful whether
Cosmas is a family name, or merely refers to his reputation as a
cosmographer. In his earlier days he had sailed on the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean, visiting Abyssinia and Socotra and
apparently also the Persian Gulf, western India and Ceylon.
He subsequently became a monk, and about 548, in the retire-
ment of a Sinai cloister, wrote a work called Topographia
Christiana. Its chief object is to denounce the false and heathen
doctrine of the rotundity of the earth, and to vindicate the
scriptural account of the world. Photius, who had read it,
calls it a " commentary on the Octateuch " (meaning the eight
books of Ptolemy's great geographical work; according to some,
the first eight books of the Old Testament). According to
Cosmas the earth is a rectangular plane, covered by the vaulted
roof of the firmament, above which lies heaven. In the centre of
the plane is the inhabited earth, surrounded by ocean, beyond
which lies the paradise of Adam. The sun revolves round a
conical mountain to the north — round the summit in summer,
round the base in winter, which accounts for the difference in
the length of the day. Cosmas is supposed by some to have been
a Nestorian. Although not to be commended from a theological
standpoint, the Topographia contains some curious information.
Especially to be noticed is the description of a marble seat
discovered by him at Adulis (Zula) in Abyssinia, with two
inscriptions recounting the heroic deeds and military successes
of Ptolemy Euergetes and an Axumitic king. It also contains
in all probability the oldest Christian maps. From allusions
in the Topographia Cosmas seems to have been the author of a
larger cosmography, a treatise on the motions of the stars,
and commentaries on the Psalms and Canticles. Photius {Cod.
36) speaks contemptuously of the style and language of Cosmas,
and throws doubt upon his truthfulness. But the author
himself expressly disclaims any claims to literary elegance, which
in fact he considers unsuited to a Christian circle of readers, and
the accuracy of his statements has been confirmed by later
travellers.

The Topographia will be found in Migne, Patrologia Graeca,
lxxxviii. ; an edition by G. Siefert is promised in the Teubner series.
See H. Gelzer, " Kosmas der Indienfahrer," in Jahrbiicher fur
protestantische Theologie, ix. (1883) and C. R. Beazley, The Dawn of
Modern Geography, i. (1897). There is an English translation, with
introduction and notes, by J. W. M c Crindle (1897), published by the
Hakluyt society.

COSMAS, of Prague (1045-1125), dean of the cathedral and
the earliest Bohemian historian. His Chronicae Bohemorum
libri Hi., which contains the history and traditions of Bohemia
up to nearly the time of his death, has earned him the title of
the Herodotus of his country. This work, which his continuators
brought down to the year 1 283, is of the highest value to historians
in spite of the fact that its reputation for disingenuousness and
credibility has been greatly affected by the critical attacks of
J. Loserth (Studien zu Cosmas von Prag, Vienna, 1880, &c).

The work was first published at Hanover in 1602, from the im-
perfect Strassburg codex. A perfected edition was brought out at
the same place in 1607; this was reprinted, with notes by C, G.
Schwarz in I. B.. Menckenius, Scriptores rer. Germ. (3 vols., Lips.,

1728-1730). It is included in Pelzel and Dobrowsky, Script, rer.
Bohem. i. pp. 1-282, after collation with Dresden MS., edited very
fully by R. Kopke in Mon. Germ. Hist. Scrip, ix. 1-132, and repeated
in Migne, Patrol, lat. clxvi. pp. 55-388, and in Fontes rer. Bohem. ii.
(1874), I "37° (Latin and Czech), by W. Wl. Tomek. See A. Potthast,
Bibliotheca Hist. Med. Aevi.

COSMATI, the name of a Roman family, seven members of
which, for four generations, were skilful architects, sculptors and
workers in mosaic. The following are the names and dates
known from existing inscriptions: —

Lorenzo (born in the second half of the 12th century).

Jacopo (dated works 1205 and 1210).

Cosimo ( " " 1210-1235).

I

1 ' 1 1 : 1

Luca Jacopo Adeodato Giovanni

(1231 and 1235). (1231-1293). (1294). (1296 and 1303).

Their principal works in Rome are: ambones of S. Maria in
Ara Coeli (Lorenzo); door of S. Saba, 1205, and door with
mosaics of S. Tommaso in Formis (Jacopo); chapel of the
Sancta Sanctorum, by the Lateran (Cosimo); pavement of S.
Jacopo alia Lungara, and (probably) the magnificent episcopal
throne and choir-screen in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, of 1254
(Jacopo the younger); baldacchino of the Lateran and of S.
Maria in Cosmedin, c. 1294 (Adeodato); tombs in S. Maria
sopra Minerva (c. 1296), in S. Maria Maggiore, and in S. Balbina
(Giovanni). The chief signed works by Jacopo the younger
and his brother Luca are at Anagni and Subiaco. A large
number of other works by members and pupils of the same
family, but unsigned, exist in Rome. These are mainly altars
and baldacchini, choir-screens, paschal candlesticks, ambones,
tombs and the like, all enriched with sculpture and glass mosaic
of great brilliance and decorative effect.

Besides the more mechanical sort of work, such as mosaic
patterns and architectural decoration, they also produced
mosaic pictures and sculpture of very high merit, especially the
recumbent effigies, with angels standing at the head and foot,
in the tombs of Ara Coeli, S. Maria Maggiore and elsewhere.
One of their finest works is in S. Cesareo; this is a marble altar
richly decorated with mosaic in sculptured panels, and (below)
two angels drawing back a curtain (all in marble) so as to expose
the open grating of the confessio. The magnificent cloisters of S.
Paolo fuori le Mura, built about 1285 by Giovanni, the youngest
of the Cosmati, are one of the most beautiful works of this school.
The baldacchino of the same basilica is a signed work of the
Florentine Arnolfo del Cambio, 1285, "cum suo socio Petro,"
probably a pupil of the Cosmati. Other works of Arnolfo, such
as the Braye tomb at Orvieto (q.v.), show an intimate artistic
alliance between him and the Cosmati. The equally magnificent
cloisters of the Lateran, of about the same date, are very similar
in design; both these triumphs of the sculptor-architect's and
mosaicist's work have slender marble columns, twisted or straight,
richly inlaid with bands of glass mosaic in delicate and brilliant
patterns. The shrine of the Confessor at Westminster is a work of
this school, executed about 1268. The general style of works of
the Cosmati school is Gothic in its main lines, especially in the
elaborate altar-canopies, with their pierced geometrical tracery.
In detail, however, they differ widely from the purer Gothic
of northern countries. The richness of effect which the English
or French architect obtained by elaborate and carefully worked
mouldings was produced in Italy by the beauty of polished
marbles and jewel-like mosaics — the details being mostly rather
coarse and often carelessly executed.

An excellent account of the Cosmati is given by Boito, Archi-
tettura del medio evo (Milan, 1880), pp. 117-182.

COSMIC (from Gr. koo-jms, order or universe), pertaining to
the universe, universal or orderly. In ancient astronomy, the
word " cosmical " means occurring at sunrise, and designates
especially the rising or setting of the stars at that time.
" Cosmical physics " is a term broadly applied to the totality
of those branches of science which treat of cosmical phenomena

G0SMOGGNY

215

and their explanation by the laws of physics. It includes
terrestrial magnetism, the tides, meteorology as related to
cosmical causes, the aurora, meteoric phenomena, and the
physical constitution of the heavenly bodies generally. It
differs from astrophysics only in dealing principally with
phenomena in their wider aspects, and as the products of physical
causes, while astrophysics is more concerned with minute details
of observation.

COSMOGONY (from Gr. koc/jxis, world and ylyvecrdai, to be
born), a theory, however incomplete, of the origin of heaven and
earth, such as is produced by primitive races in the myth-making
age, and is afterwards expanded and systematized by priests,
poets or philosophers. Such a theory must be mythical in form,
and, after gods have arisen, is likely to be a theogony (0e6s, god)
as well as a cosmogony (Babylonia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Polynesia) .

i. To many the interest of such stories will depend on their
parallelism to the Biblical account in Genesis i. ; the anthropo-
logist, however, will be attracted by them in proportion as they
illustrate the more primitive phases of human culture. In spite
of the frequent overgrowth of a luxuriant imagination, the leading
ideas of really primitive cosmogonies are extremely simple.
Creation out of nothing is nowhere thought of, for this is not at
all a simple idea. The pre-existence of world-matter is assumed;
sometimes too that of heaven, as the seat of the earth-maker,
and that of preternatural animals, his coadjutors. The earth-
making process may, among the less advanced races, be begun
by a bird, or some other animal (whence the term " therio-
morphism "), for the high idea of a god is impossible, till man
has fully realized his own humanity. Of course, the earth-
forming animal is a preternaturally gifted one, and is on the line
of development towards that magnified man who, in a later
stage, becomes the demiurge. 1 Between the two comes the
animal — man, i.e. a being who has not yet shed the slough of
an animal shape, but combines the powers — natural and preter-
natural — of some animal with those of a man. Let us now
collect specimens of the evidence for different varieties of cos-
mogony, ranging from those of the Red Indian tribes to that
of the people ,of Israel.

2. North American Stories. — Theriomorphic creators are most
fully attested for the Red Indian tribes, whose very backwardness
renders them so valuable to an anthropologist. There is a
painted image from Alaska, now in the museum of the university
of Pennsylvania, which represents such an one. We see a black
crow tightly holding a human mask which he is in the act of
incubating. Let us pass on to the Thlinkit Indians of the N.W.
coast. A cycle of tales is devoted to a strange humorous being
called Yehl or Yelch, i.e. the Raven, miraculously born, not to
be wounded, and at once a semi-developed creator and a culture
hero. 2 His bitter foe is his uncle; the germs of dualism appear
early. Like some other culture-heroes, he steals sun, moon and
stars out of a box, so enlightening the dark earth. These people
are at any rate above the Greenlanders, but are surpassed by
the Algonkins described by Nicholas Perrot in 1700, and by the
Iroquois, whom the heroic Father Brebeuf (1593-1649) learned
to know so well. 3 The earth-maker of the former was called
Michabo, i.e. the Great Hare. 4 He is the leader of some animals
on a raft on a shoreless sea. Three of these in succession are
sent to dive for a little earth. A grain of sand is brought; out
of it he makes an island (America?). Of the carcases of the
dead animals he makes the present men (N. Americans?). There
is also a Flood-story, an episode in which has a bearing on the

1 Cf. Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,
chaps, vi., vii., " The Making of a Goddess and of a God."

2 See Ratzel, Hist, of Mankind, ii. .147-148; Breysig, Die Ent-
stehung des Gottesgedankens (1905), pp. 10-12.

3 See Chamberlain, Journ. of American Folklore, iv. 208-209
(analysis of Perrot's account) ; Brinton, Myths of the New World,
pp. 176-179; Breysig, op. cit., pp. 15-20.

4 On Michabo see Brinton, op. cit. (1876), pp. 176 ff., Essays of an
Americanist (1890), p. 132. This scholar holds that "Michabo"
has properly nothing to do with " Great Hare," but should be
translated " the Great White One," i.e. the light of the dawn. The
Algonkins, however, thought otherwise, and the myth itself suggests
a theriomorphic earth-maker.

great dragon-myth B (see Deluge). ^The Iroquois are in advance
of the Algonkins; their creator-hero has no touch of the animal
in him. Above the waters there existed a heaven, or a heavenly
earth (cf. Mexico, Babylonia, Egypt), through a hole in which
Aataentsic fell to the water. The broad back of a tortoise
(cf. § 6) on which a diving animal had placed some mud, received
her. Here, being already pregnant, she gave birth to a daughter,
who in turn bore the twins Joskeha and Tawiscara (myth of
hostile brothers). By his violence (cf. Gen. xxv. 22) the latter
killed his mother, out of whose corpse grew plants. Tawiscara
fled to the west, where he rules over the dead. Joskeha made the
beasts and also men. After acting as culture-giver he disappeared
to the east, where he is said to dwell with his grandmother as
her husband. 6

3. Mexican.— The most interesting feature in the Mexican
cosmology is the theory of the ages of the world. Greece, Persia
and probably Babylon, knew of four such ages. 7 The Priestly
Writer in the Pentateuch also appears to be acquainted with this
doctrine; it is the first of four ages which begins with the
Creation and ends with the Deluge. The Mexicans, however, are
said to have assumed five ages called " suns." The first was the
sun of earth; the second, of fire; the third, of air; the fourth,
of water; the fifth (which is the present) was unnamed. Each
of these closed with a physical catastrophe. 8 The speculations
which underlie the Mexican theory have not come down to us.
For the Iranian parallel, see § 8, and on the Hebrew Priestly
Writer, Gunkel, Genesis' 1 -, pp. 233 ff.

4. Peruvian. — In Peru, as in Egypt, the sun-god obtained
universal homage. But there were creator-gods in the back"
ground. A theoretical supremacy was accorded by the Incas to
Pachacamac, whose worship, like that of Viracocha, they appear
to have already found when they conquered the land.
Pachacamac means, in Quichua, "world-animator." 9 The
" philosophers" of Peru declared that he desired no temples or
sacrifices, no worship but that of the heart. This is conceivable;
Maui, too, in New Zealand had no temple or priests. But most
probably this deity had another less abstract name, and the
horrible worship offered in the one temple which he really had
under the Incas, accorded with his true cosmic significance as the
god of the subterranean fire. Viracocha too had a cosmic
position; an old Peruvian hymn calls him " world-former,
world-animator." 10 He was connected with water. A third
creator was Manco Capac (" the mighty man ") , whose sister and
wife is called Mama Oello, " the mother-egg." Afterwards, the
creator and the mother-egg became respectively the sun and the
moon, represented by the Inca priest-king and his wife, the
supposed descendants of Manco Capac. 11 Dualistic tendencies
were also developed. Las Casas 12 reports a story that before
creation the creator-god had a bad son who sought, after creation,
to undo all that his father had done. Angered at this, his father
hurled him into the sea. We need not suspect Christian in-
fluences, but the parallelism of Rev. xx. 3, Isa. xiv. 12, 15, Ezek.
xxviii. 16 is obvious.

5. Polynesian. — Polynesia, that classic land of mythology, is
specially rich in myths of creation. The Maori story, told by
Grey and others, of the rending apart of Rangi ( — Langi, heaven)

5 See Schoolcraft, Myth of Hiawatha (1856), pp. 35-39; and cf.
the myth of Manabush, analysed in Journ. of Amer. Folklore, iv.
210-213.

6 The latest explanation of Joskeha is " dear little sprout," and of
Tawiscara, " the ice-one," while Aataentsic becomes " she of the
swarthy body." Hewitt, Journ. of Amer. Folklore, x. 68. Brebeuf
(1635) says that Iouskeha gives growth and fair weather (Tylor,
Prim. Cult. i. 294).

7 See Jeremias, Das Alle Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients,
p. 121, 1; Winckler, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament 3 ,

P- 333; .,'•..

8 Reville, Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 129.

9 Garcilasso el Inca, Comment, de los Incas, lib. ii. c. 2; cf. Lang,
The Making of Religion, pp. 262-270.

(V° Reville, p. 187.

11 Reville, p. 158. Garcilasso (lib. i. c. 18) says that Manco Capac
" taught the subject nations to be men," and also founded the
imperial city of Cuzco ( = navel).

12 De las antiquas gentes del Peru (ed. 1892), pp. 55, 56.

2l6

COSMOGONY

and Papa (earth)' can be paralleled in China, India and Greece,
and more remotely in Egypt and Babylonia. The son of Rangi
and Papa was Tangaloa (also called Tangaroa and Taaroa), the
sea-god and the father of fishes and reptiles. 1 In other parts of
Polynesia he is the Heaven God, to whom there is no like, no
second. In Samoa he is even called Tangaloa-Langi (Tangaloa =
heaven) . And if he is the sea -god, we must remember that there is
a heavenly as well as an earthly ocean; hence the clouds are
sometimes called Tangaloa's ships. It is true, the popular
imagery is unworthy of such a god. Sometimes he is said to live
in a shell, by throwing off which from time to time he increases
the world; or in an egg, which at last he breaks in pieces; the
pieces are the islands. We also hear that long ago he hovered as
an enormous bird over the waters, and there deposited an egg.
The egg may be either the earth with the overarching vault of
heaven or (as in Egypt — but this is a later view) the sun. The
latter received mythical representation in that most interesting
god (but originally rather culture-hero) Maui, who,inNewZealand
practically supplants Tangaloa, and becomes the god of the air
and of the heaven, the creator and the causer of the flood. 2
Speculation opened the usual deep problem ; whence came the
gods? It was answered that Po, i.e. darkness, was the begetter
of all things, even of Tangaloa.

6. Indian. — India, however, is the natural home of a mythology
recast by speculation. The classical specimen of an advanced
cosmogony is to be found in the Rig Veda (x. 129) ; it is the hymn
which begins, " There then was neither Aught nor Naught!" 3
Another such cosmogony is given in Manu. It is " the self-
existent Lord," who, " with a thought, created the waters, and
deposited in them a seed which became a golden egg, in which egg
he himself is born as Brahma, the progenitor of the worlds." 4
The doctrine of creation by a thought is characteristically Indian.
In the satapatha Brahmana (cf. Deluge), we meet again with
the primeval waters and the world-egg, and with the famous
mythological tortoise-theory, 5 also found among the Algonkins
(§ 2) — antique beliefs gathered up by the framers of philosophic
systems, who felt the importance of maintaining such links with
the distant past.

7. Egyptian. — In Egypt too the systematizers were busily
engaged in the co-ordination of myths. They retained the
belief that the germs of all things slept for ages within the dark
flood, personified as Nun or Nu. How they were drawn forth
was variously told. 6 In some districts the demiurge was called
Khnumu; it was he who modelled the egg (of the world?) and
also man. 7 Elsewhere he was the artizan-god Ptah, who with his
hammer broke the egg; sometimes Thoth, the moon-god and
principle of intelligence, who spoke the world into existence. 8
A strange episode in the legend of the destruction of man by the
gods tells how Ra (or Re) , the first king of the world, finding in his
old age that mankind ceased to respect him, first tried the remedy
of massacre, and then ascended the heavenly cow, and organized
a new world — that of heaven. 9

8. Iranian. — The Iranian account of creation 10 is specially
interesting because its religious spirit is akin to that of Genesis i.
From a literary point of view, indeed, it cannot compare with the
dignified Hebrew narrative, but considering the misfortunes
which have befallen the collection of Zoroastrian traditions now
represented by the Bundahish (the Parsee Genesis) we cannot
reasonably be surprised. The work referred to begins by

1 See especially Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologic der Naturvolker, vi.
229-302; Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific; Schirren,
Wander sagen der Neuseelander; also an older work (Sir George)
Grey's Polynesian Mythology.

2 See Schirren, op. cit., pp. 64-89.

8 J. Muir, Metrical Translations, pp. 188-189.

4 J. Muir, Sanscrit Texts, iv. 26.

5 See Tylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 340; Primitive Culture,
i. 329 ; Oldenberg, Religion des Veda, pp. 85 f .

6 See Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 127; also Brugoch,
Religion und Mythologie der alten Agypter.

7 See illustration in Maspero, p. 157.

8 See Maspero, pp. 146-147.

9 Maspero, pp. 160-169.

10 See Zoroaster, and cf. Ency. Bib., " Creation," §9; " Zoro-
astrianism," §§ 20, 21.

describing the state of things in the beginning; the good spirit
in endless light and omniscient, and the evil spirit in endless
darkness and with limited knowledge. Both produced their own
creatures, which remained apart, in a spiritual or ideal state, for
3000 years, after which the evil spirit began his opposition to the
good creation under an agreement that his power was not to last
more than 9000 years, of which only the middle 3000 were to see
him successful. By uttering a sacred formula the good spirit
throws the evil one into a state of confusion for a second 3000
years, while he produces the archangels and the material creation,
including the sun, moon and stars. At the end of that period the
evil spirit, encouraged by the demons he had produced, once
more rushes upon the good creation to destroy it. The demons
carry on conflicts with each of the six classes of creation, namely,
the sky, water, earth, plants, animals represented by the primeval
ox, and mankind represented by Gayomard or Kayumarth (the
" first man " of the Avesta). 11 Four points to be noticed here: (1)
the belief in the four periods of the world, each of 3000 years
(cf. § 3); (2) the comparative success for a time of Angra
Mainyu (the evil principle personified) ; (3) the absence of any
recognition of pre-existent matter; (4) the mention of six
classes of good creatures. Each of these deserves a comment
which we cannot, however, here give, and the third may seem
to suggest direct influence of the Iranian upon the Jewish
cosmogony. But though there are in Gen. i. six days of creative
activity, and the creative works are not six, but eight, if not ten
in number, and indirect Babylonian influence is more strongly
indicated. Jewish thinkers would have been attracted by the
emphatic assertion of the creatorship of the One God in the
royal Persian inscriptions more than by the traditional
cosmogony. See further Ency. Bib., " Creation," § 9.

9. Phoenician and Greek. — Phoenician cosmogonies would
appear, from the notices which have come down to us, 12 to have
been composite. The traditions are pale and obscure. It is
clear, however, that the primeval flood and the world-egg
(out of which came heaven and earth) are referred to. See
Ency. Bib., " Creation " § 7; " Phoenicia " § 15; Lagrange,
Religions semitiques, pp. 351 ff. Greek cosmogonies (the
orientalism of which is clear) will be found in Hesiod, Theog.
116 ff. ; Aristophanes, Birds, 692 ff.; cf. Clem. Rom., Homil. vi. 4.
See Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,
chap. xii. " Orphic Cosmogony."

10. Babylonian and Israelilish. — Of the Babylonian and
Israelitish cosmogonies we have several more or less complete
records. For details as to the former, see Babylonian and
Assyrian Religion. With regard to thelatter, wemaynoticethat
in Gen. ii. 46-25 we have an account of creation which, though in
its present form very incomplete, is highly attractive, because it is
pervaded by a breath from primitive times. It has, however,
been interwoven with an account of the Garden of Eden from
some other source (see Eden; Paradise), and perhaps in order
to concentrate the attention of the reader, the description of the
origin of " earth and heaven " as well as of the plants and of the
rain, appears to have been omitted. In fact, both the creation-
stories at the opening of Genesis must have undergone much
editorial manipulation. Originally, for instance, Gen. i. 26
must have said that man was made out of earth; this point of
contact between the two cosmogonic traditions has, however,
been effaced.

The other narrative, Gen. i. i-ii. 4a, is a much more complete
cosmogony, and since the theory of P. A. Lagarde (1887), which
ascribes it to Iranian influence (see § 8), has no very solid ground,
whereas the theory which explains it as largely Babylonian is in
a high degree plausible, we must now consider the relations
between the Israelitish and Babylonian cosmogonies. The short
account of creation first translated in 1890 by T. G. Pinches is
distinguished by its non-mythical character; in particular, the

11 West, Pahlavi Texts (S.B.E.), vol. i., introd. p. xxiii. We need
not deny that, late as the Bundahish may be as a whole, the tradi-
tions which it contains are often old.

12 Fragments of older works are cited by Philo of Byblus (in
Eusebius, Praep. Evang. i. 10) and Mochus and Endemus (in
Damascius, De primis principiis, c. 125).

COSMOPOLITAN— COSSA, LUIGI

217

dragon of chaos and darkness is conspicuous by her absence.
This may illustrate the fact that the dragon is also unmentioned
in the Hebrew cosmogony; to some writers the dragon-element
may have seemed grotesque and inappropriate. We must,
however, study this element in the most important Babylonian
tradition, even if only for its relation to non-Semitic myths and
especially to some striking passages in the Bible (Isa. xxvii. 1, li.
96; Ps. lxxiv. 14, Ixxxix. 10, n; Job iii. 8, ix. 13, xxvi. 12, 13;
Rev. xii. 3, 4, xx. 1-3). One may also be permitted to hold that
the mythic figure of the dragon, if used poetically, is a highly
serviceable one, and consider that " in the beginning God fought
with the dragon, and slew him " would have formed an admirable
illustration of the passages just now referred to, especially to
those in the Apocalypse.

The student should, however, notice that the dragon-element
is not entirely unrepresented even in the priestly Hebrew cos-
mogony. It is said in Gen. i. 9, 10, 14, 15, that God divided the
primeval waters into two parts by an intervening " firmament "
or " platform," on which the sun, moon and stars (planets) were
placed to mark times and to give light. This division (cp.
Ps. lxxiv. 13) is really a pale version of the old mythic statement
respecting the cleaving of the carcase of Tiamat (the Dragon)
into two parts, one of which kept the upper waters from coming
down. 1 And we must affirm that the technical term U horn
(rendered in the English Bible " the deep "), which evidently
signifies the enveloping primeval flood, and which closely
resembles Tiamat, the name given to the dragon or serpent in
the epic (cf. tiamtu and tamtu, Babylonian words for " the
ocean "), can only be due to the influence — probably the very
early influence — of Babylonia.

But we are far from having exhausted the evidence of Baby-
lonian influence on the Hebrew cosmogony. The description of
chaos in v. 2 not only mentions the great water {tShom) , but the
earth, i.e. the earth-matter, out of which the earth and (potenti-
ally) its varied products (w. 9-1 1), and (as we know from the
Babylonian epic) the " firmament " or " platform " of the
heaven were to appear. This earth-matter is called " tohu and
bohu "; there is nothing like this phrase in the epic, but we may
infer from Jer. iv. 23, where the same phrase occurs, that it
means " devoid of living things." For a commentary on this see
the opening of the Babylonian account referred to above, which
refers to the period of chaos as one in which there were neither
reeds nor trees, and where " the lands altogether were sea."
As to the creative acts, we may admit that the creation of light
does not form one of them in the epic (cf. Gen. i. 3), but the
existence of light apart from the sun is presupposed; Marduk
the creator is in fact a god of light. Nor ought we to find a
discrepancy between the Babylonian and the Hebrew accounts
in the creation of the heavenly bodies after the plants, related
in Gen. i. 14-18. For the position of this creative act is due to the
necessity of bringing all the divine acts into the framework of
six working days. On the whole, the Hebrew statement of
the successive stages of creation corresponds so nearly to that in
the Babylonian epic that we are bound to assume that one has
been influenced by the other. And if we are asked, " Which is the
more original ? " we answer by appealing to the well-established
fact of the profound influence of Babylonian culture upon Canaan
in remote times (see Canaan). An important elenrent in this
culture would be mythic representations of the origin of things,
such as the Babylonian Creation and Deluge-stories in various
forms. Indeed, not only Canaan but all the neighbouring
regions must have been pervaded by Babylonian views of the
universe and its origin. Myths of origins there must indeed have
been in those countries before Babylonian influence became so
overpowering, but, if so, these myths must have become recast
when the great Teacher of the Nations half-attracted and half-
compelled attention. More than this we need not assert.
Zimmern's somewhat different treatment of the subject in Ency.
Biblica, " Creation," § 4, may be compared.

Popular writers are in some danger of misrepresenting this
important result. It is tempting, but incorrect, to suppose that

•See Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 428.

a docile Israelitish writer accepted one of the chief forms of the
Babylonian cosmogony, merely omitting its polytheism and
substituting " Yahweh " for " Marduk." As we have seen,
various myths of Creation may have been current both in N.
Arabia (whence the Israelites may have come) and in Canaan
prior to the great extension of Babylonian influence. These
myths doubtless had peculiarities of their own. From one of
them may have come that remarkable statement in Gen. i. 26,
" and the spirit of God (Elohim) was hovering over the face of
the waters," which, until we find some similar myth nearer
home, is best illustrated and explained by a Polynesian myth
(see Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel, ad loc).
It is also probably to a non-Babylonian source that we owe the
prescription of vegetarian or herb diet in Gen. i. 29, 30, which
has a Zoroastrian parallel 2 and is evidently based on a myth of
the Golden Age, independent of the Babylonian cosmogony.
Gen. i., therefore, has not, as it stands, been directly borrowed
from Babylonia, and yet the infused Babylonian element is so
considerable that the story is, in a purely formal aspect,
much more Babylonian than either Israelitish or Canaanitish or
N. Arabian. We say " in a purely formal aspect," because the
strictness with which Babylonian mythic elements have been
adapted in Gen. i. to the wants of a virtually monotheistic
community is in the highest degree remarkable.

On the literary scheme of the Creation-story in Gen. i. see the
commentaries {e.g. Dillman's and Driver's). On the other Old
Testament references to creation, and on the prophetic doctrine of
creation, see Ency. Bib., " Creation," §§ 27-29. On the traces of
dragon and serpent myths in the Old Testament and their signifi-
cance, see Gunkel, Schopfung und Chaos (1895) — a pioneering work
of the highest merit — and Ency. Bib., " Behemoth," " Dragon,"
" Rahab," " Serpent." On the connexion of the Creation and the
Deluge-stories, see Deluge. Cf. also the article on Babylonian
and Assyrian Religion; and Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of
Ancient Israel (1907). _ (T. K. C.)

COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. k6<7/jos, world, and ToKlrqs, citizen),
of or belonging to a " citizen of the world," i.e. one whose
sympathies, interests, whether commercial, political or social,
and culture are not confined to the nation or race ta which he
may belong, opposed therefore to " national " or * insular."
As an attribute the word may be applied to a cultured man of
the world, who has travelled widely and is at home in many forms
of civilization, to such races as the Jewish, scattered through the
civilized world, yet keeping beneath their cosmopolitanism the
racial type pure, and also to mark a profound line of cleavage in
economic and political thought.

COSNE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire at
its junction with the Nohain, 37 m. N.N.W. of Nevers by the
Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 5750; commune, 8437.
Two suspension bridges unite it to the left bank of the Loire.
The church of St Aignan is a building of the 12th century,
restored in the 16th and 18th centuries; the only portions in
the Romanesque style are the apse and the north-west portal.
It formerly belonged to a Benedictine priory depending on the
abbey of La Charite (Nievre). The manufacture of files, flour-
milling and tanning are carried on in the town which has a
subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance and a communal
college. Cosne is mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary under
the name of Condate, but it was not till the middle ages that it
rose into importance as a military post. In the 12 th century
the bishop of Auxerre and the count of Nevers agreed to a
division of the supremacy over the town and its territory.

COSSA, LUIGI (1831-1896), Italian economist, was born at
Milan on the 27th of May 1831. Educated at the universities
of Pavia, Vienna and Leipzig, he was appointed professor of
political economy at Pavia in 1858. He died at Pavia on the
10th of May 1896. Cossa was the author of several works which
established for him a high reputation; including Scienza delle
finanze (1875, English translation 1888 under title Taxation,
its Principles and Methods); Guida alio studio dell' economia
politica (1876, English translation 1880), an admirable com-
pendium of the theoretical preliminaries of economics, with a
2 See Bundahish, xv. 2 (S.B.E., v. 53).

218

COSSA, PIETRO^COSSIMBAZAR

brief critical -history of the science and an excellent bibliography;
Introduzione alio studio dell' economia politico, (1876, English
translation by L. Dyer, 1893); and Saggi di economia politica,
1878.

COSSA, PIETRO (1830-1880), Italian dramatist, was born
at Rome in 1830, and claimed descent from the family of Pope
John XXIII., deposed by the council of Constance. He mani-
fested an independent spirit from his youth, and was expelled
from a Jesuit school on the double charge of indocility and
patriotism. After fighting for the Roman republic in 1849, he
emigrated to South America, but failing to establish himself
returned to Italy, and lived precariously as a literary man until
1870, when his reputation was established by the unexpected
success of his first acted tragedy, Nero. From this time to his
death in 1880 Cossa continued to produce a play a year, usually
upon some classical subject. Cleopatra, Messalina, Julian,
enjoyed great popularity, and his dramas on subjects derived
from Italian history, Rienzi and The Borgias, were also successful.
Plautus, a comedy, was preferred by the author himself, and is
more original. Cossa had neither the divination which would
have enabled him to reconstruct the ancient world, nor the
imagination which would have enabled him to idealize it. But
he was an energetic writer, never tame or languid, and at the
same time able to command the attention of an audience without
recourse to melodramatic artifice; while his sonorous verse,
if scarcely able to support the ordeal of the closet, is sufficiently
near to poetry for the purposes of the stage.

His collected Teatro poetico was published in 1887.

COSSACKS (Russ. Kazak; plural, Kazaki, from the Turki
quzzaq, " adventurer, free-booter "), the name given to consider-
able portions of the population of the Russian empire, endowed
with certain special privileges, and bound in return to give
military service, all at a certain age, under special conditions.
They constitute ten separate voiskos, settled along the frontiers:
Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg, Siberian,
Semiryechensk, Amur and Usuri. The primary unit of this
organization is the stanitsa, or village, which holds its land as
a commune, and may allow persons who are not Cossacks
(excepting Jews) to settle on this land for payment of a certain
rent. The assembly of all householders in villages of less than
30 households, and of 30 elected men in villages having from
30 to 300 households (one from each 10 households in the more
populous ones), constitutes the village assembly, similar to the
mir, but having wider attributes, which assesses the taxes,
divides the land, takes measures for the opening and support
of schools, village grain-stores, communal cultivation, and so
on, and elects its ataman (elder) and its judges, who settle all
disputes up to £10 (or above that sum with the consent of both
sides). Military service is obligatory for all men, for 20 years,
beginning with the age of 18. The first 3 years are passed in
the preliminary division, the next 12 in active service, and
the last s years in the reserve. Every Cossack is bound to
procure his own uniform, equipment and horse (if mounted) —
the government supplying only the arms. Those on active service
are divided into three equal parts according to age, and the first
third only is in real service, while the two others stay at home,
but are bound to march out as soon as an order is given. The
officers are supplied in the usual way by the military schools,
in which all Cossack voiskos have their own vacancies, or are
non-commissioned Cossack officers, with officers' grades. In
return for this service the Cossacks have received from the
state considerable grants of land for each voisko separately.

The total Cossack population in 1893 was 2,648,049 (1,331,470
women), and they owned nearly 146,500,000 acres of land, of
which 105,000,000 acres were arable and 9,400,000 under forests.
This land was divided between the staniisas, at the rate of 81
acres per each soul, with special grants to officers (personal to
some of them, in lieu of pensions), and leaving about one-third
of the land as a reserve for the future. The income which the
Cossack voiskos receive from the lands which they rent to different
persons, also from various sources (trade patents, rents of shops,
fisheries, permits of gold-digging, &c), as also from the subsidies

they receive from the government (about £712,500 in' 1893), is
used to cover all the expenses of state and local administration.
They have besides a special reserve capital of about £2,600,000.
The expenditure of the village administration is covered by
village taxes. The general administration is kept separately
for each voisko, and differs with the different voiskos. The central
administration, at the Ministry of War, is composed of repre-
sentatives of each voisko, who discuss the proposals of all new
laws affecting the Cossacks. In time of war the ten Cossack
voiskos are bound to supply 890 mounted sotnias or squadrons
(of 125 men each), 108 infantry sotnias or companies (same
number), and 236 guns, representing 4267 officers and 177,100
men, with 170,695 horses. In time of peace they keep 314
squadrons, 54 infantry sotnias, and 20 batteries containing 108
guns (2574 officers, 60,532 men, 50,054 horses). Altogether, the
Cossacks have 328,705 men ready to take arms in case of need.
As a rule, popular education amongst the Cossacks stands at a
higher level than in the remainder of Russia. They have more
schools and a greater proportion of their children go to school.
In addition to agriculture, which (with the exception of the
Usuri Cossacks) is sufficient to supply their' needs and usually
to leave a certain surplus, they'carry on extensive cattle and horse
breeding, vine culture in Caucasia, fishing on the Don, the Ural,
and the Caspian, hunting, bee-culture, &c. The extraction of
coal, gold and other minerals which are found on their territories
is mostly rented to strangers, who also own most factories.

A military organization similar to that of the Cossacks has been
introduced into certain districts, which supply a number of
mounted infantry sotnias. Their peace-footing is as follows: —
Daghestan, 6 regular 'squadrons and 3 of militia; Kuban
Circassians, 1 sotnia; Terek, 8 sotnias; Kars, 3 sotnias; Batum,
2 infantry and 1 mounted sotnia; Turkomans, 3 sotnias; total,
25 squadrons and 2 companies.

For the origin and history of the Cossacks see Poland: History,
and the biographies of Razin, Chmielnicki and Mazepa. (P. A. K.)

COSSIMBAZAR, or Kasimbazar, a decayed town on the river
Bhagirathi in the Murshidabad district of Bengal, India, now
included in the Berhampur municipality. Pop. (1901) 1262.
Though the history of the place cannot be traced back earlier
than the 17th century, it was of great importance long before the
foundation of Murshidabad. From the first European traders set
up factories here, and after the ruin of Satgaon by the silting up
of the mouth of the Saraswati it gained a position, as the great
trading centre of Bengal, which was not challenged until after the
foundation of Calcutta. In 1658 the first English agent was
established at Cossimbazar, and in 1667 the chief of the factory
there became an ex-officio member of council. In English docu-
ments of this period, and till the early 19th century, the Bhagi-
rathi was described as the Cossimbazar river, and the triangular
piece of land between the Bhagirathi, Padma and Jalangi, on
which the city stands, as the island of Cossimbazar. The
proximity of the factory to Murshidabad, the Mahommedan
capital, while it was the main source of its wealth and of its
political importance, exposed it to constant danger. Thus in
1757 it was the first to be taken by Suraj-ud-dowlah, the nawab;
and the resident with his assistant (Warren Hastings) were taken
as prisoners to Murshidabad.

At the beginning of the 19th century the city still flourished;
so late as 1811 it was described as famous for its silks, hosiery,
koras and beautiful ivory work. But an insidious change in its
once healthy climate had begun to work its decay; the area of
cultivated land round it had shrunk to vanishing point, jungle
haunted by wild beasts taking its place; and in 1813 its ruin
was completed by a sudden change in the course of the Bhagi-
rathi, which formed a new channel 3 m. from the old town,
leaving an evil-smelling swamp around the ancient wharves.
Of its splendid buildings the fine palace of the maharaja of
Cossimbazar alone remains, the rest being in ruins or represented
only by great mounds of earth. The first wife of Warren
Hastings was buried at Cossimbazar, where her tomb with its
inscription still remains.

See Imp. Gaz. of India (Oxford, 1908), s.v.

COSTA— COSTA RICA

219

COSTA, GIOVANNI (1826-1903), Italian painter, was born in
Rome. He fought under Garibaldi in 1848, and seWed as a
volunteer in the war of 1859; and his enthusiasm for Italian
unity was actively shown again in 1870, when he was the first to
mount the breach in the assault of Rome near the Porta Pia.
He had settled meanwhile at Florence, where his fight for the
independence of art from worn-out traditions was no less
strenuous, and he became known as a landscape-painter of
remarkable originality, and of great influence in the return to
minute observation of nature. He had many English friends and
followers, notably Matthew Ridley Corbet (1850-1902), and
Lord Carlisle, and was closely associated with Corot and the
Barbizon school. In later years he lived and worked mainly in
Rome, where his studio was an important centre. An exhibition
of his pictures was held in London in 1904, and he is represented
in the Tate Gallery. He died at Rome in 1903.

See also Madame Agresti's Giovanni Costa (1904).

COSTA, LORENZO (1460-1535), Italian painter, was born at
Ferrara, but went in early life to Bologna and ranks with the
Bolognese school. In 1438 he painted his famous " Madonna
and Child with the Bentivoglio family," and other frescoes, on
the walls of the Bentivoglio chapel in San Giacomo Maggiore, and
he followed this with many other works. He was a great friend of
Francia, who was much influenced by him. In 1 509 he went to
Mantua, where his patron was the Marquis Francesco Gonzaga,
and he eventually died there. His " Madonna and Child en-
throned " is in the National Gallery, London, but his chief works
are at Bologna. His sons, Ippolito (1506-1561) and Girolamo,
were also painters, and so was Girolamo's son Lorenzo the
younger (1 537-1 5 8 3)-

COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS (1808-1884),
British musical conductor and composer, the son of Cavaliere
Pasquale Costa, a Spaniard, was born at Naples on the 14th of
February 1808. Here he became at an early age a scholar at the
Royal College of Music. His cantata L'Immagine was composed
when he was fifteen. In 1826 he wrote his first opera II Delitto
Punito; in 1827 another opera II sospetto funesto. To this
period belong also his oratorio La Passione, a grand Mass for
four voices, a Dixit Dominus, and three symphonies. The opera
// Carcere d'lldegonda was composed in 1828 for the Teatro
Nuovo, and in 1829 Costa wrote his Malvina for Barbaja, the
impresario of San Carlo. In this latter year he visited Birming-
ham to conduct Zingarelli's Cantata Sacra, a setting of some
verses from Isaiah ch. xii. Instead, however, of conducting, he
sang the tenor part. In 1830 he settled in London, having a
connexion with the King's theatre. His ballet Kenilworth [was
written in 1831, the ballet line Heure a Naples in 1832, and the
ballet Sir Huon (composed for Taglioni) in 1833. In this latter
year he wrote his famous quartet Ecco quel fiero istante.
Malek Adhel, an opera, was produced in Paris in 1837. In 1842
he wrote the ballet music of Alma for Cerito, and in 1844 his opera
Don Carlos was produced in London. Costa became a naturalized
Englishman and received the honour of knighthood in 1869. He
conducted the opera at Her Majesty's from 1832 till 1846, when
he seceded to the Italian Opera at Co vent Garden; he was
conductor of the Philharmonic Society from 1846 to 1854, of the
Sacred Harmonic Society from 1848, and of the Birmingham
festival from 1849. In 1855 Costa wrote Eli, and in 1864
Naaman, both for Birmingham. Meanwhile he had conducted
the Bradford (1853) and Handel festivals (1857-1880), and the
Leeds festivals from 1874 to 1880. On the 29th of April 1884 he
died at Brighton. Costa was the great conductor of his day, but
both his musical and his human sympathies were somewhat
limited; his compositions have passed into oblivion, with the
exception of the least admirable of them — his arrangement of the
national anthem.

COSTAKI, ANTHOPOULOS (1835-1902), Turkish pasha, was
born in 1835. He became a professor at the Turkish naval
college; then entered the legal branch of the Turkish service,
rising to the post of procureur imperial at the court of cassation.
He was governor-general of Crete; and in 1895 was appointed
Ottoman ambassador in London, a post which he continued to

hold until his death at Constantinople in rgo2. He bore through-
out his career the reputation of an intelligent and upright public
servant.

COSTANZO, ANGELO DI (c 1507-1591), Italian historian and
poet, was born at Naples about 1507. He lived in a literary
circle, and fell in love with the beautiful Vittoria Colonna. His
great work, Le Istorie del regno di Napoli dal 1250 fino al 14Q8,
first appeared at Naples in 1572, and was the fruit of thirty or
forty years' labour; but nine more years were devoted to the
task before it was issued in its final form at Aquila (1581). It
is still one of the best histories of Naples, and the style is dis-
tinguished by clearness, simplicity and elegance. The Rime of
di Costanzo are remarkable for finical taste, for polish and
frequent beauty of expression, and for strict obedience to the
poetical canons of his time.

See G. Tiraboschi, Storia delta letteralura italiana, vol. vii. (Flor-
ence, 1812).

COSTA RICA, a republic of Central America, bounded on the
N. by Nicaragua, E. by the Caribbean Sea, S.E. and S.by Panama,
S.W., W. and N.W. by the Pacific Ocean. (For map, see Central
America.) The territory thus enclosed has an area of about
18,500 sq. m., and may be roughly described as an elevated
tableland, intersected by lofty mountain ranges, with their main
axis trending from N.W. to S.E. It is fringed, along the coasts,
by low-lying marshes and lagoons, alternating with tracts of
rich soil and wastes of sand.

Physical Description. — The northern frontier, drawn 2 m. S. of
the southern shores of the river San Juan and of Lake Nicaragua.,
terminates at Salinas Bay on the Pacific; its southern frontier
skirts the valley of the Sixola or Tiliri, strikes south-east along the
crests of the Talamanca Mountains as far as 9 N., and then turns
sharply south, ending in Burica Point. The monotonous Atlantic
littoral is unbroken by any large inlet or estuary, and thus
contrasts in a striking manner with the varied outlines of the
Pacific coast, which includes the three bold promontories of
Nicoya, Golfo Dulce and Burica, besides the broad sweep of
Coronada Bay and several small harbours. The Gulf of Nicoya,
a shallow landlocked inlet, containing a whole archipelago of
richly-wooded islets, derives its name from Nicoya, an Indian
chief who, with his tribe, was here converted to Christianity in the
1 6th century. It is famous for its purple-yielding murex, pearls
and mother-of-pearl. The Golfo Dulce has an average depth of
100 fathoms and contains no islands. Two volcanic Cordilleras
or mountain chains, separated from one another by the central
plateau of San Jose and Cartago, traverse the interior of Costa
Rica, and form a single watershed, often precipitous on its
Pacific slope, but descending more gradually towards the Atlantic,
where there is a broad expanse of plain in the north-east. The
more northerly range, in which volcanic disturbances on a great
scale have been comparatively recent, extends transversely
across the country, from a point a little south of Salinas Bay,
to the headland of Carreta, the southern extremity of the Atlantic
seaboard, also known as Monkey Point. Its direction changes
from south-east to east-south-east opposite to the entrance into
the Gulf of Nicoya, where it is cut into two sections by a depres-
sion some 20 m. wide. At first it is rather a succession of isolated
volcanic cones than a continuous ridge, the most conspicuous
peaks being Orosi (5185 ft.), the four-crested Rincon de la Vieja
(4500), Miravalles (4698) and Tenorio (6800). In this region it
is known as the Sierra de Tilaran. Then succeed the Cerros de
los Guatusos, a highland stretching for more than 50 m. without
a single volcano. Poas (8895), the scene of a violent eruption in
1834, begins a fresh series of igneous peaks, some with flooded
craters, some with a constant escape of smoke and vapour.
From Irazti (11,200), the culminating point of the range, both
oceans and the whole of Costa Rica are visible; its altitude
exceeds that of Aneto, the highest point in the Pyrenees, but so
gradual is its acclivity that the summit can easily be reached by a
man on horseback. Turialba (10,910), adjoining Irazu on the east,
was in eruption in 1866. Its name, though probably of Indian
origin, is sometimes written Turrialba, and connected with the
Latin Tunis Alba, " White Tower." The more southerly of

220

COSTA RICA

the two Costa Rican ranges, known as the Cordillera de Tala-
manca, rises south of the Gulf of Nicoya, and extends midway
between the two oceans towards the south-east. It follows
exactly the curve of the mainland, and is continued into Panama,
under the name of the Cordillera de Chiriqui. Its chief summits
are Chirripo Grande (11,485), the loftiest in the whole country,
Buena Vista (10,820), Ujum (8695), Pico Blanco (9645) and
Rovalo (7050), on the borders of Panama. Throughout the
volcanic area earthquakes and landslides are of frequent
occurrence. '

The narrowness of the level ground between the mountains
and the sea renders almost impossible the formation of any
navigable river. The most important streams are those of the
Atlantic seaboard, notably the San Juan, which drains Lake
Nicaragua. Issuing from the lake within Nicaraguan territory, the
San Juan has a course of 95 m., mostly along the frontier, to the
Colorado Mouth, which is its main outfall, and belongs wholly
to Costa Rica. Its chief right-hand tributaries are the San Carlos
and Sarapiqui. The Reventazon, or Parismina, flows from the
central plateau to the Caribbean Sea; despite the shortness of
its valley, its volume is considerable, owing to the prevalence
of moist trade-winds near its sources. Six small streams and one
large river, the Rio Frio, flow across the northern frontier into
Lake Nicaragua. On the Pacific coast all the rivers are rapid
and .liable to sudden floods. None is large, although three bear
the prefix Rio Grande, "great river." The Tempisque enters
the Pacific at the head of the Gulf of Nicoya, and tends to silt
up that already shallow inlet (5-10 fathoms) with its alluvial
deposits. The Rio Grande de Tarcoles also enters the gulf, and
the Rio Grande de Pirris and Rio Grande de Terrabis or Diquis
flow into Coronada Bay. The Rio Grande de Tarcoles rises
close to the Ochomogo Pass and the sources of the Reventazon,
at the base of Irazu; and the headwaters of these two streams
indicate precisely the depression in the central plateau which
severs the northern from the southern mountains.

Costa Rica is not differentiated from the neighbouring lands
by any very marked peculiarities of geological formation, or of
plant and animal life. Its geology, flora and fauna are therefore
described under Central America (q.v.).

Climate. — Owing to the proximity of two oceans, and the varied
configuration of the surface of Costa Rica, an area of a few square
miles may exhibit the most striking extremes of climate; but,
over the entire country, it is possible to distinguish three climatic
zones — tropical, temperate and cold. These generally succeed
one another as the altitude increases, although the heat is
greater at the same elevation on the Pacific than on the Atlantic
coast. It is, however, less oppressive, as cool breezes prevail
and damp is comparatively rare. The tropical zone comprises
the coast and the foothills, and ranges, in its mean annual
temperature, from 72 F. to 82 . In the San Jose plateau
(3000-5000 ft.), which is the most densely populated portion of
the temperate zone, the average is 68°, with an average variation
for all seasons of only 5 . Above 7500 ft. frosts are frequent, but
snow rarely falls. The wet season, lasting during the prevalence
of the south-west monsoon, from April to December, is clearly
defined on the Pacific slope. It is curiously interrupted by a
fortnight of dry weather, known as the Veranillo de San Juan,
in June. Towards the Atlantic the trade-winds may bring rain
in any month. Winter lasts from December to February.
The normal rainfall is about 80 in., but as cloud-bursts are
common, it may rise to 150 in. or even more. Rheumatism
on the Atlantic seaboard, and malaria on both coasts, are the
commonest forms of disease; but, as a whole, Costa Rica is one
of the healthiest of tropical lands.

Population. — In 1904, according to the official returns, the
total population numbered 331,340; having increased by more
than one-fourth in a decade. Spanish, with various modifications
of dialect, and the introduction of many Indian words, is the
principal language; and the majority of the inhabitants claim
descent from the Spanish colonists — chiefly Galicians — who
came hither during the 16th and subsequent centuries. The
percentage of Spanish blood is greater than in the other Central

American republics; but there is also a large population of
half-castes (ladinos or mestizos) due to intermarriage with native
Indians. The resident foreigners, who are mostly Spaniards,
Italians, Germans and British subjects, numbered less than 8000
in 1904; immigration is, however, encouraged by the easy terms
on which land can be purchased from the state. The native
Indians, though exterminated in many districts, and civilized
in others, remain in a condition of complete savagery along parts
of the Nicaraguan border, where they are known as Prazos or
Guatusos, in the Talamanca country and elsewhere. Their
numbers may be estimated at 4000. They are a quiet and in-
offensive folk, who dwell in stockaded encampments, and preserve
their ancestral language and customs. For an account of early
Indian civilization in Costa Rica, see Central America:
Archaeology. The Mosquito Indians come every summer to
fish for turtle off the Atlantic coast. As only 200 negroes were
settled in Costa Rica when slavery was abolished in 1824, and
no important increase ever took place through immigration,
the black population is remarkably small, amounting only to
some 1200.

Chief Towns and Communications. — The whites are congre-
gated in or near the chief towns, which include the capital, San
Jose (pop. 1904 about 24,500), the four provincial capitals of
Alajuela (4860), Cartago (4536), Heredia (7151) and Liberia or
Guanacaste (2831), with the seaportsof Puntarenas (3569), on the
Pacific, and Limon (3171) on the Atlantic. These, with the
exception of Heredia and Liberia, are described in separate
articles. The transcontinental railway from Limon to Puntarenas.
was begun in 18 71, and forms the nucleus of a system intended
ultimately to connect all the fertile parts of the country, and to
join the railways of Nicaragua and Panama. It skirts the
Atlantic coast as far as the small port of Matina; thence it
passes inland to Reventazon, and bifurcates to cross the northern
mountains; one branch going north of Irazu, while the other
traverses the Ochomogo Pass. At San Jose these lines reunite,
and the railway is continued to Alajuela, the small Pacific port
of Tivives, and Puntarenas. The railways are owned partly by
the state, partly by the Costa Rica railway company, which, in
1904, arranged to build several branch lines through the banana
districts of the Atlantic littoral. Apart from the main lines of
communication the roads are very rough, often mere tracks;
and the principal means of transport are ox-carts or pack-m.ules.
The postal and telegraphic services are also somewhat inadequate.

Agriculture and Industries. — The name " Costa Rica," meaning
" rich coast," is well deserved; for, owing to the combination of
ample sunshine and moisture with a wonderfully fertile soil,
almost any kind of fruit or flower can be successfully cultivated;
while the vast tracts of virgin forest, which remain along the
Atlantic slopes, contain an abundance of cedar, mahogany,
rosewood, rubber and ebony, with fustic and other precious
dye-woods. The country is essentially agricultural, and owes its
political stability to the presence of a large class of peasant pro-
prietors, who number more than two-thirds of the population.
Coffee, first planted in 1838, is grown chiefly on the plateau of
San Jose. The special adaptability of this region to its growth is
attributed to the nature of the soil, which consists of layers of
black or dark-brown volcanic ash, varying in depth from 1 to
6 yds. Bananas are grown over a large and increasing area;
rice, maize, barley, potatoes and beans are cultivated to some
extent in the interior; cocoa, vanilla, sugar-cane, cotton and
indigo are products of the warm coast-lands, but are hardly
raised in sufficient quantities to meet the local demand. Stock-
farming, a relatively undeveloped industry, tends to become
more important, owing to the assistance which the state renders
by the importation of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, from
Europe and the United States, in order to improve the native
breeds. In the south-east farmers are often compelled to retire
with their flocks and herds before the thousands of huge,
migratory vampires, which descend suddenly on the pastures and
are able in one night to bleed the strongest animal to death.
The manufactures are insignificant; and although silver, copper,
iron, zinc, lead and marble are said to exist in considerable

COSTA RICA

221

quantities, the only ores that have been worked are gold, silver
and copper. At the beginning of the 20th century the silver and
copper mines had been abandoned. The goldfields are exploited
with American capital, and yield a fair return.

Commerce.— The exports, which comprise coffee, bananas,
cocoa, cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with hides and skins,
mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell and gold, were officially valued at
£1,398,000 in 1904; and in the same year the imports, including
foodstuffs, dry goods and hardware, were valued at £1,229,000.
Over £1,250,000 worth of the exports consisted of coffee and
bananas, and these commodities were of almost equal value.
Nearly 85 % of the coffee, or more than 20,000,000 ft), were sent
to Great Britain. The development of the banana trade dates
from 1881, when 3500 bunches of fruit were exported to New
Orleans. This total increased very rapidly, and in 1902 a
monthly service of steamers was established from Limon to
Bristol and Manchester. The service to England soon became a
weekly one, while there are at least three weekly sailings to the
United States. In 1904 the number of bunches sent abroad
exceeded 6,000,000. So important is this crop that the rate of
wages to labourers in the banana districts is nearly 3s. daily,
as compared with an average of is. 8d. in the coffee plantations.
The bulk of the imports comes from the United States (52% in
1904), Great Britain (19%) and Germany (13%). Almost the
whole foreign trade passes through Limon and Puntarenas. In
1904, exclusive of banana steamers, there were regular steamship
services weekly from Limon to the United States and Germany,
fortnightly to Great Britain, and monthly to France, Italy and
Spain; while at Puntarenas four American liners called monthly
on the voyage between San Francisco and Panama.

Finance. — The valuable resources of the republic, and its
comparative immunity from revolution, formerly attracted the
attention of European and American investors, who supplied
the capital for internal development. In 187 1 the government
contracted aloanof £1,000,000 in London, and in 1872 it borrowed
an additional £2,400,000 for railway construction. The outstand-
ing foreign debt amounted in 1887 to £2,691,300, while the
arrearsof interest were no less than £2,119,500. An arrangement
with the creditors was concluded in 1888; but in 1895 the
republic again became bankrupt, and a fresh arrangement was
sanctioned in March 1897, by which the interest on £1,475,000
was reduced to 2§% and that on £525,000 to 3%. It was pro-
vided that amortization, at £10,000 yearly, should begin in 191 7.
In 1904 the service of the external debt, which then amounted to
£2,500,000, including £500,000 arrears of interest, was again
suspended; the total of the internal debt was £815,000. About
one-half of the national revenue is derived from customs, the
remainder being principally furnished by railways, stamps, and
the salt and tobacco monopolies. In the financial year 1904-
1905 the revenue was £503,000, the expenditure £390,000.
Education, internal development and the service of the internal
debt were the chief sources of expenditure.

Money and Credit. — There are three important banks, the
Anglo-Costa Rican Bank, with a capital of £120,000, the Bank of
Costa Rica (£200,000), and the Commercial Bank of Costa Rica
(£100,000), founded in 1905. On the 25th of April 1900 a law
was enacted for the regulation of the constitution, capital, note
emission and metallic reserves of banks. On the 24th of October
1896 an act was passed for the adoption of a gold coinage, and the
execution of this act was decreed on the 17 th of April 1900.
The monetary unit is the gold colon weighing -778 gramme,
•900 fine, and thus worth about 23d. It is legally equivalent to
the silver peso, which continues in circulation. The gold coins
of the United States, Great Britain, France and Germany are
legally current. The metric system of weights and measures was
introduced by law in 1884, but the old Spanish system is still
in use.

Constitution and Government. — Costa Rica is governed under a
constitution of 1870, which, however, only came into force in 1882,
and has often been modified. The legislative power resides in
a House of Representatives, consisting of about 30 to 40 deputies,
or one for every 8000 inhabitants. The deputies are chosen for a

term of four years by local electoral colleges, whose members are
returned by the votes of all self-supporting citizens. One-half
of the chamber retires automatically every two years. The
president and three vice-presidents constitute the executive.
They are assisted by a cabinet of four ministers, representing the
departments of the interior, police and public works; foreign
affairs, justice, religion and education; finance and commerce;
war and marine. For purposes of local administration the state
is divided into five provinces, Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste,
Heredia and San Jose, and two maritime districts (comarcas),
Limon and Puntarenas. All these divisions except Guanacaste
— which takes its name from a variety of mimosa very common in
the province — are synonymous with their chief towns; and each
is controlled by a governor or prefect appointed by the president.
Justice is administered by a supreme court, two courts of appeal,
and the court of cassation, which sit in San Jose, and are supple-
mented by various inferior tribunals.

Religion and Education. — The Roman Catholic Church is
supported by the state, and the vast majority of the people
accept its doctrines; but complete religious liberty is guaranteed
by the constitution. The Jesuits, who formerly exercised wide-
spread influence, were expelled in 1884. Of the other religious
communities, the most important are the Protestants, numbering
3000, and the Buddhists, about 250. Primary education is free
and compulsory; the standard of attendance is high and the
instruction fair, but a large proportion of the older inhabitants
were illiterate at the beginning of the 20th century. In the
matter of secondary education considerable neglect has been
shown. In 1904 there were only six secondary schools, including
the institute of law and medicine and the training-school for
teachers at San Jose. The state grants scholarships tenable
at European universities to promising pupils, and there are
three important public libraries.

Defence. — Military service in time of war is compulsory for all
able-bodied citizens aged 18-50. There are a permanent army,
of about 600; a militia, comprising an active service branch
to which all under 40 belong, with a reserve for those between
40 and 50; and a national guard, including all males under
18 and over 50 who are capable of bearing arms. On a war
footing these forces would number about 36,000. A gunboat
and a torpedo boat constitute the navy, which, however, requires
the services of an admiral, subordinate to the ministry of marine.

History. — The origin of the name Costa Rica (Spanish for
" Rich Coast ") has been much disputed. It is often stated
that the territories to which the name is now applied were first
known as Nueva Cartago, while Costa Rica was used in a wider
sense to designate the whole south-western coast of the Caribbean
Sea, from the supposed mineral wealth of this region. Then, in
1540, the name was restricted to an area approximately equal
to that of modern Costa Rica. In such a case it must have been
bestowed ironically, for the country proved very unprofitable
to the gold-seekers, who were its earliest European settlers.
Col. Church, in the paper cited below, derives it from Costa de
Oreja, " Earring,Coast," in allusion to the earrings worn by the
Indians and remarked by their conquerors. He quotes evidence
to show that this name was known to 16th-century cartographers.

With the rest of Central America, Costa Rica remained a
province of the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala until
1821. Its conquest was completed by 1530, and ten years later
it was made a separate province, the limits of which were fixed,
by order of Philip II., between 1560 and 1573. This task was
principally executed by Juan Vazquez de Coronado (or Vasquez
de Coronada), an able and humane governor appointed in 1562,
whose civilizing work was undone by the almost uninterrupted
maladministration of his fifty-eight successors. The Indians
were enslaved, and their welfare was wholly subordinated to
the quest for gold. From 1666 onwards both coasts were ravaged
by pirates, who completed the ruin of the country. Diego de.
la Haya y Fernandez, governor in 1718, reported to the crown
that no province of Spanish America was in so wretched a condi-
tion. Cocoa-beans were the current coinage. Tomas de Acosta,
governor from 1797 to 1809, confirmed this report, and stated

4 4

COSTELLO— COSTS

that the Indians were clothed in bark, and compelled in many
cases to borrow even this primitive attire when the law required
their attendance at church.

On the 15th of September 1821 Costa Rica, with the other
Central American provinces, revolted and joined the Mexican
empire under the dynasty of Iturbide; but this subjection never
became popular, and, on the establishment of a Mexican republic
in 1823, hostilities broke out between the Conservatives, who
desired to maintain the union, and the Liberals, who wished to
set up an independent republic. The opposing factions met
near the Ochomogo Pass; the republicans were victorious, and
the seat of government was transferred from Cartago, the old
capital, to San Jose, the Liberal headquarters. From 1824 to
1839 Costa Rica joined the newly formed Republic of the United
States of Central America; but the authority of the central
government proved little more than nominal, and the Costa
Ricans busied themselves with trade and abstained from politics.
The exact political status of the country was not, however,
definitely assured until 1848, when an independent republic was
again proclaimed. In 1856-60 the state was involved in war
with the adventurer William Walker (see Central America);
but its subsequent history has been one of immunity from
political disturbances, other than boundary disputes, and
occasional threats of revolution, due chiefly to unsatisfactory
economic conditions. The attempt of J. R. Barrios, president
of Guatemala, to restore federal unity to Central America failed
in 1885, and had little influence on Costa Rican affairs. In 1897
the state joined the Greater Republic of Central America, estab-
lished in 1895 by Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador, but
dissolved in 1898. The boundary question between Costa Rica
and Nicaragua was referred to the arbitration of the president
of the United States, who gave his award in 1888, confirming
a treaty of 1858; further difficulties arising from the work of
demarcation were settled by treaty in 1896. The boundary
between Costa Rica and Panama (then a province of Colombia)
was fixed by the arbitration of the French president, who gave
his award on the 15th of September 1900. The frontiers de-
limited in accordance with these awards have already been
described.

Bibliography. — In addition to the works on Central America
cited under that heading, the following give much general infor-
mation: G. Niederlein, The Republic of Costa Rica (Philadelphia,
R. Villafranca, Costa Rica (New York, 1895); L. Z. Baron

Compendio geographico y_ estadistico de la Republica de Costa Rica
(San Jose, 1894) ; H. Pittier, Apuntaciones sobre el chma y geographia
de la Republica de Costa Rica (San Jose, 1890); P. Biolley, Costa
Rica and her Future (Washington, 1889); M. M. de Peralta, Costa
Rica (London, 1873). For an account of immigration, commerce
and other mainly statistical matters, see J. Schroeder, Costa Rica
State Immigration (San Jose, 1894); Bulletins of the Bureau of
American Republics (Washington) ; British Diplomatic and Consular
Reports (London) ; U.S.A. Consular Reports (Washington) ; Reports
of the Ministries (San Jose). For the history of Costa Rica, see
L. Z. Baron, Compendio de la historia de Costa Rica (San Jose, 1894) ;
F. M. Barrantes, Elementos de historia de Costa Rica (San Jose,
1892); J. B. Calvo, The Republic of Costa Rica (Chicago, 1890),
gives a partisan account of local politics, trade and finance, author-
ized by the government. Frontier questions are discussed fully in
Col. G. E. Church's " Costa Rica," a very valuable paper in vol. x.
of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (London, 1897) ;
and, by Dr E. Seler, in " Der Grenzstreit zwischen den Repubhken
Costa Rica und Colombia," in Petermann's Mittheilungen, vol. xlvi.
(1900). For a detailed bibliography see D. J. Maluquer, Republica
de Costa Rica (Madrid, 1890). The best maps are that of the Bureau
of American Republics (1903), and, for physical features, that of
Col. Church, published by the R.G.S. (London, 1897).

COSTELLO, DUDLEY (1803-1865), English journalist and
novelist, son of Colonel J. F. Costello, was born in Ireland in
1803. He was educated for the army at Sandhurst, and served
for a short time in India, Canada and the West Indies. His
literary and artistic tastes led him to quit the army in 1828,
and he then passed some years in Paris. He was introduced to
Baron Cuvier, who employed him as draughtsman in the pre-
paration of his Regne animal. He next occupied himself in
copying illuminated manuscripts in the Bibliotheque Royale;
and to him and his sister belongs the merit of being the first to
draw general attention to this beautiful forgotten art, and of

thus leading to its revival. About 1838 Costello became foreign
correspondent to the Morning Herald; in 1846 he became foreign
correspondent of the Daily News; and during the last twenty
years of his life he held the post of sub-editor of the Examiner.
He wrote A Tour through the Valley of the Meuse (1845) and
Piedmont and Italy, from the Alps to the Tiber (1859-1861).
Among his novels are Stories from a Screen (1855), The Millionaire
(1858), Faint Heart never won Fair Lady (1859) and Holidays
with Hobgoblins (i860). He died on the 30th of September 1865.
His elder sister, Louisa Stuart Costello (1799-1870), author
and miniature painter, was born in Ireland in 1799. Her father
died while she was young, and Louisa, who removed to Paris
with her mother in 1814, helped to support her mother and
brother by her skill as an artist. At the age of sixteen she
published a volume of verse entitled The Maid of the Cyprus Isle,
and other poems. This was followed in 1 8 2 5 by Songs of a Stranger,
dedicated to W. L. Bowles. Ten years later appeared her
Specimens of the Early Poetry of France, illustrated by beautifully
executed illuminations, the work of her brother and herself. It
was dedicated to Moore, and procured her his friendship as well
as that of Sir Walter Scott. Her principal works are — A Summer
among the Bocages and Vines (1840); The Queen's Poisoner (or
The Queen -M other) , a historical romance (1841); Biarn and
the Pyrenees (1844); Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen (1844);
The Rose Garden of Persia (1845), a series of translations from
Persian poets, with illuminations by herself and her brother;
The Falls, Lakes and Mountains of North Wales (1845); Clara
Fane (1848), a novel; Memoirs of Mary of Burgundy (1853);
and Memoirs of Anne of Brittany (1855). She died at Boulogne
on the 24th of April 1870.

COSTER-MONGER (originally Costard-monger, a seller of
costards, a species of large ribbed apple). The word " monger "
is common, in various forms, in Teutonic languages in the sense
of trader or dealer, and appears in " iron-monger " and " fish-
monger," and with a derogatory significance of petty or under-
hand dealing in such words as "scandal-monger." A "coster-
monger," or " coster," originally, therefore, one who sold apples
and fruit in the street, is now an itinerant dealer in fruit,
vegetables or fish, but more particularly, as distinguished from a
"hawker" on the one hand, and " general dealer " on the other,
is a street trader in the above commodities who uses a barrow.
The coster-monger's trade in London, so far as it falls under
clause 6 of the Metropolitan Streets Act 1867, which deals with
obstruction by goods to footways and streets is subject to regula-
tions of the commissioner of police. So long as these are carried
out, coster-mongers, street hawkers and itinerant traders are
exempted, by an amending act, from the liabilities imposed
by clause 6 of the above act.

COSTS, a term used in English law to denote the expenses
incurred (1) in employing a lawyer in his professional capacity
for purposes other than litigation; (2) in instituting and carrying
on litigation whether with or without the aid of a lawyer.

Solicitor and Client. — The retainer of a solicitor implies a
contract to pay to him his proper charges and disbursements
with respect to the work done by him as a solicitor. In cases of
conveyancing his remuneratien is now for the most part regulated
by scales ad valorem on the value of the property dealt with
(Solicitors' Remuneration Order 1882), and clients are free to
make written agreements for the conduct of any class of non-
litigious business, fixing the costs by a percentage on the value of
the amount involved. So far as litigious business is concerned,
the arrangement known as "no cure no pay " is objected to by
the courts and the profession as leading to speculative actions, and
stipulations as to a share of the proceeds of a successful action are
champertous and illegal. An English solicitor's bill drawn in
the old form is a voluminous itemized narrative of every act done
by him in the cause or matter with a charge set against each
entry and often against each letter written. Before the solicitor
can recover from his client the amount of his charges, he must
deliver a signed bill of costs and wait a month before suing.

The High Court has a threefold jurisdiction to deal with
solicitors' costs: — (1) by virtue of its jurisdiction over them

COSTS

223

as its officers; (2) statutory, under the Solicitors Act 1843
and other legislation; (3) ordinary, to ascertain the reasonable-
ness of charges made the subject of a claim.

The client can, as a matter of course, get an order.for taxation
within a month of the delivery of the solicitor's bill, and either
client or solicitor can get such an order as of course within twelve
months of delivery. After expiry of that time the court may order
taxation if the special circumstances call for it, and even so late
as twelve months after actual payment.

Costs as between solicitor and client are taxed in the same
office as litigious costs, and objections to the decisions of the
taxing officer, if properly made, can be taken for review to a judge
of the High Court and to the Court of Appeal.

Litigious Costs. — The expenses of litigation fall in the first
instance on the person who undertakes the proceedings or retains
and employs the lawyer. It is in accordance with the ordinary
ideas of justice that the expenses of the successful party to litiga-
tion should be defrayed by the unsuccessful party, a notion ex-
pressed in the phrase that " costs follow the event." But there
are many special circumstances which interfere to modify the
application of this rule. The action, though successful, may be
in its nature frivolous or vexatious, or it may have been brought
in a higher court where a lower court would have been competent
to deal with it. On the other hand the defendant, although he
has escaped a judgment against him, may by his conduct have
rendered the action necessary or otherwise justifiable. In such
cases the rule that costs should follow the event would be felt
to work an injustice, and exceptions to its operation have
therefore been devised. In the law of England the provisions as to
litigious costs, though now simpler than of old, are still elaborate
and complicated, and the costs themselves are on a higher scale
than is known in most other countries.

Except as regards appeals to the House of Lords and suits
in equity, the right to recover costs from the opposite party in
litigation has always depended on statute law or on rules made
under statutory authority. " Costs are the creature of statute."
The House of Lords has declared its competence to grant costs
on appeals independently of statute.

In the judicial committee of the privy council the power to
award, in its discretion, costs on appeals from the colonies or
other matters referred to it, is given by § 15 of the Judicial
Committee Act 1833; and the costs are taxed by the registrar
of the council.

Courts of equity have always claimed a discretion independently
of statute to give or refuse costs, but as a general rule the maxim
of the civil law, victus victori in expensis condemnatus est, was
followed. The successful party was recognized to have a prima
facie claim to costs, but the court might, on sufficient cause
shown, not only deprive him of his costs, but even in some rare
cases order him to pay the costs of his unsuccessful opponent.
There was a class of cases in which the court generally gave costs
to parties sustaining a certain character, whatever might be the
result of the suit (e.g. trustees, executors and mortgagees).

In the courts of common law, costs were not given either to
plaintiff or defendant, although the damages given to a successful
plaintiff might suffice to cover not only the loss sustained by the
wrong done, but also the expense he had been put to in taking
proceedings. The defendant in a baseless or vexatious action
could not even recover his costs thus indirectly, and the indirect
costs given to a plaintiff under the name of damages were often
inadequate and uncertain. Costs were first given under the
Statute of Gloucester (1277, 6 Edward I. c. 1), which enacted
that " the demandant shall recover damages in an assize of novel
disseisin and in writs of mort d'ancestor, cosinage, aiel and beziel,
and further that the demandant may recover against the tenant
the costs of his writ purchased together with the damages above
said. And this act shall hold in all cases when the party is to
recover damages." The words " costs of his writ " were extended
to mean all the legal costs in the suit. The statute gave costs,
wherever damages were recovered, and no matter what the
amount of the damages may be. Costs were first given to a
defendant by the Statute of Marlbridge (1267) in a case relating

to wardship in chivalry (52 Henry III. c. 6) ; but costs were not
given generally to successful defendants until 1 53 1 (23 Henry VIII.
c. 15), when it was enacted that " if in the actions therein men-
tioned the plaintiff after appearance of the defendant be non-
suited, or any verdict happen to pass by lawful trial against the
plaintiff, the defendant shall have judgment to recover his costs
against the plaintiff, to be assessed and taxed at the discretion of
the court, and shall have such process and execution for the
recovery and paying his costs against the plaintiff, as the plaintiff
should or might have had against the defendant, in case the judg-
ment had been given for the plaintiff." In 1606 by 4 James I. c. 3,
this " good and profitable law " was extended to other actions
not originally specified, although within the mischief of the act,
so that in any action wherein the plaintiff might have costs if
judgment were given for him, the defendant if successful should
have costs against the plaintiff. The policy of these enactments
is expressed to be the discouragement of frivolous and unjust
suits. This policy was carried out by other and later acts.
The Limitations Act 1623, § 6, ordered that if the plaintiff in an
action of slander recovered less than 40s. damages, the plaintiff
should be allowed no more as costs than he got as damages.
By 43 Elizabeth c. 6 it was enacted that in any personal action not
being for any title or interest in land, nor concerning the freehold
or inheritance of lands nor for battery, where the damages
did not amount to 40s. no more costs than damages could be
allowed. By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 24 (Lord Denman's Act 1840),
where the plaintiff in an action of tort recovered less than 40s.,
he was not allowed costs unless the judge certified that the action
was really brought to try a right besides the right to recover
damages, or that the injury was wilful or malicious.

All these enactments have been superseded by the Judicature
Acts, but in the case of slander on women the provisions of the
act of 1623 were re-enacted in the Slander of Women Act 1891.

Supreme Court. — The general rule now in force in the Supreme
Court of Judicature is as follows: — " Subject to the provisions
of the Judicature Acts and the rules of the court made thereunder,
and to the express provision of any statute whether passed before
or after the 14th of August 1890, the costs of and incident to all
proceedings in the Supreme Court, including the administration
of estates and trusts, shall be in the discretion of the court or
judge, and the court or judge shall have full power to determine
by whom and to what extent such costs are to be paid. Provided
(1) that nothing herein contained shall deprive an executor,
administrator, trustee or mortgagee who has not unreasonably
carried on or resisted any proceedings of any right to costs out
of a particular estate or fund to which he would be entitled
under the rules hitherto (i.e. before 1883) acted upon in the
chancery division as successor of the court of chancery; (2)
that where an action, cause, matter or issue is tried with a jury,
the costs shall follow the event unless the judge who tried the case
or the court shall for good cause otherwise order." (R.S.C.,0.
65, r. 1.)

The rule above stated applies to civil proceedings on the
crown side of the king's bench division, including mandamus,
prohibition quo warranto, and certiorari (R. v. Woodhouse, 1906,
2 K.B. 502, 540); and to proceedings on the revenue side of that
division (O. 68, r. 1) ; but it does not apply to criminal proceedings
in the High Court, which are regulated by the crown office rules of
1906, or by statutes dealing with particular breaches of the law,
and as to procedure in taxing costs by 0. 65, r. 27, of the Rules
of the Supreme Court.

The rule is also subject to specific provision empowering the
courts to limit the costs to be adjudged against the unsuccessful
party in proceedings in the High Court, which could and should
have been instituted in a county court, e.g. actions of contract
under £100, or actions of tort in which less than £10 is recovered
(County Courts Act 1888, §§ 65, 66, 116; County Courts Act

1903, § 3)-

For instance, in actions falling within the Public Authorities
Protection Act 1893 against public bodies or officials, the
defendant, if successful, is entitled to recover costs as between
solicitor and client unless a special order to the contrary is made

224

COSTUME

by the court; and under some statutes still unrepealed, double
or treble costs are to be allowed. Besides the rules above stated,
there is also a provision, adopted from the practice of courts of
equity, that if tender was made before action of a sum sufficient to
satisfy the plaintiff's just demand and is followed by payment
into court in the action of the sum tendered, the court will make
the plaintiff pay the costs of action as having been unnecessarily
brought.

Costs of interlocutory proceedings in the course of a litigation
are sometimes said to be " costs in the cause," that is, they abide
the result of the principal issue. A party succeeding in inter-
locutory proceedings, and paying the costs therein made " costs
in the cause," would recover the amount of such costs if he had
a judgment for costs on the result of the whole trial, but not
otherwise. But it is usual now not to tax the costs of inter-
locutory proceedings till after final judgment.

Taxation. — When an order to pay the costs of litigation is made
the costs are taxed in the central office of the High Court,
unless the court when making the order fixes the amount to be
paid (R.S.C.,0. 65, r.23). Recent changes in the organization for
taxing have tended to create a uniformity of system and method
which had long been needed.

The taxation is effected, under an elaborate set of regulations,
by reference to the prescribed scales, and on what is known as the
lower scale, unless the court has specially ordered taxation on the
higher scale (R.S.C., O. 65, rr. 8, 9, appendix N).

In the taxation of litigious costs two methods are still adopted,
known as " between party and party " and " between solicitor
and client." Unless a special order is made the first of the two
methods is adopted. Until very recently " party and party "
costs were found to be a very imperfect indemnity to the success-
ful litigant; because many items which his solicitor would be
entitled to charge against him for the purposes of the litigation
were not recoverable from his unsuccessful opponent. The High
Court can now, in exercise of the equitable jurisdiction derived
from the court of chancery, make orders on the losing party to
pay the costs of the winner as between solicitor and client.
These orders are not often made except in the chancery division.
But even where party and party costs only are ordered to be paid
under the present practice (dating from 1902), the taxing office
allows against the unsuccessful party all costs, charges and
expenses necessary or proper for the attainment of justice or
defending the rights of the successful party, but not costs incurred
through over-caution, negligence, or by paying special fees to
counsel or special fees to witnesses or other persons, or by any
other unusual expenses (R.S.C.,0. 65, rr. 27, 29). This practice
tends to give an approximate indemnity, while preventing
oppression of the losing party by making him pay for lavish
expenditure by his opponent. The taxation is subject to review
by a judge on formal objections carried on, and an appeal lies to
the Court of Appeal.

County Courts. — The costs of all proceedings in county courts
follow the event, unless the judge in his discretion otherwise
orders. The amount allowed is regulated by scales included in
the county court rules, and is ascertained by the registrar of the
court subject to any special direction by the judge, and to review
by him. The costs are allowed as between party and party, but
the registrar on the application of solicitor or party, and subject
to the like review, taxes costs as between solicitor and client.
Nothing is allowed which is not sanctioned by the scales, unless it
is proved that the client has agreed in writing to pay (County
Courts Act 1888, § 118).

Costs in Criminal Cases. — In criminal cases the right to recover
the expenses of prosecution or defence from public funds or the
opposite party depends wholly on statute. According to the
common law rule the crown neither pays nor receives costs, but
the rule is in some cases altered by statute {Thomas v. Pritchard,
1903, 1 K.B. 209).

Courts of summary jurisdiction may order costs to be paid by
the unsuccessful to the successful party (Summary Jurisdiction
Act 1848, § 18).

On prosecutions for treason or felony the court may order the

accused person, if convicted, to pay the costs of his prosecution
(Forfeiture Act 1870); and the like power exists as to persons
convicted of offences indictable under the Criminal Law Amend-
ment Act 1885 (see § 18), and as to persons convicted on indict-
ment of assault, corrupt practices at elections, offences against
the Merchandise Marks Acts, or of defamatory libel, if they have
unsuccessfully pleaded jurisdiction.

Provision is also made for the payment out of the local rate of
the district of the costs of prosecuting all felonies (except treason-
felony) and a number of misdemeanours. A list of these offences
will be found in Archbold, Criminal Pleading, 23rd ed., 246.
The legislation on this subject authorizes the payment of the
expenses of witnesses and of the prosecutor, both at a pre-
liminary inquiry before justices and at the trial, and in the case of
summary conviction for any of the indictable offences in question.
It has been extended so as to include the expenses of witnesses for
the defence in any indictable case if they have given evidence at
the preliminary inquiry, and the costs of the defence of poor
prisoners in every indictable case in which the committing
justices or the court of trial certify for legal aid (Poor Prisoners'
Defence Act 1903). The costs are taxed by the proper officer of
the court of assize or the clerk of the peace in accordance with
scales issued by the Home Office in 1903 and 1904. These scales
do not fix the fees to be allowed to counsel or solicitor for the
prosecution. The costs, when taxed, are paid by the treasurer of
the county or borough on whom the order for payment is made.

Where a prosecution or indictment fails, the prosecutor
cannot as a rule be made to pay the costs of the defence: except
in cases within the Vexatious Indictments Act 1859 and its
amendments {i.e. where he has, after a refusal by justices to
commit for trial, insisted on continuing the prosecution) ; or
where a defamatory libel is successfully justified, or where
prosecutions in respect of merchandise marks or corrupt practices
at elections have failed. (W. F. C.)

COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late
Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of
consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c), dress or clothing,
.especially the distinctive clothing worn at different periods by
different peoples or different classes of people. The word appears
in English in the 18th century, and was first applied to the
correct representation, in literature and art, of the manners,
dress, furniture and general surroundings of the scene repre-
sented. By the early part of the 19th century it became restricted
to the fashion or style of personal apparel, including the head-
dresses, jewelry and the like.

The subject of clothing is far wider than appears at first sight.
To the average man there is a distinction between clothing and
ornament, the first being regarded as that covering which satisfies
the claims of modesty, the second as those appendages which
satisfy the aesthetic sense. This distinction, however, does not
exist for science, and indeed the first definition involves a fallacy
of which it will be as well to dispose forthwith.

Modesty is not innate in man, and its conventional nature is
easily seen from a consideration of the different ideas held by
different races on this subject. With Mahommedan peoples
it is sufficient for a woman to cover her face; the Chinese women
would think it extremely indecent to show their artificially
compressed feet, and it is even improper to mention them to a
woman; in Sumatra and Celebes the wild tribes consider the
exposure of the knee immodest; in central Asia the finger-tips,
and in Samoa the navel are similarly regarded. In Tahiti and
Tonga clothing might be discarded without offence, provided
the individual were tattooed; and among the Caribs a, woman
might leave the hut without her girdle but not unpainted.
Similarly, in Alaska, women felt great shame when seen without
the plugs they carried in their lips. Europeans are considered
indelicate in many ways by other races, and a remark of Peschel 1
is to the point: " Were a pious Mussulman of Ferghana to be
present at our balls and see the bare shoulders of our wives and
daughters, and the semi-embraces of our round dances, he would
silently wonder at the long-suffering of Allah who had not long
1 The Races of Man.

COSTUME

225

ago poured fire and brimstone on this sinful and shameless
generation." Another point of interest lies in the difference of
outlook with which nudity is regarded by the English and
Japanese. Among the latter it has been common for the sexes
to take baths together without clothing, while in England mixed
bathing, even in full costume, is even now by no means universal.
Yet in England the representation of the nude in art meets
with no reproach, though considered improper by the Japanese.
Even more striking is the fact that in civilized countries what
is permitted at certain times is forbidden at others; a woman
will expose far more of her person at night, in the ballroom or
theatre, than would be considered seemly by day in the street;
and a bathing costume which would be thought modest on the
beach would meet with reprobation in a town.

Modesty therefore is highly conventional, and to discover its
origin the most primitive tribes must be observed. Among these,
in Africa, South America, Australia and so forth, where clothing
is at a minimum, the men are always more elaborately orna-
mented than the women. At the same time it is noticeable that
no cases of spinsterhood are found; celibacy, rare as it is, is
confined to the male sex. It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude
that ornament is a stimulus to sexual selection, and this con-
clusion is enforced by the fact that among many comparatively
nude peoples clothing is assumed at certain dances which have
as their confessed object the excitation of the passions of the
opposite sex. Many forms of clothing, moreover, seem to call
attention to those parts of the body of which, under the conditions
of Western civilization at the present day, it aims at the conceal-
ment; certain articles of dress worn by the New Hebrideans,
the Zulu-Xosa tribes, certain tribes of Brazil and others, are
cases in point. Clothing, moreover — and this is true also of the
present day — almost always tends to accentuate rather than to
conceal the difference between the sexes. Looking at the question
then from the point of view of sexual selection it would seem
that a stage in the progress of human society is marked by the
discovery that concealment affords a greater stimulus than
revelation; that the fact is true is obvious, — even to modern
eyes a figure partially clad appears far more indecent than a
nude. That the stimulus is real is seen in the fact that among
nude races flagrant immorality is far less common than among
the more clothed; the contrast between the Polynesians and
Melanesians, living as neighbours under similar conditions, is
striking evidence on this point. Later, when the novelty of
clothing has spent its force, the stimulus is supplied by nudity
complete or partial.

One more point must be considered: there is the evidence
of competent observers to show that members of a tribe accus-
tomed to nudity, when made to assume clothing for the first
time, exhibit as much confusion as would a European compelled
to strip in public. This fact, considered together with what
has been said above, compels the conclusion that modesty is a
feeling merely of acute self-consciousness due to appearing
unusual, and is the result of clothing rather than the cause. In
the words of Westermarck: " The facts appear to prove that the
feeling of shame, far from being the cause of man's covering his
body, is, on the contrary, a result of this custom; and that the
covering, if not used as a protection from the climate, owes its
origin, at least in a great many cases, to the desire of men and
women to make themselves mutually attractive."

Primitive adornment in its earliest stages may be divided
into three classes; first the moulding of the body itself to certain
local standards of beauty. In this category may be placed
head-deformation, which reached its extreme development
among the Indians of North-West America and the ancient
Peruvians; foot-constriction as practised by the Chinese;
tooth-chipping among many African tribes; and waist-com-
pression common in Europe at the present day. Many forms of
deformation, it may be remarked in passing, emphasize some
natural physical characteristic of the people who practise them.
Secondly, the application of extraneous matter to the body, as
painting and tattooing, and the raising of ornamental scars
often by the introduction of foreign matter into flesh-wounds

vii. 8

(this practice belongs partly to the first category also) . Thirdly,
the suspension of foreign bodies from, or their attachment to,
convenient portions of the body. This category, by far the
largest, includes ear-, nose- and lip-ornaments, head-dresses,
necklets, armlets, wristlets, leglets, anklets, finger- and toe-rings
and girdles. The last are important, as it is from the waist-
ornaments chiefly that what is commonly considered clothing
at the present day has been developed.

Setting aside for the moment the less important, historically,
of these, nearly all of which exist in Western civilization of the
present day, it will be as well to consider that form of dress which
is marked by the greatest evolution. It is generally supposed
that man originated in tropical or subtropical latitudes, and
spread gradually towards the poles. Naturally, as the tempera^
ture became lower, a new function was gradually acquired by
his clothing, that of protecting the body of the wearer. Climate
then is one of the forces which play an important part in the
evolution of dress; at the same time care must be taken not to
attribute too much influence to it. It must be remembered that
the Arabs, who inhabit an extremely hot country, are very fully
clothed, while the Fuegians at the extremity of Cape Horn,
exposed to all the rigours of an antarctic climate, have, as sole
protection, a skin attached to the body by cords, so that it can
be shifted to either side according to the direction of the wind.

Dr. C. H. Stratz divides clothing climatically into two classes:
tropical, which is based on the girdle (or, when the attachment
is fastened round the neck, the cloak), and the arctic, based on the
trouser. This classification is ingenious and convenient as far
as it goes, but it seems probable that the trouser, which also has
the waist as its point of attachment, may itself be a further
development of the girdle. Certainly, however, in historical
times the division holds good, and it is worthy of remark that one
of the points about the northern barbarians which struck the
ancient Greeks and Romans most forcibly was the fact that they
wore trousers. Amongst the most northerly races the latter
garb is worn by both sexes alike; farther south by the men, the
women retaining the tropical form; farther south still the latter
reigns supreme. No distinct latitude can be assigned as a
boundary between the two forms, from the simple fact that
where migration in comparatively recent times has taken place
a natural conservatism has prevented the more familiar garb
from being discarded; at the same time the two forms can often
be seen within the limits of the same country; as, for instance,
in China, where the women of Shanghai commonly wear trousers,
those of Hong-Kong skirts. The retention by women in Europe
of the tropical garb can be explained by the fact that her sphere
has been mainly confined to the house, and her life has been less
active than that of man; consequently the adoption of the
arctic dress has been in her case less necessary. But it is notice-
able that where women engage in occupations of a more than
usually strenuous nature, they frequently don male costume
while at their work; as, for instance, women who work in mines
(Belgium) and who tend cattle (Switzerland, Tirol). The
retention of the tropical pattern by the Highlanders is due
directly to environment, since the kilt is better suited than
trousers for walking over wet heather.

Another factor besides climate which has exerted a powerful
influence on dress — more perhaps on what is commonly regarded
as " jewelry " as distinct from " clothing " — is superstition.
Doubtless many of the smaller objects with which primitive
man adorned himself, especially trophies from the animal world,
were supposed to exert some beneficial or protective influence
on the wearer, or to produce in him the distinguishing character-
istics attributed to the object, or to the whole of which the object
was a part. Such objects might be imitated in other materials
and by successive copying lose their identity, or their first mean-
ing might be otherwise forgotten, and they would ultimately
exercise a purely decorative function. Though this factor may
be responsible for much, or even the greater part, of primitive
" jewelry," yet it does not seem likely that it is the cause of all
forms of ornament; much must be attributed to the desire
to satisfy an innate aesthetic sense, which is seen in children

226

COSTUME

and of which some glimmerings appear among the lower animals
also.

See Ed. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (London,
1901); Racinet, Le Costume historique (Paris, 1888); C. H. Stratz,
FrauenUeidung (Stuttgart). (T. A. J.)

I. Ancient Costume

i. Ancient Oriental. — Although the numerous discoveries of
monuments, sculptures, wall-paintings, seals, gems, &c, combine
with the evidence from inscriptions and from biblical and classical
writers to furnish a considerable accumulation of material, the
methodical study of costume (in its widest sense) in the ancient
oriental world (western Asia and Egypt) has several difficulties
of its own. It is often difficult to obtain quite accurate or even
adequate reproductions of scenes and subjects, and, when this
is done, it is obviously necessary to refrain from treating the
work of the old artists and sculptors as equivalent to photo-
graphic representations. Art tended to become schematic,
artists were bound by certain limitations and conventions (Egypt
under Amenophis IV. is a notable exception), and their work
was apt to be stilted. In Egypt, too, the spirit of caricature
occasionally shows itself. But when every allowance is made for
the imperfections or the cunning of the workman, one need only
examine any collection of antiquities to see that there was a dis-
tinct appreciation of foreign physical types (not so much for
personal portraiture), costumes, toilet, armour and decoration,
often markedly different from native forms, and that a single
scene {e.g. war, tribute-bearers, captives) will represent varieties
of dress which are consistently observed in other scenes or
which can be substantiated from native sources. 1 Important
evidence can thus be obtained on ethnological relations, foreign
influences and the like. Speaking generally, it has been found
that the East as opposed to the West has undergone relatively
little alteration in the principal constituents of dress among the
bulk of the population, and, although it is often difficult to
interpret or explain some of the details as represented (one may
contrast, for example, worn sculptures or seals with the vivid
Egyptian paintings), comparison with later descriptions and even
with modern usage is frequently suggestive. The vocabulary
of old oriental costume is surprisingly large, and some perplexity
is caused by the independent evolution both of the technical
terms (where they are intelligible) and of the articles of dress
themselves. In reality there were numerous minor variations
in the cut and colour of ancient dress even as there are in the
present day in or around Palestine. These differences have
depended upon climate, occupation, occasion {e.g. marriage,
worship, feasts), and especially upon individual status and taste.
Rank has accounted for much, and ceremonial dress- — the apparel

Romans' naturally left its mark, and there have been ages of
increasing luxury followed by periods of reaction, with a general
levelling and nationalization on religious grounds (Judaism,
Islam) . All in all the study of oriental costume down to the days
of Hellenism proves to be something more than that of mere
apparel, and any close survey of the evidence speedily raises
questions which concern old oriental history and thought.

The simplest of all coverings -is the loin-cloth characteristic
of warm climates, and a necessary protection where there are
trying extremes of temperature. Clothing did not
originateinideasofdecency(Gen.ii.2S,iii.7). Children covering.
ran and still run about naked, the industrious work-
man upon the Egyptian monuments is often nude, and the
worshipper would even appear before his deity in a state of
absolute innocence. 2 The Hebrews held that the leaves of the
fig-tree (the largest available tree in Palestine) served primitive
man and that the Deity gave them skins for a covering — evidently
after he had slain the animals (Gen. iii. 21). With this one may
compare the Phoenician myth (now in a late source) which
ascribed the novelty of the use of skins to the hero Usoos
(cf. the biblical Esau, q.v.). The loin- or waist-cloth prevailed
under a very great variety of minor differentiated forms; In
Egypt it was the plain short linen cloth wrapped around the loins
and tied in front (see fig. 1). It was the usual garb of scribes,
servants and peasants, and in the earlier dynasties was worn even
by men of rank. Sometimes,
however, it was of matting or
was seated with leather, or it
would take the form of a narrow
fringed girdle resembling that
of many African tribes. The
Semites who visited Egypt wore
a larger and coloured cloth, orna-
mented with parallel stripes of
patterns similar to those found
upon some early specimens of
Palestinian pottery. The border
was fringed or was ornamented
with bunches of tassels. But a
close-fitting skirt or tunic was
more usual, and the Semites on
the famous Beni-Hasan tombs
(about the 20th or 19th century
B.C.) wear richly decorated cloth Fig. 1.— Egyptian Loin-cloth,
(pattern similar to the above),

while the leader is arrayed in a magnificent wrapper in blue,
red and white, with fringed edges, and a neck-ribbon to keep

Fig. 2. — Asiatics visiting Egypt (Beni-Hasan Tombs).

of the gods, their representatives and their ministers — opens out
several interesting lines of inquiry. The result of intercourse,
whether with other Orientals, or (m later times) with Greeks and

1 The comprehensive description by Herodotus (vii. 61 sqq.)
of the costumes of the mercenaries of Xerxes is classical (see Rawlin-
son's edition, iv. 56 sqq.). For archaeological parallels one may
compare the tombs of Rekhmire (15th cent. B c.) and Harmhab
(14th cent.) in Egypt, the " Black Obelisk " of the Assyrian king
Shalmaneser II. (gin cent.) or his famous gates at Balawat (ed. W.
Birch and T. G. Pinches, and with critical description and plates by
A. Billerbeck and F. Delitzsch, Beitrage z. Assyriologie, vi. 1 ; Leipzig,
1908).

it in position (see fig. 2).' In harmony with prevailing custom
the women's dress is rather longer than that of the men, but both
sexes have the arms free and the right shoulder is exposed.
Returning to Egypt we find that the loin-cloth developed down-
wards into a skirt falling below the knees. Among the upper
classes it was unusually broad and was made to stand out in

2 Old Babylonian sculptors who represent the enemy as naked
(Meyer [see bibliography below], pp. 12, 70 seq., 116), conventionally
anticipate the usual treatment of the slain and wounded warriors.

3 Edited P. C. Newberry {Archaeol. Survey of Egypt, 1893). Cf.
also the Palestinian short coloured skirt with black tassels of the
14th century {Zeit.f. Agypt. Sprache, 1898, pp. 126 sqq.).

COSTUME

227

front in triangular form. In the Middle Kingdom an outer fine
light skirt was worn over the loin-cloth; ordinary people,
however, used thicker material. Egyptian women had a tight
foldless tunic which exposed the breasts; it was generally kept
up by means of braces over the shoulders. This plain diaphanous
garment, without distinction of colour (white, red or yellow), and
with perhaps only an embroidered hem at the top, was worn by
the whole nation, princess and peasant, from the IVth to the
XVIIIth Dynasties (Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 212).
Variation, such as it was, consisted of a sleeveless dress covering

From Hilprecht's Exploralionsin Bible Lands, by permission of
A. J. Holman & Co. and T. & T. Clark.

Fig. 3. — Old Babylonian Costume.

the shoulders, the neck being cut in the shape of a V- Female
servants and peasants when engaged at work, however, had a
short skirt which left the legs free and the upper part of the
body bare; a like simplicity was probably customary among
female servants or captives throughout (cf. Isa. xlvii. 2). Even
at the present day the wardrobe of the Sinaitic Bedouin is much
more complicated than that of their female folk.

The earliest dress of Babylonia also covered only the lower half
of the body. As worn by gods and men it was a long and rather
loose kind of skirt suspended from a girdle. It is sometimes
smooth; but sometimes it is a shaggy skin (or woollen) skirt
with horizontal rows of vertically furrowed stuff. It allowed a

certain freedom to the legs, but
often it is not clear whether it
was joined down the middle. An
instructive development shows
the upper part of the skirt hang-
ing over the girdle so that an
elementary mantle would be
obtained by drawing the loose
end up over the shoulders (Meyer, ■
p. 93, cf. pp. 55, 76). The char-
acteristic skirt is sometimes sup-
plemented by a coarse cloth, per-
haps a fleece, thrown over the
shoulders; and in later times it
is seen fastened outside a tunic
by means of a girdle (see fig. 3).

The favourite attitude, one leg
planted firmly before the other,
shows the right leg fully exposed.
A tunic or skirt is found as early
as the time of Naram-Sin, son
of the great Sargon; it reaches
to his knees and appears to be
held up by ornamental shoulder-
bands (Meyer, pp. n, 115; fig. 4). Egyptian monuments depict
Semites with .long bordered tunics reaching from neck to
ankle; they have sleeves, which' are sometimes curiously
decorated, and are tied at the neck with tasselled cords; some-

Fig.

4. — Naram-Sin on
Stele of Victory.

times there is a peculiar design at the neck resembling a cross
(Miiller, Asien und Europa, pp. 298 seq.). The Hittite warriors
upon north Syrian sculptures (Zenjlrli, perhaps nth to 9th
centuries) have a short-sleeved tunic which ends above the
knees, and this type of garment recurs over a large area with
numerous small variations (with or without girdle, slits at the
neck, or bordering). An interesting example of the long plain
variety is afforded by the prisoners of Lachish before Sennacherib
(701 B.C.); the circumstances and a comparison of the details
would point to its being essentially a simple dress indicative of
mourning and humiliation. It may be compared in its general
form with the woollen jubba of Arabia, which reached to the
knees and was sewn down the front (except at the top and
bottom). A modern Bedouin equivalent has long sleeves; it is
common to both sexes, the chief difference lying in the colour —
white for men, dyed with indigo for women.

mmmMmmmmmmmmm

Fig. 5. — Asiatic Envoys in Egypt.
•? Another very characteristic garment suggests an original
loin-cloth considerably longer than the elementary article which
was noticed above. The Arab izar, though now a large outer
wrapper, was once a loin-cloth (like the Hebrew Szor), which,
however, was long enough to be trodden upon. At the present
day male and female pilgrims at Mecca wear such a cloth (the
ihrSm) ; it covers the knees and one end of it may be cast over
the shoulder. In Egyptian tombs have been found linen bands
no less than 30 ft. in length and 3 ft. in width. The distinctive
feature is the spiral arrangement of the garment, the body being
wrapped to a greater or less extent with a bandage of varying
length in more or less parallel stripes. In old Babylonia both the
arms and the whole of the right shoulder were originally un-
covered, and one end of the garment was* allowed to hang loose
over the left arm. It is frequently found upon deities, kings and
magnates, and appears to have been composed of some thick
furrowed or fluted material, sometimes of bright and variegated
design. Not seldom it is difficult to distinguish between the true
spiral garment and a dress with parallel horizontal stripes, and

228

COSTUME

one could sometimes suppose that the flounced dress with volants,
well known in the Aegean area, had its parallel in Babylonia. 1
Egypt furnishes admirable painted and sculptured representa-
tions of the forms taken by the Semitic spiral dress in the
XVIIIth and XlXth Dynasties; the highly-coloured and gay
apparel of Palestine and Syria standing in the strongest
contrast to the plain, simple and often
scanty garments of the Egyptians (fig. 5).
While the common Semite wore a short
skirt, often with tassels and sometimes
with an upper tunic, the more important
had an elaborate scarf (extending from
waist to knee) wound over the long tunic,
or a longer and close-fitting variety coloured
blue and red and generally adorned with
rich embroidery. A significant feature is
the kind of cape which covers the shoulders ;
it would not and no doubt was not intended
to leave play for the arms; it was the
Ac- dress of the leisured classes, and a typical

6 '^Officer gyPtlan SCene de P icts the chiefs of Lebanon thus
arrayed submissively felling cedars for
Seti I. (about 1300 B.C.).

Not until the XVIIIth and XlXth Dynasties does a change
come over Egyptian costume. The Asiatic conquests made
Egypt politically.supreme, the centre of life and intercourse, and
the tendency arose to pay some attention to outward appearance.
From the highest to the lowest — with the important exception
of the priests — the new age of luxury wiped out the earlier
simplicity. The upper part of the body was covered with a tunic
fastened over the girdle. Often the left arm had a short sleeve
while the right was bare, but flowing sleeves came into use and
various pleated skirts became customary. Garments were
multiplied, and the cape and long mantle, which had previously
been uncommon, were now usual. Fashions changed in quick
succession; upper clases were successively copied by those

beneath them and
were forced to ensure
their dignity by as-
suming new styles.
Whether for ordinary
or for special occa-
sions a great variety
of costume prevailed,
and several types can
be distinguished
among both sexes (Er-
man, pp. 207 seq., 213
sqq.;see fig. 6). The
fashionable material
was linen, and al-
though, according to
Herodotus (ii. 81), a
woollen mantle was
worn over the fringed
linen skirt, wool was
forbidden to the
priests in the temple.
The preference for
fine white linen, quite
in keeping with the
exaggerated Egyp-
tian ideas of cleanli-
ness, brought the art of spinning and weaving to a singularly
high level; in embroidery, as in tapestry, however, it is prob-
able that western Asia more than held its own (see figs. 7 and 8).
Quite distinct from the spiral is the old Babylonian cloak,
which was thrown over the left shoulder, passed under the right
1 See e.g. Ball, Light from the East, p. 36. On the Aegean dress
(whether a development from spiral swathes or perhaps rather from
a series of skirts one above the other), see the discussion of the Aegean
loin-cloth by D. Mackenzie, Annual of the British School at Athens,
xii. 233-249 (esp. 242 seq.).

armpit, and hung down, leaving sufficient freedom for the legs.
It is often decorated with a fringed border from top to bottom.
In time this mantle covered both shoulders and assumed sleeves,
and in one form or another it is frequently represented. So

Drawn from a photo by Giraudon.

Fig. 7. Sargon and his Commander-in-Chief.

Fig. 8. — Assyrian Officers.

Jehu's tribute-bearers wear short sleeves, trimmed border, and
the general effect could even suggest an Assyrian dress (see fig. 9).
Not unlike this is the style on the bilingual Hittite boss of
Tarkudimme, where the skirt ends in a point nearly to the ground
and one leg stands out bare to the front — the very favourite
attitude. Long fringed robes were worn by Hittites of both
sexes, and the women represented at Mar'ash and Zenjirli wear

Fig. 9. — Israelite Tribute-bearers introduced by two
Assyrian Officers.

it hung over the characteristic Hittite cylindrical head-dress
(fig. 10). On the other hand, the unhappy females of Lachish
have a long plain mantle which covers the head and forehead
(fig. n), and the same principle recurs in modern usage, where the
tunic will be supplemented by a veil or shawl which (generally
bound to the head by a band) frames the face and falls back to
the waist. A large mantle could thus serve as a veil, and
Rebekah covered her face with her square or oblong wrapper on
meeting Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 65). Veiling was ceremonial (1 Cor.
xi. 5), and customary on meeting a future bridegroom or at
marriage (see Gen. xxix. 23-25). Nevertheless veils were not
usually worn out of doors, the countrywoman of to-day is not
veiled, and it is uncertain whether there is any early parallel
for the yashmak, the narrow strip which covers the face below
the eyes and hangs down to the feet.

Before passing to the special covering for the feet and head
some further reference to the Old Testament usage may be made.
Among the Hebrews the outer garment, as distinct from the
inner loin wrapper (Zzor) or tunic, evidently took many forms.

COSTUME

229

The tunic (kuttoneth, cf. xit&v, tunica), like its Greek counterpart,
was apparently of two kinds, for, although essentially a simple
and probably sleeveless garment, there was a special variety
worn by royal maidens and men of distinction, explicitly
described as a tunic of palms or soles (passim), that is, one
presumably reaching to the hands and feet (Gen. xxxvii. 3;
2 Sam. xiii. 18 sq.). 1 The kuttoneth could be removed at night
(Cant. v. 3). For the outer garments the most distinctive term

From Der altc Orient, by permission of J. C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung.
Fig. 10. — Hittite Women.

is the simlah. This was worn by both sexes, though obviously
there was some difference as regards length, &c. (Deut. xxii. 5).
Ruth put one on before going out of doors, and its folds could
be used for carrying small loads (Ruth iii. 9; Ex. xii. 34). The
law forbade the creditor to retain it over-night as a pledge
(Ex. xxii. 26 sq.), and consequently we may assume that it was
a large outer wrapper which could be dispensed with out of
doors by men, or indoors by women. The simlah of the warrior
(Isa. ix. 5) can be illustrated from the Assyrian sculptures
(Ency. Bib., art. "Siege"); according to Herodotus (vii. 69)
the Arabs under Xerxes wore a long cloak fastened by a girdle.
The outer girdle (Heb. hagorah; the Arabic equivalent term
is a kilt from thigh to knee) varied, as the monuments show,
in richness and design, and could be used as a sword-belt or

pocket much in the
same way as the
modern native uses
the long cloth twined
twice or thrice
around his body.
The more ornate
variety, called abnet,
was worn by promi-
nent officials (Isa.
xxii. 21) and by the
high priest. The
modern oriental open
waistcoat finds its
fellow in the jacket
or bolero from ancient Crete, and seems to have been dis-
tinctively Aegean. The same may also be true of breeches.
The pantaloons worn by modern females, with short tunic
and waistcoat, are not found among the Bedouin {e.g. of
Sinai), trousers being considered undignified even for men.
But a baggy kind of knickerbockers is represented in old

1 Joseph's familiar " coat of many colours," which we owe to the
Septuagint, can perhaps be justified: R. Eisler, Orient. Lit. Zeitung,
August, 1908

Fig. 11.— Prisoners of Lachish.

Footgear.

Aegean scenes, and it is noteworthy that the Arab mi'zar
(drawers such as were worn by wrestlers or sailors) takes its
name from the izar or loin-cloth (Ency. Bib. 1734). Such a
cloth may once have passed between the legs, being kept in
position by the waistband (examples in Perrot and Chipiez,
Greece, ii. 198 sq., 456). On the other hand, among the Africans
of Punt the waistcloth passes from each knee to the opposite
thigh, and two sashes hang down to conceal the parts where they
intersect (Miiller, 108). The people of Keft (Aegeans) wore a
similar arrangement which is a step in the direction of the proper
drawers. The latter are found exceptionally upon Semitic
Bedouin with an upper covering of bands wound round the body
(Miiller, 140). However, the woven decorated drawers in
Cyprus do not appear to be of Semitic origin (J. L. Myres,
Classical Review, x. 355), and it is not until later that they were
prescribed to the Israelite priests (Ezek. xliv. 18). But the
garment as explained by Josephus (Ant. iii. 7. 1) was properly
a lion-cloth (cf. the examples from Punt), and the reason given
for its use (Ex. xxviii. 42) points to a later date than the law
which enforced the same regard for decency by forbidding the
priests to ascend altars with steps (ib. xx. 26). As trousers were
distinctively Persian — though the Persians had the reputation
for borrowing Median and foreign dress (Herod, i. 71, vii. 61) —
they were no doubt familiar in Palestine in the post-exilic age,
and in the Roman period the braccae and feminalia were certainly
known. On supposed references to breeches in Dan. iii. 21, see
J own. of Philology, xxvi. 307-313.

Special protection for the feet was chiefly necessary in rocky
districts or upon long journeys. In early Egypt men of rank
would be followed by a servant carrying a pair of
sandals in case of need ; but in the New Kingdom they
were in common use, although a typical difference is observed
when princes appear unshod in the presence of the Pharaoh,
who wears sandals him-
self. The simplest kind
was a pad or sole of
leather or papyrus bound
to the foot by two straps,
one passing over the in-
step, the other between
the toes. 2 A third was
sometimes fastened be-
hind the heel, and the
front is often turned up
to protect the toe (Egypt
and elsewhere). The
Semites of the XHth
Dynasty wore on their
journeys sandals of black
leather, those 'of the
women and children
being more serviceable, and, in the case of women, parti-
coloured. Practically the same simple sandal came into use
everywhere when required. But the warrior had something
stouter, and the Hittites wore a turned -up shoe bound
round the legs with thongs. Among the latter is also found
a piece of protecting leather reaching halfway up the shin,
and similar developments with tight-fitting bandages, buskins
or laced garters were worn in Assyria and Asia Minor
(see fig. 12). Such coverings find their analogies among the
peasants of modern Cilicia and Cappadocia. Stockings, it may
be added, do not appear, and are quite exceptional at the present
daj

The treatment of the hair, moustache and beard is extremely
interesting in the study of oriental archaeology (see Miiller,
Meyer, opp. citt.). A special covering for the head # ead r» ear .
was not indispensable. The Semites often bound
their bushy locks with a fillet, which varies from a single band
(so often, e.g. Palestinian captives, 10th century) to a fourfold

2 Erman, 226 sqq., cf. the modern Bedouin shoe, Jennings-
Bramley, Quart. Stat, of Palest. Explor. Fund (1908), p. 115 sq.
(on dress of Sinai tic Bedouin generally).

Fig. 12. Assyrian Warriors with
captured Idols.

23°

COSTUME

From Palestine Exploration Fund
Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1907.

Fig. 13. — Sacrificial Scene
on a Seal From Gezer.

one, from a plain band to highly decorated diadems. The
Ethiopians of Tirhakah's army (7th cent.) stuck a single feather
in the front of their fillet, and a feathered ornament recurs from
the old Babylonian goddess with two large feathers on her head
to the feathered crown common from Assur-bani-pal's Arabians
to Ararat, and is familiar from the later distinctive Persian head-
dress. 1 But the ordinary Semitic head covering was a cloth
which sometimes appears with two ends tied in front, the third
falling behind. Or it falls over the nape of the neck and is kept
in position with a band; or again as a cloth cap has lappets

to protect the ears. Sometimes it

has a more bulky appearance. In
general, the use of a square or
rectangular cloth (whether folded
diagonally or not) corresponds to
the modern keffiyeh woven with
long fringes which are plaited into
cords knitted at the ends or
worked into little balls sewn over
with coloured silks and golden
threads. 2 The keffiyeh covering
cheek, neck and throat, is worn
over a small skull-cap and will
be accompanied with the rela-
tively modern fez (tarbilsk) and a woollen cloth. Probably
the oldest head-dress is the circular close-fitting cap
(plain or braided), which, according to Meyer, is of Sumerian
(non-Semitic) origin. But it has a long history. Palestinian
captives in the Assyrian age wear it with a plain close-fitting
tunic, and it appears upon the god Hadad in north Syria (cf.
also the Gezer seal, fig. 13). With some deities (e.g. the
moon-god Sin) it has a kind of straight brim which gives it a
certain resemblance to a low-crowned " bowler." Very character-
istic is the conical cap which, like the Persian hat (Gr. kurbasia),
resembled a cock's comb. It is worn by gods and men, and with
the latter sometimes has ear-flaps (at Lachish, with other
varieties, Ball, 190) or is surmounted by a feather or crest. It
was probably made of plaited leather or felt. Veritable helmets
of metal, such as Herodotus ascribes to
Assyrians and Chalybians (vii. 63, 76), and
metal armour, though known farther
west, scarcely appear in old oriental
costume, and the passage which attri-
butes bronze helmets and coats of mail
to the Philistine Goliath and the Israelite
Saul cannot be held (on other grounds) to
be necessarily reliable for the middle or
close of the nth century (1 Sam. xvii.).
A loftier head-covering was sometimes
spherical at the top and narrowed in the
middle; with a brim or border turned up
back and front it is worn by Hittite
warriors of Zenjirli and by their god of
storm and war (fig. 14). Elongated and
more pointed it is the archaic crown of
the Pharaohs (symbolical of upper Egypt),
worn by a Hittite god of the 14th
century, and finds parallels upon old
cultus images from Asia Minor, Crete and
Cyprus. Later, Herodotus describes it as
(vii. 64). Finally the cylindrical hat of

Fig. 14. — Hittite
Weather-god.

distinctively Scythian

Hittite kings and queens reappears with lappets in Phoenicia
(Perrot and Chipiez, Phocn. ii. 77); without the brim it resembles
the crown of the Babylonian Merodach-nadin-akhi, with afeathered
top it distinguishes Adad (god of storm, &c.) at Babylonia.
Narrower at the top and surmounted by a spike it distinguishes
the Assyrian kings.

1 Meyer, 97, see F. Hommel, Aufsatze u. Abhandlungen (Munich,
fsjoo), 160 sqq., 214 sqq. For other feathered head-dresses in
western Asia, see Miiller, 361 sqq.

2 Such tasselled or fringed caps were used by the Syrians in the
Christian era, see W. Budge, Book of Governors, ii, 339, 367.

When the deities were regarded as anthropomorphic they
naturally wore clothing which, on the whole, was less subject
to change of fashion and was apt to be symbolical of
their attributes. The old Babylonian hero Gilgamesh Costum <>
and the Egyptian Bes (perhaps of foreign extraction) g 0ds °
are nude, and so in general are the figurines of the
Ishtar-Astarte type. Numerous bronze images of a kneeling
god at Telloh give him only a loin-cloth, and often the deity, like
the monarch, has only a skirt. In course of time various plaids
or mantles are assumed, and in Babylonia the goddesses were
the first to have both shoulders covered. Distinctive features
are found in the head-dress, e.g. crowns (cf. the Ammonite god,
2 Sam. xii. 30) or horns (a single pair or an arrangement of four
pairs), and in Babylonia symbolical emblems are attached to the
shoulders {e.g. the rays of the sun-god, stalks, running water).
Long garments ornamented with symbolical designs (stars, &c.)
are worn by Marduk and Adad. The custom of clothing images
is well known in the ancient world, and at the restoration of an
Egyptian temple care was taken to anoint the divine limbs and to
prepare the royal linen for the god. The ceremonial clothing
of the god on the occasion of festal processions, undertaken in
Egypt by the " master of secret things," may be compared with
the well-known Babylonian representations of such promenades.
The Babylonian temples received garments as payment in kind,
and the Egyptian lists in the Papyrus Harris (Rameses III.)
enumerate an enormous number of skirts, tunics and mantles,
dyed and undyed, for the various deities. A priest, " master of
the wardrobe," is named as early as the Vlth Dynasty, and later
texts refer to the weavers and laundry servants of the temple.
It is probable that 2 Kings xxiii. 7 originally referred to the
women who wove garments for the goddess in the temple at
Jerusalem.

In Egypt the king was regarded as the incarnation of the deity,
his son and earthly likeness. The underlying conception shows
itself under differing though not unrelated forms over „
western Asia, and in their light the question of religious costume.
and ceremonial dress is of great interest. Throughout
Egyptian history the official costume was conventionalized, and
the latest kings and even the Roman emperors are arrayed like
their predecessors of the IVth Dynasty. The crook which figures
among royal and divine insignia may go back to the boomerang-
like object which was a prominent weapon in antiquity (Miiller,
123 sq.). It appears in old Babylonia as a curved stick, and,
like the club, is a distinctive symbol of god and king. It resembles
the sceptre curved at the end, which was carried by old Hittite
gods. The Pharaoh's ; characteristic crown (or crowns)
symbolized his royal domains, the sacred uraeus marked his
divine ancestry, and he sometimes appeared in the costume
of the gods with their fillets adorned with double feathers and
horns. In Babylonia Naram-Sin in the guise of a god wears the
pointed helmet and two great horns distinctive of the deities. 3
This relationship between the gods and their human representa-
tives is variously expressed. Khammurabi and the sun-god
Shamash, on the former's famous code of laws, have the same
features and almost the same frizzled beard, and, according to
Meyer, the king in claiming supremacy over Sumer and Akkad
wears the costume of the lands. 4 Ordinary folk could not claim
these honours, and in Egypt, where shaving was practically
universal, artificial beards were worn upon solemn occasions as a
peculiar duty. But the appendage of the official was shorter
than that of the king, and the gods had a distinctive shape for
themselves; if it appears upon the dead it is because they in
their death had become identified with the god Osiris (Erman,
59, 225 sq.). Young Egyptian princes and youthful kings had

3 Comp. the horns of Bau (" mother of the gods "), Samas (Sha-
mash), (H)adad, and (in Egypt) of the Asiatic god assimilated to
Set (so, too, Rameses III. is styled " strong-horned " like Baal).
With the band dependent from the conical hat of Marduk-bal-iddin
II. (Meyer, 8) and other kings, cf. the tail on the head-dress of this
foreign Set (e.g. Proc. Soc. of Bibl. Arch. xvi. 87 sq.). The consort
of the Pharaoh, in turn, wore the sacred vulture head-dress.

4 On the resemblance between divine and royal figures in costume,
&c, see further Meyer, 9, 14 sq., 17, 23, 53 sq., 67, 79, 102, 105 sq.

COSTUME

231

a long plaited lock (or later a lappet) on the side of their head in
imitation of the youthful Horus, and the peculiar tonsure adopted
by the later Arabs of Sinai was inspired by the desire to copy their
god Orotal-Dionysus. 1 Thus we perceive that ancient costume
and toilet involves the relations between the gods and men,
and also, what is extremely important, the political conditions
among the latter. When the king symbolizes both the god and
the extent of his kingdom, ceremonies which couid appear
commonplace often acquire a new significance, any discussion of
which belongs to the intricacies of the history of religion and
pre-monarchical society. It must suffice, therefore, to record the
Pharaoh's simple girdle (with or without a tunic) from which
hangs the lion's tail, or the tail-like band suspended from the
extremity of his head-dress (above), or the panther or leopard
skin worn over the shoulders by the high priest at Memphis,
subsequently a ceremonial dress of men of rank. That the
Pharaoh's skirt, sometimes decorated with a pleated golden
material, should become an honorific garment, the right of wear-
ing which was proudly recorded among the bearer's titles, is
quite intelligible, but many difficulties arise when one attempts
to identify the individuals represented, or to trace the evolution
of ideas. 2

The well-known conservatism of religious practice manifests
itself in ceremonial festivals (where there is a tendency for the
original religious meaning to be obscured) and among
moalal t ^ le priests, an0 " it is interesting to observe that despite
costume, the great changes in Egyptian costume in the New
Kingdom the priests still kept to the simple linen
skirt of earlier days (Erman, 206). Religious dress (whether of
priests or worshippers) was regulated by certain fundamental
ideas concerning access to the deity and its consequences. That
it was proper to wear special garments (or at least to rearrange
one's weekday clothes) on the Jewish sabbath was recognized in
the Talmud, and Mahommedans, after discussing at length the
most suitable raiment for prayer, favoured the use of a single
simple garment (Bukhari, viii.). It was a deep-seated belief
that those who took part in religious functions were liable to
communicate this " holiness " to others (compare the complex
ideas associated with the Polynesian taboo) . Hence priests would
remove their ceremonial dress before leaving the sanctuary " that
they sanctify not the people with their garments " (Ezek. xliv.
19; cf. xlii. 14), and every precaution was taken on religious
occasions to ensure purity by special ablutions and by cleansing
the clothes. 3 In the old ritual at Mecca, the man who wore his
own garments must leave them in the sanctuary, as they had
become "taboo"; hence the sacred circumambulation of the
Ka'ba was performed naked (prohibited by Mahomet), or in
clothes provided for the occasion. The old archaic waist-cloth
was used, and at the present day both male and female pilgrims
enter bare-footed and clad in the scanty ihrdnt (C. M. Doughty,
Arabia Deserta, ii. 479, 481, 537). In several old Babylonian
representations the priests or worshippers appear before the
deity in a state of nature. 4 It is known that laymen were
required to wear special garments, and the priests (who wore
dark-red or purple) were sometimes called upon to change their
garments in the course of a ceremony. Thus the temples required
clothing not merely for the gods but also for the attendants
(so at Samaria, 2 Kings x. 22).

In the late usage at Harran the worshipper, after purifying his
garments and his heart, was advised to put on the clothing of the
particular god he addressed (de Goeje, Oriental Congress, Leiden,

1 Herod, iii. 8. If the bald Sumerians wore wigs in time of war,
(Meyer, 81, 86), war itself from beginning to end was essentially a
religious rite ; see W. R. Smith, Rel. of Semites, pp. 401 sqq., 491 sq. ;
F. Schwally, Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer , i. On the importance
attached to the beard, see Ency. Bib., s.v.

2 A typical example is afforded by the solitary representation of a
Moabite (Perrot and Chipiez, Phoen. ii. 45) whose helmet and dress
suggest a god or king. Equally perplexing is the Egyptian style on
the Phoenician statue, ib. 28.

3 Cf. Lev. xvi. 23 sq.; Ex. xix. 10; Herod, ii. 37 (ed. Wiedemann) ;
Lagrange, Etudes sur Us relig. sem. 239.

4 M. Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and Ass. p. 666; cf. Rev. biblique,
1908, p. 466 sq., and Meyer, 59, 86, 97, 101. According to the latter
Sumerian priests served naked (p. 112).

1883, pp. 341 sqq.). The reason is obvious, and the principle could
be variously expressed. But we are not told whether the prophetess
who wore bands on her arm and drew a mantle over her head (so
read in Ezek. xiii. 17-23) actually used the clothing peculiar to some
, deity, nor is it quite clear what is meant when a Babylonian ritual
text refers to the magical use of. the linen garment of Eridu (seat of
the cult of Ea). The Bishop Gregentius denounced as heathenish
the rites in which the Arabs wore masks (W. R. Smith, 438), and one
is tempted to compare the use of masks elsewhere in animal worship.
Next, one may observe upon old Babylonian seals, eagle-headed
deities with short feathered skirts attended by humjn beings similarly
arrayed (Ball, 151) or figures draped in a fish skin (Menant, Rev. de
I'hist. des relig. xi, 295-301) or a worshipper arrayed somewhat
like a cock (Meyer, 63; cf. Lucian's De Dea Syria, § 48; for " bees,"
&c, as titles of sacred attendants, see J. G. Frazer, Pausanias, iv.
223, v. 621). Although there is much that is obscure in this line of
research, it is a natural assumption that, in those ritual functions
where the gods were supposed to participate, the role was taken by
men, and the general idea of assimilating oneself to the god (and the
reverse process) manifests itself in too many ways to be ignored
(cf. W. R. ^Smith, 293, 437_ sq., 474; C. J. Ball, Ency. Bib., art.
" Cuttings "). But the deities were not originally anthropomorphic,
and it is with the earlier stages in their development that some
of the more remarkable costumes are apparently concerned.

Of all priestly costumes 5 the most interesting is undoubtedly
that of the Jewish Levitical high-priest. In addition to a tunic
(kuttoneth) and a seamless mantle or robe (me'il), he wore the
breastplate (hosheri), the ephod, and a rich outer girdle. Breeches
were assumed on the Day of Atonement. His head-dress was
as distinctive as that of the high priest at Hierapolis, who wore
a golden tiara and a purple dress, while the ordinary priests had a
pilos (conical cap, also worn in Israel, Ex. xxviii. 40) and white
garments. But the various descriptions cannot be easily re-
conciled. 6 The robe had pomegranates and golden bells that the
sound might give warning as he went in and out of the sanctuary,
and " that he died not " (Ex. xxviii. 35). According to Josephus
they symbolized the lightning and thunder respectively. The
" ephod of prophecy " (so Test, of Levi, viii. 2) was essentially
once an object of divination (see Ephod). The "breastplate
of judgment " was set with twelve jewels engraved with the
names of the tribes; the foreordained covering of the semi-
divine being in the garden of the gods bore the same number
of stones (Ezek. xxviii. 13, Septuagint). This breast ornament
finds analogies in the royal and high priestly dress of Egypt,
and in the six jewels of the Babylonian king. 7 The sacred lots
which gave " judgment " in accordance with the divine oracle
(Num. xxvii. 21) have been plausibly compared with the Babylon-
ian tablets of destiny worn by the gods and the mystic lots upon
the bosom of Noah. 8 The two jewels also engraved with the
names of the tribes in a suitable setting, worn upon the shoulder
(see p. 102, c), served, like the twelve mentioned, for a memorial
before the Deity, effectively bringing them to remembrance,
without any action on the part of the bearer, and thus tacitly
involving supernatural intervention as amulets are regularly
expected to do. The golden plate inscribed " holy to Yahweh "
placed over the head (the details are discrepant) had a mystic
atoning force (Ex. xxviii. 38), and in general writers recognized
the peculiar efficacy of the costume and its symbolical meaning
(Philo, Vita Mosis, iii. 14; Jos. Ant. iii. 7. 7; Talm. Zeb. 88b).
Although Jewish tradition ascribed this gorgeous and significant
array to the Mosaic age (if not to the pre-Mosaic days of Levi,
so the Test, of Levi), its very character, in common with the
high priest's status, combines kingly and priestly powers in a
manner which is impossible for the period (about isth-i3th cent.).
Where the king is the human representative of the Deity he is
theoretically and officially the priesthood, although the priests
carry on the ordinary subordinate functions. The Hebrew

5 For the conspicuous dress of Syrian and Phrygian priests
in Rome and for other incidental references, see D. Chwolsohn,
Die Ssabier (1856), ii. 655, 712 sq.

6 Ex. xxviii., xxix. 5; Lev. viii. 6-9, xvi.; Ecclus. xlv. ; Joseph.
Ant. iii. 7, Wars, v. 5, 7; see commentaries and special dictionaries
of the Bible.

J Zimmern, Keilinschrift. u. Alte Test. 629, n. 5; cf. the Bab.
priests' pectoral; Lagrange, op. cit., 236, n. I.

8 Jubilees, viii. 11, see W. Muss-Arnolt, Amer. Journ. of Semit.
Lang., 1900, pp. 207-212.

Z$2

COSTUME

kings, at all events, undertook priestly duties, and not until after
the fall of Jerusalem does the history allow that usurpation of
monarchical rights upon which the prophet Ezekiel (q.v.) en-
croaches. The embodiment of political and religious supremacy
displayed in the high priest's authority, clothing and symbols
can only reflect exilic or rather post-exilic conditions. 1 (See
further Priest.) In the Maccabaean age the high priest Jonathan
received the purple robe and crown and the buckle of gold worn
on the shoulder as a sign of priestly and secular rank (i Mace.
x. 20, 38, 89, xi. 58). His brother Simon received similar honours
(xiv. 48 sq.), and Hyrcanus, the " second David," was supposed
to have had two crowns, one royal and the other priestly (Talm.
Kidd. 66a). The later Rabbis wore most sumptuous apparel,
and were crowned until the death of Eliezer ben Azarya.

Thus there was a real significance in ceremonial investiture (cf.
Num. xx. 26, 28) and in the transference of clothes (cf. Elisha and
Elijah's mantle, 2 Kings ii. 13). Further the exchange of garments
was not meaningless, and the prohibition in Deut. xxii. 5 points to
religious or superstitious beliefs, on which see J. G. Frazer, Adonis,
Attis and Osiris (2nd ed.), pp. 428-435. On the claim involved by
the act of throwing a garment over another (Ruth iii. 9 ; cf . 1 Kings
xix. 19), see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage*, 105 sq. ; J. Well-
hausen, Archiv f. Religionswiss. (1907), pp. 40 sqq. ; and on some
interesting ideas associated with sandals, see Ency. Bib., s.v." Shoes."
As a sign of grief, or on any occasion when the individual felt himself
brought into closer contact with his deity, the garments were rent
(subsequently a conventional slit at the breast sufficed) and he
donned the sak, a loin-cloth or wrapper which appears to be a survival
of older and more primitive dress. 2 Later tradition (Mish., Kit.
ix. 1) does not endorse Ezekiel's prohibition of woollen garments
among the priests in the sanctuary (xliv. 17 sq.). Why the layman
was forbidden a mixture of wool and linen (sha'atnez, Deut. xxii. 1 1 )
is difficult to explain, though Maimonides perhaps correctly regarded
the law as a protest against heathenism (on the magical use of
representatives of the animal and vegetable kingdom, in conjunction
with a metal ring, see I. Goldziher, Zeit.f. alttest. Wissens. xx. 36 sq.).

Ancient oriental costume then cannot be severed from the
history and development of thought. On the one side we may
see the increase of rich apparel and the profusion of clothes by
which people of rank indicated their position. On the other are
such figures as the Hebrew prophets, distinguished by their
hairy garment and by their denunciation of the luxury of both
sexes. 3 Superfluous clothing was both weakening and deteriorat-
ing; this formed the point of the advice of Croesus to Cyrus
(Herod, i. 155)- But "foreign apparel" was only too apt to
involve ideas of foreign worship (Zeph. i.8. sq.), and the recogni-
tion that national costume, custom and morality were inseparable
underlay the objection to the Greek cap (the 7rer euros) introduced
among the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes (2 Mace. iv. 10-17,
with the parallel 1 Mace, i 11-15). The Israelite distinctive
costume and toilet as part of a distinctive national religion
was in harmony with oriental thought, and, as a people chosen
and possessed by Yahweh, " a kingdom of priests and an holy
nation" (Ex. xix. 5 sq.; cf. Is. lxi. 6), certain outward signs
assumed a new significance and continued to be cherished by
orthodox Jews as tokens of their faith. The tassels attached by
blue threads to the four corners of the outer garment were
unique only as regards the special meaning attached to them
(Num. xv. 37-41; Deut. xxii. 12), and when in the middle ages
they marked out the Jew for persecution they were transferred to
a small under-garment (the little talith), the proper tdlith being
• worn over the head in the synagogue. Similarly, sentences
bound on the left arm or placed upon the forehead (Deut. xi.

1 The relations between sacerdotal and civic authority may be
seen in the vestments of the church (chasuble, alb, stole), which
probably were once the official garments of magistrates.

2 See articles on mourning customs in the Bible Dictionaries, and,
for special studies, Biichler, Zeit.f. alttest. Wissens., 1901, pp. 81-92;
M. Jastrow, ib., 1907, 117 sqq.; and in Journ. Amer. Or. Soc. xx.
133 sqq., xxi. 23-39. F° r the Babylonian evidence see Zimmern,
op. cit., 603. The sculptures of Sennacherib show the bare-headed
and bare-footed suppliants of Lachish meanly clad before Sennacherib
(Ball, p. 192, contrast the warriors with caps and helmets, ib. p. 190,
and on the simple dress, cf. above).

3 Ezek. xvi. xxiii. ; Isa. iii. 16-iv. I. For the hairy garb, cf. John
the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4) ; it became the ascete's dress. The founder
of the Jacobite Church in Asia owed his surname (Burde'ana) to his
rough horse-cloth. Here may be mentioned the archaic revival in
Egypt in the 8th century B.C., which also extended to the costume.

18, cf. the high priest's plate) find analogies in the means taken
elsewhere to ensure the protection of or to manifest one's
adherence to a deity; the novelty lies in the part these sentences
took in the religion (see Phylactery). While the particular
prohibition regarding the beard and hair in Lev. xix. 27 (cf.
Ezek. xliv. 20) was for the avoidance of heathen customs, the
peyotk or long curls which became typical in the middle ages are
reminiscent of the Horus-curl of Egypt and the Mahommedan
" heaven lock " and evidently served as positive distinctive
marks. Apart from these details later Jewish dress does not
belong to this section. In the Greek and Roman period foreign
influence shows itself very strongly in the introduction of novelties
of costume and of classical terms, and the subject belongs rather
to the Greek and Roman dress of the age. 4 Two conflicting
tendencies were constantly at work, and reached their climax in
the middle ages. There was an anxiety to avoid articles of dress
peculiar to other religions, especially when these were associated
with religious practices; and there was a willingness to refrain
from costume contrary to the customs of an unsympathetic land.
On the one hand, there was a conservatism which is exemplified
when the Jews in course of immigration took with them the
characteristic dress of their former adopted home, or when they
remained unmoved by the changes of the Renaissance. On the
other hand, the prominent badge enforced by Pope Innocent III.
in 1 21 5 was intended to prevent Jews from being mistaken for
Christians, and similarly in Mahommedan lands they were
compelled to wear some distinctive indication of their sect.
Thus the many quaint and interesting features of later Jewish
costume have arisen from certain specific causes, any considera-
tion of which concerns later and medieval costume generally.
See I. Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896), chap,
xv. sq. ; and especially the Jew. Encyc, s.v. "Dress" (with
numerous illustrations).

Authorities.— Much useful material will be found in popular
illustrated books (especially C. J. Ball, Light from the East, London,
1899) and in the magnificent volumes on the history of ancient art
by G. Perrot and C. Chipiez. On Egyptian costume see especially
J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians
(ed. by S. .Birch, 1878), and A. Erman Life in Ancient Egypt (1894,
especially pp. 200-233) ; for Egyptian evidence, see W. M. Muller,
Asien und Europa nach altagypt. Denkmdler (Leipzig, 1893), Mitteil.
d. vorderasiat. Gesellschaft (1904), ii. (and elsewhere). The most
important study on old Babylonian dress is that of E. Meyer,
" Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonien," in the Abhandlungen of the
Berlin University (1906). For Hittite material, see the collection by
L. Messerschmidt, Mitteil. d. vorderas. Ges. (1900 and 1902). For
special discussions, see H. Weiss, Kostiimkunde, i. (Stuttgart, 1881),
articles in Diet. Bible (Hastings), Ency. Biblica, and Jewish Encyc,
and I. Benzinger, Hebr. Archaologie (Tubingen, 1907), pp. 73 sqq.
See also the general bibliography at the end. (S. A. C).

ii. Aegean Costume. — The discoveries made at Mycenae and
other centres of " Mycenaean" civilization, and those of more
recent date due to the excavations of Dr
A. J. Evans and others in Crete, have shown
that Hellenic culture was preceded in the
Aegean by a civilization differing from it in ,
many respects (see Aegean Civilization),
and not least in costume. The essential
feature both of male and female dress during
the"Minoan" and "Mycenaean" periods
was the loin-cloth, which is best represented
by the votive terra-cotta statuettes from
Fetsofa in Crete discovered by Professor
J. L. Myres and published in the ninth
volume of the Annual of the British School
at Athens (fig. 15). J. L. Myres shows that
the costume consists of three parts — the
loin-cloth itself, a white wrapper or kilt „ „

, , , , i • ,, ,., From Pet3ofa {Annual

worn over it, and a knotted girdle which of the Brit. School at
secured the whole and perhaps played its Allims '>-
part in producing and maintaining the wasp cotta'statlltte."
waists characteristic of the Aegean race.
The loin-cloth was the only costume (except for high boots,
probably made of pale leather, since they are represented
4 See for details, A. Briill, Trachten d. Juden (1873).

COSTUME

233

with white paint) regularly worn by the male sex, though
we sometimes find a hood or wrapper, as on a lead statuette
found in Laconia (fig. 16), but the Aegean women developed
it into a bodice-and-skirt costume, well represented by the

frescoes of Cnossus and
the statuettes of the
snake-goddess and her
votaries there dis-
covered. This trans-
formation of the loin-
cloth has been illustrated
by Mr D. Mackenzie(see
below) from Cretan seal-
impressions. In place
of the belted kilt of the
men we find a belted
panier or polonaise, con-
siderably elongated in
front, worn by Aegean
women; and Mackenzie
shows that this was re-
peated several times
until it formed the
compound skirt with a
number of flounces which
is represented on many
Mycenaean gems. On a fresco discovered at Phaestus (Hagia
Triada) (fig. 17) and a sealing from the same place this multiple
skirt is clearly shown as divided; but this does not seem to have
been the general rule. On other sealings we find a single overskirt
with a pleated underskirt. The skirts were held in place by a
thick rolled belt, and the upper part of the body remained quite
nude in the earliest times; but from the middle Minoan period
onward we often find an important addition in the shape of a
low-cut bodice, which sometimes has sleeves, either tight-fitting or
puffed, and ultimately develops into a laced corsage. A figurine
from Petsofa (fig. 18) shows the bodice-and-skirt costume,
together with a high pointed head-dress, in one of its most

Perrot et Chipiez's Art in Primitive Greece, by
permission of Chapman & Hall.

Fig. 16. — Lead Statuette from Kampos

From Monumenti antichi
(Acad. Lincei).

Fig. 17. — Part of a Fresco
discovered at Phaestus.

From Annual of the Brit.
School at Athens.

Fig. 18. — Terra-cotta
Statuette from Petsofa.

elaborate forms. The bodice has a high peaked collar at the
back. Other forms of head-dress are seen on the great signet
from Mycenae. The fact that both male and female costume
amongst the primitive Aegean peoples is derivable from the
simple loin-cloth with additions is rightly used by Mackenzie as a
proof that their original home is not to be sought in the colder
regions of central Europe, but in a warm climate such as that of
North Africa. It is not until the latest Mycenaean period that
we find brooches, such as were used in historical Greece, to fasten
woollen garments, and their presence in the tombs of the lower
city of Mycenae indicates the coming of a northern race.

See Annual of the British School at Athens, ix. 356 sqq. (Myres) ;
xii. 233 sqq. (Mackenzie) ; Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean
Age, ch. vii.

iii. Greek Costume. — All articles of Greek costume belong
either to the class of ivdvuara, more or less close-fitting, sewn
garments, or of irepiffKrifiara, loose pieces of stuff draped round
the body in various ways and fastened with pins or brooches.
For the former class the generic name is x^t6>v, a word of Semitic
origin, which denotes the Eastern origin of the garment; for the
latter we find in Homer and early poetry irbfSas, in later times
IfiarLov. The xexXos (also called eavos and <j>apos in Homer)
was the sole indispensable article of dress in early Greece, and,
as it was always retained as such by the women in Dorian states,
is of ten called the " Doric dress " {koQris Acopis). It was a square
piece of woollen stuff about a foot longer than the height of the
wearer, and equal in breadth to twice the span of the arms
measured from wrist to wrist. The upper edge was folded over
for a distance equal to the space from neck to waist — this folded
portion was called anrimTiry^a or SnrXois, — and the whole garment
was then doubled and wrapped round the body below the armpits,
the left side being closed and the right open. The back and
front were then pulled up over the shoulders and fastened
together with brooches like safety-pins (irepovai). This was the
Doric costume, which left the right side of the body exposed
and provoked the censure of Euripides (Andr. 598). It was
usual, however, to hold the front and back of the weirhos together
by a girdle {{iivq), passed round the waist below the a.TtbKTvyy.a;
the superfluous length of the garment was pulled up through the
girdle and allowed to fall over in a baggy fold (koKttos) (see
Greek Art, fig. 75). Sometimes the aK&KTvy ixa was made long
enough to fall below the waist, and the girdle passed outside
it (cf . the figure of Artemis on the vase shown in Greek Art, fig.
29); this was the fashion in which the Athena Parthenos of
Pheidias was draped. The " Attic " or " Corinthian " 7r«rXos
was sewn together on the right side from below the arm, and thus
became an evSv/xa. The 7r«rXos was worn in a variety of colours
and often decorated with bands of ornament, both horizontal
and vertical; Homer uses the epithets KpoKowewKos and
KvavoTeThos , which show that yellow and dark blue wbr\oi were
worn, and speaks of embroidered ttotXoi (xoikiXoi). Such
embroideries are indicated by painting on the statues from the
Acropolis and are often shown on vase paintings.

The chiton, xirkv, was formed by sewing together at the
sides two pieces of linen, or a double piece folded together, leaving
spaces at the top for the arms and neck, and fastening the top
edges together over the shoulders and upper arm with buttons
or brooches; more rarely we find a plain sleeveless chiton. The
length of the garment varied considerably. The x i "' uv ' urK oi,
worn in active exercise, as by the so-called " Atalanta " of the
Vatican, or the well-known Amazon statues (Greek Art, fig.
40), reached only to the knee; the x<-t&v iro5ripr]s covered the
feet. This long, trailing garment was especially characteristic
of Ionia; in the Homeric poems (//. xiii. 685) we read of the
Taoees eX/ce^traices. If worn without a girdle it went by the
name of x<-t&v opdoo-radios. The long chiton was regularly
used by musicians (e.g. Apollo the lyre-player) and charioteers.
In ordinary life it was generally pulled up through the girdle
and formed a koXxos (Greek Art, fig. 2).

Herodotus (v. 82-88) tells a story (cf. Aegina), the details
of which are to all appearance legendary, in order to account
for a change in the fashion of female dress which took place at
Athens in the course of the 6th century B.C. Up to that time
the " Dorian dress " had been universal, but the Athenians now
gave up the use of garments fastened with pins or brooches, and
adopted the linen chiton of the Ionians. The statement of
Herodotus is illustrated both by Attic vase-paintings and also
by the series of archaic female statues from the Acropolis of
Athens, which (with the exception of one clothed in the Doric
.7r€7rXos) wear the Ionic chiton, together with an outer garment,
sometimes laid over both shoulders like a cloak (Greek Art,
fig. 3), but more usually fastened on the right shoulder only, and
passed diagonally across the body so as to leave the left arm,

2.34

COSTUME

free. The garment (which resembles the Doric ir«rXos, but
seems to have been rectangular rather than square) is folded
over at the top, and the central part is drawn up towards the
right shoulder to produce an elaborate system of zigzag folds
(Greek Art, fig. 22). The borders of the garment are painted
with geometrical patterns in vivid colours; a broad stripe of
ornament runs down the centre of the skirt. 1

This fashion of dress was only temporary. Thucydides (i. 6)
tells us that in his own time the linen chiton of Ionia had again
been discarded in favour of the Doric dress, and the monuments
show that after the Persian wars a reaction against Oriental-
ism showed itself in a return to simpler fashions. The long
linen chiton, which had been worn by men as well as women,
was now only retained by the male sex on religious and festival
occasions; a short chiton was, however, worn at work or in
active exercise (Greek Art, fig. 3) and often fastened on the
left shoulder only, when it was called x'tojv trepo/xacrxaXos or
«£a>pis. But the garment usually worn by men of mature age
was the tfiariov, which was (like the ireirXos) a plain square of
woollen stuff. One corner of this was pulled over the left shoulder .
from the back and tucked in under the left arm; the rest of the
garment was brought round the right side of the body and either
carried under the right shoulder, across the chest and over the
left shoulder, if it was desired that the right arm should be free, .
or wrapped round the right arm as well as the body, leaving the
right hand in a fold like a sling (Greek Art, fig. •2). The lp.ix.Ti.ov
was also worn by women over the linen chiton, and draped in a
great variety of ways, which may be illustrated by the terra-
cotta figurines from Tanagra (4th-3rd cent. B.C.) and the numerous
types of female statues, largely represented by copies of Roman
date, made to serve as grave-monuments. The upper part of
the tfiariov was often drawn over the head as in the example here
shown (Plate, fig. 2 1) , a statue formerly in the duke of Sutherland's
collection at Trentham and now in the British Museum.

A lighter garment was the xKap,vs, chlamys, a mantle worn by
young men, usually over a short chiton girt at the waist, and
fastened on the right shoulder (cf . the figure of Hermes in Greek
Art, fig. 2). The x^aiva. was a heavy woollen cloak worn in
cold weather. Peasants wore sheepskins or garments of hide
called /3 am/ or ciavpa; slaves, who were required by custom
to conceal their limbs as much as possible, wore a sleeved chiton
and long hose.

A woman's head was usually covered by drawing up the
IfxarLov (see above), but sometimes instead of this, a separate-
piece of cloth was made to perform this service, the end of it
falling over the himation. This was the KahvKTpa, or veil called
KpriSefxvov in Homer. A cap merely intended to cover in the
hair and hold it together was called KeKpv<pa.\os. When the
object was only to hold up the hair from the neck, the afavhovq
was used, which, as its name implies, was in the form of a sling;
but in this case it was called more particularly imwBoa§tvobvr\,
as a distinction from the sphendone when worn in front of the
head. The head ornaments include the dcadr/pia, a narrow band
bound round the hair a little way back from the brow and
temples, and fastened in the knot of the hair behind; the ap.irvt;,
a variety of the diadem; the art^avr}, a crown worn over the
forehead, its highest point being in the centre, and narrowing at
each side into a thin band which is tied at the back of the head.
It is doubtful whether this should be distinguished from the
OTtfyavos, a crown of the same breadth and design all round, as
on the coins of Argos with the head of Hera, who is expressly
said by Pausanias to wear a Stephanos. This word is also employed
for crowns of laurel, olive or other plant. High crowns made of
wicker-work (7r6Xoi, nakadoi) were also worn (see Gerhard,
Antike Bildwerke, pis. 303-305). When the hair, as was most
usual, was gathered back from the temples and fastened in a knot
behind, hair-pins were required, and these were mostly of bone or
ivory, mounted with gold or plain; so also when the hair was

1 These ornamental bands are carefully described and reproduced"
in colour by A. Lermann, Altgriechische Plastik (1907), pp. 85 ff.,
pis. i.-xx. Some authorities hold that the skirt forms part of the
over-garment, but it seems clear that it belongs to the x«'t«x'-

tied in a large knot above the forehead, as in the case of Artemis,
or of Apollo as leader of the Muses. The early Athenians wore
their hair in the fashion termed /cpd>/3i;Xos, with fastenings called
" grasshoppers " (rimyes), in allusion to their claim of having
originally sprung from the soil (Thuc. i. 6). The rerriyts have
been identified by Helbig with small spirals of gold wire, such as
are found in early Etruscan tombs lying near the head of the
skeleton. Such spirals were used in early Athens to confine the back
hair, and this fashion may therefore be identified as the /cpd)/3uXos.
In archaic figures the hair is most frequently arranged oyer the
brow and temples in parallel rows of small curls which must have
been kept in their places by artificial means. Ear-rings {kvuma,
eXX6/3«x, eKiKrrjpes) of gold, silver, or bronze plated with gold,
and frequently ornamented with pearls, precious stones, or
enamel, were worn attached to the lobes of the ear. For neck-
laces (oppot), bracelets (ofcis), brooches (irepovai), and finger-
rings (5a/tri)Xioi or (T^paylSes) the same variety and preciousness
of material was employed. For the feet the sandal {aavbahov,
nkbihov) was the usual wear; for hunting and travelling high
boots were worn. The hunting-boot (ivdpopis) was laced up the
front, and reached to the calves; the Kodopvos (cothurnus) was a
high boot reaching to the middle of the leg, and as worn by tragic
actors had high soles. Slippers (irepcnKai) were adopted from
the East by women; shoes (epfiddes) were worn by the poorer
classes. Gloves (x«pi6es) were worn by the Persians, but ap-
parently never by the Greeks unless to protect the hands when
working (Odyssey, xxiv. 230). Hats, which were as a rule worn
only by youths, workmen and slaves, were of circular shape, and
either of some stiff material, as the Boeotian hat observed in
terra-cottas from Tanagra, or of pliant material which could be
bent down at the sides like the ireTacros worn by Hermes and
sometimes even by women. The Kavcia, or Macedonian hat,
seems to have been similar to this. The Kvpfiao-la, or Ki5ap«,
was a high-pointed hat of Persian origin, as was also the ridpa,
which served the double purpose of an ornament and a covering
for the head. Workmen wore a close-fitting felt cap (irtXos).

See F. Studniczka, " Beitrage zur Geschichte der altgriechischen
Tracht " (Abhandlungen des arch.-epigr. Seminars in Wien, vii.
1886) ; Lady Evans, Chapters on Greek Dress (1893) ; W. Kalkmann,
" Zur Tracht archaischer Gewandfiguren " (Jahrb. des k. deutschen
arch. Instityts, 1896, pp. 19 ff.); S. Cybulski, Tabulae quibus anti-
quitates Graecae et Romanae ittustrantur, Nos. 16-18 (1903), with text
by W. Amelung; Ethel B. Abrahams, Greek Dress (1908).'

iv. Etruscan Costume. — The female dress of the Etruscans did
not differ in any important respect from that of the Greeks; it
consisted of the chiton and himation, which was in earlier times
usually worn as a shawl, not after the fashion of the Doric 7r«rXos.
Two articles of costume, however, were peculiar to the Etruscans
- — the high conical hat known as the
tutulus? and the shoes with turned-up
points (Latin calcei repandi). These
have oriental analogies, and lend support
to the tradition that the Etruscans came
from Asia. Both are represented on
a small bronze figure in the British
Museum (fig. 1 9) . On a celebrated terra-
cotta sarcophagus in the British Museum
of much later date (fig. 20), the female
figure reclining on the lid wears a Greek
chiton of a thin white material, with
short sleeves fastened on the outside of
the arm, by means of buttons and loops;
a himation of <lark purple thick stuff
is wrapped round her hips and legs; on
her feet are sandals, consisting of a sole ' "'

apparently of leather, and attached to the foot and leg with
leather straps; under the straps are thin socks which do not
cover the toes; she wears a necklace of heavy pendants; her
ears are pierced for ear-rings; her hair is partly gathered
together with a ribbon at the roots behind, and partly hangs
in long tresses before and behind; a flat diadem is bound
round her head a little way back from the brow- and
2 The tutulus was worn at Rome by the flaminica.

COSTUME

235

temples, Purple, pale green and white, richly embroidered, are
favourite colours in the dresses represented on the painted
tombs.

The chief article of male dress was called the tebenna. We are
told by ancient writers that the toga praetexta, with its purple
border (irepiTopipvpos Trj^evva), as worn by Roman magistrates
and priests, had been derived from the Etruscans (Pliny, N.H .
ix. 63, " praetextae apud Etruscos originem invenere "); and the
famous statue of the orator in Florence (Plate, fig. 22), an
Etruscan work of the 3rd century B.C., represents a man clothed
in this garment, which will be described below. Under the
tebenna, or toga, which was necessary only for public appearance,
the Etruscans wore a short tunic similar to the Greek chiton.
For workmen and others of inferior occupation this appears to
have been the only dress. Youths, when engaged in horseman-
ship and other exercises, wore a chlamys round the shoulders,
which, however, was semicircular in cut, and was fastened on
the breast by buttons and a loop, or tied in a knot, whereas the
Greek chlamys was oblong and fastened on the shoulder by a
brooch. On public or festal occasions the Etruscan noble wore,
besides the tebenna, a bulla, or necklace of bullae, and a wreath,
corona Etrusca. The bulla was a circular gold locket containing
a charm of some kind against evil. 1 On the later sarcophagi the

Hedrawn from photo (Mansell).

Fig. 20.

male figures wear not only a wreath or corona proper, bu,t also a
garland of flowers hung round the neck. The male head-dress
was the galerus, a hat of leather, said to have been worn by the
Lucumos in early times, or the apex, a pointed hat corresponding
to the tutulus worn by females. The fashion of shoes worn by
Roman senators was said to have been derived from Etruria.
Etruscan shoes were prized both in Greece and in Rome.

Helbig's articles, referred to at the close of the next section,
should be consulted. J. Martha, L'Art etrusque, gives reproductions
of the most important monuments. See also the works on Etruscan
civilization named in the art. Etruria.

v. Roman Costume. — We are told that the toga, the national
garment of the Romans, was originally worn both by men and by
women; and though the female dress of the Romans was in
historical times essentially the same as that of the Greeks, young
girls still wore the toga on festal occasions, as we see from the
reliefs of the Ara Pads Augustae. In early times no under-
garment was worn save a loin-cloth (subligaculum), which seems
to be a survival of early Mediterranean fashions (see above, sect.
Aegean Costume), and candidates for office in historical times
appeared in the toga and subligaculum only. In this period,
however, the tunica, corresponding to the Greek chiton, was
universally worn in ordinary life, and the toga gradually became a
full-dress garment which was only worn over the tunica on
important social occasions; Juvenal (iii. 171) tells us that.in a
great part of Italy no one wore the toga except at his burial !

The toga was a piece of woollen cloth in the form of a segment
of a circle, 2 the chord of the arc being about three times the
height of the wearer, and the height a little less than one-half
of this length. One end of this garment was thrown over the
left shoulder and allowed to hang down in front; the remainder

' It was also worn by Roman children.

1 This seems more likely than the alternative view that it was of
elliptical shape and was folded before being put on. Quintilian (xi.
3, 139, a locus classicus for the toga) speaks of it as " rotunda_^;
but this need not be taken literally

was drawn round the body and disposed in various ways. In the
cinctus Gabinus, which was the fashion adopted in early times
when fighting was in prospect, the end of the toga was drawn
tightly round the waist and formed a kind of girdle; this was
retained in certain official functions, such as the opening of the
temple of Janus in historical times. 3 In time of peace the toga
was wrapped round the right arm, leaving the hand only free,
much after the fashion of the Greek himation, and thrown over
the left shoulder so as to fall down behind (see Roman Art,
Plate II., fig. 11, male figure to r.); or, if greater freedom were
desired, it was passed under the right arm-pit. In religious
ceremonies, the magistrate presiding at the sacrifice drew the
back of the toga over his head; see in the same illustration the
priest with veiled head, ritu Gabino, who also wears his toga
with the cinctus Gabinus. Towards the end of the republic
a new fashion was generally adopted. A considerable length
of the toga was allowed to hang from the left shoulder; the
remainder was passed round the body so as to rise like a baldric
(balteus) from the right hip to the left shoulder, being folded over
in front (the fold was called sinus) , then brought round the back of
the neck so that the end fell over the right shoulder; the hanging
portion on the left side was drawn up through the sinus, and
bulged out in an umbo (Plate, fig. 24). Later still, this portion,
instead of forming a bundle of folds in the centre, was carefully
folded over and carried up over the left shoulder, and in course
of time these folds were carefully arranged in several thicknesses
resembling boards, tabulae, hence called contabulatio (Plate,
fig. 23). Yet another fashion was that adopted by the flamens,
who passed the right-hand portion of the toga over the right
shoulder and arm and back over the left shoulder, so that it
hung down in a curve over the front of the body; the upper
edge was folded over. The flamens are thus represented on the
Ara Pacis Augustae.

The plain white toga (toga pura) was the ordinary dress of the
citizen, but the toga praetexta, which had a border of purple,
was worn by boys till the age of sixteen, when they assumed
the plain toga virilis, and also by curule magistrates and some
priests. A purple toga with embroidery {toga picta) was worn
together with a gold-embroidered tunic (tunica palmata) by
generals while celebrating a triumph and by magistrates pre-
siding at games; it represented the traditional dress of the kings
and was adopted by Julius Caesar as a permanent costume.
The emperors wore it on occasions of special importance. The
trabea, which in historical times was worn by the consuls when
opening the temple of Janus, by the equites at their yearly in-
spection and on some other occasions, and by the S.alii at their
ritual dances, and had (according to tradition) formed the
original costume of the augurs and flamens (who afterwards
adopted the toga praetexta) , was apparently a toga smaller in size
than the ordinary civil dress, decorated with scarlet stripes
(trabes). It was fastened with brooches (fibulae) and appears
to have been worn by the equites, e.g. at the funeral ceremony of
Antoninus Pius.

The tunica was precisely like the Greek chiton; that of the
senator had two broad stripes of purple (latus clavus) down the
centre, that of the knight two narrow stripes (angustus clavus).
A woollen undergarment (subucula) was often worn by men;
the women's under-tunic was of linen (indusium). When women
gave up the use of the toga, they adopted the stola, a long tunic
with a border of a darker colour (instita) along the lower edge;
the neck also sometimes had a border (patagium) . The tunic with
long sleeves (tunica manicata) was a later fashion. Over this the
ricinium or rica, a shawl covering the head and shoulders, was
worn in early times, and retained by certain priestesses as an
official costume; 4 but it gave place to the palla, the equivalent
of the Greek himation, and the dress of the Roman women
henceforward differed in no essential particular from that of
the Greek.

3 The Lares are thus represented in art.

4 The suffibulum of the vestals, which was fastened on the breast
by a brooch (fibula), was a garment of this sort. The marriage-veil
(flammeum) derived its name from its bright orange colour. The
palliolum was a kind of mantilla.

236

COSTUME

A variety of cloaks were worn by men during inclement
weather; in general they resembled the Greek chlamys, but often
had a hood (cucullus) which could be drawn over the head.
Such were the birrus (so-called from its red colour), abolla and
lacerna. The paenula, which was the garment most commonly
worn, especially by soldiers when engaged on peace duties, was
an oblong piece of cloth with a hole in the centre for the neck;
a hood was usually attached to the back. It survives in the
ritual chasuble of the Western Church. The Greek military
chlamys appears in two forms — the paludamentum of the
general (e.g. Trajan as represented on the Arch of Constantine,
Roman Art, Plate III., fig. 16), and the sagum worn by the
common soldier (e.g. by some of the horsemen on the base of the
Antonine column, Roman Art, Plate V., fig. 21). When the
toga went out of use as an article of everyday wear, the pallium,
i.e. the Greek himation, was at first worn only by Romans
addicted to Greek fashions, but from the time of Tiberius, who
wore it in daily life, its use became general. Long robes bearing
Greek names (synthesis, syrma, &c.) were worn at dinner-parties-

The Romans often wore sandals (soleae) or light shoes (socci),
but in full dress (i.e. with the toga) it was necessary to wear the
calceus, which had various forms by which classes were dis-
tinguished, e.g. the calceus patricius, mulleus (of red leather) and
senatorius (of black leather). This was a shoe with slits at the
sides and straps knotted in front; its forms may be seen on the
relief from the Ara Pacis. The senators' calceus had four such
straps (quattuor corrigiae), which were wound round the ankle
(cf. the flamen on the Ara Pacis), and was also adorned with an
ivory crescent (lunula). A leathern tongue (lingula) is often
seen to project from beneath the straps. The soldier's- boot
(caliga, from which the emperor Gaius derived his nickname,
Caligula) was in reality a heavy hobnailed sandal with a number
of straps wound round the ankle and lower leg. A high hunting
boot was called compagus. Women at times wore the calceus,
but are generally represented in art with soft shoes or sandals.

Hats were seldom worn except by those who affected Greek
fashions, but the close-fitting leather pileus seems to have been an
article of early wear in Italy, since its use survived in the ceremony
of manumission, and the head-dress of the pontifices and flamines
(cf . the relief of the Ara Pacis already referred to) consisted in such
a cap (galerus) with an apex, or spike, of olive wood inserted in
the crown.

For personal ornament finger-rings of great variety in the
material and design were worn by men, sometimes to the extent
of one or more on each finger, many persons possessing small
cabinets of them. But at first the Roman citizen wore only an
iron signet ring, and this continued to be used at marriages. The
jus annuli aurei, or right of wearing a gold ring, originally a
military distinction, became a senatorial privilege, which was
afterwards extended to the knights and gradually to other
classes. Women's ornaments consisted of brooches (fibulae),
bracelets (armillae), armlets (armillae, bracchialia) , ear-rings
(inaures), necklaces (monilia), wreaths (coronae) and hair-pins
(crinales). The tore (torques), or cord of gold worn round the
neck, was introduced from Gaul. A profusion of precious stones,
and absence of skill or refinement in workmanship, distinguish
Roman from Greek or Etruscan jewelry; but in the character of
the designs there is no real difference.

See Marquardt-Mau, Privatleben der Romer, pp. 550 seq. (givesafull
collection of literary references) ; Cybulski, op. cit., pis. xix., xx., with
Amelung's text; articles by W. Helbig, especially Sitzungsberichle
der bayrischen Akademie (1880), pp. 487 seq. (on headgear); Hermes
xxxix. 161 seq. (on toga and trabea), and Mimoires de VAcadAmie
des inscriptions, xxxvii. (1905) (on the costume of the Salii) ; articles
by L. Heuzey in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites,
also in Revue de Vart, i. 98 seq., 204 seq., ii. 193 seq., 295 seq. (on
the toga). See also the general bibliography at the end. (H.S.J.)

II. Costume in Medieval and Modern Europe
i. Pre-Roman and Roman Britain. —Men who had found
better clothing than the skins of beasts were in Britain when
Caesar landed. Little as we know of England before the English,
we have at least the knowledge that Britons, other than the
poorer and wilder sort of the north and the fens, wore cloaks and

hats, sleeved coats whose skirts were cut above the knee and
loose trousers after the fashion of the Gauls. They were not an
armoured race, for they would commonly fight naked to the waist,
dreadful with tattooing and woad staining, but Pliny describes
their close-woven felts as all but sword-proof. Dyers as well
as weavers, their cloaks, squares of cloth like a Highland plaid,
were of black or blue, rough on the one side, while coats and
trousers were bright coloured, striped and checkered, red being
the favourite hue. For ornament the British chiefs wore golden
torques about their necks and golden arm-rings with brooches
and pins of metal or ivory, beads of brass, of jet and amber from
their own coasts, and of glass bought of the Southern merchants.
Their women had gowns to the ankle, with shorter tunics above
them. The Druid bards had their vestments of blue, while the
star-gazers and leeches went in green.

Agricola's Romanizing work must have made great changes
in dress as in policy. The British chief with the Latin tongue
in his mouth, living in a Roman villa and taking his bath as did
the Romans, wore the white woollen toga and the linen tunic,
his wife having the stole, the pall and the veil.

ii. Old English Dress. — The skill of their artists gives us many
accurate pictures of the dress of the English before the Norman
Conquest, the simple dress of a nation whose men
fight, hunt and plough. The man's chief garment is coaqaesu
a sleeved tunic hanging to the knee, generally open
at the side from hip to hem and in front from the throat to the
breast. Sleeves cut loosely above the elbow are close at the

Fig. 25.— -Old English Fig. 26.— The Blessed
Dress. From the Bene- Virgin. From the Bene-
dictional of St ^Ethel- dictional of St ^Ethel-
wold (c. 963-984). wold (c. 963-984).

forearm. The legs are in hose like a Highlander's or in lopg
breeches bandaged or cross-gartered below the knee. A short
mantle to the calf is brooched at the shoulder or breast (fig. 25).
There are long gowns and toga-like cloaks, but these as a rule
seem garments for the old man of rank. In the open air the cloak
is often pulled over the head, for hats and caps are rare, the
Phrygian bonnet being the commonest form. Girdles of folded
cloth gather the loose tunic at the waist. Most paintings show
the ankle shoe as black, cut with a pointed tab before and behind,
the soles being sometimes of wood like the sole of the Lancashire
clog of our own days. A nobleman will have his shoes embroidered
with silks or coloured yarns, and the like decoration for the hem
and collar of his tunic. Poor men wear little but the tunic,
often going barelegged, although the hinds in the well-known
pictures of the twelve months have shoes, and the shepherd as
he watches his flock covers himself with a cloak. In every grave-
yard of the old English we find the brooches, armlets, rings and
pins of a people loving jewelry. Women wore a long gown
covering the feet, the loose sleeves sometimes hanging over the
hands to the knee. Over this there is often a shorter tunic with
short sleeves. Their mantles were short or long, the hood or

COSTUME

Plate.

Fig. 2 1— G RAVE-STATUE.

Photo, Alinari.

Fig. 22— THE ORATOR (R. Arch. Mus., Florence).

Phoio, Anderson.

Fig. 23.— BUST OF PHILIP THE ARABIAN (Vatican).
VII. 336.

Photo, Moscioni.

Fig. 24. — TITUS (Vatican).

COSTUME

237

The
Normans.

head rail wrapped round the chin (fig. 26). In broidery and
ornament the women's dress matched that of the men. The
Danes, warriors of the sea, soon took the English habit, becoming
notable for their many changes of gay clothing.

The Norman Conquest is marked by no great change in English
clothing, the conquerors inclining towards the island fashions,
as we may see by the fact that they gave up their
curious habit of shaving the back of the head. But
with the reign of the second William came the taste
for the luxury of clothing and that taste for flowing hair and shoes
with sharp points which is lamented by William of Malmesbury.
In this reign we have the story of the Red King refusing to put
on boots that cost but three shillings — the price of an ox — and
wearing the same gladly when his chamberlain told him that they
were a new pair worth a mark. Even more than the fashion
of long cloaks and trailing gowns whose sleeves hang far below
the hands, the fantastic boot and shoe toes bring the curses of
the clergy and the moralizings of chroniclers. Fulk Rechin of
Anjou is said by Orderic to have invented such gear to hide the
monstrous bunions upon his toes, but a worthless Robert, a
hanger-on of the court of William II., distinguishes himself and
gains the surname of Cornard by stuffing his shoe tips with tow
and twisting them like the horns of the ram.

There are many illuminations which give us in plenty the
details of all costumes of the 1 2th century. Thus the devil in a
well-known MS. wears the gown of a lady of rank, the
13th" bodice tightly laced, the hanging sleeve knotted to
centuries, keep it out of the mud. A MS. at Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, shows in a picture of the vision of
Henry I. that the men who reap and dig are simply clad in loose
skirted tunics with close sleeves, that they have hats with
brims, and cloaks caught by a brooch at the shoulder. Hats
and caps are common in all classes and take many shapes — the
Phrygian cap, the flat bonnet, the brimmed hat and the skull-cap.
With the coming of the house of Anjou English dress clears
itself of the more fantastic features of an earlier generation.
Henry II. brought in the short Angevin mantle and from it had
his name of Curtmantle, but it was not a mastering fashion and
the long cloak holds its own. Rich stuffs, cloth of gold or silk
woven with gold, webs of damask wrought with stripes or rays
and figured with patterns are brought in from the ports. Rare
furs are eagerly sought. But the simplicity of line is remarkable.
The drawings made for Matthew Paris's lives of the two Offas
show people of all ranks clad without a trace of the tailor's

fantasy. Kings and lords, church-
men and men of substance go in
long gowns to the feet, the great
folk having an orphrey or band of
embroidery at the somewhat low-
cut neck (fig. 27). Some of the
sleeves have wide ends cut off at
the mid-forearm, showing the tight
sleeve of a shirt or smock below.
Fashion, however, tends to lengthen
sleeves to a tight wrist, the upper
halves being cut wide and loose with
the large armholes characteristic of
most ancient tailoring. Over this
gown is worn an ample cloak
Fig. 27.— A Lady and a fastened at the neck with a brooch
King(temp. Hen. HI.). (From ° r clasp, and sometimes fitted with
Cotton MS. Nero, D. i.) a hood. The dress of the common

folk and of men of rank when
actively employed is a tunic which is but the gown shortened
to the knee, a short cloak to the knee being worn with
it (fig. 28). Belts and girdles are narrow and plain, the thongs
without enrichment, showing no beginnings of the rich buckles
and heavy bosses of a later fashion. Shoes and low-cut boots
are slightly pointed, and hats, caps, hoods and coifs of many
types cover the head. The women are like to the men in their
long gown, but the head is wrapped in a coverchef hanging
over the shoulder and bound with a fillet round the brow.

Gloves are common in this age; " scraps of the cloth or the
skin," says a poet, " do not want for a use: of them gloves
are made."

14th
century.

Fig. 28. — Labourers (temp. Hen. III.). (From Cotton MS. Nero, D.i.)

At the court of Edward II., son of a king who went simply
clad, Piers Gaveston and his like began to set the fashions for a
century which to the curious antiquary is a garden
of delights. For the history of the 14th-century
clothing illuminations are supplemented by a number
of effigies upon which the carver has wrought out the last details,
by monumental brasses, and by contemporary literature and
records (fig. 29). Garments take many shapes; sleeves, skirts
and head-dresses run through many fashions; while personal
ornaments are rich and beautiful to a degree never yet surpassed.
With the beginning of the century there is seen a tendency to
shorten the long gown, which
had been the best wear of a
man of good estate, to a more
convenient length, although '
the knees are still well covered .
Loose sleeves falling below
the elbow leave to view the
sleeve of an under-garment,
buttoned tightly to the arm.
In winter time a man's gown
will have long sleeves that
cover the hands when the arms
are at length. The full cloak,
although still found, is some-
what rare among a people

that has, perhaps, learned Fig. 29.— A Group of Clerks (early-
to wear more clothes and 14th century). (From Royal MS.
warmer upon the body. x 9 B. xv.)

Hoods are worn in many fashions, to be cast back upon the
shoulders like a monk's cowl, the part at the back of the head
being drawn out into a " liripipe " long enough at times, when

Fig. 30. — English Ploughmen of the 14th century.

the hood is drawn up, to be knotted round the brow turban-'
fashion (fig. 30). Long hose are drawn up the legs to join the

2 3 8

COSTUME

short breech, and the toes of the ankle-shoes are pointed so long
that holy men see visions of little devils using them as chariots.
The women love trailing gowns. They have under-skirts and
loose over-garments, sometimes sleeveless. Their hair at least
would not shock those earlier prelates who cursed the long
plaits, for it is caught up in a caul or braided at the sides of the
head. In the second half of the century men of rank borrow
from Germany the fashion of the cote-hardie. In its plainest
form this short tunic, covering the fork of the leg, is cut closely
to the body and arms (fig. 31). Sometimes the sleeve ends at
the elbow and then another streamer is added to the one which
falls from the hood, a strip of stuff continuing the elbow-sleeve
as low as the coat edge. This strip and the hem of the skirt are

Fig. 31. — Sons and Daughters of Edward III. (From his tomb
in Westminster Abbey.)

often " slittered " with fanciful jags, a fashion which soon draws
down the satirist's anger. Parti-coloured garments were an
added offence; a gentleman would have his coat parted down
the middle in red and white, with hose of white and red to match.
Men and women of rank wear a twisted garland of rich stuff,
crown-wise on the head, set with pearls and precious stones,
a fashion which is followed on the great helm of the knights,
being the " wreath " or " torce " of heraldry. The dames of
such as wear the cote-hardie imitate its tightness in the sleeves
and bodices of their long gown. A curious fashion which now
begins is the sleeveless upper gown whose sides are cut away
in curved sweeps from the shoulder to below the waist, the edges
of the opening being deeply furred. The strange head-dress with
a steeple-horn draped with lawn kerchiefs makes its appearance
to shock the moralists. Although it was probably a rare sight
in this century, the horn could easily fulfil its mission of drawing
notice to all its wearers.

Of the cote-hardie it might at least be said that it was the
symbol of a knightly age in arms, the garment of a man who
must have hand and limbs free, and, save for its sleeves, it faith-
fully copied the coat-armour of the armed knight. The softer
days of Richard II. are remarkable for a dress which has also
its significance, men of high rank taking to themselves gowns
of such fulness that the satirists may be justified who declare
that men so clad may be hardly known from women. The close
collar of these gowns rises high as the neckcloth of a French
incroyable, the upper edge turned slightly over and jagged. The
full skirts sweep on the ground, which is touched by the last jags
of the vast sleeves, whose openings, wide as a woman's skirts,
are dagged like the edges of vine or oak leaves. " And but if
the slevis," says the satirist, " slide on the erthe, thei wolle be
wroth as the wynde." Sometimes this gown is slit at the sides
that the gallant may the better show his coloured hose and tips
of shoes that pike out two feet from heel to toe. When not
wearing the gown such a lord would have a high-necked coat,
shorter even than the cote-hardie, but looser in the skirt, the
sleeves ending full and loose with dagged edges turned over at

the cuff. Hats are more commonly worn in this century, and
in its latter half take many shapes, a notable one being that of a
shortened sugar-loaf or thimble with a brim turned up, either
all round, or, more frequently, behind or before. The long
shoes, as their name of crackowes or poleynes implies, were a
fashion which, by repute, came from Poland, a land ruled by
the grandfather of Richard's first queen. When medieval
fashions were past, they were remembered as a type of the old
time, and a certain French conteur begins a tale of old days, not
with jadis, but with " In the time when they wore poleynes."
Even parish priests, whose preaching should " dryve out the
daggis and alle the Duche cotis," went, in this age of fine
apparel, gaily clad in gowns of scarlet and green, " shape of the
newe," in " cutted clothes " with " long pikes on her shone."
More than this, they made scandal by ruffling with weapons —
" bucklers brode and sweardes long, bandrike with baselardes
kene." The skill of goldsmiths and craftsmen decorates all
the appurtenances of the dress of this 14th century. Buttons,
which appear in the first Edward's time as a scandalous orna-
ment on men of low degree, have now become common, and,
cunningly wrought, are used as much for queintise as for service.
A close row of them will run from wrist to elbow of tight sleeve.
A row of buttons goes from the neck of a woman's gown, and
the cote-hardie may be fastened down the front with a dozen and
a half of rich buttons. A purse or gipciere hung by a ring to the
girdle gives more room for ornament in the silver or brass bar
on which the bag depends. Above all the girdle, which — in
harness or in silk — rich men wear broad and bossed with jewels
across the thigh below the waist, makes work for the jeweller's
craftsman. Such a girdle is for great folk alone; but lesser men,
wearing a strap about their waists, will yet have a handsome
buckle and a fanciful pendant of metal guarding the loose end
of the strap.

However fantastic the fashions of this or any other ages, folk
of the middling sort will avoid the extremes. From the Knight
to the Reve, no man of Chaucer's company calls to us by the
fantasy of his clothing. The Knight himself rides in his fustian
gipoun, the grime of his habergeon upon it, although his son's
short gown, the gayest garment at the Tabard, had long and
wide sleeves and is embroidered with flowers like any mead. A
coat and hood of green
mark the Yeoman, who
has a silver Christopher
brooch for ornament.
The Merchant is in
motley stuff, his beaver
hat from Flanders and
his clasped boots taking
Chaucer's eye, as do the
aulas and silken gipser
which hang at the rich
Franklin's belt. As for
the London burgesses,
their knife-chapes, girdles
and pouches are in clean
silver. The Shipman
wears his knife in a lan-
yard about his neck, as
his fellows do to this
day, and his coat is of
coarse falding to the knee. 4 The Wife of Bath has the wimple
below her broad hat and rides in a foot mantle about her hips.
Poorer men's dress is on the Reve and the Ploughman, the one
in a long surcote of sky-blue and the other in the. tabard which
we may recognize as that smock-frock, which goes down the ages
with little change.

In the 15th century the middle ages run out. Fashions in
this period become, if not more fantastic, more various. Its
earlier years see men of rank still inclined to the rich
modes of the last age: Harry of Monmouth, drawn century.
about 1410 by an artist who shows him as Occleve's
patron, wears a blue gown which might have passed muster at the

Fig. 32. — Henry, Prince of Wales,
and Occleve the Poet (c. 1410). (From
Arundel MS. 38.)

COSTUME

239

court of Richard II. for its trailing skirts and its long sleeves,
their slittered edges turned back (fig. 32). A strange fancy at this
time was the hanging of silver bells on the dress. One William
Staunton, in 1409, seeing in a vision at St Patrick's Purgatory the
fate of earth's proud ones, is exact to note that in the place of
torment the jags in men's clothes turn to adders, that women's
trailing skirts are burnt over their heads, and that those men
whose garments are overset with silver gingles and bells have
burning nails of fire driven through each gingle. As for the
chaplets of gold, of pearls and precious stones, they turn into
nails of iron on which the fiends hammer.

The common habit of a well-clad man in the first half of this
century is a loose tunic, lined with fur, or edged with fur at neck,

Fig. 33. — The Squire. (From Fig. 34. — An English Squire
the Ellesmere MS. of the Canter- and his Wife. (From a brass
bury Tales.) of 1409.)

wrist and skirt. At first the sleeves are long and bag-like, like to
the Richard II. sleeve but drawn in to the wrist, where early
examples are fastened with a button. A shorter tunic is worn
below, whose tight sleeves are seen beyond the furred edge of the
upper garment, mittens being sometimes attached to them.
Over the shoulders the hood is thrown, or, in foul weather, a hood
and cloak. The gown is girdled at the waist with a girdle from
which hangs the anelace or baselard (fig. 34) . Shoes are pointed.
Hats and caps are seen in many shapes, but the most remarkable
is the developed form of that head-dress which the 14th-century
man seems to have achieved by putting his pate into the face-
hole of his hood and twisting its liripipe round his brows. In the
15th century the effect is produced with a thick, turban-like roll
of stuff from the top of which hung down on one side folds of

cloth coming nigh to the
shoulder, and on the other
the liripipe broadened and
lengthened to 4 or 5 ft. of a
narrower folded cloth. As
the century advances the
bagpipe sleeves shrink in
size and the tunic skirts are
shortened (fig. 35). The
old habit of going armed
with anelace or baselard
dies away in spite of
troublous times. In the
.middle of the century the
tunic is often no longer
than a modern frock-coat,
its sleeves little wider than those of a modern overcoat. Dress,
indeed, becomes at this time convenient and attractive to our
modern eyes. The last quarter of the century sees a new and
important change. The tunic or gown, which was the garment
of ceremony answering at once to our dress coats and frock
coats, runs down to the feet. An act of 1463 ordered that
coats should at least cover the buttocks, but fashion achieved

Fig. 35. — English Dress, c. 1433.
(From Harl. MS. 2278.)

suddenly what law failed to enforce. Men who had polled their
hair short allowed it to grow and hang over the shoulders. The
belt carries the purse or gipciere more commonly, although
weapons are rarely seen, and it is notable that, as the Reforma-
tion approaches, the fashion of wearing a large " pair of beads "
in the belt becomes a very common one. Last of all, the shoes
change their shape. The reign
of Edward IV. had seen the
pointed toes as iniquitously
long as ever the 14th century
saw them. Even the long
riding boot has the curving
point, although otherwise much
resembling the jack-boot of the
18th century. But after Bos-
worth Field the soles broaden,
the point shrinks back and
then disappears, and the foot-
print becomes shovel-shaped.

Women's dress in the 15th
century often follows the man's
fashion of the furred gown, the
skirts being lengthened for all
difference. But the close-bodied
and close-sleeved gown, with
skirts broadening into many
folds below the hips, is often
seen with the long and plain
cloak drawn with a cord at the breast, widows

Fig. 36. — A Gentleman and his
Wife. (From a brass of 1435.)

wearing this

dress with the barbe, a crimped cloth of linen drawn up under
the chin and ears and covering the collar-bone. With the
barbe went the kerchief, draping head and shoulders. The
bossed cauls of the earlier head-dress, drawn high on either
side of the head until face and head-dress took the shape of a
heart, are characteristic of the age (fig. 36). In some cases the
cauls are drawn out at the sides to the form of a pair of bulls'
horns or of a mitre set sideways. In the time of Edward IV. we
have a popular head-dress to which has been given the name of
the butterfly. The hair in its caul is pulled backward, and wires
set in it allow the ends of a cambric veil to float behind like the
wings of a butterfly settled on a flower.

The new England of the 16th century breaks with the past in
most of its fashions. Never again does an Englishman return to
the piked shoes. High fashion under Henry VIII. is all
for broad toes, so broad that the sumptuary laws, from century.
banning long toes, swing about to condemn excess in
the new guise. Under Henry VII. the medieval influence is still
strong in the body-clothing. ' A bravely dressed man will go in
long hose, cut close to the
body, and a short vest under
which the shirt is seen at
waist and wrist. Over this he
will wear the open gown, lined
with fur, and cut short as a
jacket but having the sleeves
hanging below the knee. Such
sleeves are commonly slashed
open at the sides to allow the
forearm to pass through.
Shorter false sleeves of this
pattern had become popular
in the age of Edward IV.
Graver men will wear, in place
of this short gown, a long one
dropping to the broad shoe-
toes, the sleeves wide-mouthed
(fig. 37). Sometimes it hangs
loosely; sometimes it has the
girdle with purse and beads,
to the girdle a penner, or
bottle.

ps;

Fig. 37. — A Genlleman and his
Wife. (From a brass of 1508.)

Notaries and scriveners add
a penner, or pen-case, and a stoppered ink-
Wide hats are found, crowned with huge plumes of
feathers, but the characteristic headgear is that made familiar by

240

COSTUME

portraits of Henry VII., a low-crowned cap whose upturned brim
is nicked at one side. A few sober men wear coats differing little
from the short gown of forty years before. Among ladies the
butterfly head-dress and the steeple cap passed out of fashion,
and a grave headgear comes in which has been compared with a
dog-kennel, a hood-cap thrown over head and shoulders, the
front being edged with a broad band which was often enriched
with needlework, the ends falling in lappets to the breast.
This band is stiffened until the face looks out as from the open
gable-end of a house. The gown is simple in form, close-fitting
to the body, the cuffs turned up with fur and the skirts long. A
girdle is worn loosely drawn below the waist, its long strap
letting the metal pendant fall nearly to the feet. Long cloaks,
plainly cut, are gathered at the neck with a pair of long cords,
like tasselled bell-pulls. While Henry VIII. is spending his
father's hoards we have a splendid court, gallantly dressed in new
fashions. His own broad figure, in cloth of gold, velvet and
damask, plaits, puffs and slashes, stiff with jewels, is well known
through scores of portraits, and may stand for the high-water
mark of the modes of his age. The Hampton Court picture of the

earl of Surrey is characteristic of a
great lord's dress of a somewhat
soberer style (see fig. 38). The king,
proud of his own broad shoulders,
set the fashion to accent this
breadth, and it will be seen that
the earl's figure, leaving out the
head and hose, all but fills a perfect
square. Such men have the air of
playing-card knaves. Surrey's cap
is flat, with a rich brooch and a
small side - feather. His short
doublet of the new style is open in
front to show a white shirt covered
with black embroidery whose ruffles
cover his wrists. His over-garment
or jerkin has vast sleeves, rounded,
puffed and slashed. Under the
doublet are seen wide trunk-
breeches. He goes all in scarlet,
even to the shoes, which are of
moderate size. The girdle carries
a sword with the new guard and a
dagger of the Renascence art, graced
with a vast tassel. All is in the
new fashion, nothing recalling the earlier century save the
hose and the immodest braguette which, seen in the latter
half of the fourteen-hundreds, is defiantly displayed in the
dress and armour of this age of Henry VIII. Even the hair
follows the new French mode and is cropped close. Other
fashionable suits of the time give us the tight doublets, loose
upper sleeves and trunk hose as a mass of small slashes and puffs,
a fashion which came in from the Germans and Switzers whom
Henry saw in the imperial service. Such clothing goes with the
shoes whose broad toes are slashed with silk, and the wide and
flat caps with slashed edges, bushed with feathers, which head-
gear was often allowed to hang upon the shoulders by a pair of
knotted bonnet-strings, while a skull-cap covered the head. With
all this fantasy the dress of simpler folk has little concern, and
a man in a plain, short-skirted doublet, with a flat cap, trunk
breeches, long hose and plain shoes, has nothing grotesque or
unserviceable in his attire. The new sumptuary laws, which
were not allowed to become a dead letter, had their influence in
restraining middle-class extravagance. No man under a knight's
degree was to wear a neck-chain of gold or gilded, or a " garded or
pinched shirte." Brooches of goldsmith's work were for none
below a gentleman. Women whose husbands could not afford to
maintain a light horse for the king's service had no business with
gowns or petticoats of silk,chains of gold, French hoods, or bonnets
ot velvet. This French hood is the smpll bonnet, two of whose
many forms may be seen in the best-known portraits of Mary of
England and Mary, queen of Scots — a cap stiffened with wires.

Drawn from a photo by Mansell
Fig. 38.— The Earl of
Surrey (late in reign of
Henry VIII.).

With its introduction the fashionable skirt began to lose its
graceful folds and to spread stiffly outward in straight lines from
the tight-laced waist, the front being open to show a petticoat as
stiff and enriched as the skirt. The neck of the gown, cut low and
square, showed the partlet of fine linen pleated to the neck. In
the days of Edward VI. and Queen Mary the dress of most men
and women loses the fantastic detail of the earlier Tudor age.
In the dress of both sexes the joining of the sleeve to the shoulder
has, as a rule, that large puff which stage dressmakers bestow so
lavishly upon all old English costumes, but otherwise the woman's
gown and hood and the man's doublet, jerkin and trunk hose are
plain enough, even the shoes losing all the fanciful width. Mary,
indeed, added to the statute book more stringent laws against
display of rich apparel, laws that would fine even a gentleman of
under £20 a year if silk were found in his cap or shoe. Small
ruffs, however, begin to appear at the neck, and most wrists are
ruffled. The ruff, which began simply enough in the first half of
this century as a little cambric collar with a goffered edge, is for
all of us the distinguishing note^of Elizabethan dress. It grew
wide and flapping, therefore it was stiffened upon wires and spread
from a concealed frame, row on row of ruffs being added one above
the other until the wearer, man or woman, seemed to carry the
head in a cambric charger. Starch, cursed as a devilish liquor by
the new Puritan, gave it help, and English dress acquired a
deformity which can only be compared with the great farthingale
or with the last follies of the wig. The skirt of a woman of fashion,
which had already begun to jut from the waist, was drawn out
before the end of Elizabeth's reign at right angles from the waist
until the dame had that air of standing within a great drum
which Sir Roger de Coverley remarked in the portrait of an
ancestress. Elizabeth herself, long-waisted and of meagre body,
set the fashions of her court, other women pinching their waists
into the long and straight stomacher ending in a peak before.
She herself followed her father's taste in ornament, and on great
days was set about like the Madonna of a popular shrine with
decorations of all kinds, patterns in pearl, quiltings, slashings,
puffings and broidery, tassels and rich buttons. Among men the
important change is the disappearance of the last of the long hose,
all men taking to trunk-hose and nether-stocks or stockings,
while their doublets tend to follow the same long-waisted fashion
as the bodices of the women, whose doublets and jerkins,
buttoned up the breast, bring the Puritan satirists against them.
Of these satirists Philip Stubbes is the best-known, his Anatomie
of Abuses, published in 1583, being a very wardrobe of Elizabethan
fashions, although false or dyed hair, the ruff and its starch, and
the ear-rings worn by some women and many men draw his
hottest anger. William Harrison sings on a like note about
the same time, declaiming especially against the mutability
of fashion, declaring that the imported Spanish, French and
German guises made it easier to inveigh against such enormities
than to describe the English attire with any certainty. For him
women were become men, and men transformed into monsters.
" Neither was it ever merrier with England than when an English-
man was known abroad by his own cloth and contented himself
at home with his fine carsey hosen and a mean slop; his coat,
gown and cloak of brown, blue or puke, with some pretty
furniture of velvet or fur and a doublet of sad tawny or black
velvet or other comely silk, without such cuts and garish colours
as are worn in these days, and never brought in but by the
consent of the French, who think themselves the gayest men
when they have most diversities of jags and change of colours
about them." He adds that " certes of all estates our merchants
do least alter their attire . . . for albeit that which they wear
be very fine and costly, yet in form and colour it representeth
a great piece of the ancient gravity appertaining to citizens
and burgesses." But as for the " younger sort " of citizens'
wives, Harrison finds in their attire " all kind of curiosity ... in
far greater measure than in women of a higher calling."

The coming of King James is not marked by any sudden change
of attire, most of the Elizabethan fashions running on into his
reign. The tight doublet has stiff wings at the shoulders, close
sleeves and short skirt. The many fashions of breeches are still

COSTUME

241

popular, most of them padded or stuffed. There are trunk hose
that have the air of petticoats rolled inward half way up the
thigh. There is the " great round abominable breech,"
pegtop shaped from below the knee to waist, as it
appears in the well-known print of James himself with
hawk on fist. Among women of fashion obtained a remarkable
mode of exposing the breast, when the ruff and bodice were cut
away ; and the wheel fardingale was still worn, an order against

17th
century.

Fig. 39. — An English
Lady. From a brass of
1605.

Fig. 40.-
of rank
Hollar.

-An English Lady
in 1643. After

it in 1613 rather increasing than diminishing its size. But
simpler fashions were setting in, and with the reign of Charles I.
the extravagances of padding and slashing disappear. The ruff
gives place at last to the falling band, a wide collar of lace or
plain linen. The belt or girdle ceases to be common wear, save
for those who hang a sword from it. Parties in the state come to
be known by their dress, and we have the Puritan, his crop head
covered by a wide-brimmed, high-crowned felt, without hatband
or feather, and his plain falling band over a staidly-cut coat.
Beside him we set the cavalier, lace
at his band edge, wrist and wide boot
tops. His hat is feathered, his
doublet lets the fine cambric of the
shirt be seen at the waist, his short
breeches are fringed with points or
tags. His long hair has one lock
brought over the left shoulder to be
marked as a lovelock by a ribbon at
the end. But the clothing of this age
has been illustrated by Van Dyck
and by a hundred other portrait
painters, who as illustrators of
costume take the place of the monu-
mental sculptors, then less commonly
called on for an effigy in the habit of
life. And the time of the Common-
wealth passes without notable change.
Those who were in power favoured a

Fig. 41
Countrywoman
After Hollar.

The of En i643 h soberhabit, although we find General

Harrison in scarlet and clinquant
matching with Colonel Hutchinson

in courtly apparel, and before the Restoration the tract-writers

find matter of condemnation, especially in the items of patches,

hair-powder and face paints.

So far as the court was concerned, King Charles II. brought in

the extravagant fashions of the courtiers of Louis XIV. The

Fig. 42.— A Squire of a Knight
of the Bath at the Crowning of
Charles II.

short-waisted doublets with loose sleeves slashed open at the
sides, the short and wide petticoat breeches, their lining lower
than the petticoat edge and tied below the knee, and the hose
whose tops bagged over the garter, were in England before King
Charles returned. He added to the breeches the rows of looped
ribbons, gave falling ruffles
to the knees of the hose and
many feathers to the hat.
The long, narrow-bladed
rapier hung in a broad, em-
broidered belt, passed over
the right shoulder, and the
high-heeled shoes and knots
of ribbons. Lely painted the
women of this court in a
studied negligence, but^many
pictures show us the loose
sleeves turned up to the elbow
with bows of ribbon, the close
bodice ending in a loose gown
worn over a full skirted petti-
coat, a wide collar covering
the shoulders.

Pepys is our chief authority
for the remarkable resolution
of Charles to change the
fashion of his dress to one
which he would never alter,
a decision which the king com-
municated to his council in
October 1666. On the 15th
of that month the diarist
noted that " this day the king begins to put on his vest, and I
did see several persons of the House of Lords and Commons
too, great courtiers, who are in it; being a long cassocke close
to the body, of black cloth and pinked with white silk under it,
and a coat over it, and the legs ruffled with black riband like
a pigeon's leg . . . a very fine and handsome garment." Rugge's
diary records the same change to " a close coat of cloth pinkt,
with a; white taffety under the cutts. This in length reached the
calf of the leg, and upon that a sercoatt cutt at the breast,
which hung loose and shorter than the vest six inches. The.
breeches the Spanish cut, and buskins, some of cloth, some of
leather, but of the same colour as the vest or garment." Says
Evelyn, " a comely and manly habit, too good to hold." Later
in the same month Pepys saw the court " all full of vests, only
my Lord St Albans not pinked, but plain black; and they say
the king says the pinking upon whites makes them look too much
like magpies, and therefore hath bespoke one of plain velvet."
The change, although the court was fickle, isof the first importance
in the history of costume, for we have here the coat and waist-
coat in a form from which our own coats and waistcoats derive
without a break. Another important change affects dress for
a century and a half. Just as costume begins to take the modern
path we have the wig or peruke, strangest of all the fantasies
of fashion, introduced as the wear for all men of standing. Pepys,
the son of a tailor and a man with a shy affection for fine clothing,
may again here be quoted. On a Sunday in February 1661 he
" began to go forth in my coat and sword, as the manner now
among gentlemen is." In November 1663 he takes another step
with fashion, going to the periwig-maker to have his hair cut
off and to put on his first periwig, for which he paid 3' , another
to be made up of the hair with which he had parted. The next
day he wore the periwig to his office, and " no great matter was
made of it." Two days later my Lord Sandwich " wondered at
first to see me in my peruque," but even in church Pepys found
that he drew little attention in the new guise. The same month
the duke of York announced that he would wear the periwig,
" and they say the king also will." Thus began this costly and
inconvenient mode. At home and at their ease men commonly
replaced the wig with a soft silk or velvet " night-cap," and the
coat with a " morning gown " like our modern dressing gown.

242

COSTUME

Powder, which had been dusted about the hair by a few courtiers
and fashionable folk since the reign of Elizabeth, was used by-
most wearers of the wig. Hair " dressed with a powder " was
often seen in London under the Commonwealth, and now the
great periwig brought powder into frequent use.

Before the end of the 17th century the periwig reached its
greatest height and breadth, the curls of a fine gentleman
towering in a mass above the brow and
flowing far down over the shoulders or
nigh to the waist. Guardsmen wore
them tossing over their corslets,
although a smaller variety, the cam-
paign wig, had been introduced for
war or travel. Many portraits of this
ageshowitslockscontrastingstrangely
with the soldier's steel breastplate
and pauldrons, but it must be re-
membered that martial gentlemen
would often choose to be painted in
armour although such harness was
disappearing from actual use.

Under James II. the coat adopted
in the late reign was firmly established
as the principal garment of a well-
dressed man. Gowns remained but
to make a ceremonial dress for
the great officers of state, for the
judges and the London liverymen,
for such, indeed, as those who wear
them in our own days. As for
" the comely cloak, altogether used in the beginning of my
time," Randle Holme notes that it was " now scarce used but
by old and grave persons." The coat was sometimes buttoned
down the front but was more often thrown open to display the
waistcoat, a lesser coat with skirts. The great turned over cuffs
were now below the elbow, although there was good space for
the display of the ruffle, and at the neck was the large cravat
with laced ends. After the battle of Steinkirk, in 1692, to which
the young French nobles hastened with disarranged neckcloths,
the cravat was sometimes worn twisted, the ends passed through
a ring, although the word Steinkirk was in later years often
carelessly given to the neckcloth worn in any style. For
riding, the big jack-boot of earlier days, with spurs and broad
spur-leathers, remained in fashion, although the bell-shaped
tops were turned up and not down. Boots, however, were

Fig. 43. — A Gentleman
of the Privy Chamber at
the Crowning of James II.

' Fig. 44. — The Herbwoman and her Maids at the
Crowning of James II.

riding-gear. Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador to James I.,
had laughed over the citizens of London " all booted and ready
to go out of town," but this custom died away, and a man in
boots showed that he was for the road. William III.'s grave
court was not one in which new fashions flourished, but it is
remarkable that feminine modes take curious variety before
the century end. Long-waisted and straitly cut stays were worn,
the gown sleeve is short as the coat-sleeve of a Charles II. courtier.
The gown itself has the skirts gathered to show the petticoat,

The 18th
century.

and small aprons fringed with lace are often seen. The simple
head-dresses of the Restoration are changed for caps with long
lace lappets, or for a cap whose top-knot or commode stood up
stiff and fan-shaped like a section cut out of an old ruff. When
no commode was worn, a loose hood, thrown gracefully over the
head and gathered at the shoulders, sometimes took its place.
As a riding or walking dress, ladies of quality often wore coats,
waistcoats, hats and cravats, not to be distinguished from those
of their lords.

For a distinguishing note of the 18th century, we may take
the three-cornered cocked hat. Even in the Elizabethan age
we have the gallant cocking up one side of his broad-
brimmed, high-crowned felt or beaver and securing
it with a jewel. Brims were as wide at the end of the
17th century, but the crown was lower. From the French court
came the fashion of cocking up three sides, one at least being
fastened with a loop of ribbon from which developed the cockade.
A black cockade became the sign of a military man in England
before 1750, and the same ornament, highly conventionalized,
is now at the side of the tall hats worn by the grooms and coach-
men of military and naval officers. Following varying fashions,
the 18th-century cocked hat was laced with gold and silver or
edged with feathers. It was cocked in a hundred forms, from
that which has three sides slightly curled upward to the great
Khevenhueller cock, wherewith a very wide-brimmed hat was
flapped up at the front and rear, a military or martial hat. Wigs,
worn by all the upper- and middle-class men, were generally
powdered, but the lesser or Ramillie wig soon drove out the huge
and costly full-bottomed periwig, even for ceremonial occasions.
Of Lord Bolingbroke it is told that he once attended Queen Anne
in haste with a tie or Ramillie wig on his head. Her Majesty showed
her displeasure by remarking that his lordship would next come
to court in a night-cap. Nevertheless, the tie-wig soon became
court wear, secured at the back with a huge bow of ribbon below
which hung the plaited pigtail, worn waist-long about 1740.
But by that time young bloods were leaving campaign-wigs
for the bob-wig which sat yet more closely to the head, the
curls leaving the neck uncovered. Bag-wigs, found early in
the century, covered the looped up pigtail in a black silk bag.
Clergymen and grave physicians affected the full-bottomed wig
after it became old fashioned. Subject
to slight changes, eagerly followed by the
beaux and mocked by the satirists, the
habit of well-dressed men shows no
great variety — the large-cuffed, collar-
less coats whose full skirts are now
shortened, now lengthened, the long
waistcoat to match, the closely fitting
breeches, the stockings, the shoes and
jack-boots. The coat tends to be
thrown open to show the waistcoat,
upon which brocade and embroideries
were lavished. Stockings, until the
middle of the century, were commonly
drawn over the ends of the breeches
and gartered below the knee. By 1740
the long cravat with hanging ends grows
old fashioned. Young men take to the
solitaire, a black cravat which became
a mere loop of ribbon passed loosely
round the neck and secured to the
black tie of the wig.

George III.'s long reign begins with
men's fashions little changed from
those of his great-grandfather's time, although his sixty
years carry us to the beginning of all the modern modes.
The small wig long holds its own. The coat begins to show
the broad skirts cut away diagonally from the waist to the
skirt edge, and stockings are no longer rolled over the knee.
Perhaps the most remarkable fashion was that which dis-
tinguished the Macaronis, travelled exquisites with whom the
wig or long hair was dragged high above the forehead in a tall

Fig. 45. — An English
Gentleman (c. 1730).

COSTUME

243

" toupee " with two large rows of curls at the side. This head-
dress, clubbed into a heavy knot behind, was surmounted by a
very little hat. The coat with small cuffs was much cut away
before, the skimped skirts reaching midway down the thigh.
Waistcoat flaps were but little below the waist. Breeches,
striped or spotted like those of a Dresden china shepherd, were
fastened at the knee with a bunch of ribbon ends; a watch-guard
hung from each fob. The shirt-front was frilled and a white
cravat was tied in a great bow at the chin. Macaronis wore a
little curved hanger, or replaced the sword with a long, heavily
tasselled cane, which served to lift the little hat off the topmost
peak of the toupee. The woman-Macaroni wore no hoop but in
full dress. Her gown was a loose wrapper, the sleeves short and
wide with many ruffles, the skirt pulled aside to show a petti-
coat laced and embroidered with flowers. But her distinguishing
mark was her head-dress, which exaggerated the male fashion,
towering upward until the flowers and feathers at the top
threatened the candelabra of the assembly room. The Macaronis
appear about 1772 and stay but a short while, for the revolu-
tionary fashions tread upon their heels.

Women's dress in this 18th century is dominated by the hoop-
petticoat which Sir Roger de Coverley recognizes in 1711 as a

new fashion and an old one
revived. A stiff bodice laced
in front, a gown, with short
and wide - ended sleeves,
gathered up in folds above
the petticoat, a laced apron
' and a lace cap with hanging
lappets, is the dress of the
century's beginning. So the
women of fashion are com-
pared with children in go-
carts, their tight -laced waists
rising from vast bells of
petticoats over which the
gown is looped up like a
drawn curtain. By 1 7 50 the
hoop-petticoat ringed with
whalebone is so vast that
architects begin to allow for
its passage up London stair-
ways by curving the balusters
outward. Great variety of
women's dress appears under
George II., but those in the
height of the mode affected a shepherdess simplicity in their
walking clothes, wearing the flat-crowned or high-crowned hats
and long aprons of the dairymaid. At this time a new fashion
comes in, the sacque, a gown, sometimes sleeveless, open to the
waist, hanging loosely from the shoulders to near the edge of the
hoop-petticoat. George III.'s reign saw women's head-dressings
reach an extravagance of folly passing all that had come before it.
Hair kneaded with pomatum and flour was drawn up over a cushion
or pad of wool, and twisted into curls and knots and decorated
with artificial flowers and bows of ribbon. As this could not be
achieved without the aid of a skilled barber, the " head " some-
times remained unopened for several weeks. At the end of that
time sublimate powder was needed to kill off the tenantry which
had multiplied within. At the beginning of the last quarter of
the century the feathers grew larger, chains of beads looped
about the curls, while ships in full sail, coaches and horses, and
butterflies in blown glass, rocked upon the upper heights. Loose
mob-caps or close " Joans " were worn in undress, often as simple
as the full dress was fantastic. Varieties of the gown and sacque
remained in fashion, the petticoat being still much in evidence,
flounced or quilted, or festooned with ribbons. Before the
'eighties of this century were over, a new taste, encouraged by
the painters of the school of Reynolds, began to sweep away
many follies, and the revolutionary fashions of France, breaking
with all that spoke of the old regime, expelled many more. The
age of powder and gold lace, of peach-bloom brocade coats with

Fig. 46. — An English Lady
(c. 1730).

muff-shaped cuffs, of bag-wigs and three-cornered hats drew
suddenly to an end. Mr Pitt killed hair-powder by his tax of
1795, but before that time fashionable men, who since the begin-
ning of George Ill's, reign had been somewhat inconstant to the
wig, were wearing their own hair unpowdered and tied in a club
at the back of the coat collar. Before the century end the
roughly cropped " Brutus " head was seen. The wig remained
here and there on some old-fashioned pates. Bishops wore it
until far into the Victorian age, and it may still be seen in the
Houses of Parliament and in the courts of law. Even breeches
were passing, tight pantaloons showing themselves in the streets.
The coat, cut away over the hips, began to take a high collar
and the beginnings of the lappel. Its cuffs were of the modern
shape, showing a narrow ruffle. The waistcoat ended at the
waist. Loose neck-cloths were worn above a frilled shirt-front.
Great jack-boots were given to postillions, and men of fashion
walked the streets in short top-boots of soft black leather. Most
remarkable of the revolutionary changes, the round hat came
back, sometimes in a form which recalled the earlier 1 7th century,
and at last took shape as the predecessor of our modern silk hat.
Court dresses kept something of their magnificence, but men
at home or in the streets were giving up in this time of change
their ancient right to wear rich and figured stuffs. Laces and
embroideries were henceforward but for military and civil
uniforms.

Before 1790 women had begun to dismantle their high head-
gear, returning to nature by way of a frizzled bush, like a bishop's
wig, with a few curls hanging over the shoulders. Over such
heads would be seen towering mob-caps tied with ribbon and
edged deeply with lace. Skirts took a moderate size and even
court hoops were but panniers hung on either side of the hips.
Short jackets with close half-sleeves were worn with the neck
and breast covered with a cambric bujfant that borrowed a mode
from the pouter pigeon. A riding habit follows as far as the
short waist the new fashions for men's coats, the wide-brimmed
hat being to match. Short waists came in soon after 1790, the
bodice ending under the arm pits, " a petticoat tied round the
neck: the arms put through the pocket-holes." With these
French gowns came small coal-scuttle-shaped bonnets of straw,
hung with many ribbons and decorated with feathers. At last
the woman of fashion, dressed by a Parisian modiste after the
orders of David the painter, gathered her hair in a fillet and
clothed herself in little more than a diaphanous tunic gown
over a light shift and close, flesh-coloured drawers. Her shoes
became sandals: her jewels followed the patterns of old Rome.
Yet the same woman, shivering half-clad in something that
wrapped her less than a modern bathing-dress, appeared at
court in the ancient hoop-skirt, tasselled, ribboned and garlanded,
hung with heavy swags of coloured silk, and this until George
IV. at last broke the antique order by a special command.

The 19th century soon made an end of 18th century fashions
already discredited by the revolutionary spirit. The three-
cornered hat had gone, the heavy coat cuff and the
cravat with hanging ends. Civilians had given up the
ancient custom of going armed with a sword. The wig
and even the pigtail tied with black shalloon were abandoned by
all but a few old folk. Soldiers cut off their pigtails in 1808.
But judges and lawyers wear their wigs in court in the 20th
century, state coachmen wear them on the box, and physicians
and the higher clergy wore them even in the street long after
laymen had given them up. George IV. refused to receive a
bishop of London who appeared at court without a wig, and
Sumner, archbishop of Canterbury, wore one. until his death in
1862. A few powdered heads were seen as late as the 'forties.
M. de Ste Aulaire, the ambassador, made, as Lord Palmerston
writes, a very deep and general impression in London society of
1 84 1, not because he wore hair-powder but because he used so
much of it. It is now used only by a few lacqueys. In the early
Victorian period the cropped " Brutus " head was out of
fashion, many men wearing their hair rather long and so freely
oiled that the " anti-macassar " came in to protect drawing-
room chair-backs.

19th
century.

244

COSTUME

With powdered hair and the pigtail passed away the 18th
century cloth breeches. Here again' some old-fashioned people
made a stand against the change, the opposition of the clergy
being commemorated in the black breeches still worn by bishops
and other dignitaries of the church. But in the regent's time
pantaloons of closely fitting and elastic cloth were^worn with
low shoes or Hessians, and pantaloons and Hessians did not
utterly disappear from the streets until the end of the 'fifties.
Squires and sportsmen put on buckskins of an amazing tightness
and walked the street in top-boots. But the loose Cossack
trousers soon made their appearance. The regent's influence
made the blue coat with a very high velvet collar, a high-waisted
Marcella waistcoat and white duck trousers strapped under the
instep, a mode in which men even ventured to appear at evening
receptions, although, in the year before Waterloo, the duke of
Wellington was refused admittance to Almack's when thus clad.
Long skirted overcoats, fur-collared and tight in the waist,
completed this costume. Coats were blue, claret, buff and brown.
" Pea-green Hayne " was known among clubmen by a brighter
coloured garment. Civilians, like Jos Sedley, would sometimes
affect a frock frogged and braided in semi-military fashion.
The shirt collar turned upward, the points showing above vast

cravats whose careful arrangement
was maintained by one or two scarf-
pins. Brummel the master dandy
of his age, may be called the first
dandy of the modern school. Dress-
ing, as a rule, in black, he distin-
guished himself, not as the bucks of
A an earlier age by bright colours, rich
f materials or jewellery, but by his
extravagant neatness and by the
superb fit of garments which set the
fashion for* lesser men. To him,
according to Grantley Berkeley, we
owe the modern dress-coat. An idle
phrase in Bulwer-Lyttcn's Pelham
(1828), that "people must be very
distinguished in appearance " to look
well in black, made black hence-
forward the colour of evening coats
and frock coats. With the perfection
of the silk hat in the 'thirties,
English costume enters on its last
phase. The coat cut away squarely
in front was then out of the mode;
it remains but in the evening-dress coat now always worn
unbuttoned, and in the dress of the hunting field. The
rest is a record of such slight changes as tailors may cautiously
introduce among customers, no one of whom will dare to
lead a new fashion boldly. For many decades the fashionably
dressed man has been eager to conform to the last authorized
vogue and to lose himself among others as shyly obedient.
The tubular lines of 20th-century clothing advantage the tailor
by the tendency of new clothing to crease at the elbow and
bag at the knee. In preserving the necessary straight lines of
his garments, in following the season's fashions in details which
only an expert eye would mark, and in providing himself with
clothes specialized for every hour of the day, for a score of sports
and for the gradations of social ceremonial — in these things only
can the modern dandy rival his magnificent predecessors. For
ornament, other than plain shirt studs, a plain seal ring, a simple
watch guard and a rarely-worn scarf pin, is denied him.

Women at the beginning of the 19th century were clad in those
fashions which revolutionary France borrowed from the antique.
The simplicity of this style gave it a certain grace; it was at the
other pole from the absurdity of the court dress which, until
George IV. ordered otherwise, perpetuated the bunched draperies,
the flounces and furbelows and even the hoop of the worst
period of the 18th century. The gown, lightly girdled near the
arm-pits with a tasselled cord, fell in straight clinging folds.
Soft muslin was the favourite material, and in muslin fashionable

From Fraser's Magazine, Dec. 1834.
Fig. 47. — Count D'Orsay.
Dress of a man of Fashion
in Early Victorian Period.

women faced the winter winds, protected only by the long
pelisses which in summer were replaced by short spencers.
Turbans, varying from a light headscarf of lace or muslin to a
velvet confection like that of a Turk on a signboard, were the
favourite headgear, although bonnets, hats and caps are found in
a hundred shapes. Muslin handkerchiefs or small ruffs were worn
about the neck in the morning dress. About the Waterloo period
the elegance of the classical gown disappeared. The waist was
still high at first but the gown was shorter and wider at the skirt.
For evening dress these skirts were stiffened with buckram and
trimmed with much tasteless trumpery. Large bonnets we're
common, and the hair was dragged stiffly to the back of the head,
to be secured by a large comb. From 1830 begins a period of
singular ugliness. Tight stays came back again, the skirt swept
the pavements, a generation of over-clad matrons seemed to
have followed a generation of nymphs. The 'fifties showed even
more barbarous devices, and about 1854 came in from France the
crinoline, that strange revival of the ancient hoop. Plaids,
checks and bars, bright blues, crude violets and hideous crimsons,
were seen in French merinos, Irish poplins and English alpacas.
Women in short jackets, hooped skirts, hideous bonnets and
shawls seemed to have banished their youth. The empress
Eugenie, a leader of European fashion, decreed that white muslin
should be the evening mode, and at balls, where the steels and
whalebones of the crinoline were impossible) the women swelled
their skirts by wearing a dozen or fourteen muslin petticoats at
once. Towards the end of the 'sixties the, crinolines disappeared
as suddenly as they came, and by 1875 skirts were so tight at the
knees that walking upstairs in them was an affair of deliberation.
Before 1880 dress-reformers and aesthetes had attacked on two
sides the fashions which had halted at the " Princesse " robe,
draped and kilted. Both movements failed, but left marked
effects. From that time fashion has been less blindly followed,
and women have enjoyed some limited individual freedom in
designing their costumes. Of 20th-century fashions it is most
notable that they change year by year with mechanical regu-
larity. The clothes of smart women can no longer be said to
express any tendency of an age. Year by year the modes are
deliberately altered by a conclave of the great modistes whose
desire is less to produce rich or beautiful garments than to make
that radical alteration from loose sleeve to tight sleeve, from
draped skirt to plain skirt, which will force every women to cast
aside the last season's garments and buy those of the newer
device. But of modern dress it may at least be said that cheaper
materials, the sewing machine and the popular fashion papers
allow women of the humbler classes to dress more decently and
tastefully. Their dress is no longer that frowsy parody of
richer women's frippery which shocked observant foreigners a
generation ago.

Underclothing. — Of the underclothing worn next the skin
something may be said apart from the general history of costume.
Linen shirts were worn by both men and women in the age before
the Conquest, and even in the 10th century it was a penance to
wear a woollen one. After that time we soon hear of embroidery
and ornament applied to them, presumably at the collar which
would be visible above gown or tunic. Men added short drawers,
or breeches, a word which does not secure its modern value until
the end of the 16th century. " Drawers " signified various
descriptions of overall, Cotgrave explaining the word as coarse
stockings drawn over others although Randle Holme gives it in
its later sense. Isaac of Cyprus is named by Robert of Brunne as
escaping " bare in his serke and breke." Henry Christall, who
brought four Irish kings to London, told Froissart how, finding
that they wore no breeches, he bought linen cloth for them.
Medieval romances and the like give us the choice of shirts of
linen, of fine Holland, of cloth of Rennes and even of silk, and
Chaucer speaks of women's smocks wrought with silk, em-
broidered behind and before. Poorer folk went, like Thynne's
poor countryman, in shirts of " canvas hard and tough," or
of coarse Breton dowlas. Under the first Tudors, shirts are
decorated with gold, silk and black thread embroideries, the
latter being seen in the ruffled shirt worn by the earl of Surrey

COSTUME

245

in our illustration (see fig. 38). Stubbes, in his often-quoted
Anatomie of Abuses (1583) declaims against the extravagant
sums spent in shirts, the meanest of which would cost a crown or

a noble, while the most curiously
stitched were valued at ten
pounds a piece, " which is
horrible to hear." The Puritans,
many of whom, like the later
Clapham sect, were careful of
intimate luxuries, had a curious
fashion of wearing shirts and
smocks worked with " holy em-
broideries," Biblical sentences or
figures, which recall a similar
custom among the early
Christians. At this time under-
clothing had increased in quan-
tity, for there are many indica-
tions that the men and women of
the middle ages were often
content with a bare change of
linen at the best. The Book of
Courtesy (temp. Hen. VII.) orders
the servant to provide " clene
Fig. 48.— A Man-at-arms and herte and brec he " against his
a Man in a Shirt (early 14th , , . . ? . ,,

century). From Royal MS. 19 master's uprising, but the
B. xv. laundering of the linen of the

Percy household, a hundred and
seventy people, costs but forty shillings a year in the reign of
Henry VIII.

With that modern period of dress which may be said to begin
with the Restoration, shirts increased in number. Women shifted
their smocks when coming in from field sports, fine gentlemen
became proud of the number of their shirts, as was that 18th-
century lord who boasted to Casanova of his changing a shirt
several times in the day, his chin being shaved on each occasion.
A valuable document concerning the underclothing worn by a
citizen in the reign of Charles II. is afforded by the evidence of
the man who helped to strip the body of the suicide Sir Edmond
Berry Godfrey. " I pulled off his shoes," says Fisher, " three
pairs of stockings and a pair of socks, his black breeches and his
drawers." His coat and waistcoat, his shirt and his flannel shirt
are also named. The knight came by his end on an October day.
He was therefore warmly clad. His three pair of stockings will be
noted: two pair are worn at the present day by most men in
court dress. The socks are a rarely named addition, and the
flannel shirt may be remarked. Loose ruffles of lace were
attached to shirt cuffs until during the great part of the 18th
century, and the ruffled or goffered shirt-front, which became
common under George III., continued in use in the early Victorian
period, the stiffly starched shirt-front taking its place at last even
in evening dress. The last quarter of the 10th century, breaking
through the strange mock-modesty which spoke of breeches as
" inexpressibles," saw the question of hygienic underclothing
a subject much in debate, and now most men other than the
poorer sort wear, besides the shirt, a light woollen vest and short
drawers or long pantaloons of wool or wool's counterfeit. Woollen
shirts are worn by bicyclists, cricketers and tennis players. In
morning dress the inconvenience of the starched shirt-front is
commonly avoided. A goffered shirt-front worn with evening
dress is the mark of a foreigner in London, but some few men
venture to clothe themselves for the evening in a shirt whose front
is pleated and but slightly starched. Loose collars, formerly
known as false collars, descendants of the Puritan's " plain
band," have been attached to the shirt by studs at least for the
last fifty years. Their fashions often change, but the older type
turned down at the edge is not often seen. To women's under-
clothing drawers have been added in the 19 th century. Brant6me,
writing in the 16th, speaks of this garment as then lately intro-
duced since the time of Henri II., but the fashion, apparently,
did not long endure in France. In England they are noted as in
occasional use at the Restoration. After 1820 a sort of trouser

with a frilled edge was worn for a time by fashionable women in
England. The pantalette which afterwards appears in pictures
of young girls was a mere legging fastened by tapes above the
knees. Many women of the better class only adopted drawers at
the end of the 'forties, and it may be presumed that the fashion
reached the humble sort at a much later date. Towards the end
of the 19th century both drawers and smock or " chemise "
were commonly exchanged for a more convenient " combination
garment."

European Fashions. — Race, climate, poverty and wealth have
all had their part in the fashion of clothing. A mountaineer is not
clad as a lowlander; the Tirolese in
his short breeches, the Highlanders of
Scotland and Albania in their tartan
or white linen kilts go with uncovered
knees. The Russian moujik in winter
has his frowsy sheepskin coat, and the
Russian prince imitates it in costly
furs. While the rich man's clothing
alters with every fancy of the tailors,
the poor man's garments, fewer and
cheaper, change slowly in the ages.
An old Lincolnshire peasant wearing
his smock frock and leathern gaiters
might pass unnoted in a peasant crowd
of centuries ago. Here and there in
Europe we find in the 20th century a
peasantry in whose clothing fashion
seems to have been suddenly stayed.
A Breton peasant in his holiday dress
gives us a man of the late 1 7th century,
even as an Irish peasant may keep the
breeches, shoes and tailed coat of the
early 19th. But the old fashions are
passing from Europe: the sewing
machine and tjie railway sweep before
them the pleasant provincialisms of
dress. A shirt with the bosom heavily embroidered, a skirt
with a year's stitching in the hem are not to be imitated by
the dealer in ready-made clothing, who offers, instead, cheap-
ness and the brisk variety of the town. Old writers, each in
turn, set up their wail that the time was come when you
could not tell Jack from his master, the burgess from the knight.
And now that time has come in some sort, for the town dress of
the richer classes of London or Paris is imitated by all peoples

From Hottenroth, Trachten
der Vblker, by permission of
Gustav Weise Verlag.

Fig. 49. — German Dress
(early 16th century).

From Hottenroth, Trochlea der

VUker.

Fig. 50. — A French
Nobleman (c. 1660).

From Hottenroth,
VUker.

Trachten der

Fig. 51. — A Spanish Nobleman
(latter half of 16th century).

and by rich and poor. Especially is this the case in England
where the clean and honourable blouse of the French workman is
not, a journeyman painter or labourer often going to his work

246

COSTUME

in a frayed and greasy morning coat after the cut of that in which
a rich man will pay a London morning call. English fashions for
men are followed in Paris. London women follow the modes of
the rue de la Paix. Berlin tailors and dressmakers laboriously
misapprehend both styles. To those who do not understand the
international trafficking of the middle ages and the age of
renascence it is strange to note how little the fashions varied in
European lands. All kinds of folks, crusaders and merchants,
diplomatists and religious, carried between nation and nation the
news of the latest cut of the shears.

Nevertheless, national character touched each nation's dress —
the Venetian loving the stateliness of flowing line, the Germans
grotesque slashings and jaggings. Frenchmen, says Randle
Holme in the 17th century, keep warm and muff themselves in
cold weather, " but in summer through fantastical dresses go
almost naked." For the same writer the Spaniard was noted as a
man in a high-crowned hat with narrow brim, a ruff about his
neck, a doublet with short and narrow skirts and broad wings at
the shoulders, ruff-cuffs at his hands, breeches narrow and close
to his thighs, hose gartered, shoes with rounded toes, a short
cloak and a long sword. In all of those points we may take it
that the Spaniard differed from the Englishman as observed by
this observant one. Even in our own days we may catch
something of those national fashions. The Spaniard may no
longer walk with his long sword, his ruff and gartered hose,
but he keeps his fancy for sombre blacks, and so do the citizens of
those Netherlands which he once ruled. (O. Ba.)

III. National and Class Costume
Costume, as readers of Carlyle's Sartor Resartus know, always
has a significance deeper than the mere whims of fashion. In
the cosmopolitan society of modern times dress everywhere
tends to become assimilated to a common model, and this
assimilation, however regrettable from the picturesque point of
view, is one of the most potent forces in the break-down of the
traditional social distinctions. In the middle ages in Europe,
and indeed down to the French Revolution, the various classes
of the community were clearly differentiated by their dress.
Everywhere, of course, it happened that occasionally jackdaws
strutted in peacock's feathers; but even in England, where class
distinctions were early less clearly marked than on the continent
of Europe, the assumption of a laced coat and a sword marked
the development of a citizen into a " gentleman " (q.v.). Nothing
has more powerfully contributed to the social amalgamation of
the " upper-middle " and the " upper " classes in England than
the fashion, introduced in the 10th century, of extreme simplicity
in the costume of men. But, apart from the properties of
richness in material or decoration as a symbol of class distinction
— at one time enforced by sumptuary laws — there have been,
and still are, innumerable varieties of costume more or less
traditional as proper to certain nationalities or certain classes
within those nationalities. Of national costumes properly so
called the best known to the English-speaking world is that of the
Highlands of Scotland. This is,indeed,no longer generally worn,
being usually confined to gentlemen of birth and their dependents,
but it remains a national dress and is officially recognized as such
by the English court and in the uniforms of the Highland
regiments in the British army. The chief peculiarity of this
costume, distinguishing it from any others, is the tartan, an
arrangement of a prevailing colour with more or less narrow
checks of other colours, by which the various clans or septs of the
same race can be distinguished, while a certain general uniformity
symbolizes the union of the clans in a common nationality.
Thus, e.g. the tartan of the clan MeDonell is green with narrow
checks of red, that of the clan Gregarach red with narrow checks
of black. The costume consists of a short tunic, vest, a kilt —
heavily pleated — fastened round the waist, and reaching not
quite to the knees (like a short petticoat), stockings gartered
below the bare knee, and shoes. In front of the person, hanging
from a belt round the waist, is the " sporran " or " spleuchan," a
pocket-purse covered with fur; and a large " plaid " or scarf,
usually wrapped round the body, the ends hanging down from a

brooch fastened on the left shoulder, but sometimes gathered up
and hanging from the brooch behind, completes the costume.
The head-gear is a cloth cap or " bonnet," in which a sprig of
heather is stuck, or an eagle's feather in the case of chiefs. A
dirk is worn thrust into the right stocking. Up to the end of the
16th century the tunic and " philibeg " or kilt formed a single
garment; but otherwise the costume has come down the ages
without sensible modification. Kilt and plaid are of tartan; and
sometimes tartan " trews," i.e. trousers, are substituted for the
former.

Among other national costumes still surviving in Europe may
be mentioned the Albanian- Greek dress (characterized by the
spreading, pleated white kilt, or fustanella), and the splendid
full-dress of a Hungarian gentleman, the prototype of the well-
known hussar uniform; to which may be added the Tirolese
costume, which, so far as the men are concerned, is characterized
by short trousers, cut off above the knee, and a short jacket, the
colour varying in different districts. This latter trait illustrates
the fact that most of the still surviving " national " costumes in
Europe are in fact local and distinctive of class, though they
conform to a national type. These "folk-costumes" (Volks-
trachten), as the Germans call them, survive most strongly in the
most conservative of all classes, that of thepeasants. andnaturally
mainly in those districts least accessible to modern " enterprise."
These peasant costumes, often of astonishing richness and
beauty, vary more or less in every village, each community
having its own traditional type; and, since this type does not
vary, they can be handed down as valuable heirlooms from
father to son and from mother to daughter. But they are fast
disappearing. In the British islands, where there were no free
peasant cultivators to maintain the pride of class, they vanished
long since; the white caps and steeple-crowned hats of Welsh
women were the last to go; and even the becoming and con-
venient " sun bonnet," which survives in the United States, has
given place almost everywhere to the hideous " cloth cap " of
commerce; while the ancient smocked frock, the equivalent of
the French peasant's workmanlike blouse, has become a curiosity.
The same process is proceeding elsewhere; for the simple
peasant women cannot resist the blandishments of the commercial
traveller and the temptation of change and cheap finery. The
transition is at once painful and amusing, and not without interest
as illustrating the force of tradition in its struggle with fashion ;
for it is no uncommon thing, e.g. in France or Holland, to see a
" Paris model " perched lamentably on the top of the beautiful
traditional head-dress. Similarly in the richer Turkish families
women are rapidly acquiring a taste for Parisian costumes,
frequently worn in absurd combination with their ordinary
garments.

The same process has extended far beyond the limits of
Europe. Improved communication and industrial enterprise
have combined with the prestige of European civilization to
commend the European type of costume to peoples for whom
it is eminently unsuited. Even the peoples of the East, whose
costume has remained unchanged for untold centuries, and for
whom the type has been (as in India) often determined by
religious considerations, are showing an increasing tendency to
yield to the world-fashion. Turkey, as being most closely in
touch with Europe, was the first to feel the influence; the intro-
duction of the fez and the frock-coat, in place of the large turban
and flowing caftan of the old Turk, was the most conspicuous of
the reforms of Sultan Mahmud II.; and when, in 1909, the first
Turkish parliament met, only a small minority of its members
wore their traditional costumes. The introduction of Japan into
the comity of nations was followed by the adoption of European
costume by the court and the upper classes, at least in public
and on ceremonial occasions; in private the wide-sleeved, loose,
comfortable kimono continues to be worn. China, on the other
hand, has been more conservative, even her envoys in Europe
preserving intact (except sometimes in the matter of boots) the
traditional costume of their nation and class, while those of
Japan, Corea and Siam appear in the conventional diplomatic or
' ' evening ' ' dress in Europe. In the Mussulman East, even when

COSTUME

247

European dress has been adopted, an exception has usually been
made in favour of head-gear, which has a special religious
significance. In Turkey, for instance, the hat has not succeeded
in displacing the fez; and in India, though the Parsis had by the
beginning of the 20th century begun to modify their traditional
high turban-like hat into a modified " bowler," and Hindus —
abroad at least — were affecting the head-gear of the West, those
Mussulman princes who had adopted, wholly or partially,
European dress continued to wear the turban. On the other
hand, the amir of Afghanistan, when he visited India, had — out of
doors at least — discarded the turban for the ugly " solar topee."
In spite of the natural conservatism, strengthened by religious
conventions, of the Eastern races, there is a growing danger that
the spread of European enlightenment will more or less rapidly
destroy that picturesque variety of costume which is the delight
of the traveller and the artist. For Indian costumes see India:
Costume; for Chinese see China; &c.

IV. Official Costume
Official costumes, in so far as they are not, like the crowns and
tabards of heralds, the coronets of peers, or the gold keys tacked
to the coat-tails of royal chamberlains— consciously symbolical,
are for the most part ceremonious survivals of bygone general
fashions. This is as true of the official costume of the past as of
the present; as may be illustrated from ancient Rome, where
the toga, once the general costume of Roman citizens, in the 3rd
and 4th centuries was the official robe of senators and officials
(see also under Vestments). Thus, at the present time, the lay
chamberlains of the pope and the members of his Swiss guard
wear costumes of the 16th century, and the same is true of the
king's yeomen of the guard in England. In general, however
(apart from robes, which are much older in their origin), official
costumes in Europe, or in countries of European origin, are
based on the fashions of the 18th and early 19th centuries.
Knee-breeches, however, which survive in the full-dress of many
British officials, as in ordinary court dress, had practically
disappeared on the continent of Europe, surviving only in certain
peasant costumes, when the emperor William II. reintroduced
them at the court of Berlin. The tendency in the modern
democratic communities of Anglo-Saxon race has been to dispense
with official costumes. In the United States the judges of the
Supreme Court alone wear robes; the president of the Republic
wears on all occasions the dress of an ordinary citizen, unrelieved
by order or decoration, and thus symbolizes his pride of place as
primus inter pares; an American ambassador appears on state
occasions among his colleagues, gorgeous in bullion-covered
coats, in the ordinary black " evening dress " of a modern
gentleman. The principle, which tends to assert itself also in the
autonomous " British dominions beyond the seas," is not the
result of that native dislike of "dressing up " which characterizes
many Englishmen of the upper and middle classes; for modern
democracy shares to the full the taste of past ages for official or
quasi-official finery, as is proved by the costumes and insignia of
the multitudinous popular orders, Knights Templars, Foresters,
Oddfellows and the like. It is rather cherished as the outward
and visible sign of that doctrine of the equality of all men which
remains the most generally gratifying of the gifts of French
18th-century philosophy to the world. In Great Britain, where
equality has ever been less valued than liberty, official costumes
have tended to increase rather than to fall into disuse; mayors of
new boroughs, for instance, are not considered properly equipped
until they have their gown and chain of office. In France, on the
other hand, the taste of the people for pomp and display, and, it
may be added, their innate artistic sense, have combined with
their passion for equality to produce a somewhat anomalous
situation as regards official costume. Lawyers have their robes,
judges their scarlet gowns, diplomatists their gold-laced uni-
forms; but the state costume of the president of the Republic
is "evening dress," relieved only by the red riband and star of the
Legion of Honour. In the Latin states of South America, which
tend to be disguised despotisms ra.ther than democracies, the
actual rather than the theoretical state of things is symbolized

by the gorgeous official uniforms which are among the rewards of
those who help the dictator for the time being to power. See also
Robes; for military costume see Uniforms; for ecclesiastical
costume see Vestments and subsidiary articles. (W. A. P.)

Bibliography. — Apart from the enormous number of books
especially devotad to costume, innumerable illustrated works exist
which are, in various degrees, useful for the study of the history of
this subject. It may be noted here, e.g. that the illuminators and
painters of the middle ages did not affect historical accuracy in their
presentment of biblical or secular subjects, but clothed their patri-
archs, apostles or Roman warriors in the dress of their own ages,
their pictures thus_ becoming invaluable records of the costume of
their time. In this respect the knowledge of classical antiquity
revived during the Renaissance introduced a certain confusion.
Artists began to realize the incongruity of representing antique
figures in modern garb, but, in the absence of exact knowledge,
fancy began to play a greater part than research in the dressing
of their characters. Portraits and representations of contemporary
scenes (e.g. Rembrandt's " Night Watch ") continue to be first-hand
authorities for the costume of the period in which they were pro-
duced; but representations of biblical or historical scenes have
little or no value from this point of view. Thus in Rubens's famous
picture of St Ambrose repelling Theodosius from the door of his
cathedral, the bishop is vested in the mitre and cope which only
came into vogue centuries later, while the emperor wears a military
costume modelled on that of Roman imperators of an earlier day.
Even in portraiture, however, a certain conservatism tends to make
the record untrustworthy; thus, great men continued to be painted
in full armour long after it had in fact ceased to be worn.

Of authorities for English costume the following may be selected
as especially useful: J. C. Bruce, The Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated
(London, 1856), with 17 plates; F. W. Fairholt, Costume in England
to the end of the 18th Century (2nd ed., ib., i860); William Fowler,
Examples of Medieval Art (1796-1829), 116 plates; Froissart's
Chronicles, translated by T. Johnes (4 vols., 1844), 72 plates and
many woodcuts ; R. N. Humphrey, Illuminated Books of the Middle
Ages (ib., 1849) ; Facsimiles of Original Drawings by Holbein, in the
Collection of His Majesty, for Portraits of Persons of the Court of
Henry VIII., engraved by F. Bartolozzi, &c. (London, 1884) ; John
Nichols, Progresses, Pageants, &c, of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols.,
1823), and of James I. (4 vols., 1828), with numerous plates;
Hogarth's Works, engraved by himself, with descriptions by J.
Nichols (1822), 153 plates; Edmund Lodge, Portraits of Illustrious
Personages of Great Britain (12 vols., 1823-1835), 240 plates; J. R.
Planche, Hist, of British Costume (3rd ed., Bohn, 1874), and Cyclo-
paedia of Costume (2 vols., 1876-1877) ; ffenry Shaw, Dresses and
Decorations of the Middle Ages (2 vols., 1840-1843), 94 plates and
many woodcuts; Joseph Strutt, engraver, Dress and Habits of the
People of England (2 vols., 1796-1799), and Regal and Ecclesiastical
Antiquities of Great Britain, new edition with notes by J. R. Planche
(1842), 153 plates; Westwood, Miniatures of Anglo-Saxon and Irish
Manuscripts (1868), 54 plates; C. A. Stothard, The Monumental
■Effigies of Great Britain (1817-1832; ed. Hewitt, 1876); Herbert
Haines, Manual of Monumental Brasses (Oxford, 1861), with many
woodcuts; J. G. and L. A. B. Waller, A Series of Monumental
Brasses (London, 1864); H. Druitt, Costume on Brasses (London,
1906). Of foreign works on costume the most important are Hefner-
Alteneck, Traehten, &c, vom fruhesten Mitlelalter bis Ende des 18.
Jahrhunderts (2nd ed., Frankfort, 1879-1890); Viollet-le-Duc,
Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais (6 vols., Paris, 1858-1875),
the first four volumes devoted to armour and costume; Friedrich
Hottenroth, Traehten der Volker alter und neuer Zeil (2nd ed.,
Stuttgart, 1882-1890), with excellent plates, Fr. transl. by J. Bern-
hoff, Les Costumes chez les peuples, &c. (Paris, 1885), and Handbuch
der deutschen Tracht (1898) ; Bonnard et M ercuri, Costumes historiques
des XII', XIIP, XIV' et XV' siecles (2 vols., Paris, 1867), 200
plates; Burgmair, Triomphe de I'empereur Maximilien I. (Vienna,
1796), 135 plates; Chapuy, Le Moyen Age pittoresque (2 vols., 1837),
180 plates; Chevignard et Duplessis, Costumes historiques des XVI",
XVII" et XVIII' siecles (2 vols., Paris, 1867), 150 plates; du
Sommerard, Les Arts au moyen Age (10 vols., Paris, 1838-1848), 510
plates ; Duflos, Recueil d'estampes, representant les grades, les rangs,
et les dignites, suivant le costume de toutes les nations existantes (Paris,
1 779-1 780), 240 plates; Espana artistica y monumental (3 vols..
Paris, 1842-1859), 145 plates; Fabri, Raccolta di varii vestimenti
ed arti del regno di Napoli (Naples, 1773), 27 plates; Jaquemin,
Iconographie methodique du costume du V" au XIX" siecle (Paris),
200 plates; Lacombe, Galerie de Florence et du palais Pilti (4 vols.,
Paris, 1789-1807), 192 plates; Paul Lacroix, Manners, Customs
and Dress during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Eng. trans.
(London, 1874), Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and
the Renaissance (London, 1874), and The 18th Century, its Institutions,
Customs, Costumes (London, 1875-1876); L. M. Lante, Galerie
francaise de femmes ceiebres, atlas (Paris, 1841), 70 plates; Malliot
et Martin, Recherches sur les costumes, les mceurs, les usages religieux,
civils et militaires des anciens peuples (3 vols., Paris, 1809), 228
plates ; Pauly, Description ethnographique des peuples (St Petersburg,
1862) ; Pauquet Freres, Modes et costumes historiques et Strangers

248

COSWAY— COTE-D'OR

(2 vols., Paris, 1873), 196 plates; Auguste Racinet, Le Costume
historique, in two forms, large and small (Paris, 1876, another ed.
in 6 vols., with 500 plates, 1888); G. M. Straub, Trachten oder
Stammbuch (1600), several hundreds of curious woodcuts of costumes ;
Vecellio, Habiti antichi et moderni di tutto il mondo (3 vols., Venice,
1 859-1 863).

Examples and illustrations of early costume of great interest and
value may be found in the Archaeologia, M. Didron's Annates
archeologiques, the Journals of the Archaeological Societies, the
various county histories, the Monumenta Vetusta of the London
Society of Antiquaries, and other kindred works.

Besides works on costume generally, there are a large number
devoted specially to national or " folk " costumes. Of these may be
mentioned: F. Hottenroth, Deutsche Volkstrachten, stddtische und
landliche, vom XVI. Jahrhundert bis zum Anfange des XIX. Jahr-
hunderts (Frankfort, 1898, 1900, 1902, &c), including German,
Bohemian, Swiss and Dutch local costumes, with references to further
works; L. M. Lante, Costume de divers pays (undated, c. 1825),
177 coloured plates of female costumes, mainly French, some Spanish,
German, &c. ; A. Hard, Swedish Costumes (Stockholm, 1858), 10
coloured plates; Felix Benoist, La Normandie illustree- (2 vols, fob,
Nantes, 1854), with excellent coloured lithographs of costumes by
Hyppolite Lalaine; E. H. T. Pingret, Galerie royale de costumes
(Paris, undated), beautiful lithographs of costumes, principally
Italian with some Spanish and Swiss, lithographed from paintings
by Pingret by various artists; Edward Harding, Costume of the
Russian Empire (London, 1811), with 70 hand-coloured plates,
including costumes of many of the semi-barbaric tribes of central
Asia; for Turkish costume in the 1 8th century see Recueil de cent
estampes representant differentes nations du Levant, engraved by Le
Hay (Paris, 1714); for Greek costume at the time of the War of
Independence see Baron O. M. von Stackelberg, Costumes et usages
des peuples de la Grece moderne (Rome, 1825), with 30 beautiful
plates. For Highland costume see R. R. Maclan, Costumes of the
Clans (Glasgow, 1899), with letterpress by J. Logan.

COSWAY, RICHARD (c. 1742-1821), English miniature
painter, was baptized in 1742; his father was master of Blundell's
school, Tiverton, where Cosway was educated, and his uncle
mayor of that town. He it was who, in conjunction with the
boy's godfather, persuaded the father to allow Richard to proceed
to London before he was twelve years old, to take lessons in
drawing, and undertook to support him there. On his arrival,
the youthful artist won the first prize given by the newly founded
Society of Arts, of the money value of five guineas. He went to
Thomas Hudson for his earliest instruction, but remained with
him only a few months, and then attended William Shipley's
drawing class, where he remained until he began to work on his
own account in 1760. He was one of the earliest members of the
Royal Academy, Associate in 1770 and Royal Academician in
1 77 1. His success in miniature painting is said to have been
started by his clever portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert, which gave
great satisfaction to the prince of Wales, and brought Cosway
his earliest great patron. He speedily became one of the most
popular artists of the day, and his residence at Schomberg House,
Pall Mall, was a well-known aristocratic rendezvous. In 1791 he
removed to Stratford Place, where he lived in a state of great
magnificence till 1821, when after selling most of the treasures he
had accumulated he went to reside in Edgware Road. He died on
the 4th of July 1821, when driving in a carriage with his friend
Miss Udney. He was buried in Marylebone New church.

He married in 1781 Maria Hadfield, who survived him many
years, and died in Italy in January 1838, in a school for girls
which she had founded, and which she had attached to an
important religious order devoted to the cause of female educa-
tion, known as the Dame Inglesi. She had been created a
baroness of the Empire on account of her devotion to female
education by the emperor Francis L in 1834. Her college still
exists, and in it are preserved many of the things which had
belonged to her and her husband.

Cosway had one child who died young. She is the subject of
one of his most celebrated engravings. He painted miniatures of
very many members of the royal family, and of the leading
persons who formed the court of the prince regent. Perhaps his
most beautiful work is his miniature of Madame du Barry,
painted in 1791, when that lady was residing in Bruton Street,
Berkeley Square. This portrait, together with many other
splendid works by Cosway, came into the collection of Mr J.
Pierpont Morgan. There are many miniatures by this artist in

the royal collection at Windsor Castle, at Belvoir Castle and in
other important collections. His work is of great charm and
of remarkable purity, and he is certainly the most brilliant
miniature painter of the 18th century.

For a full account of the artist and his wife, see Richard Cosway,
R.A., by G. C. Williamson (1905). (G. C. W.)

COTA DE MAGUAQUE, R0DRI60 (d. c. 1498), Spanish poet,
who flourished towards the end of the 15th century, was born at
Toledo. Little is known of him save that he was of Jewish origin.
The Coplas de Mingo Revulgo, the Coplas del Provincial, and the
first act of the Celestina have been ascribed to him on insufficient
grounds. He is undoubtedly the author of the Dialogo entre el
amor y un viejo, a striking dramatic poem first printed in the
Cancionero general of 1511, and of a burlesque epithalamium
written in 1472 or later. He abjured Judaism about the year
1497, and is believed to have died shortly afterwards.

See " Epithalame burlesque," edited by R. Foulche-Delbosc, in
the Revue hispanique (Paris, 1894), i. 69-72; A. Bonilla y San
Martin, Anales de la literatura espanola (Madrid, 1904), pp. 164-167.

COTE-D'OR, a department of eastern France, formed of the
northern region of the old province of Burgundy, bounded N. by
the department of Aube, N.E. by Haute-Mame, E. by Haute-
Saone and Jura, S. by Saone-et-Loire, and W. by Nievre and
Yonne. Area, 3392 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 357,959. A chain of hills
named the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to south-
west through the centre of the department, separating the basin
of the Seine from that of the Sa6ne, and forming a connecting-
link between the Cevennes and the Vosges mountains. Extend-
ing southward from Dijon is a portion of this range which, on
account of the excellence of its vineyards, bears the name of
Cote-d'Or, whence that of the department. The north-west
portion of the department is occupied by the calcareous and
densely-wooded district of Chatillonais, the south-west by spurs
of the granitic chain of Morvan, while a wide plain traversed by
the Sa&ne extends over the eastern region. The Chatillonais is
watered by the Seine, which there takes its rise, and by the Ource,
both fed largely by the douix or abundant springs characteristic
of Burgundy. The Armanfon and other affluents of the Yonne,
and the Arroux, a tributary of the Loire, water the south-west.

The climate of C6te-d'Or is temperate and healthy; the rainfall
is abundant west of the central range, but moderate, and, in
places, scarce, in the eastern plain. Husbandry flourishes, the
wealth of the department lying chiefly in its vineyards, especially
those of the Cote-d'Or, which comprise the three main groups of
Beaune, Nuits and Dijon, the latter the least renowned of the
three. The chief cereals are wheat, oats and barley; potatoes,
hops, beetroot, rape-seed, colza and a small quantity of tobacco
are also produced. Sheep and cattle-raising is carried on chiefly
in the western districts. The department has anthracite mines
and produces freestone, lime and cement. The manufactures
include iron, steel, nails, tools, machinery and other iron goods,
paper, earthenware, tiles and bricks, morocco leather goods,
biscuits and mustard, and there are flour-mills, distilleries, oil
and vinegar works and breweries. The imports of the department
are inconsiderable, coal alone being of any importance; there is
an active export trade in wine, brandy, cereals and live stock and
in manufactured goods. The Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway
serves the department, its main line passing through Dijon.
The canal of Burgundy, connecting the Saone with the Yonne,
has a length of 94 m. in the department, while that from the
Marne to the Sa6ne has a length of 24 m.

Cote-d'Or is divided into the arrondissements of Dijon, Beaune,
Chatillon and Semur, with 36 cantons and 717 communes. It
forms the diocese of the bishop of Dijon, and part of the archi-
episcopal province of Lyons and of the 8th military region.
Dijon is the seat of the educational circumscription (academie)
and court of appeal to which the department is assigned. The
more noteworthy places are Dijon, the capital, Beaune, Chatillon,
Semur, Auxonne, Flavigny and Citeaux, all separately treated.
St Jean de Losne, at the extremity of the Burgundy canal, is
famous for its brave and successful resistance in 1636 to an
immense force of Imperialists. Chateauneuf has a chateau of the

COTES— COTHEN

249

15th century, St Seine-l'Abbaye, a fine Gothic abbey church, and
Saulieu, a Romanesque abbey church of the nth century. The
chateau of Bussy Rabutin (at Bussy-le-Grand), founded in the
1 2th century, has an interesting collection of pictures made by
Roger de Rabutin, comte de Bussy, who also rebuilt the chateau.
Montbard, the birthplace of the naturalist Buffon, has a keep of
the 14th century and other remains of a castle of the dukes of
Burgundy. The remarkable Renaissance chapel (1 536) of Pagny-
le-Chateau, belonging to the chateau destroyed in 1768, contains
the tomb of Jean de Vienne (d. 1455) and that of Jean de
Longwy (d. 1460) and Jeanne de Vienne (d. 1472), with alabaster
effigies. At Fontenay, near Marmagne, a paper-works occupies
the buildings of a well-preserved Cistercian abbey of the 12th
century. At Vertault there are remains of a theatre and other
buildings marking the site of the Gallo-Roman town of Vertilium.

COTES, ROGER (1682-1716), English mathematician and
philosopher, was born on the 10th of July 1682 at Burbage,
Leicestershire, of which place his father, the Rev. Robert Cotes,
was rector. He was educated at Leicester school, and afterward
at St Paul's school, London. Proceeding to Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1699, he obtained a fellowship in 1705, and in the
following year was appointed Plumian professor of astronomy
and experimental philosophy in the university of Cambridge.
He took orders in 17 13; and the same year, at the request of Dr
Richard Bentley, he published the second edition of Newton's
Principia with an original preface. He died on the 5th of June
1 716, leaving unfinished a series of elaborate researches on optics,
and a large amount of unpublished manuscript. He contributed
two memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions, one, " Logo-
metria," which discusses the calculation of logarithms and
certain applications of the infinitesimal calculus, the other, a
" Description of the great fiery meteor seen on March 6th, 1716."
After his death his papers were collected and published by his
cousin and successor in the Plumian chair, Dr Robert Smith,
under the title Harmonia Mensurarum (1722). This work
included the " Logometria," the trigonometrical theorem known
as " Cotes' Theorem on the Circle " (see Trigonometry), his
theorem on harmonic means, subsequently developed by Colin
Maclaurin, and a discussion of the curves known as " Cotes'
Spirals," which occur as the path of a particle described under the
influence of a central force varying inversely as the cube of the
distance. In 1738 Dr Robert Smith published Cotes' Hydro-
statical and Pneumatical Lectures, a work which was held in great
estimation. The exceptional genius of Cotes earned encomiums
from both his contemporaries and successors; Sir Isaac Newton
said, " If Mr Cotes had lived, we should have known something."

CdTES-DU-NORD, a maritime department of the north-west
of France, formed in 1 700 from the northern part of the province
of Brittany, and bounded N. by the English Channel, E. by
the department of Ule-et-Vilaine, S. by Morbihan, and W. by
Finistere. Pop. (1906) 611,506. Area, 2786 sq. m. In general
conformation, C6tes-du-Nord is an undulating plateau including
in its more southerly portion three well-marked ranges of hills.
A granitic chain, the Monts du Mene, starting in the south-east
of the department runs in a north-westerly direction, forming the
watershed between the rivers running respectively to the Channel
and the Atlantic Ocean. Towards its western extremity this
chain bifurcates to form the Montagnes Noires in the south-west
and the Montagne d'Arree in the west of the department. The
rivers of the Channel slope are the Ranee, Arguenon, Gouessan,
Gouet, Trieux, Treguier and Leguer, while the Blavet, Meu,
Oust and Aulne belong to the southern slope. Off the coast,
which is steep, rocky and much indented, are the Sept-Iles,
Brehat and other small islands. The principal bays are those of
St Malo and St Brieuc.

The climate is mild and not subject to extremes; in the west it
is especially humid. Agriculture is more successful on the coast,
where seaweed can be used as a fertilizer, than in the interior.
Cereals are largely grown, wheat, oats and buck- wheat being the
chief crops. Potatoes, flax, mangels, apples, plums, cherries and
honey are also produced. Pasture and various kinds of forage
are abundant, and there is a large output of milk and butter.

The horses of the department are in repute. It produces slate,
building-stone, lime and china-clay. Flour-mills, saw-mills,
sardine factories, tanneries, iron-works, manufactories of polish,
boat-building yards, and rope-works employ many of the
inhabitants, and cloth, agricultural implements and nails are
manufactured. The chief imports are coal, wood and salt.
Exports include agricultural products (eggs, butter, vegetables,
&c), horses, flax and fish. The chief commercial ports are Le
Legue and Paimpol; and Paimpol also equips a large fleet for
the Icelandic fisheries. The coast fishing is important and large
quantities of sardines are preserved. The department is served
by the Ouest-Etat railway; its chief waterway is the canal
from Nantes to Brest which traverses it for 73 m.

C6tes-du-Nord is divided into the five arrondissements of St
Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lannion and Loudeac, which contain
48 cantons and 390 communes. Bas Breton is spoken in the
arrondissements of Guingamp and Lannion, and in part of those
of Loudeac and St Brieuc. The department belongs to the
ecclesiastical province, the academie (educational division), and
the appeal court of Rennes, and in the region of the X. army corps.
St Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lamballe, Paimpol and Treguier,
the more noteworthy towns, are separately treated. Extensive
remains of an abbey of the Premonstratensian order, dating
chiefly from the 13th century, exist at Kerity; and Lehon has
remains of a priory, which dates from the same period. The
department is rich in interesting churches, among which those of
Ploubezre (12th, 14th and 16th centuries), Perros-Guirec (12th
century), Plestin-les-Greves (16th century) and Lanleff (12th
century) may be mentioned. The church of St Mathurin at
Moncontour, which is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, contains
fine stained glass of the 16th century, and the mural paintings of
the chapel of Kermaria-an-Isquit near Plouha, which belongs to
the 13th and 14th centuries, are celebrated. Near Lannion (pop.
5336), itself a picturesque old town, is the ruined castle of
Tonquedec, built in the 14th century and sometimes known as
" the Pierrefonds of Brittany," owing to its resemblance to the
more famous castle. At Corseul are a temple and other Roman
remains.

COTGRAVE, RANDLE (?-i634), English lexicographer, came
of a Cheshire family, and was educated at Cambridge, entering
St John's College in 1 587. He became secretary to Lord Burghley,
and in 1611 published his French-English dictionary (2nd ed.,
1632), a work of real historical importance in lexicography, and
still valuable in spite of such errors as were due to contemporary
want of exact scholarship. - '- - -

COTHEN, or Kothen, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Anhalt on the Ziethe, at the junction of several railway lines,
42 m. N.W. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1905) 22,978. It consists
of an old and a new town with four suburbs. The former palace
of the dukes of Anhalt-Cothen, in the old town, has fine gardens
and contains collections of pictures and coins, the famous
ornithological collection of Johann Friedrich Naumann (1780-
1837), and a library of some 20,000 volumes. Of the churches the
Lutheran Jakobskirche (called the cathedral), a Gothic building
with some fine old stained glass, is noteworthy. Besides the usual
classical and modern schools (Gymnasium and Realschule)
Cothen possesses a technical institute, a school of gardening and
a school of forestry. The industries include iron-founding and
the manufacture of agricultural and other machinery, malt,
beet-root sugar, leather, spirits, &c; a tolerably active trade is
carried on in grain, wool, potatoes and vegetables. Among
others, there is a monument to Sebastian Bach, who was music
director here from 1717 to 1723.

In the 10th century Cothen was a Slav settlement, which was
captured and destroyed by the German king Henry I. in 927.
By the 12th century it had secured town rights and become a
considerable centre of trade in agricultural produce. In 1300 it
was burned by the margrave of Meissen. In 1547 the town was
taken from its prince, Wolfgang (a cadet of the house of Anhalt),
who had joined the league of Schmalkalden, and given by the
emperor Charles V., with the rest of the prince's possessions,
to the Spanish general and painter, Felipe Ladron y Guevara

25°

COTMAN— COTTA

(1510-1563), from whom it was, however, soon repurchased.
Hahnemann, the founder of homoeopathy, lived and worked
in Cothen. From 1603 to 1847 Cothen was the capital of the
principality, later duchy, of Anhalt- Cothen.

COTMAN, JOHN SELL (1782-1842), English landscape-
painter and etcher, son of a well-to-do silk mercer, was born at
Norwich on the 1 6th of May 1782. He showed a talent for art
and was sent to London to study, where he became the friend of
Turner, T. Girtin and other artists. He first exhibited at the
Royal Academy in 1800. In 1807 he went back to Norwich and
joined the Norwich Society of Artists, of which in 181 1 he became
president. In 1825 he was made an associate of the Society of
Painters in Water-colours; in 1834 he was appointed drawing-
master at King's College, London; and in 1836 he was elected
a member of the Institute of British Architects. He died in
London on the 24th of July 1842. Cotman's work was not con-
sidered of much importance in his own day, and his pictures
only procured small prices; but he now ranks as one of the great
figures of the Norwich school. He was a fine draughtsman, and
a remarkable painter both in oil and water-colour. One of his
paintings is in the National Gallery. His fine architectural
etchings, published in a series of volumes, the result of tours in
Norfolk and Normandy, are valuable records of his interest in
archaeology. He married early in life, and had five children, his
sons, Miles Edmund (1810-1858) and Joseph John (1814-1878),
both becoming landscape-painters of merit; and his younger
brother Henry's son, Frederic George Cotman (b. 1850), the
water-colour artist, continued the family reputation.

COTONEASTER, a genus of the rose family (Ros'aceae),
containing about twenty species of shrubs and small trees,
natives of Europe, North Africa and temperate Asia. C. vulgaris
is native on the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme in North Wales.
Several species are grown in shrubberies and borders, or as wall
plants, mainly for their clusters of bright red or yellow berry -like
fruits. Plants are easily raised by seeds, cuttings or layers, and
grow well in ordinary soil.

COTOPAXI, a mountain of the Andes, in Ecuador, South
America, 35 m. S.S.E. of Quito, remarkable as the loftiest active
volcano in the world. The earliest outbursts on record took
place in 1532 and 1533; and since then the eruptions have been
both numerous and destructive. Among the most important are
those of 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768 and 1803. In 1744 the thunder-
ings of the volcano were heard at Honda on the Rio Magdalena,
about 500 m. distant ; in 1 768 the quantity of ashes ejected was
so great that • it covered all the lesser vegetation as far as
Riobamba; and in 1803 Humboldt reports that at the port of
Guayaquil, 160 m. from the crater, he heard the noise day and
night like continued discharges of a battery. There were con-
siderable outbursts in 1851, 1855, 1856, 1864 and 1877. In 1802
Humboldt made a vain attempt to scale the cone, and pronounced
the enterprise impossible; and the failure of Jean Baptiste
Boussingault in 1831, and the double failure of M. Wagner in
1858, seemed to confirm his opinion. In 1872, however, Dr
Wilhelm Reiss succeeded on the 27 th and 28th of November in
reaching the top; in the May of the following year the same
feat was accomplished by Dr A. Stiibel, and he was followed
by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878 and Edward
Whymper in 1880.

Cotopaxi is frequently described as one of the most beautiful
mountain masses of the world, rivalling the celebrated Fuji-
yama of Japan in its symmetry of outline, but overtopping it
by more than 7000 ft. It is more than 15,000 ft. higher than
Vesuvius, over 7000 ft. higher than Teneriffe, and nearly 2000 ft.
higher than Popocatepetl. Its slope, according to Orton, is
30 , according to Wagner 29 , the north-western side being
slightly steeper than the south-eastern. The apical angle is 122°
30V The snowfall is heavier on the eastern side of the cone
which is permanently covered, while the western side is usually
left bare, a phenomenon occasioned by the action of the moist
trade winds from the Atlantic. Its height according to Whymper
is 19,613 ft., and its crater is 2300 ft. in diameter from N. to S.,
1650 ft. from E. to W., and has an approximate depth of 1200 ft.

It is bordered by a rim of trachytic rock, forming a black coronet
above the greyish volcanic dust and sand which covers its sides to
a great depth. Whymper found snow and ice under this sand.
On the southern slope, at a height of 15,059 ft., is a bare cone of
porphyritic andesite called El Picacho, " the beak," or Cabeza
del Inca, " the Inca's head," with dark cliffs rising fully 1000 ft.,
which according to tradition is the original summit of the
volcano blown off at the first-known eruption of 1532. The
summit of Cotopaxi is usually enveloped in clouds; and even
in the clearest month of the year it is rarely visible for more than
eight or ten days. Its eruptions produce enormous quantities of
pumice, and deep layers of mud, volcanic sand and pumice
surround it on the plateau. Of the air currents about and above
Cotopaxi, Wagner says (Nalurw. Reisen im trop. Amerika, p. 514) :
" On the Tacunga Plateau, at a height of 8000 Paris feet, the
prevailing direction of the wind is meridional, usually from the
south in the morning, and frequently from the north in the
evening; but over the summit of Cotopaxi, at a height of 18,000
ft., the north-west wind always prevails throughout the day.
The gradually-widening volcanic cloud continually takes a south-
eastern direction over the rim of the crater; at a height, however,
of about 21,000 ft. it suddenly turns to the north-west, and
maintains that direction till it reaches a height of at least- 28,000
ft. There are thus from the foot of the volcano to the highest
level attained by its smoke-cloud three quite distinct regular
currents of wind."

COTRONE (anc. Croto, Crotona), a seaport and episcopal see on
the E. coast of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 37
m. E.N.E. of Catanzaro Marina by rail, 143 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) town, 7917; commune, 9545. It has a castle erected
by the emperor Charles V. and a small harbour, which everoin
ancient times was not good, but important as the only one
between Taranto and Reggio. It exports a considerable quantity
of oranges, olives and liquorice.

COTTA, the name of a family of German publishers, intimately
connected with the history of German literature. The Cottas
were of noble Italian descent, and at the time of the Reformation
the family was settled in Eisenach in Thuringia.

Johann Georg Cotta (i) (1631-1692), the founder of the
publishing house of J. G. Cotta, married in 1659 the widow of the
university bookseller, Philipp Braun, in Tubingen, and took over
the management of his business, thus establishing the firm which
was subsequently associated with Cotta's name. On his death,
in 1692, the undertaking passed to his only son, Johann Georg
(2); and on his death in 17 12, to the latter's eldest son, also
named Johann Georg (3), while the second son, Johann Friedrich
(see below), became the distinguished theologian.

Although the eldest son of Johann Georg (3), Christoph
Friedrich Cotta (1730-1807), established a printing-house to the
court at Stuttgart, the business languished, and it was reserved
to his youngest son, Johann Friedrich, Freiherr Cotta von
Cottendorf (1764-1832), who was born at Stuttgart on the
27th of April 1764, to restore the fortunes of the firm. He
attended the gymnasium of his native place, and was originally
intended to study theology. He, however, entered the university
of Tubingen as a student of mathematics and law, and after
graduating spent a considerable time in Paris, studying French
and natural science, and mixing with distinguished literary men.
After practising as an advocate in one of the higher courts, Cotta,
in compliance with his father's earnest desire, took over the
publishing business at Tubingen. He began in December 1787,
and laboured incessantly to acquire familiarity with all the
details. The house connexions rapidly extended; and, in 1794,
the Allgemeine Zeitung, of which Schiller was to be editor, was
planned. Schiller was compelled to withdraw on account of his
health; but his friendship with Cotta deepened every year, and
was a great advantage to the poet and his family. Cotta
awakened in Schiller so warm an attachment that, as Heinrich
Doring tells us in his life of Schiller (1824), when a bookseller
offered him a higher price than Cotta for the copyright of Wallen-
stein, the poet firmly declined it, replying " Cotta deals honestly
with me, and I with him." In 1795 Schiller and Cotta founded

COTTA, B. VON— COTTA, G. A.

251

the Horen, a periodical very important to the student of German
literature. The poet intended, by means of this work, to infuse
higher ideas into the common lives of men, by giving them a
nobler human culture, and " to reunite the divided political world
under the banner of truth and beauty." The Horen brought
Goethe and Schiller into intimate relations with each other and
with Cotta; and Goethe, while regretting that he had already
promised Wilhelm Meister to another publisher, contributed the
Unterhaltung deutscher Ausgewanderten, the Roman Elegies and
a paper on Literary Sansculottism. Fichte sent essays from the
first, and the other brilliant German authors of the time were
also represented. In 1798 the Allgemeine Zeitung appeared at
Tubingen, being edited first by Posselt and then by Huber. Soon
the editorial office of the newspaper was transferred to Stuttgart,
in 1803 to Ulm, and in 1810 to Augsburg; it is now in Munich. In
1799 Cotta entered on his political career, being sent to Paris by
the Wurttemberg estates as their representative. Here he made
friendships which proved very advantageous for the Allgemeine
Zeitung. In 1801 he paid another visit to Paris, also in a political
capacity, when he carefully studied Napoleon's policy, and
treasured up many hints which were useful to him in his literary
undertakings. He still, however, devoted most of his attention
to his own business, and, for many years, made all the entries into
the ledger with his own hand. He relieved the tedium of almost
ceaseless toil by pleasant intercourse with literary men. With
Schiller, Huber, and Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) he was
on terms of the warmest friendship; and he was also intimate
with Herder, Schelling, Fichte, Richter, Voss, Hebel, Tieck,
Therese Huber, Matthisson, the brothers Humboldt, Johann
Miiller, Spittler and others, whose works he published in whole
or in part. In the correspondence of Alexander von Humboldt
with Varnhagen von Ense we see the familiar relations in which
the former stood to the Cotta family. In 1795 he published the
Politischen Annalen and the Jahrbiicher der Baukunde, and in
1798 the Damenalmanach, along with some works of less import-
ance. In 1807 he issued the Morgenblatt, to which Schorn's
Kunslblatt and Menzel's Liter aturblatt were afterwards added.
In 1810 he removed to Stuttgart; and from that time till his
death he was loaded with honours. State affairs and an honour-
able commission from the German booksellers took him to the
Vienna congress; and in 181 5 he was deputy-elect at the
Wurttemberg diet. In 1819 he became representative of the
nobility; then he succeeded to the offices of member of committee
and (1824) vice-president of the Wurttemberg second chamber.
He was also appointed Prussian Geheimrat, and knight of the
order of the Wurttemberg crown; King William I. of Wurttem-
berg having already revived the ancient nobility in his family by
granting him the patent of Freiherr (Baron) Cotta von Cottendorf .
Meanwhile such publications as the Polytechnische Journal, the
Hesperus, the Wilrttembergische Jahrbiicher, the Hertha, the
Ausland, and the Inland issued from the press. In 1828-1829
appeared the famous correspondence between Schiller and
Goethe. Cotta was an unfailing friend of young struggling men
of talent. In addition to his high standing as a publisher, he was
a man of great practical energy, which flowed into various fields
of activity. He was a scientific agriculturist, arid promoted
many reforms in farming. He was the first Wurttemberg land-
holder to abolish serfdom on his estates. In politics he was
throughout his life a moderate liberal. In 1824 he set up a steam
printing press in Augsburg, and, about the same time, founded a
literary institute at Munich. In 1825 he started steamboats, for
the first time, on Lake Constance, and introduced them in the
following year on the Rhine. In 1828 he was sent to Berlin, on an
important commission, by Bavaria and Wurttemberg, and was
there rewarded with orders of distinction at the hands of the
three kings. He died on the 29th of December 1832 leavingason
and a daughter as coheirs.

His son, Johann Georg (4), Freiherr .Cotta von Cotten-
dorf (1 796-1863), succeeded to the management of the business
on the death of his father, and was materially assisted by his
sister's husband, Freiherr Hermann von Reischach. He greatly
extended the connexions of the firm by the purchase, in 1839, of

the publishing business of G. J. Goschen in Leipzig, and in 1845 of
that of Vogel in Landshut; while, in 1845, " Bible" branches
were established at Stuttgart and Munich. He was succeeded by
his younger son, Karl, and by his nephew (the son of his sister),
Hermann Albert von Reischach. Under their joint partnership,
the before-mentioned firms in Leipzig and Landshut, and an
artistic establishment in Munich passed into other hands, leaving
on the death of Hermann Albert von Reischach, in 1876, Karl
von Cotta the sole representative of the firm, until his death in
1888. In 1889 the firm of J. G. Cotta passed by purchase into
the hands of Adolf and Paul Kroner, who took others into
partnership. In 1899 the business was converted into a limited
liability company.

See Albert Schaffle, Cotta (1895) ; Verlags-Katalog der J. G.
Cotta' schen Buchhandlung, Nachfolger (1900) ; and Lord Gosehen's
Life and Times of G. J. Goschen (1903).

Johann Friedrich Cotta (1701-1779), the theologian, was
born on the 12th of March 1701, the son of Johann Georg Cotta
(2). After studying theology at Tubingen he began his public
career as lecturer in Jena University. He then travelled in
Germany, France and Holland, and, after residing several years
in London, became professor at Tubingen in 1733. In 1736 he
removed to the chair of theology in the university of Gottingen,
which had been instituted as a seat of learning, two years before,
by George II. of England, in his capacity as elector of Hanover.
In 1739, however, he returned, as extraordinary professor of
theology, to his Alma Mater, and, after successively filling the
chairs of history, poetry and oratory, was appointed ordinary
professor of theology in 1741. Finally he died, as chancellor of
Tubingen University, on the 31st of December 1779. His
learning was at once wide and accurate; his theological views
were orthodox, although he did not believe in strict verbal
inspiration. He was a voluminous writer. His chief works are
his edition of Johann Gerhard's Loci Theologici (1762-1777), and
the Kirchenhistorie des Neuen Testaments (1768-1773).

COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808-1879), German geologist, was
born in a forester's lodge near Eisenach, on the 24th of October
1808. He was educated atFreibergandHeidelberg,andfrom 1842
to 1874 he held the professorship of geology in the Bergakademie
of Freiberg. Botany at first attracted him, and he was one of the
earliest to use the microscope in determining the structure of
fossil plants. Later on he gave his attention to practical geology,
to the study of ore-deposits, of rocks and metamorphism; and he
was regarded as an excellent teacher. His Rocks classified and
described: a Treatise on Lithology (translated by P. H. Lawrence,
1866) was the first comprehensive work on the subject issued in
the English language, and it gave great impetus to the study of
rocks in Britain. He died at Freiberg on the 14th of September

1879-

Publications. — Geognostische Wanderungen (1836-1838); Grund-
riss der Geognosie und Geologie (1846) ; Geologische Brief e aus den
Alpen (1850); Praktische Geologie (1852); Geologische Bilder (1852,
ed. 4, 1861); Die Gesteinslehre (1855, ed. 2, 1862).

COTTA, 6AIUS AURELIUS (c. 124-73 B.C.), Roman states-
man and orator. In 92 he defended his uncle P. Rutilius Rufus,
who had been unjustly accused of extortion in Asia. He was on
intimate terms with the tribune M. Livius Drusus, who was
murdered in 91, and in the same year was an unsuccessful
candidate for the tribunate. Shortly afterwards he was prose-
cuted under the lex Varia, directed against all who had in any
way supported the Italians against Rome, and, in order to avoid
condemnation, went into voluntary exile. He did not return till
82, during the dictatorship of Sulla. In 75 he was consul, and
excited the hostility of the optimates by carrying a law that
abolished the Sullan disqualification of the tribunes from holding
higher magistracies; another law de judiciis privalis, of which
nothing is known, was abrogated by his brother. In 74 Cotta
obtained the province of Gaul, and was granted a triumph for
some victory of which we possess no details; but on the very day
before its celebration an old wound broke out, and he died
suddenly. According to Cicero, P. Sulpicius Rufus and Cotta
were the best speakers of the young men of their time. Physically
incapable of rising to passionate heights of oratory, Cotta's

252

COTTABUS— COTTENHAM

successes were chiefly due to his searching investigation of facts;
he kept strictly to the essentials of the case and avoided all
irrelevant digressions. His style was pure and simple. He is
introduced by Cicero as an interlocutor in the De oratore and De
natura deorum (iii.), as a supporter of the principles of the New
Academy. The fragments of Sallust contain the substance of a
speech delivered by Cotta in order to calm the popular anger at a
deficient corn-supply.

See Cicero, De oratore, iii. 3, Brutus, 49, 55, 90, 92; Sallust, Hist.
Frag. ; Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 37.

His brother, Lucius Aurelius Cotta, when praetor in 70 B.C.
brought in a law for the reform of the jury lists, by which the
judices were to be eligible, not from the senators exclusively as
limited by Sulla, but from senators, equites and tribuni aerarii.
One-third were to be senators, and two-thirds men of equestrian
census, one-half of whom must have been tribuni aerarii, a body
as to whose functions there is no certain evidence, although in
Cicero's time they were reckoned by courtesy amongst the
equites. In 66 Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus accused the
consuls-elect for the following year of bribery in connexion with
the elections; they were condemned, and Cotta and Torquatus
chosen in their places. After the suppression of the Catilinarian
conspiracy, Cotta proposed a public thanksgiving for Cicero's
services, and after the latter had gone into exile, supported the
view that there was no need of a law for his recall, since the
law of Clodius was legally worthless. He subsequently attached
himself to Caesar, and it was currently reported that Cotta (who
was then quindecimvir) intended to propose that Caesar should
receive the title of king, it being written in the books of fate that
the Parthians could only be defeated by a king. Cotta's intention
was not carried out in consequence of the murder of Caesar, after
which he retired from public life.

See Cicero, Orelli's Onomasticon; Sallust, Catiline, 18; Suetonius,
Caesar, 79; Livy, Epit. 97; Veil. Pat. ii. 32; Dio Cassius xxxvi.
44, xxxvii. I.

COTTABUS (Gr. Korrafios), a game of skill for a long time in
great vogue at ancient Greek drinking parties, especially in the
4th and 5th centuries B.C. It is frequently alluded to by the
classical writers of the period, and not seldom depicted on ancient
vases. The object of the player was to cast a portion of wine left
in his drinking cup in such a way that, without breaking bulk in
its passage through the air, it should reach a certain object set up
as a mark, and there produce a distinct noise by its impact.
Both the wine thrown and the noise made were called Xdra^.
The thrower, in the ordinary form of the game, was expected to
retain the recumbent position that was usual at table, and, in
flinging the cottabus, to make use of his right hand only. To
succeed in the aim no small amount of dexterity was required,
and unusual ability in the game was rated as high as correspond-
ing excellen ce in throwing the javelin. Not only was the cottabus
the ordinary accompaniment of the festal assembly, but at least
in Sicily a special building of a circular form was sometimes erected
so that the players might be easily arranged round the basin, and
follow each other in rapid succession. Like all games in which
the element of chance found a place, it was regarded as more or
less ominous of the future success of the players, especially in
matters of love; and the excitement was sometimes further
augmented by some object of value being staked on the event.

Various modifications of the original principle of the game were
gradually introduced, but for practical purposes we may reckon
two varieties. (1) In the KoTTa/3os di 6£vfia.<t>o}v shallow saucers
( 6£vf}a4>a) were floated in a basin or mixing-bowl filled with water;
the object was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine into them,
and the competitor who sank the greatest number was considered
victorious, and received the prize, which consisted of cakes or
sweetmeats. (2) Karraffos ko.tokt6s, 1 is not so easy to under-
stand, although there is little doubt as to the apparatus. This
consisted of a pa|35os or bronze rod; a TKacny^, a small disk or
basin, resembling a scale-pan; a larger disk (Xocaeis); and (in-
1 The epithet KaraKros (let down) may refer to the rod, which
might be raised or lowered as required; to the lower disk, which
might be moved up and down the stem ; to the moving up and down
of the scales, in the supposed variety of the game mentioned below.

most cases) a small bronze figure called nhvrp. The discovery
(by Professor Helbig in 1886) of two sets of actual apparatus near
Perugia and various representations on vases help to elucidate
the somewhat obscure accounts of the method of playing the game
contained in the scholia and certain ancient authors who, it must
not be forgotten, wrote at a time when the game itself had become
obsolete, and cannot therefore be looked to for a trustworthy
description of it.

The first specimen of the apparatus found at Perugia resembles
a candelabrum on a base, tapering towards the top, with a blunt
end, on which the small disk (found near the rod), which has a
hole near the edge and is slightly hollow in the middle, could be
balanced. At about a third of the height of the rod is a large
disk with a hole in the centre through which the rod runs; in a
socket at the top is a small bronze figure, with right arm and
right leg uplifted. In the second specimen there is no large
disk, and the figure is holding up what is apparently a rhyton or
drinking-horn.

According to Prof. Helbig in Mittheilungen des deutschen
archaologischen Instituts (Romische Abtheilung i., 1886) three
games were played with this apparatus: In the first the smaller
disk was placed on the top of the rod, and the object of the
player was to dislodge it with a cast of the wine, so that it would
fall with a clatter on the larger disk below. In the second (as in
the third) the bronze figure was used; the smaller disk was placed
above the figure, upon which it fell when hit, and thence on to the
larger disk below. In the third, there was no smaller disk; the
wine was thrown at the figure, and fell on to the larger disk
underneath. Another supposed variety, in which two scales
were balanced in such a manner that the weight of the liquid cast
into either scale caused it to dip down and touch the top of an
image placed under each, probably had no real existence, but is
due to a confusion of the ir\acmyl with a scale-pan by reason of
its shape. The game appears to have been of Sicilian origin, but
it spread through Greece from Thessaly to Rhodes, and was
especially fashionable at Athens. Dionysius, Alcaeus, Anacreon,
Pindar, Bacchylides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristo-
phanes, Antiphanes, make frequent and familiar allusion to the
Korrafios; but in the writers of the Roman and Alexandrian
period such reference as occurs shows that the fashion had died
out. In Latin literature it is almost entirely unknown.

The most complete treatise on the subject is C. Sartori's Das
Kottabos-Spiel der alien Griechen (1893), in which a full bibliography
of ancient and modern authorities is given. English readers may be
referred to an article by A. Higgins on " Recent Discoveries of the
Apparatus used in playing the Game of Kottabos " (Archaeologia, li.
1888) ; see also " Kottabos " in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites, and L. Becq de Fouquieres,LeJ Jeux des anciens (1873).

COTTBUS, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on
the Spree, 72 m. S.E. of Berlin by the main railway to Gorlitz, and
at the intersection of the lines Halle-Sagan and Grossenhain-
Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 46,269. It has four Protestant
churches, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. The chief
industry of the town is the manufacture of cloth, which has
flourished here for centuries and now employs more than 6000
hands. Wool-spinning, cotton-spinning and the manufacture of
tobacco, machinery, beer, brandy, &c, are also carried on. The
town is also a considerable trading centre, and is the seat of a
chamber of commerce and of a branch of the Imperial Bank
(Reichsbank) . In the Stadtwald, close to the town, is a women's
hospital for diseases of the lungs, a government institution in
connexion with the state system of insurance against incapacity
and old age. At Branitz, a neighbouring village, are the magni-
ficent chateau and park of Prince Piickler-Muskau.

At one time Cottbus formed an independent lordship of the
Empire, but in 1462 it passed by the treaty of Guben to Branden-
burg. From 1807 to 1813 it belonged to the kingdom of Saxony.

COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS, 1st Earl
of (1781-1851), lord chancellor of England, was born in London
on the 29th of April 1781. He was the second son of Sir William
W. Pepys, a master in chancery, who was descended from John
Pepys, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a great-uncle of Samuel
Pepys, the diarist. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College,

COTTER— COTTIN

253

Cambridge, Pepyswas called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804.
Practising at the chancery bar, his progress was extremely slow,
and it was not till twenty-two years after his call that he was
made a king's counsel. He sat in parliament, successively, for
Higham Ferrars and Malton, was appointed solicitor-general in

1834, and in the same year became master of the rolls. On the
formation of Lord Melbourne's second administration in April

1835, the great seal was for a time in commission, but eventually
Pepys, who had been one of the commissioners, was appointed
lord chancellor (January 1836) with the title of Baron Cottenham.
He held office until the defeat of the ministry in 184 1. In 1846
he again became lord chancellor in Lord John Russell's adminis-
tration. His health, however, had been gradually failing, and
he resigned in 1850. Shortly before his retirement he had been
created Viscount Crowhurst and earl of Cottenham. He died at
Pietra Santa, in the duchy of Lucca, on the 29th of April 1851.

Both as a lawyer and as a judge, Lord Cottenham was remark-
able for his mastery of the principles of equity. An indifferent
speaker, he nevertheless adorned the bench by the soundness of
his law and the excellence of his judgments. As a politician he
was somewhat of a failure, while his only important contribution
to the statute-book was the Judgments Act 1838, which amended
the law for the relief of insolvent debtors.

The title of earl of Cottenham descended in turn to two of the
earl's sons, Charles Edward (1824-1863), and William John
(1825-1881), and then to the latter's son, Kenelm Charles
Edward (b. 1874).

Authorities. — Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors (1869);
E. Foss, The Judges of England (1848-1864); E. Manson, Builders
of our Law (1904); J. B. Atlay, The Victorian Chancellors (1906).

COTTER, Cottar, or Cottier, a word derived from the Latin
cota, a cot or cottage, and used to describe a man who occupies a
cottage and cultivates a small plot of land. This word is often
employed to translate the cotarius of Domesday Book, a class
whose exact status has been the subject of some discussion, and
is still a matter of doubt. According to Domesday the cotarii
were comparatively few, numbering less than seven thousand, and
were scattered unevenly throughout England, being principally
in the southern counties ; they were occupied either in cultivating
a small plot of land, or in working on the holdings of the villani.
Like the villani, among whom they were frequently classed,
their economic condition may be described as " free in relation to
every one except their lord."

See F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (Cambridge,
1897); and P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892).

COTTESWOLD HILLS, or Cotswolds, a range of hills in the
western midlands of England. The greater part lies in Glou-
cestershire, but the system covered by the name also extends
into Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and.
Somersetshire. It extends on a line from N.E. to S.W., forming
a part of the great Oolitic belt extending through the English
midlands. On the west the hills overlook the vales of Evesham,
Gloucester and Berkeley (valleys of the Worcestershire Avon and
the Severn), with a bold escarpment broken only by a few abrupt
spurs, such as Bredon hill, between Tewkesbury and Evesham.
On the east they slope more gently towards the basins of the
upper Thames and the Bristol Avon. The watershed lies close : to
the western line, except where the Stroud valley, with the Frome,
draining to the Severn, strikes deep into the heart of the hills.
The principal valleys are those of the Windrush, Lech, Coin and
Churn, feeders of the Thames, the Thames itself, and the Bristol
Avon. The last, wherein lie Bath and Bristol, forms the southern
boundary of the Cotteswolds; the northern is formed by the
valleys of the Evenlode (draining to the Thames) and the Stour
(to the Worcestershire Avon), with the low divide between them.
The crest-line from Bath at the south to Meon Hill at the north
measures 57 m. The breadth varies from 6 m. in the south to
28 towards the north, and the area is some 300 sq. m. The
features are those of a pleasant sequestered pastoral region,
rolling plateaus or wolds and bare uplands alternating with deep
narrow valleys, well wooded and traversed by shallow, rapid
streams. The average elevation is about 600 ft., but Cleeve

Cloud above Cheltenham in the Vale of Gloucester reaches
1 134 ft., and Broadway Hill, in the north, 1086 ft. These heights
command splendid views over the rich vales towards the
distant hills of Herefordshire and the Forest of Dean. The
picturesque village of Broadway at the foot of the hill of that
name is much in favour with artists.

In the soil of the hill country is so much lime that a liberal
supply of manure is required. With this good crops of barley
and oats are obtained, and even of wheat, if the soil is mixed with
clay. But the poorest land of the hill country affords excellent
pasturage for sheep, the staple commodity of the district; and
the sainfoin, which grows wild, yields abundantly under cultiva-
tion. The Cotteswolds have been famous for the breed of sheep
named from them since the early part of the 15th century, a
breed hardy and prolific, with lambs that quickly put on fleece,
and become hardened to the bracing cold of the hills, where
vegetation is a month later than in the vales. Improved by
judicious crossing with the Leicester sheep, the modern Cottes-
wold has attained high perfection of weight, shape, fleece and
quality. An impulse was given to Cotteswold farming by the
chartering in 1845 of the Royal Agricultural College at
Cirencester.

A number of small market-towns or large villages lie on the
outskirts of the hills, but in the inner parts of the district villages
are few. The " capital of the Cotteswolds " is Cirencester, in the
east. In the north is Chipping Campden, its great Perpendicular
church and the picturesque houses of its wide street commemorat-
ing the wealth of its wool-merchants between the 14th and 17 th
centuries. Near this town, in the parish of Weston-sub-Edge,
Robert Dover, an attorney, founded the once famous Cotteswold
games early in the 17th century. Horse-racing and coursing
were included with every sort of athletic exercise from quoits and
skittles to wrestling, cudgels and singlestick. The games were
suppressed by act of parliament in 1851.

See Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, passim;
W. H. Hutton, By Thames and Cotswold (London, 1903).

COTTET, CHARLES (1863- ), French painter, was born at
Puy. He studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and under Puvis
de Chavannes and Roll. He travelled and painted in Egypt,
Italy, and on the Lake of Geneva, but he made his name with his
sombre and gloomy, firmly designed, severe and impressive
scenes of life on the Brittany coast. His signal success was
achieved by his painting of the triptych, " Au pays de la mer,"
now at the Luxembourg museum. The Lille gallery has his
" Burial in Brittany."

COTTII REGNUM, a district in the north of Liguria, including
a considerable part of the important road which led over the pass
(6119 ft.) of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genevre) into Gaul. Whether
Hannibal crossed the Alps by this route is disputed, but it was
certainly in use about 100 B.C. (see Punic Wars). In 58 B.C.
Caesar met with some resistance on crossing it, but seems after-
wards to have entered into friendly relations with Donnus, the
king of the district; he must have used it frequently, and refers
to it as the shortest route. Donnus's son Cottius erected the
triumphal arch at his capital Segusio, the modern Susa, in
honour of Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last
Cottius, it became a province under the title of " Alpes Cottiae,"
being governed by a procurator Augusti, though it still kept its old
name also.

COTTIN, MARIE [called Sophie] (1770-1807), French novelist,
ne'e Risteau (not Ristaud), was born in Paris in 1770. At
seventeen she married a Bordeaux banker, who died three years
after, when she retired to a house in the country at Champlan,
where she spent the rest of her life. In 1799 she published
anonymously her Claire d'Albe. Malvina (1801) was also anony-
mous; but the success of Amelie Mansfield (1803) induced
her to reveal her identity. In 1805 appeared Mathilde, an
extravagant crusading story, and in 1806 she produced her last
tale, the famous Elisabeth, ou les exiles de SiMrie, the subject of
which was treated later with an admirable simplicity by Xavier
de Maistre. Sainte-Beuve asserted that she committed suicide on
account of an unfortunate attachment. This story is, however,

254

COTTINGTON— COTTON

unauthenticated. She died at Champlan (Seine et Oise) on the
25th of April 1807.

A complete edition of her works, with a notice by A. Petitot, was
published, in five volumes, in 1817.

COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON, Baron (1578-1652),
English lord treasurer and ambassador, was the fourth son of
Philip Cottington of Godmonston in Somersetshire. According
to Hoare, his mother was Jane, daughter of Thomas Biflete, but
according to Clarendon " a Stafford nearly allied to Sir Edward
Stafford," through whom he was recommended to Sir Charles
Cornwallis, ambassador to Spain, becoming a member of his suite
and acting as English agent on the latter's recall, from 1609 to
1611. In 1612 he was appointed English consul at Seville.
Returning to England, he was made a clerk of the council in
September 1613. His Spanish experience rendered him useful to
the king, and his bias in favour of Spain was always marked.
He seems to have promoted the Spanish policy from the first,
and pressed on Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, the proposal
for the Spanish in opposition to the French marriage for Prince
Charles. He was a Roman Catholic at least at heart, becoming a
member of that communion in 1623, returning to Protestantism,
and again declaring himself a Roman Catholic in 1636, and
supporting the cause of the Roman Catholics in England. In
1616 he went as ambassador to Spain, making in 1618 James's
proposal of mediation in the dispute with the elector palatine.
After his return he was appointed secretary to the prince of
Wales in October 1622, and was knighted and made a baronet in
1623. He strongly disapproved of the prince's expedition to
Spain, as an adventure likely to upset the whole policy of
marriage and alliance, but was overruled and chosen to accom-
pany him. His opposition greatly incensed Buckingham, and
still more his perseverance in the Spanish policy after the failure
of the expedition, and on Charles's accession Cottington was
through his means dismissed from all his employments and
forbidden to appear at court. The duke's assassination, however,
enabled him to return. On the 12th of November 1628 he was
made a privy councillor,and in March 1629 appointed chancellor
of the exchequer. In the autumn he was again sent ambassador
to Spain; he signed the treaty of peace of the 5th of November
1630, and subsequently a secret agreement arranging for the
partition of Holland between Spain and England in return for the
restoration of the Palatinate. On the 10th of July 1631 he was
created Baron Cottington of Hanworth in Middlesex.

In March 1635 he was appointed master of the court of wards,
and his exactions in this office were a principal cause of the
unpopularity of the government. He was also appointed a
commissioner for the treasury, together with Laud. Between
Cottington and the latter there sprang up a fierce rivalry. In these
personal encounters Cottington had nearly always the advantage,
for he practised great reserve and possessed great powers of self-
command, an extraordinary talent for dissembling and a fund of
humour. Laud completely lacked these qualities, and though
really possessing much greater influence with Charles, he was
often embarrassed and sometimes exposed to ridicule by his
opponent. The aim of Cottington 's ambition was the place of
lord treasurer, but Laud finally triumphed and secured it for his
own nominee, Bishop Juxon, when Cottington became " no more a
leader but meddled with his particular duties only." 1 He con-
tinued, however, to take a large share in public business and
served on the committees for foreign, Irish and Scottish affairs.
In the last, appointed in July 1638, he supported the war, and in
May 1640, after the dismissal of the Short Parliament, he declared
it his opinion that at such a crisis the king might levy money
without the Parliament. His attempts to get funds from the city
were unsuccessful, and he had recourse instead to a speculation in
pepper. He had been appointed constable of the Tower, and he
now prepared the fortress for a siege. In the trial of Strafford in
1 64 1 Cottington denied on oath that he had heard him use the
incriminating words about " reducing this kingdom." When the
parliamentary opposition became too strong to be any longer
defied, Cottington, as one of those who had chiefly incurred their
1 Strafford's Letters, ii. 52.

hostility, hastened to retire from the administration, giving up
the court of wards in May 1641 and the chancellorship of the
exchequer in January 1642. He rejoined the king in 1643, took
part in the proceedings of the Oxford parliament, and was made
lord treasurer on the 3rd of October 1643. He signed the
surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and being excepted from
the idemnity retired abroad. He joined Prince Charles at the
Hague in 1648, and became one of his counsellors. In 1649,
together with Hyde, Cottington went on a mission to Spain to
obtain help for the royal cause, having an interview with Mazarin
at Paris on the way. They met, however, with an extremely
ill reception, and Cottington found he had completely lost his
popularity at the Spanish court, one cause being his shortcomings
and waverings in the matter of religion. He now announced his
intention of remaining in Spain and of keeping faithful to Roman
Catholicism, and took up his residence at Valladolid, where he was
maintained by the Jesuits. He died there on the 19th of June
1652, his body being subsequently buried in Westminster Abbey.
He had amassed a large fortune and built two magnificent houses
at Hanworth and Founthill. Cottington was evidently a man of
considerable ability, but the foreign policy pursued by him was
opposed to the national interests and futile in itself. According
to Clarendon's verdict " he left behind him a greater esteem of
his parts than love of his person." He married in 1623 Anne,
daughter of Sir William Meredith and widow of Sir Robert Brett.
All his children predeceased him, and his title became extinct
at his death.

Bibliography. — Article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography and
authorities there quoted; Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion, passim,
and esp. xiii. 30 (his character), and xii., xiii. (account of the Spanish
mission in 1649); Clarendon's State Papers and Life; Strafford's
Letters; Gardiner's Hist, of England and of the Commonwealth;
Hoare's Wiltshire; Laud's Works, vols, iii.-vii.; Winwood's
Memorials: A Refutation of a False and Impious Aspersion cast
on the late Lord Cottington\ Dart, Westmonasterium, i. 181 (epitaph
and monument). , (P. C. Y.)

COTTON, the name of a well-known family of Anglo-Indian
administrators, of whom the following are the most notable.

Sir Arthur Thomas Cotton (1803-1899), English engineer,
tenth son of Henry Calveley Cotton, was born on the 1 5th of May
1803, and was educated at Addiscombe. He entered the Madras
engineers in 1819, served in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and
in 1828 began his life-work on the irrigation works of southern
India. He constructed works on the Cauvery,Coleroon,Godavari
and Kistna rivers, making anicuts (dams) on the Coleroon
(183 6-1 83 8) for the irrigation of the Tanjore, Trichinopoly and
South Arcot districts; and on the Godivari (1847-1852) for the
irrigation of the Godavari district. He also projected the anicut
on the Kistna (Krishna), which was carried out by other officers.
Before the beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining
districts were threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its
completion they became the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore
returned the largest revenue of any district in India. He was
the founder of the school of Indian hydraulic engineering, and
carried out much of his work in the face of opposition and
discouragement from the Madras government; though, in the
minute of the 15th of May 1858, that government paid an ample
tribute to the genius of Cotton's " master mind." He was
knighted in 1861. Sir Arthur Cotton believed in the possibility
of constructing a complete system of irrigation and navigation
canals throughout India, and devoted the whole of a long life to
the partial realization of this project. He died on the 24th of
July 1899.

See Lady Hope, General Sir Arthur Cotton (1900).

Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton (1845- )> Anglo-

Indian administrator, son of J. J. Cotton of the Madras Civil
Service, was born on the 13th of September 1845, and was
educated at Magdalen College^school and King's College, London.
He entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1867, and held various
appointments of increasing importance until he became chief
secretary to the Bengal government (1891-1896), acting home
secretary to the government of India (1896), and chief com-
missioner of Assam (1896-1902). He retired in 1902, and soon
became known as the leading English champion of the Indian

COTTON, C— COTTON, J.

255

nationalists. In 1906 he entered parliament as Liberal member
for East Nottingham. He was the author of New India (1885;
revised 1904-1907).

His brother, James Sutherland Cotton (1847- ), was
born in India on the 17th of July 1847, and was educated at
Magdalen College school and Trinity College, Oxford. For
many years he was editor of the Academy; he published various
works on Indian subjects, and was the English editor of the
revised edition of the Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908).

COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687), English poet, the translator
of Montaigne, was born at Beresford in Staffordshire on the 28th
of April 1630. His father, Charles Cotton, was a man of marked
ability, and counted among his friends Ben Jonson, John Selden,
Sir Henry Wotton and Izaak Walton. The son was apparently
not sent to the university, but he had as tutor Ralph Rawson, one
of the fellows ejected from Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1648.
Cotton travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, and at the age of
twenty-eight he succeeded to an estate greatly encumbered by
lawsuits during his father's lifetime. The rest of his life was
spent chiefly in country pursuits, but from his Voyage to Ireland
in Burlesque (1670) we know that he held a captain's commission
and was ordered to that country. His friendship with Izaak
Walton began about 1655, and the fact of this intimacy seems a
sufficient answer to the charges sometimes brought against
Cotton's character, based chiefly on his coarse burlesques of
Virgil and Lucian. Walton's initials made into a cipher with his
own were placed over the door of his fishing cottage on the Dove;
and to the Compleat Angler he added " Instructions how to angle
for a trout or grayling in a clear stream." He married in 1656
his cousin Isabella, who was a sister of Colonel Hutchinson. It
was for his wife's sister, Miss Stanhope Hutchinson, that he
undertook the translation of Corneille's Horace (1671). His wife
died in 1670 and five years later he married the dowager countess
of Ardglass; she had a jointure of £1500 a year, but it was
secured from his extravagance, and at his death in 1687 he was
insolvent. He was buried in St James's church, Piccadilly, on
the 16th of February 1687. Cotton's reputation as a burlesque
writer may account for the neglect with which the rest of his
poems have been treated. Their excellence was not, however,
overlooked by good critics. Coleridge praises the purity and
unaffectedness of his style in Biographia Literaria, and Words-
worth {Preface, 181 5) gave a copious quotation from the " Ode to
Winter. " The " Retirement " is printed by Walton in the second
part of the Compleat Angler. His masterpiece in translation, the
Essays of M. de Montaigne (1685-1686, 1693, 1700, &c), has
often been reprinted, and still maintains its reputation; his other
works include The Scarronides, or Virgil Travestie (1664-1670), a
gross burlesque of the first and fourth books of the Aeneid,
which ran through fifteen editions; Burlesque upon Burlesque,
. . . being some of Lucian 's Dialogues newly put into English
fustian (167 5) ; The Moral Philosophy of theStoicks (1667), from the
French of Guillaume du Vair; The History of the Life of the Duke
d'Espernon (1670), from the French of G. Girard; the Com-
mentaries (1674) of Blaise de Montluc; the Planter's Manual
(1675), a practical book on arboriculture, in which he was an
expert; The Wonders of the Peake (1681); the Compleat Gamester
and The Fair one of Tunis, both dated 1674, are also assigned to
Cotton.

William Oldys contributed a life of Cotton to Hawkins's edition
(1760) of the Compleat Angler. His Lyrical Poems were edited by
J. R. Tutin in 1903, from an unsatisfactory edition of 1689. His
translation of Montaigne was edited in 1892, and in a more elaborate
form in 1902, by W. C. Hazlitt, who omitted or relegated to the notes
the passages in which Cotton interpolates his own matter, and
supplied his omissions.

COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813-1866), English
educationist and divine, was born at Chester on the 29th of
October 1813. He received his education at Westminster school,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he joined the Low
Church party, and was also the intimate friend of several dis-
ciples of Thomas Arnold, among whom were C. J. Vaughan
and W. J. Conybeare. The influence of Arnold determined the
character and course of his life. He graduated B.A. in 1836, and

became an assistant-master at Rugby. Here he worked devotedly
for fifteen years, inspired with Arnold's spirit, and heartily enter-
ing into his plans and methods. He became master of the fifth
form about 1840 and was singularly successful with the boys.
In 1852 he accepted the appointment of headmaster at Marl-
borough College, then in a state of almost hopeless disorganiza-
tion, and in his six years of rule raised it to a high position. In
1858 Cotton was offered the see of Calcutta, which, after much
hesitation about quitting Marlborough, he accepted. For its
peculiar duties and responsibilities he was remarkably fitted by
the simplicity and strength of his character, by his large tolerance,
and by the experience which he had gained as teacher and ruler
at Rugby and Marlborough. The government of India had just
been transferred from the East India Company to the crown,
and questions of education were eagerly discussed. Cotton gave
himself energetically to the work of establishing schools for
British and Eurasian children, classes which had been hitherto
much neglected. He did much also to improve the position of
the chaplains, and was unwearied in missionary visitation. His
sudden death was widely mourned. On the 6th of October 1866
he had consecrated a cemetery at Kushtea on the Ganges, and
was crossing a plank leading from the bank to the steamer when
he slipped and fell into the river. He was carried away by the
current and never seen again.

A memoir of his life with selections from his journals and corre-
spondence, edited by his widow, was published in 1871.

COTTON, JOHN (1585-1652), English and American Puritan
divine, sometimes called " The Patriarch of New England," born
in Derby, England, on the 4th of December 1585. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1603
and M.A. in 1606, and became a fellow in Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism, where, during the
next six years, according to his friend and biographer, Rev.
Samuel Whiting, he was " head lecturer and dean, and Catechist,"
and " a dilligent tutor to many pupils." In June 1612 he became
vicar of the parish church of St Botolphs in Boston, Lincolnshire,
where he remained for twenty-one years and was extremely
popular. Becoming more and more a Puritan in spirit, he ceased,
about 16 1 5, to observe certain ceremonies prescribed by the
legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was begun against
him in the High Commission Court. He thereupon escaped,
disguised, to London, lay in concealment there for several
months, and, having been deeply interested from its beginning in
the colonization of New England, he eluded the watch set for him
at the various English ports, and in July 1633 emigrated to
the colony of Massachusetts Bay, arriving at Boston early in
September. On the 10th of October he was chosen " teacher " of
the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson (1588-1667)
was pastor, and here he remained until his death on the 23rd
of December 1652. In the newer, as in the older Boston, his
popularity was almost unbounded, and his influence, both in
ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, was probably greater than ttiat
of any other minister in theocratic New England. According to
the contemporary historian, William Hubbard, " Whatever he
delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order of court, if of a
civil, or set up as a practice in the church, if of an ecclesiastical
concernment." His influence, too, was generally beneficent,
though it was never used to further the cause of religious freedom,
or of democracy, his theory of government being given in an oft-
quoted passage: " Democracy, I do not conceyve that ever God
did ordeyne as a fitt government eyther for church or common-
wealth. ... As for Monarchy and aristocracy they are both for
them clearly approved, and directed in Scripture yet so as (God)
referreth the sovereigntie to himselfe, and setteth up Theocracy
in both, as the best form of government." He naturally took an
active part in most, if not all, of the political and theological
controversies of his time, the two principal of which were those
concerning Antinomianism and the expulsion of Roger Williams.
In the former his position was somewhat equivocal — he first
supported and then violently opposed Anne Hutchinson, — in the
latter he approved Williams's expulsion as " righteous in the eyes
of God," and subsequently in a pamphlet discussion with

25 6

COTTON, SIR R. B.,— COTTON

Williams, particularly in his Bloudy Tenent, Washed and made
White in the Blond of the Lamb (1647), vigorously opposed
religious freedom. He was a man of great learning and was a
prolific writer. His writings include : The Keyes to the Kingdom
of Heaven and the Power thereof (1644), The Way of the Churches of
Christ in New England (1645), and The Way of Congregational
Churches Cleared (1648), these works constituting an invaluable
exposition of New England Congregationalism; and Milk for
Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for
the Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England,
but may be of like Use for any Children (1646), widely used for
many years, in New England, for the religious instruction of
children.

See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson,
in Magnolia (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary
and friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's
Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay
from 1623 to 1636 (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure's The Life of
John Cotton (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's History
of the First Church in Boston (Boston, 188 1), and a chapter in Williston
Walker's Ten New England Leaders (New York, 1901). (W. Wr.)

COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, Bart, (1571-1631), English
antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton
in Huntingdonshire on the 22nd of January 1571, was a
descendant, as he delighted to boast, of Robert Bruce. He was
educated at Westminster school under William Camden the
antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian
tastes were early displayed in the collection of ancient records,
charters and other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from
the monastic libraries in the reign of Henry VIII. ; and through-
out the whole of his life he was an energetic collector of antiquities
from all parts of England and the continent. His house at
Westminster had a garden going down to the river and occupied
part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the
meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth's reign of the anti-
quarian society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton
visited the north of England with Camden in search of Pictish
and Roman monuments and inscriptions. His reputation as an
expert in heraldry led to his being asked by Queen Elizabeth
to discuss the question of precedence between the English
ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais.
He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of
the English ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was
knighted, and in 1608 he wrote a Memorial on Abuses in the
Navy, that resulted in a navy commission, of which he was made a
member. He also presented to the king an historical Inquiry
into the Crown Revenues, in which he speaks freely about the
expenses of the royal household, and asserts that tonnage and
poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to " proceed out
of good will, not of duty." In this paper he supported the
creation of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the
crown £1000; and in 161 1 he himself received the title.

Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his History of
England (16 n), and was regarded by contemporaries as the
compiler of Camden's History of Elizabeth. It seems more likely
that it was executed by Camden, but that Cotton exercised a
general supervision, especially with regard to the story of Mary
queen of Scots. The presentation of his mother's history was
naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself took a keen
interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay
where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at
Connington. Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of
documents. In 1614 Arthur Agarde (q.v.) left his papers to him,
and Camden's manuscripts came to him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton,
as the intimate of the earl of Somerset, whose innocence he
always maintained, was placed in confinement on the charge of
being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he
confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento,
the Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the
dates of Somerset's correspondence. He was released after
about eight months' imprisonment without formal trial, and
obtained a pardon on payment of £500. His friendship with
Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from 1613 to 1621,

brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon Cotton,
of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and
Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards
the court had begun to change, and he became the intimate
friend of Sir John Eliot, Sir Simonds d'Ewes and John Selden.
He had entered parliament in 1604 as member for Huntingdon;
in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for Thetford; and in 1628
for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on supply in 1625
Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the action of the
opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the party
met at Cotton's house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave
advice before the council against debasing the standard of the.
coinage; and in January 1628 he was again before the council,
urging the summons of a parliament. His arguments on the
latter occasion are contained in his tract entitled The Danger in
which the Kingdom now standeth and the Remedy. In October of
the next year he was arrested, together with the earls of
Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with
ironical purpose, a tract known as the Proposition to bridle
Parliament, which had been addressed some fifteen years before
by Sir Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by
force; the circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded
as intended to insinuate that Charles's government was arbitrary
and unconstitutional. Cotton denied knowledge of the matter,
but the original was discovered in his house, and the copies had
been put in circulation by a young man who lived after him and
was said to be his natural son. Cotton was himself released the
next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber continued,
and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by the
king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in
Connington church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monu-
ment to his memory.

Many of Cotton's pamphlets were widely read in manuscript
during his lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, The
Reign of Henry III. (1627) and The Danger in which the Kingdom
now Standeth (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (15941-1662), added
considerably to the Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth
baronet, presented it to the nation in 1700. In 173J the collection,
which had in the interval been removed to the Strand, and thence to
Ashburnham House, was seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was
transferred to the British Museum.

See the article Libraries, and Edwards's Lives of the Founders
of the British Museum, vol. i. Several of Cotton's papers have
been printed under the title Cottoni Posthuma ; others were published
by Thomas Hearne.

COTTON (Fr. colon; from Arab, qutun), the most important of
the vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs
which occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of
the genus Gossypium, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae) .
Each fibre is formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell
of the testa or outer coat of the seed.

Botany and Cultivation. — The genus Gossypium includes herbs
and shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial,
and are now found widely distributed throughout the tropical
and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. South America,
the West Indies, tropical Africa and Southern Asia are the
homes of the various members, but the plants have been intro-
duced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by the
fact that although no species of Gossypium is native to the
United States of America, that country now produces over two-
thirds of the world's supply of cotton. Under normal conditions
in warm climates many of the species are perennials, but, in the
United States for example, climatic conditions necessitate the
plants being renewed annually, and even in the tropics it is often
found advisable to treat them as annuals to ensure the production
of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate cultural operations, and
to keep insect and fungoid pests in check.

Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows
that the hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat
in general appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This
characteristic is of great economic importance, the natural twist
facilitating the operation of spinning the fibres into thread or
yarn. It also distinguishes the true cotton from the silk cottons
or flosses, the fibres of which have no twist, and do not readily

COTTON

257

spin into thread, and for this reason, amongst others, are very
considerably less important as textile fibres. The chief of these
silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne on the interior
of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of Eriodendron
anfractuosum, the silk cotton tree, a member of the Bombacaceae,
an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae.

Classification. — Considerable difficulty is encountered in
attempting to draw up a botanical classification of the species of
Gossypium. Several are only known in cultivation, and we have
but little knowledge of the wild parent forms from which they
have descended. During the periods the cottons have been
cultivated, selection, conscious or unconscious, has been carried
on, resulting in the raising, from the same stock probably, in
different places, of well-marked forms, which, in the absence of the
history of their origin, might be regarded as different species.
Then again, during at least the last four centuries, cotton plants
have been distributed from one country to another, only to render

still more difficult any
attempt to establish de-
finitely the origin of the
varieties now grown.
Under these circum-
stances it is not sur-
prising to find that
those who have paid
attention to the botany
of the cottons differ
greatly in the number
1 of species they recog-
Inize. Linnaeus de-
scribed five or six
species, de Candolle
thirteen. Of the two
Italian botanists who
in comparatively recent
years have mono-
graphed the group,
Parlatore (Le Specie dei
coloni, 1866) recognizes
seven species, whilst
Todaro (Relazione sulla
culta dei cotoni, 1877-
1878) describes over
fifty species: many of
these, however, are of
but little economic im-
portance, and, in spite
of the difficulties men-
tioned above, it is
possible for practical
purposes to divide the
commercially important plants into five species, placing these
in two groups according to the character of the hairs borne on
the seeds. Sir G. Watt's exhaustive work on Wild and Cultivated
Cotton Plants of the World (1907) is the latest authority on the
subject; and his views on some debated points have been in-
corporated in the following account.

A seed of " Sea Island cotton " is covered with long hairs only,
which are readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small
black seed quite clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end,
whereas a seed of " Upland " or ordinary American cotton bears
both long and short hairs; the former are fairly easily detached
(less easily, however, than in Sea Island cotton), whilst the latter
adhere very firmly, so that when the long hairs are pulled off the
seed remains completely covered with a short fuzz. This is also
the case with the ordinary Indian and African cottons. There
remains one other important group, the so-called " kidney "
cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily
comes away clean as with " Sea Island," but, instead of each
seed being separate, the whole group in each of the three com-
partments of the capsule is firmly united together in a more or less
kidney-shaped mass. Starting with this as the basis of classifica-

vii. 9

From Strasburger's Lekrbitch dcr Botanik, by
permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 1. — Seed-hairs of the Cotton, Gos-
sypium herbaceum. A, Part of seed-coat
with hairs; Bi, insertion and lower part;
Bi, middle part; and B 3 , upper part of a
hair.

tion, we can construct the following key, the remaining principal
points of difference being indicated in their proper places-: —

Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning
to red.

{A. Seeds separate.
Country of origin,Tropical America — (1) G.barbadense,L,.
B. Seeds of each loculus united.
Country of origin, S. America — (2) G.brasiliense, Macf.
. Seeds covered with long and short hairs.
CA. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red.

a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large.
Flowers white.

Country of origin, Mexico — (3) G. hirsutum, L.
Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small.
Flowers yellow.

Country of origin, India — (4) G. herbaceum, L.
B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed.
Place of origin, Old World — (5) G. arboreum, L.

1. G. barbadense, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation,
is usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it
as closely allied to G. vilifolium, and considers the modern stock a
hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He
classifies the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as G. barba-
dense, var. maritima. Whatever may be its true botanical name it
is the plant known in commerce as " Sea Island " cotton, owing to
its introduction and successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and
the coastal districts of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.
It yields the most valuable of all cottons, the hairs being long,
fine and silky, and ranging in length from £ to 2§ in. By careful
selection (the methods of which are described below) in the
United States, the quality of the product was much improved,
and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the West Indies
American " Sea Island " seed was introduced back again to the
original home of the species.

Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the
same species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to
be races or hybrids of G. peruvianum, Cav. Egyptian cotton in
length of staple is intermediate between average Sea Island and
average Upland. It has, however, certain characteristics which
cause it to be in demand even in the United States, where during
recent years Egyptian cotton has comprised about 80% of all the
" foreign " cottons imported. These special qualities are its
fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural twist, which
combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited to the
manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with
silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well.
The principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: Mitafifi, the best-
known and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected
by climatic variation. It is usually regarded as the standard
Egyptian cotton ; the lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and
almost smooth, usually with a little tuft of short green hairs at
the ends. A bassi, a variety comparatively recently obtained by
selection. The lint is pure white, very fine and silky, but not so
strong as Mitafifi cotton. Yannovitch, a variety known since
about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint of the white
Egyptian cottons. Bamia, yielding a brown lint, very similar
to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. Ashmouni, a variety
principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and
generally resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable.

Other varieties are Zifiri, Hamouli and Gallini, all of minor
importance.

2. G. brasiliense, Macf. (G. peruvianum, Engler), or kidney
cotton. Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from
this species appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara,
Aracaty and Maceio cottons The fibre is generally white,
somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially adapted for mixing
with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to about i§ in.

3. G. hirsutum, Linn. Although G. barbadense yields the most
valuable cotton, G. hirsutum is the most important cotton-
yielding plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e. Upland,
Georgia, New Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies
usually in length between | and ij in. According to Watt there
are many hybrids in American cottons between G. hirsutum and
G. mexicanum.

12

2 5 8

COTTON

4. G. herbaceum, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this
species. The majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India
are often referred to this species, which is closely allied to
G. hirsutum and has been regarded as identical with it. Amongst
the cottons of this source are Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar,
Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns,
Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and Bhaunagar. Watt dissents
from this view and classes these Indian cottons as G. obtusifolium
and G. Nanking with their varieties. The Indian cottons are
usually of short staple (about f in.), but are probably capable of
improvement.

5. G. arboreum, Linn. This species is often considered as
indigenous to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is
found wild in Upper Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the
" tree cotton " of India and Africa, being typically a large shrub
or small tree. The fibre is fine and silky, of about an inch in
length. In India it is known as Nurma or Deo cotton, and
is usually stated to be employed for making thread for the
turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor
importance.

The following table, summarized from the Handbook to the
Imperial Institute Cotton Exhibition, 1905, giving the length of
staple and value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to
indicate the comparative values of some of the principal com-
mercial cottons. The actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly.

Length of Staple. Value

Inches.

Per lb

Sea Island Cotton-

s. d.

Carolina Sea Island .

. 1-8

1 3

Florida ,, ,, ...

. 1-8

1

Georgia „ „ ...

• 1-7

Hi

Barbados ,, „

2-0

1 3

Egyptian Cottons-

• 1-5

91

• i-5

si

Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi)

1-2

71

American Cotton —

Good middling Memphis .

• i-3

4*

Good middling Texas

I-O

4t

Good middling Upland

I-O

4

Indian Cottons —

Fine Tinnevelly

. o-8

41

Fine Bhaunagar

1-0

3|

I-O

31

. 09

3i?

. 09

3ll

Fine ginned Sind . .

. o-8

-211

J16

Good ginned Kumta

I-O

3i

The close relationship between the length of the staple and the
market price will be at once apparent.

Cultivation. — Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the
world, being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial
crop in almost every country included in the broad belt be-
tween latitudes 43 N. and 33° S., or approximately within the
isothermal lines of 6o° F.

The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful
cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal
vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst
season rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or
one-third; such a thing as a " half-crop " is unknown. Various
climatic factors may cause temporary checks, but the growing
and maturing period is sufficiently long to allow the plants to
overcome these disturbances.

Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of
favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a
very hot one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration
is not in excess of the supply of water. An idea of the require-
ments of the plant will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the
conditions which have been found to give the best results in the
United States.

During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May
frequent light showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist
to assist germination and the growth of the young plants, are
desired. Three to four inches of rain per month is the average.
The active growing period is from early June to about the middle
of August. During June and the first fortnight in July plenty of

sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain to promote
healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in the
cotton belt for this period is about 4§ in. per month. During the
second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher
rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, pro-
vided the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first
flowers usually appear in June, and the bolls ripen from early in
August. Picking takes place normally during September and
October, and during these months dry weather is essential.
Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although in diminishing
degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the flowers and
young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton for
the season.

In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but
there the dry season checks production in much the same way as
do the frosts in temperate climates. In either case an adequate
but not excessive rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to
the period of active growth, and then decreasing as the bolls
ripen, with a dry picking season, combined with surihy days and
warm nights, provide the ideal conditions for successful cotton
cultivation. In regions where climatic conditions are favourable,
cotton grows more or less successfully on almost all kinds of soil;
it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, heavy clays and
sandy " bottom " lands with varying success. Sandy uplands
produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and " bottom "
lands produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion.
The most suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil
should be able to maintain very uniform conditions of moisture.
Sudden variations in the amount of water supplied are injurious:
a sandy soil cannot retain water; on the other hand a clay soil
often maintains too great a supply, and rank growth with excess
of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton is thus a deep, well-
drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of moisture during
the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as
cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds;
and in exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts
have at times to be provided.

Cultivation in the United Stales. — The United States being the
most important cotton-producing country, the methods of
cultivation practised there are first described, notes on methods
adopted in other countries being added only when these differ
considerably from American practice.

The culture of cotton must be a clean one. It is not necessarily
deep culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is
preferably very shallow. The result is a great destruction of the
humus of the soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in
the light loams of the hill country of the United States. The main
object, therefore, of the American cotton-planter is to prevent
erosion. Wherever the planters have failed to guard their fields
by hillside ploughing and terracing, these have been extensively
denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and devastating other
fields lying at a lower level, which are covered by the wash. The
hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough, upon
almost an exact level. On the better farms this is done with a
spirit-level or compass from time to time and hillside ditches put
in at the proper places. In the moist bottom-lands along the
rivers it is the custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the
plough, and then to cultivate them deep. This is the more
common method of drainage, but it is expensive, as it has to be
renewed every few years. More intelligent planters drain their
bottom-lands with underground or open drains. In the case of
small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a right-of-way for
outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this plan. Many
planters question the wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling.
There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the cotton-
plant; but the expense of obtaining it, the risk of injuring the
soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the
surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan. Sandy soils
are made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable
proceeding to turn the heavy clays upon the top. Planters are,
as a result, divided in opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling.
Nothing definite can be said with regard to a rotation of crops

COTTON

259

upon the cotton plantation. Planters appreciate generally the
value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants and root crops,
but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the result that
their practices are very varied. It is believed that the rotation
must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that each
planter has his own method, and little can be said in general. A
more careful study of the physical as well as the chemical
properties of a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in
rotation. This knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of
the cotton soils. The only uniform practice is to let the fields
" rest " when they have become exhausted. Nature then restores
them very rapidly. The exhaustion of the soil under cotton
culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and nature soon puts
this back in the excellent climate of the cotton-growing belt.
Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to " rest " for
years, when cultivated again have produced better crops than
those which had been under a more or less thoughtful rotation.
In spite of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown
on some soils in the south for more than forty successive years.
The fibre takes almost nothing from the land, and where the
seeds are restored to the soil in some form, even without other
fertilizers, the exhaustion of the soil is very slow. If the burning-
up of humus and the leaching of the soil could be prevented, there
is no reason why a cotton soil should not produce good crops
continuously for an indefinite time. Bedding up land previous
to planting is almost universal. The bed forms a warm seed-bed
in the cool weather of early spring, and holds the manure which is
drilled in usually to better advantage. The plants are generally
left 2 or 3 in. above the middle of the row, which in four-foot rows
gives a slope of 1 in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from
the plants in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots. The plants
are usually cut out with a hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart. It seems to
make little difference exactly what distance they are, so long as
they are not wider apart on average land than 1 ft. On rich
bottom-land they should be more distant. The seed is dropped
from a planter, five or six seeds in a single line, at regular intervals
10 to 1 2 in. apart. A narrow deep furrow is usually run immedi-
ately in advance of the planter, to break up the soil under the
seed. The only time the hoe is used is to thin out the cotton in
the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various forms of
ploughs and so-called cultivators. The question of deep and
shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without
any conclusion applicable to all soils being reached. All grass
and weeds must be kept down, and the crust must be broken
after every rain, but these seem to be the only principles upon
which all agree. The most effective tool against the weeds is a
broad sharp " sweep," as it is called, which takes everything it
meets, while going shallower than most ploughs. Harrows and
cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and the mulching
process is the one desired.

The date of cotton-planting varies from March 1 to June 1,
according to situation. Planting begins early in March in
Southern Texas, and the first blooms will appear there about May
15. Planting may be done as late as April 15 in the Piedmont
region of North Carolina, and continue as late as the end of May.
The first blooms will appear in this region about July 1 5. Picking
may begin on July 10 in Southern Texas, and continue late into
the winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants. It may not
begin until September 10 in Piedmont, North Carolina. It is a
peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms
and bolls. When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting
stage, the otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great Weak-
ness in this way. It sheds its " forms " (as the buds are called),
blooms, and even half-grown bolls in great numbers. It has
frequently been noted that even well-fertilized plants upon good
soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the bolls produced. No
means are known so far for preventing this great waste. Experts
are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the cause, or to
apply any effective remedy.

Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive
operation in cotton production. It is paid for at the rate of from
45 to 50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton. The work is light, and

is effectually performed by women and even children, as well as
men; but it is tedious and requires care. The picking season
will average 100 days. It is difficult to get the hands to work
until the cotton is fully opened, and it is hard to induce them to
pick over 100 lb a day, though some expert hands are found in
every cotton plantation who can pick twice as much. The loss
resulting from careless work is very serious. The cotton falls out
easily or is dropped. The careless gathering of dead leaves and
twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by earth or by the natural
colouring matter from the bolls, injure the quality. It has been
commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is
limited by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is
evidently very remote. The negro population of the towns and
villages of the cotton country is usually available for a consider-
able share in cotton-picking. There is in the cotton states a rural
population of over 7,000,000, more or less occupied in cotton-
growing, and capable, at the low average of 100 lb a day, of
picking daily nearly 500,000 bales. It is evident, therefore, that if
this number could work through the whole season of 100 days,
they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the largest
crop ever made. Great efforts have been made to devise cotton-
picking machines, but, as yet, complete success has not been
attained. Lowne's machine is useful in specially wide-planted
fields and when the ground is sufficiently hard.

Cotton Ginning. — The crop having been picked, it has to be
prepared for purpose of manufacture. This comprises separating
the fibre or lint from the seeds, the operation being known as
" ginning." When this has been accomplished the weight of the
crop is reduced to about one-third, each 100 lb of seed cotton as
picked yielding after ginning some 33 lb of lint and 66 lb of cotton
seed. The actual amounts differ with different varieties, condi-
tions of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c. ; a recent estimate
in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland cotton and
25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate.

The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various
ways. The most primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being
laboriously pulled from off each seed, as still practised in parts
of Africa. In modern commercial cotton production ginning
machines are always used. Very simple machines are used in
some parts of Africa. The simplest cotton gin in extensive use
is the " churka," used from early times, and still largely employed
in India and China. It consists essentially of two rollers either
both of wood, or one of wood and one of iron, geared to revolve
in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the
rollers, the lint is drawn through, and the seed being unable to
pass between the rollers is rejected. With this primitive machine,
worked by hand, about 5 lb of lint is the daily output. In the
Macarthy roller gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with
leather (preferably walrus hide), is drawn between a metal plate
called the " doctor " (fixed tangentially to the roller and very
close to it) and a blade called the "beater" or knife, which
rapidly moves up and down immediately behind, and parallel to,
the fixed plate. The lint is held by the roughness of the roller,
and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the seed
from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes
over the roller to the other side of the machine. A hand
Macarthy roller gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 lb
of lint per hour. A similar, but larger machine, requiring about
1 5 horse-power to run it, will turn out 50 to 60 lb of Egyptian or
60 to 80 lb of Sea Island cleaned cotton per hour. By simple
modifications the Macarthy gin can be used for all kinds of
cotton. Various attempts have been made to substitute a comb
for the knife or beater, and one of the latest productions is the
" Universal fibre gin," in which a series of blunt combs working
horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife of the
Macarthy gin.

Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the " saw gin,"
invented by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1792. This machine,
under various modifications, is employed for ginning the greater
portion of the cotton grown in the Southern States of America.
It consists essentially of a series of circular notched disks, the
so-called saws, revolving between the interstices of an iron bed

26o

COTTON

upon which the cotton is placed: the teeth of the "saws".
catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then a revolving
brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates
sufficient draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some
distance. Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for
short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great
capacity. The average yield of lint per " saw " in the United
States, when working under perfect conditions, is about 6 lb per
hour. Some of the American ginners are very large indeed, a
number {Bulletin of the Bureau of the Census on Cotton Produc-
tion) being reported as containing on the average 1156 saws
with an average production of 4120 bales of cotton. Saw gins
are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea Island
and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the
Macarthy type.

The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest
time is naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as
materially to diminish the market value of the cotton. This has
sometimes been to the extent of id. or 2d. per lb and even more as
regards Sea Island and other long-stapled cottons. The produc-
tion, therefore, of the most perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning
machinery is of importance alike to the planter and manu-
facturer.

Baling. — The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose
condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience
of transport. Large baling presses are worked by hydraulic
power; the operation needs no special description. Bales from
different countries vary greatly in size, weight and appearance.
The American bale has been described in a standard American
book on cotton as " the clumsiest, dirtiest, most expensive and
most wasteful package, in which cotton or any other commodity
of like value is anywhere put up." Suggestions for its improve-
ment, which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in a
monetary saving of £1,000,000 annually, were made by the
Lancashire Private Cotton Investigation Commission which
visited the Southern States of America in 1906.

The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the
English market are as follows: —

United States 500 lb

Indian 400 ft

Egyptian 700 lb

Peruvian . . . . . 200 lb

Brazilian . . . . . . 200 to 300 lb

With baling the work of the producer is concluded.

Cultivation in Egypt. — Climatic conditions in Egypt differ
radically from those in the United States, the rainfall being so
small as to be quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very
little rain indeed falling in the Nile Delta during the whole grow-
ing season of the crop : yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-
producing country of the world, elaborate irrigation works
supplying the crop with the requisite water. The area devoted
to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and nine-tenths of it
is in the Nile Delta. The delta soil is typically a heavy, black,
alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work; admixture of
sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs yield the
best cotton. Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a
perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and
fresh plants are raised from seed each year, as in America; one
great advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained
each year. The following rotation is frequently adopted. It
should be noted that in Egypt the year is divided into three
seasons — winter, summer and " Nili." The two first explain
themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile overflows its
banks. .

First year
Second year

Winter.

Summer.

Nili.

Clover

Beans or wheat

Cotton

Corn or fallow

For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled,
and then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart. Channels
formed at right angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the

access of water to the crop. The seeds,, previously soaked, are
sown, usually in March, on the sides of the ridges, and the land
watered. After the seedlings appear, thinning is completed in
usually three successive hoeings, the plants being watered after
thinning, and subsequently at intervals of from twelve to fifteen
days, until about the end of August when picking commences.
The total amount of water given is approximately equivalent to a
rainfall of about 35 in. The crop is picked, ginned and baled in
the usual way, the Macarthy style action roller gins being almost
exclusively employed.

Cotton Seed. — The history of no agricultural product contains
more of interest and instruction for the student of economics than
does that of cotton seed in the United States. The revolution in
its treatment is a real romance of industry. Up till 1870 or
thereabouts, cotton seed was regarded as a positive nuisance upon
the American plantation. It was left to accumulate in vast heaps
about ginhouses, to the annoyance of the farmer and the injury
of his premises. Cotton seed in those days was the object of so
much aversion that the planter burned it or threw it into running
streams, as was most convenient. If the seed were allowed to lie
about, it rotted, and hogs and other animals, eating it, often died.
It was very difficult to burn, and when dumped into rivers and
creeks was carried out by flood water to fill the edges of the flats
with a decaying and offensive mass of vegetable matter. Although
used in the early days to a limited extent as a food for milch cows
and other stock, and to a larger extent as a manure, no systematic
efforts were made anywhere in the South to manufacture the
seed until the later 'fifties, when the first cotton seed mills were
established. It is said that there were only seven cotton oil
mills in the South in i860. The cotton-growing industry was
interrupted by the Civil War, and the seed-milling business did
not begin again until 1868. After that time the number of mills
rapidly increased. There were 25 in the South in 1870, 50 in
1880, 120 in 1890, and about 500 in 1901, about one-third being
in Texas.

Experience shows that 1000 lb of seed are produced for
every 500 lb of cotton brought to market. On the basis,
therefore, of a cotton crop of 10,000,000 bales of 500 lb
each, there are produced 5,000,000 tons of cotton seed. If
about 3,000,000 tons only are pressed, there remain to be
utilized on the farm 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, which, if
manufactured, would produce a total of $100,000,000 from cotton
seed. In contrast with the farmers of the 'sixties, the southern
planter of the 20th century appreciates the value of his cotton
seed, and farmers, too remote from the mills to get it pressed,
now feed to their stock all the cotton seed they conveniently can,
and use the residue either in compost or directly as manure.
The average of a large number of analyses of Upland cotton seed
gives the following figures for its fertilizing constituents: —
Nitrogen, 3-07%; phosphoric acid, 1-02%; potash, 1-17%;
besides small amounts of lime, magnesia and other valuable but
less important ingredients. Sea Island cotton seed is rather more
valuable than Upland: the corresponding figures for the three
principal constituents being nitrogen 3-51, phosphoric acid 169,
potash 1 • 59 %. Using average prices paid for nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash when bought in large quantities and in good
forms, these ingredients, in a ton of cotton seed, amount to
$9.00 worth of fertilizing material. Compared with the com-
mercial fertilizer which the farmer has to buy, cotton seed
possesses, therefore, a distinct value.

The products of cotton seed have become important elements
in the national industry of the United States. The main product
is the refined oil, which is used for a great number of purposes,
such as a substitute for olive oil, mixed with beef products for
preparation of compound lard, which is estimated to consume
one-third of cotton seed oil produced in the States. The poorer
grades are employed in the manufacture of soap, candles and
phonograph records. Miners' lamp oil consists of the bleached
oil mixed with kerosene. Cotton seed cake or meal (the residue
after the oil is extracted) is one of the most valuable of feeding
stuffs, as the following simple comparison between it and oats and
corn will show: —

COTTON

261

Average Analyses.

Proteins
or Flesh
Formers.

Carbo-
hydrates or
Fuel and Fat
Suppliers.

Fats.

Ash or Bone
Makers.

Cotton seed meal
Corn ....
Oats ....

43-26

10-5

17-0

22-31

70-0

65-0

13-45
5-5
8-0

7-02

1-02
1-2

Cotton seed meal, though poor in carbohydrates, the fat- and
energy-supplying ingredients, is exceedingly rich in protein, the
nerve- and muscle-feeding ingredients. But it still contains a
large amount of oil, which forms animal fat and heat, and thus
makes up for part of its deficiency in carbohydrates. The meal,
in fact, is so rich in protein that it is best utilized as a food for
animals when mixed with some coarse fodder, thus furnishing a
more evenly-balanced ration. In comparative valuations of
feeding stuffs it has been found that cotton seed meal exceeds
corn meal by 62 %, wheat by 67 %, and raw cotton seed by 26 %.
Cotton seed meal, in the absence of sufficient stock to consume it,
is also used extensively as a fertilizer, and for this purpose it is
worth, determining the price on the same basis as used above for
the seed, from $19 to $20 per ton. But it has seldom reached
this price, except in some of the northern states, where it is used
for feeding purposes. A more rational proceeding would be to
feed the meal to animals and apply the resulting manure to the
soil. When this is done, from 80 to 90% of the fertilizing
material of the meal is recovered in the manure, only 10 to 20 %
being converted by the animal into meat and milk. The profit
derived from the 20 % thus removed is a very large one. These
facts indicate that we have here an agricultural product the
market price of which is still far below its value as compared, on
the basis of its chemical composition, either with other feeding
stuffs or with other fertilizers. Though it is probably destined to
be used even more extensively as a fertilizer before the demand
for it as a feeding stuff becomes equal to the supply, practically
all the cotton seed meal of the south will ultimately be used for
feeding. One explanation of this condition of things is that
there is still a large surplus of cotton seed which cannot be
manufactured by the mills. Another reason is found in the
absence of cattle in the south to eat it.

With the consideration of cotton seed oil and meal we have
not, however, exhausted its possibilities. Cotton seed hulls
constitute about half the weight of the ginned seed. After the
seed of Upland cotton has been passed through a fine gin, which
takes off the short lint or linters left upon it by the farmer, it is
passed through what is called a sheller, consisting of a revolving
cylinder, armed with numerous knives, which cut the seed in two
and force the kernels or meats from the shells. The shells and
kernels are then separated in a winnowing machine. This
removal of the shell makes a great difference in the oilcake, as
the decorticated cake is more nutritious than the undecorticated.
For a long time these shells or hulls, as they are called,
were burned at oil mills for fuel, 25 tons being held equal
to a cord of wood, and 4J tons to a ton of coal. The hulls
thus burned produced an ash containing an average of 9% of
phosphoric acid and 24 % of potash — a very valuable fertilizer
in itself, and one eagerly sought by growers of tobacco and
vegetables. It was not long, however, before the stock-feeder in
the South found that cotton seed hulls were an excellent substitute
for hay. They are used on a very large scale in the vicinity of
oil mills in southern cities like Memphis, New Orleans, Houston,
and Little Rock, from 500 to 5000 cattle being often collected in
a single yard for this purpose. No other feed is required, the
only provision necessary being an adequate supply of water and
an occasional allowance of salt. Many thousands of cattle are
fattened annually in this way at remarkably low cost.

Careful attention is now given to the employment of the seed
in new cotton countries, and oil expression is practised in the
West Indies. Hull is the principal seat of the industry in Great
Britain, and enormous quantities of Indian and Egyptian cotton
seed are imported and worked up.

The following diagram, modified from one by Grimsbaw. in

accordance with the results obtained by the better class of
modern mills, gives an interesting risumS of the products obtained
from a ton of cotton seed: —

Products from a Ton of Cotton Seed.

Cotton seed, 2000 pounds.

Meats, 1090 pounds.

Cake, 800 pounds.

I
Meal.

(Feeding stuff. Fertilizer.)

Linters, 23 pounds.

Hulls, 888 pounds.

Fibre.

I

Crude oil, 290 pounds. (High-grade paper.)

Summer Yellow.

Soap stock.

(Winter
yellow

Cotton seed
stearin.)

i
Soaps.

Salad oil.

Summer white.

Lard.

Cottol

;ne (with beef stearin, cooking oil).

Miners' oil.

Soap.

(Fuel.)

Bran.

(Cattle food.)

Ashei

Fertilizer.

(Cattle food)
with the meal.

These together,

a very valuable

manure.

. Pests and Diseases of the Cotton Plant.

Insect Pests. — It is common knowledge that when any plant is
cultivated on a large scale various diseases and pests frequently
appear. In some cases the pest was already present but of minor
importance. As the supply of its favourite food plant is increased,
conditions of life for the pest are improved, and it accordingly
multiplies also, possibly becoming a serious hindrance to success-
ful cultivation. At other times the pest is introduced, and under
congenial conditions (and possibly in the absence of some other
organism which keeps it in check in its native country) increases
accordingly. Some idea of the enormous damage wrought by the
collective attacks of individually small and weak animals may be
gathered from the fact that a conservative estimate places the
loss due to insect attacks on cotton in the United States at the
astoundingfigure.of$6o,ooo,ooo(£i2,ooo,ooo) annually. Of this
total no less than $40,000,000 (£8,000,000) is credited to a small
beetle, the cotton boll weevil, and to two caterpillars. The best
means of combating these attacks depends on a knowledge of the
life-histories and habits of the pests. The following notes deal
only with the practical side of the question, and as the United
States produce some seven-tenths of the world's cotton crop
attention is especially directed to the principal cotton pests of
that country. Those of other regions are only referred to when
sufficiently important to demand separate notice.

The cotton boll weevil (A nthonomus grandis), a small grey
weevil often called the Mexican boll weevil, is the most serious
pest of cotton in the United States, where the damage done by it
in 1907 was estimated at about £5,000,000. It steadily increased
in destructiveness during the preceding eight years. Attention was
drawn to it in 1862, when it caused the abandonment of cotton
cultivation about Monclova in Mexico. About 1893 it appeared
in Texas, and then rapidly spread. It is easily transported from
place to place in seed-cotton, and for this reason the Egyptian
government in 1904 prohibited the importation of American
cotton seed. Not only is the pest carried from place to place,
but it also migrates, and in 1907 it crossed from Louisiana,
where it first appeared in 1905, to Mississippi. That the insect
is likely to prove adaptable is perhaps indicated by the fact that
in 1906 it made a northward advance of about 60 m. in a season
with no obvious special features favouring the pest. Its eastern
progress was also rapid. " The additional territory infested
during 1904 aggregates about 15,000,000 sq. m., representing
approximately an area devoted to the culture of cotton of
900,000 acres" {Year-book, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, 1904). In
1906 the additional area invaded amounted to 1,500,000 acres
(Ibid., 1906).

262

COTTON

The adult weevils puncture the young flower-buds and deposit
eggs; and as the grubs from the eggs develop, the bud drops.
They also lay eggs later in the year in the young bolls. These do
not drop, but as the grubs develop the cotton is ruined and the
bolls usually become discoloured and crack, their contents
being rendered useless.

No certain remedy is known for the destruction on a com-
mercial scale of the boll weevil, but every effort has been made in
the United States to check the advance of the insect, to ascertain
and encourage its natural enemies, and to propagate races of
cotton which resist its attacks. Special interest attaches to the
investigations made by Mr O. F. Cook, of the U.S. Dept. of
Agriculture, in Guatemala. The Indians in part of Guatemala
raise cotton, although the boll weevil is abundant. Examination
showed that although the weevil attacked the young buds these
did not drop off, but that a special growth of tissue inside the bud
frequently killed the grub. Also, inside the young bolls which
had been pierced a similar poliferation or growth of the tissue
was set up, which enveloped and killed the pest. Probably by
unconscious selection of surviving plants through long ages this
type has been evolved in Guatemala, and experiments have been
made to develop weevil-resistant races in the United States.
Mr Cook also found that the boll weevil was attacked, killed and
eaten by an ant-like creature, the " kelep." Attempts have been
made to introduce this into the infested area in Texas; but owing
to the winter proving fatal to the " kelep " its usefulness may be
restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.

The cotton boll worm (Chloridea obsoleta, also known as Heliothis
armiger) is a caterpillar. The parent moth lays eggs, from which
theyoung"worms"hatch out. Theyboreholesandpenetrateinto
flower-buds and young bolls, causing them to drop. Fortunately
the " worms " prefer maize to cotton, and the inter-planting at
proper times of maize, to be cut down and destroyed when well
infested, is a method commonly employed to keep down this pest.
Paris green kills it in its young stages before it has entered the buds
or bolls. The boll worm is most destructive in the south-western
states, where the damage done is said to vary from 2 to 60 %
of the crop. Taking a low average of 4%, the annual loss due to
the pest is estimated at about £2,500,000, and it occupies second
place amongst the serious cotton pests of the U.S.A. The boll
worm is widely spread through the tropical and temperate
zones. It may occur in a country without being a pest to cotton,
e.g. in India it attacks various plants but not cotton. It has not
yet been reported as a cotton pest in the West Indies.

The Egyptian boll worm (Earias insulana) is the most
important insect pest in Egypt and occurs also in other parts of
Africa. Indian boll worms include the same species, and the
closely related Earias fabia, which also occurs in Egypt.

The cotton worm ,(Aletia argillacea) — also called cotton
caterpillar, cotton army worm, cotton-leaf worm — is also one
stage in the life-history of a moth. It is a voracious creature, and
unchecked will often totally destroy a crop. In former years the
annual damage done by it in the United States was assessed at
£4,000,000 to £6,000,000. Dusting with Paris green is, however,
an efficient remedy if promptly applied at the outset of the attack.
The annual damage was in 1906 reduced to £1,000,000 to
£2,000,000, and this on a larger area devoted to cotton than in
the case of the estimate given above. It is the most serious pest
of cotton in the West Indies. The Egyptian cotton worm is
Prodenia littoralis.

The caterpillars (" cut worms ") of various species of Agrotis
and other moths occur in all parts of the world and attack young
cotton. They can be killed by spreading about cabbage leaves,
&c, poisoned with Paris green.

Locusts, green-fly, leaf-bugs, blister mites, and various other
pests also damage cotton, in a similar way to that in which they
injure other crops.

The" cotton stainers," various species of Dysderctts, are widely
distributed, occurring for example in America, the West Indies,
Africa, India, &c. The larvae suck the sap from the young bolls
and seeds, causing shrivelling and reduction in quantity of fibre.
They are called " stainers " because their excrement is yellow

and stains the fibre; also if crushed during the process oi
ginning they give the cotton a reddish coloration. The Egyptian
cotton seed bug or cotton stainer belongs to another genus, being
Oxycarenus hyalinipennis. Other species of this genus occur on
the west coast of Africa. They do considerable damage to cotton
seed.

Fungoid Diseases. — " Wilt disease," or " frenching," perhaps
the most important of the fungoid disease of cotton in the United
States, is due to Neocosmospora vasinfecta. Young plants a few
inches high are usually attacked; the leaves, beginning with the
lower ones, turn yellow, and afterwards become brown and drop.
The plants remain very dwarf and generally unhealthy, or die.
The roots also are affected, and instead of growing considerably in
length, branch repeatedly and give rise to little tufts of rootlets.
There is no method known of curing this disease, and all that can
be done is to take every precaution to eradicate it, by pulling up
and burning diseased plants, isolating the infected area by means
of trenches, and avoiding growing cotton, or an allied plant such
as the ochro (Hibiscus esculentus) , in the field. Fortunately the
careful work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and of planters
such as Mr E. L. Rivers of James Island, South Carolina, has
resulted in the production of disease-resistant races. In one
instance Mr Rivers found one healthy plant in a badly affected
field. The seed was saved and gave rise to a row of plants all of
which grew healthily in an infected field, whereas 95% of
ordinary Sea Island cotton plants from seed from a non-infected
field planted alongside as a control were killed. The resistance
was well maintained in succeeding generations, and races so
raised form a practical means of combating this serious disease.

In " Root rot," as the name implies, the roots are attacked, the
fungus being a species of Ozonium, which envelops the roots in a
white covering of mould or mycelium. The roots are prevented
from fulfilling their function of taking up water and salts from the
soil; the leaves accordingly droop, and the whole plant wilts and
in bad attacks dies. It has yearly proved a more serious danger
in Texas and other parts of the south-west of the United States,
and the damage due to it in Texas during 1905 was estimated at
about £750,000. No remedy is known for the disease, and
cotton should not be planted on infected land for at least three or
four years.

" Boll rot," or " Anthracnose," is a disease which may at times
be sufficiently serious to destroy from 10 to 50% of the crop.
The fungus which causes it (Colletotrichum gossypii) is closely
related to one of the fungi attacking sugar-cane in various parts
of the world. Small red-brown spots appear on the bolls,
gradually enlarge, and develop into irregular black and grey
patches. The damage may be only slight, or the entire boll may
ripen prematurely and become dry and dead.

Many other diseases occur, but the above are sufficient to
indicate some of the principal ones in the most important cotton
countries of the world.

Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection.
In the cotton belt of the United States it would be possible to
put a still greater acreage under this crop, but the tendency is
rather towards what is known as " diversified " or mixed farming
than to making cotton the sole important crop. Cotton, however,
is in increasing demand, and the problem for the American
cotton planter is to obtain a better yield of cotton from the same
area, — by " better yield " meaning an increase not only in
quantity but also in quality of lint. This ideal is before the
cotton grower in all parts of the world, but practical steps are not
always taken to realize it. Some of the United States planters are
alert to take advantage of the application of science to industry,
and in many cases even to render active assistance, and very
successful results have been attained by the co-operation of the
United States Department of Agriculture and planters. With
the improvement of cotton the name of Mr Herbert J. Webber
is prominently associated, and a full discussion of methods and
results will be found in his various papers in the Year-books of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principle on which
the work is based is that plants have their individualities

COTTON

263

and tend to transmit them to their progeny. Accordingly a
selection of particular plants to breed from, because they possess
certain desirable characteristics, is as rational as the selection of
particular animals for breeding purposes in order to maintain the
character of a herd of cattle or of a flock of sheep.

Inspection of a field of cotton shows that different plants vary
as regards productiveness, length, and character of the lint,
period of ripening, power of resistance to various pests and of
withstanding drought. A simple method of increasing the yield
is that practised with success by some growers in the States.
Pickers are trained to recognize the best plants, " that is, those
most productive, earliest in ripening, and having the largest,
best formed and most numerous bolls." These pickers go
carefully over the field, usually just before the second picking,
and gather ripe cotton from the best plants only; this selected
seed cotton is ginned separately, and the seed used for sowing the
next year's crop.

A more elaborate method of selection is practised by some of the
Sea Island cotton planters in the Sea Islands, famous for the quality
of their cotton. A field is gone over carefully, and perhaps some
50 of the best plants selected; a second examination in the field
reduces these perhaps to one half, and each plant is numbered.
The cotton from each is collected and kept separately, and at the
end of the season carefully examined and weighed, and a final
selection is then made which reduces the number to perhaps five ;
the cotton from each of these plants is ginned separately and the
seed preserved for sowing. The simplest possible case in which
only one plant is finally selected is illustrated in the diagram.

1st. Year 2nd. Year 3rd. Year 4th. Year 5th. Year

Select
Plant

©,

500
Plants

5 Acres w*->

General Crop

-*t 5 °°
^ Plants

5 Acres

General Crop

Select Plant Tij xw i p ^ a »m~* 5 Acres

PJ^ntsj *^-* sAcrM
»«(»)*■• » Plants

Select PUnt

After Webber, Year-took, V. S. Dept. o} Agriculture, 1902.

Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection.
From the seeds of the selected plant of the ist year about 500
plants can be raised in the next year. One plant is selected
again from these 500, and the general crop of seed is used to sow
about five acres for the 3rd year, from which seed is obtained for
the general crop in the 4th year. One special plant is selected
each year from the 500 raised from the previous season's test
plant, and in four years' time the progeny of this plant con-
stitutes the " general crop." The practice may be modified
according to the size of estate by selecting more than one
plant each year, but the principle remains unaltered. This
method is in actual use by growers of Sea Island cotton in
America and in the islands off the coast of S. Carolina; the
greatest care is taken to enhance the quality of the lint, which
has been gradually improved in length, fineness and silkiness.
Mr Webber, in summing up, says, " When Sea Island cotton was
first introduced into the United States from the West Indies, it
was a perennial plant, unsuited to the duration of the season of
the latitude of the Sea Islands of S. Carolina; but, through the
selection of seed from early maturing individual plants, the
cotton has been rendered much earlier, until now it is thoroughly
adapted to the existing conditions. The fibre has increased in
length from about if to 2\ in., and the plants have at the same
time been increased in productiveness. The custom of carefully
selecting the seed has grown with the industry and may be said
to be inseparable from it. It is only by such careful and con-

tinuous selection that the staple of these high-bred strains can be
kept up to its present superiority, and if for any reason the
selection is interrupted there is a general and rapid decline in
quality."

When selection is being made for several characters at the
same time, and also in hybridization experiments, where it is
important to have full records of the characters of individual
plants and their progeny, " score cards," such as are used in
judging stock, with a scale of points, are used.

The improvements desired in cotton vary to some degree in
different countries, according to the present character of the
plants, climatic conditions, the chief pests, special market
requirements, and other circumstances. Amongst the more
important desiderata are: —

1. Increased Yield.

2. Increase in Length of Lint. — Webber records the case of
Stamm Egyptian cotton imported into Columbia, in which by
simple selection, as outlined above, during two years plants were
obtained uniformly earlier, more productive, and yielding longer
and better lint.

3. Uniformity in Length of the Lint. — This is important especi-
ally in the long-stapled cottons, unevenness leading to waste in
manufacture, and consequently to a lower price for the cotton.

4. Strength of Fibre. — Long-stapled cottons have been pro-
duced in the States by crossing Upland and Sea Island cotton.
These hybrids produce a lint which is long and silky, but often
deficient in strength: selection for strength amongst the hybrids,
with due regard to length, may overcome this.

5. Season of Maturing. — Seed should be selected from early
and late opening bolls, according to requirements. Earliness is
especially important in countries where the season is short.

6. Adaptation to Soil and Climate. — High-class cottons often
do not flourish if introduced into a new country. They are
adapted to special conditions which are lacking in their new
surroundings, but a few will probably do fairly well the first year,
and the seeds from these probably rather better the next, and so
on, so that in a few years' time a strain may be available which is
equal or even superior to the original one introduced.

7. Resistance to Disease.— The method employed is to select,
for seed purposes, plants which are resistant to the particular
disease. Thus sometimes a field of cotton is attacked by some
disease, perhaps " wilt," and a comparatively few plants are but
very slightly affected. These are propagated, and there are
instances as described above of very successful and commercially
important results having been attained. Special interest attaches
to experiments made in the United States to endeavour to raise
races of cotton resistant to the boll weevil.

8. Resistance to Weather. — Strong winds and heavy rains do
much damage to cotton by blowing or beating the lint out of the
bolls. In some instances a slight difference in the shape, mode of
opening, &c, of the boll prevents this, and accordingly seed is
selected from bolls which suffer least under the particular
adverse conditions.

Attention has been paid in the West Indies to seed selection, by
the officers of the imperial Department of Agriculture, with the
object of retaining for West Indian Sea Island cotton its place as
the most valuable cotton on the British market.

In India, where conditions are much more diversified and it
is more difficult to induce the native cultivator to adopt new
methods, attention has also been directed during recent years
to the improvement of the existing races. Efforts have been
made in the same direction in Egypt, West Africa, &c.

The World's Commercial Cotton Crop.
It is impossible to give an exact return of the total amount of
cotton produced in the world, owing to the fact that in China,
India and other eastern countries, in Mexico, Brazil, parts of the
Russian empire, tropical Africa, &c, considerable — in some cases
very large — quantities of cotton are made up locally into wearing
apparel, &c, and escape all statistical record. It is estimated
that the amount thus used in India exclusive of the consumption
of mills is equivalent to about4oo,ooobales. Neglecting, however,

264

COTTON

these quantifies, which do not affect the world's market, the
annual supplies of cotton are approximately as follows : —

Country.

Approximate

Production.

Bales of 500 lb.

Percentage.

United States of America

Egypt . ._ .

All other countries ....

Total

11,000,000
3,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000

68-75

18-75
6-25
6-25

16,000,000

100-00

In 1905 the world's crop closely approximated to 16,000,000
bales, whilst in 1904 it was nearly 19,000,000 bales and in 1906
nearly 20,000,000 bales. The United States produced very nearly
seven-tenths of the total " visible " cotton crops of the world.
This, however, is quite a modern development, comparatively
speaking. " During the period from 1786 to 1790 the West
Indies furnished about 70% of the British supply, the Mediter-
ranean countries 20%, and Brazil 8%; whilst the quantity
contributed by the United States and India was less than 1 % and
Egypt contributed none. In 1906 the United States contributed
65% of the commercial cotton, British India 19%, Egypt 7%,
and Russia 3 %. Of the countries which were prominent in the
production of cotton in 1790, Brazil and Asiatic Turkey alone
remain " (U.S.A. Bureau of the Census, Bulletin No. 76). The
actual figures for the chief countries for 1904-1906, taken from
the same source, are as follows : —

The World's Commercial Cotton Crop. (In 500 lb Bales.)

Country.

1904.

1905.

1906.

United States .
British India .

Peru

Other countries

Total . .

13,085,000

2,843,000

1,258,000

554.000

468,000

210,000

114,000

40,000

100,000

45,000

16,000

70,000

10,340,000

2,519,000

1,181,000

585,000

415,000

258,000

125,000

55,ooo

107,000

47,000

15,000

100,000

13,016,000

3,708,000

1 ,400,000

675,000

418,000

275,000

130,000

55.000

107,000

47,00a

1 1 ,000

100,000

18,803,000

15,747,000

19,942,000

This title serves to indicate the principal countries contributing
to the world's supply of cotton. The following notes afford a
summary of the position of the industry in the more important
countries.

United States of America. — The cultivation of cotton as a staple
crop in the United States dates from about 1770, 1 although
efforts appear to have been made
in Virginia as far back as 1621.
The supplies continued to be small
up to the end of the century.
In 1792 the quantity exported
from the United States was only

1 It is related that in the year
1784 William Rathbone, an Ameri-
can merchant resident in Liver-
pool, received from one of his
correspondents in the southern
states a consignment of eight bags
of cotton, which on its arrival in
Liverpool was seized by the custom-
house officers, on the allegation that
it could not have been grown in
the United States, and that it was
liable to seizure under the Shipping
Acts, as not being imported in a
vessel belonging to the country of
its growth. When afterwards re-
leased, it lay for many months
unsold, in consequence of the spin-
ners doubting whether it could be
profitably worked up.

equivalent to 275 bales, but by the year 1800 it had increased to
nearly 36,000 bales. At the close of the war in 1815 the revival
of trade led to an increased demand, and the progress of
cotton cultivation in America became rapid and continuous,
until at length about 85 % of the raw material used by English
manufacturers was derived from this one source. With a
capacity for the production of cotton almost boundless, the crop
which was so insignificant when the century began had in i860
reached the enormous extent of 4,824,000 bales. This great
source of supply, when apparently most abundant and secure,
was shortly after suddenly cut off, and thousands were for a time
deprived of employment and the means of subsistence. In this
period of destitution the cotton-growing resources of every part
of the globe. were tested to the utmost; and in the exhibition of
1862 the representatives of every country from which supplies
might be expected met to concert measures for obtaining all that
was wanted without the aid of America. The colonies and
dependencies of Great Britain, including India, seemed well able
to grow all the cotton that could be required, whilst numerous
other countries were ready to afford their co-operation. A
powerful stimulus was thus given to the growth of cotton in all
directions; a degree of activity and enterprise never witnessed
before was seen in India, Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Africa,
the West Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, Peru, Brazil, and
in short wherever cotton could be produced; and there seemed
no room to doubt that in a short time there would be abundant
supplies independently of America. But ten years afterwards,
in the exhibition of 1872, which was specially devoted to cotton,
a few only of the thirty-five countries which had sent their samples
in 1862 again appeared, and these for the most part only to bear
witness to disappointment and failure. America had re-entered
the field of competition, and was rapidly gaining ground so as to
be able to bid defiance to the world. True, the supply from India
had been more than doubled, the adulteration once so rife had
been checked, and the improved quality and value of the cotton
had been fully acknowledged, but still the superiority of the
produce of the United States was proved beyond all dispute, and
American cotton Was again king. Slave labour disappeared, and
under new and more promising auspices a fresh career of progress
began. With rare combination of facilities and advantages, made
available with remarkable skill and enterprise, the production of
cotton in America seems likely for a long series of years to
continue to increase in magnitude and importance. The total
area of the cotton-producing region in the States is estimated at
448,000,000 acres, of which in 1906 only about one acre in fifteen
was devoted to cotton. The potentialities of the region are
thus enormous.

Cotton is now the second crop of the United States, being
surpassed in value only by Indian corn (maize). The area
devoted to this crop in 1879 was 14,480,619 acres, and the-total

Upland Cotton.

Sea Island Cotton.

Total Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Alabama

Arkansas

Florida

Georgia

Indian Territory

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Mississippi .

Missouri

New Mexico

North Carolina

Oklahoma

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

lb
603,651,989
45o,99i.36i
17,876,133
750,762,910
196,648,765

9,844

1,008,290

473,222,310

732,755,978

26,040,093

74,340

276,215,506

233,396,905

415,386,362

146,569,434

2,001,181,289

6,609,963

$
60,425,564
45,144,235
1,789,401

75,151,367,
19,684,542

985
100,930

47,369,553

73,348,874

2,606,613

7,442

27,649,172

23.363,030

41,580,175

14,671,600

200,318,247

661,657

lb

9,031,896
9,950,634

2,723,859

$

2,587,638
2,850,857

999,656

$
60,425,564
45,144,235

4.377.039
78,002,224
19,684,542

985
100,930

47.369,553

73,348,874

2,606,613

7,442
27,649,172
23,363.030

42.579.831

14,671,600

200,318,247

661,657

Total— United Si

ates

6,332,401,472
( = 12,644,803
bales)

633,873,387

21,706,389

( = 43.413
bales)

6,438,151

640,311,538

COTTON

265

commercial crop was 5,755,359 bales. In 1899 the acreage had
increased to 24,275,101 and the crop to 9,507,786 bales. In 1906
the total area was 28,686,000 acres and the crop 13,305,265 bales.

The preceding table gives the quantity, value and character of
the crop for each of the cotton-growing states in 1906, as reported
by the Bureau of the Census.

Mexico. — Cotton is extensively grown in Mexico, and large
quantities are used for home consumption. The cultivation is of
very old standing. Cortes in 1519 is said to have received cotton
garments as presents from the natives of Yucatan, and to
have found the Mexicans using cotton extensively for clothing.
From 1900 to 1905 the crop was about 100,000 bales per annum;
the whole is consumed in local mills, and cotton is imported also
from the United States.

Brazil. — The cotton-growing region in Brazil comprises a belt
some 200 m. in width, in the north-eastern portion of the country,
and a strip along the valley of the San Francisco, where a large
amount of the present crop is produced. The cotton is known in
commerce under the name of the place of export, e.g. Maceio,
Pernambuco or Pernam, Ceara, Rio Grande, &c. The export
fluctuates greatly.

Bales of 500 lb. Approx. Value.

1901 . . . 53,002 £500,000

1902 . . . 143,963 1,200,000

1903 . . . 126,896 1,300,000

1904 . . . 59,413 800,000

1905 . . . 107,887 1,000,000

1906 . . . 142,972 1,500,000

The total production in 1906 was estimated at about 275,000
bales, but only a portion was available for export, there being an
increasing consumption in Brazil itself.

Peru. — Cotton is an important crop in Peru, where it has
long been cultivated. Most of the crop is grown in the irrigated
coastal valleys. With more water available, the output could
be considerably increased, e.g. in the Piura district. " Rough
Peruvian," the produce of one of the tree cottons, has a special
use, as being rather harsh and wiry it is well adapted for mixing
with wool. Egyptian cotton is also grown. The annual export
is about 30,000 bales.

British West Indies. — Cotton was cultivated as a minor crop
in parts of the West Indies as long ago as the 1 7th century, and at
the opening of the 18th century the islands supplied about 70 %
of all the cotton used in Great Britain. Greater profits obtained
from sugar caused the industry to be abandoned, except in the
small island of Carriacou. In 1900 the Imperial Department' of
Agriculture and private planters began experiments with the*
object of reintroducing the cultivation, owing to the decline in
value of sugar. The department was actively assisted by the

Cotton Production in the British West Indies: 1905-1906. 1

Island.

Area in
Acres.

Yield =

Bales of

500 lb.

Average

Price

in Pence

per lb.

Value of

Lint and

Seed.

Barbados ....
St Vincent ....
Grenada (mostly Marie

galante cotton) .
St Kitts ....

Anguilla ....
Antigua ....
Montserrat.
Virgin Islands .
Jamaica ....

Total . .

2,000
790

3,690

1,000

1 ,700

1,000

700

770

40

1,500

959
330

623
241
240
161
200
196

14
123

15-2
18-0

5-0
15-0
130
15-0
14-2
15-0

£33,557
13.557

8,400
8,380

8,364
5,280
6,522
6,789
400
4.025

12,900

3087

£95.274

British Cotton Growing Association, and the results have been
very successful, as was shown at an exhibition held in Manchester
in 1908. A supply of seed of a high grade of Sea Island cotton
was obtained from Colonel Rivers's estate in the Sea Islands, S.
Carolina, and so successful has the cultivation been that from
some of the islands West Indian Sea Island cotton obtains a

v Taken with some modifications from the Agricultural News
(1007), vi. p. 38.

higher price than the corresponding grade of cotton from the Sea
Islands themselves.

In 1902 the total area under cotton cultivation in the British
West Indies was 500 acres. The industry made rapid progress.
In 1903 it was 4000; in 1905-1906 it was 12,900; and for 1906-
1907 it was 18,166 acres. The table indicates the chief cotton-
producing islands, the acreage in each, yield, average value per
pound and total value of the crop in 1905-1906.

The whole of this crop was Sea Island cotton, with the excep-
tion of the " Marie galante " grown in Carriacou. Marie galante
is a harsh cotton of the Peruvian or Brazilian type. The low
yield per acre in this island, and also the low value of the lint
per lb compared with the Sea Island cotton, is clearly apparent.

In 1906-1907 the acreage was substantially increased in many
of the islands, e.g. Barbados from 2000 to 5000; St Vincent 700
t0 !533> St Kitts and Anguilla 1000 to 1500 each; Antigua 700
to 1883. In Jamaica, on the other hand, it was reduced from
1500 to 300 acres.

Spain. — Cotton was formerly grown in southern Spain on an
extensive scale, and as recently as during the American Civil
War a crop of 8000 to 10,000 bales was obtained. It is con-
sidered that with facilities for irrigation Andalusia could produce
150,000 bales annually. The former industry was abandoned as
other crops became more remunerative. The government is
encouraging recent efforts to re-establish the cultivation.

Malta. — Cotton has long been cultivated in Malta, but the
acreage diminished from 1750 acres in 1899 to 670 acres in 1906.
A considerable quantity of the produce is spun and woven locally;
e.g. in 1904 the export was equivalent to about 1 20 bales out of a
total production of 330 bales, and in 1905 to 258 out of 333 bales
(of 500 lb each).

Cyprus has a soil and climate suited to cotton, which was
formerly grown here on a large scale. The rainfall is uncertain
and low, however, never exceeding 40 in., and on the supply of
water by irrigation the future of the industry mainly depends.
The exports dwindled from 3600 bales in 1865 to 946 in 1905;
great fluctuations occur, the export in 1904, for example, being
only 338 bales. The cotton grown is rather short-stapled and
goes mainly to Marseilles and Trieste. Some is used locally in the
manufacture of cloth.

Egypt. — The position of Egypt as the third cotton-producing
country of the world has already been pointed out, and the
varieties grown and the mode of cultivation described. The
introduction of the exotic varieties dates from the beginning
of the 19th century. The industry was actively promoted by a
Frenchman named Jumel, in the service of Mehemet Ali, from
1820 onwards with great success. The area under cotton is
about 1,800,000 acres.

1850
1865
1890
1904
1905
1906

Cotton Production in Egypt.

87,200 bales of 500 lb.
. 439,000 „
. 798,000 „
. 1,258,000 ,,
. 1,250,000 ,, ,,

. 1,400,000 „ ,,

The Egyptian Sudan. — Egyptian cotton was cultivated in the
Sudan to the extent of 21,788 acres in 1906 chiefly on non-
irrigated land. The exports, however, are small, almost all the
crop being used locally. The chief difficulties are the supply of
water, labour and transport facilities. Lord Cromer in his report
on the Sudan for 1906 remarks that: " There seems to be some
reason for thinking that the future— or at all events the immediate
future — of Sudan agriculture lies more in the direction of cultivat-
ing wheat and other cereals than in that of cultivating cotton." •

West Africa. — Cotton has long been grown in the various
countries on the west coast of Africa, ginned by hand or by very
primitive means, spun into yarn, and woven on simple looms into
" country cloths "; these are often only a few inches wide, so
that any large cloths have to be made by sewing the narrow
strips together. These native cloths are exceedingly durable, and
many of them are ornamented by using dyed yarns and in other
ways.

266

COTTON

Southern Nigeria (Lagos) and northern Nigeria are the most
important cotton countries amongst the British possessions on
the coast. From the former there has been an export trade for
many years which fluctuates remarkably according to the demand.
Northern Nigeria is the seat of a very large native cotton industry,
to supply the demand for cotton robes for the Mahommedan
races inhabiting the country. The province of Zaria alone is
estimated to produce annually 30,000 to 40,000 bales, all of
which is used locally. Northern Nigeria contributes to the
cotton exported from Lagos. The country offers a fairly promis-
ing field for development, especially now that arrangements
have been made for providing the necessary means of transport by
the construction of the new railways. The profits obtained from
ground-nuts (Arachis hypogea) in Gambia, gold mining in the
Gold Coast, and from products of the oil palm {Elaeis guineensis)
in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much attention being given
to cotton in these districts.

Exports of Cotton from Lagos.
1865 .... 868 bales of 500 lb.

1869
1900
1901
1902

1903
1904

1905

1785
48

15

25

582

1725

2578

Exports of Cotton from British West Africa, 1904, 1905 and 1906.

1904.

1905-

1906.

Gold Coast . . .
Southern Nigeria and Lagos
Northern Nigeria ....

Total .

Bales

(500 lb).

120

56

115

2296

574

Bales
(500 lb).

5

139

50

2771

250 1

Bales

(500 lb).

176

186

5392
712

3161

3215

6466

Nyasaland (British Central Africa). — The cultivation of cotton
on a commercial scale is quite new in Nyasaland, and although
general conditions of soil and climate appear favourable the
question of transport is serious and labour is not abundant.
The exports were equivalent to 2 bales of 500 lb in 1 902-1 903,
114 bales in 1903-1904, 570 bales in 1904-1905, 1553 bales in
1 905-1 906 and 1052 bales in 1 906-1 907. In the lower river lands
Egyptian cotton has been the most successful, whilst Upland
cotton is more suited to the highlands. t _ . - ' '

British East Africa and Uganda. — In these adjoining pro-
tectorates wild cottons occur, and suitable conditions exist in
certain localities. Experimental work has been carried on, and in
1904 Uganda exported about 43 bales of cotton, and British
East Africa about 177 bales. In 1906 the combined exports had
risen to 362 bales, including a little from German East Africa.
In 1004-1905 there were some 300 acres under cotton in British
East Africa. Lack of direct transport facilities is a difficulty.
Some of the native cottons are of fair quality, but Egyptian
cotton appears likely to be best suited for growing for export.

India is probably the most ancient cotton-growing country.
For five centuries before the Christian era cotton was largely used
in the domestic manufactures of India; and the clothing of the
inhabitants then consisted, as now, chiefly of garments made from
this vegetable product. More than two thousand years before
Europe or England had conceived the idea of applying modern
industry to the manufacture of cotton, India had matured a
system of hand-spinning, weaving and dyeing which during that
vast period received no recorded improvement. The people,
though remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a
state of barbarism, made no approximation to the mechanical
operations of modern times, nor was the cultivation of cotton
either improved or considerably extended. Possessing soil,
climate and apparently all the requisite elements from nature for
the production of cotton to an almost boundless extent, and of a
1 Approximately.

useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series of years did
but little towards supplying the manufactures of other countries
with the raw material which they required. Between the years
1788 and 1850 numerous attempts were made by the East India
Company to improve the cultivation and to increase the supply of
cotton in India, and botanists and American planters were
engaged for the purpose. One great object of their experiments
was to introduce and acclimatize exotic cottons. Bourbon, New
Orleans, Upland, Georgia, Sea Island, Pernambuco, Egyptian,
&c, were tried but with little permanent success. The results of
these and similar attempts led to the conclusion that efforts to
improve the indigenous cottons were most likely to be rewarded
with success. Still more recently, however, experiments have
been made to grow Egyptian cotton in Sind with the help of
irrigation. Abassi has given the best results, and the experiments
have been so successful that in 1904-1905 an out-turn of not less
than 100,000 bales " was prophesied in the course of a few years "
(Report of Director, Land Records and Agriculture). The
average annual production in India approximates to 3,000,000
bales. The area under cotton in all British India is about
20,000,000 acres, the crop being grown in a very primitive
manner. The bulk of the cotton is of very short staple, about
three-quarters of an inch, and is not well suited to the require-
ments of the English spinner, but very large mills specially fitted
to deal with short-stapled cottons have been erected in India and
consume about one-half the total crop, the remainder being
exported to Germany and other European countries, Japan and
China. In 1906 the United Kingdom took less than 5% of the
cotton exported.

Cotton Production in British India. 1

1859 . , . 1,316,800 bales of 500 lb.

1904 . . . 3,172,800 ,, ,,

1905 . . . 2,848,800 „ ,,

1906 . . . 4,038,400 „

About 50% of the cotton produced is consumed in Indian
mills and the remainder is exported.

China. — Cotton has not been cultivated in China from such
early times as in India, and although cotton cloths are mentioned
in early writings it was not until about a.d. 1300 that the plant
was grown on any considerable scale. There are no figures
obtainable as to the production, but it must be very large,
considering that the crop provides clothing for a large proportion
of the population of China. During recent years a considerable
quantity of cotton has been exported, but more than a com-
pensating amount of raw cotton, yarns and textiles, is imported.
An estimate of the crop puts it at about 1,500,000 bales.

Korea is stated to have originally received its cotton plants
from China some 500 years ago. Conditions are well adapted to
the cultivation of the plant, and since the cessation of the Russo-
Japanese War the Japanese have undertaken the development
of the industry. Figures are difficult to obtain, but an official
report from the Japanese Residency General in 1907 estimated
the crop at about 214,000 bales, all being used locally. In the
future Korea may become an important source of supply for
Japan, especially if, as appears likely, Korea proves suited to the
cultivation of American cotton.

Japan received cotton from India before China, and the plant
is extensively grown, especially in West and Middle Japan.
The production is not sufficient to meet the home demand;
during the five years of normal trade before the war with Russia
Japan imported annually about 800,000 bales of cotton, chiefly
from British India, China and the United States, and during the
same period exported each year some 2000 bales, mainly to
Korea.

Dutch East Indies. — In Java and other Dutch possessions in the
East cotton is cultivated. A considerable amount is used locally,
and during the six years ending in 1907 the surplus exported
ranged from about 24,000 to 40,000 bales per annum.

Russia. — Some cottpn is produced in European Russia in the
southern Caucasus, but Turkestan in central Asia is by far the

1 Cotton Production 1906, U.S.A. Bureau of the Census, Bulletin
No. 76.

COTTON

267

more important source of Russian-grown cotton. In this region
cotton has been cultivated from very early times to supply local
demands, and to a minor degree for export. Since about 1875 the
Russians have fostered the industry, introducing American
Upland varieties, distributing seed free, importing gins, providing
instruction, and guaranteeing the purchase of the crops. The
Trans-Caspian railway has been an important factor; almost all
the cotton exported passes over this line, and the statistics of this
trade indicate the progress made. The shipments increased from
250,978 bales in 1896-1897 to 495,962 bales in 1901-1902 — part,
however, being Persian cotton. The production of cotton in
Russia in 1906 was estimated at 675,000 bales of 500 lb each.
About one-third of the cotton used in Russian mills is grown
on Russian territory, the remainder coming chiefly from the
United States.

Asia Minor.— Smyrna is the principal centre of cotton
cultivation in this region. A native variety known as " Terli,"
and American cotton, are grown. The general conditions are
favourable. According to the Liverpool Cotton Gazette, Asiatic
Turkey produced in 1906 about 100,000 bales, and Persia about
47,000 bales. Cotton was formerly cultivated profitably in
Palestine.

Australasia. — The quantity of cotton now produced in Austra-
lasia is extremely small. Queensland, New South Wales and
South Australia possess suitable climatic conditions, and in the
first-named state the cotton has been grown on a commercial
scale in past years, the crop in 1897 being about 450 bales.
Considerable interest attaches to the " Caravonica " cotton
raised in South Australia, which has been experimented with
in Australia, Ceylon and elsewhere. It is probably a hybrid
between Sea Island and rough Peruvian cotton, but lacks most of
the essential features of Sea Island.

In Fiji the cotton exported in the 'sixties and 'seventies was
worth £93,000 annually; but the cultivation has been practically
abandoned. In 1899 about 60 bales, and in 1900 about 6 bales,
were exported. During 1901-1903 there were no exports of
cotton, and in 1904 only 70 bales were sent out.

Into the Society Islands Sea Island cotton was introduced
about 1 860-1 8 70. Up to the year 1885 there was an average
yearly export equivalent to about 2140 bales of 500 lb, after
which date the export practically ceased. The industry has,
however, been revived, and in 1906 over 100 bales, valued at
£1052, were exported. (W. G. F.)

Marketing and Supply

In the days of slave-grown cotton, the American planters,
being men of wealth farming on a large scale, consigned the bulk
Moving of their produce as a rule direct to the ports. Now,
the however, a large proportion of the crop is sold to local

harvest to s tore-keepers who transfer it to exporting firms in

ep0 ' neighbouring cities. The cultivators, whether owners
of the plantations, as is usual in some districts, or tenants, as is
customary in others, are financed as a rule by commission agents.
The decline of " spot " sales at the ports, partly but not entirely
in consequence of the appearance of the small cultivator, has
proceeded steadily. Hammond 1 has constructed a table from
information supplied by the secretaries of the cotton exchanges
at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans and
Galveston, showing the sales of " spot " cotton at those ports for
the twenty-two years between 1874-1875 and 1895-1896, and in
all cases an absolute decline is evident. The receipts of cotton in
the season 1 904-1 905 at the leading interior towns and ports of
the United States are given below.

Receipts of Cotton at 28 Interior Towns.
(In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb each.)

Brenham, Tex.

17

Memphis, Tenn. .

984

Dallas, Tex. .

96

Nashville, Tenn. .

10

Shreveport, La.

256

Selma, Ala. .

126

Little Rock, Ark.

219

Montgomery, Ala.

211

Helena, Ark..

91

Eufaula, Ala.

29

Vicksburg, Miss.

100

Columbus, Ga.

74

Columbus, Miss.

57

Macon, Ga. .

87

Natchez, Miss.

76

Albany, Ga.

35

Atlanta, Ga.
Rome, Ga. .
Augusta, Ga.
Columbia, S.C.
Newberry, S.C.
Charlotte, N.C.
Raleigh, N.C.
St Louis, Mo.

134
72

446
68

17
21

19
672

Houston, Tex.

Meridian, Miss. .
Cincinnati, Ohio .
Yazoo City, Miss .

2.423

133

167

65

6712

Total .

Crop. 13,565

Receipts of Cotton at American Ports.
(In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb each.)

Galveston, Tex.
New Orleans, La.
Mobile, Ala.
Savannah, Ga.
Charleston, S.C.
Wilmington, N.C
Norfolk, Va.
Baltimore, Md.
New York

2,879
2,690

330
1.877

225

375

820

62

34

Boston, Mass.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Brunswick, Ga.
Pensacola, Fla.
Minor Ports .

Total .

Crop .

14
200

187-

5i8

10,295
13,565

Cotton Culture and the Cotton Trade, p. 298.

Galveston and Savannah have risen considerably in relative
importance of late years.

Before the Civil War each planter would have his own gin-
house. Now, however, ginning is a distinct business, and one gin
willserve on an average about thirty farmers. Moveable
gins were tried for a time in some places; they were Oinning
dragged by traction engines from farm to farm, like packing.
threshing machines in parts of England, but the plan
proved uneconomical because, among other reasons, farmers were
not prepared to meet the cost of providing facilities for storing
their cotton. In addition to the small country ginneries, large
modern ginneries have now been set up in all the leading Southern
market towns. The cotton is pressed locally and afterwards
" compressed " into a very small compass. The bales are
usually square, but cylindrical bales are becoming more common,
though their cost is greater. In the latter, the cotton is arranged
in the form of a rolled sheet or " lap." Owing to complaints of
the careless packing of American cotton, attention has been
devoted of late to the improvement of the square bale.

London used to be the chief cotton port of England, but
Liverpool had assumed undisputed leadership before the 19th
century began. Some arrivals have been diverted to
Manchester since the opening of the Manchester ship English
canal; shipments through the canal from the 1st of entry,"
September to the 30th of August in each year for the
decade 1894-1895 to 1904-1905 are appended — six to eight times
as much is still unloaded at Liverpool.

A Manchester cotton-importing company was recently formed
for increasing deliveries direct to Manchester, and establishing
a " spot " market there, an end to which the Manchester Cotton
Association had directed its efforts for some time past. The
latter association was established at the end of 1894, with a
membership of 265, in the interests of those spinners who desired
importations direct to Manchester. The objects of the associa-
tion are officially stated to be: (1) to frame suitable and authori-
tative forms of contract, and to make rules and regulations for the
proper conduct of the trade; (2) to supervise and facilitate the
delivery of the importations of cotton at the Manchester docks to
the various consignees; (3) to provide and maintain trustworthy
standards of classification; (4) to procure and disseminate useful
information on all subjects pertaining to the trade; (5) to act in
concert with chambers of commerce and other bodies throughout
the world for mutual protection; (6) to establish a market for
cotton at Manchester. Spinning members preponderate, but
almost all the Manchester cotton merchants and cotton brokers
have also joined the association. The importance of the original
spinners' representation on the association is shown by the fact
that they worked over 14,000,000 spindles: in December 1905
the spindles represented by members had risen to nearly
20,000,000. Some 73,000 looms are also represented. As most
of the Lancashire cotton mills lie far from Manchester, direct
importations to that city do not usually dispense with a " hand-
ling," and frequently save little or nothing in freight rates,
though in some cases the economy derived from direct importa-
tion is considerable. One gain accruing to Lancashire from the

268

COTTON

Canal, however, is that its competition has brought down
railway rates.

Fundamental alterations have been made in the structure of
the leading cotton markets, and in methods of buying and selling

cotton, in the last hundred years. We shall not attempt
Cotton to trace the changes as they appeared in every market
methods, of importance, but shall confine our attention to one

only, and that perhaps the most important of all,
namely, the market at Liverpool. This selection of one market
for detailed examination does not rob our sketch of generality,
as might at first be thought, since broadly the history of the
development of one market is the history of the development of
all, and on the whole th'e economic explanation of the evolution
that has taken place may be universalized.

with less easy terms for payment than were usual in Manchester,
prevented any great numbers from departing from the beaten
track. Cotton dealers up to this time had regularly financed the
spinners, who were frequently men of little capital, by allowing
long credit, and had even employed them to spin on commission.
As men of substance increased among the ranks of the spinners,
the Manchester cotton dealers found it impossible to retard a
movement set on foot by the prospects of such appreciable
advantages. Ultimately many of the old Manchester cotton
dealers became brokers for their old customers. In 1875 there
were said to be upwards of 100 cotton dealers in Manchester, but
from that time onward their members steadily declined. It is
interesting to observe that a later development of transport
between Manchester and Liverpool, namely, the Manchester

Cotton landed at the Port of Manchester since the Canal was opened.
(In thousand Bales.)
The season is from the 1st of September to the 31st of August each year.

Jan. 1894, to

Aug. 31,

1894.

Season
1894-1895.

Season
1 895-1 896.

Season
1896-1897.

Season
1897-1898.

Season
1898-1899

East Indian ....
West African ....

Total

Total American Crop 1 .
Total Egyptian Crop
(in bales of 7i cantars) 2

21
1-4

32

34

121
68

211

88

245
98

3"

84

22

66

189

299

344

395

7.549.
657

9,901
615

7>i57
703

8,757
783

11,199

872

11,274

745

Season
1 899-1 900.

Season
1 900-1 90 1.

Season
1901-1902.

Season
1902-1903.

Season
1903-1904.

Season
1904-1905.

East Indian .

West African ....

Total

Total American Crop 1 .
Total Egyptian Crop

(in bales of 7 J cantars) 2 .

415
136

442
107

421
125

478

145
2-5

365

148

6

552
183
i-3
•1

551

549

546

626

519

736

9436

868

10,383
723

10,680
849

10,727
778

10,011
867

13,565
846

Originally cotton was imported by the Liverpool dealer as an
agent for American firms or at his own risk, and then sold
by private treaty, auction, or through brokers, to
Evolution M anc hester dealers, who retailed it to the spinners.
"broking. This statement is, of course, only roughly correct.
Some Manchester dealers imported themselves, and
some spinners bought direct from Liverpool importers, but the
rule was the arrangement first described. Early in the 19th
century it became customary for Manchester dealers and Liver-
pool importers to carry on business with one another through
representatives known as " buying " and "selling" brokers.
About this time the broker of cotton only began to specialize
from the ranks of the brokers who dealt in all kinds of colonial
produce. Previously there had not been enough business done
in cotton to make it worth any person's while to devote himself
to the buying and selling on commission of cotton only. The
evolution of the distinct business of cotton broking is readily
comprehensible when we remind ourselves that the requirements,
as regards raw material, of all spinners are much alike generally,
and that no spinner could afford to pay an expert to devote
himself entirely to purchasing cotton for his mill.

So far change had been gradual, but the success of the
Manchester and Liverpool railway undermined beyond repair the
old system of doing business. Spinners could easily run over to
Liverpool and buy their cotton from the large stocks displayed
at that port. Before the railway was opened some spinners had
been in the habit of making their purchases of raw material in
Liverpool,but the great inconveniences of the journey, combined

1 Commercial crop.
2 A cantar is 99^05 lb avoirdupois.

Ship Canal, has drawn back into Manchester a part of the cotton
market which was attracted from Manchester into Liverpool by
the famous improvement in transport opened to the public
three-quarters of a century ago.

' The centralization of the cotton market in Liverpool fixed
firmly the system of buying through brokers, for the Liverpool
importer, or his broker, was in no sense a professional adviser to
the spinners, informally pledged to advance the latter's interests,
as the old Manchester dealers had been. The system was
rendered comparatively inexpensive by the drop in commissions
from 1 to 7 % which had followed the adoption of selling by
sample. This custom of buying and selling through brokers
continued unshaken until the laying of the Atlantic cable tempted
selling brokers occasionally, and even some buying brokers, to
buy direct from American factors by telegraph and thus transform
themselves into quasi-importers. The temptation was made the
more difficult to resist by the development of " future " dealings.
When the agents of the spinners, that is, the buying brokers, by
becoming principals in some transactions, had acquired interests
diametrically opposed to those of their customers, the consequent
feeling of distrust among spinners gave birth to the Cotton
Buying Company, which, constituted originally of twenty to
thrity limited cotton -spinning companies, represents to-day
nearly 6,000,000 spindles distributed among nearly one hundred
firms. Its object was to squeeze out some middlemen and
economize for its members on brokerage. This company, it is
said, helped to attract the brokers back to the spinners, and an
informal understanding was arrived at that the buying broker
should not figure both as agent and principal in the same
transaction.

COTTON

269

Cotton-
Gearing
house f
Cotton
Bank and
periodic

By 1876 " forward " operations had become so vast and
complicated that a cotton-clearing house had to be established
to deal with the confusing networks of debits and
credits created by them. Its principle was exactly
that of the clearing houses used by the railways and the
banks, the cancellation of indebtedness and discharge
simply of balances. The final settlement of a " future "
settlement contract involved usually a crowd of persons, and the
ot " differ- p assa g e f i ar g e sums of money backwards and for-
wards, so that the amount of cash required for cir-
culation on the exchange became unreasonably excessive
and an annoying waste of time was entailed. The cotton-
clearing house substituted book-keeping for the bulk of these
payments. The establishment of the Cotton Bank naturally
followed. Now debts are discharged in the first instance by
vouchers. Dealers pass their debit and credit vouchers into the
Cotton Bank and pay or receive the balances which they owe or
are entitled to. In order to protect dealers against the losses due
to the insolvency of those with whom they have had transactions,
weekly settlements on the exchange have been made compulsory;
between brokers and their clients they are also usual. At the
settlement, every member of the exchange receives the " differ-
ences " owing to him and pays those which he has incurred.
Thus if a person holds futures for 10,000 bales which stood at
5-20 on the last settlement day and now stand at 5-30, and in the
course of the previous week has sold 5000 bales of " futures " at
5-10, he receives 10,000 X xVVd. on his old holding, and has to pay
5000 X iVVd- on his sales, and therefore on balance neither
receives nor pays. Differences may be very large sums. The
unit of a " future " being 100 bales, an alteration in the price of
cotton of -oid. causes a difference on each unit of £2. Periodic
settlements are obviously periodic tests of the solvency of
dealers. If the test of the settlement were not frequently applied,
speculators who were unfortunate would be tempted to plunge
deeper until finally some became insolvent for large sums. As it
is, the speculator who has incurred losses beyond his means tends
to be discovered before his creditors are heavily involved.
Settlement days fall on Thursday, and the closing prices on the
preceding Monday are taken as the basis of the settlement.
From all differences interest at 5% is deducted for the time
between settlement day and the tenth day of the second month on
which the " future " elapses, since settlement terms mean that
money is paid in instalments before it is actually due. To the
admission of periodic settlements there was for a time vehement
opposition on the ground that the door would be opened to
gambling on " differences." Hence at first, in 1882, they were
used only by a section of the market constituted of members who
had voluntarily agreed to do business with one another upon
these terms alone. By 1884, however, the advantages of " settle-
ment terms " became so evident that they were adopted by the
Cotton Association, at first for fortnightly periods, with the
saving clause originally that they should not be compulsory.

As soon as the clearing house was set up it became evident that
" futures " were an impossibility away from it. At the same time
" futures " were becoming an increasing necessity to
importers, because through " futures " alone could they
hedge on their purchases of cotton, or buy when the
market seemed favourable, and they were not prepared
to assume heavy risks. Now from the clearing house
importers were rigorously excluded, and on invoking the aid of
" futures," therefore, they were penalized to the extent of double
broker's commission, one commission being charged on the sale
of the " futures " and one on their purchase back. The importers,
therefore, found it necessary to establish a club of their own, the
Liverpool Cotton Exchange, which they as rigorously guarded
against brokers. The split in the market so caused was so
damaging to both parties that a satisfactory arrangement was
eventually agreed upon, and both institutions were absorbed in
the Liverpool Cotton Association.

A condition of specialist dealers working to the public service
is that they should not act in the dark. They must watch
demand, be able to form reasonable anticipations ot its move-

Origin of
Liverpool
Cotton
Associa-
tion.

Publica-
tion of in-
formation
relating to
demand
and
supply.

ments, and at the same time know the existing stocks of cotton;
the sales taking place from day to day, and the best forecasts of
the coming supplies. A man accustomed to devote the
whole of his time to the study of demand and supply
in relation to cotton, after some years of experience,
will be qualified ordinarily to form fairly accurate judg-
ments of the prices to be expected. His success depends
upon his ability to interpret rightly the facts and intan-
gible signs with which he is brought in contact. The
information at the disposal of dealers has steadily enlarged in
volume and improved in trustworthiness, though some of it is
not yet invariably above suspicion, and the time elapsing between
an event and the knowledge of it becoming common property
has been reduced to a fraction of what it used to be, in consequence
chiefly of the telegraph and cables. All sales that take place on
the Exchange must be returned. Estimates are published of the
area under cotton cultivation, and conditions of the American
crop are issued by the American agricultural bureau at the
beginning of the months of June, July, August, September and
October of each year. To represent the standard of perfect
healthiness and exemption from injury due to insects, or drought,
or any other causes, one hundred is taken. The estimates for
1901 to 1005 are given, to illustrate their variations: — ■

Year.

June 1st.

July 1st.

Aug. 1st.

Sept. 1st.

Oct. ISt.

1901

81-5

8i-l

77-2

71-4

61-4

1902

95-i

847

81-9

64-0

58-3

1903

74-1

77-1

79-7

81-2

65-1

1904

83

88

91-6

84-1

75-8

1905

77-2

77

74-9

72-1

71-2

These estimates are the averages of separate estimates which
are published for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas,
Arkansas, Tennessee. The official figures are supplemented
from time to time by numerous private forecasts, for instance
those in " Neild's circular." Ellison, in his work on the cotton
trade of Great Britain, traces in detail the increase in the volume
of information collected and made public. At the close of the
1 8th century there was a tacit understanding among brokers to
supply one another with information. There were no printed
circulars, except the monthly prices current of all kinds of
produce, but brokers used to send particulars of business done
to their customers in letters. These letters were the origin of
circulars. Messrs Ewart and Rutson pioneered in 1805 by
issuing a weekly account of the sales and imports of cotton, and
three years later three such circulars were on the market, though
Hope's alone was confined to cotton. For the first associated
circular of any importance, the market had to wait until 1832.
The issue of this circular by subscribing firms, on the basis of
particulars collected by brokers appointed at a weekly meeting,
gave rise in 1841 to the Cotton Brokers' Association, to which the
development of the market by the systematizing of procedure is
largely due. The rest of the tale may be told in Mr Ellison's own
words: —

" Down to 1864 the leading firms continued to issue weekly market
reports, but in that year the association commenced the publication
of an associated circular. This was followed in the same year by
the Daily Table of sales and imports, which in 1874 was succeeded
by the present more complete Daily Circular. To these publications
were at various times added the annual report, issued in December,
the American crop report, issued in September, and the daily advices
by cable from America, issued every morning." 1

We shall now enter upon a detailed analysis of " forward "
operations. The term " futures " is used broadly and narrowly:
broadly it is a generic term denoting " futures " in the „ .
narrow sense, and also " options " and " straddles ";
narrowly it implies merely contracts for future delivery at a price
fixed in the present. Again we must distinguish between the
" future " contracts for the delivery of a particular kind of cotton,
which may be entered into by spinners and their brokers, and
are real purchases in the sense that the spinners want delivery
of the cotton referred to, and the " futures," which always relate

1 The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, by Thomas Ellison, p. 186.

270

COTTON

to the same grade of cotton, and are drawn up according to certain
forms and circulate on the exchange as media for the shifting
of risks connected with purchase and sale. The latter are not
" real " purchases in the sense given to that term above, but
fictitious because delivery of the cotton is not desired. It will no
doubt aid the understanding of the functions of the latter if some
explanation is offered of the needs met by the former, which are
sometimes known technically as " deferred deliveries."

When a spinner is required to quote prices of yarn for delivery

in the future he is fixed on the horns of a dilemma. If he does not

at once buy cotton, but quotes on the assumption that

1 . price will remain steady, he may be involved in serious
risks. loss through his estimate being mistaken. If he de-

termines to buy cotton at once, others who risk more,
and trust their judgment of the future, may secure the contract.
On first thoughts it would seem desirable that all spinners should
buy cotton outright to cover their contracts, but on second
thoughts the social disadvantage of their doing so becomes
apparent. Much buying might take place when stocks were
scanty, with the result that prices would be needlessly forced
up; and when stocks were plentiful demand might be weak and
prices, therefore, be unduly depressed. It is evident that the
buying of cotton on the principles suggested would be calculated
to cause great unsteadiness of prices, especially as cotton is
not continuously forthcoming, but is produced periodically in
harvests. Demands for yarn cannot be expected to come always
at the most favourable time socially for the distribution of the
cotton. One way out of the difficulty is that the spinner should
exercise his judgment and buy his raw material at what seems to
him the most suitable times. But to this course there are three
objections. The first is that spinners would be performing the two
functions of industrial management and cotton buying (together
with others perhaps), and that in consequence the best industrial
men would not necessarily be able to maintain their position in
the trade because as buyers of cotton they might be unfortunate.
The second is that spinners being required to give attention to
two distinct classes of problems would be less likely as a body
to become complete masters of either. The third, which is not
distinct in principle from the two preceding, is that such limited
speculation in cotton buying on the part of spinners worried with
other matters would not be likely to steady the cotton market in
any high degree. It may be assumed as desirable that the demand
for cotton should be so spread as to keep its price as steady as
possible — " steadiness " will be defined more exactly later — and
that to this end it is essential that specialists should devote
themselves to the task of spreading it. Such specialists have
appeared in the cotton brokers and dealers who make their living
out of bearing the risks connected with anticipating demand and
supply in relation to cotton. To-day a spinner who is asked to
quote for deliveries of yarn for, say, the next six months, may
obtain from a broker quotations for deliveries of the cotton that
he needs, in quantities as he needs it, for the next six months, and
upon these quotations he may base his own for yarn. If a spinner
is pressed by a shipper to make quotations with refusal for two or
three days to give time for business to be settled by cable, it is
evidently not impossible for the spinner to shift the risk involved
by getting in turn from his broker refusal quotations for cotton.
But spinners do not try always to take the safest course.

Now it is evident that brokers in turn require some means of
passing on the risks that they are bearing, or some portion of them
from one to another, or of sharing them with other
Method of mar k e t experts, as they find themselves overburdened,
lag risks, and as their judgment of the situation changes. I he
means have been provided in the " futures " which
circulate on the Cotton Exchange. The risks of anticipating are
carried by those who create or hold " futures " without a hedge.
In order to facilitate business, " futures " are all drawn in the
same unit (100 bales), and are all based on the same class of
cotton, namely Upland cotton of middling grade of " no
staple " (i.e. with a fibre of about f in.) and of the worst growth.
American cotton, we may remind the reader, is graded into a
number of classes, both on the Liverpool and New York Ex-

changes, and an attempt is made in each market to keep the
grades as fixed as possible. But what, it may be inquired, is the
value of " futures " relating to " middling " cotton to a broker
whose contracts with spinners are not in " middling " cotton?
The answer is that though the ratios between the prices of the
various grades alter, the prices of all of them move generally
together, and that the " futures " of the Exchange at least
provide a hedge against the latter movements. Other things
being equal, the broker would be better off if he could hedge
with equal ease against all his risks. But other things are not
equal: the market would be more confusing and quotations
would be complicated if " futures " were in use for all grades.

We may now examine the exchange " futures " in minuter
detail. They are quoted as a rule for about ten months ahead.
Thus in January the futures quoted will be January
(technically termed " current," " present month " or f^f^
"near month," "futures"), January- Feb ruary, "futures."
February-March, March-April, April-May, May- June,
June-July, July-August, and perhaps two or three more.
Each group, it will be observed, except " current futures,"
culminates in two defined months. The rule is that on the first
of the two months the seller of " futures " may, and before the
last day of the second month must, deliver cotton against them,
or, what comes to the same thing, buy back the " futures " on the
basis of the price of " spot " cotton of middling grade. Various
grades of cotton are tenderable against " futures ": if this were
not so " futures " would be in danger of defeating their object,
because the price of the grade upon which they were founded
would probably at times be thrown widely out of relation to the
general level of prices in the cotton market. The lowest grade
tenderable used to be " low middling," but since October 1901
" good ordinary " has also been accepted. Arbitrators report on
deliveries and award allowances on those of grades above
" middling " and deductions of price from those below. A
sample is taken from each bale and the " points on or off "
are fixed for each bale separately. If either party is dissatisfied
with the award, he may appeal to an appeals committee on
paying £3:3:0: which is refunded to him by the other party
if the appeal be upheld. The detailed arrangements described
above are those of the Liverpool market. The great bulk of
" futures," however, are bought back and not delivered against.

Beneath are the official Liverpool quotations of
" futures," as they appeared on the morning of the
19th of April 1906: —

American Deliveries, any port, basis of middling, good ordinary
clause (the fractions are given in looths of a penny).

Quota-
tions.

Yesterday's
Close.

To-day's Early Sales.

Values
12.15.

April ....

6-05

6-03

April-May

6-05

603

May-June

6-05

6-o6, 5,4.3.2, 1,2,3

6-03

June-July .

6-05

6-05,2/3

6-03

July- August

6-04

6-05, 4, 3, 2

603

Aug.-Sept.

5-98

5-99- 8, 6

5-97

Sept. -Oct.

5-34

5-85,4

5-84

Oct. -Nov. .

5-76

5-77, 6

5-76

Nov. -Dec.

575

5-75. 4 1

5-75

Dec-Jan. .

5-74

5-75 '

5-75

Jan.-Feb. .

5-75

575 *

5-75

Late Business.

Closing
Values.

April ....

6-03 1

5-98

April-May

6-03

5 ; 98

May-June

6-03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2,

5-99

June-July .

6-04, 3, 2

5-99

July-Aug. .

6 "°3. 4. 3. 2, 1. o. 1 1. 2, 1 1, 0,
5-99. 6-0, 1 5-99, 6-o, 5-99, 8

5-98

Aug.-Sept.

5-98, 1 6, 5, 4, 5

5-92

Sept.-Oct.

5-84, 2 '

5-78

Oct.-Nov. .

576, 1 5, 1 4. 3. 4. 3. 1 2, 1,

5-70

Nov.-Dec.

570 '

5-69

Dec-Jan. .

572, 1, 2 1

5-69

Jan.-Feb. .

5-69

Transactions of 100 bales only.

COTTON

271

Egyptian Deliveries, fully good fair (in 64/fo of a penny).

Yesterday's

Business

To-day's

Business

Afternoon.

Closing

Close.

before Noon.

Values.

April .

IO-II

IO-I

May . . .

10-12

9-62, 3, 10-0

9-63, 2, IO-O

10-2 1

IO-I

June .

IO-II

10-0

July . . .

10-9

9-60, i,o'

9-63, 1 IO-O, 1
9-63- 2

9-62

Aug. . . .

•1 0-0

9-54

Sept. . . .

9-58

9-48

Oct. . . .

9-24

9-18

Nov. .

8-58

8-52, 1 0, 49

8-52

Dec. . . .

8-50

8-39 x

8-42

Jan. .

8-44

8-36

8-35

Egyptian futures, it will be observed, run out in single months.
As the cost of dealing in " futures " is only one shilling on each
transaction for a member of the Cotton Exchange (the outsider is
charged in addition a commission by his broker), it is not sur-
prising that the transactions taking place in " futures " number
legion.

The methods of dealing in cotton are very intricate, and it is
necessary here to interpolate an explanation of the relations
between the prices paid by spinners for cotton and the quoted
" spot " prices. We begin by giving the official quotations of
" spot," and statement of business done, published on the
morning of the 19th of April 1906.

Quotations.

L.M. Mid. G.M. F.G.M. M.F.
6-05 6-21 6-41 6-49 6-71

Mid Fair. Fair. Gd. Fair.

6-35 6-6i

6-40 6-62

6-32 6-56

6-34n 6-56n

F.G.F. Good. Fine.
■ioi

American

G.O.

5-87

Pernam .
Ceara
Paraiba
Maceio ,

Fair.

Egyptian br'n .
Upper

M. G. Broach
Bhownuggar
No. 1 Comra
Bengal .
Tinnevelly .

595

6-02

5-94
5-96n

Gd. Fair.
9l

91

11
9sn

ion

Gd. Fr. F.G.F.

4An
3li

51

4ii n
4iin
3 1!
5&

Gd.

5 A

4lln

4Hn

4S > 2

5A

G.F.

5i!n
4lin
4itn
4 h

Fine. S'fine.

4

5^"
5^
A-h 43

Cotton Ships arrived.
Boston: Canadian S. Hamburg: Iceland S.

Sales.

Speculation and

Imports

including

Export.

Hull, &c.

Previous

Previous

Week's

To-day.

this
Week.

To-day.

this
Week.

To-day.

Total.

American .

6330

18,050

500

1500

17.665

53,684

Pernam, &c. .

150

200

Paraiba, &c. .

460

130

2

Ceara and Arac'ty .

30

Egyptian

500

1200

321

7,983

Peruvian .

460

350

32

32

W. I. and African .

5°

20

Surat

3.664

3,829

Madras .

50

20

Bengal

608

608

Sundries .

Total .

8000

20,000

500

1500

22,290

66,138

Since Wednesday .

8,000

500

28,000

2000

Purchases for " speculation " remain in the market and
therefore figure again in the sales. These official prices are
sometimes prices actually paid, and sometimes prices settled by
1 Transactions of 100 bales only.

a committee according to their notions of the prices that would
have been realized at the close of the market had business been
done. The work of the committee is by no means (
simple, as frequently very few transactions take place on or n //...
in the kinds of cotton of which quotations are given. As
regards " middling " American, the committee fixes " spot " by
allowing so many " points on or off " present month futures. The
variations of the gaps between "spot" and "present month
futures " are somewhat mysterious, a matter to which we shall
recur. " Spot " quotations, the reader will now understand, are
partly nominal, and must therefore be taken as affording a
general idea only of movements in the prices of cotton. While
quoted " spot " remained low, the prices paid by most spinners
for the special kinds of cotton that they needed might rise.
When the spinner has informed the dealer exactly what quality of
cotton he needs, the dealer quotes so many " points on or off "
the " future " quotations prevailing in Liverpool at the time of
the purchase, which refer to Upland cotton of " middling grade,"
of " no staple " and of the worst growth. Then, according as the
spinner wants immediate delivery or delivery in some future
month, he pays the price of current " futures," or of " futures "
of the month in which he requires delivery, plus or minus the
" points on or off " previously fixed.

The considerations which determine the " points on or off "
charged to the spinner may be taken roughly as three : —

1. The grade, i.e. the colour, cleanliness, &c, of the cotton.
These are of importance to the spinner owing to the necessity of
his cleaning machinery being adapted to the condition of the
cotton. The lower the grade the more elaborate and expensive is
the machinery required to clean it, and consequently a spinner is
willing to pay a certain amount extra for high grade cotton in
order to save expenditure on preparatory machinery.

2. The length of the staple. This determines to a large extent
the fineness of the yarn which can be spun. Only the very
lowest counts can be spun from cotton with " no staple," that is,
with a fibre of about three-quarters of an inch. The longer the
staple above the minimum the higher the counts that can
be spun.

3. The growth. The best American cotton (Sea Island and
Florida cotton are always considered quite apart) is grown in the
Mississippi valley, the next best in Texas, and the poorest on the
Uplands (i.e. in Georgia and Alabama). Considerations of
growth determine to a great extent the hardness or softness, and
strength or weakness, of the fibre, and thus, indirectly, whether
the cotton is suitable for warp or weft.

Some spinners cover their yarn contracts merely by buying
" futures," but the cover thus provided is
frequently most inadequate owing to variations
in the " points on or off " for the particular
cotton that they want. For example, after the
size of 1904-1905 crops became known, and the
Americans attempted to hold back cotton, the
" points on " for many qualities rose consider-
ably owing to artificial scarcity, though the price
of cotton, as indicated by " spot," remained
low. There is a tendency for cautious spinners
in England to run no risks and fix the prices
of their yarn in accordance with quotations for
actual cotton of specified qualities made by
their brokers.

We now return to exchange " future " trans-
actions regarded as a genus. In addition to
"futures" proper there are "options"
and " straddles." Options are single "^ oaa "
(" puts " or " calls ") or double (that ™strai<Ues."
is, alternative "puts "or "calls").
The " put " is a right to sell cotton within some
specified time in the future at a price fixed in the
present, which need not, of course, be exercised. The ' call " is
similar, but relates to buying. It will be evident that the "put"
is a hedge against prices falling, and the " call " a. hedge against
their rising. The basis of " options " is the same as that of

272

COTTON

ordinary " futures," i.e. middling American cotton of " no staple,"
&c. Whether the purchaser of an option gains or loses depends
upon the price that he has paid in relation to the gain, if any, that
he makes out of his power. The price of options of course
varies: that of double options is always highest, but they are
little used. A " straddle " is a speculation on the difference
between the prices of nearer and more distant futures, which
varies from time to time, or on the difference between the prices
of different kinds of cotton. An example will make the nature of
the straddle clear. Suppose a dealer buys April- May " futures "
at 4d. a lb and sells the same quantity of May-June
" futures " at 4^-fd. a lb. Then, whether prices rise or fall
as a whole, he gains if the difference between the two prices be-
comes less than ^-fd., but if it becomes more, he loses. On
the other hand, had the dealer bought May-June at 4^-fd.
and sold April-May at 4d. he would have gained in the event of
the difference increasing, and lost in the event of its decreasing.

A question which has met with a good deal of attention is
whether the speculation, which has been encouraged by the
Measures various arrangements made for facilitating operations
ofsteadl- in " futures," has steadied or unsteadied prices.
ness in Before we are prepared to answer this question .we must
p ces ' be furnished with a precise conception of what is meant
by " steadiness " in prices. It is sometimes assumed that this is
measured perfectly by the standard deviation, 1 which is obtained
by taking the squares of the differences between the average and
the individual prices, summing them and extracting the square
root. But obviously the information given by the standard devia-
tion is limited: the frequency of movement cannot be inferred
from it; two series might have quite different average oscillations
and yet the same standard deviation; and the range of movement,
or spread of the variations from the average price (though allowed
for in the standard deviation more than in the average error) , is
hidden. Now frequency of movement, average daily price
variation, and range of price movements are matters of funda-
mental importance to the public. Hence for practical purposes
we require several kinds of measurement of price movements, and
it is impossible to weigh exactly the one against the other in
respect of importance. Observe that an increase of the frequency
of movement, or even of the average daily movement, is not
necessarily objectionable, since changes are less harassing when
they take place by small increments than when they are brought
about by a few big variations. The difference between the
highest and lowest price, we may observe, is a very imperfect
indication of the range of movement (though, taken in conjunc-
tion with the standard deviation, it is the best at our disposal),
because either of the extreme prices might be accidental and
quite out of relation to all others. An investigator must be on
his guard against using quotations of this kind. There is also a
difficulty about the frequency of movement, because as a rule
many movements take place in one day the total over a period
sufficiently lengthy to yield general results is enormous, and many
are unrecorded. In one day, for instance, when the net drop was
33 points and the range of variation 59 points (namely, 8-45 to
7-86), 150 price fluctuations were recorded. However, the count
of frequency of movement from daily closing prices would prob-
ably afford a roughly satisfactory comparative measurement in
markets in which prices sometimes remain the same for a day or
two together. The points just noted apply also to the average
fluctuation and the standard deviation, but it is probable in these
cases that daily or even weekly quotations would be sufficient to
yield the information sought for with sufficient exactness for
purposes of comparison.

Now, supposing dealing to be confined to experts, what
effects upon the course of prices would one expect from the
Ett ct t s P ec i a li sm °f the cotton market and improved facilities
specula- f° r dealing, on the assumption that dealers were
tion on governed wholly in their actions by the course of prices
st f»^oess an( j never tried to manipulate them? The frequency

of prices.

of movement ought to increase because the market

1 See article on " Dealings in Futures in the Cotton Market," in
the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. lxix, p. 325.

would become more sensitive, but, other things being equal, the
range of movement ought to diminish, and ultimately the average
daily movement also, though at first the latter might not fall
appreciably if, indeed, it did not rise, owing to the increased
frequency of movement. These results would prove beneficial to
the community. May we infer deductively that they have been
attained because of the increase of speculative transactions?
By no means, and for two reasons. In the first place, the public
speculates to a large extent on the cotton exchange, and its
speculation (taken as a whole) is sheer gambling. But, it may be
replied, the outsiders, being as a whole completely ignorant of the
forces at work, so that they cannot form rational anticipations,
cannot have any effect either way: by the law of chance their
influences would neutralize one another. This would be so if
people acted independently and without guidance, but actually
they are sometimes misled by published advice and movements in
the market intended to deceive them, and, even when they are not,
they watch each other's attitudes and tend to act as a crowd.
The mass becomes unduly sanguine or weakly surrenders to
panic. Hence the law of error does not apply, and speculation by
the public may unsteady prices. Again, dealers sometimes try to
create corners and form powerful syndicates for that purpose: the
dealing syndicate of late years has become a force to be reckoned
with. Many large-scale operations are entered into, not because
prices are relatively high or low, but to make them high or low for
ulterior purposes; i.e. the market is deliberately "bulled or
beared." In consequence of this tampering with the market no
certainty can be felt about the effect even of expert dealing.

What, then, we may ■ profitably inquire next, has actually
happened to price movements generally as the market has
developed? This question can readily be answered as
regards the past forty years or so, for which material „°Ij!j£! s "' t
has been collected, but the reader must bear in mind
that if improvement can be traced it cannot logically be attributed
unhesitatingly to the perfecting of the machinery of speculation,
whereby a larger use has been made of " futures," since many
other economic changes have taken place concomitantly and they
may have wrought the major effect. The world may be steadying
and steeling its nerves. Now, turning to the actual effects, we
discover somewhat remarkable facts. Expressed both absolutely
and as percentages of the price averaged from the 1st of October
to the 31st of July, the range of movement, standard deviation,
and mean weekly movement calculated between the times
mentioned above (October 1st to July 31st), after diminishing
significantly for some years after the later 'sixties, have risen
appreciably on the whole of late years. The figures in the table
below are from the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, June
1906: quotations for August and September were omitted to
avoid the transition movements between the price levels of
two crops.

In this table measurements of price movements stated both
absolutely and as percentages of price levels are given, because
authorities have expressed doubts as to whether the former or the
latter might be expected to remain constant, other things being
equal, when price rose. On the one hand, it is argued that
speculators are affected only by the absolute variations in price,
while on the other hand it is contended that a movement of one
" point," say, is less influential when the price is about 8d. than
when it is about 4d. In response to the first view it might be
argued that if speculators are influenced only by the differences
for which they become liable, a " point " movement would have a
somewhat slighter effect on their action, other things being equal,
when price was high, because, supplies being relatively short,
each of them would tend to be engaged in a smaller volume of
transactions measured in quantity of cotton, than when supplies
were larger. But the point need not be discussed further here,
since both percentage and absolute indices of unsteadiness have
risen of late years. The explanation of this change in the
direction of indices of steadiness cannot be proved to consist in
any peculiarity in the supplies of recent years. But the dealing
syndicate has probably been of late more common and more
powerful— that is, the syndicate which exists to make profits out

COTTON

273

Table calculated from Weekly Prices between the 1st of October and the 31st of July in each Year.

Expressed as Percentage of

Average (1st Oct. to 3
Weekly Prices.

1st July)

Year.

Average

Lowest

Highest

Range of

Standard

Mean
Weekly

Range of

Standard

Mean

Weekly

Movement.

Price.

Price.

Price.

Movement.

Deviation.

Movement.

Movement.

Deviation.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

d.

1867-1868

9f

7i

"t

51

1-74

031

57-1

18-1

3'22

1868-1869

ni

10J

"1

»*

0-58

019

i8-s

5-°

165

1869-1870

ni

7i

»i

4t.

092

0-23

416

83

2-07

1870-1871

8*

7ft

9ft

2

0-65

0-17

24-6

80

2-09

1871-1872

10J

9t

"1

a*

o-75

0-15

i9-5

6-9 .

1-38

1872-1873

9l

8}

1 oft

ift

o-53

O'lO

16-9

57

108

1873-1874

8ft

7i

9i

if

0-32

O-IO

165

3-9

1-20

1874-1875

1\\

6}I

8

ift

0-26

007

13-8-

3-4

089

1875-1876

61

Si

7i

ii

o-3 7

0-08

19- 2

57

1-23

1876-1877

6ft

Si

7

ii

°-33

Oil

17-8

5-2

i-74

1877-1878

6i

Si

6ft

ili

0-21

007

no

34

I-I2

1878-1879

6

4tl

7ft

2i

067

0-13

37-5

II-2

2-17

1879-1880

7

6}§

7f

ii

O' 24

0'12

107

3-4

I-7I

1880-1881

6ft

5*.

611

1 ft

0-34

0-08

168

5'4

1-27

1881-1882

61

6f

. 7ft

H

015

0-07

10-4

2-3

1-06

1882-1883

sH

5ft

6f

ift

0-31

0-07

20-4

5-3

i- 20

1883-1884,

6ft

Si

6ft

H

0'20

0-08

n-3

33

132

1884-1885

sil

5ft

6i

n :

0-19

007

n-8

33

i- 20

1885-1886

si

4i ■

5ft ■

i

Ol8

0-07

14-5

3-5

i-35

18S6-1887 '

Si's

si

6

i

028

0-05

161

S-2

092

1887-1888

Si

5 is

SH

1

0-14

0-05

91

2-5

091

1888-1889

si

5ft

6ft

i

023

006

150

40

1 04

1 889-1 890

6i

5ft

6}i

i

o-34

008

184

5-5

131

1890-189 X

5

4i

si

if

036

0-06

27-5

7-2

I- 20

1891-1892

4i

3ft

4H

if

0-36

0-07

333

8-7

170

1892-1893

4l

4i

SH

ift

o-37

0-09

25-0

7-8

1-89

1893-1894

4i

3H

4H

H

0-22

004

18-4

52

094

1894-1895

3i

»H

3*

A

0-30

0-06

269

8.9

i-79

1895-1896

4f

3i

411

ft

0-28

0-07

25-0

64

160

1896-1897

4ft

3il

4li

1!

0-22

007

21-6

5-2

167

1897-1898

3H

3ft

3i?

f

, 0-18

005

i8-5

5'3

1-47

1898-1899

3 ft

3

3 IS

11

0-15

0'04

14-3

46

1-22

1899-1900

4H

311

6ft

II

063

0.12

43-6

12-8

2-48

1900-1901

5i

4ft

61

2ft

°'53

013

42-7

10-3

2-54

1901— 1902

4i

4ft

Sil

ift

024

009

22-4

5-o

1.89

1902-1903

5-35

442

7-12

2-70

078

0-13

5°-5

146

2-43

1903-1904

7-04

5-7»

8-92

3-i4

091

o-33

44.4

129

483

1904-1905

4-86

3 6 3

6'Oi

2-38

0-71

0-15

48.9

14-6

3-09

of manipulating the market — and the public has probably been
speculating increasingly. It is plausible, then, to suppose that
the dealing syndicate primarily, and the speculations of the
public secondarily (secondarily, because in all likelihood the
effect of its operation would be much less in magnitude), may
account for the change. •>

"Futures" are not used in all markets — for instance, they are
not to be found at Bremen; and in those in which they are used
they play parts of different prominence — at Havre,
for instance, the transactions in "futures" are of
incomparably less relative importance than they are at
Liverpool. But it is futile to seek the effect of much
dealing in " futures " in the differences between price
movements in the various markets, because (1) demand expresses
itself in different ways — in Germany, for example, spinners buy to
hold large stocks — and (2) the markets are in telegraphic com-
munication, so that their price movements are kept parallel.
Mr Hooker has shown with reference to the wheat market how
close is the correlation between prices in different places, 1 and
the same has been observed of the -cotton market, though the

Price
move'
meats In
different
markets.

Conceivably some indication of the working of "futures"
might be gleaned from observation of the relations of near and
distant "futures" to one another and of both to _.„
"spot." The complete explanation of changes in between
these relations is still a mystery. 3 Probably an the prices
infinitude of subtle influences came into play, and ofnearand
among these there seems reason to include the in- ?//^„^ s ...
tentional and unintentional " bulling " or "bearing"
of the market. Some examples of the diverse relations to be
found, even when all the "future's" fall in the same crop year,
may be quoted here — quotations running into the new crop year
are obviously affected by anticipations of the new crop.

As we pass from the " future " of the month in which the
quotation is made to the most distant "future" it will be observed
that in the first and second cases price rises continuously, in the
second case even passing "spot," whereas in the third case it falls
first and then rises. Instances might be given of its falling un-
intermittently. It seems a plausible conjecture that if " futures "
were "bulling" the market in the first case, they were at least
"bulling" it less in the second case ceteris paribus, and probably

Spot.

Jan.-
Feb.

Feb.-
March

March-
April.

April-
May.

May-
June.

June-
July.

July-
Aug.

Aug.-.
Sept.

Sept.-
Oct.

Gct.-

Nov.

Nov.-
Dec.

Dec-
Jan.

Nov. 18th, 1895 . .
Jan. 18th, 1899 .
Sept. 14th, 1899 . .

4-34

3-8

3-36

27

61
24!

28
61

25

28|
25i

29!
8i
26

3I i

27

32

IOj

33
ill

12
3°

12'i
28

261

27
25

27
61

24I

correlations have not been worked out. 2 It is worthy of note
that Liverpool "futures" are largely used for hedging by
continental cotton dealers.

1 Journal of the Statistical Society, 1906.

1 See paper in the Journal of the Statistical Society for June 1906.

"bearing" it in the last case. A closer examination will reveal
further that the magnitude of these gaps varies a great deal; and

3 Attempts to explain them were made in an article in the Economic
Journal in December 1904, and in the paper already referred to
read to the Royal Statistical Society.

2 74

COTTON

if the "futures" do "bear" and "bull," as has been supposed,
they probably influence these magnitudes. It might be thought
that the "futures" of different months, being substitutes in
proportion to their temporal proximity to one another, should
vary together exactly; but it would seem to be a sufficient reply
that as they are not perfect substitutes they are in some slight
degree independent variables. The "spot" market might be
judged generally as too high, in view of crops and the probable
normal demand of the year, but it might not therefore drop
immediately, owing partly to the pressure of demand that must
be satisfied instantaneously. "Current futures" would be
affected more than " spot " by this impression as to the relation
of "spot" to a conceived normal price for the year, and they
might therefore be expected to drop more than "spot" when
this impression was at all widely entertained. But the fall of
"current futures" would be checked by the demands that must
be satisfied in the near future. Probably the prices of the more
distant "futures" are determined in a higher degree by far-
reaching imagination than the prices of nearer futures. This
explains what has been called above the unintentional "bearing"
of "spot" by "futures." And it is immediately evident that
the deliberate "bear" works by selling "futures," and that the
effect of his sales is propagated to "spot." These statements are
equally true of "bulling." The influence of expectations of the
new crop on "futures" running into the new crop is plain on
inspection; but owing to the gap between the two crop years it
would be astonishing if "futures" against which cotton from a
new crop could be delivered were not appreciably independent of
"spot" at the time of their quotation. However, it is noticeable
that they are still so closely bound up with "futures" culminat-
ing in the old crop year that the daily movements of the former
are closely correlated with those of the latter. Concluding
cautiously, we may admit the probability of the relations between
near and distant "futures" and "spot" (even in respect of
"futures" running out in the same crop year) indicating some-
times at least the intentional or unintentional "bulling" or
"bearing" or "spot" by "futures." But nothing has yet been
proved from these facts as to the effect "futures" are having
upon the steadiness of prices. In the case of any crop year, if
the relations which are suggested as indicating the "bulling"
work of "futures" usually corresponded with "spot" prices
being below the normal price of the crop year, or of what was
left of the crop year, while the relations which are suggested to
indicate the "bearing" work of "futures" on the whole corre-
sponded with a relatively abnormal height of "spot," it would be
a legitimate inference that "futures" were tending to smooth
prices. However, it is made clear as the result of an elaborate
examination that the generality of these correspondences cannot
be affirmed. 1 The outcome of the whole matter is that the
investigator is still baffled in his attempt to discover what effect
the use of "futures" is having upon prices to-day. The sole
piece of evidence, from which probable conclusions may be
drawn, is that three separate measurements of price fluctua-
tions over some forty years reveal a growing unsteadiness
of late, whether they be expressed absolutely or as percentages
of price.

The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of Great
Britain upon the United States for cotton, coupled with the
belief that shortages of supply are more frequent than
they ought to be, and the fear that diminishing returns
may operate in America, occasioned the formation in
England of the British Cotton Growing Association on
the 12th of June 1902. The proportions of England's
supplies drawn from different fields is indicated in the
table below.

British dependence on American supplies is greater even than
that of the continent of Europe, for Russia possesses some
internal supplies, and more Indian cotton is used in continental
countries than in England.

1 See the paper already mentioned in the Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society for June 1906, where the several points noticed
briefly above are fully discussed.

Average Quantities of Raw Cotton imported Annually into the United
Kingdom from the following Countries in the Periods 1896-1900
and 1901-1904.

Recent
attempts
to open
up new
cotton-
fields.

Country.

1 896-1 900.
Million lb.

1 90 1 -1 904.
Million lb.

Chile (including the Pacific coast of

Patagonia) ....
Venezuela and Republic of Colombia .
British West Indies and British Guiana
Turkey (European and Asiatic) .

Egypt

British possessions in the East Indies .

Total
Re-exported

1436
13-8
8-5

•8
•5
■3
•5
295-7
407

•035
2-3

1424

31-5
8-6

2-2

•5

•6

i-i

3H-4
61 9

•041
3-8

1800

1849

223

260

The annual average shipments from Bombay to the European
continent and to Great Britain in 1900-1904 were as follows: —

To the continent 600 bales of 3 % cwt.

To Great Britain 50 ,, „ „

At the end of the 18th century the bulk of British cotton was
obtained from the West Indies. Approximately the supplies
were as follows in million lb : —

British West Indies 6-6

French and Spanish settlements ... 6

Dutch settlements 1-7

Portuguese „ 2-5

East Indies ,, -i

Smyrna or Turkey 5-7

The British Cotton Growing Association works under the
sanction of a royal charter and has met with valuable official
support. Financial assistance and assurances as to sales and
prices have been given liberally by the association where they
are needed; ginning and buying centres have been established;
experts have been engaged to distribute seed and afford instruc-
tion; and some land has been acquired for working under the
direct management of the association. The governments of
some colonies have aided the efforts of the association. Professor
Wyndham Dunstan of the Imperial Institute, on a reference from
the government, made favourable reports as to the possibilities
of extending cotton cultivation. The results may be seen in the
approximate estimates below of cotton grown more or less
directly under the auspices of the association.

Bales of 400 lb.

1903.

1904.

1905.

1906.

Gambia
Sierra Leone
Gold Coast .
Lagos
Nigeria

West Africa.
West Indies.
East Africa .
Sind
Sundries

50

50

50

500

100

750

1,000

150

100
100
150
2,000
200

2,550

2,000

850

100

300
200
200
3,200
650

4,550

4,000

2,000

500

250

250

250

6,300

1,200

8,000
6,000
3-5oo
2,000
500

Total .

1,900

5,500

1 1 ,300

20,000

Approximate value

£29,000

£75,ooo

£150,000

£270,000

In the West Indies results are most favourable, both as
regards quantity and quality of the crops. West Indian grown
cotton has realized even higher prices than American grown Sea
Island. In West Africa also prospects appear encouraging.
In Sierra Leone little success has been met with, but on the Gold
Coast some cotton better than middling American has been
grown, and the association has concluded an agreement with the
government for an extension of its work. In Lagos crops
increased rapidly. The cotton is almost entirely grown by
natives in small patches round their villages, and generally it

COTTON

275

has sold for about the same price as middling American, though
some of it realized as much as 25 to 30 "points on." The
quality in greatest demand in England, it should be observed, is
worth about |d. to -§d. per lb. above middling American. In
Southern Nigeria the association has met with only slight
success; in Northern Nigeria, a working arrangement was entered
into with the Niger Company, and a small ginning establishment
was set to work in February 1906. In British Central Africa, the
results on the whole have not been satisfactory. Though
planters who confined their efforts to the lower lying grounds —
of which there is a fairly large tract — succeeded, all the cotton
planted on the highlands proved more or less a failure. In
Uganda the association took no steps, but activity in cotton-
growing is not unknown, and some good cotton is being produced.
Arrangements were concluded with the British South Africa
Company for the formation of a small syndicate for working in
Rhodesia.

The general movement for the extension of cotton cultivation
was welcomed by the International Congress of representatives
of master cotton spinners and manufacturers' associations at
the meeting at Zurich in May 1904. It placed on record "its
cordial appreciation of the efforts of those governments and
institutions which have already supported cotton-growing in
their respective colonies." England is pre-eminent but not
alone in the matter. Germany and France, and in a less degree
Belgium, Portugal and Italy, have taken some steps. Russia,
too, is developing her internal supplies.

The advantages that might accrue from the wider distribution
of cotton-growing are mainly fourfold. (1) Greater elasticity of
supply might be caused. It is probably easier to extend the area
under cotton rapidly when crops are raised from many places in
proximity to other crops than when the mass of the cotton is
obtained from a few highly specialized districts. Possibly the
advantages of specialism might be retained and yet the elasticity
of supply be enhanced. (2) Greater stability of crops in pro-
portion to area cultivated is hoped for. The eggs are now too
much in one basket, and local disease, or bad weather, or some
other misfortune, may diminish by serious percentages the.
supplies anticipated. Were there numerous important centres-
the bad fortune of one would be more adequately offset by the
good fortune of another. (3) Desirable variations in the raw
material might conceivably eventuate from the introduction of
cotton to spots in the globe where its growth was previously
unknown or little regarded. The results of the enterprise of
Mehemet Ali and Jumel in Egypt prove such an idea to be not
altogether fanciful, and warn us also against hastily arguing that
the plan is too artificial to succeed on a large scale. Without the
active intervention of a strong body of interested parties it is
sometimes unlikely that new industries will be undertaken even
in places well suited for them. (4) Lastly, the countries to which
cotton-growing is carried should gain in prosperity.

The general difficulties in the way of the British Cotton
Growing Association are many and will be sufficiently evident.
Lessons of value may be learnt from the fate of similar
The Cotton work undertaken by the Cotton Supply Association,
soclatlon*' which was instituted in April 1857. According to its
fifth report, it originated " in the prospective fears of a
portion of the trade that some dire calamity must inevitably,
sooner or later, overtake the cotton manufacture of Lancashire,
whose vast superstructure had so long rested upon the treacherous
foundation of restricted slave labour as the main source of supply
for its raw material." 1 Its methods were stated to be: "To
afford information to every country capable of producing
cotton, both by the diffusion of printed directions for its
cultivation, and sending competent teachers of cotton planting
and cleaning, and by direct communication with Christian
missionaries whose aid and co - operation it solicits; to
supply, gratuitously, in the first instance, the best seeds to
natives in every part of the world who are willing to receive
them; to give prizes for the extended cultivation of cotton; and

The Association published a weekly paper known as The Cotton
Supply Reporter.

to lend gins and improved machines for cleaning and preparing
cotton." Though the association brought about an extension and
improvement of the Indian crop, in which result it was enormously
assisted by the high prices consequent upon the American Civil
War, it sank after a few years into obscurity, and soon passed out
of existence altogether, while the effects of its work dwindled
finally into insignificance. Much the same had been the ultimate
outcome of the spasmodic attempt of the British government to
bring about the introduction of cotton to newdistricts, after it had
been pressed to take some action a few years prior to the forma-
tion of the Cotton Supply Association. A Mr Clegg, who after-
wards interested himself keenly in the activities of the Cotton
Supply Association reported that in the course of a tour in 1855
through the Eastern countries bordering on the Mediterranean
he had found none of the gins presented by the British govern-
ment at work or workable.

Bibliography. — On the question of cotton supplies, as treated
in this article, the reader may be referred to Brook's Cotton, its Uses,
&c. ; Dabney's Cotton Plant (Department of Agriculture of the United
States); Foaden's Cotton Culture in Egypt; Dunstan's Report on
Cotton Cultivation for the British government; Oppel's Die Baum-
wolle; Leconte's Le Colon; publications of the British Cotton
Growing Association; Report of the Lancashire Commission on the
possibility of extending cotton cultivation in the Southern States of
North America; Watt's Lancashire and the Cotton Famine; publica-
tions of the old Cotton Supply Association (many will be found in
the Manchester public library in the volume marked " 677 I. C. ii."),
including their weekly paper, The Cotton Supply Reporter; Ham-
mond's Cotton Culture and Trade. On methods of marketing to
certain portions of the above must be added : Ellison's Cotton Trade
of Great Britain; Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry' (ch. vii.);
articles by Chapman and Knoop in the Economic Journal (December,
1904) and the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (April, 1906) ;
Emery's Speculation on Stock and Produce Exchanges of the United
States (small portions of which relate to cotton). Many statistics
will be found in the works mentioned, and these may be supplemented
from the trade publications of different countries. Many valuable
figures of cotton imports, &c, in early years will be found in Baines'
History of the Cotton Trade. Recent statistics bearing upon cotton
are collected annually in the two publications, Shepperson's Cotton
Facts and Jones's Handbook for Daily Cable Records of Cotton Crop
Statistics. For current information the following may be added :
Nield's, Ellison's and Tattersall's circulars; Cotton (the publication
of the Manchester Cotton Association); and daily reports and articles
in the local press. Price curves are published by Messrs Turner,
Routledge & Co. (S. J. C.)

Cotton Goods and Yarn

The two great sections of the cotton industry are yarn and
cloth, and in Great Britain the production of both of these is
mainly in South Lancashire, though the area extends to parts of
Cheshire, Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and there is a Scottish
branch, besides certain isolated ventures in other parts of the
country. Though there are local rivalries there is nothing in
cempetitive division to compare with the northern and southern
sections in America, and the British industry is, for its size, more
homogeneous than most of the European industries. Both
operatives and employers are highly organized and both parties
are able to make articulate contribution to the solution of the
various problems connected with the trade.

Cotton Yarn. — The yarn trade is mainly in the hands of
limited companies, and a private firm is looked upon as something
of a survival from the past. The two great centres of production
are Oldham, in which American cotton is chiefly, though not
exclusively, spun, and Bolton, which spins the finer counts from
Egyptian or Sea Island cotton. Spinning mills are established,
however, in most of the large Lancashire towns as well as in some
parts of Cheshire and in Yorkshire, where there is a considerable
industry in doubling yarns. The centre of trade is the Manchester
Royal Exchange, and though some companies or firms prefer to
do business by means of their own salaried salesmen, managers or
directors, most of the yarn is sold by agents. Frequently a single
agent has the consignment of the whole of a company's yarn, but
many spinners, especially those whose business connexion is not
perfectly assured, prefer to have more outlets than can be
explored by an individual. At times of bad trade even those
who usually depend on their own resources seek the aid of
experienced agents, who sometimes find a grievance if their

276

COTTON

services are rejected when trade improves and sales are made
easily.

Yarn is sold upon various terms, but a regular custom in the
home trade is for the spinner to allow 4% discount, for payment
in 14 days, of which 2\ goes to the buyer, who is commonly a
manufacturer, and i| to the agent for sale and guaranteeing the
account. In selling yarn for export it is usual to allow the buyer
only 15% for payment in 14 days, or in some cases the discount
is at the rate of 5 % per annum for 3 months, Which is equivalent
toit%.

The great bulk of the yarn spun in Great Britain ranges between
comparatively narrow limits of count, and such staples as 32 s to
36 s twist and 36 s to 46 s weft in American, 50 s to 60 8 twist and 42 s
to 62 s weft in Egyptian, make up a large part of the total. It is
nevertheless the experience of yarn salesmen that Lancashire
produces an increasingly large amount of specialities that indicate
a continued differentiation in trade. The tendency to spin finer
counts has been to some extent counteracted by the development
of the flannelette trade, for which heavy wefts are used, and there
has been again a tendency lately to use "condensor" or waste
wefts, which has worked to the disadvantage of the spinners of
the regular coarse counts spun at Royton and elsewhere. The
demand for cloths which require careful handling and regularity
in weaving has helped to develop the supply of ring yarns which
will stand the strain of the loom better than mule twists. A
great amount of doubled and trebled yarn is now sold, though it
does not appear that recent expansions have added much to
doubling spindles, and considerable developments continue in the
use of dyed and mercerized yarns.

Yarns are sold according to their "actual" counts, though
when they are woven into cloth they frequently attain nominal
or brevet rank. There has been a long-
continued discussion, which between buyer
and seller sometimes degenerates into a dis-
pute, on the subject of moisture in yarns, and
the difficulty is not confined to the Lancashire
industry. The amount permissible, accord-
ing to the recommendation of the Manchester
Chamber of Commerce, is 8%, but while it
may be assumed that yarns at the time of
their sale rarely contain less than this, they
frequently contain a good deal more. It is
a matter of experience that cotton yarns which
when spun contain only a small percentage
of moisture will absorb up to about 8 %
when they are exposed to what may be rather
vaguely described as natural conditions. The
exigencies of competition prompted the dis-
covery that if yarn were sold by weight fresh
from the spindle its comparative dryness made
such early sale less profitable than if it were
allowed to "condition." Between loss and
delay the spinner found an obvious alter-
native in damping the yarn artificially. As
it was often clearly to the advantage of the
buyer that he should receive immediate
delivery he did not object to water in modera-
tion, but art soon began to run a little ahead of
nature. The essentially dishonest practice of deluging yarn with
water, which has sometimes even degenerated into the use of
weighting materials deleterious to weaving, has been recognized
as a great nuisance, but while various attempts have been made to
protect the buyer the question seems to have pretty well settled
itself on the principles which commonly rule the sales of com-
modities between those who intend to do business continuously.
The spinner who persists in over-weighting his yarn finds it
difficult to obtain "repeat" orders.

A remarkable point in the Lancashire yarn trade is the loose-
ness of the contracts between spinner and manufacturer. Doubt-
less some kind of sale note or acknowledgment usually passes
between them, but in the home trade at least it is quite usual to
leave the question of delivery an open one. It would not be

correct to say that this system or want of system is satisfactory,
but the trade manages to rub along very well with it, although
inconveniences and disagreements sometimes arise when prices
have advanced or declined considerably. Thus when prices have
advanced the manufacturer may find it difficult to obtain delivery
of the yarn that he had bought at low rates, for some spinners
have a curious, indefensible preference for delivering their higher-
priced orders; and, on the. other hand, when prices have fallen
the manufacturer sometimes ceases to take delivery of the high-
priced yarn and actually purchases afresh for his needs. Yet
positive repudiation is very rare though compromises are not
uncommon, and a good many illogical arrangements are made
that imply forbearance and amity. Litigation in the yarn trade
is very unusual, and Lancashire traders generally have only
vague notions of the bearing of law upon their transactions, and
a wholesome dread of the experience that would lead to better
knowledge.

The average yearly values of the exports of cotton, yarn and
cloth from Great Britain for the decades 1881-1890 and 1891-1900
respectively, are given by Professor Chapman in his Cotton Industry
and Trade, in million pounds: —

Cloth
Yarn

381-1890.
£60-4
12-3

Total

£72-7

ji-igoo.
£57-3
9-3

£66-6

During the earlier decade the prices of cotton were comparatively high
The whole of the cloth exports represent, of course, a corresponding
home trade in yarns. The following table, taken from the Manchester
Guardian, gives in thousands of lb the amounts of cotton yarns
exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively,
according to the Board of Trade returns, together with the average
value per tt> for each of the countries : —

Russia . . . .

Sweden

Norway . .
Denmark ....
Germany ....
Netherlands .

Belgium

France

Italy . . .
Austria-Hungary .

Rumania

Turkey

Egypt . .

China (including Hong-Kong)

Japan . .

British India —

Bombay ....

Madras ....

Bengal . .

Burma . .
Straits Settlements

Ceylon

Other countries

Total and average .

1903.

lb. 1

814

1,526

1,656

2,429

27,239

29,591

3,97°

3,974

204

2,662

4,608

12,966

4,590

4,660

1,406

6,286
6,683

6,777

5,6n

1,945

33

21,129

150,758

Price
per lb.

d..
30-22
n-oo

9-54
8-91

16-05
9-10

15-89

17-59

21-78

n-6o

8-55

8-93

8-66

9-45
12-98

io-8o
11-07
11-04
12-17
io-8i
11-92
12-39

n-79

1904.

lb. 1

713
1,486

i,5H

2,368

40,295

29,384

5,864

3,084

174

3,329

5,072

14,253

4,38i

2,457

681

8,145
8,288
6,596
3,388
i,i37
44
21,252

163,901

Price
per lb.

d.
30-71

12-55
11-05
1018
16-27
10-48
16-50

20-01
24-70
14-36
IO-I3

10-05

9-83

10-24
11-46

1 1 -88
12-48

12-82

12-39

"•57
16-51
13-28

13-11

1905.

lb. 1

557

1,512

1,606

2,860

39,513

.37,341

7,205

3,5i8

204

3,066

7,856

17,389

4,382

8,441
4,071

13,112

10,930

11,068

4,211

2,149

42

23,970

205,001

Price
per lb.

d.
30-66

11-12

9-73

9-51

16-38

8-93
16-12
22-64

22-21
I3-36

9-73
9-37
8-59
8-70

13-99

10-86
11-91

11-20

12-31
10-71
13-55
12-43

12-08

It should be understood, however, that in some cases the Board
of Trade figures represent only an approximation to the ultimate
distribution, as the exports are sometimes assigned to the inter-
mediate country, and in particular it is understood that a considerable
part of the yarn sent to the Netherlands is destined for Germany or
Austria. The large business done in yarns with the continent of
Europe is in some respects an extension of the British home trade,
though certain countries have their own specialities. A considerable
business is done with European countries in doubled yarns and in
fine counts of Egyptian, including " gassed " yarns, which are also
sent intermittently to Japan. " Extra hard " yarns are sent to
Rumania and other Near Eastern markets, and Russia, as the average
price indicates, buys sparingly of very fine yarns. The trade with
the Far East, which, though not very large for any one market,' is
important in the aggregate, is a good deal specialized, and since the

1 000 omitted.

COTTON

277

development of Indian and Japanese cotton mills some of the trade
in the coarser counts has been lost. The various Indian markets
take largely of 40 8 mule twist and in various proportions of 30 8 mule,
water twists, two-folds grey and bleached, fine Egyptian counts
and dyed yarns. China also takes 40 s mule, water twists and two-
folds. The general export of yarn varies according to influences
such as tariff charges, spinning and manufacturing development
in the importing countries and the price of cotton. A particular
effect of high-priced piece-goods is seen in various Eastern countries
that are still partly dependent on an indigenous hand-loom industry.
The big price of imported cloths throws the native consumer to
some extent upon the local goods, and so stimulates the imports of
yarn. It appears that as the native industries decline the weaving
section persists longer than the spinning section.

Cotton Goods.— Cotton goods are of an infinite variety, and the
titles that experience or fancy have evoked are even more
numerous than the kinds. Descriptions of the following fabrics,
which are not of course invariably made of cotton, will be found
in separate articles: Baize, Bandana, Bombazine, Brocade,
Calico, Cambric, Canvas, Chintz, Corduroy, Crape,
Cretonne, Denim, Dimity, Drill, Duck, Flannelette,
Fustian, Gauze, Gingham, Longcloth, Moleskin, Mull,
Muslin, Nankeen, Print, Rep, Ticking, Twill, Velveteen.
The following are notes on other varieties.

Grey cloth is a comprehensive term that includes unbleached
cotton cloth generally. It may be a nice question whether
" yellow "• would not have been the more nearly correct descrip-
tion. A very large proportion of the Lancashire export trade is
in grey goods and a smaller yet considerable proportion of the
home trade.

Shirting, which has long since ceased to refer exclusively to
shirt cloths, includes a large proportion of Lancashire manu-
facture. Grey and white shirtings are exported to all the
principal Eastern markets and also to Near Eastern, European,
South American, &c. markets. Certain staple kinds, such as
39 in. 37 \ yd. i\ lb. 16X15 (threads to the \ in.), largely exported
to China and India, are made in various localities and by many
manufacturers. The length quoted is to some extent a con-
ventional term, as the pieces in many cases actually measure
considerably more. The export shirting trade is done mainly on
" repeat " orders for well-known " chops " or marks. These
trade marks are sometimes the property of the manufacturer,
but more commonly of the exporter. Generally the China markets
use rather better qualities than the Indian markets. The
principal China market for shirtings and other staple goods is
Shanghai, which holds a large stock and distributes to minor
markets. A considerable trade is also done through Hong-Kong
and other Far Eastern ports. The principal Indian markets are
Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi and Madras.

Shirt-cloth is the term more commonly applied to what is
actually used in the manufacture of shirts, and it may be used
for either plain or fancy goods.

Sheeting has two meanings in the cotton trade: (1) the
ordinary bed sheeting, usually a stout cloth of anything from
45 in. to 1 20 in. wide (the extremes being used on the one hand for
children's cots or ship bunks and on the other for old-fashioned
four-posters), which may be either plain or twilled, bleached,
unbleached or half -bleached; (2) a grey calico, heavier than a
shirting, sent largely to China and other markets, usually 36 in.
by 40 yd. and weighing about 12 lb. American sheetings com-
pete with Lancashire goods in the China market. The Cabot is
a kind of heavy sheeting, and for the Levant markets the name
as a trade mark is said to be the exclusive property of an American
firm, although the general class is known by the name and
supplied by other firms.

Mexican is a plain, heavy grey calico, sometimes heavily sized.
The origin of the word is doubtful, and it seems to be an arbitrary
term. Mexicans are exported to various markets and also used
in the home trade. For export the dimensions are commonly
32 or 36 in. by 24 yd., and a usual count is 18X18. In the
Mexican the yarns were originally of nearly the same weight
and number of threads to the \ in., an arrangement which
gave the cloth an even appearance, thus differing from the
" pin-head " or medium makes. Now, however, Mexicans are

often made with lighter wefts, though the name is usually applied
to the better class of cloths of the particular character. Punjum
is a Mexican, generally 36 yd. in length, sent mainly to the South
African market.

T Cloth is a plain grey calico, similar in kind to the Mexican
and exported to the same markets. There is no absolute distinc-
tion between the two cloths, but the T cloth is generally lower in
quality than the Mexican. The name seems to have been
originally an arbitrary identification or trade mark.

Domestic, a name originally used in the sense of " home-made,"
is applied especially to home-made cotton goods in the United
States. In Great Britain it is employed rather loosely, but
commonly to describe the kind of cloth which if exported would
be called a Mexican. It may be either bleached or unbleached.

Medium is a plain calico, grey or bleached, of medium weight,
used principally in the home and colonial trade. The word is
sometimes particularly applied to cloths with a comparatively
heavy weft, the distinction being made between the even
"Mexican make" and the "pin-head" or "medium-make."

Raising-cloths are of various kinds and may be merely mediums
with a heavy weft, or " condensor " weft made from waste yarns.
The essence of the raising-cloth is a weft that will provide plenty
of nap and yet have sufficient fibre to maintain the strength of
the web.

Wigan is a name derived from the town Wigan and seems to
have been originally applied to a stiff canvas-like cloth used for
lining skirts. Now it is commonly applied to medium or heavy
makes of calico.

Double-warp, as its name implies, is a cloth with a twofold
warp. It is usually a strong serviceable material and may be
either twilled or plain. Sheetings for home trade are often
double-warp, and double-warp twills and Wigans were and are
used for the old-fashioned type of men's night-shirts.

Croydon, which seems to be an arbitrary trade name, is a heavy,
bleached, plain calico, usually stiff and glossy in finish. It used
to be sold largely in the Irish trade as'well as in the English home
trade, but it has been supplanted a good deal by softer finishes.

Printing-cloth is a term with a general significance, but it is also
particularly applied to a class of plain cloths in which a very
large trade is done both for home trade and export. The chief
place in Lancashire for the manufacture of printing-cloths is
Burnley, and in the United States, Fall River. The Burnley
cloths range in width from 29 in. to 40 in., and are usually about
120 yd. in length. The warp is commonly from 36 s to 44 s , the
weft from .36" to 54 s , and the threads from 13X13 to 20X20
to the j in. Cheshire printers, which are made at Hyde,
Stockport, Glossop and elsewhere, are commonly 34 in. to 36 in.
wide, the warp is from 32 s to 36 s , the weft 32 s to 40 8 , and the
counts 16X16 to 19X22.

Jacconetis understood to be the corruption of an Indian name,
and the first jacconets were probably of Indian origin. They now
make one of the principal staple trades of Lancashire with India.
The jacconet is a plain cloth, lighter than a shirting and heavier
than a mull. When bleached it is usually put into a firm and
glossyfinish. A nainsook is a jacconet bleached and finished soft.
It also goes largely to India.

Dhootie is a name taken from a Hindu word of similar sound and
referred originally to the loin-cloth worn by Hindus. It is a light,
narrow cloth made with a coloured border which is often so
elaborate as to require a dobby loom for its manufacture. The
finer kinds, made from Egyptian yarns, are called mull-dhooties.
The dhootie is one of the principal staples for India and is exported
both white and grey.

Scarf is a kind of dhootie made usually with a taped or corded
border,

Madapolam or Madapollam is a name derived from a suburb of
Narsapur in the Madras presidency where the cloth was first made.
It is now exported grey or white to India and other countries.
In weight it is lighter than a shirting, and it is usually ornamented
with a distinctive coloured heading.

Baft, probably of Persian derivation, and originally a fine cloth,
is now a coarse and cheap cloth exported especially to Africa.

278

COTTON

Country.

Sarong, the Malay word for a garment wrapped round the lower
part of the body and used by both men and women, is now
applied to plain or printed cloths exported to the Indian or
Eastern Archipelago for this purpose.

Jean, said to be derived from Genoa where a kind of fustian
with this title was made, is a kind of twilled cloth. The cloth is
woven "one end up and two ends down," and as there are more
picks of weft per inch than ends of warp the diagonal lines pass
from selvage to selvage at an angle of less than 45 degrees. The
weft surface is the face or wearing surface of the cloth. Jeans are
exported to China and other markets, and are also used in the
home trade. Jeanette is the converse of jean, being a twill of
"two ends up to one down"; the diagonal passes from selvage to
selvage at a greater angle than 45 degrees and the warp makes the
wearing surface.

Oxford is a plain-woven cloth usually with a coloured pattern,
and is used for shirts and dresses. The name is comparatively
modern, and is, no doubt, arbitrarily selected.
Harvard is a twilled cloth similar to the Oxford.
Regatta is a stout, coloured shirt cloth similar in make to a

jeanette. It was originally made in blue and white stripes and
was used largely and is still used for men's shirts.

Fancy cotton goods are of great variety, and many of them

have trade names that are

used temporarily or occasion-
ally. Apart from the large

class of brocaded cloths made

in Jacquard looms there are

innumerable simpler kinds,

including stripes and checks

of various descriptions, such

as Swiss, Cord, Satin, Doriah

stripes, &c. Mercerized cloths

are of many kinds, as the

mercerizing process can be

applied to almost anything.

Lace and lace curtains are

made largely at Nottingham.

Various light goods are madein

Scotland, such as book muslin,

a fine light muslin with an

elastic finish, so called from

being folded in book-form.
Among the fancy cloths

made in cotton may be men-
tioned: matting, which in-
cludes various kinds with

some similarity in appearance

to a matting texture; mate-

lasse, which is in some degree

an imitation of French dress

goods of that name; piquS,

also of French origin, woven

in stripes in relief, which cross

the width of the piece, and

usually finished stiff; Bedford

cord, a cheaper variety of

pique in which the stripes run

the length of the piece; oatmeal

cloth, which has an irregular

surface suggesting the grain

of oatmeal, commonly dyed

cream colour; crimp cloth, in

which a puckered effect is

obtained by uneven shrinkage;

grenadine, said to be derived

from Granada, a light dress

produced on the surface of the cloth by needles placed in a
sliding frame; lustre, a light dress material with a lustrous face
sometimes made with a cotton warp and woolen weft; zep hyr, a
light, coloured dress material usually in small patterns; bobbin-
net, a machine-made fabric, originally an imitation of lace made
with bobbins on a pillow.

Some fancy cloths have descriptive names such as herringbone
stripe, and there are many arbitrary trade names, such as Yosemite
stripe, which may prevail and become the designation of a regular
class or die after a few seasons.

Cotton linings include silesia, originally a linen cloth made in
Silesia and now usually a twilled cotton cloth which is dyed
various colours; Italian cloth, a kind of jean or sateen produced
originally in Italy. Various cotton cloths are imitations of other
textures and have modified names which indicate their superficial
character, frequently produced by finishing processes. Among
these are sateen, which, dyed or printed, is largely used for
dresses, linings, upholstery, &c; linenette, dyed and finished to
imitate coloured linen in the north of Ireland and elsewhere;
hollandette, usually unbleached or half-bleached and finished to
imitate linen holland; and interlining, a coarse, plain white
calico used as padding for linen collars.

Various cotton imitations share the name of the original, such

Germany

Netherlands ....

Belgium

France

Portugal, Azores and Madeira.

Italy

Austria-Hungary

Greece

Turkey

Egypt

Algeria

Morocco

Foreign West Africa

Persia

Dutch East Indies .
Philippine Islands
China, including Hong-Kong .
Japan . . . . .
United States of America
Foreign West Indies .
Mexico ....
Central America
Colombia and Panama

Venezuela

Peru

Chile

Brazil

Uruguay

Argentine Republic .
Gibraltar ...

Malta

British W. Africa

S. . „ ...

British India —

Bombay

Madras

Bengal

Burma

Straits Settlements 1 .

Ceylon

Australia

New Zealand ....

Canada

British West India Islands,

Bahamas and British Guiana
Other countries ....

Total .

1903.

Thousands
of Yards.

60,650
47-570
52,199

17,552
32,824

6,363

2,405

40,973

305,611

229,704

709

52,368

64,589

34,859

156,905

25,558

477,691

67,315

72,360

86,349
19,327
40,879
44,299
52,330
28,962
84,118

152,402
44,062

151,003

11,961

4,065

69,795

61,778

678,684
132,825
,122,004

64,654
112,006

17,395
106,000

38,499
47,439

49,614
188,662

5,i57,3i6

material originally made of

silk or silk and wool; brilliant, a dress material, usually with a
small raised pattern; leno, possibly a corrupt form of the
French linon or lawn, a kind of fancy gauze used for veils,
curtains, &c; lappet, a light material with a figure or pattern

Price
per Yard

377
3-57
4-34
4-61
2-70
5-07
3-44
2-64

2-45
2-41
2-74
2-28
2-92
2-46
2-45
2-59
2-83
3-o8
6-8o
2-08
3-10
1-97
2-25
1-87
2-66
2-50
2-64
2-79

2'9I

2-39
3-u

3-27
3-6i

2-07
2-48
1-97

2'- 84
2-6l

2-75
3-83
3-58
4-15

2-49
2-84

2-57

1904.

Thousands
of Yards.

60,129

46,187
56,237
17,759
29,440

7,904

2,102

32,658

379,557
283,521

438
51,262

55,131

33,H9

185,196

25,969
548,974
42,373
52,391
98,797
21,679
53,oi8
44,648
52,934
32,430
80,836

134,841
35,670

186,022

10,578

3,659

69,308

29,670

818,261

Hi,675
,215,607

. 79,765

100,230

19,336

128,247

33,538

49,903

43,487
197,339

Price
per Yard.

5,591,822

4-02
3-68
4-42

4-39
2-92

5-19
3-40
3-ii
2-53
2-57
2-71
2-44
3-12
2-67
2-72
2-86
3-34
3-34
7-18

2-21

3-42
2-21

2-54

2-07
2-85

2-57
2-89
2-85

3-04
2-47

3-45
3-43
4-03

2-23
2-63
2-18
3-10
2-84

2-95
4-01

3-8i

4-25

2-6l

3-14

1905.

Thousands
of Yards.

2-75

65,842

56,639

67,509

14,875

29,867

8,746

1,905

28,190

376,209

272,737

455

44,407

69,163

38,647

226,586

42,876

799,732

128,725

65,563
80,679
21,028
49,523
3L798
32,717
39,035
96,996

131,504

56,77o

I59,"5

3,96o

4,006

74,392

50,592

908,619

131,145
1,280,314

72,528
121,690

24,991
136,481

32,315

45.189

47,173
226,971

Price
per Yard.

6,198,200

3-98
3-47
4-41

4-65
3-03
5-31
3 60
3-20
2-53
2-53
2-63
2-44
3-o8
2-59
2-57
2-66
3-06
299
7-40
2-24
3-3i

2'29
2-4I
2-II
278
2-62
2-50

2-95

324

2-73
3-31
3-40
3-69

2-24
2-62
2-18

3-13
2-71
2-94
3-85
3-63
4-47

2-21
303

2-74

as lawn, batiste, serge, huckaback, galloon, and a large number

of names are of obvious derivation and use, such as umbrella

cloth, apron cloth, sail cloth, book-binding cloth, shroud cloth,

1 Including Federated Malay States.

COTTON

279

butter cloth, mosquito netting, handkerchief, blanket, towelling,
bagging.

Among the miscellaneous cloths made or made partly of cotton
may be mentioned: waste cloths, made from waste yarns and
usually coarse in texture; khaki cloth, made largely for military
clothing in cotton as well as in woollen; cottonade, a name given to
various coarse low cloths in the United States and elsewhere;
lasting, which seems to be an abbreviation of " lasting cloth," a
stiff, durable texture used in making shoes, &c; bolting cloth,
used in bolting or sifting; brattice cloth, a stout, tarred cloth made
of cotton or wool and used for bratticing or lining the sides of
shafts in mines; sponge cloths, used for cleaning machinery;
shoddy and mungo, which though mainly woollen have frequently
a cotton admixture; and splits, either plain or fancy, usually of
low quality, which include any cloth woven two or three in the
breadth of the loom and "split" into the necessary width.
Cotton is used too for many miscellaneous purposes, including
the manufacture of lamp wicks and even of billiard balls.

British Cotton Cloth Exports. — The main lines of the Lancashire
export trade in cotton goods are indicated in the Board of Trade
returns. The table on p. 278 compiled from them is taken from
the Manchester Guardian. It gives in thousands of yards the
quantities of cotton goods exported from Great Britain during
1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively, together with average value per
yard for each of the countries.

The following table gives, approximately, in thousands of yards
the quantities exported of the four main divisions of cotton
cloths : —

1903.

1904.

1905.

Thousands
of Yards.

Thousands
of Yards.

Thousands
of Yards.

Grey or unbleached .
Bleached ....
Printed ....
Dyed and coloured .

1,880,321

1,326,255

1,027,925

922,735

2,033,895

1,528,165

1,036,901

993,009

2,336,018
1,710,742
1,053,900
1,097,540

In the case of cloth, too, the Board of Trade returns must not be
taken as an absolute record of imports to the particular countries,
as the ultimate recipient is not always determined. The develop-
ment of the Eastern trade has been one of the most remarkable
features of the cotton trade in the 19th century. Professor
Chapman writes in his Cotton Industry and Trade: "In 1820
Europe received about half the cotton fabrics which were sent
abroad, while the United States received nearly one-tenth and
eastern Asia little "more than one-twentieth. By 1880 Europe
was taking less than one-twelfth, the United States less than
one-fiftieth, and eastern Asia more than a half."

Naturally a trade tends to find out the most direct means of
distribution, and Manchester merchants are now generally in
direct connexion with native dealers in India. Bombay was the
pioneer in the custom, followed now by Calcutta and Karachi, by
which deliveries of goods from British merchants remained under
the control of the banks until the native dealers took them up.
Manchester business with India, China, &c, is done under
various conditions, however, and a good many firms have
branches abroad. The regular "indent" by which most of the
Manchester Eastern business is conducted now implies a definite
offer for shipment from the dealer abroad, either direct or through
the exporter's agents, and commonly includes freight and insur-
ance. The term "commission agent" is now discredited, and
buying done by Manchester houses on simple commission terms
is unusual though not unknown. This has been so since the
famous law case of Williamson v. Barbour in 1877, when it was
established that whatever might be the custom of the trade a
commission agent was not entitled to make a profit over his
commission on the various processes, such as handling and
packing, which are a necessary part of the exporter's work. A
good deal of business is done, however, for South America and
other markets in which the goods are bought for delivery in the
Manchester warehouse, all charges for packing, &c, and carriage
being extra.

Transactions with distant markets are now done almost en-
tirely by cable, and a remarkable development of the telegraphic
code has enabled merchants to pack a good deal into a brief
message. A cable sent to India in the evening may bring a reply
next morning, and in these days of rapid cotton fluctuations mail
advices are confined mainly to general discussion, hypothetical
inquiry, advice, admonition and complaint. Some Manchester
export business is done through London, Glasgow, and continental
towns, of which Hamburg is the principal. Glasgow buys largely
of yarns and cloth, some considerable part of which is dyed or
printed, for India and elsewhere, and has an indigenous manu-
facture and trade in fine goods such as book-muslins and lappets,
a somewhat delicate department of manufacture which necessi-
tates a slower running of machinery than is usual in Lancashire. •

Besides the indent business there is, of course, purely merchant
business by Manchester exporters, who buy on their own initia-
tive at what they consider to be opportune times or on recom-
mendations from their houses or correspondents abroad. In the
Indian trade, especially in the Calcutta trade, a large proportion
of the total amount is done by a few houses who buy in this way,
and there is some difference of opinion as to whether the method,
which had fallen out of fashion, may not further develop. It is
more speculative than the indent business, but the dealing with
large quantities which it involves gives the opportunity to buy
very cheaply. A good many firms venture occasionally to buy in
anticipation of their customers' needs, especially when they expect
a rising market. During the great trade "boom" of 1905 there
was a good deal of buying by exporters in advance of their
indents because manufacturers continued to contract engagements
which threatened to exclude dilatory buyers. On the whole,
however, what may be called the speculative centre of gravity
of Great Britain's export business in cotton goods is not in
Manchester but abroad.

The terms on which business is conducted are various even in a
single market, and it is sometimes a reproach that British firms
are old-fashioned in their reluctance to give credit. The so-
called enterprising methods of some German traders are, however,
condemned by many experienced English traders, and it is said
that in China, for instance, the seeming successes of the new-
comers are delusive. The Tientsin developments of German
business on credit terms are said to have proved unsatisfactory,
and heavy losses were suffered in Hong-Kong some years ago by
merchants who endeavoured to initiate a bolder system of trading.
The very common complaint of British consuls that British
firms neglect to send out travellers may have some foundation,
but a commercial house naturally follows the line of least resist-
ance to the development of its trade, and cannot be expected to
work remote and barren ground when better opportunities are
near at hand. On the whole it appears that the British cotton
trade continues to increase to a satisfactory degree in fancy and
special goods, which require for their production a comparatively
high degree of technical skill, and are more lucrative than some
of the simpler products in which competitors have been most
formidable. Various finishing processes, and particularly the
mercerizing of yarn and cloth, have increased the possibilities in
cotton materials, and while staples still form the bulk of our
foreign trade, it seems that as the stress of competition in these
grows acute, more and more of our energy may be transferred to
the production of goods which appeal to a growing taste or fancy.

British Home Trade. — The home trade in cotton cloths is a
great and important section, but it is not comparable in volume to
the export trade. It involves more numerous and more elaborate
processes, and the qualities for home use are generally finer and
more costly than those for export. Of course by far the larger
part of the yarn spun in Lancashire is woven in Lancashire, but of
the cotton cloth woven in Lancashire it is roughly estimated that
about 20% is used in Great Britain. Not only is the average of
quality better, but the variety of kinds and designs is greater in
the home trade than in the export trade. A good home trade
connexion is considered an extremely valuable asset, and as the
trade is highly differentiated the profits are usually good. Some
manufacturers devote themselves exclusively to the home trade,

28o

COTTON

and some exclusively to foreign trade, but there is a large class
with what may be called a margin of alternation, which serves to
redress the balance as business in one or other of the sections is
good or bad.

Certain kinds of light goods made for India and other Eastern
markets are not used in the home trade, and the typical Eastern
staples are not generally used in their particular "sizings," but
with these exceptions and various specialities almost every kind
of cotton cloth is used to some extent in Great Britain. Grey
calicoes for home use, except the lowest kinds, are comparatively
pure, and of late years the heavy fillings which used to be common
in bleached goods have become discredited. The housewife long
persisted in deceiving herself by purchasing filled calicoes, and the
•movement in favour of purer goods owes a good deal, strangely
enough, to the increase in the making-up trade and the consequent
inconveniences. to workers of sewing machines, whose needles
were constantly broken by hard filled calicoes.

This development of the making-up trade has become an
important element in the home trade, and it has greatly reduced
the retail sale of piece-goods. The purchase of ready-made shirts,
underclothing, &c, corresponds to a change in the habits of the
people. The factories which have been erected in the north of
Ireland, oti the outskirts of London and elsewhere turn out
millions of garments that would, under the old conditions, have
been made at home. It is not necessary here to balance the
advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, and it must not
be supposed that made-up cotton garments are necessarily cheap
and inefficient.

The chief distributing centre of cotton made-up goods is
London, though a considerable trade is done through wholesale
houses in Manchester and elsewhere. Large warehouses in the
city of London carry on the trade and frequently supply Lanca-
shire with her own goods. Of course the partial loss of the
piece-goods trade by the shops is not a loss in aggregate trade, as
they are the ultimate distributors of the made-up garments,
which are probably at least as profitable to retail as calico or
flannelette sold in lengths.

The normal course of home trade piece-goods is from manu-
facturer to bleacher, dyer, printer or finisher, either on account of
a merchant to whom the goods are sold or on the manufacturer's
own account. By far the majority of Lancashire manufacturers
sell their goods as they come from the loom, or, as it is called, in
the " grey state," but an increasing number now cultivate the
trade in finished goods. Usually the manufacturer sells either
directly or through an agent to a merchant who sells again to the
shopkeeper, but the last twenty or thirty years have seen a
considerable development of more direct dealing. Some manu-
facturers now go to the shopkeeper, and this has made it difficult
for the merchant with a limited capital and therefore a limited
assortment to survive. The great general houses such as
Rylands's, Philips's and Watt's in Manchester, and Cook's and
Pawson's in London, some of which are manufacturers to a minor
degree, continue to flourish because under one roof they can
supply all that the draper requires, and so enable him to econo-
mize in the time spent in buying and to save himself the trouble
of attending to many accounts. Some general merchants,
indeed, supply what are practically " tied houses," which give all
their trade in return for pecuniary assistance or special terms.

The tendency to eliminate the middleman has not only
brought a good many manufacturers into direct relation with the
shopkeeper, but in some exceptional cases the manufacturer,
adopting some system of broadcast advertisement and postal
delivery, has dealt with the consumer. Naturally, the merchant
resents any developments which exclude him, and some mild forms
of boycott have occasionally been instituted. In the United
States there has been an arduous struggle over this question, and
combinations of merchants have sometimes compelled favourable
terms. In England, though the merchant has maintained a great
part of the trade with shopkeepers, the developing trade with
makers of shirts, underclothing, &c, is mainly done by the
manufacturers directly, and perhaps the simplification of
relations by direct dealing in the cotton trade has now reached

a point of fairly stable compromise. The tendency to direct
trading is naturally controlled by the exigencies of capital. Those
manufacturers who act as merchants aim to retain the merchant
profit and must employ a merchant capital in stocks. There has
been a tendency, indeed, to make the manufacturer the stock-
keeper, and some merchants do little more than pass on the
goods a stage after taking toll. The great improvement in trade
during 1905 and 1906 checked this tendency, and probably the
manufacturing extensions owed something to the capital set free
by the reductions of stocks.

It must be noted, however, that while most of the spinning

concerns are worked by limited companies or individuals with a

considerable capital, a good many small manufacturers exist who

have little capital and are practically financied by their agents or

' customers. This is so in both the export and home trades.

The home trade merchant or merchant-manufacturer works
largely through agents and travellers, and though railway
facilities continue to improve, some shopkeepers rarely visit their
markets. The difficulty that is naturally experienced by a
traveller in finding sufficient support on a sparsely populated
"ground" has brought into vogue the traveller on commission
who represents several firms. The traveller with salary and
allowances for expenses survives, but the quickening induced by
an interest in the amount of sales has caused many firms to adopt
the principle of commission, which may, however, be an addition
to a minimum salary. Of course, such travellers are not peculiar
to the cotton trade, but cotton goods in various forms are an
important factor in the home trade.

The profits of manufacturers, merchants and shopkeepers are
commonly very much less on the lower classes of cotton goods
than on the higher ones. Thus while there may be a difference of
id. per yd. between the qualities on a manufacturer's list, the
difference in cost may not be more than a farthing; and, again,
while the shopkeeper sometimes pays a|d. or even 2f d. per yd.
for a calico to retail at 2|d., his next selling price may be 3 |d. for
one which costs him only 2jd. or 3d. per yd. It appears, there-
fore, that if the poorer classes of the community have the
discretion to avoid the lowest qualities they may obtain very good
value in serviceable goods. In the matter of profits, however,
there is a good deal of irregularity.

The Manchester Royal Exchange. — There are not many cotton
mills or weaving sheds in Manchester, which is, however, the
great distributive centre, and its Exchange is the meeting-place of
most classes of buyers and sellers in the cotton trade and various
trades allied to it. As buyers of finished goods for London and the
country do not attend it, certain departments of the home trade
are hardly represented, but practically all the spinners and
manufacturers and all the export merchants of any importance
are subscribers. Transactions between spinners and manu-
facturers are largely effected on Tuesdays and Fridays, the old
"market days," when the manufacturing towns are well repre-
sented, but a large amount of business is transacted every day.
Besides the persons immediately concerned in the cotton trade and
connected with allied trades, a large number of members find it
convenient to use this great meeting-place as a means of approach
to a body of responsible persons. Thus not only bleachers,
carriers, chemical manufacturers, mill furnishers and account-
ants find their way there, but also tanners, timber merchants,
stockbrokers and even wine merchants. Since the Ship Canal
made Manchester into a cotton port there has been a steady
development of the raw cotton trade in Manchester, and many
cotton brokers and merchants have Manchester offices or pay
regular visits from Liverpool.

The various expansions and developments have made it
difficult to maintain the ratio between accommodation and
requirements, and although overcrowding is troublesome only
during some three or four hours a week, at "high 'Change" on
market days, various complaints and suggestions provoked in
1906 an appeal from the chairman of directors to the Manchester
corporation. This took the form of a suggestion that the
Exchange should be worked as a municipal institution on a new
site, and though such a development met with opposition it was

COTTON MANUFACTURE

281

apparent that Manchester must presently have a new or an
enlarged Exchange. The present building is, however, the
largest of the kind in the world, and the history of the various
exchanges coincides with the expansion of the Lancashire
industry.

According to semi-official records " the first building in the
nature of an Exchange" was erected in 1729 by Sir Oswald
Mosley, and though designed for " chapmen to meet and transact
their business " it appears that, as to-day, encroachments were
made by other traders until cotton manufacturers and merchants
preferred to do their business in the street. In 1792 the building
was demolished, and for a period of some eighteen years there was
nothing of the kind. In 1809 the new Exchange was opened, and
terms of membership were fixed at two guineas for those within
5 m. of the building and one guinea for those outside this radius.
In the following year plans for enlargement were submitted to the
shareholders, and various extensions followed, particularly in
1830 and 1847. The present building was opened partly in 187 1
and partly in 1874. The area of the great room is 4405 sq. yds.
The subscription was raised on the 1st of January 1906 from
three guineas to four guineas for new members, but the number of
members continues to increase and early in 1906 amounted
to 8786.

Of course in this great mart a large variety of types is to be
found and the members fall into some kind of rough grouping.
Export buyers, attended by salesmen, are commonly more or less
stationary and prominent; Burnley manufacturers abound in one
locality and spinners of Egyptian yarns in another. The import-
ance of the Exchange as a bargaining centre is fairly maintained,
though buyers are assiduously cultivated in their own offices, and
the telephone has done a good deal to abbreviate negotiation.
As to the amount of business transacted on the Exchange there
is no record. The market reporters make some attempt to
materialize the current gossip, and doubtless catch well enough
the great movements in the ebb and flow of demand, but the sum
of countless obscure transactions cannot be estimated. Some
few years ago an attempt was made to mark more clearly the
course of business in Manchester, and a scheme was prepared for
the recording of daily transactions. This could only have been a
somewhat rough affair, but its originator maintained reasonably
that it would be of interest if some indication of the daily move-
ments could be obtained. For some time a memorandum of the
total of daily sales reported was posted on 'Change, but the
indifference of traders, together with the distrust that makes any
innovation difficult, caused the scheme to be abandoned.

It would be difficult in any attempt to estimate the volume of
British home trade to distinguish what may be called the
effective movements of goods. There is a considerable amount
of re-selling both in yarn and cloth, and, though the bulk of
cotton goods finds the way through regular and normal channels
to the consumer, these channels are not always direct. A good
many transactions on the Manchester Exchange are intermediate,
without fulfilling any useful function, and could be accomplished
by the principals if they were brought together. Agents, of whom
there are many, sometimes occupy a precarious position, but they
are protected in some degree by law as well as by the custom of
the trade and the point of honour. Points of honour in the
Manchester business may seem to be arbitrarily selected, but they
are an important part of the scheme. An immense amount of
business is done without any apparent check against repudiation.
It is, of course, the verbal bargain that binds, and large transac-
tions are commonly completed without witnesses, though before
the contract or memorandum of sale passes the fluctuations of the
market may have made the bargain, to one side or the other, a
very bad one. (A. N. M.)

COTTON MANUFACTURE. The antiquity of the cotton
industry has hitherto proved unfathomable, as can readily be
understood from the difficulty of proving a universal negative,
especially from such scanty material as we possess of remote ages.
That in the 5th century B.C. cotton fabrics were unknown or
quite uncommon in Europe may be inferred from Herodotus'
mention of the cotton clothing of the Indians. Ultimately the

cotton industry was imported into Europe, and by the middle of
the 13th century we find it flourishing in Spain. In the New
World it would seem to have originated spontaneously, since on
the discovery of America the wearing apparel in use included
cotton fabrics. After the collapse of Spanish prosperity before
the Moors in the 14th century the Netherlands assumed a
leadership in this branch of the textile industries as they did also
in other branches. It has been surmised that "the cotton manu-
facture was carried from the Netherlands to England by refugees
during the Spanish persecution of the second half of the 16th
century; but no absolute proof of this statement has been
forthcoming, and although workers in cotton may have been
among the Flemish weavers who fled to England about that time,
and some of whom are said to have settled in and about
Manchester, it is quite conceivable that cotton fabrics were made
on an insignificant scale in England years before, and there is
some evidence to show that the industry was not noticeable till
many years later. If England did derive her cotton manufacture
from the Netherlands she was unwillingly compelled to repay
the loan with interest more than two hundred years later when
the machine industry was conveyed to the continent through the
ingenuity of Lievin Bauwens, despite the precautions taken to
preserve it for the British Isles. About the same time English
colonists transported it to the United States. Since, as trans-
formed in England, the cotton industry, particularly spinning, has
spread throughout the civilized and semi-civilized world, though
its most important seat still remains the land of its greatest
development.

As early as the 13th century cotton-wool was used in England
for candle-wicks. 1 The importation of the cotton from the
Levant in the 16th century is mentioned by Hakluyt, 2
and according to Macpherson it was brought over ^V^
from Antwerp in 1560. Reference to the manufacture England?
of cottons in England long before the second half of the
1 6th century are numerous, but the " cottons " spoken of were
not cottons proper as Defoe would seem to have mistakenly
imagined. Thus, for example, there is a passage by William
Camden (writing ;in 1590) quoted below, in which Manchester
cottons are specifically described as woollens, and there is a notice
in the act of 33 Henry VIII. (c. xv.) of the Manchester linen and
woollen industries, and of cottons — which are clearly woollens
since their " dressyng and frisyng " is noted, and the latter
process, which consists in raising and curling the nap, was
not applicable to cotton textiles. John Lelarld, after his
visit to Manchester about 1538, used these words — " Bolton-
upon-Moore market standeth most by cottons; divers villages in
the Moores about Bolton do make cottons." Leland, it is true,
might conceivably be referring to manufactures from the vegetable
fibre, but it is exceedingly unlikely, since the term " cottons "
would seem to have been current with a perfectly definite
meaning. The goods were probably an English imitation in wool
of continental cotton fustians — which would explain the name.
Again we may quote from the act of 5 and 6 Edward VI., " all
the cottons called Manchester, Lancashire and Cheshire cottons,
full wrought to the sale, shall be in length twenty-two yards and
contain in breadth three-quarters of a yard in the water and shall
weigh thirty pounds in the piece at least "; and from the act
8 Elizabeth c. xi., " every of the said cottons being sufficiently
milled or thicked, clean scoured, well-wrought and full-dried,
shall weigh 21 lb at the least." 3 These are evidently the weights
of woollen goods: further, it may be observed that milling is not
applicable to cotton goods. The earliest reference to a cotton
manufacture in England which may reasonably be regarded as
pointing to the fabrication of textiles from cotton proper, is in the
will of James Billston (a not un-English name), who is described
as a" cotton manufacturer," proved at Chester in 1578. 4 It may
plausibly be contended that James Billston was a worker in the

1 See the extract from the books of Bolton Abbey, given by Baines
(p. 96) and dated 1298.

2 Vol. ii. p. 206; Baines, pp. 96-97.

3 Baines, pp. 93 and 94.

4 Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, vol. ii.

282

COTTON MANUFACTURE

vegetable fibre, since otherwise " manufacturer of cottons "
would have been a more natural designation. But the proof of
the will of one cotton manufacturer establishes very little.

The next earliest known reference to the cotton industry
proper occurs in a petition to the earl of Salisbury, made presum-
ably in 1610, asking for the continuance of a grant for reforming
frauds committed in the manufacture of " bambazine cotton such
as groweth in the land of Persia being no kind of wool." 1 But
a far more valuable piece of evidence, discovered by W. H. Price,
is a petition of " Merchants and citizens of London that use
buying and selling of fustians made in England, as of the makers
of the same fustians." 2 Its probable date is 1621, anditcontains
the following important passages: —

" About twenty years past, divers people in this kingdom, but
chiefly in the county of Lancaster, have found out the trade of
making of other fustians, made of a kind of bombast .or down,
being a fruit of the earth growing upon little shrubs or bushes,
brought into this kingdom by the Turkey merchants, from Smyrna,
Cyprus, Acra and Sydon, but commonly called cotton wool; and
also of linen yarn most part brought out of Scotland, and othersome
made in England, and no part of the same fustians of any wool at all,
for which said bombast and yarn imported, his majesty has a great
yearly sum of money for the custom and subsidy thereof.

" There is at the least 40 thousand pieces of fustian of this kind
yearly made in England, the subsidy to his majesty of the materials
for making of every piece coming to between 8d. and iod. the piece ;
and thousands of poor people set on working of these fustians.

"The right honourable duke of Lennox in n of Jacobus 1613
procured a patent from his majesty, of alnager of new draperies for
60 years, upon pretence that wool was converted into other sorts of
commodities to the loss of customs and subsidies for wool transported
beyond seas ; and therein is inserted into his patent, searching and
sealing; and subsidy for 80 several stuffs; and among the rest
these fustians or other stuffs of this kind of cotton wool, and subsidy
and a fee for the same, and forfeiture of 20s. for putting any to sale
unsealed, the moiety of the same forfeiture to the said duke, and
power thereby given to the duke or his deputies, to enter any man's
house to search for any such stuffs, and seize them till the forfeiture
be paid; and if any resist such search, to forfeit £10 and power
thereby given to the lord treasurer or chancellor of the exchequer,
to make new ordinances or grant commissions for the aid of the
duke and his officers in execution of their office."

Here the date of the appearance of the cotton industry on an
appreciable scale — it is questionable whether any importance
should be attached to the expression "found out " — is given by
those who would be speaking of facts within the memory of
themselves or their friends as " about twenty years past " from
1 6 2 1 , and the annual output of the industry in 1 6 2 1 is mentioned.
Moreover, it is established by this document that for a time at
least the cotton manufacture was " regulated " like the other
textile trades. The date assigned by the petitioners for the first
attraction of attention by the English cotton industry may be
supported on negative grounds.

Baines assures us that William Camden, who wrote in 1590,
devoted not a sentence to the cotton industry, though Manchester
figures among his descriptions: " This town," he says, " excels
the towns immediately around it in handsomeness, populousness,
woollen manufacture, market place, church and college; but did
much more excel them in the last age, as well by the glory of its
woollen cloths (laneorum pannorum honore), which they call
Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of sanctuary, which the
authority of parliament under Henry VIII. transferred to
Chester." 3 It is significant too that in the Elizabethan poor law
of 1 60 1 (43 Elizabeth), neither cot ton- wool nor yarn is included
among the fabrics to be provided by the overseers to set the
poor to work upon; though, of course, it might be argued that
so short-stapled a fibre needed for its working, when machinery
was rough, a skill in the operative which would be above that of
the average person unable to find employment. However, a
proposal was made in 1626 to employ the poor in the spinning
of cotton and weaving wool. 4

1 State Papers, Domestic, lix. 5. See W. H. Price, Quar. Jour.
Econ., vol. xx.

2 London Guildhall Library, vol. Beta, Petitions and Parliamentary
Matters (1620-1621), No. 16 (old No. 25).

3 The act referred to is 33 Henry VIII. c. xv., already mentioned.

4 Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce (1903),
Vol. ii. p. 623.

Prior to Mr Price's discovery of the petition mentioned above,
the earliest known notice of the existence in England of a cotton
industry of any magnitude was the oft-quoted passage from
Lewes Roberts's Treasure of Traffic (1641), which runs: " The
town of Manchester, in Lancashire, must be also herein re-
membered, and worthily for their encouragement commended,
who buy the yarne of the Irish in great quantity, and weaving
it, return the same again into Ireland to sell: Neither doth
their industry rest here, for they buy cotton-wool in London
that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work
the same, and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities and
other such stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same
is vented and sold, and not seldom sent into foreign parts." 5

Despite Lewes Roberts's flattering reference, the trade of
Manchester about that time consisted chiefly in woollen frizes,
fustians, sackcloths, mingled stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, points,
&c, according to " A Description of the Towns of Manchester and
Salford," 1650, 6 and woollens for a long time held the first place.
But before another century had run its course cottons proper had
pushed into the first rank, though the woollen industry continued
to be of unquestionable importance. In 1 7 2 7 Daniel Defoe could
write, " the grand manufacture which has so much raised this
town is that of cotton in all its varieties," 7 and he did not mean
the woollen " cottons," as he made plain by other references to
the industry in the same connexion; but it was not until some
fifty years later that the ousting of the woollen industry from
what is now peculiarly the cotton district became unmistakable. 8
As a rule the woollen weavers were driven farther and farther east
—Bury lay just outside the cotton area when Defoe wrote — and
finally many of them settled in the West Riding. Edwin Butter-
worth even tells of woollen weavers who migrated from Oldham
to the distant town of Bradford in Wiltshire because of the
decline of their trade before the victorious cotton industry. Much
the same fate was being shared by the linen industry in Lanca-
shire, which was forced out of the county westwards and north-
wards. The explanation of the three centralizations, namely of
the woollen industry, the cotton industry and the linen industry*
is not far to seek. The popularity of the fabrics produced by
the rising cotton industry enabled it to pay high wages, which,
indeed, were essential to bring about its expansion. This a priori
diagnosis is supported by contemporary analysis: thus "the
rapid progress of that business (cotton spinning) and the higher
wages which it afford, have so far distressed the makers of
worsted goods in .that county (Lancashire), that they have
found themselves obliged to offer their few remaining spinners
larger premiums than the state of their trade would allow." 9
The best operatives of Lancashire were attracted sooner or
later to assist the triumphs of art over the vegetable wool.
At the same time the scattered woollen and linen workers
of Lancashire were suffering from the competition of rivals
enjoying elsewhere the economies of some centralization, and
the demand for woollen and linen warps in the cotton industry
ceased after the introduction of Arkwright's water-twist. When
the factory became common the economies of centralization(which
arise from the wide range of specialism laid open to a large local
industry) increased; moreover they were reinforced by the
diminution of social friction and the intensification of business
sensitiveness which marked the development of the 19th century.
Once begun, the centralizing movement proceeded naturally with
accelerating speed. The contrast beneath is an instructive
statistical comment: —

6 Original edition, pp. 32, 33.

6 Aikin's Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles
round Manchester, p. 154.

7 Tour, vol. iii. p. 219.

8 For instance Radcliffe p. 61. Ogden (author of A Description
of Manchester, &c, published in 1783), if Aikin's " accurate and
well-informed enquirer " by Ogden, says that the period of rapid
extension of the cotton industry began about 1770. See also
Butterworth's History of Oldham and the passage quoted below in
the text.

9 Account of Society for Promotion of Industry in Lindsey (1789),
Brit. Mus. 103, L. 56. Quoted from Cunningham's English Industry
and Commerce, vol. ii. p. 452, n. ed., 1892.

COTTON MANUFACTURE

283

Distribution of Cotton Operatives in 1838 and i8g8-l8QQ {from Returns
of Factory Inspectors).

Cheshire

Cumberland

Derbyshire .

Lancashire .

Nottinghamshire

Staffordshire

Yorkshire

England and Wales l
Scotland .
Ireland

United Kingdom

1838.

36,400
2,000

10,500

152,200

1,500

2,000

12,400

219,100

35,6oo

4,600

259,300

34-3O0

700

10,500

398,100

1,600

2,300

35,200

496,200

29,000

800

526,000

The distribution of the industry has varied greatly in the two
periods. If it had remained constant Lancashire would only
have contained 300,000 operatives in 1899, instead of the actual
400,000. Scotland, on the other hand, only contained 30,000
instead of 70,000, and in Ireland the numbers were one-tenth of
what they should have been. The percentage of operatives in
Lancashire in 1838 was ^8-5, but this increased to 75-7 in 1898.

Why, we may naturally inquire, did not the cotton industry
localize in the West Riding or Cheshire and the woollen industry
maintain its position in Lancashire? Accident no
BMnad- doubt partly explains why the cotton industry is
vantages, carried on where it is in the various parts of the globe,
but apart from accident, as regards Lancashire, it is
sufficient answer to point to the peculiarly suitable congeries of
conditions to be found there. There is firstly the climate, which
for the purpose of cotton spinning is unsurpassed elsewhere, and
which became of the first order of importance when fine spinning
was developed. In the Lancashire atmosphere in certain districts
just about the right humidity is contained on a great number of
days for spinning to be done with the least degree of difficulty.
Some dampness is essential to make the fibres cling, but excessive
moisture is a disadvantage. Over the county of Lancashire the
prevailing west wind carries comparatively continuous currents
of humidified air. These currents vary in temperature according
to their elevation. Hot and cold layers mix when they reach
the hills, and the mixture of the two is nearer to the saturation
point than either of its components. The degree of moisture is
measured by the ratio of the actual amount of moisture to the
moisture of the saturation point for that particular temperature.
Owing to the sudden elevation the air is rarefied, its temperature
being thereby lowered, and in consequence condensation tends to
be produced. In several places in England and abroad, where
there is a scarcity of moisture, artificial humidifiers have been
tried, but no cheap and satisfactory one has hitherto been
discovered. To the advantages of the Lancashire climate for
cotton spinning must be added — especially as regards the early
days of the cotton industry — its disadvantages for other callings.
The unpleasantness of the weather renders an indoor occupation
desirable, and the scanty sunshine, combined with the unfruitful
nature of much of the soil, prevents the absorption of the popula-
tion in agricultural pursuits. In later years the port of Liverpool
and the presence of coal supplemented the attractions which were
holding the cotton industry in Lancashire. All the raw material
must come from abroad, and an enormous proportion of English
cotton products figures as exports. The proximity of Liverpool
has aided materially in making the cotton industry a great
exporting industry.

Before the localization of the separate parts of the industry can
be treated the differentiation of the industry must be described.
We pass then, at this stage, to consider the manufacture in its
earliest form and the lines of its development. First, and some-
what incidentally, we notice the early connexion between the
conduct of the cotton manufacture, when it was a domestic

J In 1838 the only other county with more than 1000 was Gloucester
with 1500. 217,000 of the 219,100 operatives in England and Wales
were employed in the counties enumerated. Of the 2000 operatives
whose location is not given, about 1000 worked in Flintshire.

Early
system of
manufao
ture and
organisa-
tion.

industry in its primitive form, and the performance of agri-
cultural operations. A few short extracts will place before
us all the evidence that it is here needful to adduce.
First Radcliffe, an eye-witness, writing of the period
about 1770, says " the land in our township (Mellor)
was occupied by between fifty and sixty farmers . . .
and out of these fifty or sixty farmers there were
only six or seven who raised their rents directly from
the produce of their farms, all the rest got their rent partly in
some branch of trade, such as spinning and weaving woollen,
linen or cotton. The cottagers were employed entirely in
this matter, except for a few weeks in the harvest." 2 Next
we may cite Edwin Butterworth who, though not an eye-
witness (he was not born till 1812), proved himself by his
researches to be a careful and trustworthy investigator.
In the parish of Oldham, he recorded, there were "a number
of master (cotton-linen fustian) 3 manufacturers, as well as
many weavers who worked for manufacturers, and at the same
time were holders of land or farmers. . . . The number of
fustian farmers who were cottagers working for manufacturers,
without holding land, were few; but there were a considerable
number of weavers who worked on their own account, and held at
the same time small pieces of land." 4 Other passages might be
quoted, but these two will suffice. Weaving was not exactly a
by-employment of farm labourers, but many weavers made
agriculture a by-employment to some extent, (a) by working
small parcels of land, which varied from the size of allotments to
farms of a very few acres, and (b) by lending aid in gathering in
the harvest when their other work enabled them to do so. The
association of manufacturing and weaving survived beyond the
first quarter of the 19th century. Of the weavers in many
districts and " more especially in Lancashire " we read in the
report of the committee on emigration, " it appears that persons
of this description for many years past, have been occupiers of
small farms of a few acres, which they have held at high rents, and
combining the business of the hand-loom weaver with that of a
working farmer have assisted to raise the rent of their land from
the profits of their loom." 5 One of the first lines of specialism
to appear was the severing of the connexion described above, and
the concentration of the weavers in hamlets and towns. Finer
fabrics and more complicated fabrics were introduced, and the
weaver soon learnt that such rough work as farming unfitted his
hands for the delicate tasks required of them. Again, really to
prosper a weaver found it necessary to perfect himself by close
application. The days of the rough fabrics that anybody could
make with moderate success were closing in. As a consequence
the dispersion of the weavers becomes less and less. They no
longer wanted allotments or farms; and their looms having
become more complicated, the mechanic proved himself a
convenient neighbour. Finding spinners too was an easier task
in the hamlet or town than in the remote country parts. But
there is no reason to suppose that agriculture and the processes of
the domestic cotton manufacturer had ever been universally
twin callings. There never was a time, probably, when weavers
who did nothing but weave were not a significant proportion, if
not the major part, of the class of weavers. All again were not
independent and all were not employees. Some were simply
journeymen in small domestic workshops; others were engaged
by fustian masters or Manchester merchants and paid by the piece
for what they made out of material supplied them ; others again
bought their warp:: and cotton and sold to the merchants their
fabrics, which were their own property. The last class was swept
away soon after the industry became large, when by the organiza-
tion of men of capital consumers and producers were more and

2 W. Radcliffe's Origin of the New System of Manufacturing, p. 59.

3 The term " fustian " had originally been used to designate
certain woollen or worsted goods made at Norwich and in Scotland.
A reference to Norwich fustians of as early a date as the 14th century
is quoted by Baines.

4 E. Butterworth's History of Oldham, p. 101.

5 Parliamentary Reports, &c. (1826-1827), v. p. 5. See for even
later examples Gardner's evidence to the committee on hand-loom
weavers in 1835.

284

COTTON MANUFACTURE

more kept in touch. In early days most weavers owned their
looms, the great part of which they had frequently constructed
themselves : later, however, a large number hired looms, and it
was as usual in certain quarters for lodgings to be let with a loom
as it is to-day for them to be provided with a piano. When it
became customary for weavers to undertake a variety of work,
the masters usually provided reeds (which had to vary in fineness
with the fineness of the warp), healds, and other changeable parts,
and sometimes they employed the gaiters to fit the new work in
the looms.

Until the success of the water-frame, cotton could not be spun
economically of sufficient strength and fineness for warps, and the
warps were therefore invariably made of either linen or wool.
Some were manufactured locally, others were imported from
Germany, Ireland and Scotland. The weaver prepared them for
his loom by the system of peg-warping, 1 but after the introduction
of the warping-mill he received them as a rule all ready for
insertion into the loom from the Manchester merchant or local
fustian master.

" It did not pay the individual weaver to keep a warping-mill for
occasional use only, and frequently the contracted space of his work-
room precluded even the possibility of his doing so. The invention
of the warping-mill necessitated specialism in warping, and it was
essential that warping should be done to order, since at that time,
the state of the industrial world being what it was, no person could
ordinarily have been found to adventure capital in producing warps
ready made in anticipation of demand for the great variety of fabrics
which was even then produced. Moreover, had the weaver himself
placed the orders for his warps, any occasional delay in the execution
of his commissions might have stopped his work entirely until the
warps were ready; for warps cannot be delivered partially, like
weft, in quantities sufficient for each day's work. To ensure con-
tinuous working in the industry, therefore, it was almost inevitable
that the merchant should himself prepare the warps for such fabrics
as he required, or possibly have them prepared. To the system of
the merchant delegating the preparation of warps there was less
objection than to the system of the weaver doing so, since the
merchant, dealing in large quantities, was more likely to get pressing
orders completed to time. Further, the merchant knew first what
kind of warps would be needed. The first solution, however, that
of the merchant undertaking the warping himself, was the surer,
and there was no doubt as to its being the one destined for selection
in a period when a tendency to centralize organization, responsibility
and all that could be easily centralized, was steadily gaining in
strength." 2

Guest says the system by which the weaver was supplied with
warps and other material was substituted for the purchase of
warps and cotton-wool by the weaver about 1740. No doubt
the change was very gradual, especially as Aikin mentions the use
of warping-mills in the 17th century. The weaver as a rule
received his weft material in the form of cotton-wool and was
required to arrange himself for its cleaning and spinning. Accord-
ing to Aikin, 3 dealers tried the experiment of giving out weft
instead of cotton-wool, but " the custom grew into disuse as
there was no detecting the knavery of the spinners till a piece
came in woven." As it was impossible to unwrap the yarn and
test it throughout its length, defects were hidden until it came to
be used, and the complaints of weavers were not conclusive as to
the inferiority of the yarn, since their own bad workmanship
might have had something to do with its having proved un-
satisfactory. It was therefore found best to saddle the weaver
with full responsibility for both the spinning and weaving.
Women and children cleaned, carded and spun the cotton-wool in
their homes. The cotton had to be more thoroughly cleaned
after its arrival in this country. The ordinary process of cleaning
was known as " willowing," because the cotton was beaten with
willow switches after it had been laid out on a tight hammock of
cords. The cotton used for fine spinning was also carefully
washed; and even when it was not washed it was soaked with
water and partially dried so that the fibres might be made to
cling together. 4 Most of the weaving was done by men, and until

1 This is illustrated in one of the plates to Guest's History of the
Cotton Manufacture.
* Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry, pp. 15 and 16.

3 Page 167.

4 Mrs Crompton, wife of Samuel Crompton, we are told, used to

the invention of the fly-shuttle they cast the shuttle from hand to
hand in the manner of their remotest ancestors. For the making
of the broader fabrics two weavers were required when the
width was greater than the easy stretch of a man's arms. Some-
times cloths were woven wide and then split into two or more:
hence the term " splits." This became a common practice
when the hand-loom workers were groaning under the pressure of
competition from the power-loom.

We now reach the era of the great inventions. In order to
ensure clearness it will be desirable to consider separately the
branches of spinning and weaving: to pass from the
one to the other, and follow the chronological order, vention
might cause confusion. First emphasis must be laid "hinery
upon the point that it was not mechanical change alone
which constituted the industrial revolution. No doubt small
hand-looms factories would have become the rule, and more and
more control over production would have devolved upon the
factory master, and the work to be done would have been
increasingly assigned by merchants, had the steam-engine
remained but the dream of Watt, and semi-automatic machinery
not been invented. The spirit of the times was centralizing
management before any mechanical changes of a revolutionizing
character had been devised. Loom-sh'ops, in which several
journeymen were employed, were not uncommon: thus " in the
latter part of the last (18th) and the beginning of the present
(19th) century," says Butterworth, describing the state of affairs
in Oldham and the neighbourhood, " a large number of weavers
. . . possessed spacious loom-shops, where they not only
employed many journeymen weavers, but a considerable pro-
portion of apprentice children." It is true that both the fly-
shuttle and drop-box had been invented by that time, but the
loom was still worked by human power. Specialism, however,
was on the increase, the capitalist was assuming more control, and
the operative was being transformed more and more into the mere
executive agent. Further, as creative of enterprise, an atmo-
sphere of freedom and a general economic restlessness, consequent
upon the reaction against mercantilism, were noticeable. Great
changes, no doubt, would soon have swept over Lancashire had a
new source of power and big factories not been rendered essential
by inventions in spinning.

The chief inventors were Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, James
Hargreaves and Samuel Crompton. The two first originated the
principle of spinning by rollers. Their patent was taken sninning
out in 1 738, but no good came of it immediately, though an< / pre .
many trials were made and moderately large sums of paratoty
money were lost. Ultimately RichardArkwright brought «>achin-
forward the same plan improved: 6 his first patent was ery '
dated 1769. Over the real authorship of the fundamental idea
there has been much controversy, and it has not been absolutely
proved that the second inventor, whether Thomas Highs,
Arkwright or John Kay (a clockmaker of Warrington who
assisted Arkwright to construct his machine and is said by some
to have told him of an invention by Highs) , did not hit upon the
device afresh in ignorance of the work already done. Even as
between Paul and Wyatt it is not easy to award due measure of
praise. Probably the invention, as a working machine, resulted
from real collaboration, each having an appreciable share in. it.
Robert Cole, in his paper to the British Association in 1858
(reprinted as an appendix to the 1st ed. of French's Life of
Crompton), championed the claims of Paul, but Mantoux, in his
La Revolution industrielle au XVIII' siecle, after studying the
Wyatt MSS., inclines to attribute to Wyatt a far more important
position, though he dissents from the view of Baines, who ascribes
little or nothing to Paul.

Arkwright's prospects of financial success were much greater
than those of his predecessors, because, first, there was more

employ her son George shortly after he could walk, as a " dolly-peg "
to tread the cotton in the soapy water in which it was placed for
washing. See French's Life of Crompton, pp. 58-59 (3rd ed.). Row-
botham in his diary gives two accounts of fires which were caused by
carelessness in drying cotton.

6 On the difference between the two machines see Baines's History,
p. 138 et seq.

COTTON MANUFACTURE

285

need in his time of mechanical aids, and secondly, he was highly
talented as a business man. In 1 7 7 5 he followed up his patent of
1769 with another relating to machinery for carding, drawing and
roving. The latter patent was widely infringed, and Arkwright
was compelled to institute nine actions in 1781 to defend his
rights. An association of Lancashire spinners was formed to
defend them, and by the one that came to trial the patent was
set aside on the ground of obscurity in the specifications.
Arkwright again attempted to recover his patent rights in 1785,
after the first patent had been in abeyance for two years. Before
making this further trial of the courts he had thought of pro-
ceeding by petition to parliament, and had actually drawn up his
" case," which he was ultimately dissuaded from presenting.
In it he prayed not only that the decision of 1781 should be set
aside, but that both patents should be continued to him for the
unexpired period of the second patent, i.e. until 1789. In his
" case" (i.e. the petition mentioned above) Arkwright stated that
he had sold to numbers of adventurers residing in the different
counties of Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford,
York, Hertford and Lancaster, many of his patent machines, and
continued: " Upon a moderate computation, the money ex-
pended in consequence of such grants (before 1782) amounted
to at least £60,000. Mr Arkwright and his partners also expended
in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere upwards of
£30,000, and Mr Arkwright also erected a very large and extensive
building in Manchester at the expense of upwards of £4000.
Thus a business had been formed which already (he calculated)
employed upwards of five thousand persons, and a capital on the
whole of not less than £200,000." x It is impossible to discover
exactly the rights of the matter. Certainly Arkwright had been
intentionally obscure in his specifications, as he admitted, and
for his defence, namely that it was to preserve the secret for his
countrymen, there was only his word. He may have hoped to
keep the secret for himself; and as to the originality of both
inventions there were grave doubts. But Arkwright has received
little sympathy, because his claims were regarded as grasping in
view of the large fortune which he had already won. He began
work with his first partners at Nottingham (when power was
derived from horses) and started at Cromford in 1771 (where the
force of water was used). Soon he was involved in numerous
undertakings, and he remained active till his death in 1792.
He had met throughout with a good deal of opposition, which
possibly to a man of his temperament was stimulating. Even in
the matter of getting protective legislation reframed to give
scope to the application of the water-frame, a powerful section of
Lancashire employers worked against him. This protective
legislation must here be shortly reviewed.

In 1700 an act had been passed (ri & 12 William III. c. 10)
prohibiting the importation of the printed calicoes of India,
Persia and China. In 1721 the act 7 George I. c. 7 prohibited the
use of any " printed, painted, stained or dyed calico," excepting
only calicoes dyed all blue and muslins, neckcloths and fustians.
This act was modified by the act 9 George II. c. 4 (allowing
British calicoes with linen warps). Thus the matter stood as
regards prints when Arkwright had demonstrated that stout
cotton warps could be spun in England, and at the same time
the officers of excise insisted upon exacting a tax of 6d. from the
plain all-cottons instead of the 3d. paid by the cotton-linens, on
the ground that the former were calicoes. Arkwright's plea,
however, was admitted, and by the act 14 George II. c. 72 the
still operative part of the act of 17 21 was set aside, and the
manufacture, use, and wear of cottons printed and stained, &c,
was permitted subject to the payment of a duty of 3d. per sq. yd.
(the same as the excise on cotton-linens) provided they were
stamped " British manufactory." The duty was varied from
time to time until its repeal in 1832.

Some more powerful force than that of man or horse was
soon needed to work the heavy water-frames. Hence Ark-
wright placed his second mill on a water-course, fitting it
with a water-wheel, and until the steam-engine became eco-
nomical most of the new twist mills were built on water-
1 Baines p. 183.

Lancashire

• 41

Flintshire

Derbyshire .

. 22

Berkshire

Nottinghamshire .

• 17

Lanarkshire

Yorkshire .

. 11

Renfrewshire

Cheshire

. 8

Perthshire

Staffordshire

. 7

Midlothian .

Westmorland .

• 5

Isle of Man

courses. On rare occasions the old fire-engines seem to have
been tried.

The following passage quoted from a note in Baines's History
illustrates the pressing need of the early mills: " On the river Irwell,
from the first mill near B?cup, to Prestolee, near Bolton, there is
about 900. ft. of fall available from mills, 800 of which is occupied.
On this river, and' its branches it is computed that there are no less
than three hundred mills. A project is in course of execution to
increase the water-power of the district, already so great and so
much concentrated, and to equalize the force of the stream by
forming eighteen reservoirs on the hills, to be filled in times of flood,
and to yield their supplies in the drought of summer. These reser-
voirs, according to the plan, would cover 270 acres of ground, and
contain 241,300,000 cub. ft. of water, which would give a power
equal to 6600 horses. The cost is estimated at £59,000. One
reservoir has been completed, another is in course of formation,
and it is probable that the whole design will be carried into effect." 2

As early as 1788 there were 143 water-mills in the cotton
industry of the United Kingdom, which were distributed as
follows among the counties which had more than one. 3

• • 3
. . 2

• • 4
■ • 4

• • 3
. 2

. . 1

The need of water to drive Arkwright's machinery, and its
value for working other machinery, caused a strong decentralizing
tendency to show itself in the cotton industry at this time, but
more particularly in the twist-spinning branch. Ultimately the
steam-engine (first used in the cotton industry in 1785) drew all
branches of the industry into the towns, where the advantages of
their juxtaposition — i.e. the external economies of centralization
— could be enjoyed. Out of the crowding of the mills in one
locality sprang the business specialism which has continued up
to the present day. Here it will not be out of place to notice the
appearance of the new power, electricity, in the cotton industry,
the extension of which may involve striking economic changes.
The first electric-driven spinning-mill in Lancashire, that of the
" Acme " Spinning Company at Pendlebury, the work of which
is confined to the ring-frame, was opened in 1905. Power is
obtained from the stations of the Lancashire Power Company at
Outwood near Radcliffe, some 5 m. distant.

The chief principle of the water-frame was the drawing out
of the yarn to the required degree of tenuity by sets of grip-
ping rollers revolving at different speeds. This principle is still
applied universally. Twist was given by a " flyer " revolving
round the bobbin upon which the yarn was being wound; the
spinning so effected was known as throstle-spinning. The plan is
still common in the subsidiary processes of the cotton industry,
but for spinning itself the ring-frame, which appears to have been
invented simultaneously in England and the United States (the
first American patent is dated 1828), is rapidly supplanting the
throstle-frame, 4 though the " ooziness " of mule yarn has not yet
been successfully imitated by ring-frame yarn. The great inven-
tion relating to weft-spinning was the jenny, introduced by James
Hargreaves probably about 1764, and first tried in a factory four
years later. 6 Hargreaves unfortunately was unable to maintain
his patent, because he had sold jennies before applying for
protection. Crompton's mule, which combined the principles of
the rollers and the jenny, was perfected about 1779. Both
jennies and mules were known as " wheels," because they were
worked in part by the turning of a wheel. As they could be set in
motion without using much power, being light when of moderate

2 Baines's History of the Cotton Manufacture, p. 86 n.

3 These figures are quoted from a pamphlet published in 1788
entitled " An Important Crisis in the Calico and Muslin Manufactory
in Great Britain explained." Many of the estimates given in this
pamphlet are worthless, but there seems no reason why the figures
quoted here should not be at least approximately correct.

4 See article on Cotton-spinning Machinery.

6 Hargreaves' claim to this invention has been disputed, but no
satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to disprove his
claim. Hargreaves was a carpenter and weaver of Stand-hill near
Blackburn, and died in 1778.

286

COTTON MANUFACTURE

size, for a long time they were worked entirely by hand or
partially with the aid of horses or water. The first jenny- and
mule-factories were small for this reason, and also because skill in
the operative was a matter of fundamental importance, 1 as it was
not in twist-spinning on the water-frame. The size of the typical
weft-spinning mill suddenly increased after the scope for the
application of power was enlarged by the use of the self-actor
mule, invented in 1825 by Richard Roberts, of the firm of Sharp,
Roberts & Co., machinists, of Manchester. In 1830 Roberts
improved his invention and brought out the complete self-actor.
Self-actors had been put forward by others besides Roberts — for
instance by William Strutt, F.R.S. (son of Arkwright's partner),
before 1790; William Kelly, formerly of Lanark mills, in 1792;
William Eaton of Wiln in Derbyshire ; Peter E wart of Manchester ;
de Jongh of Warrington; Buchanan, of Catrine works, Scotland;
Knowles of Manchester; and Dr Brewster of America 2 — but
none had succeeded. And Roberts's machines did not immediately
win popularity. For a long time the winding done by them was
defective, and they suffered from other imperfections. Broadly
speaking, until the American Civil War the number of hand-
mules in use remained high. It was for the fine " counts " in
particular that many employers preferred them. 3 About the end
of the 'sixties, however, and in the early 'seventies, great
improvements were effected in machinery, partly under the
stimulus of a desire to elevate its fitness for dealing with short-
staple cotton, and it became evident that hand-mules were
doomed. Here we may suitably refer to the scutching machine
for opening and cleaning cotton, invented by Mr Snodgrass of
Glasgow in 1797, and introduced by Kennedy 4 to Manchester in
1808 or 1809; the cylinder carder invented by Lewis Paul and
improved by Arkwright; and the lap-machine first constructed
by Arkwright's son.

We now transfer our attention to that accumulation of im-
provements in manufacturing (as weaving is technically termed)
which, taken in conjunction with the inventions already
machinery, described, presaged the large factory system which
' covers Lancashire to-day. Gradually, for many years,
the loom had been gathering complexities, though no funda-
mental alteration was introduced into its structure until 1738,
when John Kay of Bury excited the wrath of his fellow-weavers
by designing and employing the device of the fly-shuttle. For
some unfathomable reason — for the opposition of the weavers
hardly explains it, though they expressed their views forcibly and
acted upon them violently — this invention was not much applied
in the cotton industry until about a quarter of a century after its'
appearance. The plan was merely to substitute for human hands
hammers at the ends of a lengthened lathe along which the
shuttle ran, the hammers being set in motion by the jerking of a
stick (the picking peg) to which they were attached by strings.
The output of a weaver was enormously increased in consequence.
In 1760 John Kay's son Robert added the drop-box, by the use of
which many different kinds of weft could be worked into the same
fabric without difficulty. It was in fact a partitioned lift, any
partition of which could be brought to a level with the lathe and
made for the time continuous with it. The drop-box usefully
supplemented the "draw-boy," or "draught-boy," which provided
for the raising of warps in groups, and thereby enabled figured
goods to be produced. The " draw-boy " had been well known
in the industry for a long time; in 1687 a Joseph Mason patented
an invention for avoiding the expense of an assistant to work
it, 5 but there is no evidence to show that his invention was of

1 See Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry, pp. 59 et seq.

2 See Baines p. 207.

3 " Counts " are determined by the number of hanks to the
lb. A hank is 840 yds. The origin of the hank of 840 yds. is
probably that spinners used a winding-reel of 1 \ yds. in circumference,
so that 80 threads (one " lea " or " rap " according to old phrase-
ology) would contain 120 yds., and seven leas {i.e. a hank) would
contain 840 yds. A hank of seven leas was the common measure
in the woollen industry, in which the reels were 1 yd. or 2 yds. in cir-
cumference. For details see an article on the subject in the Textile
World Record, vol. xxxi. No. I.

4 The author of the memoir of Crompton (see bibliography).
6 Specification 257.

practical value. Looms with " draw-boys " affixed, which could
sometimes be worked by the weavers themselves, later became
common under the name of harness-looms, which have since been
supplanted by Jacquard looms, wherein the pattern is picked out
mechanically.

The principle of the fly-shuttle was a first step towards the
complete mechanizing of the action required for working a
loom. The second step was the power-loom, the initial effort to
design which was created by the tardiness of weaving as contrasted
with the rapidity of spinning by power. After the general
adoption of the jenny, supplies of yarn outran the productive
powers of the agencies that existed for converting them into
fabrics, and as a consequence, it would seem, some yarn was
directed into exports which might have been utilized for the
manufacture of cloth for export had the loom been more pro-
ductive. The agitation for the export tax on yarn at the end of
the 18th, and in the first years of the 19th century, is therefore
comprehensible, but there was no foundation for some of the
allegations by which it was supported. For a large proportion of
the exported yarn, fabrics could not have been substituted, since
the former was required to feed the hand-looms in continental
homes and domestic workshops, against much of the product of
which there was no chance of competing. The hand-loom was
securely linked to the home of the peasant, and though he would
buy yarn to feed his loom he would not buy cloth and break
it up. 6

Cartwright's loom was not the first design adapted for weav-
ing by power. A highly rudimentary and perfectly futile self-
actor weaving machine, which would have been adapted for
power-working had it been capable of working at all, had been
invented by a M. de Gennes: a description of it, extracted from
the Journal de sQavans, appeared in the Philosophical Transac-
tions for July and August 1678, and again in the Gentleman's
Magazine in 1751 (vol. xxi. pp. 391-392). It consisted of
mechanical hands, as it were, that shot in and out of the warp and
exchanged the shuttle. 7 Another idea, which however proved
fruitful, was that of grinding the shuttle through the warps by
the agency of cog-wheels working at each end upon teeth affixed
to the upper side of the shuttle. Though shuttles could not in
this fashion be set in rapid movement, the machine turned out to
be economical for the production of ribbons and tapes, because
many pieces could be woven by it at once. These contrivances
were known as swivel-looms, and in 1724 Stukeley in his Itine-
rarium curiosum wrote that the people of Manchester have
" looms that work twenty-four laces at a time, which was
stolen from the Dutch." Ogden says also that they were set
up in imitation of Dutch machines by Dutch mechanics
invited over for the purpose. Another interesting passage
relating to the swivel-looms will be found in the rules of
the Manchester small-ware weavers dated 1756, where the
complaint is made that the masters have acquired by the employ-
ment of " engine or Dutch looms such large and opulent fortunes
as hath enabled them to vie with some of the best gentlemen
of the country," and it is alleged that these machines, which
wove twelve or fourteen pieces at once, " were in use in Man-
chester thirty years ago." 8 One power-factory at least was
devoted to them as early as 1760, namely that of a Mr Gartside
at Manchester, where water-power was applied, but the enterprise
failed. 9 Cartwright's invention was probably perfected in its

6 For further analysis of the arguments current see Chapman's
Lancashire Cotton Industry, pp. 66 et seq.

7 Also in the 17th century a John Barkstead was granted a patent
for a method of manufacturing cotton goods, but the method is not
described. 1691, Specification 276.

8 In the parliamentary reports (l84o),xxiv. p. 611, the invention
of the swivel-loom is claimed for a " Van Anson." It is a plausible
supposition that by " Van Anson " is meant Vaucanson, as he
appears to have improved the swivel-loom. But he could not have
been the original inventor, since in 1724 (that is, when Vaucanson
was at the most fifteen years of age) they were being employed in
Manchester.

9 Aikin, pp. 175-176, and Guest, p. 44. An explanation of the
mechanism of the swivel-loom will be found in the Encyclopedic
methodique, manufactures, arts et metiers, pt. i. vol. ii. pp. 202, 208,
and Recueil de planches, vol. vi. (1786), pp. 72-78.

COTTON MANUFACTURE

287

Exports of Cotton Yarns and

Imports

of Cotton Yarns and

Imports of

Raw Cotton

Manufactures, Million £.

Manufactures, Million £.

Year.

Raw Cotton,

re-exported.

Manu-

Million lb.

Million lb.

Yarns.

Manu-
factures.

Total.

Yarns.

factures

(excluding

Lace).

Total.

1 700-1 705

1-17

I77I-I775

476

1 785-1 789

1-07 3

1791-1795

26-00

2-09 3

1816-1820

139-00

io-6

2-5

I3 : 8

16-30

1831-1835

3 13 00

230

4-8

14-2

19-00

1851-1855

872-00

124-0

6-8

24-9

3I-70

1876-1880

1456-00

180-0

12-4

56-i

68-30

2

29

2-29

1891-1895

1746-00

217-0

97

56-6

66-30

■42

2

78

3-20

1896-1900

1798-00

223-0

8-9

58-2

67-10

•26

4

27

4-53

1901-1905

1920-00

265-0

8-4

70-7

79-io

•22

5-10

5-32

first form about 1787, but many corrections, improvements

and additions had to be effected before it became an unqualified

success. Cartwright's original idea was elaborated by numerous

followers, and supplementary ideas were needed to make the

system complete. Of the latter the most important were

those due to William Radcliffe, and an ingenious mechanic

who worked with him, Thomas Johnson, which were patented in

1 803 and 1 804. They related to the dressing of the warp before it

was placed in the loom, and for the mechanical taking up of the

cloth and drawing forward of

the warp, so that the loom had

not to be stopped for the cloth

to be moved on and the warp

brought within play of the

shuttle to be sized. Looms

fitted with the latter of these

devices were known as

" dandy " looms. The looms

that followed need not be

described here, nor need we

concern ourselves with the

degree in which some were

imitations of others. It is of

interest to note, however, in

view of recent developments,

that one of Cartwright's

patents included a warp-stop motion, though it was never tried

practically so far as the writer is aware. Looms with warp-stop

motions are now common in the United States, as are also

automatic looms, but both are still the exception in Lancashire

for reasons that will be sketched later.

Power-looms won their way only very gradually. Cartwright
and others lost fortunes in trying to make them pay, but the
former was compensated by a grant of £10,000 from govern-
ment. In 1813 there were 2400 only in the whole of the United
Kingdom; in 1820 there were 14,000, beside some 240,000
hand-looms; in 1829, 55,500; in 1833, 100,000; and in 1870,
440,700.' To-day there are about 700,000 in the cotton
industry. The beginning, and the final consequences, of the
competitive pressure of the power-looms may be read in the
reports of official inquiries and in Rowbotham's diary. 2 It was
upon the fine work that the hand-loom weavers retained their
last hold. In 1829 John Kennedy wrote in his paper to the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on " The Rise and
Progress of the Cotton Trade," "It is found . . . that one person
cannot attend upon more than two power-looms, and it is still
problematical [even in 1829, observe] whether the saving of
labour counterbalances the expense of power and machinery and
the disadvantage of being obliged to keep an establishment of
power-looms constantly at work." It was not easy to obtain
a sufficiency of good hands for the power-looms, because the
operatives, who had acquired their habits under the domestic
system, hated factory life. This, in conjunction with the ease
with which the art of coarse weaving could be acquired and the
cheapness of rough looms, helps to explain the wretched straits
into which the hand-loom weavers were driven.

Improvements in machinery, which ultimately affected every
process from cleaning the cotton to finishing the fabric, and the
application of water and steam-power, so lowered the
cost of production as to render Lancashire the cotton
factory of the world. Figures are quoted in the table to show
the rate of growth in different periods of England's imports and
exports as regards the raw material and products of this industry.
It is important to remember when reading the last 6 columns
that the value of money was the same in 1831-1835, 1851-1855

1 Figures for the years above up to 1838 will be found in parlia-
mentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611.

2 This is the manuscript diary of a weaver of Oldham roughly
covering the period 1787 to 1830. It is now in the Oldham public
library. Mr S. Andrew edited extracts from it in a series of articles
in the Standard (an Oldham paper), under the title Annals of Oldham,
beginning January I, 1887.

and 1876-1880: the sums of Sauerbeck's index numbers for these
periods were 454, 451 and 444 respectively. In the last two
periods there were considerable depressions in prices. If prices
had remained constant, in the periods 1891-1895 and 1896-1900
the figures of exports would have been £90 millions and £91
millions respectively. The growth in trade has been partly
occasioned by the enormous increase in the volume of cotton
goods consumed all over the world, which in turn has been due to
(1) the growth of population, (2) the increase in productive

Growth.

efficiency and well-being, and (3) the substitution of cotton
fabrics for woollen and linen fabrics. The rate of growth between
the periods 1771-1781 and 1781-1791 (which is not shown in
the above table) was particularly remarkable, and reached as
high a figure (when measured by importations of weight of
cotton) as 320%.

Nothing is more interesting in the cotton industry than the
processes of differentiation and integration that have taken place
from time to time. Weaving and spinning had been to oifferea-
a large extent united in the industry in its earliest form, nation
in that both were frequently conducted beneath the and/nte-
same roof. With mechanical improvements in spinning, S ratlon -
that branch of the industry became a separate business, and a
substantial section of it was brought under the factory regime.
Weaving continued to be performed in cottages or in hand-loom
sheds where no spinning at all was attempted. Cartwright's
invention carried weaving back to spinning, because both opera-
tions then needed power, and the trouble of marketing yarn was
largely spared by the reunion. Mr W. R. Grey stated in 1833
to the committee of the House of Commons on manufactures,
commerce and shipping, that he knew of no single person then
building a spinning mill who was not attaching to it a power-
loom factory. Some years later the weaving-shed split away
from spinning, partly no doubt because of the economies of
industrial specialism, partly because of commercial developments,
to be described later, which rendered dissociation less hazardous
than it had been, and partly because, in consequence of these
developments, much manufacturing (as weaving is termed) was
constituted a business strikingly dissimilar from spinning. The
manufacturer runs more risks in laying by stocks than the
spinner, because of the greater variety of his product and the
more frequent changes that it undergoes. The former, therefore,
must devote more time than the latter to keeping his order book
and the productive power of his shed in close correspondence.
The minute care of this kind that must be exercised in some
classes of businesses explains why the small manufacturer still
holds his own while the small spinner has been crushed out.
It also explains to some extent the prevalence of joint-stock
companies in spinning, and their comparative rarity in manu-
facturing. Here we should notice, perhaps, that the only
combination of importance in the cotton industry proper (apart
from calico-printing, bleaching, &c, and the manufacture of
sewing-cotton) is the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers
Association, founded in 1898, which is practically coextensive
with fine spinning and doubling.

3 Official values.

288

COTTON MANUFACTURE

Localiza-
tion of
branches
of the
Industry.

The specialism of the two main branches of the industry
has been followed by the specialism of sub-branches
and by the localization of specialized parts. Of the
localization of certain sections of the cotton industry
the late Mr Elijah Helm, who spoke with the authority
of great local knowledge, has written as follows: —
" Spinning is largely concentrated in south Lancashire and in the
adjoining borderland of north Cheshire. But even within this area
there is further allocation. The finer and the very finest yarns are
spun in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and in or near Manchester,
much of this being used for the manufacture of sewing-thread;
whilst other descriptions, employed almost entirely for weaving,
are produced in Oldham and other towns. The weaving branches
of the industry are chiefly conducted in the northern half of Lanca-
shire — most of it in very large boroughs, as Blackburn, Burnley
and Preston. Here, again, there is a differentiation. Preston and
Chorley produce the finer and lighter fabrics; Blackburn, Darwen
and Accrington, shirtings, dhooties and other goods extensively
shipped to India; whilst Nelson and Colne make cloths woven from
dyed yarn, and Bolton is distinguished for fine quiltings and fancy
cotton dress goods. These demarcations are not absolutely observed,
but they are sufficiently clear to give to each town in the area
covered by the cotton industry a distinctive place in its general
organization." 1

The present local distribution of the cotton industry, as far as it
is displayed statistically, is revealed in the table beneath, based
upon the figures of spindles and looms given by Worrall and those
of operatives in the census returns of 1901.

Distribution of Cotton Operatives in Lancashire and the Vicinity
according to the Census Returns of 1901, together with the Number
of Spindles and Looms according to Worrall.

Blackburn ....

Bolton

Oldham ....
Burnley ....
Manchester and Salford
Preston ....
Rochdale ....
Darwen ....

Nelson

Glossop 3 . . . .

Bury

Stockport ....
Ashton-under-Lyne .
Accrington ....

Colne

Heywood ....
Stalybridge
Todmorden . . ' .
Rawtenstall . .

Hyde

Chadderton
Haslingden

Bacup

Chorley ....
Farnworth, near Bolton

Leigh

Great Harwood
Middleton ....
Radcliffe ....

No. of
Operatives.

41,400
29,800
29,500
27,900
27,200
25,000
14,800
12,500
12,400

10,700
9,700
8,600
8,300
7.3°°
7.300
7,100
6,900
6,600
6,500
6,400
6,100
5.900
5.900
5.700
5.000
4,900
4.900
4,800

No. of
Spindles (in
Thousands).

1,325

5,035

11,603

687

2,666

2,036

2,168

336

23

968

818

1,803

1,839

417

140 4

869

1,106

261

356

553

148
315
547
738
1,667
72
5H
157

No. of
Looms.

75,30o

20,100

18,500

79,300

24,200 2

57,900

25,100

28,700

39,ooo

15,400

22,200

8,700

11,500

36,400

20,500

6,400

7,100

15,800

8,800

7,900

12,000
9,300

17,900

10,600
5,90o

12,400
2,500
8,900

Local markets have steadily lost in importance, partly owing to
railway development, and it is now almost entirely in Manchester,
on the Exchange, that dealing in yarns and fabrics takes place,
and arrangements are made for export. The old Manchester
Exchange, built in 1729, was taken down in 1792. A new
Exchange, reared on a contiguous site, was opened in 1809, the
first stone having been laid in 1806. The present building was
erected in 1869. The great bulk of the exports of cotton goods
proceeds from Liverpool, though London used to be the leading
port, and Liverpool is still the chief English market for raw
cotton, though now from one-sixth to one-eighth of English
cotton supplies come up the Manchester Ship Canal.

1 Printed in British Industries. Edited by W. J. Ashley.

2 Manchester only.

3 The number of operatives in places in Derbyshire is not separately
specified.

4 Includes Foulridge with Colne.

To understand the present organization of the cotton industry
the reader must begin by mentally separating the commercial
from the industrial functions. By the industrial
functions are meant the arrangements of factors in JModer j'
production — choosing the most suitable machinery and a OBt
hands, combining them in the most economical system,
adapting the material used to this system, and keeping its
working at the highest attainable level. The commercial
functions consist in business which is not industrial. Analysis
will show that there are, broadly speaking, two classes of com-
mercial functions, namely (1) arranging for purchases and sales,
and (2) the bearing of risks. The character of the former is
apparent; it consists, as regards yarn, in discovering for each
manufacturer which spinner makes the yarn which is best
adapted to his requirements at the lowest cost, and in finding the
most suitable customers for spinners. Risk-bearing is a com-
mercial function of another kind. Every business that involves
anticipation involves commercial risks. Thus the spinner who
sells " forward " yarn, trusting that the price of cotton will not
rise, is taking commercial risks, and so is the spinner who pro-
duces for stock, trusting that the class of yarn that he is making
will continue in demand. These two instances will suffice to
indicate what is meant by the carrying of commercial risks. To
make the rest of our argument clear it will be well to write down
formulae. Let A and B represent respectively the industrial
operations of spinning and manufacturing. Let a and a represent
respectively the commercial operations implied by the separate
existence of A, that is, the buying of cotton and the selling of yarn ;
and let b and /3 stand for the commercial operations associated
with manufacturing, that is, the buying of yarn on the one hand,
and the finding of customers and arranging for their purchases
on the other hand. Then, A and B being distinct businesses, it
is obvious that a range of schemes is possible of which the
extremes may be roughly represented as follows: —

i.(aAo), (bB/3)

2. (a), <A), (ab), (B), (fi),

where the brackets signify independent businesses. In case 1
each spinning business would be engaged with three problems,
namely, (i.) buying material at the most favourable time, (ii.)
producing at the lowest cost, and (iii.) finding buyers and selling
at the highest price, including the arranging for the performance of
the most remunerative work. But in case 2 the spinner would
confine his attention to purely industrial matters, while the
problem of finding cotton and arranging for the bearing of the
risks as to future prices would rest with other persons, and the
business of bringing spinner and manufacturer together and
taking such risks as may be involved in ordering or disposing of
yarn would be the function of yet others. In case 2 the com-
mercial functions may be said to have differentiated completely
from the main body of the industry. We need hardly give
illustrations of the intermediate arrangements that formally lie
between cases 1 and 2. A may retain commercial risks but find
customers through intermediaries; in such an event there would
be only partial differentiation of the commercial functions. The
reader must be reminded also that for the sake of simplicity in the
formulae we have overlooked different classes of A and of B,
omitted bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing, and drawn no
distinction between the various classes of commercial work
covered by one letter, for instance, selling in the home market
and selling abroad.

It may help the reader to appreciate the organic growth of the
Cotton industry if we now run over the main lines of its evolution.
Originally the industrial units were held together in one homo-
geneous commercial setting. The Manchester merchants bought
cotton and warps, put them out to the weavers, and arranged for
the finishing of the cloth and then for its sale, so far as they had
not been acting on orders already received. There were varia-
tions of this system — for instance, in early years weavers some-
times bought their own yarns and cotton and sold their cloth
— but just before the industrial revolution the arrangement
sketched above was the most usual. Adverting to our formula,
the Manchester merchants, we observe, performed functions

COTTON MANUFACTURE

289

a (in conjunction with importers), b (as regarded warps), and (3.
Weft the weaver had to get spun by his family or outsiders. So,
broadly speaking, there was one single commercial setting. After
the appearance of the factory, the commercial work as between the
water-twist mills, the mule-spinning businesses and the manu-
facturers, so far as the businesses were distinct, appears to have
been done by the several producing firms concerned. It was not
at once that (ab) began to differentiate. /3 was already a separate
business in the hands of Manchester merchants and the foreign
houses who had established themselves in Manchester to direct the
export trade. At the present time an advanced stage of com-
mercial specialism has been reached. From the risks connected
with the buying of cotton the spinner may if he please escape
entirely. 1 Selling work is now done usually through inter-
mediaries, but there is no one uniform rule as to the carrying of
the commercial risks involved. This appears to be now to some
extent a matter of arrangement between the persons concerned,
but ultimately no doubt the risks will have to be borne by those
most qualified by experience to bear them, namely, the com-
mercial specialists. In no other trade in England, and in no other
cotton industry abroad, has commercial specialism been carried
so far as in the cotton trade of Lancashire. It is partly in
consequence of the difference in this respect between the cotton
industry in Lancashire and abroad that the separation of spinning
from weaving is far more common in England than elsewhere.
Elsewhere producers are deterred from specializing processes
further in distinct businesses by the fear of the worries of buying
and selling as between them.

The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of
commercial specialism in different places and industries can be
formulated only very generally. Time is required for the
differentiation and localization to take place. The English
cotton trade had not advanced very far in the " 'thirties," if we
are to judge from the evidence given to commissions and parlia-
mentary committees. The general conditions under which
commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a moderately
limited range of products which do not present many varieties,
and the qualities of which can be judged generally on inspection.
In such circumstances private markets need not be built up, as
they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which
claims some subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under
present conditions must be marketed by their producers.
Broadly stated, if there be little competition as to substitutes,
though there may be much as to price in relation to quality,
commercial functions may specialize. On the whole this is the
case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and firms

produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing
work themselves.

The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous.
Firstly it allows of differentiation of industrial processes, and
this, of necessity, is accompanied by increasing returns. When
weaving dissociates from spinning, both the number of looms
in each business and the number of spindles in each business
tend to increase; more division of labour is therefore secured,
and lower costs of production are reached, and there is a further
gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a
smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely,
or to some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a
higher level of efficiency at the industrial task of mill organiza-
tion, and a more perfect accommodation of capacity to function
will be brought about. If the business unit is (aAa), a particular
person may retain his place in the market by reason of his
excellence at the work a or a, though as works organizer (i.e. at
the performances of function A) lie may be incompetent. The
heads of businesses will succeed according to their average
capacities at the three tasks a, A and a, and there is no guarantee,
therefore, that any one of these tasks will be performed with the
highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat immobile
economic system. But if the three functions are separated
there is more certainty of a person's success in the perform-
ance of each determining his continued discharge of it. The
problems that arise when specialized markets become very
highly developed are dealt with in the article Cotton:
Marketing and Supply.

The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres
has already been shown, but their distribution between processes
has yet to be considered, and the proportions of different
ages and sexes from time to time, together with the OP er *tlves
total. With such statistical material as is available va "° us
relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also the P rocesses-
official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from
time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of
machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour,
other things being equal.

Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands).

Spinning

Doubling

Power-

Years.

Spindles.

Spindles.

Looms.

1874

37,5i6

4366

463

1878

39.528

4679

515

1885

40,120

4228

561

1890

40,512

3993

616

1903

43.905

3952

684

Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry (in Thousands). (From the Census Returns.' 1 )
(The figures in italics relate to Married and Widowed Women.)

1901.

1891.

1881.

Lancashire.

England and
Wales.

Lancashire.

England and
Wales.

Lancashire.

England and
Wales.

Cotton, card and blowing-room processes
Cotton spinning processes ......

Cotton winding, warping, &c

Cotton weaving, warping, &c

Total .
Cotton workers in other processes or undefined

Thread, manufacturer dealer ....
Fustian, manufacturer dealer . . . .

Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer

M.
11-4

49-5
14-8

57-6

F.

28-7

IO-I

19-6

4-3
38-6
13-0

H3-5
38-i

M.
13-8

64-1

18-3

66-1

F.
34-0

12-2
28-6

6-o

48-9

15-8

130-8

44-4

M.

F.

M.

F.

M.

F.

M.

F.

133-3

265-9

162-3

320-7

178-2

281-8

213-2

332-8

150-7

249-8

185.4

302-4

29-0
"•6

6-7
i-8

1-2

■55

34-5

2-1

9.4
2-3

2-6
10

•47
•2
i-i

•25
•9
2-9

•9

•6

3-2

1-5

2-1

5-o

•4
•1

i-7
2-5

•24
•9
3'5

•3

•7

•5

3-0

3-2

1-2

1-7
5-2

•38

1 This is explained in the article Cotton : Marketing and Supply.
'■ Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table.

VII. 10

12

290

COTTON MANUFACTURE

In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed
as follows : —

In Thousands.
Card and blowing-room processes .... -4

Spinning-room processes . 2-1

Winding, warping, &c 2-7

Weaving, warping, &c 6-8

Workers in other processes or undefined . .2-8

Total

14-8

Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and Percentages of each Class.
(From Returns of Factory Inspectors.)

the proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the
number of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction
of the body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred
primarily among children and young persons (where the first check
would naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males.
If allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared
with adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that
there has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power;
and if the factory inspectors' returns be accepted, the falling off
in the number of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place

in either of the chief

1835-

1838.

1847.

1850.

1856.

1862.

1867.

Male and Female under 13, or half-timers.

Male, 13 to 18

Male, over 18

Female, over 13

13-2
12-5
26-4

47-9

457
16-6
24-9
53-8

5-8
n-8
27-1
55-3

4-6

II -2

287
55-5

6-5
10-3
27-4
55-8

8-8

91

26-4

557

10-4

8-6

26-0

55-0

Total number of Cotton Operatives

218,000

259.500

316,400

331,000

379.300

451,600

401,100

1870.

1874.

1878.

1885.

1890.

1895.

1901.

Male and Female under 13, or half-timers .

96
8-5

26-0

55-9

14-0

8-0

24- 1

539

12-8

7-2
25-3
54-7

9-9

7.9

26-4

55-8

9-1

8-2

26-9
55-8

5-8

79

27-6

58-7

4-1

7-0

27-8

611

Total number of Cotton Operatives

450,100

479,600

483,000

504,100

528,800

538,900

513,000

Number of Operatives (in Thousands) engaged in Spinning, Manufacturing and Subsidiary Processes
(excluding Lace-making, but including the Fustian Manufacture). (From Census Returns.)

Males.

Females.

Males and Females.

Under
15-

15-20.

Over
20.

All
Ages.

Under
15-

15-20.

Over
20.

All
Ages.

Under
15-

15-20.

Over
20.

All
Ages.

1881
1891
1901

29
36
24

39
45
36

121
137
139

189
218
199

40
5o
36

81
94
92

189
197
207

310
341
335

69
86
60

120

139
128

310
334
346

500
560
535

The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not
identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table.

Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry (Processes being distinguished and Ages and Sex).
(From Special Returns made by Factory Inspectors.)

branches of the industry
at so rapid a rate as to
have occasioned the en-
forced dismissal of any
hands. An industry
which was not recruited
at all would have
dwindled at a greater
rate. At least it may
be inferred from these
figures, when taken in
conjunction with the
large increase in spindles
and looms, that the out-
put per head has con-
siderably advanced in
spite of the rise in the
average quality of both
yarns and fabrics pro-
duced. This rise in the
value per unit of the out-
put accounts to some
extent for the fact that
wages have not been
adversely affected of late.
Mr A. L. Bowley has
calculated index numbers
of wages for
the leading £ rate
trades, ln clud-^ g<s
ing the manu-
facture of cotton. Those
for the cotton industry
are given below," together with averages for cotton and wool
workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors, com-
positors and agriculturists

Males in Thousands.

Females in Thousands.

Total in
Thousands.

Half- ■'

18 and

Half-

18 and

timers.

Under 18.

over.

timers.

Under 18.

over.

.

Spinnin

g and Pi

eparatory Pro

cesses

1896

5-58

22-24

71-44

4-40

30-12

78-69

212'

I898-I899 1

5-42

21-57

71-37

3-86

30-44

77-64

210

1901

4.98

2I-IO

68-98

Weavin

3-10
g and Pr

30-98
eparatory Pro

81-68
cesses

211

1896

7-54

18-79

75-8i

11-87

49-19

151-34

315

I898-I899 1

6-21

17-29

72-74

10-38

48-38

150-99

306

1901

472

14-86

73-81

8-o

45-66

I55-03

302

The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901 ;
the relations between the changes shown for each class should
nevertheless be accurately represented.

The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in

(England), the numbers in
each class being allowed for
in the average. Side by side
with these figures, Sauerbeck's
index numbers of general
wholesale, prices are given,
together with the average
prices of wheat per quarter.

It must be remembered that
the figures given above for
cotton workers and average
wages for eight trades do not
measure the differences be-
tween each, but only the differ-
ences between the movements
of each. Actual average money
wages in the cotton industry
have probably been approximately those stated in the second table
beneath, but as these figures are culled from various sources they
must not be taken to indicate fluctuations. 2

The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners

Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices.

1840.

1855-

i860.

1866.

1870.

1874.

1877.

1880.

1883.

1886.

1891.

1902.

Cotton operatives ...
Average wages for eight trades
Sauerbeck's index number
Average price of wheat per quarter

50
61
103
66/4

54
61

73
40/3

64
73
99

53/3

74

81

102

49/11

74
83
96

46/n

90

97

102

55/9

90

94

94

56/9

85
89
88

44/4

90
92

82

4i/7

93
90
69

3i/-

100
100

72
37/-

105
io8-7 3
69

28/1

Weekly Wages in the

Mane}

tester and District Cotton Trade.

Big piecers' average .....
Weavers' average .....

1834.

1836.

1839-

1 841.

1849.

1850.

1859-

i860.

1870.

1877.

1882.

1883.

1886.

s. d.

23 4
11
11

s. d.
23 11
93
10 2

s. d.

22 11
80
96

s. d.
22

8 8

9 6

s. d.

21 7
8 6
10 6

s. d.
20 5
13
10 3

s. d.
24 1

10

11 2

s. d.
23 2
10
10 8

s. d.
27 8

11

12 2

s. d.

34 4
12 4

15 1

s. d.

31 6
16
15 6

s. d.

32 4
16
15

s. d.
35 7
13 7
13 3

1 Average for 1898 and 1899.

2 See chapter on cotton in Bowley's Wages in the United Kingdom and table there given.
3 Average for a slightly different group.

COTTON MANUFACTURE

291

by percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures
the earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged.

The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all
males) ; their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons
can easily be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope
ultimately to become " minders," i.e. mule-spinners in charge of
mules. The division of the total wage paid on a pair of mules
between the minder and the piecers is largely the result of the
policy of the spinners' trade union. Almost without exception in
Lancashire one minder takes charge of a pair of mules with two or
three assistants according to the amount of work to be done. Among
the weavers there is no rule as to the number of assistants to full
weavers (who are both male and female), or as to the number of
looms managed by a weaver, but the proportion of assistants is
much less than in the spinning branches, perhaps because of the
inferior strength of the weavers' unions. For the calculation of wages
piece-rate lists are universally employed as regards the payment of
full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a definite share of the
total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules, while others are paid a
fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are now paid also by
piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost universally so
paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room and on the
carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most complicated ;
allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the opera-
tives' control, by which the amount of the wage might be affected.
Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and much is
left to the manner of their application and private arrangement.
They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than as actually
settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists stretches back
to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards spinners, and
to about the middle of the century generally as regards weavers,
though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn up
as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in use,
but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton,
and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the
" Uniform List, which is a compromise between the lists of Black-
burn, Preston and Burnley. Under the " Particulars Clause," first
included in a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in
1895, the particulars required for the calculation of wages must be
rendered by the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts
about the quantity of work done, the " indicator," which measures
the length of yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure
from the operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham
spinning list differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed
normal time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates
are reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal
time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a
particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected
with the quality of labour (e.g. because of antiquated machinery or
the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand " allowances "
to raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions
are made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered
into by masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893,
advances and reductions in future must not exceed 5 % or succeed
one another by a shorter period than twelve months. The changes
as a rule now are 5 % or 2§ %. In all branches of the cotton industry
it is usual for a conference to take place between the interested
parties before a strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other
for an advance or reduction.

Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remark-
ably thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions,
Trade an( ^ though the weavers are not so strongly united,

Unions. the bulk ofthem are organized. The piecers are admitted
as members of piecers' associations, connected with the
spinners' associations and controlled by them. Attempts to form
independent piecers' unions have failed. Weavers' assistants are
included in the weavers' unions, which may be joined in different
classes, the benefits connected with which vary with the amounts
paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by each branch
spinners' association, but in all branches it is not the same, though
every branch pays the same per member to the amalgamation.
All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton industry are
federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated Association
of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed in
1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of
Weavers (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card
and Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amal-
gamated Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884).
These were not, however, the first attempts at federation, and the
term " federation " must not be taken in any strict sense. The
distribution of power between the central authority and the local
societies varies, but in some cases, for instance among the spinners,
the local societies approximate as closely to the status of mere
branches, as to that of independent units federated for limited
objects. We ought also to mention the societies of warp-dressers and
warpers, tape-sizers and cloth-workers and warehousemen. There
is no one federation of all cotton-workers, but the United Textile
Factory Workers has been periodically called into being to press the
matter of factory legislation, and international textile congresses
are occasionally held by the operatives of different countries.

As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all
the organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning
and two with weaving. The former two are the Federation of
Master Cotton Spinners' Associations with local associations and
including 2 1, 000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners'
Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North
and North-East Lancashire Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associa-
tion, covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section
of the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers'
Association. 1

Factory legislation began in the cotton industry, and in no in-
dustry is it now more developed. The first acts were those of 1802
and 1819, both of which applied only to cotton-mills, Factory
and the former of which related only to parish apprentices. Acts.
The first really important measure was that of 1833,
which curtailed the abuse of child-labour, enforced some education
and provided for factory inspectors, of whom there were at first only
four. The next act of importance, that of 1844, was chiefly remark-
able for its inclusion of all women among young persons. The
proportion of women, young persons and children engaged in the
cotton industry is so high, that most regulations affecting them,
e.g. those relating to the hours of labour, must practically be extended
to all cotton operatives. This act killed night work for " young
persons," and children were not allowed to work at night. The year
1847 saw the introduction of what was known as the Ten Hours Act
— after the 1st of May 1848 the hours of young persons (women
included) and children were not to exceed ten a day and fifty-eight
a week. A further limitation of hours to 56J a week was secured in
1874, and this was cut down by another hour (the concession of the
12 o'clock Saturday) in 1901. " Young persons " now includes all
who are not half-timers and have not attained the age of eighteen,
and all women. The rules as regards the employment of children,
which have steadily improved, are at present as follows. No child
under twelve may be employed. On attaining the age of thirteen the
child may become a full-timer if he has obtained the prescribed
educational certificate (i.e. fifth standard attainment or three
hundred attendances each year for five consecutive years). Failing
this he must wait till he is fourteen before he can be employed full
time. Half-timers may be employed either (a) on alternate days,
which must not be the same days in two successive weeks, or (b)
in morning and afternoon sets. In the case of arrangement (a),
the child when at work may be employed during the same period
as a young person or woman, which in Lancashire is almost uni-
versally from 6 to 6 with two hours for meals. 2 In the case of
arrangement (b), which is the system generally adopted in Lanca-
shire, a half-timer in the morning set works from 6 to 12.30, with
half an hour for breakfast, and in the afternoon from 1.30 to 6,
except on Saturdays, when the hours are from 6 till 11.30 for a
manufacturing operative, or till 12 for other work, for instance, clean-
ing. The child must not work two consecutive weeks in the same
set (that is, in mornings or afternoons) , nor on two successive Satur-
days, nor on Saturday at all if during any other day of the same week
the period of employment has exceeded 5! hours (i.e. a child in the
morning set does not work on the Saturday). Other important
features of factory legislation relate to the fencing cf dangerous
machinery and its cleaning when in motion (the regulations being
strictest in the case of children and most lax in the case of male
adults), and conditions of health, including the amount of steaming
allowed, which was first regulated by the Cotton Cloth Factories
Act ot 1889.

The Cotton Industry outside England.

A brief survey will now be made of the cotton industry in parts
of the globe other than the British Isles, and as a prelude the
following broad estimates of the numbers of spindles and looms in
the chief national seats of the cotton industry may be put
forward. 3 The table is further supplemented by other figures 4
for the number of spindles at different times in the United
Kingdom, the United States and the continent; and finally
we may add the figures of cotton consumed.

The different average fineness of counts spun in different
places must be borne in mind when the consumption of each
district at the same time is being considered, but the relations
between the amounts consumed in the contrasted districts in
the two periods would not be affected much by this difference.

1 A detailed analysis of the whole labour question in the cotton
industry will be found in Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry.

2 There are other permissible arrangements, namely from 7 to 7
and from 8 to 8, but they are not used in the textile trades of Lanca-
shire,

3 The figures for looms are based upon a number of returns and
estimates. Those for spindles are taken from the highly authori-
tative, estimates of the International Federation of Master Cotton
Spinners.

4 Journal of Board of Trade, April 28th, 1904.

292

COTTON MANUFACTURE

United Kingdom
United States .
Germany
France .
Russia .
India
Austria .
Spain

Italy. . . .
Switzerland .
Japan . . .
Belgium .

Estimated

Population

in 1902. •

In Millions.

42

79

58

39
139
294 (1901)

26-7

18-6 (1900)

33
3-4

46

Million
Spinning
Spindles
in 1909.

Thousand
Power-
Looms
about 1906.

53-5
27-8-
9-8
6-8
7-8
5-8
4-2
1-9
4-0
i-5
i-7

1-2

700
550
215
IIO

150

45
80
69
100
30

Cotton Spindles (including Doubling Spindles) in Millions.

United

United

Other

Kingdom.

Europe.

States.

Countries.

Total.

1870

37-7

13

7-1

57-8

1880

44-5

21

io-6

2

78-1

1890

44-5

26

14-2

4

887

1900

46-2

32

19

7

104-2

1903

47-9

33

22-2

7-5

no-6

Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1831-1835.

Millions of lb.

United Kingdom 295

Continent of Europe 143

United States 79

Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period iqoo-iqo$.

Millions of lb.

United Kingdom 1634

Continent of Europe 2486

United States 1995

Roughly the consumption of cotton per spindle in the three
areas to-day is, in lb, 35 for the United Kingdom, 70 for the
continent, and 95 for the United States.

Before the cotton industry in other countries is described it will
be necessary to explain how it could have developed there on a
large scale at all. Of course this growth is to be accounted for
very largely by the natural protection of cost of transport aided
by tariffs. But it would be a mistake for Englishmen to imagine
that all foreign cotton mills are the product of a forcing culture,
and that if the favourable conditions created by import duties
were removed they would totally disappear. No doubt some of
the growth is artificial, but much is natural and would have taken
place under universal free trade conditions. Much of it, indeed,
would have appeared in these circumstances even were cost of
production a negligible quantity, difficult though it may be at
first to reconcile this statement with certain ordinary conceptions
of the operations of the law of increasing returns. Lancashire
secured an immense lead at the beginning of the 19th century,
and if the cost of production may be represented as varying
inversely as the magnitude of the industry, every addition to her
success increased her advantages. How could the small industry,
with a high cost of production because it was small, compete with
Lancashire? The answer is to be found in the peculiar conditions
governing international trade and a closer analysis of " increasing
returns." " Increasing returns " in any place are a function of
two variables, (1) the magnitude of the world market under
conditions of world commerce, and (2) the magnitude of the
industry in the spot in question. The economies connected with
the first variable, which in such an industry as the cotton in-
dustry are enormous, and govern ultimately the limits of business
specialism, are shared by every national section of the industry
whether it be great or small. If Haiti started a cotton factory she
might import all her specialized machinery— the specialism
involved in producing which is dependent upon the exportation
of some of it — and restrict narrowly the work undertaken by her
one factory. The cotton goods outside this range she would still
import, and if her specialized product were in excess of local
demand she could export some of it, if she were favourably
placed in respect of cost of carriage, for cost of production in

Haiti would not be impossibly high, since machinery and the
general system of production would be. quite up to date though
labour might be highly inefficient. Of course, the country with a
large industry enjoys high local economies, and it might be
thought that these alone would be a menace to the stability of
the small industry, because if the industry in the favoured
locality increased these would increase also and the small industry
would be undersold. The answer to this difficulty is that foreign
trade depends upon ratios between ratios, that is, upon the
ratios between the costs of production of all the products of
each country in relation to similar ratios for other countries.
Relatively, therefore, diminishing returns operate in every
country. In every country there must come a time, the utility of
commodities being taken into account, when a unit of labour and
capital provides less utility when applied to the creation of cotton
goods, say, than when applied to producing something else for
home consumption or for export in exchange for commodities
wanted at home. It becomes apparent, therefore, that cotton
industries of widely varying sizes dispersed throughout the
world can settle into relations of perfectly stable equilibrium, as
that term is understood by the economist. Slow changes, of
course, in their relative volumes might be looked for with
changes in a mutable world, but very sudden collapses would be
impossible unless the general course of human affairs were
revolutionized.

The United States. — The machine-cotton industry was carried
to North America almost as soon as it evolved in England.
Models of Arkwright's machines were smuggled across the
Atlantic in 1786 — Arkwright's first mill had not been started in
England until 1769 — and these with a jenny and stock-card
were publicly exhibited. From these models a great mass of
machinery was soon constructed. The first mill was erected in
1788 (that of the Beverly Association), the second appeared in
1790, the third five years later, and in 1798 Samuel Slater
started with some of his wife's relatives the first mill in which the
principle of the water-frame was carried throughout. It is said
that it was not until 18 14 that power-loom manufacturing was
commenced, but in England success with the power-loom was
long delayed. As early as 1831, however, there were in the
United States — mainly in the New England states — 800 factories,
a million and a quarter spindles, 33,500 looms and 62,200
operatives. At this time the annual consumption of cotton was
about 77,000,000 ft) as compared with some 300,000,000 lb in
England at the same date, and 2,000,000,000 approximately in
the United States at the present time. 1 Writing in 1840, James
Montgomery said that, in respect of cost of production, the
American industry was 19% behind that of England apart from
the cost of raw material, which was then a good deal less to the
Americans. In 1878, when there was much interest in the
question of British efficiency in the cotton industry because the .
passage of the Factory Act of 1874 had cut down the working
hours, the Economist contrasted the result of twenty-five years '
growth in England and America: —

" In 1853 the average English production per weaver of 8| lb
shirting was 825 yds. per week of sixty hours. In 1878 the working
hours had fallen to fifty-seven, and the production had risen to
975 yds. An increased production of 23 % is thus due to improve-
ment in the processes of manufacture. In 1865 there were 24,151
persons employed in Massachusetts in the production of cotton
goods, and they produced 175,000,000 yds. In 1875 the operatives
numbered 60,176, and their product was 874,000,000 yds. The
operatives had increased 150 % and their products had increased
500 %. The increase of production due to improved methods was
thus in England 23 %, and in Massachusetts 100 %. I do not, of
course, suppose that the American manufacturer is in advance of
his English rival to the extent of this difference, for I presume
that he started upon the career of improvement from a lower plat-
form. But a progress so greatly more rapid than ours will be ad-
mitted to cast much light on the change which has occurred in our
relative positions."

The contrast no doubt was not perfect, as indeed it could not be

1 The early history of the industry in the United States
is summarized in one of the official bulletins of the state of
Massachusetts, dated 1798. See W. R. Bagnall, Textile Industries
of the U. S. (1893).

COTTON MANUFACTURE

293

in view of the varieties of product and their changes, but it proves
at any rate that Americans were making vast strides in industrial
efficiency even before the period when American methods and
American enterprise were monopolizing in a wonderful degree the
attention of the business world. 1 About a dozen years later the
low real cost of production of simple fabrics in the United States
was universally admitted, and also that American manufacturers
were making more use of machinery than their European rivals.
In a typical weaving shed in Massachusetts, for instance, of
which particulars were published, twenty women " tended " as
many as eight looms apiece, forty-three managed seven, two
hundred and thirty-two managed six, and only eleven had five
only. 2 Since then, moreover, advance has been rapid, and the
sudden development of the South has astonished the business
community of other centres of the cotton industry.

Before the lines of development in America are specifically
dealt with, and particularly the industrial phenomena in the
South, a few words must be said of the general extension of the
industry. The consumption of cotton in the United States in
million lb was about 75 in 1830, 390 in i860, 1100 in 1890 and
nearly 2000 on an average of the five crop years from 1900-1901 to
1 904- 1 905: active spindles advanced from 1,250,000 in 1830 to
10,653,000 in 1880 and about 21,250,000 in 1905. Looms which
numbered 33,500 in 1830 had reached 226,000 in 1880 and nearly
550,000 in 1905. At the same time population, it must be
remembered, was growing at a phenomenal rate: from 31-4
millions in i860 it had passed to 38-6, 50-2, 62-6 and 76-3 at the
succeeding decennial censuses, the decennial rates of increase
being in order 22-5, 30, 25 and 20-5 as compared with 8-5, 10-5,
8 and 9 as shown by the corresponding censuses in the United
Kingdom. Protection was of course contributory to the growth
of the American cotton industry. It may be remarked incident-
ally that the New World, including the West Indies and the
Chinese empire, take the bulk of American exports, which for so
large an industry are inconsiderable. The imports have always
been well in excess of the exports. The encouragement of home
industries by tariffs was definitely aimed at after the war with
England during the Napoleonic struggles, and although a
sensible reduction of duties was experienced after 1845 the
reaction to protection that followed the Civil War was never
significantly departed from except by the single act of 1883.
In 1790 the duties on cotton goods were 7^% ad valorem, and
they rose gradually until they reached 25% in 1816. Slight
reductions some seventeen years later were followed in the early
'forties by a tariff of 30%. Diminutions were succeeded by
oscillations, though at no point was a low level touched. Severe
charges were imposed in 1890, and after some relaxation in 1894
the policy of restrictiveness was restored in 1897. According to
the calculations made by the English Board of Trade in 1903 3
no fabrics were admitted at a charge equivalent to less than 68 %
ad valorem, and no yarns were admitted at a charge lower than
45 % ad valorem. Cotton thread is subjected to a rate equivalent

to 375 % 4

The character of the growth of the cotton industry in the
United States, as revealed by recent census returns, is peculiarly
interesting : —

Cotton small wares are included in the totals for 1880 and
1890, but excluded from those for 1900 and 1905. We must
observe further that " capital " is a vague term. Recent events
in the United States afford a valuable empirical indication of the
effect that improved machinery actually has upon wages. The
new automatic looms caused a saving of labour per unit of product
Which recalled the complete subversion at the industrial revolu-
tion of the proportions in which the several factors in production
were organized. Displacement of labour and falling wages might
not unreasonably have been looked for temporarily, but wages
stuck at their old level or rose. The rise was caused by numer-
ous converging forces which brought their united weight to bear.
First, prices so fell as the result of the new machinery that the in-
creased volume of commodities which the market could absorb
more than counterbalanced, it would seem, the labour-saving of
the new machinery, the cotton industry being taken as a whole.
It must be remembered that to increase the output from the
subsidiary processes where labour had not been saved more
hands had to be drafted in. Thus, a contraction of the body of
weavers was accompanied by an expansion of the body of cotton
operatives. Again weavers' wages were naturally raised in a
special degree because automatic machinery called for quick,
trustworthy and intelligent hands, endowed with versatility,
especially in the days when the machinery was still in the semi-
experimental stage. The American employer tries to save in labour
but not to save in wages, if a generalization may be ventured.
The good workman gets high pay, but he is kept at tasks requiring
his powers and is not suffered to waste his time doing the work of
unskilled and boy labour. There is, certainly, in the American
labour problem no serious grievance on the question of wages.
If there is any abuse it consists in excessively fierce Work.
Mr. T. M. Young, who visited the American cotton districts in
1904 with an informal commission of Lancashire spinners and
manufacturers, did not think that the cause of the high wages-
allowance being made for the purchasing power of money, they
are above those of England, though cotton operatives in England
are well paid relatively — was the superiority of the American
cotton worker; neither did the representatives of the English
cotton operatives who accompanied the Moseley Commission.
As often as not "the cotton operative in the United State*
is a French Canadian, a German, an Italian, a Hungarian, an
Albanian, a Portuguese, a Russian, a Greek, or an Armenian."
It is the extensive " exploitation " of machinery seemingly,
together with the speed of work, which keep wages high, com-
bined with the horizontal and vertical mobility of American
labour, which prevents it from accumulating in pools, and causes
streams of the best hands to be flowing continuously to other
callings and places, and no insignificant proportion to climb the
social ladder. The remainder naturally profit, for a local or trade
congestion of labour is avoided, and the voluminous recruiting
of enterprise by the intensified competition among employers
keeps the demand for labour high.

One noticeable point in the table quoted above is that until
recently cotton consumed increased much faster than the
number of spindles. This might be explained in a variety of ways.
Average counts remaining constant, the average speed of the

Thousands.

Percentage Increases.

1880.

1890.

1900.

1905.

1 880-1 890.

1 890-1900.

1 900- 1 905.

Active Spindles

10,653

14,188

19,008

23,156

33-8

34

21-8

226

325

451

541

43-9°

38-7

20

750,344

1,117,946

1,814,003

1,873,075

48-99

62-3

3 - 3

$42,041

$66,025

$85,126

$94,378

57

28-9

109

$208,280

#354>°2i

$460,843

$605,100

70

30-2

3 I- 3

Employees not officers and clerks

174-7

218-9

i. 297-9

3io-5

25-3

36-1

4-2

1 See also the official report of J. P. Harris-Gastrell in 1873.

2 Quoted by Schulze-Gaevernitz.

3 Memorandum on British and foreign trade and industrial
conditions.

4 The method of calculating these percentages is discussed in
the blue-book mentioned.

spindle might have risen; or the latter remaining constant,
counts might have been getting finer. Speeds have certainly
gone up a good deal of late on some counts. And it is
quite likely, too, that concentration on the manufacture ot
coarse goods for export, with stout warps to keep down the

294

COTTON MANUFACTURE

breakages and raise the output per loom, may be reckoned as
one cause.

Despite the recent sensational growth in the South, the New
England States still remain the most prominent seat of the
American cotton industry. They contained in 1905 about 14
million spindles as compared with 7-7 millions in the South and
West, and their relative possession of looms approaches, though
it does not quite reach, the same proportion. The leading States
in the South in order of importance are South Carolina, North
Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, and in the North, first Massa-
chusetts with an enormous lead, then, in order, Rhode Island,
New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey. The bulk of the cotton industry in the North is
contained within a small area. A circle around Providence,
Rhode Island, of 30 m. radius includes, according to the
twelfth census, nearly 7J million spindles, — there were only
58,500 spindles in this area in 1809. Of the chief towns Fall
River stood first in 1900 in value output, and was followed in
order by Philadelphia, New Bedford, Lowell, Manchester and
Pawtucket. The climate of Fall River is very similar to that
of English spinning districts. Its population in 1900 was 105,000,
and of these only 14,600 were of American parentage. Of the
remainder, 16,700 were English, 17,800 Irish, 29,600 French
Canadians and about 5000 Portuguese. Among the rest of foreign
parentage, Armenians, Russians and Italians are numerous.
But Massachusetts is famous for the number of immigrants it
attracts. It is almost incredible, but nevertheless a fact accord-
ing to a recent statistical report, that in 1903 as many as 91 % of
the cotton operatives of the State were of foreign descent—
chiefly French Canadian and Irish. In 1902 there were nearly
90 mills at Fall River with 3,000,000 spindles and 16,000 looms.
The spindles amount to about one-third of all in Massachusetts,
but Fall River's share of the looms of the State is not large.
The spindles exceed in number those possessed by any State
except of course the one in which it is placed. In comparison
with a great spinning town in England, nevertheless, Fall River
does not appeal strongly to the English imagination. It has
little over a quarter of the spindles of Oldham, or three-fifths of
those of Bolton, — among English towns it would stand third,
i.e. between Bolton and Manchester and Salford, which, in spite
of the movement of spinning to the hills, still holds in England a
leading place. The whole of Massachusetts, it is of interest to
observe, has fewer spindles than Oldham, and only about half
those of Oldham and Bolton together. Originally it was the
river which attracted the mills to Fall River, and as the water-
power available was almost inexhaustible, it was possible for the
mills to congregate together and for a town to grow up. In
England, when much of the industry was dependent for power
upon water, decentralization was entailed, for the thin streams
of Lancashire could not support more than two or three mills at
most in proximity. Hence in England, after Watt's steam-
engine had succeeded, the economies of centralization led
eventually to the desertion of the mills on the water-courses.
But at Fall River the perfecting of the application of steam-
power merely involved its use to supplement the water-power
on the old site. The presence of water-power explains half the
success of New England. In the six States 35 % of all the power
used is derived from water, and in the cotton-manufacturing of
these States water provides 32-6% of the power. For industrial
purposes generally the river most exploited is the Merrimac,
upon which stand the leading cotton towns of Lowell, Lawrence
and Manchester. Hitherto little has been done in the way of
using water to generate electric power. 1

The two most striking features of the American industry
to-day are the introduction of the automatic looms, already
briefly referred to, and the development of the South. The
Northrop Loom Company has spent a fortune in pushing its
loom on to the market. It has not hesitated to share risks, and
it has run one " advertisement " mill at least, namely that at
Burlington, Vermont, with 55,000 spindles and nearly 1300
looms. In this mill the labour-saving is shown by the following
1 Upon the above see Uttlay's report.

figures, the looms being of two sizes, 32 in. and 44 in. Of the
former, 3 weavers run 18 each, 39 tend 16 each, only a few odd
weavers tend less than 16, and learners even are at work on 8 to 1 1
each; on the latter, of 29 weavers 17 mind 16 looms each and 12
mind 1 2 (on stripped fabrics) . 2 Of course a high level of efficiency
would be expected in this show mill. That American employers
have readily been converted to a belief in the economy of the
new machinery we are not astonished to learn in view of the
American temperament, the intensity of competition among
business leaders, and the prevailing spirit of adventure.
Thousands of workable old looms have been scrapped, and prob-
ably at the present time there are 100,000 automatic looms
running in the United States. No other country can point
to a rate of substitution which approaches that in the United
States. The causes, apart from the temperamental and social to
which reference has already been made, are probably (1) that
there is disagreement as to the present economy of automatic
looms on many fabrics, 3 (2) that Americans aim at frequency of
renewal of plant, and avoid making their machinery so durable
as to prove ultimately, perhaps, a handicapping inheritance, and
(3) that a greater bulk of American work is appropriate for the
new looms than of English or continental work. But automatic
machinery is being used increasingly in Lancashire. 4 And the
operatives ultimately benefit. It is the half -developed machine,
to which labour must actually be linked as an essential part,
which is responsible for monotonous work and creates the dislike
of mechanical aids.

Now we turn to the recent development of the Southern
States. Never has an industry grown faster than that of the two
Carolinas, Georgia and Alabama. Some of the earliest experi-
ments with the machine industry were conducted in South
Carolina, but from that time till the end of the 19th century
nobody imagined the possibility of a great Southern expansion.
In 1880 the South contained less than half a million spindles—
i.e. about as many as Hyde, Middleton or Chorley, and one-
twenty-third of the numbers in Oldham. Twenty years later
they had increased twelvefold and the Southern States, in
respect of the number of spindles, had taken precedence of
Bolton. To-day probably about eight and a half millions might
be counted. In addition there are some two hundred thousand
looms, or nearly as many as in the three leading cotton-weaving
towns of England — Burnley, Blackburn and Preston. The rapid
oncoming of the South may also be traced by its consumption of
cotton — which as an index, however, is not perfect. This on an
annual average was, in thousand bales, 164, 269, 453, 717 and
1233 in each of the periods 1876-1880, 1881-1885, 1886-1889,
1891-1895 and 1895-1900 successively. The consumption since
then, as compared with that of the Northern States, Great Britain
and the European continent, has been as follows. It must be
remembered that the consumption per spindle varies greatly
from place to place.

Consumption of Cotton in Thousand Bales of about 500 ft each.

Southern
States.

Northern
States.

Total
United
States.

Great
Britain.

Europe.

1900-1901
1901-1902
I 902- I 903
I 903-1 904
1904-1905

1583
2017

1958
1889
2270 .

1963
2066
1866
2046
2292.

3546
4083
3824
3935
, 4562

3269
3253
3185
3017
3620

4576
4836
5148
5H8
5H8

The densest distribution 0^ mills in, the South is along the line of
the Southern railroad, in the district known as the Piedmont.
Of this group Charlotte in North Carolina is the natural centre:
roughly, half the spindles and half the looms in the Southern
States would be included within a circle around Charlotte of a

2 The figures are those quoted by Mr T. M. Young and relate to
the year 1902.

3 See e.g. some passages upon this point in Uttley's report.

4 For an account of the numerous types of automatic looms see
the article on Weaving : § Machinery,

COTTON MANUFACTURE

295

radius of about 100 m. Of the remainder a large proportion is
scattered over a wide area.

Much interest has been excited by this newly created Lanca-
shire of a new type, and much speculation as to the causes that
account for it has been elicited. An informal commission of
Lancashire spinners and manufacturers crossed the Atlantic to
make inquiries in 1902 and investigations have been undertaken
by other persons, 1 and much has been written on the subject.
A general explanation can now be framed without much difficulty,
as in all probability most of the relevant facts have been brought
to light. First and foremost the general development of the
cotton industry in the United States must be emphasized. The
industry was unquestionably foredoomed to expansion at this
time, and the only question was where the expansion should take
place. It was plain that the growth might be so great as to pre-
sent the appearance of a new industry created with new labour
rather than an extension of an old industry. It was not
altogether surprising, therefore, that the exploitation of a new
field of labour was thought of. The labour market of the North
was comparatively exhausted; in less developed parts of the
country larger supplies of intrinsically good labour might be
looked for at lower wages. Skill was not a matter of much
moment, because in the North it would have been necessary to
incorporate much labour without previous experience in the
industry, the work was intended to be of the rough kind upon
which manual skill is least important, and it was intended to repose
reliance for economy upon machinery in the main. The choice
of new fields meant at the outset the sacrifice of some of the
economies of localization, but so large an expansion was looked
for that projectors did not despair of creating fresh industrial
localization of sufficient magnitude to produce such economies as
are derived from it, which, it must be observed, are inconsiderable
in America, and have declined relatively with falling cost of trans-
port and the adoption, as regards machinery, of the principle of
interchangeable parts. And at any rate a new local industry would
have a slight advantage in supplying markets in proximity to it.

These were the main general considerations, and the scale was
turned in favour of the new locality (a) by the advantage of
nearer supplies of cotton, and (b) by the known presence of much
half-occupied white labour in the vicinity of otherwise suitable
sites close to the cotton-fields. It must be borne in mind that the
whole calculation had not to be reared merely upon an intangible
theoretical basis. Cotton mills already existed in the South, and
comparisons of costs of production, as things were then, afforded
some groundwork for judgment.

As regards the first of the two special advantages mentioned
above, the saving in the cost of carriage of the raw material is not
commonly held to be high. Transport to the cotton ports is so
well organized and sea-carriage is so cheap that Lancashire's
distance from the source of her raw material is not a very appreci-
able handicap. A good deal of the cotton that must be used in
some of the Southern mills cannot be supplied locally because it is
not grown in the neighbourhood, and the requirements of these
mills are met by transport arrangements which at present cost
a sum not altogether out of relation to similar costs in the New
England States and Lancashire. The percentages of freight
charges on raw material in 1900 were $2-18 in Georgia, $1-59 in
North Carolina, $1-17 in South Carolina, and the amazingly low
figure of $1-20 in Massachusetts, but of course some part of the
explanation is the somewhat higher quality of cotton on an
average that is worked up in Massachusetts. For some years,
however, the saving in labour has been a most important economy.
Large supplies of half-occupied white labour existed in the
Southern States among the families of small farmers who flocked
South after the Civil War, and in the districts of the decayed
hand industry in the mountains of Kentucky and North Carolina.
For small money wages much of this labour could be attracted to
the mills. Negroes do not work in the mills; the reason is said to

1 Of which special mention may be made of Uttley's report as a
Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester, already referred
to, and Pidgin's report for the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour
Statistics.

be partly their own disinclination and partly that they are not very
efficient at factory work. As outside labourers, however, they
have afforded important aid at a very trifling cost, but the expense
of outside labour to a mill is never an item of much weight.
The halcyon days to employers, when keen workers could be had
for low wages, are now said to be past. The demand for labour
was considerable, and as time went on additional supplies could
be enticed only with the offer of better pay. In 1904 it was
reported that some mills were unable to get fully to work for
want of hands even at the improved rates. Again the Southern
operatives have been visited by emissaries from the operatives
of the New England States, which explains partly the present
aspect of the wages question. Mr Pidgin, in his official report to
the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour Statistics, questions whether
a saving in wages can be expected to continue, and points out
that though wages have been low the average efficiency of the
operatives has not been high. Some, indeed, were sent to gain
experience in Northern mills in the hopes that on their return
they would spread the tradition of working at high pressure.
Mr Pidgin is at some pains to measure labour efficiency in the
South and North as far as it is possible to do so, but no simple
sets of figures will prove very much. The value of the product
per operative in 1900 was $1200 in Massachusetts, $1010 in
Georgia, $937 in North Carolina and $984 in South Carolina, but
the value of the product per operative depends as much upon the
fixed capital charge per operative as upon the latter's efficiency.
And the amount of machinery used per head is higher in the
South than in the North. The percentage of operatives to
machinery in Massachusetts being expressed as 100, that of
Georgia was 53, that of North Carolina 43 and that of South
Carolina 55 in 1900. These figures must be borne in mind when
the average numbers employed in a mill in different States are
being considered: in 1900 the averages were 565 for Massa-
chusetts, 273 for Georgia, 171 for North Carolina and 378 for
South Carolina. Measured by quantity of machinery the sizes of
mills would stand in quite different relations. Hours of work in
the South are bound to fall and the abuse of child labour, which
had unquestionably crept in, may be expected to discontinue
entirely. The factory conditions of children are better now than
they were, but in some places they are still very bad. In
Georgia no children under twelve are employed, but infants
without fathers may begin work at ten years of age, and accord-
ing to Mr Pidgin's report, " it certainly seemed as though the
intention was honoured more in the breach than in the observ-
ance, or that there must be many widows in the neighbourhood
of the cotton mills." In North and South Carolina the employ-
ment of children under twelve is illegal, but in these States also
conditions are recognized under which it is possible to employ
them earlier. According to figures relating to 1 900 the dependence
on child labour in the Southern States is very striking. The
proportions engaged at different ages in the three chief cotton-
manufacturing Southern States and Massachusetts are as follows:

Men,
16 Years
and over.

Women,
16 Years
and over.

Children
under 16.

Massachusetts ....

North Carolina ....
South Carolina ....

48-98
39-98
42-22

44-43

44-59
35-52
34-23

28-72

6-43
24-50

23-55
26-85

It might be said that children are more useful when the work is
rough, but this argument can hardly be regarded as accounting
altogether for the great discrepancy as between Massachusetts
and the South. The work is much rougher in the South : in 1900
the counts spun respectively in Massachusetts, Georgia, North
Carolina and South Carolina were 25-10, 14-37, I 8 - 83, and 19-04,
and on the showing of the American census of 1900 spinning was
getting finer over the last decade of the 19th century.

As contributory to the influences already recorded as account-
ing for Southern success it has been hinted that in the North
employers have been less ready to welcome the new machinery,
though in comparison with European rivals they would seem at

296

COTTON MANUFACTURE

first to have acted rashly. However this may be, the South
enjoyed the important advantage that its industry began just after
a great technical advance had been made. . When Northern mill-
owners were anxiously deliberating about the destruction of good
machinery merely because it was antiquated in design, the
fortunate Southern mill-proprietor was getting to work with
appliances up to date in every particular. It will be easier to
balance comparative advantages as between North and South
when undertakers in the newer district are confronted by
problems concerning replacements and alterations. The
rapidity of Southern growth need not astonish those who have
watched the operations by which new mills are frequently set up
in Lancashire and remember that the American business man is
more daring than his British cousin. Company promotion in the
great financial centres, payment for machinery and other plant
in shares, or partially in shares, a general diffusion of risks and
pledging of credit, would explain even more rapid growth of
industries of even greater magnitude.

Broad generalizations are difficult to frame, hard to estab-
lish and liable to be misleading; some generalizations relating
Character to the features of the American cotton industry taken
ofthe as a whole the author is tempted to venture never-

American theless. The characteristics of labour have already
n us ry. ^ een incidentally commented upon. We have also
noticed that the bulk of the work done is of a rough and
simple character. In spite of American nationalism and
the prevalence of protective sentiments it is said that there
is still a prejudice in the United States against home-made
fine cotton goods. 1 " The product of the American system is a
cloth which is, on the whole, distinctly inferior in appearance,
' feel ' and finish to that produced by' the Lancashire system.
To equal a Lancashire cloth in these respects an American cloth
must not only be made of better cotton, but must contain more of
it — perhaps 5 % more. To this rule of inferiority there are, it is
needless to say, exceptions, notably some of the American drills
made for the China market. But the American home market,
which absorbs nearly the whole of the product of American
looms, is less exacting in these matters than the markets in which
Lancashire cloths are sold." 2 It follows that the average counts
spun in the United States are lower than in England, though they
have been rising somewhat. Another feature of American
spinning as compared with English is the high proportion of
ring-frames to mules. In New England between 1890 and 1900
mule-spindles advanced by 100,000 and ring-spindles by nearly
2,000,000: in the South mule-spindles increased only from
108,500 to 180,500, while to the ring-frames 2,700,000 were
added. To the general rule Rhode Island is the sole exception;
here mule-spindles have increased and ring-spindles decreased;
but in Rhode Island much of the fine spinning — for instance that
for hosiery — is congregated. 3 One explanation of the preponder-
ance of ring-spinning is to be found in the character of American
fabrics. Again most of the operatives are not of a kind likely to
acquire great excellence at mule-spinning. To the Americans
we largely owe the ring-frame, because their encouragement
helped it through the difficult period when its defects were
serious, though it appears to have been discovered independently
in both countries.

American organization displays intense specialism, but of a
type different from that in England, where businesses are
specialized by processes; in America they are specialized by
products but hardly, at all by processes. Independent spinning,
independent manufacturing, independent bleaching, dyeing and
finishing are the significant features of English industry to the
bird's-eye view; in the United States the typical firm will spin,
make up its own yarn, and perhaps complete its fabrics for the
market; but the mills, it must be remembered, are intensely
specialized as to the range of their product, so that the statement
that American mills are less specialized than English mills must
be received with caution. For some reasons we should expect to

1 Textile Recorder, August 15th, 1905.

! Young's American Cotton Industry, p. 13.

3 Uttlev's report, p. 4.

find the American method applied even in England for fabrics of
the highest qualities, because in their case the adaptation of the
yarn to the fabric, and finishing to the fabric, are of great
importance, and actually where the American plan is followed in
England the explanation is frequently the speciality of the
product which is associated with the particular firm producing it.
When a firm manufactures a speciality of this kind it cannot
always trust bought yarn, or the finishing applied to fabrics in the
ton. But for other reasons specialized processes might be looked
for where qualities were highest, as by specialism alone can the
greatest excellence be attained. The final selection of method
depends upon the relative importance for high qualities in the
finished product of the connectedness of processes and the
perfection of parts; and to these considerations must be added
cost of transport between the works devoted to distinct processes,
and the development of the commercial functions by which
specialized process businesses are kept functioning as a whole,
Probably it is the high development of British industry on the
commercial side which chiefly explains the arrangements found
in England. Attention should also be directed to the huge
magnitude of American businesses. This is partly a consequence
of American ambition in business, and partly a conseqXience of
the undeveloped commercial ligaments by which producing
businesses are brought into union. American producers in both
North and South are too widely scattered for one town, like
Manchester in the English cotton district, to be visited frequently
by them for the purpose of making purchases and effecting sales.
Even if the Americans did possess a convenient commercial
centre, the high cost of transport between works distributed over
a very wide area would prevent much specialism of businesses by
processes from appearing. Writing capital letters for industrial
processes and small letters and Greek letters for commercial
functions, the possible arrangements in the cotton industry may
be represented broadly as follows, brackets indicating the scope of
businesses: 4

I. (a,A,B,C,d)
II. (a)(A,B,C)(d).

III. (aAo)(bB/3)(cC 7 ).

IV. (a)(A)(a,b)(B)G8,c)(C)(Y).

The American industry approximates to the first type, while
the English approximates rather to the last. Differences in
respect of specialism by range of product are not shown in the
formulae.

Other Parts of America. — Little need be said of the cotton industry
in other parts of the New World. In Canada in 1909 there were,
approximately, 855,000 spindles, and in Mexico in 1906, where the first
factory was established in 1834, 450,000 spindles. In Brazil also
there is an appreciable number of spindles, distributed (in 1895)
among 134 factories, which are located chiefly in Rio de Janeiro
and Minas Geraes, and are run for the most part by turbines and
water-wheels.

Germany. — In Germany the cotton industry is by no means so
intensely localized as in England, but three large districts may be
distinguished : —

1. The north-west district, which consists of the Rhine Province
and Westphalia and contained if million spindles in 1901.

2. The country north of the mountain ranges of northern Bohemia
comprises the middle district, which contained 2\ million spindles in
1901. In Saxony the industry has been carried on for four centuries.

3. Alsace, Baden, Wurttemberg and Bavarian Swabia make
up the south-west district, to which some 33 million spindles were
assigned. It is in close proximity to the cotton districts of east
France, Switzerland and Vorarlberg.

According to Oppel (1902) the German spinning industry is chiefly
localized in —

Prussia with 2020 thousand spindles
Saxony ,, 1870 ,, ,,

Alsace ,, 1600 ,, ,,

Bavaria ,, 1390 „ ,,

The spindles of Wurttemberg, which stands next, do not much
exceed half a million. Only sixteen places in Germany (shown in
tabular form on p. 169) contained as many as 100,000 spindles in 1901.
The history of the hand industry in Germany runs back some
centuries. At the time when it flourished in the Netherlands
we may be sure that it was prosecuted to some extent farther
north and east. The start with the machine industry was not long

4 Similar formulae have been used above, where a fuller explana-
tion is given

COTTON MANUFACTURE

297

delayed after its economies had been learnt in England. It was
fostered by protection against the cheap products of Lancashire,
and in the course of time stimulated by every step taken towards the
economic unity of the German states which broke down local barriers

Spindles in

Spindles in

Thousands.

Thousands.

Mtilhausen .

471

Chemnitz .

195

Augsburg .

373

Gebweiler

187

Gronau ....

274

Leipzig

182

Werdau

249

Crimmitzschau .

168

Rheydt . . .

248

Logelbach

141

Miinchen-Gladbach

216

Bocholt ...

128

Rheine ....

198

Bamberg

125

Hof

196

Bayreuth

100

and therefore enlarged the German market. Duties upon cotton
goods, however, were not immoderately high until the measure of
1879, the policy of which was carried to a further stage in 1885.
Slight reactions were brought about in 1888 and 1891, largely by the
complaints, not only of the consumers of finished goods, but also of
manufacturers whose costs of production were kept up by the high
prices of home-spun yarns and the tax on imported substitutes.
According to the investigations made by the Board of Trade, the
general ad valorem impact of German duties on British goods stood
somewhat as follows in 1902 : — ■

Statement showing the Average Incidence (ad valorem) of the Import Duties levied by
Germany on British Cotton Goods.

Average Value of
Exports from the
United Kingdom
to all Countries
in 1902.

Rate of Duty

estimated

Equivalent.

Approximate
Equivalent

Rate of Duty
ad valorem.

Cotton manufactures — •
Piece goods, unbleached .
„ „ bleached
„ „ printed
,, „ dyed, &c. .

Cotton thread for sewing .

Cotton yarn —

Bleached or dyed

2-oid. per yd.
2-46d.
2-68d.
3-46d.
26-89d. per lb

lo-49d.
n-23d.

o-87d. per yd.
i'(>9d. ,,
l-3id. „
l-3id. „
3-8id. per lb

o-98d. „
1 -6 3 d. „

Per Cent.
43
44
49
38
14

9

15

The duties are not prohibitive — they are much less than those of
the United States at the same time — but they are heavy on the classes
of goods which come into competition with home-made goods. The
general principle of the tariff is to treat easiest commodities which
are made with least success at home, or are in the highest degree
raw material for a home manufacture. Therefore yarns are not taxed
very heavily, and of these the finest counts escape with slight dis-
couragement.

In the cotton industry, as well as in numerous other industries
of Germany, almost feverish activity was shown after the Franco-
German War. Previously great advance had been made, but it
was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that Germany
forced herself into the first rank. As measured by the annual
consumption of cotton the German industry increased as follows : — ■

Metric Tons of Cotton per Annum.

(In Thousands.)

1836-1840 9

1856-1860 46

1876-1880 124

1886-1890 201

1899-1903 324

It must be remembered that the spindles and looms of Alsace and
Lorraine were reckoned as German after the war: they amounted
in 1895 to one and a half million spindles and nearly forty thousand
looms.

In the 'seventies there was no dispute as to England's sub-
stantial lead in respect of efficiency. Alexander Redgrave, the chief
factory inspector, made inquiries on the continent both in 1873,
when Lancashire was anxious as to the comparative cost of pro-
duction abroad because of the short-time bill then before parliament,
and previously, and reported most unfavourably upon the state of
the industry in Germany. Hours were long, the skill of the hands was
inferior, speeds were low and time was wasted. In several important
respects his views were corroborated by M. Taine in his Notes on
England, and by the evidence adduced before the German commission
upon the cotton and linen industries in 1878. A marked contrast is
noticeable between the sketches drawn of this period and the careful
picture presented by Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz of the early

'nineties," but even in the latter the advantage of England is
represented as substantial in every essential respect. The gap

which existed has narrowed, but it is still unmistakable. To give
one example, according to Dr Huber's figures there were in Saxony
at the end of the 19th century 106 spindles to an operative and about
as many weavers as looms, whereas in England there were about
twice as many spindles to an operative and twice as many looms
as persons engaged in weaving sheds. 1 As regards manufacturing,
the character of the product may partly explain the difference,
but it will not entirely. The reader need hardly be warned that the
comparison drawn is exceedingly rough. German cotton operatives
taken all round are certainly less efficient than English labour of the
same kind. The reason is partly that the proportion of the German
workpeople who have been for long specialized to the industry,
and look forward to continuing in it all their lives, is not high.
Complaint is constantly made of the number of vacancies created
in the mills each year by operatives leaving, and of the impossibility
of filling them with experienced hands. Many of the vacancies
are caused by the return of workpeople to the country parts.
Sometimes the mills are in the country, or within easy reach of it,
and labour is obtained from the unoccupied members of peasants'
families. In these cases the factories do not always succeed in
attracting the most capable people, and work in the factory is not
infrequently looked upon as a makeshift to supplement a family's
earnings. Among Lancashire operatives far more pride of occupation
may be met with. In many of the industrial parts of Germany
English conditions are evolving, but they are not generally the rule.
An American consul may be taken to report to his own country
without prejudice as to the rival merits of German and English
conditions: one such wrote in 1901 : — " The task of educating labour
up to a high degree of efficiency is difficult, and
many generations are necessary to achieve that
result. The English cotton spinners have attained
such a degree of skill and intelligence that, for the
most part, no supervision is necessary. In Germany
the presence of a technical overseer is indispensable.
Another advantage which England enjoys is the
cheap price of machinery. Germany imports the
major part of her machinery from England, and
German wholesale dealers in these machines have
not been able, by placing large orders, to overcome
the difference caused by freight and tariff."
Wages reflect the efficiencies of countries, not of
course perfectly, but in some degree. They are
much higher in Lancashire than in Germany, as is
made evident by an article from the pen of Professor
Hasbach in Schmollers Jahrbuch (vol. ii., 1903).
The author tries to show that Germany is not so
far behind England industrially as is generally
believed, and the contrast drawn by him, greatly to
the advantage of Lancashire, is not likely to ex-
aggerate the superiority of English conditions. It is calculated by
Professor Hasbach that the daily wages of spinners are about
5/10 to 6/ at Oldham, 6/6 at Bolton and 5/6 in Stalybridge and
neighbouring places. With these he compares the 3-70 to 3-80
marks paid in the Rhine Province and Leipzig, and the 3 to 3-15
marks paid in the Vogtland, Bavaria and Alsace, and mentions
an exceptionally high wage of 4§ marks, which was earned by
an operative who worked a new and long doubling mule. The
wage paid to the big piecer in England, Dr Hasbach goes on to
show, is not much greater than that received by a good assistant
in Germany. This comparison as it stands will probably give
some readers an idea that English advantages are greater than they
actually are, because it may be overlooked that the great difference
between wages in the case of English and German spinners
is not repeated among the piecers. Taking a spinner and his first
assistant as the unit, we should have a joint average daily wage of
about 8/6 in England and 6/ in Germany. In the case of weavers,
comparison of wages is more difficult to draw, but the advantage of
England would seem to be but little less. However, in instituting
a comparison between two countries, as regards the relative efficiency
of labour in some industries, we should do well to remind ourselves
that efficiency is a somewhat transitory thing, dependent upon
education and experience as much as upon aptitude. In respect of
the capacity of labour for the task required in the cotton industry,
we could not (writing in 1907) make the statement that England
leads significantly with the assurance with which we can assert her
superiority in respect of present attainments. The cotton industry
has not been prosecuted on a large scale in Germany so long as in
England, and the Germans have not, therefore, had the same
opportunity for developing their latent powers. But the thoughtful-
ness and carefulness of the German workman are beyond dispute,
and these qualities will procure for him a leading place where work
is not mechanical. Already in the cotton industry it is said that
the operatives are displaying quite striking powers of undertaking
a wide range of work and changing easily from one pattern to another.
Hence German firms feel little hesitation in taking small orders on
special designs; they do not experience any great difficulty in
getting their factors accommodated to produce the required articles.
Apart from the efficiency of labour, reasons exist for the lower

1 Deutschland als Industriestaat.

2 9 8

COTTON MANUFACTURE

real cost of production in England in the organization of the industry.
The German industry is not only less localized, but, as we might
perhaps infer from that circumstance, less specialized. A German
factory will turn out scores of patterns where an English firm will
confine itself to a few specialities. Time is wasted in accommodating
machinery to changes and in accustoming the hands to new work.
The German producer suffers from the undeveloped state of the
market. In England specialized markets with specialized dealers
have greatly assisted producers both in their buying and selling.
A German manufacturer may have to find his customers as the
English manufacturer need not; at least, so Professor Schulze-
Gaevernitz has assured us, and conditions have not been wholly
transformed since he made his careful analysis. He wrote : — ' But
especially disadvantageous is the decentralization in respect to the
sale. Here also the German manufacturer stands under the same
disadvantages with which the English had to struggle in the
'thirties. The German manufacturer still seeks his customers
through travellers and agents, and in many instances through retail
sellers, whose financial standing is often questionable, whose necessity
for credit is always certain. Hence the complaints about the bad
conditions of payment in Germany which crop up continually in the
enquite. The manufacturers had to wait three, four or six months,
and even twelve months and longer for payment. In reality there
existed ' termless terms,' a ' complete anarchy in the method of
payment.' . . . The manufacturer cannot be at the same time
commission agent, banker, merchant and retail dealer; he needs
sound customers capable of paying. He fares best if the sale is
concentrated in one market, and ' change ' prices simplify the
struggle between buyer and seller. The search for customers,
foreign as well as home, and the bearing of all possible risks of
disposal, are in any case difficult enough to necessitate the whole
strength of a man. The wholesale merchant alone is in a position
to pay the manufacturer in cash or on sure, short terms. But
especially where export is in question is the dispersal of sales an
extreme impediment. The manufacturer cannot follow the fashions
in Australia and South America; the foreign buyer cannot travel
from mill to mill." . ...

It is the want of commercial development in Germany which
accounts for the more frequent combination of weaving and spinning
there than in England. But in Germany to-day economic enterprise
is flourishing, and commercial development may confidently be
looked for together with advance in other directions. It is not many
years since the typical German cotton factory was comparatively
primitive: now mills can be exhibited which might have been
erected recently in Oldham. Between the early 'eighties and the
'nineties the expansion of the German industry was enormous—
the imports of cotton-wool rose by nearly 70 %— yet the number of
spinning-mills was actually reduced from 6750 to 2450, while the
number of weaving-sheds fell from 56,200 to 32,750. At the same
time the factories devoted to mixed goods declined from 25,200 to
less than 16,350. From these figures we may gather how rapidly
the average size of mills and weaving-sheds enlarged in the period.
One cause, no doubt, was that improved economies in the new
businesses forced antiquated factories to shut down and make way
for still newer erections. There were recently about twice as many
persons engaged in weaving as in spinning, but the largest numbers
of all— slightly in excess of those in weaving-sheds— were the persons
occupied in the manufacture of cotton-lace, trimmings, &c. As we
might imagine, Germany's exports of cotton goods are not high.
Including yarns they amounted to £13-7 million per annum in
1899-1903. In order of value their largest exports are (1) coloured
goods, (2) hosiery, (3) lace and embroidery, (4) yarns, and (5)

trimmings, &c. .

France.— Into the industrial conditions of the two leading rivals
of England we have entered in some detail; the state of affairs
in the rest of the world must be dealt with more briefly. Of France
more ought to be said than we can find place for, though in respect
of the magnitude of her cotton industry, as measured by the quantity
of spindles, she stands now not fourth, but fifth, Russia taking
precedence. But the work of the French is incomparably superior
to anything that is turned out from Russia. France suffered a
severe blow when the industry of Alsace and Lorraine was lost to
Germany, but the inexhaustible originality of French design will
always secure for her goods a place in the first rank. As regards
artistic results France leads, but the real cost of her spinning and
weaving cannot approach in lowness that of Lancashire. After
costly strikes the French workmen have succeeded in shortening
their hours to ten and a half a day ; and here it may be remarked
that the International Association of Textile Operatives tends to
equate continental industrial conditions to those of England, ihe
French~industry has been fostered by tariffs. When the Board ot
Trade calculation was made, French tariffs were found to bear upon
British cotton goods with about the same severity as those ot
Germany, except that the former treated more hardly yarns and
cotton thread for sewing. French protectionism has kept down her
exports; such as they are the majority proceed now to her colonics.
Normandy, the north and east, in order, are the chief seats of the
industry. In Normandy the leading city is Rouen, and Darnetal,
Maromme, Sotteville, Havre, Yvetot, Dieppe, Evreux, Gisors,
Falaise and Flers are important places. The north contains the

important towns of Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St Quentin, Amiens
and Hellemmes. The Vosges is the chief district of the east, and the
leading towns are Epinal, St Die, Remiremont, Senones, Val d'Ajol,
Comimont and La Bresse. The following towns which are not in-
cluded in any of the districts mentioned above are also noteworthy : —
Troyes, Nantes, Cholet, Laval, Tarare, Roanne, Thizy and Ville-
franche upon the Sa6ne. Cotton arrives at Havre and Marseilles;
at the latter chiefly the product of Egypt and the East. Havre
used to be the most important cotton port in continental Europe,
but to-day more spindles are fed from Bremen than from Havre.
France's consumption of cotton annually in the period 1 899-1903
was 215,000 metric tons. . .

Russia. — Power-spinning was carried into Russia by Ludwig
Knoop, who had learnt the trade in Manchester, and to his efforts
its early success was due. The growth, largely the result of very
heavy protectionism — according to the Board of Trade report,
from 50 to more than 100% more severe than that of Germany, —
has been rapid, as the following table bears witness:—

Average yearly Importation of Cotton wool and
Yarn into Russia.

Raw Cotton in

Cotton Yarn in

thousand tons.

thousand tons.

1824-1826

•9

5-4

1836-1838

4-6

IO-I

1842-1844

8-4

9-5

I 848-1 850

21-4

4-5

1889-1891

117-4

3-4

1899-1903

180-0

29

Table showing approximately the Growth of
Spindles and Looms in Russia.

Spindles.

Looms.

1857
1877
1887

1900

1909

1,000,000

4,000,000
6,000,000
7,800,000

55,ooo

85,000

146,000

The chief districts were the following in 1900: —

Government.

Factories.

Spindles
(in thousands).

Looms
(in thousands).

Moscow . . . •

56

1295

33

Vladimir . . . .

67

1224

42

Piotrkov . . . .

25

745

20

St Petersburg

24

1074

11

Jaroslaw .

4

347

Kostroma . . . .

25

274

20

Tver

6

348

9

Esthonia . . . .

1

440

2

Ryazan . . . .

4

146

3

Elsewhere

Total . .

15

198

4

227

6091

146

Fine spinning has been attempted only recently. Generally
speaking 70's used to be the upper limit, but now counts up to 140 s
are tried, though the bulk of the output is coarse yarn. The in-
efficiency of the labour was made abundantly plain by Dr Schulze-
Gaevernitz in his economic study of Russia, and conditions have not
greatly altered for the better since. Roughly, 170,000 operatives
worked 6,000,000 spindles in 1900, which means 35 spindles per head
as compared with more than 100 in Saxony and more than 200 in
England. In weaving the ratio of operatives to machinery worked
out at about one loom to each weaver, which is comparatively much
less unfavourable to Russia. The proportion in Saxony is about the
same, but in England the average approaches two looms to a weaver.
The speed of machinery cannot be compared, and we must remember
that the above contrasts are rough only, and made without regard to
differences of product. Russia is encouraging the growth of cotton
at home. It is of very inferior quality, but 100,000 tons from the
provinces of central Asia and Trans-Caucasia were used in 1900:
her imports in the same year were about 170,000 tons. _ ^

Switzerland.— Swiss spindles advanced until the early seventies,
but a decline followed. Details are : —

1830 . . . . 400,000

1850 . . . • 950,ooo

1876 .... 1,854,000
1883 . . . . 1,809,000
1898 . . . • 1,704,000

1909 (estimated) . 1,500,000
The falling off is occasioned mainly by (a) the developing indus-
trialism of the rest of Europe, notably Germany, and (b) the diminish-
ing importance of the natural advantage of water-power with the

COTTON MANUFACTURE

299

improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of
continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy
cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the
Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the
canton of Zurich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the
same in St Gall and 9 % in Aargau. Figures show that the average
size of the Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were
22,000, and very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some
9000 of the power-looms are in Zurich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000
in St Gall. Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zurich is an
important centre of the muslin manufacture.

Austria. — Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more
yarn is consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess
of imports of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg
account for the mass of Austrian spinning. The following details
relating to these districts recently are of interest : —

Mills.

Spindles.

Average
spindles
to a mill.

Lower Austria
Tirol and Vorarlberg

82

23
20

1,870,000
460,000
435.0O0

22,800
20,000
21,700

Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing
place : here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are
hand-looms.

Italy. — Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable : statistics
of spindles since 1 870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is
probably high: —

1870 . . . 500,000
1888 . . . 900,000
1898 . . . 2,100,000
1909 . . . 4,000,000
The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows: —
Lombardy .... 1,850,000
Piedmont .... 1,000,000

Venetia 550,000

Campania .... 250,000
Liguria . . . . . 250,000

Tuscany 100,000

The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief manu-
facturing towns in Italy is shown in the following table : —

Spindles.

Spindles.

Turin .

470,000

Genoa .

210,000

Bergamo .

450,000

Salerno

150,000

Como .

250,000

Brescia

310,000

Milan . . .

660,000

Naples.

100,000

Novara

410,000

Udine .

240,000

Power-

Power-

Looms.

Looms.

Milan .

40,000

Pisa . . .

2,500

Turin .

22,000

Como .

6,000

Novara

13,000

Bergamo .

13,000

Genoa .

6,000

Udine .

3.5oo

The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous
villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the
province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is
endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and
medium yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province
of Milan there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto
Arsizio and Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy
goods is extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done
in Turin. The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia.

The Netherlands. — In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced
into the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen
mules bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across
the channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them,
in spite of English legal prohibitions. LieVin Bauwens was the
prime mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and
in 1892 Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a
decline has set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only
really important place: no other place has as many as 50,000.
Holland possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is
Twente and the leading town Enschede ; Twente contains also about
20,000 power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port ; Amster-
dam, always a far-away second, has lost place still further of late.

Spain and Portugal.— The greatness of Spain in the cotton in-
dustry lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened
somewhat, with the result that her spindles now number about
1,853,000. Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is
carried on, and Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal
possesses nearly half a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and
Oporto), many of which have appeared since 1894.

The Rest of Europe. — Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and
Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where
the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that
among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent,
even m such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-
looms are still to be found in large numbers.

India. — The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in
India since the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics
were protected against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the
introduction of spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to
rival the Indian in quality as well as in cost. A large export trade
to India has grown up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their
craft. In 1851 power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were
in India 1,000,000 spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six
millions and importations of yarn have been significantly affected.
The growth of Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the
ring variety, was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee
after 1873, but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893
and the competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt,
is that at the cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import
machinery and coal than to export or cease to grow cotton and
import yarn. This was the conclusion of the majority report of the
committee of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, which made
an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire spinning in 1888. Besides,
as regards Indian exports to China, the remission in 1875 of the 3 %
export duty on yarns must be borne in mind. The efficiency of
labour in India is only a small fraction of that of Lancashire
operatives. Recently complaint has been made that Indian mills
are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of labour,
and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and illegally —
legally as regards children over fourteen who are classed as adults.
The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting of the
mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of the cost
of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is, perhaps,
sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied. Indian
spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a rule,
though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts spun
is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in
India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth
as many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between
1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-
looms is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lanca-
shire weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed
in the Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however,
observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the
Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district
alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The
following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied
officially : — ■

Cotton Mills in India, including Mills in Native States and
French India.

Mills.

1 897-1 898.

1903-1904.

Mills (number)

164

204

Capital (thousand £s) ....

648

1,067

36,946

46,421

Spindles (thousands) ....

4.219

5,213

Persons employed (daily average)

H8.753

186,271

Yarn produced: —

Counts (1 to 20 thousand lb) .

400,384

474.509

Counts (above ,, „ ,,)
Total lb .
Yarn produced: —

62,212

104,250

462,596

578.759

Bombay (thousand lb)

324.649

4H.932

Bengal „ „ . . .

44,807

46,487

Madras „ ,,

32,5i6

28,714

United Provinces (including Ajmere-

Merwara) (thousand ft)

26,747

29,930

Central Provinces (thousand lb) .

18,334

24.549

Punjab

6,607

u,578

Elsewhere „ ,, „

Total lb . .
Woven goods : —

8,936

22,569

462,596

578,759

Grey (thousand ft) . . .

83,136

111,494

Others „ ,,....
Total ft .

8,152

26,550

91,288

138,044

China. —In China spinning has not met with the same success as
India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing.
The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt
a leading cause. Of the spindles in China — about 600,000 in all — ■
from a half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details

3°°

COTTON MANUFACTURE

relating to the inception of the power-industry are quoted from a
Diplomatic and Consular Report of 1905: —

• "The initial experiment on modern lines was made in 1891, when
a semi-official Chinese syndicate started at Shanghai — the Chinese
Cotton Cloth Mill and the Chinese Cotton Spinning Company. Its
originators claimed for themselves a quasi-monopoly, and prohibited
outsiders who were not prepared to pay a fixed royalty.for the privi-
lege from engaging in similar undertakings. Although certain
Chinese accepted this onerous condition, foreigners resented it as
an undue interference with their treaty rights, and it was only when
Japan, in 1895, after her war with China, inserted in the treaty of
Shimonoseki an article providing for the freedom of Japanese sub-
jects to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in the open
ports of China, and permitting them to import machinery for such
purposes, that outsiders were afforded an opportunity of exploiting
the rich field for commercial development thereby thrown open.
Accordingly, so soon as the Japanese treaty came into force no time
was lost in turning this particular clause to account, and the erection
of no less than 1 1 mills — Chinese and foreign — was taken in hand.
At that time the pioneer mill, which was burnt to the ground in
October 1893, but subsequently rebuilt, and other Chinese-owned
mills were together working some 120,000 spindles and 850 looms."
By 1905 the mills increased to 17, the spindles to 620,000 and
the looms to 2250, but there is little inclination to expansion.
Yarns for the hand-looms are obtained primarily from India and
secondarily from Japan. The following are the recent figures relating
to imported yarns : — ■

In million lb

1898.

1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

British . .
Indian
Japanese .
Hong-Kong .
Tongkinese .

Total . .

lb

9-1

186-7

64-7

ft

7-8
254-2
104-0

ft

4-1

I3I-5
62-9

ft
7-0
228-9
66-4

•7

ft

4-3

251-6

69-7

•8

ft

2-2
250-8
1 10-9

1-2
•01

260-5

366-0

198-5

303-0

326-4

365-I

Japan.— If in China the factory cotton industry reveals no pros-
pects as yet of a great future, the same cannot be said of Japan.

The chief centres of spinning with their outputs in value of yarn
for a year at the beginning of the 20th century are stated beneath :

Thousands.

Thousands.

£ s.

£ s.

Osaka

1226-5

Nara . . .

in-5

Hyogo

495-5

Hiroshima

9i-3

Okayama

374-4

Kyoto

82-2

Miye . . .

238-1

Wakayama .

79-2

Tokyo

227-9

Ehime

70-5

Aichi . . .

224-3

Kajawa .

36-4

Fukuoka .

168 • 1

The following table gives other valuable information :-

Japanese work has been severely criticized, but the recency of the
introduction of the cotton industry must not be forgotten.

Bibliography.— The literature relating to the cotton industry
is enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in
Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry (where short descriptions of
the several works included, which relate only to the United King-
dom, are given) ; Hammond's Cotton Culture and Trade; and Oppel's
Die Baumwolle. The list of books set forth here must be select only.

The development of the English industry can be traced through
the following: — Aikin, A Description of the Country from Thirty
to Forty Miles round Manchester (1795); Andrew, Fifty Years'
Cotton Trade (1887) ; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in
Great Britain (1835) ; Banks, A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of .
Preston for the last Sixty-Seven Years (1888) ; Butterworth, Historical
Sketches of Oldham (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, An Historical
Account of the Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukin-
field (1842); Chapman, The Lancashire Cotton Industry (1904);
Cleland, Description of the City of Glasgow (1840); A Complete
History of the Cotton Trade, &c, by a person concerned in trade
(1823); Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a
History of the Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton
Brokers' Association (1886) ; Leon Faucher, £.tudes sur Angleterre
(1845); French, The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton (1859);
Guest, A Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a
Disproval of the Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its
Ingenious Machinery (1823) ; Guest, The British Cotton Manufacture
and a Reply to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a
recent Number of the Edinburgh Review (1828) ; Helm, Chapters in the
History of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce (1902); Kennedy,
Miscellaneous Papers on Subjects connected with the Manufactures
of Lancashire (1849); Ogden, A Description of Manchester . . . with
a Succinct History of its former original Manufactories, and their
Gradual Advancement to the Present State of Perfection at which they
are arrived, by a Native of the Town (1783) ; Radcliffe, Origin of the
New System of Manufacture, commonly called " Power-Loom Weav-
ing " and the Purposes for which this System was invented and brought
into use, fully explained in a Narrative concerning William Radcliffe' s
Struggles through Life to remove the Cause which has brought this
Country to its Present Crisis (1828) ; Rees' Cyclopaedia, articles on
Cotton (1808), Spinning (1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, The
Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain, investigated and illustrated, with
an Introductory View of its Comparative State in Foreign Countries
(2 vols.); Ure, The Philosophy of Manufacture ; or An Exposition
of the Scientific, Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory
System of Great Britain (1835) ; Watts, Facts of the Cotton Famine
(1866); Wheeler, Manchester: its Political, Social and Commercial
History, Ancient and Modern (1836). *

In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public
library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parlia-
mentary papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix
to Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry, but it is too lengthy to
repeat here. The most important are the reports relating to the
hand-loom weavers, those on the employment of children in factories
(of which a list will be found in Hutchins and Harrison's History of
the Factory Legislation), and the state of trade and the annual reports
of the factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of
authorities in Chapman's Lancashire Cotton Industry and also of

Quantity

Average

Average

Average

Average

Gross

Average

of Raw

Total

Number

Number

Daily

Daily

Amount

Number

and

Production

of Male

of Female

Annual

Daily

Wage

Wage of

Year.

of Capital

of

Ginned

of Cotton

Opera-

Opera-

Working

Working

of Male

Female

invested.

Spindles.

Cotton

Yarn.

tives daily

tives daily
employed.

Days.

Hours.

Opera-
tives.

Opera-

used daily.

demanded.

employed.

tives.

Thousand £

Thousands.

Million lb.

Million ft.

1 892-1 894

1123

420

112-9

97.9

6,916

21,695

290

22

4d. to 4id.

2d. t0 2|d.

1 900- 1 902

3569

1209

335-3

288-0

13.373

50,271

312

19

7K

4id. to 5d.

1903

3441

1290

375-5

322-7

13,160

57.166

308

20

7|d. to 8d.

4id. to 5d.

1904

3470

1306

332-1

285-9

10,967

52.115

309

20

8d.

5d.

With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods
of Western civilization as a whole. But hand-Weaving more than
holds its own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success.
, The custom already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph
of the hand-loom in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the
economy of the factory system is greater relatively in spinning than
in manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails:
95 % of the spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less
skill on the part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory
for the sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts
produced are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with
double shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is
found to be less economical than day-work there as elsewhere.
More operatives are placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan
than in Lancashire — possibly more " labour " as well as more
operatives, because labour as well as operatives may be cheaper.
On the same work the output per spindle per hour is less in Japan
than in England, even when day-shifts only are taken into account.

parliamentary papers containing useful material. Printed copies of
the " Wages Lists "are issued by the trade unions. The Factory
Acts are dealt with in Hutchins and Harrison's History, mentioned
above, as well as the literature relating to them ; while the hand-
books by Redgrave and by Abraham and Davies are specially useful.
On the industry abroad the following are the fullest authorities: —
Besso, The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg and Italy (1910)
(areportmadeasaGartside Scholar of the University of Manchester) ;
Chapman's Cotton Industry and Trade (1905) ; Hammond, The
Cotton Industry; Hasbach's article, " Zur Characteristik der en-
glischen Industrie," in Schmollers Jahrbuch, vol. ii. (1903); Leconte,
Le Coton-; Lochmuller, Zur Entwicklung der Baumwollindustrie in
Deutschland (1906) ; Montgomery, The Cotton Manufacture of the
United States of America contrasted and compared with that of Great
Britain (1840); Oppel, Die Baumwolle (1902) ; Schulze-Gaevernitz,
Der , Grossbetrieb : ein wirtschaftlicher und socialer Fortschritl : eine
Studie auf dem Gebiete der Baumwollindustrie (1892; translated as
The Cotton Trade in England and on the Continent) ; T. M. Young,

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

Plate 1.

Fig. ii.— CARDING ROOM.

(From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by R. Banks.)

Plate II.

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

Fig. 13.— SPINNING-ROOM.
{From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by R. Banks.)

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

301

American Cotton Industry (1902); Uttley, Cotton Spinning and
Manufacturing in the United States of North America (1905 ; a report
of a tour as Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester) ;
and the Gartside reports on the cotton industries of France and
Germany by Forrester and Dehn respectively. Information will
also be found in Diplomatic and Consular Reports, and fragments
may be gathered from other books such as G. Drage's Russian Affairs,
Dyer's Dai Nippon, and Huber's Deutschland als Industriestaat.
Japan has published since 1901 a very full financial and economical
annual, and the British government issues annually a good statistical
abstract for India. The American census contains much detailed
information, and there are, in addition to the statistics issued by the
Federal government, those of Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics
of which has also reported the results of an investigation into the
industry in the Southern states. Among official matter the semi-
official Bombay and Lancashire cotton spinning inquiry of the Man-
chester Chamber of Commerce may be included. The census of pro-
duction of the United Kingdom must be mentioned, and the reports of
the International Congresses of Cotton Spinners and Manufacturers.
As to labour, see the reports of the International Textile Congresses.
The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed
in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the Cotton
Factory Times; Textile Journal; Textile Manufacturer; Textile
Mercury ; Textile Recorder ; Textile World Record (American) ;
Der Leipzige Monatsschrift fur Textilindustrie ; and the French
Textile Journal. Shepperson's Cotton Facts is an annual which relates
chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also Cotton, the
periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical
works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks,
Guest, Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen's
ponderous two-volumed Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Roh-
weissweberei und Fabrikanlagen. (S. J. C.)

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. The earliest inventors of
spinning machinery (see Spinning) directed their energies chiefly
to the improvement of the final stage of the operation, but no
sooner were these machines put to practical use than it became
apparent that success depended upon mechanically conducting
the operations preliminary to spinning. Later inventors were,
therefore, called upon not only to improve the inventions of their
predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing the fibres to
be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of this
aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than

growers, for by the then existing methods of separating cotton lint
from seed it would have been impossible to provide an adequate
supply of raw material. By inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney,
an American, in the year 1792, did for cotton planters what Paul,

SEED

Fig. 1.

to the invention with which his name is more intimately associ-
ated. But, given a complete series of machines for preparing and
spinning, the cotton industry (see Cotton Manufacture) must
have remained unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton

Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and others did for
textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the means for
increasing their output almost indefinitely.

Cotton- ginning is the process by which cotton seeds are separated
from the adhering fibres. The most primitive machine employed in
India and China for this purpose is the churka, which consists of two
wooden rollers fixed in a frame and re-
volving in contact. Seed cotton is fed into
these rollers and the fibres pass forward
but the seeds remain behind. It is a
device which does not injure the fibres, but
no improvement has been found by which
the churka can be converted into a suffi-
ciently productive machine for modern re-
quirements. In a modified form Whitney's
saw gin is still used to clean a large
portion of the annual crop of short and
medium stapled cottons. It consists of
from 60 to 70 saws (A, fig. 1), which are
mounted upon a shaft and revolve between
the interstices of an iron grid (B) ; against
this grid the seed cotton is held whilst the
fibres are drawn through, the seeds being
left behind. The operation is as follows : — ■
seed cotton is fed into the hopper (C), and
conveyed by a lattice (D) to a spiked roller
(E), which regulates the supply to the hopper
(F). Whilst in (F) the cotton is engaged
by the teeth of the saws (A), and drawn
through the grid (B), but the bars are too
close to permit the seeds to pass. A brush
(G) strips the cotton lint from the saws,
after which it is drawn through a flue (H)
to the surface of a perforated roller (I) by
pneumatic action ; it then passes^ between
(I) and (J) out of the machine. The
Macarthy gin is the only other type in
extensive use; it is employed to clean
both long and short stapled cottons. In
this gin the fibres are drawn by a leather-
covered roller (A, fig. 2) over the edge
of a stationary blade (B) called a doctor,
which is fixed tangential to the roller.
Two cranks (E) move two other blades
(C, D) up and down immediately behind,
and parallel to, the fixed blade (B). The
cotton is thrown into the hopper (F) and the fibres are drawn
by the roller (A) until the seeds are against the edge of the doctor
(B), when the beaters (C, D) strike them off, but permit the fibres
to go forward with the roller. Attempts continue to be made
so to improve both machines, that production may be increased,

UlNT
SCOTTON

XSESEESSSSSq

302

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

Fig. 3.

and labour charges, and the risks of injuring the fibres,
reduced.

Baling. — As cotton leaves the gin, it is in some cases rolled, under
compression, into cylindrical bales; but it is usually packed into
rectangular bales, that vary in weight from 160 lb to 750 lb, by steam
or hydraulic presses. After pressing, the cotton is covered with
coarse jute bagging, and the whole secured by iron bands. In this
form it arrives at the spinning mills.

In the mill treatment of cotton it soon became an established
practice to divide the work into the following operations, namely
(1) Mixing the fibres into a homogeneous mass; (2) removing im-
purities; (3) combing out entanglements in, and ranging the fibres
in parallel lines; (4) simultaneous combination and attenuation of
groups of parallel fibres ; (5) completing the combination and attenu-
ation, and twisting the fibres into a thread; (6) compounding,
finishing and making-up of threads. These remain the essential
conditions of cotton-spinning. The principal machines used to carry
out the foregoing stages are: The bale breaker, opener and scutcher;
the card and comber; the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and
roving frames; ring and mule spinning; winding, doubling; clear-
ing and gassing the reel, and bundling press, together with several
auxiliary machines. All the operations included in this list are not

low

necessarily employed in the production of all kinds of yarn;
counts require fewer, and high counts more processes.

A bale breaker is used to disentangle fibres which have been, by
hydraulic or steam presses, converted into hard masses that resist
manual efforts to disentangle them. It may consist of three pairs
of spiked and one pair of fluted rollers. If so, the matted cotton is
fed into the first pair, seized by the second pair, which have a higher
surface velocity, and pulled, while the third pair reduce the whole
to a more or less fluffy mass, and the fluted rollers deliver it upon
a travelling lattice by which it is conveyed to, and deposited upon,
the floor of the mixing room. Instead of rollers, a hopper breaker
may be used. In this machine the cotton is carried by a horizontal
lattice into contact with a sloping spiked one, whose spikes tear away
small tufts and deposit them upon a second lattice for removal to
the mixing room. A stack of pulled cotton is formed by superposing
thin layers from different bales, and when completed the cotton is
drawn from top to bottom of the stack. By this means a thorough
mixing of fibres is effected.

The Opener. — Mixed cotton may be thrown upon a lattice and
conveyed to a spiked roller to be pulled, beaten, discharged into a
trunk, and drawn by pneumatic force to the opener. Or it may be
spread (fig. 3) upon a lattice (I), and carried between feed-rollers (E)

13

ax
ax
ax
err

B

D-M-f-

ZH4-

LiLlULlULlUU

m!g2f§*»

Fig. 4,

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

3^3

ROLLER

Fig. 5.

to be subjected to the action of a beater (A) whose teeth first seize
tufts of cotton and then fling them upon a grid (B), to be subse-
quently seized by other teeth and again flung off until dirt and other
impurities pass between the grating. The beater may be cylindrical
(as at A) or in the form of a truncated cone: in either event, from
four to twelve rows of teeth project from its surface. It is from
18 in. to upwards of 36 in. in diameter, approximately 40 in. wide,
and the largest cylindrical beaters make from 300 to 700 revolutions;
whilst conical beaters make about 1000, and small ones make from
1000 to 1500 revolutions per minute. The opened cotton is carried,
in the direction indicated by the arrows, upon a strong blast of air
which is generated by a fan (H), and this deposits it in patches
upon the surfaces of two perforated zinc or wire cylinders (C), but
dust and foreign particles pass through the interstices. As these
cylinders revolve towards each other the cotton passes between
them in the form of a sheet to a pair of feed-rollers (D), which may
again deliver it to a beater with two or three blades; if so, from this
beater the cotton is next borne on an air current to, and between,
a second pair of perforated cylinders. In either event, the final
cages (C, C) deliver the cotton to feed-rollers (D) and they pass it to
calender-rollers (F), by which it is compressed into a sheet, and
finally coiled into a lap (G). Various kinds of openers have been
patented, all of which differ in some important respects; for example,
a hopper feed may be substituted for the trunk or the lattice feed,
in which event the cdtton from the mixing room is conveyed mechani-
cally upon lattices, and deposited in a hopper affixed to an opener.
In this hopper a sloping spiked lattice elevates the cotton to an
evening roller, whose office is to sweep back the surplus supply from
the spikes, but allow the requisite quantity to pass forward to the
beater. A regular supply of cottonto an opener is of great importance,
and in order to insure it a table is often formed by substituting for
the lower roller (E) a series of levers (A, fig. 4) all mounted upon a
fulcrum (B), and having their free arms weighted by wedge-shaped
pendents (C), that are separated by bowls (D). A fluted feed-roller
(E) is fixed above this table and the cotton is led over the lever
but beneath the roller. If the cotton is unequally distributed, thick
places will press down the levers and thin ones will permit them to
rise (as at A', E'). The rise of one pendent may be cancelled by the
fall of another, but any balance of their movements is transmitted
to a belt fork which governs a belt running upon a pair of inverted
cones, and by this means the belt is traversed to and fro to drive the
feed-roller (E) at a superior speed when the supply of cotton is
insufficient, and at an inferior speed when the supply is excessive.

The Scutcher. — In many respects a scutcher resembles an opener;
its function is to continue the cleaning and form laps of uniform

weight and density for the carding engine. Occasionally the scutcher
is the first cleaning machine, in which event cotton, in a loose fleece,
is spread evenly upon a lattice. But in order to carry the combination
of fibres one stage further, three or four opener laps are generally
placed upon the feeder, so that, as the laps unroll, three or four sheets
of cotton will be superposed, and in this form are passed by the
lattice (F, fig. 4) and the feed-roller (E) to either one or two beaters,
which are furnished with two or three blades. The beater (G) flings
the cotton against the bars of a grid (H) to loosen, and cause the dirt
to pass between the bars, after which the cotton is carried forward
upon an air current, in the same manner as in an opener, and formed
into a lap. In case two scutchers are required, the laps from the
first are fed into the second, where they are similarly treated; in
both machines the lever and pendent mechanism furnishes the means
by which uniformity is attained. A beater may consist of a straight,
smooth blade (as at G), or of a blade provided with stout teeth; in
the latter event the operation resembles combing rather than beating.
Two-bladed beaters revolve from 1200 to 1500 times per minute;
those with three blades from 900 to 1000 times per minute.

Carding Engine. — The functions of a card (see Carding) are:
to place the fibres parallel; to remove remaining impurities and
immature fibres ; and to form mature fibres into a porous band, called
a sliver. A carding engine consists of three cylinders which are
covered with cards; the first, or taker-in (see fig. 5), is the smallest;
the second and largest is the main cylinder ; and the third is the doffer.
If the main cylinder is surmounted with a series of small ones (as
at A), the engine is called a roller and clearer card. If a series of
fixed strips of card are placed above the main cylinder, the engine
is known as a stationary flat card. But if the strips move forward
(as at B), it is a revolving flat card. In a roller and clearer card the
small cylinders (E) are also covered with cards, but their teeth are
bent to oppose those on the main cylinder, and they revolve with
a different velocity. The taker-in is covered with saw teeth cut in
a strip of steel which is fixed in the surface of that cylinder; it re-
ceives the cotton (I) from a feed-roller (C) that turns above a smooth
iron table (D) called the feed plate, and strikes out the heaviest
particles of remaining dirt. In passing through the fringe of lap,
the teeth comb the attached fibres but deliver the loose ones to the
main cylinder. The latter carries them into contact with the teeth
on the rollers (E), by whose lower surface velocity combing is again
effected. Short fibres become fixed amongst the teeth of (A) and
(E), but those lying crosswise are transferred from (A) to (E) and
from (E) to the clearer, which again presents them to the cylinder.

When long fibres are turned to point in the direction of rotation
they advance upon the cylinder A to the doffer teeth, where the

304

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

scattered fibres on the surface of A are collected into a light fleece.
In this condition they are stripped by a vibrating comb (F), drawn
together by a funnel, formed into a sliver, and deposited in a can (G).
This machine is now chiefly used to card waste and low-class cotton.
If such a card is made with two main cylinders, a connecting cylinder
called a tummer collects the fibres from the first and passes them on
to a second main cylinder, where they are again treated as already
described. In a stationary flat card the teeth in the flats are bent
to oppose those on the main cylinder, and by this means the fibres
are combed and straightened. In a revolving flat card the flats (H)
are formed into an endless chain, and they travel slowly in the same
direction as the cylinder. In other respects both flat cards are
similar to a roller and clearer card. Formerly double carding, namely,
two pa'ssages of the fibres through separate cards, or one passage
through a double card, was general, but single carding is now em-
ployed for most purposes.

Combing. — For counts from 60 s upward, and for exceptionally
good yarn of lower counts, from 14 to 20 cans from the carding
engine are taken to a sliver lap machine
where the slivers are drawn alongside
each other, passed between three pairs
of drawing rollers and two pairs of
calender rollers, and formed into laps
that vary in width from 7i in. to 12 in.
This machine is provided with mechani-
cal devices for stopping it on the failure
of a sliver, and on the completion of a
predetermined length of lap. When the
sliver lap machine furnishes laps for the
comber, the slivers are previously put
through one head of drawing, namely,
between four lines of drawing rollers,
to straighten out the fibres. The more
general practice is to pass sliver laps to
a ribbon lap machine, at the back of which
six laps are placed, end facing end, in one
long line and simultaneously unrolled
to feed each web between four pairs of
drawing rollers. From the rollers the
cotton passes in separate films over
curved plates to a smooth table where
one is superposed upon another, and
in the combined state it is led between
two pairs of calender rollers and formed
into a lap from 7J to I0j in. wide. In
the cotton industry the Heilmann
comber, or some modification of that

machine, is used to straighten thoroughly the fibres of carded
cotton, to cast out all below a certain length, and leave only those
that are perfectly clean and approximate to uniformity in length.
For fine yarns of medium quality only part of the slivers required
to form a thread are combed. But for fine yarns of good quality
all slivers are once combed, and those for superfine yarns are twice,
or " double combed." This machine is made with six or eight heads,
each of which is supplied with a ribbon lap. One end of every lap is
fed by a pair of rollers between the open jaws of a nipper which
immediately closes upon the sheet of cotton, but a fringe is left
protruding into the path of a cylinder, on whose periphery either
one set of 17, or two sets of 13, graduated needle combs, and one, or
two, fluted segments are secured. The first comb to reach the cotton
may have as few as 16, and the last 90 teeth per inch. After the
combs have passed successively through the overhanging fringe of
fibres, the nipper opens and a fresh length of about ^ to ^ of an inch
is fed in. Meanwhile, a fluted segment on the cylinder has moved
up to support the fringe; a top comb, which was inoperative when
the cylinder combs were acting, has descended into the fringe, and
three rollers first return a portion of the material already combed
so that it may overlap that last treated. The rollers then reverse
the direction of their rotation ; one of them and the segment engage
the fringe, and draw the tail ends of all free fibres through the teeth
of the top comb. The product of all the heads is next united, con-
densed, formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited in a can.
One cycle of movements, therefore, only combs from j s 5 to ?% of an
inch of each fibre; the top comb deals with the tail ends, and the
major portion of the work is done by the cylinder combs. The fore-
going operations are repeated at the rate of from 85 to 90 times per
minute, during which from 15% to upwards of 25% of carded
material is removed; but this is capable of being spun into coarse
yarns. A comber invented by John W. Nasmith is a modification
of the foregoing. In his machine the cylinder combs act upon the
forward ends of the fibres whilst under the control of the nipper,
after which two pairs of rollers return a sufficient portion of the
previously combed film to overlap, and to enable the front rollers
to engage the fringe. The rollers then draw a part of the fringe
through the teeth of the top comb, which, as a sequence, treats all
but the forward ends of the fibres. Since one passage through the
cylinder and top combs completes the operation for one set of fibres,
this machine gives a higher production ; it also gives a wider range
of adaptability, and a lower percentage of waste than the Heilmann
machine.

The Drawing Frame. — For fine counts the slivers from the comber,
and for low or medium counts those from the card, are passed to the
drawing frame, because in both conditions the material is irregularly
distributed throughout the several slivers, and it is the function
of the drawing frame to eliminate all such irregularities by drawing
several slivers down to the dimensions of one, for here the processes
of combination and attenuation are carried further than in any other
machine. A drawing frame consists of three or four heads,
each of four pairs of drawing rollers (A, B, fig. 6). The lower rollers
(B) are fluted longitudinally and the upper ones (A) are covered
with leather, and weighted as at (H) to give the two a proper hold
of the cotton. Each head contains several deliveries. Six or eight
slivers (C) are put up to each delivery and drawn down into one by
causing succeeding lines of rollers (A, B) to move at an accelerated
speed ; the front one revolving about six or eight times faster than
the back one. On leaving the front roller the sliver is conducted
to a trumpet-shaped tube (D), thence between a pair of calender
rollers (E), and, finally, through a diagonal passage in a plate (F) ;

c\c

ff

H

H

H

H

Fig. 6.

the latter coils the sliver into a rotating can (G). Back and front
devices are provided to arrest motion in this machine when a sliver
fails. At the back, each sliver passes over and depresses a separate
spoon-shaped lever (I), thereby lifting the hooked lower end of (I)
high enough to allow an arm (T) to vibrate. On the failure of a sliver
the hook of (I) engages with (J) and dislocates the driving gear. In
front, the trumpet-shaped tube (D) is mounted on a lever (K), and
so long as a sliver presses down the mouth of (D), the machine con-
tinues in motion, but when a sliver fails, the lever (K) causes the
driving gear to stop the machine. Six or eight cans containing once
drawn slivers are put up to the second head and similarly drawn,
and finally, a similar number of twice drawn slivers are fed into the
third head and again drawn, giving in all 6X6X6 = 216 doublings;
or 8X8X8 = 512 doublings. Occasionally four heads of drawings
are used and eight slivers drawn into one, which gives 8X8X8X8 =
4096 doublings; hence, irregularities in an original sliver have been
minimized by successive combination and attenuation.

Flyer Frames. — Cotton in cans, from the final head of drawing, is
transferred to the slubbing frame , by which it is attenuated, slightly
twisted, and wound upon spools. Each sliver is drawn out by means
of three pairs of rollers, and as it emerges from the front pair, a
flyer (A, fig. 7), which revolves uniformly upon a spindle (B), carries
the sliver (C) round with it to twist the fibres axially. This flyer
coils the twisted material upon a wooden tube (D) in close-wound
spirals and in successive layers. The tube is loosely mounted upon,

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

305

but driven independently of, the spindle, in order that as the tube
increases in diameter the number of revolutions it makes may be
reduced to suit the constant delivery of the roving. This is effected
by a differential motion which usually consists of a large wheel,
within which two other wheels are made to work ; the interior wheels
have a regular motion, but the large wheel is driven from a pair of
cone drums at a decreasing speed.

The intermediate frame comes between the slubbing and roving
frames and is of similar construction to the slubber, but has a larger
number of spindles and smaller tubes.
Instead of having cans put at the
back, the slubbing tubes are mounted
vertically in a creel, passed in pairs
through the rollers, and drawn down
to a smaller diameter than a single
slubbing. In this machine, there-
fore, the fourfold processes of com-
bination, attenuation, twisting and
winding are effected consecutively and
continuously.

The roving frame is similar in
principle to the slubber and inter-
mediate machines, but it contains a
greater number of spindles, and the
tubes are smaller than either. It
receives the rovings from the inter-
mediate frame, draws two into one,
twists them and winds them upon
tubes. This machine is usually the
last employed to prepare cotton for
spinning, but for spinning fine yarns
from the best Egyptian and Sea
Islands cottons, a second roving, or
Jack frame may be required, in which
event pairs of rovings from the first
machine are similarly treated in the
second in order to render the final
product sufficiently fine for spinning
yarns of the requisite counts.

Spinning (see Spinning). — Im-
provements upon the Saxony wheel
caused continuous spinning to become
a mechanical art at an earlier date
than intermittent spinning. Ark-
wright's water-twist frame was gradu-
ally changed to the throstle, which
was a duplex machine furnished with
one set of drawing rollers, and one set
of spindles and flyers at each side of
the frame-work. All the bosses of one
line of rollers were connected so that
one driving gear would serve for the
whole length, and all the spindles
were driven by bands from a central cylinder. The roving spools
were placed vertically in a creel between the two sets of rollers,
and the rovings reduced to the requisite fineness by the latter;
after which each was passed through a coiled eye at the lower
end of a flyer leg, and attached to a double-flanged spool which
was loosely mounted upon a spindle. At each revolution of a
flyer a twist was put into the attenuated roving, and the flyer
wrapped as much thread upon a spool as the rollers delivered.
The spools rested upon a piece of woollen cloth stretched over
a rail, and this' rail rose and fell through a space equal to the
length of the spool barrel. On account of a thread having to pull
a spool round, it was not possible to spin finer counts than 60 3 ,
and since each flyer was mounted upon the top of an unsupported
spindle, vibration increased with speed. In order to avoid such
vibration Mr Danforth, in or about 1829, placed an inverted cup
upon the top of a stationary spindle, and upon the spindle a freely
fitting sleeve and wharve ; the former to receive a spool, the latter
to rotate both. By a traverse motion all the spools were simul-
taneously raised or depressed, so as to have their barrels, when at
the highest point, entirely within the cup, and when at the lowest
entirely below it. A thread passed from the drawing rollers, outside
the cup, to a spool. As a spool rotated its thread was uniformly
twisted, the lower edge of the cup built the yarn equally on every
part of the spool barrel, and the requisite drag resulted from friction
set up by the thread rubbing against the surface of the cup. The
throstle has almost disappeared from the cotton industry, and
Danforth's cap frame entirely so, but the latter is still used to spin
worsted. ...

Ring spinning is practically the only system of continuous spinning
used in the cotton industry; it was first patented in the United
States of America by J. Thorpe, in 1828, and in that country was
extensively used long before it became established in England.
Its chief feature consists in the substitution for the flyer, or the cap,
of a smooth annular ring (A, fig. 8) formed with a flange at the upper
edge, over which a light C-shaped piece of wire (B), called a traveller,
is sprung. The rings are secured in a rail (C) that rises quickly and
falls slowly, but at each succeeding ascent and descent it attains

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

a higher point than that previously reached. A spindle (D) is sup-
ported by, and turns in a bolster secured to a fixed rail (E). If the
bolster only provides a bearing for the centre of the spindle, and so
leaves the foot free to find its own position of steadiness, it is known
as a self-balancing or gravity spindle. A recess in the bolster is
filled with oil to automatically lubricate the bearing. A spindle is
placed in the centre of each ring; it has a sleeve fitted upon it which
carries a wharve (F) that covers the upper part of the bolster, and
a band from a pair of
drums is drawn round
the wharve to drive
the spindle. So per-
fect is the construc-
tion of these spindles
that they can be run
without appreciable
vibration at speeds
far beyond the ability
of operatives to at-
tend them ; although
a speed of 11,000 re-
volutions per minute
is a practicable one.
After passing the
drawing rollers (G),
the roving (H) is
twisted, hooked into
the traveller (B), and
made fast to a spool
(I) placed upon the
spindle. As spinning
proceeds the traveller
is pulled round the
ring by the thread ; it
thus puts a drag
upon, and holds the
thread at the winding
point. In all con-
tinuous spinning the
number of twists in-
serted into a given
length of thread is
governed by the sur-
face speed of the front roller, relatively to the revolutions of the flyer,
or to the speed of the winding surface.

Intermittent Spinning. — The essential difference between continu-
ous and intermittent spinning is that the former draws and twists
consecutively, whilst the latter draws and twists simultaneously.
In the mule, a creel (A, fig. 9), fixed at the back of the machine,
is designed to hold the rovings (B) in three or four tiers, from whence
they pass between three lines of drawing rollers (C) and two faller
wires (D). They are next led to spindles (E) mounted in a carriage
(F) whose wheels run upon rails (G) called slips. As the rollers (C)
feed the partially attenuated rovings the carriage recedes from the
rollers a little faster than the rovings are delivered, thus completing
the attenuation. Meanwhile, the spindles are revolved rapidly by
bands passing from a tinned cylinder (H) and the threads are twisted.
This twist goes first to the thin places where least resistance is offered
to it, leaving thick places almost untwisted ; the pull of the carriage,
therefore, causes the fibres to slip most readily where there are
fewest twists, and gives to a thread an approximation to uniformity
in diameter. For fine yarns the rollers cease to rotate slightly before
the carriage has attained the end of its outward run, or stretch, and
at such times all attenuation is due to the pull of the spindles upon
the threads. On the termination of a stretch the carriage stops, the
twisting is completed, the spindles reverse the direction of their
rotation to back off, or remove the yarn which is coiled round the
spindles above the winding point, and whilst one faller wire _(D),
operating on all the threads at once, descends to the winding position
of each spindle, the other rises to take up the yarn delivered by the
spindles. This completed, the carriage returns to the roller beam,
and in doing so the spindles revolve in their normal direction to wind
the stretch of 48 to 66 in. of yarn spun in the outward journey. AH
the foregoing movements are regulated to succeed each other in their
proper order, the termination of one operation being the initiation
of the next.

Crompton's original machine was controlled manually through-
out, but later he devised means for moving the carriage out mechani-
cally, for stopping the rollers at the proper time, and for locking the
carriage whilst the spindles added the final twist to the threads.
After which all parts became stationary and the manual operations
commenced. These consisted in backing off, operating the faller
wire, rotating the spindles and pushing the carriage home. In the
year 1785 the first steam-engine was employed for cotton spinning,
and in 1792 William Kelly placed the headstock of a mule, in which
the chief mechanism is situated, in the middle of the carriage,
instead of at one end. By this device one machine was doubled in
length, and shortly afterwards two mules, each of 300 to 400 spindles,
were allotted to one spinner and his assistants. Kelly also at-
tempted to control all parts of the machine mechanically, but in

3° 6

COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY

Fig. 9.

this he failed, as did Eaton, Smith and many others, although
each contributed something towards the solution of the problems in-
volved in automatic spinning. Eventually the hand mule became a
machine in which most of the work was done automatically; the
spinner being chiefly required to regulate the velocity of the backing
off, and the inward run of the carriage, and to actuate the falters.
As a result of these alterations the machine was made almost double
the length of Kelly's. In this state many mules continued to be
used until the last decade of the 19th century, and a few are still in
use. Between the years 1824 and 1830 Richard Roberts invented
mechanism that rendered all parts of the mule self-acting, the chief
parts of which are shown at (IJ), and they regulate the rotation
of the spindles during the inward run of the carriage. _ At first his
machine was only used to spin coarse and low-medium counts,
but it is now employed to spin all counts of yarn. Although numerous
changes have since been made in the self-acting mule, the
machine still bears indelible marks of the genius of Roberts.

For many purposes the threads as spun by the ring frame or the
mule are ready for the manufacturer ; but where extra strength or
smoothness is required, as in threads for sewing, crocheting, hosiery,
lace and carpets; also where multicoloured effects are needed, as in
Grandrelle, or some special form of irregularity, as in corkscrewed,
and knopped yarns, two or more single threads are compounded
and twisted together. This operation is known as doubling. In
order to prepare threads for doubling it may be necessary to wind
side by side upon a flanged bobbin, or upon a straight or a tapering
spool, from two to six threads before twisting them into one.

Winding machines for this purpose are of various kinds. There
are those in which the threads are laid evenly between the flanges
of a bobbin, and those that coil the threads upon a straight or a
tapering tube to form " cheeses." In the latter the tubes may be
laid upon diagonally split drums and rotated by frictional contact.
By placing each group of threads to be wound in the slit of a rotating
drum, it is drawn quickly to and fro and coiled upon a spool. If
solid instead of split drums be used, the guides for all the threads
on one side of a machine are attached to a bar, which is traversed
by a cam placed at one end of the frame. Or independent mechan-
ism may be provided throughout for treating each group of threads
to be wound. The bobbins or tubes may be filled from cops, ring
spools or hanks, but a stop motion is required for each thread,
which will come into operation immediately a fracture occurs.

Doubters. — In action doublers are continuous and intermittent.
The former resemble throstle and ring spinning machines, but since
they do not attenuate the material, only one line of rollers is pro-
vided. The folded material is placed in a creel and led through the
rollers to the spindles to be twisted in a wet or dry condition. If
wet, the moisture flattens down most of the protruding ends of the
fibres and produces a comparatively smooth thread; if dry, the
doubled yarn retains some of its furry character. There are two
types of continuous doublers, which are known respectively as
English and Scotch. By the English system of dry doubling the
yarn from the creel may be treated, on its way to the spindle, in
various ways to obtain the desired tension. It may be led under a
rod, over a guide, round and between the rollers, and round a glass
peg. For wet doubling, a trough containing water is placed behind
the rollers, and the yarn passes beneath a glass rod in the water,
thence over a guide, beneath, between and over the rollers to the
spindles. By the Scotch system the trough is placed below the

rollers, and the bottom roller is partly immersed in water. It is
claimed that this system wets the fibres more thoroughly than the
English one. For the purpose of twisting the strands together the
spindles may be provided either with flyers, as in throstle spinning,
or with rings and travellers, as in ring spinning. The twist is gener-
ally in the opposite direction to that in the single threads. When
more than three strands are required in a compound thread it is
customary to pass the material more than once through the doubler,
as, for example, in a sixfold thread, two strands may be first twisted
together in the same or in the opposite direction to the spinning
twist; after which the once-doubled thread is " cleared," folded, and
three strands of twofold yarn are twisted in the opposite direction
to that employed in the first operation. In some machines folding
and twisting proceed simultaneously, and some are furnished with
an automatic stop motion. But when twisting two threads together
to oppose the spinning twist, the failure of one causes the other to
untwist and break, therefore, under such circumstances a stop
motion is unnecessary.

Intermittent doublers are known as twinners, and these are of
two kinds, namely, English and French. In the former the spindles
are fitted in a stationary rail, but the creel, containing the cops or
ring spools, is mounted upon a carriage and moves in and out, as in
Hargreaves' spinning jenny (see Spinning). French twinners have a
stationary creel, and the spindles move in and out with the carriage,
as in the spinning mule. The material to be folded is often subjected
to the action of steam in order to render it less resilient, after which
it is mounted upon skewers in the creel, and two or three threads are
passed to each spindle to be twisted together and formed into a cop.
Between the creel and the spindles all the strands are kept equally
tense by drawing them over flannel-covered boards and under porce-
lain weights. For wet doubling, the strands pass through a trough
containing water, and the flannel surfaces are also wet.

Clearing. — After the first, or the final, doubling it is often necessary
to remove lumps, imperfect knots and loose fibres from a thread.
This is accomplished by passing each through a slit, or clearer, whose
width is adjusted to the diameter of the thread to be treated. By
this means anything which gives a thread abnormal bulk will be
prevented from passing the slit. Once through the slit, a thread
is coiled upon a friction-driven, double or single-headed bobbin.
If the former, the coils are evenly laid; if the latter, they are dis-
posed into a bottle shape Or, again, cheeses may be wound.

Gassing. — In cases where a thread with a smooth surface is re-
quired the ex'tending ends of fibres must be burned off. Thus:
each thread from a creel is drawn over a tension rod to two freely
mounted pulleys, having parallel grooves cut in their surfaces and
axes in the same horizontal plane. After bending a thread forward
and backward in the grooves of both pulleys, it passes through a
Bunsen flame and is coiled upon a tube, which is held against the
face of a rotating drum, while a vibrating guide distributes the thread
across the tube. The gas-burner is situated midway between the
grooved pulleys, and so mounted beneath the thread that it will
automatically swivel sideways and thus move the flame away from
a stationary thread. Winding begins slightly before the flame
moves beneath a thread, and the rapid motion of the latter permits
the flame to burn off undesirable matters without injuring the
thread.

Reeling. — Doubled or gassed yarn may be wound upon warpers'
bobbins and made into warps for the loom, or it may be reeled into

COTYS— COUCY-LE-CHATEAU

307

hanks for the preparing and finishing processes. But a reel hanks
yarns for bleaching, dyeing, printing, polishing and bundling, and
is adapted for cops, ring spools, doubling bobbins or cheeses. From
cops, ring spools and cheeses the yarn is usually drawn over one
end, but flanged bobbins are mounted upon spindles and the yarn is
drawn from the side. A reel has a circumference of 54 in., and after
making 80 or 560 revolutions it automatically stops; the first gives
a lea of 120 yds. and the last a hank of 840 yds. For grant reeling,
however, a hank may be from 5000 to 10,000 yds. long. Reeling is
of two kinds, namely, open and crossed. Open reeling forms leas,
and seven of these are united in one hank by a lease band which
retains the divisions. In cross reeling a thread is traversed over
a portion of the reel surface by a reciprocating guide to form a
hank without divisions. On the completion of a set of hanks
the reel is made to collapse and thus facilitate the removal of the
yarn.

Bundling Press. — Hanks are made into short or long bundles,
each weighing 5 or 10 lb. In short bundles it is usual to form
groups of ten hanks, and these are twisted together, folded and
compressed into bundles; but in long bundles the hanks are com-
pressed without being folded. A press consists of a strong table upon
which a box, with open ends, is formed. The bottom of this box
is grooved transversely and made to rise and fall by wheel gearing
or by eccentrics. The sides and top are made of vertical and hori-
zontal bars, set to coincide with the grooves in the bottom. To
one set of vertical bars a similar number of horizontal top pieces are
hinged, and to the other set levers are jointed, which hold the hori-
zontal bars in position. When the hinged bars are turned up, strings
are drawn through the grooves, and the bottom is covered with stout
paper. The hanks are then laid in the box, another paper is placed
above them, and the hinged bars are drawn down and locked. The
bottom then rises a predetermined distance, and automatically
stops. While in this position the strings are tied, the bottom of
the press next descends, and the bundle is removed. (T. W. F.)

COTYS, a name common to several kings of Thrace. The most
important of them, a cruel and drunken tyrant, who began to
reign in 382 B.C., was involved with the Athenians in a dispute
for the possession of the Thracian Chersonese. In this he was
assisted by the Athenian Iphicrates, to whom he had given his
daughter in marriage. On the revolt of Ariobarzanes from
Persia, Cotys opposed him and his ally, the Athenians. In
358 he was murdered by the sons of a man whom he had
wronged.

See Cornelius Nepos, Iphicrates, Timotheus; Xenophon, Agesilaus;
Demosthenes, Contra Aristocratem; Theopompus in Miiller, Frag-
menta Historicorum Graecorum, i.

COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897), American soldier, was
born at South East, Putnam county, N.Y., on the 23rd of July
1822, and graduated from West Point in 1846, serving in the
Mexican war and in the war against the Seminole Indians. He
left the army in 1855, but soon after the outbreak of the civil war
he was made a brigadier-general U.S. V. He served as a divisional
commander in the battles of the Army of the Potomac in 1862,
and at Fredericksburg (December 1862) and Chancellorsville
(May 1863) he commanded the II. corps. He had been made
a major-general U.S.V. in July 1862. During the Gettysburg
campaign he was employed in organizing the Pennsylvanian
militia, and he subsequently served in the West, taking part in the
battle of Nashville, and in the final operations in the Carolinas.
He left the army after the war. General Couch died on the 1 2th
of February 1897 at Norwalk, Connecticut.

COUCY, LE CHATELAIN DE, French irouvire of the 12th
century. He is probably the Guy de Couci who was castellan of
the castle of that name from 1186 to 1203. Some twenty-six
songs are attributed to him, and about fifteen or sixteen are
undoubtedly authentic. They are modelled very closely on
Provencal originals, but are saved from the category of mere
imitations by a grace and simplicity peculiar to the author.
The legend of the love of the Chatelain de Coucy and the Lady
of Fayel, in which there figures a jealous husband who makes his
wife eat the heart of her lover, has no historical basis, and dates
from a late 13th century romance by Jakemon Sakesep. It is
worth noting that the story, which seems to be Breton in origin,
has been also told of a Provencal troubadour, Guilhem de Cabes-
taing, and of the minnesinger Reinmar von Brennenberg. Pierre
de Belloy, who wrote some account of the family of Couci, made
the story the subject of his tragedy Gabrielle de Vergy.

The songs of the Chatelain de Coucy were edited by Fritz Fath

(Heidelberg, 1883). For the romance see Gaston Paris, in the Hist,
litt. de la France (vol. 28, pp. 352-360). An exquisite song, " Chanterai
por mon courage," expressing a woman's regrets for her lover at the
Crusade, is attributed in one MS., probably erroneously, to the Lady
of Fayel (Hist. litt. xxiii. 556). An English metrical romance of
" The Knight, of Curtesy," and the " Fair Lady of Faguell," was
printed by William Copland, and reprinted in Ritson's Eng. Metrical
Romances (ed. E. Goldsmid, vol. iii., 1885).

COUCY-LE-CHATEAU, a village of northern France, in the
department of Aisne, 18 m. W.S!W. of Laon on a branch of the
Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 663. It has extensive remains of
fortifications of the 13th century, the most remarkable feature of
which is the Porte de Laon, a gateway flanked by massive towers
and surmounted by a fine apartment. Coucy also has a church of
the 15th century, preserving a facade in the Romanesque style.
The importance of the place is due, however, to the magnificent
ruins of a feudal fortress (see Castle) crowning the eminence
on the slope of which the village is built. The remains, which
embrace an area of more than 10,000 sq. yds., form an irregular
quadrilateral built round a court-yard and flanked by four huge
towers. The nucleus of the stronghold is a donjon over 200 ft.
high and over 100 ft. in diameter, standing on the south side
of the court. Three large vaulted apartments, one above the
other, occupy its interior. The court-yard was surrounded on the
ground-floor by storehouses, kitchens, &c, above which on the
west and north sides were the great halls known as the Salle des
preux and the Salle des preuses. A chapel projected from the
west wing. The bailey or base-court containing other buildings
and covering three times the area of the chateau extended
between it and the village. The architectural unity of the
fortress is due to the rapidity of its construction, which took
place between 1230 and 1242, under Enguerrand III., lord of
Coucy. A large part of the buildings was restored or enlarged
at the end of the 14th century by Louis d'Orleans, brother of
Charles VI., by whom it had been purchased. The place was
dismantled in 1652 by order of Cardinal Mazarin. It is now
state property. In 1856 researches were carried on upon the spot
by Viollet-le-Duc, and measures for the preservation of the ruins
were subsequently undertaken.

Sires de Coucy. — Coucy gave its name to the sires de Coucy, a
feudal house famous in the history of France. The founder of the
family was Enguerrand de Boves, a warlike lord, who, at the end of
the nth century seized the castle of Coucy by force. Towards
the close of his life, he had to fight against his own son, Thomas
de Marie, who in 1115 succeeded him, subsequently becoming
notorious for his deeds of violence in the struggles between the
communes of Laon and Amiens. He was subdued by King Louis
VI. in 1 117, but his son Enguerrand II. continued the struggle
against the king. Enguerrand III., the Great, fought at Bouvines
under Philip Augustus (12 14), but later he was accused of
aiming at the crown of France, and he took part in the disturb-
ances which arose during the regency of Blanche of Castile.
These early lords of Coucy remained till the 14th century in
possession of the land from which they took their name.
Enguerrand IV., sire de Coucy, died in 1320 without issue and was
succeeded by his nephew Enguerrand, son of Arnold, count of
Guines, and Alix de Coucy, from whom is descended the second
fine of the house of Coucy. Enguerrand VI. had his lands
ravaged by the English in 1339 and died at Crecy in 1346.
Enguerrand VII., sire de Coucy, count of Soissons and Marie, and
chief butler of France, was sent as a hostage to England, where he
married Isabel, the eldest daughter of King Edward III. Wish-
ing to remain neutral in the struggle between England and
France, he went to fight in Italy. Having made claims upon the
domains of the house of Austria, from which he was descended
through his mother, he was defeated in battle (1375-1376). He
was entrusted with various diplomatic negotiations, and took
part in the crusade of Hungary against the Sultan Bayezid,
during which he was taken prisoner, and died shortly after the
battle of Nicopolis (1397). His daughter Marie sold the fief of
Coucy to Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1400. The Chatelain de
Coucy (see above) did not belong to the house of the lords of
Coucy, but was castellan of the castle of that name.

3 o8

COUES— COUMARIN

COUES, ELLIOTT (1842-1899), American naturalist, was born
at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 9th of September 1842.
He graduated at Columbian (nowGeorge Washington) University,
Washington, D.C., in 1861, and at the Medical school of that
institution in 1863. He served as a medical cadet at Washington
in 1862-1863, and in 1864 was appointed assistant-surgeon in the
regular army. In 1872 he published his Key to North American
Birds, which, revised and rewritten in 1884 and 1901, has done
much to promote the systematic study of ornithology in America.
In 1873-1876 Coues was attached as surgeon and naturalist to the
United States Northern Boundary Commission, and in 1876-1880
was secretary and naturalist to the United States Geological and
Geographical Survey of the Territories, the publications of which
he edited. He was lecturer on anatomy in the medical school
of the Columbian University in 1877-1882, and professor of
anatomy there in 1882-1887. He resigned from the army in 1881
to devote himself entirely to scientific research. He was a
founder of the American Ornithologists' Union, and edited its
organ, The A uk, and several other ornithological periodicals. He
died at Baltimore, Maryland, on the 25th of December 1899.
In addition to ornithology he did valuable work in mammalogy;
his book Fur-Bearing Animals (1877) being distinguished by the
accuracy and completeness of its description of species, several of
which are already becoming rare. In 1887 he became president of
the Esoteric Theosophical Society of America. Among the most
important of his publications, in several of which he had collabora-
tion, are A Field Ornithology (1874) ; Birds of the North-west (1874) ;
Monographs on North American Rodentia, with J. A. Allen (1877) ;
Birds of the Colorado Valley (1878); A Bibliography of Ornithology
(1878-1880, incomplete); New England Bird Life (1881); A
Dictionary and Check List of North American Birds (1882);
Biogen, A Speculation on the Origin and Motive of Life (1884);
The Daemon of Darwin (1884); Can Matter Think ? (1886); and
Neuro-Myology (1887). He also contributed numerous articles
to the Century Dictionary, wrote for various encyclopaedias, and
edited the Journals of Lewis and Clark (1893), and The Travels of
Zebulon M. Pike (1895).

COULISSE (French for " groove," from couler, to slide), a term
for a groove in which a gate of a sluice, or the side-scenes in a
theatre, slide up and down, hence applied to the space on the
stage between the wings, and generally to that part of the theatre
" behind the scenes " and out of view of the public. It is also
a term of the Paris Bourse, derived from a coulisse, or passage
in which transactions were carried on without the authorized
agents de change. The name coulissier was thus given to un-
authorized agents de change, or " outside brokers " who, after
many attempts at suppression, were finally given a recognized
status in 1901. They bring business to the agents de change, and
act as intermediaries between them and other parties. (See
Stock Exchange: Paris.)

COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1736-1806), French
natural philosopher, was born at Angouleme on the 14th of June
1736. He chose the profession of military engineer, spent three
years, to the decided injury of his health, at Fort Bourbon,
Martinique, and was employed on his return at Rochelle, the
Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. In 1781 he was stationed permanently
at Paris, but on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he
resigned his appointment as intendant des eaux et fontaines, and
retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was
recalled to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new
determination of weights and measures, which had been decreed
by the Revolutionary government. Of the National Institute he
was one of the first members; and he was appointed inspector
of public instruction in 1802. But his health was already very
feeble, and four years later he died at Paris on the 23rd of
August 1806. Coulomb is distinguished in the history alike of
mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779 he pub-
lished an important investigation of the laws of friction (Theorie
des machines simples, en ay ant regard au frottement de leurs parties
et a la roideur des cordages) , which was followed twenty years later
by a memoir on fluid resistance. In 1 785 appeared his Recherches
thioriques et experimentales sur la force de torsion et sur I'elasliciti

des fils de mital, &c. This memoir contained a description of
different forms of his torsion balance, an instrument used by him
with great success for the experimental investigation of the
distribution of electricity on surfaces and of the laws of electrical
and magnetic action, of the mathematical theory of which he may
also be regarded as the founder. The practical unit of quantity
of electricity, the coulomb, is named after him.

COULOMMIERS, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 45 m. E.
of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 5217. It is situated in the fertile
district of Brie, in a valley watered by the Grand-Morin. The
church of St Denis (13th and 16th centuries), and the ruins of a
castle built by Catherine of Gonzaga, duchess of Longueville,
in the early 17th century, are of little importance. There is a
statue to Commandant Beaurepaire, who, in 1792, killed him-
self rather than surrender Verdun to the Prussians. Coulom-
miers is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Printing is the chief industry,
tanning, flour-milling and sugar-making being also carried on.
Trade is in agricultural products, and especially in cheeses
named after the town.

COUMARIN, C9H 6 02, a substance which occurs naturally in
sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), in the tonka bean and in
yellow melilot (Melilotus officinalis) . It can be obtained from the
tonka bean by extraction with alcohol. It is prepared artificially
by heating aceto-ortho-coumaric acid (which is formed from
sodium salicyl aldehyde) or from the action of acetic anhydride
and sodium acetate on salicyl aldehyde (Sir W. H. Pcrkin,
Berichte, 1873, 8, p. 1599). It can also be prepared by heating a
mixture of phenol and malic acid with sulphuric acid, or by
passing bromine vapour at 107 C. over the anhydride of melilotic
acid. It forms rhombic crystals (from ether) melting at 67 C.
and boiling at 290 C, which are readily soluble in alcohol, and
moderately soluble in hot water. It is applied in perfumery
for the preparation of the Asperula essence. On boiling with
concentrated caustic potash it yields the potassium salt of
coumaric acid, whilst when fused with potash it is completely
decomposed into salicylic and acetic acids. Sodium amalgam
reduces it, in aqueous solution, to melilotic acid. It forms
addition products with bromine and hydrobromic acid. By
the - action of phosphorus pentasulphide it is converted into
thiocoumarin, which melts at 101° C; and in alcoholic solution,
on the addition of hydroxylamine hydrochloride and soda, it
yields coumarin oxime.

Ortho-coumaric acid (o-oxycinnamic acid) is obtained from
coumarin as shown above, or by boiling coumarin for some time
with sodium ethylate. It melts at 208° C. and is easily soluble in
hot water and in alcohol. It cannot be converted into coumarin
by heating alone, but it is readily transformed on heating with
acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. By the action of sodium
amalgam it is readily converted into melilotic acid, which melts at
8i° C, and on distillation furnishes its lactone, hydrocoumarin,
melting at 25 C. For the relations of coumaric and coumarinic
acid see Annalen, 254, p. 181. The homologues of coumarin may
be obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on phenol and the
higher fatty acids (propionic, butyric and isovaleric anhydrides) ,
substitution taking place at the carbon atom in the a position to
the -CO- group, whilst by the condensation of acetoacetic
ester and phenols with sulphuric acid the )3 substituted coumarins
are obtained.

Umbelliferone or 4-oxycoumarin, occurs in the bark of Daphne
mezereum and may be obtained by distilling such resins as
galbanum or asafoetida. It may be synthesized from resorcin
and malic anhydride or from (3 resorcyl aldehyde, acetic
anhydride and sodium acetate. Daphnetin and Aesculelin are
dioxy coumarins.

The structural formulae of coumarin and the related substances
are: ,

CH

Orthocoumaric acid.

Melilotic acid.

H ydrocoumarin .

COUMARONES— COUNCIL

3°9

COUMARONES or Benzofttrfuranes, organic compounds

PH

containing the ring system C 6 H 4 <^ Q 5>CH. This ring system

may be synthesized in many different ways, the chief methods
employed being as follows: by the action of hot alcoholic
potash on a-bromcoumarin(R. Fittig, Ann., 1883, 216, p. 162),

C 6 H 4 <Q H (,Q Br -^C 6 H<Q H >C-COOH->C 6 H<o H >CH;

from sodium salts of phenols and a-chloracetoacetic ester (A.
Hantzsch, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1292),

H COPH i-*Cri3

C6H4 <ONa^Cl-CH-COOR"^' C6H4 <0^ >C,COOR;

or from ortho-oxyaldehydes by condensation with ketones

(S. Kostanecki and J. lambor, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 237), or with

chloracetic acid (A. Rossing, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 3000),

-OH CH 3 CO-C e H 6 „ „ ^-OH " 2 Br

CeH4<

■CHO"

->C 6 H 4 < CH . ch-COCcHs

■->

C6U4< ^CHBr-CHBr-COC 6 H 6 >UH4<^ CH ^C-CUl, 6 H s ,

OH Cl-CH 2 -COOH CHO CH 3 COONa
C 6 H4<. CHO > C6H4< --0-CH 2 -COOH >

C 6 H 4 <

;™>c-cooh.

The parent substance coumarone, CsH 6 0, is also obtained
by heating u-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol with concentrated potash
solution (G. Komppa, Ber., 1893, 26. p. 2971),

C 6 H 4 <^qjj ^C 6 H 4 <^ q ^>CH.

It is a colourless liquid which boils at 171-1 72 C. and is readily
volatile in steam, but is insoluble in water and in potash solution.
Concentrated acids convert it into a resin. When heated with
sodium and absolute alcohol, it is converted into hydrocoumarone,
CsHgO, and ethyl phenol.

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal,
to call), the general word for a convocation, meeting, assembly.
The Latin word was frequently confused with consilium (from
consulere, to deliberate, cf. consul), advice, i.e. counsel, and thus
specifically an advisory assembly. Du Cange (Gloss. Med.
Infim. Latin.) quotes the Greek words avvodos, ovvkSpiov,
ovijfiovXiov as the equivalent of concilium. In French the
distinction between conseil (from consilium), advice, and
concile, council (i.e. ecclesiastical — its only meaning) has survived,
but the two English derivatives are much confused. In the New
Testament, " council " is the rendering of the Hebrew Sanhedrin,
Gr. avvkbpuov. The word is generally used in English for all
kinds of congregations or convocations assembled for adminis-
trative and deliberative purposes. 1

The present article is confined to a history of the development
of the ecclesiastical council, summoned to adjust matters in
dispute with the civil authority or for the settlement of doctrinal
and other internal disputes. For details see under separate
headings, Nicaea, &c.

From a very early period in the history of the Church, councils
or synods have been held to decide on matters of doctrine and
discipline. They may be traced back to the second half of the
2nd century a.d., when sundry churches in Asia Minor held
consultations about the rise of Montanism. Their precise origin
is disputed. The common Roman Catholic view is that they are
apostolic though not prescribed by divine law, and the apostolic
precedent usually cited is the " council " of Jerusalem (Acts xv. ;
Galatians ii.). Waiving the consideration of vital critical
questions and accepting Acts xv. at its face value, the assembly at
Jerusalem would scarcely seem to have been a council in the
technical sense of the word; it was in essence a meeting of the
Jerusalem church at which delegates from Antioch were heard
but apparently had no vote, the decision resting solely with the
mother church. R. Sohm argues that synods grew from the
custom of certain local churches which, when confronted with a

1 For the Greek Council see Boule ; for the Hebdomadal Council
see Oxford; see also England: Local Government.

serious problem of their own, augmented their numbers by
receiving delegates from the churches of the neighbourhood.
Hauck, however, holds that these augmented church meetings,
which dealt with the affairs of but a single church, are to be
distinguished from the synods, which took cognizance of matters
of general interest. Older Protestant writers have contented
themselves with saying either that synods were of apostolic
origin, or that they were the inevitable outcome of the need of
the leaders of churches to take counsel together, and that they
were perhaps modelled on the secular provincial assemblies
(concilia provincialia).

Every important alteration in the constitution of the Church
has affected the composition and function of synods; but the
changes were neither simultaneous nor precisely alike throughout
the Roman empire. The synods of the 2nd century were extra-
ordinary assemblies which met to deliberate upon pressing
problems. They had no fixed geographical liir.its for membership,
no ex-officio members, nor did they possess an authority which
did away with the independence of the local church. In the
course of the 3rd century came the decisive change, which
increased the prestige of the councils: the right to vote was
limited to bishops. This was the logical outgrowth of the
belief that each local church ought to have but one bishop
(monarchical episcopate), and that these bishops were the sole
legitimate successors of the apostles (apostolic succession), and
therefore official organs of the Holy Spirit. Although as late as
250 the consensus of the priests, the deacons and the people was
still considered essential to the validity of a conciliar decision at
Rome and in certain parts of the East, the development had
already run its course in northern Africa. It was a further step
in advance when synods began to meet at regular intervals.
They were held annually in Cappadocia by the middle of the 3rd
century, and the council of Nicaea commanded in 325 that semi-
annual synods be held in every province, an arrangement which
was not systematically enforced, and was altered in 692, when
the Trullan Council reduced the number to one a year.

With the multiplication of synods came naturally a differentia-
tion of type. In text-books we find clear lines drawn between
diocesan, provincial, national, patriarchal and oecumenical
synods; but the first thousand years of church history do not
justify the sharpness of the traditional distinction. The pro-
vincial synods, presided over by the metropolitan (archbishop),
were usually held at the capital of the province, and attempted
to legislate on all sorts of questions. The state had nothing to do
with calling them, nor did their decrees require governmental
sanction. Various abortive attempts were made to set up
synods of patriarchal or at least of more than provincial rank.
In North Africa eighteen such synods were held between 393 and
424; during part of the 5th and 6th centuries primatial councils
assembled at Aries; and the patriarchs of Constantinople were
accustomed to invite to their " endemic synods " (aivchoi
ev&qiwvcraL) all bishops who happened to be sojourning at the
capital. Papal synods from the 5th and especially from the 9th
century onward included members such as the archbishops of
Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia and Grado, who resided outside the
Roman archdiocese; but the .territorial limits from which the
membership was drawn do not appear to have been precisely
defined.

Before the form of the provincial synod had become absolutely
fixed, there arose in the 4th century the oecumenical council.
The Greek term avvobos olnovij.evudi* (1) (used by Eusebius,
Vita Constantini, iii. 6) is preferable to the Latin concilium
universale or generale, which has been applied loosely to national
and even to provincial synods. The oecumenical synods were not
the logical outgrowth of the network of provincial synods; they
were creations of the imperial power. Constantine, who had not
even been baptized, laid the foundations when, in response to a
petition of the Donatists, he referred their case to a committee of
bishops that convened at Rome, which meeting Eusebius calls a

2 From 17 oUovfiivri (yv). the inhabited world; Latin oecu-
menicus or universalis. The English forms "oecumenical" and
"ecumenical" are both used.

3io

COUNCIL

synod. After that the emperor summoned the council of Aries to
settle the matter. For both of these assemblies it was the emperor
that decided who should be summoned, paid the travelling
expenses of the bishops, determined where the council should be
held and what topics should be discussed. He regarded them
as temporary advisory bodies, to whose recommendations the
imperial authority might give the force of law. In the same
manner he appointed the time and place for the council of
Nicaea, summoned the episcopate, paid part of the expenses out
of the public purse, nominated the committee in charge of the
order of business, used his influence to bring about the adoption
of the creed, and punished those who refused to subscribe. To be
sure, the council of Nicaea commanded great veneration, for it
was the first attempt to assemble the entire episcopate; but no
more than the synods of Rome and of Aries was it an organ of
ecclesiastical self-government — it was rather a means whereby
the Church was ruled by the secular power. The subsequent
oecumenical synods of the undivided Church were patterned on
that of Nicaea. Most Protestant scholars maintain that the
secular authorities decided whether or not they should be
convened, and issued the summons; that imperial commissioners
were always present, even if they did not always preside; that on
occasion emperors have confirmed or refused to confirm synodal
decrees ; and that the papal confirmation was neither customary
nor requisite. Roman Catholic scholars to-day tend to recede
from the high ground very generally taken several centuries ago,
and Funk even admits that the right to convoke oecumenical
synods was vested in the emperor regardless of the wishes of the
pope, and that it cannot be proved that the Roman see ever
actually had a share in calling the oecumenical councils of
antiquity. Others, however, while acknowledging the futility of
seeking historical proofs that the popes formally called, directed
and confirmed these synods, yet assert that the emperor per-
formed these functions not of his own right but in his quality as
protector of the Church, that this involved his acting at the
request or at least with the permission and approval of the
Church, and in particular of the pope, and that a special though
not a stereotyped papal confirmation of conciliar decrees was
necessary to their validity.

In the Germanic states which arose on the ruins of the Western
Empire we find national, and diocesan synods; provincial synods
were unusual. National synods were summoned by the king or
with his consent to meet special needs ; and they were frequently
concilia mixta, at which lay dignitaries appeared. Although the
Frankish monarchs were not abolute rulers, nevertheless they
exercised the right of changing or rejecting synodal decrees
which ran counter to the interests of the state. Clovis held the
first French national synod at Orleans in 511; Reccared, the
first in Spain in 589 at Toledo. Under Charlemagne they were
occasionally so representative that they might almost be ranked
as general synods of the West (Regensburg, 792, Frankfort, 794).
Contemporaneous with the evolution of the national synod was
the development of a new type of diocesan synod, which included
the priests of separate and mutually independent parishes and
also the leaders of the monastic clergy.

The papal synods came into the foreground with the success of
the Cluniac reform of the Church, especially from the Lateran
synod of 1059 on. They grew in importance until at length
Calixtus II. summoned to the Lateran the synod of n 23 as
" generate concilium." The powers which the pope as bishop of
the church in Rome had exercised over its synods he now extended
to the oecumenical councils. They were more completely under
his control than the ancient ones had been under the sway of the
emperor. The Pseudo-Isidorean principle that all major synods
need papal authorization was insisted on, and the decrees were
formulated as papal edicts.

The absolutist principles cherished by the papal court in the
1 2th and 13th centuries did not pass unchallenged; but the
protests of Marsilius of Padua and the less radical William of
Occam remained barren until the Great Schism of 1378. As
neither the pope in Rome nor his rival in Avignon would give way,
recourse was had to the idea that the supreme power was vested

not in the pope but in the oecumenical council. This " conciliar
theory," propounded by Conrad of Gelnhausen and championed
by the great Parisian teachers Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson, pro-
ceeded from the nominalistic axiom that the whole is greater
than its part. The decisive revolutionary step was taken when
the cardinals independently of both popes ventured to hold the
council of Pisa (1409). The council of Constance asserted the
supremacy of oecumenical synods, and ordered that these be
convened at regular intervals. The last of the Reform councils,
that of Basel, appoved these principles, and at length passed a
sentence of deposition against Pope Eugenius IV. Eugenius,
however, succeeded in maintaining his power, and at the council
of Florence (1439) secured the condemnation of the conciliar
theory; and this was reiterated still more emphatically, on the
eve of the Reformation, by the fifth Lateran council (1516).
Thenceforward the absolutist theories of the 13th and 14th
centuries increasingly dominated the Roman Church. The
popes so distrusted oecumenical councils that between 15 17 and
1869 they called but one; at this (Trent, 1545-1563), however,
all treatment of the question of papal versus conciliar authority
was purposely avoided. Although the Declaration of the French
clergy of 1682 reaffirmed the conciliar doctrines of Constance,
since the French Revolution this " Gallicanism " has shown
itself to be but a passing phase of constitutional theory; and in
the 19th century the ascendancy of Ultramontanism became so
secure that Pius IX. could confidently summon to the Vatican a
synod which set its seal on the doctrine of papal infallibility. Yet
it would be a misconception to suppose that the Vatican decrees
mean the surrender of the ancient belief in the infallibility of
oecumenical synods; their decisions may still be regarded as
more solemn and more impressive than those of the pope alone;
their authority is fuller, though not higher. At present it is
agreed that the pope has the sole right of summoning oecumenical
councils, of presiding or appointing presidents and of determining
the order of business and the topics which shall come up. The
papal confirmation is indispensable; it is conceived of as the
stamp without which the expression of conciliar opinion lacks
legal validity. In other words, the oecumenical council is now
practically in the position of the senate of an absolute monarch.
It is in fact an open question whether a council is to be ranked as
really oecumenical until after its decrees have been approved by the
pope. (See Vatican Council, Ultramontanism, Infallibility.)

The earlier oecumenical councils have well been called " the
pitched battles of church history." Summoned to combat
heresy and schism, in spite of degrading pressure from without
and tumultuous disorder within, they ultimately brought about
a modicum of doctrinal agreement. On the one side as time went
on they bound scholarship hand and foot in the winding-sheet of
tradition, and also fanned the flames of intolerance; yet on the
other side they fostered the sense of the Church's corporate
oneness. The diocesan and provincial synods have formed a
valuable system of regularly recurring assemblies for disposing of
ecclesiastical business. They have been held most frequently,
however, in times of stress and of reform, for instance in the nth,
1 6th and 19th centuries; at other periods they have lapsed into
disuse: it is significant that to-day the prelate who neglects to
convene them suffers no penalty. At present the main function
of both provincial and oecumenical synods seems to be to facilitate
obedience to the wishes of the central government of the Church.

The right to vote (votuin definitivum) has been distinguished
from early times from the right to be heard (votum consultativum) .
The Reform Synods of the 15th century gave a decisive vote to
doctors and licentiates of theology and of laws, some of them
sitting as individuals, some as representatives of universities.
Roman Catholic canonists now confine the right to vote at
oecumenical councils to bishops, cardinal deacons, generals or
vicars general of monastic orders and the praelali nullius (exempt
abbots, &c.) ; all other persons, lay or clerical, who are admitted
or invited, have merely the votum consultativum — they are
chiefly procurators of absent bishops, or very learned priests.
It was but a clumsy and temporary expedient, designed to offset
the preponderance of Italian bishops dependent on the pope

COUNCIL

'3"'

when the council of Constance subdivided itself into several
groups or " nations," each of which had a single vote. In
voting, the simple majority decides; yet such is the importance
attached to a unanimous verdict that an irreconcilable minority
may absent itself from the final vote, as was the case at the
Vatican Council.

The numbering of oecumenical synods is not fixed; the list
most used in the Roman Church to-day is that of Hefele {Con-

ciliengeschichte, 2nd ed., I. 59 f.) :

A.D.

1.

Nicaea I.

• 325

2.

Constantinople I. .

38i

3-

Ephesus

431

4-

Chalcedon

45 1

5-

Constantinople II.

553

6.

Constantinople III.

680

7-

Nicaea II.

787

8.

Constantinople IV.

869

9-

Lateran I.

1 123

10.

Lateran II. .

1 139

11.

Lateran III. .

1 179

12.

Lateran IV. .

1215

13-

Lyons I.

1245

14.

Lyons II.

1274

15-

Vienne .

131 1

16.

Constance (in part)

. 1414-1418

17a.

Basel (in part)

... 1431 ff.

17b.

Ferrara-Florence (a

continuation

of Basel)

• H38-I44 2

18.

Lateran V.

. 1512-1517

19.

Trent

■ 1 545-1 563

20.

Vatican .

. i8(

59-1870

(Each of these and certain other important synods are treated in
separate articles.)

By including Pisa (1409) and by treating Florence as a separate
synod, certain writers have brought the number of oecumenical
councils up to twenty-two. These standard lists are of the type
which became established through the authority of Cardinal
R. F. Bellarmine (1542-1621), who criticized Constance and
Basel, while defending Florence and the fifth Lateran council
against the Gallicans. As late as the 16th century, however,
" the majority did not regard those councils in which the Greek
Church did not take part as oecumenical at all " (Harnack,
History of Dogma, vi. 17). The Greek Church accepts only the
first seven synods as oecumenical; and it reckons the Trullan
synod of 692 (the Quinisextum) as a continuation of the sixth
oecumenical synod of 680. But concerning the first seven
councils it should be remarked that Constantinople I. was but a
general synod of the East; its claim to oecumenicity rests upon
its reception by the West about two centuries later. Similarly
the only representatives of the West present at Constantinople II.
were certain Africans; the pope did not accept the decrees till
afterwards and they made their way in the West but gradually.
Just as there have been synods which have come to be considered
oecumenical though not convoked as such, so there have been
synods which though summoned as oecumenical, failed of
recognition: for instance Sardica (343), Ephesus (449), Con-
stantinople (754). The last two received the imperial confirma-
tion and from the legal point of view were no whit inferior to the
others; their decrees, however, were overthrown by subsequent
synods. As the Protestant leaders of the 16th century held fast
the traditional christology, they regarded with veneration the
dogmatic decisions of Nicaea I., Constantinople I., Ephesus and
Chalcedon. These four councils had enjoyed a more or less
fortuitous pre-eminence both in Roman and in canon law, and by
many Catholics at the time of the Reformation were regarded,
along with the three great creeds (Apostles', Nicene, Athanasian) ,
as a sort of irreducible minimum of orthodoxy. In the 17th
century the liberal Lutheran George Calixtus based his attempts
at reuniting Christendom on this consensus quinquesaecularis.
Many other Protestants have accepted Constantinople II. and
III. as supporting the first four councils; and still others,
notably many Anglican high churchmen, have felt bound by all
the oecumenical synods of the undivided Church. The common
Protestant attitude toward synods is, however, that they may
err and have erred, and that the Scriptures and not conciliar

decisions are the sole infallible standard of faith, morals and
worship.

Protestant Councils. — The churches of the Reformation have all
had a certain measure of synodal life. The Church of England
has maintained its ancient provincial synods or convocations,
though for the greater part of the 18th and the first part of the
19th centuries they transacted no business. In the Lutheran
churches of Germany there was no strong agitation in favour of
introducing synods until the 19th century, when a movement,
designed to render the churches less dependent on the govern-
mental consistories, won its way, until at length Prussia itself
fell into line (1873 and 1876). As the powers granted to the
German synods are very limited, many of their advocates have
been disillusioned; but the Lutheran churches of America,
being independent of the state, have developed synods both
numerous and potent. In the Reformed churches outside
Germany synodal life is vigorous; its forms were developed by
the Huguenots in days of persecution, and passed thence to
Scotland and other presbyterian countries. Even many of the
churches of congregational polity have organized national
councils (see Congregationalism) ; but here the principle of the
independence of the local church prevents the decisions from
binding those congregations which do not approve of the decrees.
Moreover, in the last decade of the 19th century a growing
desire for a rapprochement between the Free Churches in the
United Kingdom as a whole led to the annual assembly of the
Free Church Council for the consideration of all matters affecting
the dissenting bodies. This body has no executive or doctrinal
authority and is rather a conference than a council. In general
it may be said that synods are becoming more and more powerful
in Protestant lands, and that they are destined to still greater
prominence because of the growing sentiment for Christian
unity.

Authorities. — General Collections: Collectio regia (Paris,
1644, 37 vols.) (the first very extensive work) ; P. Labbe (not Labbe)
and G. Cossart,. Sacrosancta concilia (Paris, 1672, 17 vols.), with
supplement by Etienne Baluze (Baluzius), 1683 (based on above);
J. Hardouin (Harduinus), Conciliorum collectio regia maxima (Paris,
1715), 11 tomi in 12 vols, (to 1714; more exact; indexed; serious
omissions); enlarged edition by N. Coletus (Venice, 1 728-1 732),
supplemented by J. D. Mansi, Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum
nova collectio (Lucca, 1748, 6 tomi). Convenient but fallible is
Mansi's Sacrorum conciliorum et decretorum nova et amplissima
collectio (Florence, 1759-1767; completed Venice, 1 769-1 798, 31
vols.); facsimile reproduction by Welter (Paris, 1901 ff.), adding
(torn. O) Introductio seu apparatus ad sacrosancta concilia, and
(torn. 17B and 18B) Baluze, Capitularia regum Francorum, and con-
tinuing to' date by reproducing parts of Coletus and of Mansi's
supplement to Coletus, and furnishing (torn. 37 ff.) a new edition
of the councils from 1720 on by J. B. Martin and L. Petit. A careful
text of Roman Catholic synods from 1682 to 1870 is Collectio Lacensis
(Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum, Friburgi, 1870 ff.),
7 vols.

Special Collections: Great Britain: Concilia Magnae
Britanniae et Hiberniae, ed. D. Wilkins (London, 1737, 4 vols.);
Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and
Ireland, ed. by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (Oxford, 1869 ff., 4
vols.) ; J. W. Joyce, Handbook of the Convocations or Provincial
Synods of the Church of England (London, 1887); Concilia Scotiae
(1225-1559), ed. Joseph Robertson (Edinburgh, Bannatyne Club,
1866, 2 torn.).

United States : Collectio Lacensis (Roman Catholic synods) ;
The American Church History Series (New York, 1893 S. l 3 vols.)
gives information on the various Protestant synods.

France. — Concilia aevi Merovingici, rec. F. Maassen (Hanover,
1893) (Monumenta Germaniae historica, Legum sectio iii., Concilia,
torn, i.) ; Concilia antiqua Galliae, cur. J. Sirmond (Paris, 1629, 3
vols.) ; supplement by P. de la Lande (Paris, 1666) ; L. Odespun,
Concilia novissima Galliae (Paris, 1646); Conciliorum Galliae tarn
editorum quam ineditorum, stud. congreg.S.Mauri,tom.i. (Paris, 1789).
Synods of the Reformed Churches of France are contained in J. Quick,
Synodicon in Gallia reformata (London, 1692, 2 vols.); J. Aymon,
Tous les synodes nationaux des eglises reformees de France (La Haye,
1710, 2 vols.); E. Hugues, Les Synodes du desert (Paris, 1885 f., 3
vols.). For the synods of other countries see Herzog-Hauck, 3rd
ed., 19,262 f., and Wetzer and Welte, 2nd ed., 3809 f.

Less Elaborate Texts: Canones apostolorum et conciliorum
saeculorum, iv.-vii., rec. H. T. Bruns (Berlin, 1839, 2 vols.) (still
useful); J. Fulton, Index Canonum (3rd ed., New York, 1892)
(3rd and 4th centuries); W. Bright, Notes on the Canons of the First
Four General Councils (2nd ed., Oxford, 1892); Die Kanones der

312

COUNCIL BLUFFS— COUNT

wichtigsten altkirchlichen Conzilien nebst dew apostolischen Kanones,
ed. F. Lauchert (Freiburg i. B., 1896); Enchiridion symbolorum et
definitionum, quae de rebus fidei et morum a conciliis oecumenicis et
summis pontificibus emanarunt, ed. H. Denzinger (7th ed., Wiirzburg,
1895) ; Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche,
ed. by A. Hahn (3rd edition, revised and enlarged, Breslau, 1897),
with variant readings ; C.Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlums
und des romischen Katholizismus (2nd much enlarged ed., Tubingen,
1901); E. F. Karl Muller, Die Bekenntnisschriften der reformierten
Kirche (Leipzig, 1903) (for all countries). These last five are
elaborately indexed.

Translations: John Johnson, A Collection of the Laws and
Canons of the Church of England [601-1519], 2 parts (London, 1720;
reprinted Oxford, 1850 f., in the Library of Anglo- Catholic Theology) ;
P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom (New York, 1877, 3 vols.)
(texts and translations parallel); Canons and Creeds of the First
Four Councils, ed. by E. K. Mitchell, in Translations and Reprints
from the Original Sources of European History, published by the
Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. iv. 2
(1897); H. R. Percival, The Ecumenical Councils (New York, 1900)
(Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. xiv. ; translates
canons and compiles notes; bibliography in Introduction).

General Histories of Councils: C. J. von Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte (Freiburg i. B., 1855); English translation of the earlier
volumes to a.d. 787, from a.d. 326 on, based on the second German
edition (Edinburgh, 1871 ff.); French, by Delarc (Paris, 1869-1874,
10 vols.). This first edition not entirely superseded by the second,
made after the Vatican council, and continued by Knppfler and by
Hergenrother (Freiburg, 1873-1890, 9 vols.); a French translation,
with continuation and critical and bibliographical notes, par un
religieux benedictin de Farnborough, tome i. i r ° partie (Paris, Letou-
zey, 1907); Paul Viollet, Examen de I'histoire des conciles de Mgr
Hefele (Paris, 1876) (Extrait de la Revue historique) ; W. P. du Bose,
The Ecumenical Councils (New York, 1896) (popular); P. Guerin,
Les Conciles generaux et particulars (Paris, 1868, 3rd impression, 1897,
3 torn.) ; see also A. Harnack, History of Dogma (Boston, 1895-1900,
7 vols.) ; F. Loofs, Leitfaden der Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., enlarged,
Halle, 1906). . ,

Literature : Dictionnaire universel et complet des conciles, redige
par A. C. Peltier, publie par Migne (Paris, 1847, 2 vols.) (Migne,
Encyclopedic theologique, vol. 13 f.) ; Z. Zitelli-Natali, Epitome
historico-canonica conciliorum generalium (Rome, 1881); F. X.
Kraus, Realencyklopddie der christlichen Altertumer, vol. i.(Freiburg-
i.-B., 1882) (art. " Concilien " by Funk); William Smith and S.
Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (London, 1876-1880,
2 vols.) (erudite detail); Wetzer und Welte's Kirchenlexikon,
2nd ed. by Hergenrother and Kaulen (Freiburg i. B., 1882-1903,
13 vols.) (art. " Concil " by Scheeben) ; La Grande Encyclopedic
(Paris, s.d., 31 vols.) (numerous articles) ; P. Hinschius, Das Kirchen-
recht der Katholikin und Protestanten in Deutschland, vol. 3 (Berlin,
1883) (fundamental and masterly); R. von Scherer, Handbuch des
Kirckenrechtes, vol. i. (Graz, 1886) (excellent notes and references);
E. H. Landon, A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic Church,
(revised ed., London, [1893], 2 vols.) (paraphrases chief canons;
needs revision) ; Martigny, Dictionnaire des antiquites chretiennei
(3rd ed., Paris, 1889) (for ceremonial); R. Sohm, Kirchenrecht,
vol. i. (Leipzig, 1892) (brilliant); A. Kneer, Die Entstehung der
konziliaren Theorie (Rome, 1893) ; Realencyklopddie fur protestantische
Theologie und Kirche, begriindet von J. J. Herzog, 3rd revised ed.
by A. Hauck ( Leipzig, 1896 ff.) (in vol. 19 Hauck's excellent Synoden,
1907); F. X. Funk, Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen und
Untersuchungen (Paderborn, 1897); A. V. G. Allen, Christian Insti-
tutions (New York, 1897), chap. xi. ; C. A. Kneller, " Papst und
Konzil im ersten Jahrtausend " (Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie,
vols. 27 and 28, Innsbruck, 1893 f.); F. Bliemetzrieder, Das Gencral-
konzil im grossen abendlandischen Schisma (Paderborn, 1904) ;
Wilhelm and Scannell, Manual of Catholic Theology (3rd ed., London,
1906, sect. 32) ; J. Forget, " Conciles," in A. Vacant and E. Mangeot,
Dictionnaire de theologie caiholique, tome 3, 636-676 (Paris, 1906 ff.),
with elaborate bibliography ; The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York,
1907 ff.). (W. W. R.*)

COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city and the county-seat of Pottawattamie
county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 2% m. E. of the Missouri river
opposite Omaha, Nebraska, with which it is connected by a road
bridge and two railway bridges. Pop. (1890) 21,474; (1900)
25,802, of whom 3723 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,292. It
is pre-eminently a railway centre, being served by the Union
Pacific, of which it is the principal eastern terminus, the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the
Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific,
the Chicago Great- Western, the Illinois Central, and the Wabash,
which together have given it considerable commercialimportance.
It is built for the most part on level ground at the foot of high
bluffs; and has several parks, the most attractive of which,
commanding fine views, is Fairmount Park. With the exception

of bricks and tiles, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements,
and the products of its railway shops, its manufactures are
relatively unimportant, the factory product in 1905 being valued
at only $1,924,109. Council Bluffs is the seat of the Western
Iowa Business College, and of the Iowa school for the deaf.
On or near the site of Council Bluffs, in 1804, Lewis and Clark
held a council with the Indians, whence the city's name. In
1838 the Federal government made this the headquarters of the
Pottawattamie Indians, removed from Missouri. They remained
until 1846-1847, when the Mormons came, built many cabins,
and named the place Kanesville. The Mormons remained only
about five years, but on their departure for Utah their places
were speedily taken by new immigrants. During 1849- 18 50
Council Bluffs became an important outfitting point for California
gold seekers — the goods being brought by boat from Saint
Louis — and in 1853 it was incorporated as a city.

COUNSEL AND COUNSELLOR, one who gives advice, more
particularly in legal matters. The term " counsel " is employed
in England as a synonym for a barrister-at-law, and may refer
either to a single person who pleads a cause, or collectively, to the
body of barristers engaged in a case. Counsellor or, more fully,
counsellor-at-law, is practically an obsolete term in England, but
is still in use locally in Ireland as an equivalent to barrister. In
the United States, a counsellor-at-law is, specifically, an attorney
admitted to practice in all the courts; but as there is no formal
distinction of the legal profession into two classes, as in England,
the term is more often used loosely in the same sense as " lawyer, "
i.e. one who is versed in, or practises law. 1

COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span.
conde), the English translation of foreign titles equivalent
generally to the English " earl." 1 In Anglo-French documents
the word counte was at all times used as the equivalent of earl, but,
unlike the feminine form " countess," it did not find its way into
the English language until the 16th century, and then only in the
sense defined above. The title of earl, applied by the English to
the foreign counts established in England by William the
Conqueror, is dealt with elsewhere (see Earl). The present
article deals with (1) the office of count in the Roman empire
and the Frankish kingdom, (2) the development of the feudal
count in France and under the Holy Roman Empire, (3) modern
counts.

1 . The Latin comes meant literally a companion or follower. In
the early Roman empire the word was used to designate the
companions of the emperor (comites principis) and so became a
title of honour. The emperor Hadrian chose senators as com-
panions on his travels and to help him in public business. They
formed a permanent council, and Hadrian's successors entrusted
these comites with the administration of justice and finance, or
placed them in military commands. The designation comes thus
developed into a formal official title of high officers of state, some
qualification being added to indicate the special duties attached
to the office in each case. Thus in the 5th century, among the
comites attached to the emperor's establishment, we find, e.g., the
comes sacrarum largilionum and the comes rei privatae; while
others, forming the council, were styled comites consistorii.
Others were sent into the provinces as governors, comites per
provincias constituti; thus in the Notitia dignitatum we find a
comes Aegypti, a comes Africae, a comes Belgicae, a comes
Lugdunensis and others. Two of the generals cf the Roman
province of Britain were styled the comes Britanniae and the
comes littoris Saxonici (count of the Saxon shore).

At Constartinople in the latter Roman empire the Latin word
comes assumed a Greek garb as Kbfit)% and was declined as a
Greek noun (gen. ko/uijtos) ; the comes sacrarum largilionum
(count of the sacred bounties) was called at Constantinople
6 ubfiip tSjv craxpOiv \apyiTLuvuv and the comes rerum privatarum

1 The exact significance of a title is difficult to reproduce in a
foreign language. Actually, only some foreign counts could be said
to be equivalent to English earls; but " earl " is always translated
by foreigners by words [comte, Graf) which in English are represented
by " count," itself never used as the synonym of " earl." Con-
versely old English writers had no hesitation in translating as
" earl " foreign titles which we now render " count."

COUNT

313

(count of the private estates) was called kojutjs toiv irptfiaruv.
The count of the sacred bounties was the lord treasurer or
chancellor of the exchequer, for the public treasury and the
imperial fisc had come to be identical; while the count of the
private estates managed the imperial demesnes and the privy
purse. In the 5th century the " sacred bounties " corresponded
to the aerarium of the early Empire, while the res privatae
represented the fisc. The officers connected with the palace and
the emperor's person included the count of the wardrobe {comes
sacrae vestis), the count of the residence {comes domorum), and,
most important of all, the comes domesticorum et sacri stabuli
(graecized as kojutjs rod <ttcu3Xou). The count of the stable,
originally the imperial master of the horse, developed into the
" illustrious " commander-in-chief of the imperial army (Stilicho,
e.g., bore the full title as given above), and became the prototype
of the medieval constable {q.v.) .

An important official of the second rank (spectabilis, " re-
spectable " as contrasted with those of highest rank who were
" illustrious ") was the count of the East, who appears to have had
the control of a department in which 600 officials were engaged.
His power was reduced in the 6th century, when he was deprived
of his authority over the Orient diocese, and became civil
governor of Syria Prima, retaining his " respectable " rank.
Another important officer of the later Roman court was the
comes sacri patrimonii, who was instituted by the emperor
Anastasius. In this connexion it should be observed that the
word patrimonium gradually changed in meaning. In the be-
ginning of the 3rd century patrimonium meant crown property,
and res privata meant personal property: at the beginning of the
6th century patrimonium meant personal property, and res
privata meant crown property. It is difficult to give briefly a
clear idea of the functions of the three important officials comes
sacrarum largitionum, comes rei privatae and comes sacri patri-
monii; but the terms have been well translated by a German
author as Finanzminister des Reichsschatzes (finance minister of
the treasury of the Empire), F. des Kronschatzes (of the crown
treasury), and F. des kaiserlichen Privatvermogens (of the
emperor's private property).

The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained the
Roman system of administration, and under them the word
comes preserved its original meaning; the comes was a companion
of the king, a royal servant of high rank. Under the early
Frankish kings some comites did not exercise any definite
functions; they were merely attached to the king's person and
executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, e.g. the
comes palatii and comes stabuli (see Constable). The kingdom
was divided for administrative purposes into small areas called
pagi {pays, Ger. Gau), corresponding generally to the Roman
civitates (see City). 1 At the head of the pagus was the comes,
corresponding to the German Graf {Gaugraf, cf. Anglo-Saxon
sare-gerefa* sheriff). The comes was appointed by the king and
removable at his pleasure, and was chosen originally from all
classes, sometimes from enfranchised slaves. His essential
functions were judicial and executive, and in documents he is
often described as the king's agent {agens publicus) or royal
judge (judex publicus or fiscalis) . As the delegate of the executive
power he had the right to military command in the king's name,
and to take all the measures necessary for the preservation of the
peace, i.e. to exercise the royal " ban " {bannus regis). He was at
once public prosecutor and judge, was responsible for the execu-
tion of the sentences of the courts, and as the king's representa-
tive exercised the royal right of protection {mundium regis) over
churches, widows, orphans and the like. He enjoyed a triple
wergeld, but had no definite salary, being remunerated by the
receipt of certain revenues, a system which contained the germs
of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private

1 The changing language of this epoch speaks of civitates, subse-
quently of pagi, and later of comitatus (counties).

2 The A.S. gerefa, however, meaning "illustrious," "chief," has
apparently, according to philologists, no connexion with the German
Graf, which originally meant " servant " (cf. " knight," " valet,"
&c.j. It is the more curious that the gerefa should end as a servant
(" reeve "), the Graf as a noble (count).

estates. He also retained a third of the fines which he im-
posed in his judicial capacity.

Under the early Carolings the title count did not indicate noble
birth. A comes was generally raised from childhood in the king's
palace, and rose to be a count through successive stages. The
count's office was not yet a dignity, nor hereditary; he was not
independent nor appointed for life, but exercised the royal power
by delegation, as under the Merovingians. While, however, he
was theoretically paid by the king, he seems to have been
himself one of the sources of the royal revenue. The counties
were, it appears, farmed out; but in the 7th century the royal
choice became restricted to the larger landed proprietors, who
gradually emancipated themselves from royal control, and in the
8th century the term comitatus begins to denote a geographical
area, though there was little difference in its extent under the
Merovingian kings and the early Carolings. The count was
about to pass into the feudatory stage. Throughout the middle
ages, however, the original official and personal connotation of
the title was never wholly lost; or perhaps it would be truer to
say, with Selden, that it was early revived with the study of the
Roman civil law in the 12th century. The unique dignity of
count of the Lateran palace, 3 bestowed in 1328 by the emperor
Louis IV. the Bavarian on Castrucio de' Antelminelli, duke of
Lucca, and his heirs male, was official as well as honorary,
being charged with the attendance and service to be per-
formed at the palace at the emperor's coronation at Rome (Du
Cange, s.v. Comites Palatii Later anensis; Selden, op. cil. p. 321).
This instance, indeed, remained isolated; but the personal
title of " count palatine," though honorary rather than official,
was conferred on officials — especially by the popes on those of
the Curia — had no territorial significance, and was to the last
reminiscent of those early comites palatii whose relations to the
sovereign had been purely personal and official (see Palatine).
A relic of the old official meaning of " count " still survives in
Transylvania, where the head of the political administration of
the Saxon districts is styled count (comes, Graf) of the Saxon
Nation.

2. Feudal Counts. — The process by which the official counts
were transformed into feudal vassals almost independent is
described in the article Feudalism. In the confusion of the
period of transition, when the title to possession was usually the
power to hold, designations which had once possessed a definite
meaning were preserved with no defined association. In France,
by the 10th century, the process of decomposition of the old
organization had gone far, and in the nth century titles of
nobility were still very loosely applied. That of " count " was,
as Luchaire points out, " equivocal " even as late as the 12th
century; any castellan of moderate rank could style himself
comte who in the next century would have been called seigneur
(dominus). Even when, in the 13th century, the ranks of the
feudal hierarchy in France came to be more definitely fixed, the
style of " count " might imply much, or comparatively little.
In the oldest register of Philip Augustus counts are reckoned
with dukes in the first of the five orders into which the nobles are
divided, but- the list includes, besides such almost sovereign
rulers as the counts of Flanders and Champagne, immediate
vassals of much less importance — such as the counts of Soissons
and Dammartin — and even one mediate vassal, the count of
Bar-sur-Seine. The title was still in fact " equivocal," and so it
remained throughout French history. In the official lists it was
early placed second to that of duke (Luchaire, Manuel, p. 181,
note 1), hut in practice at least the great comtes-pairs (e.g. of
Champagne) were the equals of any duke and the superiors of
many. Thus, too, in modern times royal princes have been given
the title of count (Paris, Flanders, Caserta), the heir of Charles X.
actually changing his style, without sense of loss, from that of due
de Bordeaux to that of comte de Chambord. From the 16th

3 " Count of the Lateran Palace " (Comes Sacri Later -anensis
Palatii) was later the title usually bestowed by the popes in creating
counts palatine. The emperors, too, continued to make counts
palatine under this title long after the Lateran had ceased to be an
imperial palace.

3H

COUNTER

century onwards the equivocal nature of the title in France was
increased by the royal practice of selling it, either to viscounts or
barons in respect of their fiefs, or to rich roturiers.

In Germany the change from the official to the territorial and
hereditary counts followed at the outset much the same course as
in France, though the later development of the title and its
meaning was different. In the ioth century the counts were
permitted by the kings to divide their benefices and rights
among their sons, the rule being established that countships
(Grafsckaften) were hereditary, that they might be held by boys,
that they were heritable by females and might even be ad-
ministered by females. The Grajschaft became thus merely a
bundle of rights inherent in the soil; and, the count's office
having become his property, the old counties or Gauen rapidly
disappeared as administrative units, being either amalgamated or
subdivided. By the second half of the 12th century the official
character of the count had quite disappeared; he had become a
territorial noble, and the foundation had been laid of territorial
sovereignty (Landeshoheii) . The first step towards this was the
concession to the counts of the military prerogatives of dukes,
a right enjoyed from the first by the counts of the marches (see
Margrave), then given to counts palatine (see Palatine) and,
finally, to other counts, who assumed by reason of it the style of
landgrave (Landgraf, i.e. count of a province). At first all counts
were reckoned as princes of the Empire (Reichsfiirsten) ; but
since the end of the 12 th century this rank was restricted to those
who were immediate tenants of the crown, 1 the other counts of
the Empire (Reichsgrafen) being placed among the free lords
(bar ones, liberi domini). Counts of princely rank (gefurstete
Graf en) voted among the princes in the imperial diet; the others
(Reichsgrafen) were grouped in the Grafenbanke — originally two,
to which two more were added in the 17th century — each of
which had one vote. In 1806, on the formation of the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine, the sovereign counts were all mediatized (see
Mediatization). Even before the end of the Empire (1806)
the right of bestowing the title of count was freely exercised by
the various German territorial sovereigns.

3. Modern Counts. — Any political significance which the feudal
title of count retained in the 18th century vanished with the
changes produced by the Revolution . It is now simply a title of
honour and one, moreover, the social value of which differs
enormously, not only in the different European countries, but
within the limits of the same country. In Germany, for instance,
there are several categories of counts: (1) the mediatized princely
counts (gefurstete Graf en); who are reckoned the equals in blood
of the European sovereign houses, an equality symbolized by
the " closed crown " surmounting their armorial bearings. The
heads of these countly families of the " high nobility " are
entitled (by a decree of the federal diet, 1829) to the style of
Erlaucht (illustrious, most honourable); (2) Counts of the
Empire 2 (Reichsgrafen), descendants of those counts who,
before the end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), were Reichs-
standisch, i.e. sat in one of the Grafenbanke in the imperial diet,
and entitled to a ducal coronet; (3) Counts (a) descended from
the lower nobility of the old Empire, titular since the 15th
century, (b) created since; their coronet is nine-pointed (cf. the
nine points and strawberry leaves of the English earl). The
difficulty of determining in any case the exact significance of
the title of a German count, illustrated by the above, is increased
by the fact that the title is generally heritable by all male
descendants, the only exception being in Prussia, where, since
1840, the rule of primogeniture has prevailed and the bestowal of
the title is dependent on a rent-roll of £3000 a year. The result

1 Of these there were four who, as counts of the Empire par
excellence, were sometimes styled " simple counts " (Schlechtgrafen) ,
i.e. the counts of Cleves, Schwarzburg, Cilli and Savoy; they
were entitled to the ducal coronet. Three of these had become dukes
by the 17th century, but the count (now prince) of Schwarzburg still
styled himself " Of the four counts of the Holy Roman Empire,
count of Schwarzburg " (see Seldenf ed. 1672, p. 312).

2 This title is borne by certain English families, e.g. by Lord
Arundell of Wardour. In other cases it has been assumed without
due warrant. See J. H. Round, " English Counts of the Empire,"
in Z7je Ancestor, vii. 15 (Westminster, October 1903).

is that the title is very widespread and in itself little significant.
A German or Austrian count may be a wealthy noble of princely
rank, a member of the Prussian or Austrian Upper House, or he
may be the penniless cadet of a family of no great rank or
antiquity. Nevertheless the title, which has long been very
sparingly bestowed, always implies a good social position. The
style Altgraf (old count) , occasionally found, is of some antiquity,
and means that the title of count has been borne by the family
from time immemorial.

In medieval France the significance of the title of count varied
with the power of those who bore it; in modern France it varies
with its historical associations. It is not so common as in
Germany or Italy; because it does not by custom pass to all
male descendants. The title was, however, cheapened by its
revival under Napoleon. By the decree of the 1st of March 1808,
reviving titles of nobility, that of count was assigned ex officio to
ministers, senators and life councillors of state, to the president of
the Corps Legislatif and to archbishops. The title was made
heritable in order of primogeniture, and in the case of archbishops
through their nephews. These Napoleonic countships, increased
under subsequent reigns, have produced a plentiful crop of titles
of little social significance, and have tended to lower the status of
the counts deriving from the ancien rigime. The title of marquis,
which Napoleon did not revive, has risen proportionately in the
estimation of the Faubourg St Germain. As for that of count, it
is safe to say that in France its social value is solely dependent on
its historical associations.

Of all European countries Italy has been most prolific of counts.
Every petty Italian prince, from the pope downwards, created
them for love or money; and, in the absence of any regulating
authority, the title was also widely and loosely assumed, while
often the feudal title passed with the sale of the estate to which it
was attached. Casanova remarked that in some Italian cities
all the nobles were baroni, in others all were conti. An Italian
conte mayor may not be a -gentleman; he has long ceased,
qua count, to have any social prestige, and his rank is not re-
cognized by the Italian government. As in France, however,
there are some Italian conti whose titles are respectable, and
even illustrious, from their historic associations. The prestige
belongs, however, not to the title but to the name. As for the
papal countships, which are still freely bestowed on those of all
nations whom the Holy See wishes to reward, their prestige
naturally varies with the religious complexion of the country in
which the titles are borne. They are esteemed by the faithful, but
have small significance for those outside. In Spain, on the other
hand, the title of conde, the earlier history of which follows much
the same development as in France, is still of much social value,
mainly owing to the fact that the rule of primogeniture exists,
and that, a large fee being payable to the state on succession to
a title, it is necessarily associated with some degree of wealth.
The Spanish counts of old creation, some of whom are grandees
and members of the Upper House, naturally take the highest
rank; but the title, still bestowed for eminent public services or
other reasons, is of value. The title, like others in Spain, can
pass through an heiress to her husband. In Russia the title of
count (graf, fern, grafinya), a foreign importation, has little social
prestige attached to it, being given to officials of a certain rank.
In the British empire the only recognized counts are those of
Malta, who are given precedence with baronets of the United
Kingdom.

See Selden, Titles of Honor (London, 1672); Du Cange, Glos-
sarium Med. hat. (ed. Niort, 1883) s.v. "Comes"; La Grande
Encyclopedic, s.v. " Comte "; A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions
francaises (Paris, 1892); P. Guilhiermoz, Essai sur Vorigine dele
noblesse en France au moyen age (Paris, 1902) ; Brunner, Deutsche
Rechtsgeschichte, Band ii. (Leipzig, 1892).

COUNTER. (1) (Through the O. Fr. conteoir, modern comptoir,
from Lat. computare, to reckon), a round piece of metal, wood or
other material used anciently in making calculations, and now for
reckoning points in games of cards, &c, or as tokens representing
actual coins or sums of money in gambling games such as roulette.
The word is thus used, figuratively, of something of no real value,
a sham. In the original sense of " a means of counting money,

COUNTERFEITING— COUNTERPOINT

315

or keeping accounts," " counter " is used of the table or flat-
topped barrier in a bank, merchant's office or shop, on which
money is counted and goods handed to a customer. The term
was aiso applied, usually in the form " compter," to the debtors'
prisons attached to the mayor's or sheriff's courts in London and
some other boroughs in England. The " compters " of the
sheriff's courts of the city of London were, at various times, in
the Poultry, Bread St., Wood St. and Giltspur St. ; the Giltspur
St. compter was the last to be closed, in 1854. (2) (From Lat.
contra, opposite, against), a circular parry in fencing, and in
boxing, a blow given as a parry to a lead of an opponent. The
word is also used of the stiff piece of leather at the back of a boot
or shoe, of the rounded angle at the stern of a ship, and, in a
horse, of the part lying between the shoulder and the under part
of the neck. In composition, counter is used to express contrary
action, as in " countermand," " counterfeit," &c.

COUNTERFEITING (from Lat. contra-facere, to make in
opposition or contrast), making an imitation without authority
and for the purpose of defrauding. The word is more particularly
used in connexion with the making of imitations of money,
whether paper or coin. (See Coinage Offences; Forgery.)

COUNTERFORT (Fr. contrefort), in architecture, a buttress or
pier built up against the wall of a building or terrace to strengthen
it, or to resist the thrust of an arch or other constructional
feature inside.

COUNTERPOINT (Lat. contrapunctus, " point counter point,"
" note against note "), in music, the art happily defined by Sir
Frederick Gore Ouseley as that " of combining " melodies: this
should imply that good counterpoint is the production of beauti-
ful harmony by a combination of well-characterized melodies.
The individual audibility of the melodies is a matter of which
current criticism enormously overrates the importance. What is
always important is the peculiar life breathed into harmony by
contrapuntal organization. Both historically and aesthetically
" counterpoint " and " harmony " are inextricably blended; for
nearly every harmonic fact is in its origin a phenomenon of
counterpoint. And if in later musical developments it becomes
possible to treat chords as, so to speak, harmonic lumps with a
meaning independent of counterpoint, this does not mean that
they have really changed their nature; but it shows a difference
between modern and earlier musicpreciselysimilarto that between
modern English, in which metaphorical and abstract expressions
are so constantly used that they have become a mere shorthand
for the literal and concrete expression, and classical Greek, where
metaphors and abstractions can appear only as elaborate
similes or explicit philosophical ideas. The laws of counterpoint
are, then, laws of harmony with the addition of such laws of
melody as are not already produced by the interaction of
harmonic and melodic principles. In so far as the laws of
counterpoint are derived from purely harmonic principles, that is
to say, derived from the properties of concord and discord, their
origin and development are discussed in the article Harmony.
In so far as they depend entirely on melody they are too minute
and changeable to admit of general discussion; and in so far as
they show the interaction of melodic and harmonic principles it is
more convenient to discuss them under the head of harmony,
because they appear in such momentary phenomena as are more
easily regarded as successions of chords than as principles of
design. All that remains, then, for the present article is the
explanation of certain technical terms.

1. Canto Fermo (i.e. plain chant) is a melody in long notes
given to one voice while others accompany it with quicker
counterpoints (the term " counterpoint " in this connexion
meaning accompanying melodies). In the simplest cases the
Canto Fermo has notes of equal length and is unbroken in flow.
When it is broken up and its rhythm diversified, the gradations
between counterpoint on a Canto Fermo and ordinary forms of
polyphony, or indeed any kind of melody with an elaborate
accompaniment, are infinite and insensible.

2 . Double Counterpoint is a combination of melodies so designed
that either can be taken above or below the other. When this

■ change of position is effected by merely altering the octave of

either or both melodies (with or without transposition of the
whole combination to another key), the artistic value of the
device is simply that of the raising of the lower melody to the
surface. The harmonic scheme remains the same, except in so far
as some of the chords are not in their fundamental position, while
others, not originally fundamental, have become so. But double
counterpoint may be in other intervals than the octave; that is
to say, while one of the parts remains stationary, the other may
be transposed above or below it by some interval other than an
octave, thus producing an entirely different set of harmonies.

Double Counterpoint in the 12th has thus been made a powerful
means of expression and variety. The artistic value of this
device depends not only on the beauty and novelty of the second
scheme of harmony obtained, but also on the change of melodic
expression produced by transferring one of the melodies to
another position in the scale. Two of the most striking illustra-
tions of this effect are to be found in the last chorus of Brahms's
Triumphlied and in the fourth of his variations on a theme by
Haydn.

Double Counterpoint in the 10th has, in addition to this, the
property that the inverted melody can be given in the new and in
the original positions simultaneously.

Double counterpoint in other intervals than the octave, 10th
and 1 2th, is rare, but the general principle and motives for it
remain the same under all conditions. The two subjects of the
Confileor in Bach's B minor Mass are in double counterpoint in
the octave, nth and 13th. And Beethoven's Mass in D is full of
pieces of double counterpoint in the inversions of which a few
notes are displaced so as to produce momentary double counter-
point in unusual intervals, obviously with the intention of,
varying the harmony. Technical treatises are silent as to this
purpose, and leave the student in the belief that the classical
composers used these devices, if at all, in a manner as meaningless
as the examples in the treatises.

3. Triple, Quadruple and Multiple Counterpoint. — When more
than two melodies are designed so as to combine in interchange-
able positions, it becomes increasingly difficult to avoid chords
and progressions of which some inversions are incorrect. In
triple counterpoint this difficulty is not so great; although a
complete triad is dangerous, as it is apt to invert as a " |- "
which requires careful handling. On the other hand, in triple
counterpoint the necessity for strictness is at its greatest,
because there are only six possible inversions, and in a long
polyphonic work most of these will be required. Moreover, the
artistic value of the device is at its highest in three-part poly-
phonic harmony, which, whether invertible or not, is always a
fine test of artistic economy, while the inversions are as evident
to the ear, especially where the top part is concerned, as those
in double counterpoint. Triple counterpoint (and a fortiori
multiple counterpoint) is normally possible only at the octave;
for it will be found that if three parts are designed to invert in
some other interval this will involve two of them inverting in a
third interval which will give rise to incalculable difficulty.
This makes the fourth of Brahms's variations on a theme of
Haydn almost miraculous. The plaintive expression of the whole
variation is largely due to the fact that the flowing semiquaver
counterpoint below the main theme is on each repeat inverted in
the 1 2th, with the result that its chief emphasis falls upon the
most plaintive parts of the scale. But in the first eight bars of
the second part of the variation a third contrapuntal voice
appears, and this too is afterwards inverted in the 12th, with
perfectly natural and smooth effect. But this involves the
inversion of two of the counterpoints with each other in the 9th,
a kind of double counterpoint which is almost impossible. The
case is unique, but it admirably illustrates the difference between
artistic and merely academic mastery of technical resource.

Quadruple Counterpoint is not rare with Bach. It would be
more difficult than triple, but for the fact that of its twenty-four
possible inversions not more than four or five need be correct.
Quintuple counterpoint is admirably illustrated in the finale of
Mozart's Jupiter Symphony, in which everything in the successive
statement and gradual development of the five themes conspires

316

COUNTERSCARP— COUNTY

to give the utmost effect to their combination in the coda. Of
course Mozart has not room for more than five of the 1 20 possible
combinations, and from these he selects such as bring fresh
themes into the outside parts, which are the most clearly audible.
Sextuple Counterpoint may be found in Bach's great double
chorus, Nun ist das *Heil, and in the final j of his concerto for
three claviers in C, and probaLly in other places.

4. Added Thirds and Sixths. — An easy and effective. imitation
of triple and quadruple counterpoint, embodying much of the
artistic value of inversion, is found in the numerous combinations
of themes in thirds' and sixths which arise from an extension of
the principle which we mentioned in connexion with double
counterpoint in the 10th, namely, the possibility of performing
it in its original and inverted positions simultaneously. The
Pleni sunt coeli of Bach's B minor Mass is written in this kind of
transformation of double into quadruple counterpoint; and the
artistic value of the device is perhaps never so magnificently
realized as in the place, at bar 84, where the trumpet doubles the
bass three octaves and a third above while the alto and second
tenor have the counter subjects in close thirds in the middle.

Almost all other contrapuntal devices are derived from the
principle of the canon and are discussed in the article Contra-
puntal Forms.

As a training in musical grammar and style, the rhythms of
16th-century polyphony were early codified into " the five
species of counterpoint " (with various other species now for-
gotten) and practised by students of composition. The classical
treatise on which Haydn and Beethoven were trained was Fux's
Gradus ad Parnassum (1725). This was superseded in the 19th
century by Cherubini's, the first of a long series of attempts to
bring up to date as a dead language what should be studied in its
original and living form. (D. F. T.)

COUNTERSCARP ( = " opposite scarp," Fr. contrescarpe), a
term used in fortification for the outer slope of a ditch; see
Fortification and Siegecraft.

COUNTERSIGN, a military term for a sign, word or signal pre-
viously arranged and required to be given by persons approach-
ing a sentry, guard or other post. In some armies the " counter-
sign " is strictly the reply of the sentry to the pass-word given by
the person approaching.

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr.
cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra,
opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the
sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood), an extent of land without
definite limits, or such a region with some peculiar character, as
the " black country," the " fen country " and the like. The
extension from such descriptive limitation to the limitation of
occupation by particular owners or races is easy; this gives the
common use of the word for the land inhabited by a particular
nation or race. Another meaning is that part of the land not
occupied by towns, " rural " as opposed to " urban " districts;
this appears too in "country-house" and "country town";
so too " countryman " is used both for a rustic and for the native
of a particular land. The word appears in many phrases, in the
sense of the whole population of a country, and especially of
the general body of electors, as in the expression " go to the
country," for the dissolution of parliament preparatory to a
general election.

COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. counts, cf. O. Fr. cunti, conte,
Mod. Fi.comte, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comilato,l?rov.comtat;
see Count) , in its most usual sense the name given to certain
important administrative divisions in the United Kingdom, the
British dominions beyond the seas, and the United States of
America. The word was first introduced after the Norman
Conquest as the equivalent of the old English " shire," which has
survived as its synonym, though occasionally also applied to
divisions smaller than counties, e.g. Norhamshire, Hexhamshire
and Hallamshire. The word " county " is also sometimes used,
alternatively with " countship," to translate foreign words,
e.g. the French comti and the German Grafschaft, which connote
the territorial.jurisdiction of a count (q.v.). The present article
is confined to a sketch of the origin and development of English

counties, which have served in a greater or less degree as the
model for the county organizations in the various countries of the
English-speaking world which are described under their proper
headings.

About one-third of the English counties represent ancient
kingdoms, sub-kingdoms or tribal divisions, such as Kent,
Sussex, Norfolk, Devon; but most of the remaining counties
take their names from some important town within their re-
spective boundaries. The counties to the south of the Thames
(except Cornwall) already existed in the time of Alfred, but those
of the midlands seem to have been created during the reign of
Edward the Elder (901-925) and to have been artificially
bounded areas lying around some stronghold which became a
centre of civil and military administration. There is reason,
however, for thinking that the counties of Bedford, Cambridge,
Huntingdon and Northampton are of Danish origin.
Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were not
recognized as English counties until some time after the Norman
Conquest, the last two definitely appearing as fiscal areas in 1177.
The origin of Rutland as a county is obscure, but it had its own
sheriff in n 54.

In the period preceding the Norrr.an Conquest two officers
appear at the head of the county organization. These are the
ealdorman or earl, and the scirgerefa or sheriff. The shires of
Wessex appear each to have had an ealdorman, whose duties
were to command its military forces, to preside over the county
assembly (scir gemot), to carry out the laws and to execute
justice. The name ealdorman gave way to that of earl, probably
under Danish influence, in the first half of the nth century, and
it is probable that the office of sheriff came into existence in the
reign of Canute (1017-1035), when the great earldoms were
formed and it was no longer possible for the earl to perform his
various administrative duties in person in a group of counties.
After the Norman Conquest the earl was occasionally appointed
sheriff of his county, but in general his only official connexion
with it was to receive the third penny of its pleas, and the
earldom ceased to be an office and became merely a title. In the
1 2th century the office of coroner was created, two or more of
them being chosen in the county court as vacancies occurred.
In the same century vcrderers were first chosen in the same
manner for the purpose of holding inquisitions on vert and
venison in those counties which contained royal forests. It was
the business of the sheriff (vicecomes) as the king's representative
to serve and return all writs, to levy distresses on the king's
behalf, to execute all royal precepts and to collect the king's
revenue. In this work he was assisted by a large staff of clerks
and bailiffs who were directly responsible to him and not to the
king. The sheriff also commanded the armed forces of the crown
within his county, and either in person or by deputy presided
over the county court which was now held monthly in most
counties. In 1300 it was enacted that the sheriffs might be
chosen by the county, except in Worcestershire, Cornwall,
Rutland, Westmorland and Lancashire, where there were then
sheriffs in fee, that is, sheriffs who held their offices hereditarily
by royal grant. The elective arrangement was of no long
duration, and it was finally decided in 1340 that the sheriffs
should be appointed by the chancellor, the treasurer and the
chief baron of the exchequer, but should hold office for one year
only. The county was from an early period regarded as a
community, and approached the king as a corporate body, while
in later times petitions were presented through the knights of the
shire. It was also an organic whole for the purpose of the
conservation of the peace. The assessment of taxation by
commissioners appointed by the county court developed in the
13th century into the representation of the county by two knights
of the shire elected by the county court to serve in parliament,
and this representation continued unaltered save for a short
period during the Protectorate, until 1832, when many of the
counties received a much larger representation, which was still
further increased by later acts.

The royal control over the county was strengthened from the
14th century onward by the appointment of justices of the peace.

COUNTY

This system was further developed under the Tudors, while in the
middle of the 16th century the military functions of the sheriff
were handed over to a new officer, the lord-lieutenant, who is now
more prominently associated with the headship of the county
than is the sheriff. The lord-lieutenant now usually holds the
older office of custos rotulorum, or keeper of the records of the
county. The justices of the peace are appointed upon his
nomination, and until lately he appointed the clerk of the peace.
The latter appointment is now made by the joint committee of
quarter sessions and county council.

The Tudor system of local government received little alteration
until the establishment of county councils by the Local Govern-
ment Act of 1888 handed over to an elected body many of the
functions previously exercised by the nominated justices of the
peace. For the purposes of this act the ridings of Yorkshire, the
divisions of Lincolnshire, east and west Sussex, east and west
Suffolk, the soke of Peterborough and the Isle of Ely are regarded
as counties, so that there are now sixty administrative counties
of England and Wales. Between 1373 and 1692 the crown
granted to certain cities and boroughs the privilege of being
counties of themselves. There were in 1835 eighteen of these
counties corporate, Bristol, Chester, Coventry, Gloucester,
Lincoln, Norwich, Nottingham, York and Carmarthen, each of
which had two sheriffs, and Canterbury, Exeter, Hull, Lichfield,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Poole, Southampton, Worcester and
Haverfordwest, each of which had one sheriff. All these
boroughs, with the exception of Carmarthen, Lichfield, Poole and
Haverfordwest, which remain counties of themselves, and forty-
seven others, were created county boroughs by the Local Govern-
ment Act 1888, and are entirely dissociated from the control of
a county council. The City of London is also a county of itself,
whose two sheriffs are also sheriffs of Middlesex, while for the
purposes of the act of 1888 the house-covered district which
extends for many miles round the City constitutes a county.

The county has always been the unit for the organization of the
militia, and from about 1782 certain regiments of the regular
army were associated with particular counties by territorial
titles. The army scheme of 1907-1908 provided for the forma-
tion of county associations under the presidency of the lords-
lieutenant for the organization of the new territorial army.

See Statutes of the Realm; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of
England (1 874-1 878) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond
(1897) ; Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law
(1895) ; H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905),
and The Victoria History of the Counties of England. (G. J. T.)

COUNTY COURT, in England, a local court of civil jurisdiction.
The county court, it has been said, is at once the most ancient
and the most modern of English civil tribunals. The Saxon
Curia Comitatus, maintained after the Norman Conquest, was a
local court and a small debts court. It was instituted by Alfred
the Great, its jurisdiction embracing civil, and, until the reign of
William I., ecclesiastical matters. The officers of the court
consisted of the earldorman, the bishop and the sheriff. The
court was held once in every four weeks, being presided over by
the earl, or, in his absence, the sheriff. The suitors of the court,
i.e. the freeholders, were the judges, the sheriff being simply
a presiding officer, pronouncing and afterwards executing the
judgment of the court. The court was not one of record. The
appointment of judges of assize in the reign of Henry II., as well
as the expensive and dilatory procedure of the court, brought
about its gradual disuse, and other local courts, termed courts
of request or of conscience, were established. These, in turn,
proved unsatisfactory, owing both to the limited nature of their
jurisdiction (restricted to causes of debt not exceeding 40s. in
value, and to the fact that they were confined to particular places.
Accordingly, with the view of making justice cheaper and more
accessible the County Courts Act 1846 was passed. This act had
the modest title of " An Act for the Recovery of Small Debts and
Demands in England." The original limit of the jurisdiction of
the new courts was £20, extended in 1850 to £50 in actions of
debt, and in 1903 (by an act which came into force in 1905)
to £100. Thirteen amending acts were passed, by which new
jurisdiction was from time to time conferred" on the county

COURT 317

courts, and in the year 1888 an act was passed repealing the
previous acts and consolidating their provisions, with some
amendment. This is now the code or charter of the county courts.

The grain of mustard-seed sown in 1846 has grown into a
goodly tree, with branches extending over the whole of England
and Wales; and they embrace within their ambit a more
multifarious jurisdiction than is possessed by any other courts
in the kingdom. England and Wales were mapped out into 59
circuits (not including the city of London), with power for the
crown, by order in council, to abolish any circuit and rearrange
the areas comprised in the circuits (sec. 4). There is one
judge to each circuit, but the lord chancellor is empowered to
appoint two judges in a circuit, provided that the total number of
judges does not exceed 60. The salary of a county court judge
was originally fixed at £1200, but he now receives £1500. He
must at the time of his appointment be a barrister-at-law of at
least seven years' standing, and not more than sixty years of age;
after appointment he cannot sit as a member of parliament or
practise at the bar.

Every circuit (except in Birmingham, Clerkenwell, and West-
minster) is divided into districts, in each of which there is a
court, with a registrar and bailiffs. The judges are directed to
attend and hold a court in each district at least once in every
month, unless the lord chancellor shall otherwise direct (sees.
10, n). But in practice the judge sits several times a month in
the large centres of population, and less frequently than once a
month in the court town of sparsely inhabited districts. By sec.
185 of the act of 1888 the judges and officers of the city of London
court have the like jurisdiction, powers, and authority as those of
a county court, and the county court rules apply to that court.

The ordinary jurisdiction of the county courts may be thus
tabulated : —

Subject matter. Pecuniary, limit

01 jurisdiction.
Common-law actions, with written consent

of both parties Unlimited.

Actions founded on contract (except for

breach of promise of marriage, in which

the county courts have no jurisdiction) . £lOO.
Actions founded on tort (except libel, slander,

and seduction, in which the county courts

have no jurisdiction) £100.

Counter claims (unless plaintiff gives written

notice of objection) Unlimited.

Ejectment or questions of title to reality . £100 annual value.

Equity jurisdiction £500.

Probate jurisdiction £200 personalty

and £300 realty.

Admiralty jurisdiction £300.

Bankruptcy jurisdiction Unlimited.

Replevin Unlimited.

Interpleader transferred from High Court £500.
Actions in contract transferred from High

Court £100.

Actions in tort transferred from High Court . Unlimited.
Companies (winding up), when the paid-up

capital does not exceed £10,000.

There is no discoverable principle upon which these limits of the
jurisdiction of the county courts have been determined. But
the above table is not by any means an exhaustive statement of
the jurisdiction of the county courts. For many years it has been
the practice of parliament to throw on the county court judges
the duty of acting as judges or arbitrators for the purpose of new
legislation relating to social subjects. It is impossible to classify
the many statutes which have been passed since 1846 and which
confer some jurisdiction, apart from that under the County Courts
Act, on county courts or their judges. Some of these acts
impose exceptional duties on the judges of the county courts,
others confer unlimited jurisdiction concurrently with the High
Court or some other court, others, again, confer limited or,
sometimes, exclusive jurisdiction. A list of all the acts will be
found in the Annual County Courts Practice. A county court
judge may determine all matters of fact as well as law, but a jury
may be summoned at the option of either plaintiff or defendant
when the amount in dispute exceeds £5, and in actions under £5
the judge may in his discretion, on application of either of the
parties, order that the action be tried by jury. The number of

3 i8

COUPE— COURBET

jurymen impanelled and sworn at the trial was, by the County
Courts Act 1903, increased from five to eight.
» There is an appeal from the county courts on matters of law
to a divisional court of the High Court, i.e. to the admiralty
division in admiralty cases and to the king's bench division in
other cases (sec. 120 of act of 1888). The determination of the
divisional court is final, unless leave be given by that court or
the court of appeal (Judicature Acts 1894) . (See further Appeal.)
In proceedings under the Workmen's Compensation Act the
appeal from a county court judge is to the court of appeal, with
a subsequent appeal to the House of Lords. In 1908 a Committee
was appointed by the lord chancellor " to inquire into certain
matters of county court procedure." The committee presented
a report in 1909 (H.C. 71), recommending the extension of
existing county court jurisdiction, but a bill introduced to give
effect to the recommendations was not proceeded with.

See Annual County Courts Practice, also " Fifty Years of the
English County Courts," by County Court Judge Sir T. W. Snagge,
in Nineteenth Century, October 1897.

COUPlS (French for " cut off "), a small closed carriage of the
brougham type, with four wheels and seats for two persons;
the term is also used of the front compartment on a diligence or
mail-coach on the continent of Europe, and of a compartment in a
railway carriage with seats on one side only.

COUPLET, a pair of lines of verse, which are welded together
by an identity of rhyme. The New English Diet, derives the use
of the word from the French couplet, signifying two pieces of
iron riveted or hinged together. In rhymed verse two lines
which complete a meaning in themselves are particularly known
as a couplet. Thus, in Pope's Eloisa to Abelard: —
" Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul,
And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole."
In much of old English dramatic literature, when the mass of the
composition is in blank verse or even in prose, particular emphasis
is given by closing the scene in a couplet. Thus, in the last act
of Beaumont and Fletcher's Thierry and Theodoret the action
culminates in an unexpected rhyme: —

" And now lead on; they that shall read this story
Shall find that virtue lives in good, not glory."
In French literature, the term couplet is not confined to a pair of
lines, but is commonly used for a stanza. A " square " couplet,
in French, for instance, is a strophe of eight lines, each composed
of eight syllables. In this sense it is employed to distinguish the
more emphatic parts of a species of verse which is essentially gay,
graceful and frivolous, such as the songs in a vaudeville or a
comic opera. In the 18th century, Le Sage, Piron and even
Voltaire did not hesitate to engage their talents on the production
of couplets, which were often witty, if they had no other merit,
and were well fitted to catch the popular ear. This signification
of the word couplet is not unknown in England, but it is not
customary; it is probably used in a stricter and a more technical
sense to describe a pair of rhymed lines, whether serious or merry.
The normal type, as it may almost be called, of English versifica-
tion is the metre of ten-syllabled rhymed lines designated as
heroic couplet. This form of iambic verse, with five beats to each
line, is believed to have been invented by Chaucer, who employs
it first in the Prologue The Legend of Good Women the
composition of which is attributed to the year 1385. That poem
opens with the couplet: —

" A thousand times have I heard man tell
That there is joy in heaven and pain in hell."
This is an absolutely correct example of the heroic couplet,
which ultimately reached such majesty in the hands of Dryden
and such brilliancy in those of Pope. It has been considered
proper for didactic, descriptive and satirical poetry, although in
the course of the 19th century blank verse largely took its place.
Epigram often selects the couplet as the vehicle of its sharpened
arrows, as in Sir John Harington's

" Treason doth never prosper: what's the reason?
Why, if it prosper, none dare call it treason."

(E. G.)

COUPON (from Fr. couper, to cut), a certificate entitling its
owner to some payment, share or other benefit; more specifically,

one of a series of interest certificates or dividend warrants
attached to a bond running for a number of years. The word
coupon (a piece cut off) possesses an etymological meaning so
comprehensive that, while on the Stock Exchange it is only used
to denote such an interest certificate or a certificate of stock
of a joint-stock company, it may be as suitably, and elsewhere
is perhaps more frequently, applied to tickets sold by tourist
agencies and others. The coupons by means of which the interest
on a bond or debenture is collected are generally printed at the
side or foot of that document, to be cut off and presented for
payment at the bank or agency named on them as they become
due. The last portion, called a " talon," is a form of certificate,
and entitles the holder, when all the coupons have been presented,
to obtain a fresh coupon sheet. They pass by delivery, and are as
a rule exempt from stamp duty. Coupons for the payment of
dividends are also attached to the share warrants to bearer
issued by some joint-stock companies. The coupons on the
bonds of most of the principal foreign loans are payable in
London in sterling as well as abroad.

COURANTE (a French word derived from courir, to run), a
dance in 3-2 time march in vogue in France in the 17th century
(see Dance). It is also a musical term for a movement or
independent piece based on the dance. In a suite it followed the
Allemande (q.v.), with which it is contrasted in rhythm.

COURAYER, PIERRE FRANCOIS LE (1681-1776), French
Roman Catholic theological writer, was born at Rouen on the
17th of November 1681. While canon regular and librarian of
the abbey of St Genevieve at Paris, he conducted a correspond-
ence with Archbishop Wake on the subject of episcopal succes-
sion in England, which supplied him with material for his work,
Dissertation sur la validity des ordinations des Anglais et sur la
succession des eveques de VEglise anglicane, avec les preuves
justificatives des fails avancis (Brussels, 1723; Eng. trans, by
D. Williams, London, 1725; reprinted Oxford, 1844, with
memoir of the author) , an attempt to prove that there has been
no break in the line of ordination from the apostles to the English
clergy. His opinions exposed him to a prosecution, and with the
help of Bishop Atterbury, then in exile in Paris, he took refuge
in England, where he was presented by the university of Oxford
with a doctor's degree. In 1736 he published a French transla-
tion of Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent, and dedicated
it to Queen Caroline, from whom he received a pension of £200 a
year. Besides this he translated Sleidan's History of the Reforma-
tion, and wrote several theological works. He died in London on
the 17th of October 1776, and was buried in the cloisters of
Westminster Abbey. In his will, dated two years before his
death, he declared himself still a member of the Roman Catholic
Church, although dissenting from many of its opinions.

COURBET, GUSTAVE (1810-1877), French painter, was born
at Ornans (Doubs) on the 10th of June 1819. He went to Paris
in 1839, and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse; but
his independent spirit did not allow him to remain there long, as
he preferred to work out his own way by the study of Spanish,
Flemish and French painters. His first works, an " Odalisque,"
suggested by Victor Hugo, and a " Lelia," illustrating George
Sand, were literary subjects; but these he soon abandoned for
the study of real life. Among other works he painted his own
portrait with his dog, and " The Man with a Pipe," both of which
were rejected by the jury of the Salon; but the younger school of
critics, the neo-romantics and realists, loudly sang the praises of
Courbet, who by 1849 began to be famous, producing such pictures
as " After Dinner at Ornans " and " The Valley of the Loire."
The Salon of 1850 found him triumphant with the " Burial at
Ornans," the " Stone-Breakers " and the " Peasants of Flazey."
His style still gained in individuality, as in " Village Damsels "
(1852), the " Wrestlers," " Bathers," and "A Girl Spinning"
(1852). Though Courbet's realistic work is not devoid of import-
ance, it is as a landscape and sea painter that he will be most
honoured by posterity. Sometimes, it must be owned, his
realism is rather coarse and brutal, but when he paints the
forests of Franche-Comte, the " Stag-Fight," " The Wave," or
the " Haunt of the Does," he is inimitable. When Courbet had

COURBEVOIE— COURIER, P. L.

3i9

made a name as an artist he grew ambitious of other glory; he
tried to promote democratic and social science, and under the
Empire he wrote essays and dissertations. His refusal of the
cross of the Legion of Honour, offered to him by Napoleon III.,
made him immensely popular, and in 1871 he was elected,
under the Commune, to the chamber. Thus it happened that he
was responsible for the destruction of the Vendome column. A
council of war, before which he was tried, condemned him to pay
the cost of restoring the column, 300,000 francs (£12,000). To
escape the necessity of working to the end of his days at the orders
of the State in order to pay this sum, Courbet went to Switzer-
land in 1873, and died at La Tour du Peilz, on the 31st of
December 1877, of a disease of the liver aggravated by intemper-
ance. An exhibition of his works was held in 1882 at the Ecole
des Beaux-Arts.

See Champfleury, Les Grand.es Figures d'hier et d'aujourd' kui (Paris,
1861); Mantz, " G. Courbet," Gaz. des beaux-arts (Paris, 1878);
Zola, Mes Haines (Paris, 1879); C. Lemonnier, Les Peintres de la
Vie (Paris, 1888). (H. Fr.)

C0UR6EV0IE, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine, 5 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the railway to Versailles.
Pop. (1906) 29,339. It is a residential suburb of Paris, and
has a fine avenue opening on the Neuilly bridge, and forming
with it a continuation of the Champs Elysees. It carries on
bleaching and the manufacture of carriage bodies, awnings, drugs,
biscuits, &c.

COURCELLE - SENEUIL, JEAN GUSTAVE (1813-1892),
French economist, was born at Seneuil (Dordogne) on the 22nd of
December 18 13. Seneuil was an additional name adopted from
his native place. Devoting himself at first to the study of the
law, he was called to the French bar in 1835. Soon after, however,
he returned to Dordogne and settled down as a manager of iron-
works. He found leisure to study economic and political
questions, and was a frequent contributor to the republican
papers. On the establishment of the second republic in 1848 he
became director of the public domains. After the coup d'etat of
Napoleon III. in 185 1 he went to South America, and held the
professorship of political economy at the National Institute of
Santiago, in Chile, from 1853 to 1863, when he returned to France.
In 1879 he was made a councillor of state, and in 1882 was elected
a member of the Academie des sciences morales et politiques. He
died at Paris on the 29th of June 1892. Courcelle-Seneuil, as an
economist, was strongly inclined towards the liberal school, and
was equally partial to the historical and experimental methods;
but his best energies were directed to applied economy and
social questions. His principal work is Traite theorique et
pratique d'economie politique (2 vols., 1858); among his others
may be mentioned Traite theorique et pratique des operations de
banque (1853); Etudes sur la science sociale (1862); La Banque
libre (1867); Liberte" et socialisme (1868); Protection et libre
ichange (1879); he also translated into French John Stuart
Mill's Principles. '

COURCI, JOHN DE (d. 1219?), Anglo-Norman conqueror of
Ulster, was a member of a celebrated Norman family of Oxford-
shire and Somersetshire, whose parentage is unknown, and
around whose career a mass of legend has grown up. It would
appear that he accompanied William Fitz-Aldelm to Ireland
when the latter, after the death of Strongbow, was sent thither
by Henry II., and that he immediately headed an expedition from
Dublin to Ulster, where he took Downpatrick, the capital of the
northern kingdom. After some years of desultory fighting de
Courci established his power over that part of Ulster comprised
in the modern counties of Antrim and Down, throughout which
he built a number of castles, where his vassals, known as " the
barons of Ulster," held sway over the native tribes. After the
accession of Richard I., de Courci in conjunction with William
de Lacy appears in some way to have offended the king by his
proceedings in Ireland. De Lacy quickly made his peace with
Richard, while de Courci defied him; and the subsequent history
of the latter consisted mainly in the vicissitudes of a lasting feud
with the de Lacys. In 1204 Hugh de Lacy utterly defeated de
Courci in battle, and took him prisoner. De Courci, however,

soon obtained his liberty, probably by giving hostages as security
for a promise of submission which he failed to carry out, seeking
an asylum instead with the O'Neills of Tyrone. He again
appeared in arms on hearing that Hugh de Lacy had obtained a
grant of Ulster with the title of earl; and in alliance with the
king of Man he ravaged the territory of Down; but was com-
pletely routed by Walter de Lacy, and disappeared from the scene
till 1207, when he obtained permission to return to England. In
1 2 10 he was in favour with King John, from whom he received a
pension, and whom he accompanied to Ireland. There is some
indication of his having sided with John in his struggle with the
barons; but of the later history of de Courci little is known.
He probably died in the summer of 1 2 19. Both de Courci and his
wife Affreca were benefactors of the church, and founded several
abbeys and priories in Ulster.

A story is told that de Courci when imprisoned in the Tower
volunteered to act as champion for King John in single combat
against a knight representing Philip Augustus of France; that
when he appeared in the lists his French opponent fled in panic;
whereupon de Courci, to gratify the French king's desire to
witness his prowess, " cleft a massive helmet in twain at a single
blow," a feat for which he was rewarded by a grant of the
privilege for himself and his heirs to remain covered in the
presence of the king and all future sovereigns of England. This
tale, which still finds a place in Burke's Peerage in the account
of the baron Kingsale, a descendant of the de Courci family, is a
legend without historic foundation which did not obtain currency
till centuries after John de Courci's death. The statement that
he was created earl of Ulster, and that he was thus " the first
Englishman dignified with an Irish title of honour," is equally
devoid of foundation. John de Courci left no legitimate
children.

See J. H. Round's art. " Courci, John de," in Dictionary of National
Biography, vol. xii. (London, 1887), to which is added a bibliography
of the original and later authorities for the life of de Courci.

COURIER, PAUL LOUIS (1773-1825), French Hellenist and
political writer, was born in Paris on the 4th of January 1773.
Brought up on his father's estate of Mere in Touraine, he con-
ceived a bitter aversion for the nobility, which seemed to
strengthen with time. He would never take the name " de Mere,"
to which he was entitled, lest he should be thought a nobleman.
At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to complete his educa-
tion; his father's teaching had already inspired him with a
passionate devotion to Greek literature, and although he showed
considerable mathematical ability, he continued to devote all his
leisure to the classics. He entered the school of artillery at
Chalons, however, and immediately on receiving his appointment
as sub-lieutenant in September 1793 he joined the army of the
Rhine. He served in various campaigns of the Revolutionary
wars, especially in those of Italy in 1798-99 and 1806-7, and in
the German campaign of 1809. He became chef d'escadron in
1803.

He made his first appearance as an author in 1802, when he
contributed to the Magasin encyclopedique a critique on Johannes
Schweighauser's edition of Athenaeus. In the following year
appeared his Eloge d'Hilene, a free imitation rather than a
translation from Isocrates, which he had sketched in 1798.
Courier had given up his commission in the autumn of 1808, but
the general enthusiasm in Paris over the preparations for the new
campaign affected him, and he attached himself to the staff of a
general of artillery. But he was horror-struck by the carnage at
Wagram (1809), refusing from that time to believe that there was
any art in war. He hastily quitted Vienna, escaping the formal
charge of desertion because his new appointment had not been
confirmed. The savage independence of his nature rendered
subordination intolerable to him; he had been three times
disgraced for absenting himself without leave, and his superiors
resented his satirical humour. After leaving the army he went
to Florence, and was fortunate enough to discover in the
Laurentian Library a complete manuscript of Longus's Daphnis
and Chloe, an edition of which he published in 1810. In conse-
quence of a misadventure — blotting the manuscript — he was

320

COURIER— COURLAND

involved in a quarrel with the librarian, and was compelled by
the government to leave Tuscany. He retired to his estate
at Veretz (Indre-et-Loire) , but frequently visited Paris, and
divided his attention between literature and his farm.

After the second restoration of the Bourbons the career of
Courier as political pamphleteer began. He had before this time
waged war against local wrongs in his own district, and had been
the adviser and helpful friend of his neighbours. He now ipade
himself by his letters and pamphlets one of the most dreaded
opponents of the government of the Restoration. The first of
these was his Petition aux deux chambres (1S16), exposing the
sufferings of the peasantry under the royalist reaction. In 1817
he was a candidate for a vacant seat in the Institute; and
failing, he took his revenge by publishing zbitter Lettre dMessieurs
de V Acadtmie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1819). This was
followed (181 9-1820) by a series of political letters of extra-
ordinary power published in Le Censeur Europeen. He advocated
a liberal monarchy, at the head of which he doubtless wished to
see Louis Philippe. The proposal, in 1821, to purchase the
estate of Chambord for the duke of Bordeaux called forth from
Courier the Simple Discours de Paul Louis, vigneron de la
Chavonniere, one of his best pieces. For this he was tried and
condemned to suffer a short imprisonment and to pay a fine.
Before he went to prison he published a compte rendu of his trial,
which had a still larger circulation than the Discours itself. In
1823 appeared the Livret de Paul Louis, the Gazette de village,
followed in 1824 by his famous Pamphlet des pamphlets, called
by his biographer,J\.rmand Carrel, his swan-song. Courier pub-
lished in 1807 his translation from Xenophon, Du commande-
ment de la cavalerie et de V equitation, and had a share in editing
the Collections des romans grecs. He also projected a translation
of Herodotus, and published a specimen, in which he attempted
to imitate archaic French; but he did not live to carry out
this plan. In the autumn of 1825, on a Sunday afternoon
(August 1 8th), Courier was found shot in a wood near his house.
The murderers, who were servants of his own, remained undis-
covered for five years.

The writings of Courier, dealing with the facts and events of
his own time, are valuable sources of information as to the
condition of France before, during, and after the Revolution.
Sainte-Beuve finds in Courier's own words, " peu de matiere et
beaucoup d'art," the secret and device of his talent, which gives
his writings a value independent of the somewhat ephemeral
subject-matter.

A Collection complete des pamphlets politiques et opuscules litteraires
de P. L. Courier appeared in 1826. See editions of his (Euvres (1848),
with an admirable biography by Armand Carrel, which is reproduced
in a later edition, with a supplementary criticism by F. Sarcey (1876-
1877); also three notices by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi
and the Nouveaux Lundis.

COURIER (from the 0. Fr. courier, modern courrier, from Lat.
currere, to run), properly a running messenger, who carried
despatches and letters; a system of couriers, mounted or on
foot, formed the beginnings of the modern post-office (see Post,
and Postal Service). The despatches which pass between the
foreign office and its representatives abroad, and which cannot
be entrusted to the postal service or the telegraph, are carried by
special couriers, styled, in the British service, King's Messengers.
" Courier," more particularly, is applied to a travelling attendant,
whose duties are to arrange for the carrying of the luggage,
obtaining of passports, settling of hotel accommodation, and
generally to look. to the comfort and facility of travel. The
name " courier " and the similar word "courant " (Ital. coranto)
have often been used as the title of a newspaper or periodical (see
Newspapers); the Courier, founded in 1792, was for some time
the leading London journal.

COURLAND, or Kurland, one of the Baltic provinces of
Russia, lying between 55 45' and 57° 45' N. and 21 and 27 E.
It is bounded on the N.E. by the river Dvina, separating it from
the governments of Vitebsk and Livonia, N. by the Gulf of Riga,
W. by the Baltic, and S. by the province of East Prussia and the
Russian government of Kovno. The area is 10,535 sq. m., of
which 101 so,, m are occupied by lakes. The surface is generally

low and undulating, and the coast-lands flat and marshy. The
interior is characterized by wooded dunes, covered with pine, fir,
birch and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches
between. The surface nowhere rises more than 700 ft. above sea-
level. The Mitau plain divides it into two parts, of which the
western is fertile and thickly inhabited, except in the north,
while the eastern is less fertile and thinly inhabited. One-third
of the area is still forest.

Courland is drained by nearly one hundred rivers, of which
only three, the Dvina, the Aa and the Windau, are navigable.
They all flow north-westwards and discharge into the Baltic
Sea. Owing to the numerous lakes and marshes, the climate is
damp and often foggy, as well as changeable, and the winter is
severe. Agriculture is the chief occupation, the principal crops
being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax and potatoes. The land is
mostly owned by nobles of German descent. In 1863 laws were
issued to enable the Letts, who form the bulk of the population,
to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were
founded to help them. By this means some 12,000 farms were
bought by their occupants; but the great mass of the population
are still landless, and live as hired labourers, occupying a low
position in the social scale. On the large estates agriculture is
conducted with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grows well.
Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs are kept. Libau and
Mitau are the principal industrial centres, with iron-works,
agricultural machinery works, tanneries, glass and soap works.
Flax spinning is mostly a domestic industry. Iron and limestone
are the chief minerals: a little amber is found on the coast.
The only seaports are Libau, Windau and Polangen, there being
none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. The population
was 619,154 in 1870; 674,437 in 1897, of whom 345,756 were
women; 714,200 (estimate) in 1906. Of the whole, 79 % are
Letts, 8 J % Germans, 1-7 % Russians, and 1 % each Poles and
Lithuanians. In addition there are about 8 % Jews and some
Lives. The chief towns of the ten districts are Mitau (Doblenskiy
district), capital of the government (pop. 35,011 in 1897),
Bauske (6543), Friedrichstadt (5223), Goldingen (9733), Grobin
(1489), Hasenpoth (3338), Illuxt (2340), Talsen (6215), Tuckum
(7542) and Windau (7132). The prevailing religion is the
Lutheran, to which 76 % of the population belong; the rest
belong to the Orthodox Eastern and the Roman Catholic
churches.

Anciently Courland was inhabited by the Cours or Kurs, a
Lettish tribe, who were subdued and converted to Christianity
by the Brethren of the Sword, a German military order, in the
first quarter of the 13th century. In 1237 it passed under the
rule of the Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this
order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. At that time it
comprised the two duchies of Courland and Semgallen. Under
the increasing pressure of Russia (Muscovy) the Teutonic Knights
in 1 561 found it expedient to put themselves under the suzerainty
of Poland, the grandmaster Gotthard Kettler (d. 1587) becoming
the first duke of Courland. The duchy suffered severely in the
Russo-Swedish wars of 1700-9. But by the marriage in 1710
of Kettler's descendant, Duke Frederick William (d. 1711), to the
princess Anne, niece of Peter the Great and afterwards empress
of Russia, Courland came into close relation with the latter state
Anne being duchess of Courland from 171 1 to 1730. The
celebrated Marshal Saxe was elected duke in 1726, but only
managed to maintain himself by force of arms till the next year.
The last Kettler, William, titular duke of Courland, died in 1737,
and the empress Anne now bestowed the dignity on her favourite
Biren, who held it from 1737 to 1740 and again from 1763 till his
death in 1772. During nearly the whole of the 18th century
Courland, devastated by continual wars, was a shuttlecock
between Russia and Poland; until eventually in 1795 the
assembly of the nobles placed it under the Russian sceptre.
The Baltic provinces — Esthonia, Livonia and Courland — ceased
to form collectively one general government in 1876.

See H. Hollmann, Kurlands Agrarverhaltnisse (Riga, 1893), and
E. Seraphim, Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands (2 vols., Reval,
1 895-1 896).

COURNOT— COURT, A.

321

COURNOT, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1801-1877), French
economist and mathematician, was born at Gray (Haute-Saone)
on the 28th of August 1 801. Trained for the scholastic pro-
fession, he was appointed assistant professor at the Academy of
Paris in 1 83 1 , professor of mathematics at Lyons in 1 834, rector of
the Academy of Grenoble in 1835, inspector-general of studies in
1838, rector of the Academy of Dijon and honorary inspector-
general in 1854, retiring in 1862. He died in Paris on the 31st of
March 1877. Cournot was the first who, with a competent
knowledge of both subjects, endeavoured to apply mathematics
to the treatment of economic questions. His Recherches sur les
principes mathematiques de la Morie des richesses (English trans.
by N. T. Bacon, with bibliography of mathematics of economics
by Irving Fisher, 1897) was published in 1838. He mentions
in it only one previous enterprise of the same kind (though
there had in fact been others)— that, namely, of Nicholas
Francois Canard (c.1750-1833), whose book, Principes d'&conomie
politique (Paris, 1802), was crowned by the French Academy,
though " its principles were radically false as well as erroneously
applied." Notwithstanding Cournot's just reputation as a
writer on mathematics, the Recherches made little impression.
The truth seems to be that his results are in some cases of little
importance, in others of questionable correctness,- and that, in
the abstractions to which he has recourse in order to facilitate h:s
calculations, an essential part of the real conditions of ths
problem is sometimes omitted. His pages abound in symbols
representing unknown functions, the form of the function being
left to be ascertained by observation of facts, which he does not
regard as a part of his task, or only some known properties of
the undetermined function being used as bases for deduction.
In his Principes de la tMorie des richesses (1863) he abandoned
the mathematical method, though advocating the use of mathe-
matical symbols in economic discussions, as being of service in
facilitating exposition. Other works of Cournot's .were Traite"
iltmentaire de la theorie des fonctions et du calcul infiniUsimal
(1841); Exposition de la theorie des chances et des probability
(1843); De I'origine et des limites de la correspondance entre
I'algebre et la giometrie (1847); Traiti de V ' enchalnement des idees
fondamentales dans les sciences et dans Vhisloire (1861) ; and Revue
sommaire des doctrines economiques (1877).

COURSING (from Lat. cursus, currere, to run), the hunting of
game by dogs solely by sight and not by scent. From time to
time the sport has been pursued by various nations against
various animals, but the recognized method has generally been
the coursing of the hare by greyhounds. Such sport is of great
antiquity, and is fully described by Arrian in his Cynegeticus
about a.d. 150, when the leading features appear to have been
much the same as in the present day. Other Greek and Latin
authors refer to the sport; but during the middle ages it was but
little heard of. Apart from private coursing for the sake of
filling the pot with game, public coursing has become an exhilarat-
ing sport. The private sportsman seldom possesses good strains
of blood to breed his greyhounds from or has such opportunities
of trying them as the public courser.

The first known set of rules in England for determining the
merits of a course were drawn up by Thomas, duke of Norfolk, in
Queen Elizabeth's reign; but no open trials were heard of until
half a century later, in the time of Charles I. The oldest regular
coursing club of which any record exists is that of Swaffham, in
Norfolk, which was founded by Lord Orford in 1766 ; and in
1780 the Ashdown Park (Berkshire) meeting was established.
During the next seventy years many other large and influential
societies sprang up throughout England and Scotland, the
Altcar Club (oh the Sefton estates, near Liverpool) being founded
in 1825. The season lasts about six months, beginning in the
middle of September. It was not until 1858 that a coursing
parliament, so to speak, was formed, and a universally accepted
code of rules drawn up. In that year the National Coursing Club
was founded. It is composed of representatives from all clubs in
the United Kingdom of more than a year's standing, and possess-
ing more than twenty-four members. Their rules govern
meetings, and their committee adjudicate on matters of dispute.

VII. 11

A comparative trial of two dogs, and not the capture of the game
pursued, is the great distinctive trait of modern coursing. A
greyhound stud-book was started in 1882.

The breeding and training of a successful kennel is a precarious
matter; and the most unaccountable ups and downs of fortune
often occur in a courser's career. At a meeting an agreed-on
even number of entries are made for each stake, and the ties
drawn by lot. After the first round the winner of the first tie is
opposed to the winner of the second, and so on until the last two
dogs left in compete for victory; but the same owner's grey-
hounds are " guarded " as far as it is possible to do so. A staff
of beaters drive the hares out of their coverts or other hiding-
places, whilst the slipper has the pair of dogs in hand, and slips
them simultaneously by an arrangement of nooses, when they
have both sighted a hare promising a good course. The judge
accompanies on horseback, and the six points whereby he
decides a course are— (1) speed; (2) the go-by, or when a
greyhound starts a clear length behind his opponent, passes him
in the straight run, and gets a clear length in front; (3) the turn,
where the hare turns at not less than a right angle; (4) the
wrench, where the hare turns at less than a right angle; (5) the
kill; (6) the trip, or unsuccessful effort to kill. He may return a
" no course " as his verdict if the dogs have not been fairly tried
together, or an " undecided course " if he considers their merits
equal. The open Waterloo meeting, held at Altcar every spring,
— the name being taken from its being originated by the pro-
prietor of the Waterloo Hotel, Liverpool, — is now the recognized
fixture for the decision of the coursing championship, and the
Waterloo Cup (1836) is the " Blue Riband " of the leash. In the
United States, several British colonies, and other countries, the
name has been adopted, and Waterloo Coursing Cups are found
there as in England. In America an American Coursing Board
controls the sport, the chief meetings being in North and South
Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa and Minnesota.

The chief works on coursing are: — Arrian's Cynegeticus, translated
by the Rev. W. Dansey (1831); T. Thacker, Courser's Companion
and Breeder's Guide(i83$) ; Thacker's Courser' s Annual Remembrancer
(1849-1851); D. P. Blaine, Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports (3rd ed.,
1870); and J. H. Walsh, The Greyhound (3rd ed., 1875). See; also
the Coursing Calendar (since 1857); Coursing and Falconry (Bad-
minton Library, 1892) ; The Hare (" Fur and Feather " series, 1896) ;
and The Greyhound Stud Book (since 1882).

COURT, ANTOINE (1606-1760), French Protestant divine, was
born in the village of Villeneuve-de-Berg, in the province of the
Vivarais. He has been designated the " Restorer of Protestantism
in France," and was the organizer of the " Church of the Desert."
He was eight years old when the Camisard revolt was finally
suppressed, and nineteen when on the 8th of March 1715 the
edict of Louis XIV. was published, declaring that " he had
abolished entirely the exercise of the so-called reformed religion "
(" qu'il avait aboli tout exercice de la religion pretendue reform ee' ') .
Antoine, taken to the secret meetings of the persecuted Calvinists,
began, when only seventeen, to speak and exhort in these congrega-
tions of "the desert." He came to suspect after a time that
many of the so-called " inspired " persons were " dupes of their
own zeal and credulity," and decided that it was necessary to
organize at once the small communities of believers into properly
constituted churches. To the execution of this vast undertaking
he devoted his life. On the 21st of August 1715 he summoned
all the preachers in the Cevennes and Lower Languedoc to a
conference or synod near the village of Monoblet. Here elders
were appointed, and the preaching of women, as well as pretended
revelations, was condemned. The village of Monoblet " thus
seems entitled to the honour of having had the first organized
Protestant church after the revocation of the edict of Nantes "
(H. M. Baird). But there were as yet no ordained pastors.
Pierre Corteiz was therefore sent to seek ordination. He was
ordained at Zurich, and from him Court himself received ordina-
tion. The scene of his labours for fifteen years was Languedoc,
the Vivarais, and Dauphine. His beginnings were very small
prayer-meetings in " the desert." Brit the work progressed
under his wise direction, and he was able " to be present, in 1744,
at meetings of ten thousand souls." In 1724 Louis XV., again

322

COURT

assuming that there were no Protestants in France, prohibited
the most secret exercise of the Reformed religion, and imposed
severe penalties. It was impossible fully to carry out this menace.
But persecution raged, especially against the pastors. A price
was set on the life of Court; and in 1730 he escaped to Lausanne.
He had already, with the aid of some of the Protestant princes,
established a theological college (" Seminaire de Lausanne ")
there, and during the remaining thirty years of his life he filled
the post of director. He had the title of deputy-general of the
churches, and was really the pillar of their hope. The Seminary
of Lausanne sent forth all the pastors of the Reformed Church of
France till the days of the first French Empire. Court formed
the design of writing a history of Protestantism, and made large
collections for the purpose, which have been preserved in the
Public Library of Geneva; but this he did not live to carry out.
He died at Lausanne in 1 760. He wrote, amongst other works, a
Histoire des troubles des Ctvennes ou de la guerre des Camisards
( 1 760) . He was the father of the more generally known Antoine
Court de Gebelin (q.v.).

For details of his life see Napoleon Peyrat's Histoire des pasteurs
du desert (1842; English translation, 1852); Edmond Hugues,
Antoine Court, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en
France au XVIII' siecle (2nd ed., 1872), Les Synodes du desert
(3 vols., 1885-1886), MSmoires d' Antoine Court (1885): E. and E.
Haag, La France protestante, vol. iv. (1884, new edition); H. M.
Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1895),
vol. ii. ; cf. Bulletin de la sociSte de Vhistoire du protestantisme
francais (1893- 1906).

COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a
popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr.
form cour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used
in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense),
a word originally denoting an enclosed place, and so surviving
in its architectural sense (courtyard, &c), but chiefly used as a
general term for judicial tribunals and in the special sense of the
household of the king, called "the court." 1 All law courts
were not, however, purely judicial in character; the old county
Court, for instance, was the assembly of the freeholders of the
county in which representatives and certain officers were elected.
Such assemblies in early times exercised political and legislative
as well as judicial functions. But these have now been almost
entirely separated everywhere, and only judicial bodies are now
usually called courts. In every court, says Blackstone, there
must be three parts, — an actor or plaintiff, reus or defendant, and
judex, or judge.

The language of legal fictions, which English lawyers invariably
use in all constitutional subjects, makes the king the ultimate
source of all judicial authority, and assumes his personal presence
in all the courts.

" As by our excellent constitution," says Blackstone, " the sole
executive power of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it
will follow that all courts of justice, which are the medium by which
he administers the laws, are derived from the power of the crown.
For whether created by act of parliament or letters patent, or
subsisting by prescription (the only methods by which any court of
judicature can exist), the king's consent in the two former is ex-
pressly, in the latter impliedly given. In all these courts the king is
supposed in contemplation of law to be always present ; but as that
is in fact impossible, he is then represented by his judges, whose
nower is only an emanation of the royal prerogative."

These words might give a false impression of the historical and
legal relations of the courts and the crown, if it is not remembered
that they are nothing more than the expression of a venerable
fiction. The administration of justice was, indeed, one of the
functions of the king in early times; the king himself sat on
circuit so late as the reign of Edward IV.; and even after regular
tribunals were established, a reserve of judicial power still
remained in the king and his council, in the exercise of which it
was possible for the king to participate personally. The last
judicial act of an English king, if such it can be called, was that
by which James I. settled the dispute between the court of
chancery and courts of common law. Since the establishment
of parliamentary government the courts take their law directly
from the legislature, and the king is only connected with them

1 Cf . the German Hof for court-yard, court of law, and royal court.

indirectly as a member of the legislative body. The king's nanie,
however, is still used in this as in other departments of state
action. The courts exercising jurisdiction in England are divided
by certain features which may here be briefly indicated.

We may distinguish between (1) superior and inferior courts.
The former are the courts of common law and the court of
chancery, now High Court of Justice. The latter are the local or
district courts, county courts, &c. (2) Courts of record and courts
not of record. " A court of record is one whereof the acts and
judicial proceedings are enrolled for a perpetual memory and
testimony, which rolls are called the records of the court, and are
of such high and supereminent authority that their truth is not
to be called in question. For it is a settled rule and maxim that
nothing shall be averred against a record, nor shall any plea or
even proof be admitted to the contrary. And if the existence of
the record shall be denied it shall be tried by nothing but itself;
that is, upon bare inspection whether there be any such record or
no; else there would be no end of disputes. All courts of record
are the courts of the sovereign in right of the crown and royal
dignity, and therefore any court of record has authority to fine
and imprison for contempt of its authority" (Stephen's Black-
stone) . (3) Courts may also be distinguished as civil or criminal.
(4) A further distinction is to be made between courts of first
instance and courts of appeal. In the former the first hearing in
any judicial proceeding takes place; in the latter the judgment
of the first court is brought under review. Of the superior
courts, the High Court of Justice in its various divisions is a court
of first instance. Over it is the court of appeal, and over that
again the House of Lords. The High Court of Justice is (through
divisional courts) a court of appeal for inferior courts. (5) There
is a special class of local courts, which do not appear to fall
within the description of either superior or inferior courts.'
Some, while administering the ordinary municipal law, have or
had jurisdiction exclusive of their superior courts; such were the
common pleas of Durham and Lancaster. Others have concurrent
jurisdiction with the superior courts; such are the lord mayor's
court of London, the passage court of Liverpool, &c.

The distribution of judicial business among the various courts
of law in England may be exhibited as follows.

Criminal Courts. — (1) The lowest is that of the justice of the
peace, sitting in petty sessions of two or more, to determine in a
summary way certain specified minor offences. In populous
districts, such as London, Manchester, &c, stipendiary magis-
trates are appointed, generally with enlarged powers. Besides
punishing by summary conviction, justices may commit prisoners
for trial at the assizes. (2) The justices in quarter sessions are
commissioned to determine felonies and other offences. An act
of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 38) contains a list of offences not triable
at quarter sessions — treason, murder, forgery, bigamy, &c. (see
Quarter Sessions, Court of). The corresponding court in
a borough is presided over by a recorder. (3) The more serious
offences are reserved for the judges of the superior courts sitting
under a commission of oyer and terminer or gaol delivery for each
county. The assize courts, as they are called, sit in general in
each county twice a year, following the division of circuits; but
additional assizes are also held under acts of 1876 and 1877,
which permit several counties to be united together for that
purpose (see Circuit). London, which occupies an exceptional
position in all matters of judicature, has a high criminal court of
its own, established by the Central Criminal Court Act 1834,
under the name of the central criminal court. Its judges usually
present are a rota selected from the superior judges of common
law, the recorder, common serjeant, and the judge of the City of
London court. 2 The criminal appeal court, to which all persons
convicted on indictment may appeal, superseded in 1908 (by the
Criminal Appeal Act 1907) the court for crown cases reserved,
to which any question of law arising on the trial of a prisoner

2 The sittings are held in the court-house in the Old Bailey. The
old sessions house was destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780. The
building erected in its place, although enlarged from time to time,
was very incommodious, and a new structure, occupying the site of
Newgate Prison, which was pulled down for the purpose, was com-
pleted in 1907.

COURT

323

could after conviction be remitted by the judge in his discretion.
To the criminal appeal court there is an appeal both on questions
ol fact and of law (see Appeal) .

Civil Courts. — In certain special cases, civil claims of small
Importance may be brought before justices or stipendiaries.
Otherwise, and excepting the special and peculiar jurisdictions
above mentioned, the civil business of England and Wales may be
said to be divided between the county courts (taking small cases)
and the High Court of Justice (taking all others).

The effect of the Judicature Acts on the constitution of the
nuperior courts may be briefly stated. There is now one Supreme
Court of Judicature, consisting of two permanent divisions
called the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal. The
former takes the jurisdiction of the court of chancery, the three
common law courts, the courts of admiralty, probate, and divorce,
the courts of pleas at Lancaster and Durham, and the courts
created by commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and gaol
delivery. The latter takes the jurisdiction of the court of appeal
in chancery (including chancery of Lancaster), the court of the
lord warden of the stannaries, and of the exchequer chamber, and
the appellate jurisdiction in admiralty and heresy matters of the
judicial committee; and power is given to the sovereign to
transfer the remaining jurisdiction of that court to the court of
appeal. By the Appellate Jurisdiction Act of 1876 the House of
Lords is enabled to sit for the hearing of appeals from the
English court of appeal and the Scottish and Irish courts during
the prorogation and dissolution of parliament. The lords of
appeal, of whom three must be present, are the lord chancellor,
the lords of appeal in ordinary, and peers who have held " high
judicial office " in Great Britain or Ireland. The lords in
ordinary are an innovation in the constitution of the House.
They hold the rank of baron for life only, have a right to sit and
vote in the House during tenure of office only, and a salary of
£6000 per annum.

There are also many obsolete or decayed courts, of which the
most noticeable are dealt with under their individual headings, as
Court Baron, Court Leet, &c.

The history of English courts affords a remarkable illustration
of the continuity that characterizes English institutions. It
might perhaps be too much to say that all the courts now sitting
in England may be traced back to a common origin, but at any
rate the higher courts are all offshoots from the same original
judicature. Leaving out of account the local courts, we find the
higher jurisdiction after the Norman Conquest concentrated
along with all other public functions in the king and council.
The first sign of a separation of the judicial from the other
powers of this body is found in the recognition of a Curia Regis,
which may be described as the king's council, or a portion of it,
charged specially with the management of judicial and revenue
business. In relation to the revenue it became the exchequer,
under which name a separate court grew up whose special field
was the judicial business arising out of revenue cases. By Magna
Carta the inconvenience caused by the curia following the king's
person was remedied, in so far as private litigation was concerned,
by the order that common pleas (Communia Placita) should be
held at some fixed place; and hence arose the court of common
pleas. The Curia Regis, after having thrown off these branches,
is represented by the king's bench, so that from the same stock
we have now three courts, differing at first in functions, but
through competition for business, and the ingenious use of
fictions, becoming finally the co-ordinate courts of common law
of later history. But an inner circle of counsellors still surrounded
the king, and in his name claimed to exercise judicial as well as
other power; hence the chancellor's jurisdiction, which became,
partly in harmony with the supra-legal power claimed from which
it sprang, and partly through the influence of the ecclesiastical
chancellors by whom it was first administered, the equity of
English law. Similar developments of the same authority were
the court of requests (which was destroyed by a decision of the
common pleas) and the court of star chamber — a court of
criminal equity, as it has been called, — which, having been made
the instrument of tyranny, was abolished in 1641. Even then

the productive power of the council was not exhausted; the
judicial committee of the privy council, established in 1832,
superseding the previous court of delegates, exercises the juris-
diction in appeal belonging to the king in council. The appellate
jurisdiction of the Lords rests on their claim to be the representa-
tives of the ancient great council of the realm.

See further Admiralty, High Court of; Appeal; Chancery;
Common Law; Common Pleas, Court of; Divorce; Equity; &c.

United States. — The Federal judicial system of the United
States is made by the Constitution independent both of the
Legislature and of the Executive. It consists of the Supreme
Court, the circuit courts, and the district courts.

The Supreme Court is created by the Constitution, and
consisted in 1909 of nine judges, who are nominated by the
President and confirmed by the Senate. They hold office during
good behaviour, i.e. are removable only by impeachment, thus
having a tenure even more secure than that of English judges.
The court sits at Washington from October to July in every year.
The sessions of the court are held in the Capitol. A rule requiring
the presence of six judges to pronounce a decision prevents the
division of the court into two or more benches; and while this
secures a thorough consideration of every case, it also retards the
despatch of business. Every case is discussed twice by the whole
body, once to ascertain the view of the majority, which is then
directed to be set forth in a written opinion; then again, when
the written opinion, prepared by one of the judges, is submitted
for criticism and adoption by the court as its judgment.

The other Federal courts have been created by Congress under
a power in the Constitution to establish " inferior courts." The
circuit courts consist of twenty-nine circuit judges, acting in nine
judicial circuits, while to each circuit there is also allotted one of
the justices of the Supreme Court. Circuit courts of appeals,
established to relieve the Supreme Court, consist of three judges
(two forming a quorum), and are made up of the circuit and
district judges of each circuit and the Supreme Court justice
assigned to the circuit. Some cases may, however, be appealed
to the Supreme Court from the circuit court of appeals, and
others directly from the lower courts. The district courts
number (1909) ninety, in most cases having a single justice.
There is also a special tribunal called the court of claims, which
deals with the claims of private persons against the Federal
government. It is not strictly a part of the general judicial
system, but is a creation of Congress designed to relieve that body
of a part of its own labours.

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends only to those
cases in which the Constitution makes Federal law applicable.
All other cases are left to the state courts, from which there is no
appeal to the Federal courts, unless where some specific point
arises which is affected by the Federal Constitution or a Federal
law. The classes of cases dealt with by the Federal courts are as
follows: —

1. Cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution,
the laws of the United States, and treaties made under their
authority;

2. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls;

3. Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;

4. Controversies to which the United States shall be a party;

5. Controversies between two or more states, between a state
and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states,
between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of
different states, and between a state or the citizens thereof and
foreign states, citizens or subjects {Const., Art. III., § 2). Part
of this jurisdiction has, however, been withdrawn by the eleventh
Amendment to the Constitution, which declares that " the
judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to
extend to any suit commenced or prosecuted against one of the
United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or
subjects of any foreign state."

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is original in cases
affecting ambassadors, and wherever a state is a party; in othei
cases it is appellate. In some matters the jurisdiction of the

324

COURT BARON— COURTENAY FAMILY

Federal courts is exclusive; in others it is concurrent with that of
the state courts.

As it frequently happens that cases come before state courts in
which questions of Federal law arise, a provision has been made
whereby due respect for the latter is secured by giving the party
to a suit who relies upon Federal law, and whose contention is
overruled by a state court, the right of having the suit removed
to a Federal court. The Judiciary Act of 1789 (as amended by
subsequent legislation) provides for the removal to the Supreme
Court of the United States of " a final judgment or decree in any
suit rendered in the highest court of a state in .which a decision
could be had, where is drawn in question the validity of a treaty
or statute of, or an authority exercised under the United States,
and the decision is against their validity; or where is drawn in
question the validity of a statute of, or an authority exercised
under, any state, on the ground of their being repugnant to the
Constitution, treaties or laws of the United States, and the
decision is in favour of their validity; or where any title, right,
privilege or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, or any
treaty or statute of, or commission, held, or authority exercised
under the United States, and the decision is against the title,
right, privilege or immunity specially set up or claimed by either
party under such Constitution, treaty, statute, commission or
authority." If the decision of the state court is in favour of the
right claimed under Federal law or against the validity or appli-
cability of the state law set up, there is no ground for removal,
because the applicability or authority of Federal law in the
particular case could receive no further protection from a Federal
court than has in fact been given by the state court.

The power exercised by the Supreme Court in declaring
statutes of Congress or of state legislatures (or acts of the
Executive) to be invalid because inconsistent with the Federal
Constitution, has been deemed by many Europeans a peculiar
and striking feature of the American system. There is, however,
nothing novel or mysterious about it. As the Federal Constitu-
tion, which emanates directly from the people, is the supreme law
of the land everywhere, any statute passed by any lower
authority (whether the Federal Congress or a state legislature),
which contravenes the Constitution, must necessarily be invalid
in point of law, just as in the United Kingdom a railway by-law
which contravened an act of parliament would be invalid. Now,
the functions of judicial tribunals — of all courts alike, whether
Federal or state, whether superior or inferior — is to interpret the
law, and if any tribunal finds a Congressional statute or state
statute inconsistent with the Constitution, the tribunal is
obliged to hold such statute invalid. A tribunal does this not
because it has any right or power of its own in the matter, but
because the people have, in enacting the Constitution as a supreme
law, declared that all other laws inconsistent with it are ipso jure
void. When a tribunal has ascertained that an inferior law is
thus inconsistent, that inferior law is therewith, so far as
inconsistent, to be deemed void. The tribunal does not enter
any conflict with the Legislature or Executive. All it does
is to declare that a conflict exists between two laws of different
degrees of authority, whence it necessarily follows that the
weaker law is extinct. This duty of interpretation belongs to all
tribunals, but as constitutional cases are, if originating in a lower
court, usually carried by appeal to the Supreme Court, men have
grown accustomed to talk of the Supreme Court as in a special
sense the guardian of the Constitution.

The Federal courts never deliver an opinion on any consti-
tutional question unless or until that question is brought before
them in the form of a lawsuit. A judgment of the Supreme
Court is only a judgment on the particular case before it, and
does not prevent a similar question being raised again in another
lawsuit, though of course this seldom happens, because it may
be assumed that the court will adhere to its former opinion.
There have, however, been instances in which the court has
virtually changed its view on a constitutional question, and it is
understood to be entitled so to do.

COURT BARON, an English manorial court dating from the
middle ages and still in existence. It was laid down by Coke

that a manor had two courts, " the first by the common law, and
is called a court baron," the freeholders (" barons ") being its
suitors; the other a customary court for the copyholders.
Stubbs adopted this explanation, but the latest learning, ex-
pounded by Professor Maitland, holds that court baron means
curia baronis, " la court de seigneur," and that there is no evidence
for there being more than one court. The old view that at least
two freeholders were required for its composition is also now
discarded. Prof. Maitland's conclusionls that the " court baron "
was not even differentiated from the " court-leet " at the close
of the 13th century, but that there was a distinction of juris-
dictional rights, some courts having only feudal rights, while
others had regalities as well. When the court-leet was differ-
entiated, the court baron remained with feudal rights alone.
These rights he was disposed to trace to a lord's jurisdiction over
his men rather than to his possession of the manor, although in
practice, from an early date, the court was associated with the
manor. Its chief business was to administer the " custom of the
manor " and to admit fresh tenants who had acquired copyholds
by inheritance or purchase, and had to pay, on so doing, a " fine "
to the lord of the manor. It is mainly for the latter purpose that
the court is now kept. It is normally presided over by the
steward of the lord of the manor, who is a lawyer, and its pro-
ceedings are recprded on " the court rolls," of which the older
ones are now valuable for genealogical as well as for legal purposes.
See Select Pleas in Manorial and other Seignorial Courts, vol. i.,
and The Court Baron (Selden Society). (J. H. R.)

COURT DE GEBELIN, ANTOINE (1728-1784), French scholar,
son of Antoine Court (q.v.), was born at Nimes in 1728. He
received a good education, and became, like his father, a pastor
of the Reformed Church. This office, however, he soon re-
linquished, to devote himself entirely to literary work. He had
conceived the project of a work which should set in a new light
the phenomena, especially the languages and mythologies, of the
ancient world; and, after his father's death, he went to Paris in
order to be near the necessary books. After long years of research,
he published in 1775 the first volume of his vast undertaking
under the title of Le Monde primitif, analyst et compart avec le
monde moderne. The ninth volume appeared in 1784, leaving the
work still unfinished. The literary world marvelled at the encyclo-
paedic learning displayed by the author, and supposed that the
French Academy, or some other society of scholars, must have
combined their powers in its production. Now, however, the
world has well-nigh forgotten the huge quartos. These learned
labours did not prevent Gebelin from pleading earnestly the cause
of religious tolerance. In 1760 he published a work entitled
Les Toulousaines, advocating the rights of the Protestants; and
he afterwards established at Paris an agency for collecting
information as to their sufferings, and for exciting general
interest in their ' cause. He co-operated with Franklin and
others in the periodical work entitled Affaires de I'Angleterre et
de I'Amerique (1776, sqq.), which was devoted to the. support
of American independence. He was also a supporter of the
principles of the economists, and Quesnay called him his well-
beloved disciple. In the last year of his life he became acquainted
with Mesmer, and published a Lettre sur le magnetisme animal.
He was imposed upon by speculators in whom he placed
confidence, and was reduced to destitution by the failure of a
scheme in which they engaged him. He died at Paris on the
10th of May 1784.

See La France protestante, by the brothers Haag, tome iv. ; Charles
Dardier, Court de Gebelin (Nimes, 1890).

COURTENAY, the name of a famous English family. French
genealogists head the pedigree of this family with one Athon or
Athos, who is said to have fortified Courtenay in Gatinois about
the year 1010. His son Josselin had, with other issue, Miles,
lord of Courtenay, founder of the Cistercian abbey of Fontaine-
Jean. By his wife Ermengarde, daughter of Renaud, count oi
Nevers, Miles left a son Renaud, one of the magnates who
followed Louis le Jeune to the Holy Land. This was the last lord
of Courtenay of the line of Athon. Elizabeth, his elder daughter
— a younger daughter died without issue, — carried Courtenay and

COURTENAY FAMILY

325

other lordships to her husband Pierre, seventh and youngest son
of the French king Louis VI. the Fat, the marriage taking place
about 1150, and the many descendants of this royal match bore
the surname of Courtenay.

Pierre, the eldest son, was founder of a short-lived dynasty of
emperors of Constantinople, which ended in 1261 when Baldwin
(Baudouin), last of the Frankish emperors, fled before Michael
Palaeologus from a capital in flames. Baldwin's son Philip,
however, bore the empty title, and his granddaughter Catherine,
wife of Charles, count of Valois, was titular empress. Other
lines of the royal Courtenays, sprung from Pierre of France,
were lords of Champignolles, Tanlai, Yerre, Bleneau, La Ferte
Loupiere and Chevillon. On the death of Gaspard, sieur de
Bleneau, in 1655, his cousin Louis de Courtenay, comte de Cesi
(jure uxoris) and sieur de Chevillon, had Bleneau, and reckoned
himself the surviving chief of his house. He styled himself Prince
de Courtenay and his family made attempts to obtain recognition
for their royal blood. But their laboriously constructed genea-
logies availed nothing to this impoverished race. The last
" Prince de Courtenay," an ex-captain of dragoons, died in 1730;
his uncle Roger de Courtenay, abbe des Eschalis, who died in
1733, was the last recognized member of the line of Pierre of
France.

A younger branch of the first house of Courtenay came from
Josselin, second son of Josselin, son of Athon. This Josselin, a
notable crusader, went to the Holy Land with the count of Blois,
and held by the sword for eleven years the county of Edessa,
given him by his cousin King Baldwin II. Edessa was won back
by the infidel from his son Josselin, who died a prisoner in Aleppo
in 1 147. A grandson, also a Josselin, was seneschal of the kingdom
of Jerusalem.

In England a house of Courtenay has flourished with varying
fortunes since the reign of the first Angevin king. The monks of
Ford, to whom they were benefactors, complacently set down
their patrons as the offspring of the royal Courtenays, of whose
origin they had some dim knowledge, deriving them from
" Floras," son of Louis the Fat. A comparison of dates destroys
the story. But they were, doubtless, Courtenays of the stock of
Athon. Josselin, the first count of Edessa, has been suggested by
modern writers as their founder, but the name Reinaud, borne by
the first known ancestor of the English house, suggests that they
may have sprung from a younger son of Josselin I. of Courtenay
by his marriage about 1095 with Ermengarde, daughter of
Reinaud, count of Nevers. It is also notable that the English
Courtenays have, from the first introduction of armorial bearings,
borne with various differences the three red roundels in a golden
field, the arms of the Courtenays in France, the shield of the earls
of Devonshire being identical with that of the lords of La Ferte
Loupiere.

Several Courtenays whose kinship cannot be exactly ascer-
tained, appear in English records of the 12th century. One
of them, Robert de Courtenay, married the daughter and
heir of Reynold fitz Urse, the leader of the murderers of Arch-
bishop Thomas Becket. His son, William, a Shropshire baron,
held the castle of Montgomery, as heir by his mother of Baldwin
de Buslers, or Boilers, to whom Henry I. had given it with his
" niece " Sibil de Falaise. This William married Ada of Dunbar,
daughter of Patrick, earl of Dunbar, but died in the reign of King
John, without issue.

Reinaud de Courtenay, ancestor of the main English line, may
well have been, a brother of the Robert above named. The
English pedigrees confuse him with his son of the same name.
He was a favourite with Henry II., his attestations of charters
showing him as a constant companion at home and abroad of the
king, whom he followed to Wexford in the Irish expedition of
1172. Henry gave him Berkshire lands at Sutton, still known as
Sutton Courtenay, by a charter to which the date of 1161 can be
assigned. In England he had to wife Maude, daughter of Robert
fitz Roy by Maude of Avranches, the elder Maude being the heir
of the house of Brionne. By her, who survived him, dying
before January 1224, he had no issue, but by a wife who may
have died before his coming to England he had, with other issue,

Robert and Reinaud. Robert, who succeeded to Sutton about
1 192, was husband of Alice de Rumeli, widow of Gilbert Pipard,
and one of the three sisters and co-heirs of William, the boy of
Egremond, of whose drowning in the Strid Wordsworth has
made a ballad. Robert died childless in 1209. Of his brother
Reinaud or Reynold de Courtenay little is known, save that he
was a married man in n 78 when he and his wife Eawise were
given by the pope a licence to have a free chapel at Okehampton.
This wife, Hawise de Ayencourt, was, with Maude his father's
second wife, a daughter and co-heir of Maude of Avranches, her
father being the lord of Ayencourt, first husband of the last
named Maude. Her great inheritance included the honour of
Okehampton in Devonshire of which, as a widow, she had livery
about 1205. Her son, Robert de Courtenay, succeeded to her
land in 12 19, having been his uncle Robert's heir in Sutton ten
years before. Like his father he advanced his house by a great
marriage, his wife being Mary, the younger daughter of William
de Vernon, earl of Devon and of the Isle of Wight. He was
succeeded in 1242 by his son John, who by Isabel, a daughter of
Hugh de Vere, earl of Oxford, has issue Hugh, whose wife was
Eleanor, daughter of the earl of Winchester, elder of the two
favourites of Edward II. The son of this marriage, another
Hugh, followed his father at Okehampton in 1291. Two years
later died Isabel, surviving sister and heir of Baldwin de Reviers,
earl of Devon, and widow of William de Forz, last earl of
Aumerle (Albemarle). On her death-bed she had granted her
lordship of the -Wight to the king, but her cousin Hugh de
Courtenay succeeded her in the unalienated estates of the house of
Reviers. He was summoned as a baron on the 6th of February
1298/9, and in 1300 he displayed his banner before the castle
of Caerlaverock. Claiming the " third penny " of the county of
Devon, he was refused by the exchequer as he did not claim in the
name of an earl. Following, however, a writ of inquiry, a patent
of the 22nd of February 1334/5 declared him earl of Devon
and qualified to take such style as his ancestors, earls of Devon,
were wont to take. Hugh, his son, the second earl, a warrior who
drove the French back from their descent on Cornwall in 1339,
made another of the brilliant marriages of this family, his wife
being Eleanor, daughter of Humfrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford
and Essex, by Elizabeth daughter of Edward I. Their eldest
son, Sir Hugh de Courtenay, shared in the honours of Crecy and
Calais, and was one of the knights founders of the order of the
Garter, the stall-plate of his arms being yet in St George's
chapel at Windsor. This knight died in the lifetime of the earl,
as did his only son Hugh, summoned as a baron on the 3rd of
January 1370/1, a companion at Najara of the Black Prince,
whose step-daughter Maude of Holland he had married. The
earl was therefore succeeded by his grandson Edward (son of
Edward his third son), earl marshal of England in 1385, who died
blind in 1419, the year after the death of Sir Edward his heir
apparent, one of the conquerors at Agincourt. Hugh, a second
son of Earl Edward, succeeded as fourth earl of the Courtenay
line. By his wife, a sister of the renowned Talbot, earl of Shrews-
bury, he had issue Thomas the fifth earl, a partisan of Henry VI.,
whose wife was Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John, earl of
Somerset. The effigy of this grandaughter of John of Gaunt,
with the shields of Courtenay and Beaufort above it, is in Colyton
church. It is less than life size, a fact which has given rise to a
village legend that it represents " Little choke-a-bone," an infant
daughter of the tenth earl, who died " choked by a fish bone."
In spite of the evidence of the shields and the 1 5th century dress
of the effigy, the legend has now been strengthened by an
inscription upon a brass plate, and in the year 1907 ignorance
engaged a monumental sculptor to deface the effigy by giving its
broken features the newly carved face of a young child. Both
sons of this marriage fell in the Wars of the Roses, Thomas the
sixth earl being taken at Towton by the Yorkists and beheaded
at York in 1462, his younger brother Henry having the same fate
at Salisbury in 1466.

The earldom being extinguished by attainder, Sir Humphrey
Stafford was created earl of Devon in 1469, but in the same
year, having retired with his men from the expedition against

326

COURTENAY, R.

Robin of Redesdale, another earl of Devon suffered at the
headsman's hands, his patent being afterwards annulled by a
statute of Henry VII. On the restoration of Henry VI. John
Courtenay, only surviving brother of Thomas and Henry, was
restored to the earldom by the reversal of attainder. He, too,
died in the Lancastrian cause, being killed on the 4th of May 147 1
at Tewkesbury, where he led the rear of the host. The representa-
tion of the Reviers earls and of the Courtenay barony fell then to
his sisters and their descendants. Beside him at Tewkesbury
died his cousin Sir Hugh Courtenay of Boconnoc, son of Hugh,
a younger brother of the blind earl, leaving a son Edward, who
thus became the heir male of the house though not its heir
general. Joining in the cause which had cost so many of his
kinsmen their lives, he and his brother Walter shared the duke of
Buckingham's rising. On its failure they fled into France to the
earl of Richmond, beside whom Sir Edward fought at Bosworth.
By a patent of the 26th of October 1485 he was created earl of
Devon with remainder to the heirs male of his body, and by an
act of 1485 he was restored to all honours lost in his attainder by
the Yorkist parliament. He defended Exeter against Warbeck's
rebels and was a knight of the Garter in 1489, dying twenty years
later, when the earldom became again forfeit by his son's attainder.
That son, William Courtenay, had drawn the jealousy of Henry
VII. by a marriage with Catherine, sister of the queen and
daughter of King Edward IV., the Yorkist sovereign whose hand
had been so heavy on the Courtenays. After the queen's death,
Henry sent his wife's brother-in-law to the Tower on a charge of
corresponding with Edmund Pole, an attainder following. But
on the accession of Henry VIII., the young king released his
uncle, who although styled an earl was not fully restored in blood
at his death in 1511. His son Henry Courtenay obtained from
parliament in December 1512 a reversal of his father's attainder,
thus succeeding to the earldom of his grandfather. At the Field
of Cloth of Gold he ran a course with the king of France. He
was knight of the Garter and on the 15th of June 1525 had a
patent as marquess of Exeter. Profiting by the suppression of
the monasteries he increased his estate, his power being all but
supreme in the west country. But Cromwell was his enemy and
the royal strain in his blood was a dangerous thing. Involved in
correspondence with Cardinal Pole, he was sent to the Tower with
his wife and his young son, and on the 9th of December 1538 he
was beheaded as a traitor. The misfortunes of the house were
heavy upon the son, who at twelve years old was a prisoner for
the sake of his high descent. His honours had been forfeited,
and release did not come until the accession of Queen Mary, who
took him into favour. Noailles the ambassador found him le
plus beau el le plus agr table gentilhomme a" Angleterre, and he had
some hopes of becoming king consort. The queen created him
earl of Devonshire by a patent of the 3rd of September 1553 and
in the next month he was restored in blood. But, disappointed in
his hopes, he formed some wild plans for marrying the Lady
Elizabeth and making her queen. He could raise Devon and
Cornwall. Wyat did raise Kent, but the plot was soon crushed.
The earl was sent back to the Tower and thence to Fotheringhay.
At Easter of 1555 he was released on parole and exiled, dying
suddenly at Padua in 1556. His co-heirs were the descendants of
the four sisters of Earl Edward (d. 1519), the wives of four
Cornish squires, and with him was extinguished, to the belief of
all men, the Courtenays' earldom of Devon. His heir male was
Sir William Courtenay, his sixth cousin once removed, head of a
knightly line of Courtenays whose seat was Powderham Castle,
a line which, during the civil wars, stood for the White Rose.
Sir William, who is said to have been killed at St Quintin in 1557,
was succeeded by his son, another Sir William, one of the under-
takers for the settling of Ireland, where the family obtained great
estates. William Courtenay of Powderham, of whose marriage
with the daughter of Sir William Waller (the parliament's
general) it is remarked that the years of bride and bridegroom
added together were less than thirty when their first child was
born, was created a baronet by writ of privy seal in February
1644, the patent being never enrolled. His great grandson, Sir
William Courtenay, many years a member of parliament, was on

the 6th of May 1762, ten days before his death, created Viscount
Courtenay of Powderham Castle.

Since the death at Padua in 1556 of Edward, earl of Devon,
that ancient title had been twice revived. Charles Blount,
Lord Mountjoy, who was created earl of Devon in 1603, died
without lawful issue in 1606. In 1618 Sir William Cavendish,
son of the famous Bess of Hardwick, was given the same title,
which is still among the peerage honours of the ducal house
descending from him. For the Courtenays, who had without
protest accepted a baronetcy and a viscounty, their earldom was
dead. In the reign of William IV., the third and last Viscount
Courtenay was living unmarried in Paris, an exile who for
sufficient reasons was keeping out of the reach of the English
criminal law. In the name of this man, his presumptive heir
male, William Courtenay, clerk assistant of the parliament,
succeeded in persuading the House of Lords that the Courtenay
earldom under the patent of 1553 was still in existence, the plea
being that the terms of the remainder — to him and his heirs male
for ever — did not limit the succession to heirs male of the body
of the grantee. Five other cases wherein the words de corpore suo
had been omitted from the patent are known to peerage lawyers.
In no case had a peerage before been claimed by collateral
heirs male. " I have often rallied Brougham," writes Lord
Campbell, " upon his creating William Courtenay earl of Devon.
He says he consulted Chief Justice Tenterden. But Tenterden
knew nothing of peerage law." After the death of the exile in
1835 the clerk of the parliament succeeded him as an earl by
force of the House of Lords decision of the 15th of March 1831.
His second son, the Rev. Henry Hugh Courtenay (1811-1904),
succeeded, as 13th earl, a nephew whose extravagance had im-
poverished the estates. He in turn was followed, as 14th earl, by
his grandson Charles Pepys Courtenay (b. 1870).

No other recognized branch of this house, once so widely
spread in the western counties, is now among the landed houses of
England. Among its cadets were many famous warriors, but
three prelates must be reckoned as the most eminent of the
Courtenays. William, a younger son of the match of Courtenay
and Bohun, was bishop of Hereford in 1370, bishop of London in
1375 and archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. Proceeding against
Wycliffe he opposed John of Gaunt, who, taunting him with his
trust in his great kinsfolk, threatened to drag him out of St Paul's
by his hair, a threat which roused the angry Londoners in his
defence. He died in 1396 and lies buried at the feet of the Black
Prince in his cathedral of Canterbury. By his will he left his best
mitre to his nephew Richard Courtenay — son and pupil, as he
styles him — against the time he should be a bishop. This Richard,
a friend of Henry V. when prince, and treasurer of his household,
was bishop of Norwich in 1413. Twice chancellor of Oxford, he
repelled Archbishop Arundel and all his train when that primate
would have had a visitation of the university, although the
claim of the university to independence was at last broken down.
Tall of stature, eloquent and learned, he kept the favour of the
king, who was with him when he died of dysentery in the host
before Harfleur. Heir of this bishop was his nephew Sir Philip
of Powderham, whose younger son Peter Courtenay was the
third of the Courtenay prelates, being bishop of Exeter from 1478
to 1487, when he was translated to Winchester. Although of the
Yorkist Courtenays, he was of Buckingham's party and, being
attainted by Richard III. for joining with certain of his kinsfolk in
an attempt to raise the west, he escaped to Brittany, whence he
returned with the first Tudor sovereign, who had him in high
favour. A fourth prelate of this family was Henry Reginald
Courtenay, who was bishop of Bristol 1 794-1 797 and bishop of
Exeter from 1797 to his death in 1803.

See charter, patent, close, fine and plea rolls, inquests post mortem
and other records. G. E. C.'s Complete Peerage; Dictionary of
National Biography; Notes and Queries, series viii. vol. 7; J. H.
Round's Peerage Studies; Calendars of State Papers; Machyn's
Diary (Camden Society) ; Chronicles of Capgrave, Wavrin, Adam of
'Jsk, &c. (O. Ba.)

COURTENAY, RICHARD (d. 1415), English prelate, was a son
of Sir Philip Courtenay of Powderham Castle, near Exeter, and
a grandson of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377). He

COURTENAY, W.— COURT LEET

327

was a nephew of William Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury,
and a descendant of Edward I. Educated at Exeter College,
Oxford, he entered the church, where his advance was rapid.
He held several prebends, was dean of St Asaph and then dean of
Wells, and became bishop of Norwich in 1413. As chancellor of
the university of Oxford, an office to which he was elected in 1407
and again in 1410, Courtenay asserted the independence of the
university against Thomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, in
141 1 ; but the archbishop, supported by Henry IV. and Pope
John XXIII., eventually triumphed. Courtenay was a personal
friend of Henry V. both before and after he came to the throne;
and in 1413, immediately after Henry's accession, he was made
treasurer of the royal household. On two occasions he went on
diplomatic errands to France, and he was also employed by
Henry on public business at home. Having accompanied the
king to Harfleur in August 1415, Courtenay was attacked by
dysentery and died on the 15th of September 1415, his body
being buried in Westminster Abbey.

Another member of this family, Peter Courtenay (d. 1492),,
a grandnephew of Richard, also attained high position in the
English Church. Educated at Exeter College, Oxford, Peter
became dean of Windsor, then dean of Exeter; in 1478 bishop
of Exeter; and in 1487 bishop of Winchester in succession to
William of Waynflete. With Henry Stafford, duke of Bucking-
ham, and others he attempted to raise a rebellion against Richard
III. in 1483, and fled to Brittany when this enterprise failed.
Courtenay was restored to his dignities and estates in 1485 by
Henry VII., whom he had accompanied to England, and he died
on the 23rd of September 1492.

See J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. (London,
1884-1898).

COURTENAY, WILLIAM (c. 1342-1396), English prelate, was
a younger son of Hugh Courtenay, earl of Devon (d. 1377), and
through his mother Margaret, daughter of Humphrey Bohun,
earl of Hereford, was a great-grandson of Edward I. Being a
native of the west of England he was educated at Stapledon Hall,
Oxford, and after graduating in law was chosen chancellor of
the university in 1367. Courtenay's ecclesiastical and political
career began about the same time. Having been made prebendary
of Exeter, of Wells and of York, he was consecrated bishop of
Hereford in 1370, was translated to the see of London in 1375,
and became archbishop of Canterbury in 1381, succeeding Simon
of Sudbury in both these latter positions. As a politician the
period of his activity coincides with the years of Edward III.'s
dotage, and with practically the whole of Richard II. 's reign.
From the first he ranged himself among the opponents of John
of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; he was a firm upholder of the
rights of the English Church, and was always eager to root out
Lollardry. In 1373 he declared in convocation that he would not
contribute to a subsidy until the evils from which the church
suffered were removed; in 1375 he incurred the displeasure of the
king by publishing a papal bull against the Florentines; and in
1377 his decided action during the quarrel between John of
Gaunt and William of Wykeham ended in a temporary triumph
for the bishop. Wycliffe was another cause of difference between
Lancaster and Courtenay. In 1377 the reformer appeared
before Archbishop Sudbury and Courtenay, when an altercation
between the duke and the bishop led to the dispersal of the court,
and during the ensuing riot Lancaster probably owed his safety
to the good offices of his foe. Having meanwhile become arch-
bishop of Canterbury Courtenay summoned a council, or synod,
in London, which condemned the opinions of Wycliffe; he then
attacked the Lollards at Oxford, and urged the bishops to
imprison heretics. He was for a short time chancellor of England
during i38i,and in January 1382 he officiated at the marriage of
Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia, afterwards crowning the
queen. In 1382 the archbishop's visitation led to disputes with
the bishops of Exeter and Salisbury, and Courtenay was only
partially able to enforce the payment of a special tax to meet his
expenses on this occasion. During his concluding years the
archbishop appears to have upheld the papal authority in
England, although not to the injury of the English Church.

He protested against the confirmation of the statute of provisors
in 1390, and he was successful in slightly modifying the statute of
praemunire in 1393. Disliking the extravagance of Richard II.
he publicly reproved the king, and after an angry scene the royal
threats drove him for a time into Devonshire. In 1386 he was
one of the commissioners appointed to reform the kingdom and
the royal household, and in 1387 he arranged a peace between
Richard and his enemies under Thomas of Woodstock, duke of
Gloucester. Courtenay died at Maidstone on the 31st of July
1396, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.

See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. iv.
(London, 1860-1876); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vols,
ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895-1896).

COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie), manners or
behaviour that suit a court, politeness, due consideration for
others. A special application of the word is in the expression
" by courtesy," where something is granted out of favour and
not of right, hence " courtesy " titles, i.e. those titles of rank
which are given by custom to the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses
and earls, usually the second title held by the father; to the
younger sons and to the daughters of dukes and marquesses,
viz. the prefix " lord " and " lady " with the Christian and
surname. For " tenure by the courtesy " see Curtesy. Another
form of the word, " curtsey " or " curtsy," was early confined
to the expression of courtesy or respect by a gesture or bow,
now only of the reverence made by a woman, consisting in a
bending of the knees accompanied by a lowering of the body.

COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN (1842- ), English writer
and historian of poetry, whose father was rector of South Mailing,
Essex, was born on the 17th of July 1842. From Harrow school
he went to New College, Oxford; took first-classes in classical
" moderations " and " greats "; and won the Newdigate prize
for poetry (1864) and the Chancellor's English essay (1868).
He seemed destined for distinction as a poet, his volume of
Ludibria Lunae (1869) being followed in 1870 by the remarkably
fine Paradise of Birds. But a certain academic quality of mind
seemed to check his output in verse and divert it into the field
of criticism. Apart from many contributions to the higher
journalism, his literary career is associated mainly with his
continuation of the edition of Pope's works, begun by Whitwell
Elwin (1816-1900), which appeared in ten volumes from 1871-
1889; his life of Addison (Men of Letters series, 1882); his
Liberal Movement- in English Literature (1885); and his tenure
of the professorship of Poetry at Oxford (1895-1001), which
resulted in his elaborate History of English Poetry (the first
volume appearing in 1895), and his Life in Poetry (1901). He
deals with the history of English poetry as a whole, and in its
unity as a result of the national spirit and thought in succeeding
ages, and attempts to bring the great poets into relation with
this. In 1887 he was appointed a civil service commissioner,
being first commissioner in 1892, and being made a C.B. He
was made an honorary fellow of his old college at Oxford in 1896,
and was given the honorary degrees of D.Litt. by Durham in
1895 and of LL.D. by Edinburgh University in 1898.

COURT LEET, an English petty criminal court for the punish-
ment of small offences. It has been usual to make a distinction
between court baron and court leet 1 as being separate courts,
but in the early history of the court leet no such distinction

1 The history of the word " leet " is very obscure. It appears in
Anglo-French documents as lete and in Anglo-Latin as leta. Pro-
fessor W. W. Skeat has connected it with Old English laetan, to let,
which is very doubtful, though this is the origin of the use of the
word in such expressions as " two-" " three-way leet," a place
where cross-roads meet. The New English Dictionary suggests a
connexion with " lathe," a term which survives as a division of the
county of Kent, containing several " hundreds." This is of Old
Norwegian origin, and seems to have meant " landed possessions."
There is also another Old Norwegian leith, a court or j udicial assembly,
and modern Danish has laegd, a division of the country for military
purposes. J. H. Round (Feudal England, p. 101) points out that the
Suffolk hundred was divided for assessment into equal blocks called
" leets" (see further F. W. Maitland, Select Pleas in Manorial Courts,
Selden Soc. Publications I. lxxiii-lxxvi). " Leet " is also used, chiefly
in Scotland, for a list of persons nominated for election to an office.
This is, apparently, a shortened form of the French ilite, elected.

328

COURT-MARTIAL— COURTNEY

can be drawn. At a very early time the lords of manors exercised
or claimed certain jurisdictional franchises. Of these the most
important was the " view < of frankpledge" and its attendant
police jurisdiction. Some time in the later middle ages the
court baron when exercising these powers gained the name of
leet, and, later, of " court leet." The quo warranto proceedings
of Edward I. established a sharp distinction between the court
baron, exercising strictly manorial rights, and' the court leet,
depending for its jurisdiction upon royal franchise. The court
leet was a court of record, and its duty was not only to view the
pledges but to present by jury all crimes that might happen
within the jurisdiction, and punish the same. The steward of
the court acted as judge, presiding wholly in a judicial character,
the ministerial acts being executed by the bailiff. The court
leet began to decline in the 14th century, being superseded by
the more modern courts of the justices, but in many cases courts
leet were kept up until nearly the middle of the 19th century.
Indeed, it cannot be said that they are now actually extinct,
as many still survive for formal purposes, and by s. 40 of the
Sheriffs Act 1887 they are expressly kept up.

COURT-MARTIAL, a court for the trial of offences against
military or naval discipline, or for the administration of martial
law. In England courts-martial have inherited part of the
jurisdiction of the old Curia militaris, or court of the chivalry,
in which a single marshal and at one time the high constable
proceeded " according to the customs and usages of that court,
and, in cases omitted according to the civil law, secundum legem
armorum " (Coke, 4 Ins. 17). The modern form of the courts
was adopted by ordinance in the time of Charles I., when English
soldiers were studying the " articles and military laws " of
Gustavus Adolphus and the Dutch military code of Arnheim;
it is first recognized by statute in the first Mutiny Act of 1689.
The Mutiny Act (with various extensions and amendments)
and the statutory articles of war continued to be the sources
of military law which courts-martial administered until 1879,
when they were codified in the Army Discipline and Regulation
Act 1879, which was, in turn, superseded by the Army Act 1881.
This act is re-enacted annually by the Army (Annual) Act.
The constitution of courts-martial, their procedure, &c, are
dealt with under Military Law.

Naval Courts-Martial. — The administration of the barbarous
naval law of England was long entrusted to the discretion of
commanders acting under instructions from the lord high
admiral, who was supreme over both the royal and merchant
navy. It was the leaders of the Long Parliament who first
secured something like a regular tribunal by passing in 1645
an ordinance and articles concerning martial law for the govern-
ment of the navy. Under this ordinance Blake, Monk and Penn
issued instructions for the holding general and ship courts-
martial with written records, the one for captains and com-
manders, the other for subordinate officers and men. Of the
latter the mate, gunner and boatswain were members, but the
admirals reserved a control over the more serious sentences.
Under an act of 1661 the high admiral again received power
to issue commissions for holding courts-martial — a power which
continues to be exercised by the board of admiralty. During
the 1 8th century, under the auspices of Anson, the jurisdiction
was greatly extended, and the Consolidation Act of 1749 was
passed in which the penalty of death occurs as frequently as the
curses in the commination service. The Naval Articles of War
have always been statutory, and the whole system may now be
said to rest on the Naval Discipline Act 1866, as amended by the
act of 1884. The navy has its courts of inquiry for the con-
fidential investigation of charges " derogatory to the character
of an officer and a gentleman." Under the act of 1866 a court-
martial must consist of from five to nine officers of a certain
rank, and must be held publicly on board of one of H.M. ships
of war, and where at least two such ships are together. The
rank of the president depends on that of the prisoner. A judge-
advocate attends, and the procedure resembles that in military
courts, except that the prisoner is not asked to plead, and the
sentence, if not one of death, does not require the confirmation

of the commander-in-chief abroad or of the admiralty at home.
The court has a large and useful power of finding the prisoner
guilty of a less serious offence than that charged, which might
well be imitated in the ordinary criminal courts. The death
sentence is always carried out by hanging at the yard-arm;
Admiral Byng, however, was shot in 1757. The board of
admiralty have, under the Naval Discipline Acts, a general
power of suspending, annulling, and modifying sentences which
are not capital. The jurisdiction extends to all persons belonging
to the navy, to land forces and other passengers on board, ship-
wrecked crews, spies, persons borne on the books of H.M. ships
in commission, and civilians on board who endeavour to seduce
others from allegiance. The definition of the jurisdiction by
locality includes harbours, havens or creeks, lakes or rivers,
in or out of the United Kingdom; all places within the jurisdic-
tion of the admiralty; all places on shore out of the United
Kingdom; the dockyards, barracks, hospitals, &c, of the
service wherever situated; all places on shore in or out of the
United Kingdom for all offences punishable under the Articles
of War except those specified in section 38 of the Naval Discipline
Act i860, which are punishable by ordinary law. The Royal
Marines, while borne on the books of H.M. ships, are subject
to the Naval Discipline Acts, and, by an order in council, 1882,
when they are embarked on board ship for service on shore;
otherwise they are under the Army Acts. By s. 179, sub. -sec.
7, of the Army Act, in the application of the act to the Royal
Marines the admiralty is substituted for military authorities.

Authorities. — Simmons, On the Constitution and Practice of
Courts-Martial; Clode, Military and Martial Law; Stephens,
Gifford and Smith, Manual, of Naval Law and Court-Martial Pro-
cedure. The earlier writers on courts-martial are Adye (1796),
M'Arthur (1813), Maltby (1813, Boston), James (1820), D'Aguilar
(1843), and Hough, Precedents in Military Law (1855).

COURTNEY, LEONARD HENRY COURTNEY, Baron (1832-
), English politician and man of letters, eldest son of J. S.
Courtney, a banker, was born at Penzance on the 6th of July
1832. At Cambridge, Leonard Courtney was second wrangler
and first Smith's prizeman, and was elected a fellow of his college,
St John's. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1858,
was professor of political economy at University College from
1872 to 187s, and in December 1876, after a previous unsuccessful
attempt, was elected to parliament for Liskeard in the Liberal
interest. He continued to represent the borough, and the
district into which it was merged by the Reform Act of 1885,
until 1900, when his attitude towards the South African War — ■
he was one of the foremost of the so-called " Pro-Boer " party —
compelled his retirement. Until 1885 he was a devoted adherens
of Mr Gladstone, particularly in finance and foreign affairs.
In 1880 he was under-secretary of state for the home department,
in 1881 for the colonies, and in 1882 secretary to the treasury;
but he was always a stubborn fighter for principle, and upon
finding that the government's Reform Bill in 1884 contained
no recognition of the scheme for proportional representation,
to which he was deeply committed, he resigned office. He
refused to support Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill in 1885, and
was one of those who chiefly contributed to its rejection, and
whose reputation for unbending integrity and intellectual
eminence gave solidity to the Liberal Unionist party. In 1886
he was elected chairman of committees in the House of Commons,
and his efficiency in this office seemed to mark him out for the
speakership in 1895. A Liberal Unionist, however, could only
be elected by Conservative votes, and he had made himself
objectionable to a large section of the party by his independent
attitude on various questions, on which his Liberalism outweighed
his party loyalty. He would in any case have been incapacitated
by an affection of the eyesight, which for a while threatened
to withdraw him from public life altogether. After 1895 Mr
Courtney's divergences from the Unionist party on questions
other than Irish politics became gradually more marked. He
became known in the House of Commons principally for his
candid criticism of the measures introduced by his nominal
leaders, and he was rather to be ranked among the Opposition
than as a Ministerialist ; and when the crisis with the Transvaal

COURTOIS— COURVOISIER

329

came in 1899, Mr Courtney's views, which remained substantially
what they were when he supported the settlement after Majuba
in 1 88 1, had plainly become incompatible with his position even
as a nominal follower of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain.
He gradually reverted to formal membership of the Liberal
party, and in January 1906 unsuccessfully contested a division
of Edinburgh as a supporter of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
at the general election. Among the birthday honours of 1906
he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Courtney of Penwith
(Cornwall). Lord Courtney, who in 1883 married Miss Catherine
Potter (an elder sister of Mrs Sidney Webb), was a prominent
supporter of the women's movement. In earlier years he was a
regular contributor to The Times, and he wrote numerous essays
in the principal reviews on political and economic subjects.
In 1 90 1 he published a book on The Working Constitution of the
United Kingdom.

Two of his brothers, John Mortimer Courtney (b. 1838), and
William Prideaux Courtney (b. 1845), also attained public dis-
tinction, the former in the government service in Canada (from
1869, retiring in 1906), rising to be deputy-minister of finance,
and the latter in the British civil service (1865-1892), and as a
prominent man of letters and bibliographer.

COURTOIS, JACQUES (1621-1676) and GUILLAUME (1628-
1679). The two French painters who bore these names are also
called by the Italian equivalents Giacomo (or Jacopo) Cortese
and Guglielmo Cortese. Each of the brothers is likewise named,
from his native province, Le Bourguignon, or II Borgognone.

Jacques Courtois was born at St Hippolyte, near Besancon, in
162 1. His father was a painter, and with him Jacques remained
studying up to the age of fifteen. Towards 1 63 7 he came to Italy,
was hospitably received at Milan by a Burgundian gentleman,
and entered, and for three years remained in, the French military
service. The sight of some battle-pictures revived his taste for
fine art. He went to Bologna, and studied under the friendly
tutelage of Guido; thence he proceeded to Rome, where he
painted, in the Cistercian monastery, the " Miracle of the Loaves."
Here he took a house and after a while entered upon his own
characteristic style of art, that of battle-painting, in which he has
been accounted to excel all other old masters; his merits were
cordially recognized by the celebrated Cerquozzi, named Michel-
angelo delle Battaglie. He soon rose from penury to ease, and
married a painter's beautiful daughter, Maria Vagini; she died
after seven years of wedded life. Prince Matthias of Tuscany
employed Courtois on some striking works in his villa, Lappeggio,
representing with much historical accuracy the prince's military
exploits. In Venice also the artist executed for the senator
Sagredo some remarkable battle-pieces. In Florence he entered
the Society of Jesus, taking the habit in Rome in 1655; it was
calumniously r umoured that he adopted this course in order to
escape punishment for having poisoned his wife. As a Jesuit
father, Courtois painted many works in churches and monasteries
of the society. He lived piously in Rome, and died there of apo-
plexy on the 20th of May 1676 (some accounts say 1670 or 1671).
His battle-pieces have movement and fire, warm colouring (now
too often blackened), and great command of the brush,— those of
moderate dimensions are the more esteemed. They are slight
in execution, and tell out best from a distance. Courtois etched
with skill twelve battle-subjects of his own composition. The
Dantzig painter named in Italy Pandolfo Reschi was his pupil.

Guillaume Courtois, born likewise at St Hippolyte, came to
Italy with his brother. He went at once to Rome, and entered
the school of Pietro da Cortona. He studied also the Bolognese
painters and Giovanni Barbieri, and formed for himself a style
with very little express mannerism, partly resembling that of
Maratta. He painted the " Battle of Joshua " in the Quirinal
Gallery, the " Crucifixion of St Andrew " in the church of that
saint on Monte Cavallo, various works for the Jesuits, some also
in co-operation with his brother. His last production was
Christ admonishing Martha. His draughtsmanship is better than
that of Jacques, whom he did not, however, rival in spirit,
colour or composition. He also executed some etchings.
Guillaume Courtois died of gout on the 15th of June 1679.

* COURTRAI (Flemish, Kortryk), an important and once famous
town of West Flanders, Belgium, situated on the Lys. Pop.
(1904) 34,564. It is now best known for its fine linen, which
ranks with that of Lame. The lace factories are also important
and employ 5000 hands. But considerable as is the prosperity of
modern Courtrai it is but a shadow of what it was in the middle
ages during the halcyon period of the Flemish communes. Then
Courtrai had a population of 200,000, now it is little over a sixth
of that number. On the nth of July 1302 the great battle of
Courtrai (see Infantry) was fought outside its walls, when the
French army, under the count of Artois, was vanquished by the
allied burghers of Bruges, Ypres and Courtrai with tremendous
loss. As many as 700 pairs of golden spurs were collected on the
field from the bodies of French knights and hung up as an
offering in an abbey church of the town, which has long dis-
appeared. There are still, however, some interesting remains of
Courtrai's former grandeur. Perhaps the Pont de Broel, with its
towers at either end of the bridge, is as characteristic and
complete as any monument of ancient Flanders that has come
down to modern times. The hotel de ville, which dated from the
earlier half of the 16th century, was restored in 1846, and since
then statues have also been added to represent those that
formerly ornamented the facade. Two richly and elaborately
carved chimney-pieces in the h6tel de ville merit special notice.
The one in the council chamber upstairs dates from 1527 and
gives an allegorical representation of the Virtues and the Vices.
The other, three-quarters of a century later, contains an heraldic
representation of the noble families of the town. The church of
St Martin dates from the 15th century, but was practically
destroyed in 1862 by a fire caused by lightning. It has been
restored. The most important building at Courtrai is the church
of Notre Dame, which was begun by Count Baldwin IX. in 1191
and finished in 1 2 1 1 . The portal and the choir were reconstructed
in the 18th century. In the chapel behind the choir is hung one
of Van Dyck's masterpieces, " The Erection of the Cross." The
chapel of the counts attached to the church dates from 1373, and
contained mural paintings of the counts and countesses of
Flanders down to the merging of the title in the house of
Burgundy. Most if not all of these had become obliterated, but
they have now been carefully restored. With questionable
judgment portraits have been added of the subsequent holders of
the title down to the emperor Francis II. (I. of Austria), the last
representative of the houses of Flanders and Burgundy to rule
in the Netherlands. Courtrai celebrated the 600th anniversary
of the battle mentioned above by erecting a monument on the
field in 1902, and also by fetes and historical processions that
continued for a fortnight.

Courtrai, the Cortracum of the Romans, ranked as a town from
the 7th century onwards. It was destroyed by the Normans, but
was rebuilt in the 10th century by Baldwin III. of Flanders,
who endowed it with market rights and laid the foundation of
its industrial importance by inviting the settlement of foreign
weavers. The town was once more burnt, in 1382, by the French
after the battle of Roosebeke, but was rebuilt in 1385 by Philip
the Bold, duke of Burgundy.

COURVOISIER, JEAN JOSEPH ANTOINE (1775-1835),
French magistrate and politician, was born at Besancon on the
30th of November 1775. During the revolutionary period he
left the country and served in the army of the emigre's and later
in that of Austria. In 1801, under the, Consulate, he returned
to France and established himself as an advocate at Besancon,
being appointed conseiller-auditeur to the court of appeal there in
1808. At the Restoration he was made advocate-general by
Louis XVIII., resigned and left France during the Hundred Days,
and was reappointed after the second Restoration in 18 15. In
181 7, after the modification of the constitution by the ordonnance
of the 5th of September, he was returned to the chamber of
deputies, where he attached himself to the left centre and
supported the moderate policy of Richelieu and Decazes. He
was an eloquent speaker, and master of many subjects; and his
proved royalism made it impossible for the ultra-Royalists to
discredit him, much as they resented his consistent opposition to

33°

COUSCOUS— COUSIN, V.

their short-sighted violence. After the revolt at Lyons in 1 8 1 7 he
was nominated procureur-giniral of the city, and by his sense
and moderation did much to restore order and confidence. He
was again a member of the chamber from 1819 to 1824, and
vigorously opposed the exceptional legislation which the second
administration of Richelieu passed under the influence of the
ultra-Royalists. In 1824 he failed to secure re-election, and
occupied himself with his judicial duties until his nomination as
councillor of state in 1827. On the 8th of August 1829 he
accepted the offer of the portfolio of justice in the Polignac
ministry, but resigned on the 19th of May 1830, when he realized
that the government intended to abrogate the Charter and the
inevitable revolution that would follow. During the trial of the
ex-ministers, in December, he was summoned as a witness, and
paid a tribute to the character of his former colleagues which,
under the circumstances, argued no little courage. He refused
to take office under Louis Philippe, and retired into private life,
dying on the 18th of September 1835.

COUSCOUS, or Kous-kous (an Arabic word derived from
kaskasa, to pound), a dish common among the inhabitants of
North Africa, made of flour rubbed together and steamed over
a stew of mutton, fowl, &c, with which it is eaten.

COUSIN, JEAN ( 1 500-1 590), French painter, was born at
Soucy, near Sens, and began as a glass-painter, his windows in
the Sainte Chapelle at Vincennes being considered the finest in
France. As a painter of subject pictures he is ranked as the
founder of the French school, as having first departed from the
practice of portraits. His " Last Judgment," influenced by
Parmigiano, is in the Louvre, and a " Descent from the Cross "
(1523) in the museum at Mainz is attributed to him. He was
known also as a sculptor, and an engraver, both in etching and
on wood, his wood-cuts for Jean le Clerc's Bible (1596) and
other books being his best-known work. He also wrote a Livre
de perspective (1560), and a Livre de portraiture (1571).

See Ambroise Firmin-Didot, Etude sur J. Cousin (1872), and
Recueil des osuvres choisies de J. Cousin (1873).

COUSIN, VICTOR (1792-1867), French philosopher, the son
of a watchmaker, was born in Paris, in the Quartier St Antoine,
on the 28th of November 1792. At the age of ten he was sent
to the grammar school of the Quartier St Antoine, the Lycee
Charlemagne. Here he studied until he was eighteen. The
lycee had a connexion with the university, and when Cousin
left the secondary school he was " crowned " in the ancient hall
of the Sorbonne for the Latin oration delivered by him there,
in the general concourse of his school competitors. The classical
training of the lycee strongly disposed him to literature. He
was already known among his compeers for his knowledge of
Greek. From the lycee he passed to the Normal School of Paris,
where Laromiguiere was then lecturing on philosophy. In
the second preface to the Fragmens philosophiques, in which
he candidly states the varied philosophical influences of his life,
Cousin speaks of the grateful emotion excited by the memory
of the day in 181 1, when he heard Laromiguiere for the first
time. " That day decided my whole life. Laromiguiere taught
the philosophy of Locke and Condillac, happily modified on
some points, with a clearness and grace which in appearance
at least removed difficulties, and with a charm of spiritual
bonhomie which penetrated and subdued." Cousin was set
forthwith to lecture on philosophy, and he speedily obtained
the position of master of conferences (maitre de conferences) in
the school. The second great philosophical impulse of his life
was the teaching of Royer-Collard. This teacher, as he tells
us, " by the severity of his logic, the gravity and weight of his
words, turned me by degrees, and not without resistance, from
the beaten path of Condillac into the way which has since
become so easy, but which was then painful and unfrequented,
that of the Scottish philosophy." In 1815-1816 Cousin attained
the position of suppliant (assistant) to Royer-Collard in the
history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters.
There was still another thinker who influenced him at this early
period, — Maine de Biran, whom Cousin regarded as the un-
equalled psychological observer of bis time in France.

These men strongly influenced both the method and the
matter of Cousin's philosophical thought. To Laromiguiere
he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though
the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard
taught him that even sensation is subject to certain internal
laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are
superior to analysis and the natural patrimony of the mind.
De Biran made a special study of the phenomena of the will.
He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially
in the simplest facts of consciousness, the fact of voluntary
activity, that activity in which our personality is truly revealed.
It was through this " triple discipline," as he calls it, that
Cousin's philosophical thought was first developed, and that
in 1815 he entered on the public teaching of philosophy in the
Normal School and in the faculty of letters. 1 He then took up
the study of German, worked at Kant and Jacobi, and sought
to master the Philosophy of Nature of Schelling, by which he
was at first greatly attracted. The influence of Schelling may be
observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy.
He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but re-
garded it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded
in reason. In 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at
Heidelberg. In this year appeared Hegel's Encyclopddie der
philosophischen Wissenschaften, of which Cousin had one of the
earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable,
but the two became friends. The following year Cousin went to
Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a
month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the
Philosophy of Nature.

The political troubles of France interfered for a time with

his career. In the events of 18 14-18 15 he took the royalist side.

He at first adopted the views of the party known as

doctrinaire, of which Royer-Collard was the philo- „° u ,
1 • , 1 • r- TT , 1 , , troubles.

sopmcal chief. He seems then to have gone farther
than his party, and even to have approached the extreme Left.
Then came a reaction against liberalism, and in 1821-1822
Cousin was deprived of his offices alike in the faculty of letters
and in the Normal School. The Normal School itself was swept
away, and Cousin shared at the hands of a narrow and illiberal
government the fate of Guizot, who was ejected from the chair
of history. This enforced abandonment of public teaching was
not wholly an evil. He set out for Germany with a view to
further philosophical study. While at Berlin in 1824-1825 he
was thrown into prison, either on some ill-defined political
charge at the instance of the French police, or on account of
certain incautious expressions which he had let fall in conversa-
tion. Liberated after six months, he continued under the
suspicion of the French government for three years. It was
during this period, however, that he thought out and developed
what is distinctive in his philosophical doctrine. His eclecticism,
his ontology and his philosophy of history were declared in
principle and in most of their salient details in the Fragmens
philosophiques (Paris, 1826). The preface to the Prag-
second edition (1833) an d the Avertissement to the mens
third (1838) aimed at a vindication of his principles phiioso-
against contemporary criticism. Even the best of his PMques.
later books, the Philosophic tcossaise (4th ed., 1863), the Du
vrai, du beau, et du Men (12th ed., 1872; Eng. trans., 3rd ed.,
Edinburgh, 1854), and the Philosophic de Locke (4th ed., 1861)
were simply matured revisions of his lectures during the period
from 181 5 to 1820. The lectures on Locke were first sketched
in 1819, and fully developed in the course of 1829.

During the seven years of enforced abandonment of teaching
he produced, besides the Fragmens, the edition of the works
of Proclus (6 vols., 1820-1827), and the works of Descartes
(n vols., 1826). He also commenced his Translation of Plato
(13 vols.), which occupied his leisure time from 1825 to 1840.

We see in the Fragmens very distinctly the fusion of the

different philosophical influences by which his opinions were

finally matured. For Cousin was as eclectic in thought and habit

of mind as he was in philosophical principle and system. It is

1 Fragmens philosophiques — preface deuxiime.

COUSIN, V.

33 1

with the publication of the Fragmens of 1826 that the first great
widening of his reputation is associated. In 1827 followed the
Cours de I'histoire de la philosophic

In 1828 M. de Vatimesnil, minister of public instruction in
Martignac's ministry, recalled Cousin and Guizot to their
professorial positions in the university. The three
fectorer. S * vears which followed were the period of Cousin's
greatest triumph as a lecturer. His return to the
chair was the symbol of the triumph of constitutional ideas and
was greeted with enthusiasm. The hall of the Sorbonne was
crowded as the hall of no philosophical teacher in Paris had been
since the days of Abelard. The lecturer had a singular power
of identifying himself for the time with the system which he
expounded and the historical character he portrayed. Clear
and comprehensive in the grasp of the general outlines of his
subject, he was methodical and vivid in the representation of
details. In exposition he had the rare art of unfolding and
aggrandizing. There was a rich, deep-toned, resonant eloquence
mingled with the speculative exposition; his style of expression
was clear, elegant and forcible, abounding in happy turns and
striking antitheses. To this was joined a singular power of
rhetorical climax. His philosophy exhibited in a striking
manner the generalizing tendency of the French intellect, and
its logical need of grouping details round central principles.

There was withal a moral elevation in his spiritual philosophy
which came home to the hearts of his hearers, and seemed to
afford a ground for higher development in national literature and
art, and even in politics, than the traditional philosophy of
France had appeared capable of yielding. His lectures produced
more ardent disciples, imbued at least with his spirit, than those
of any other professor of philosophy in France during the 18th
century. Tested by the power and effect of his teaching influence,
Cousin occupies a foremost place in the rank of professors of
philosophy, who like Jacobi, Schelling and Dugald Stewart
have united the gifts of speculative, expository and imaginative
power. Tested even by the strength of the reaction which his
writings have in some cases occasioned, his influence is hardly less
remarkable. The taste for philosophy — especially its history —
was revived in France to an extent unknown since the 17th
century.

Among the men who were influenced by Cousin we may note
T. S. Jouffroy, J. P. Damiron, Gamier, J. Barthelemy St Hilaire,
F. Ravaisson-Mollien, Remusat, Jules Simon and
Disciples ^ Franck. Jouffroy and Damiron were first fellow-
followers. students and then disciples. Jouffroy, however,
always kept firm to the early — the French and
Scottish — impulses of Cousin's teaching. Cousin continued to
lecture regularly for two years and a half after his return to the
chair. Sympathizing with the revolution of July, he was at once
recognized by the new government as a friend of national liberty.
Writing in June 1833 he explains both his philosophical and his
political position: —

" I had the advantage of holding united against me for many
years both the sensational and the theological school. In 1830
both schools descended into the arena of politics. The sensational
school quite naturally produced the demagogic party, and the theo-
logical school became quite as naturally absolutism, safe to borrow
from time to time the mask of the demagogue in order the better
to reach its ends, as in philosophy it is by scepticism that it under-
takes to restore theocracy. On the other hand, he who combated
any exclusive principle in science was bound to reject also any exclu-
sive principle in the state, and to defend representative government."

The government was not slow to do him honour. He was
induced by the ministry of which his friend Guizot was the head
to become a member of the council of public instruction and
counsellor of state, and in 1832 he was made a peer of France.
He ceased to lecture, but retained the title of professor of
philosophy. Finally, he accepted the position of minister of
public instruction in 1840 under Thiers. He was besides director
of the Normal School and virtual head of the university, and from
1840 a member of the Institute (Academy of the Moral and
Political Sciences). His character and his official position at this
period gave him great power in the university and in the educa-

tional arrangements of the country. In fact, during the seventeen
and a half years of the reign of Louis Philippe, Cousin mainly
moulded the philosophical and even the literary tendencies of the
cultivated class in France.

But the most important work he accomplished during this
period was the organization of primary instruction. It was to the
efforts of Cousin that France owed her advance, in gelation to
primary education, between 1830 and 1848. Prussia primary
and Saxony had set the national example, and France eau ^ tlon
was guided into it by Cousin. Forgetful of national
calamity and of personal wrong, he looked to Prussia as affording
the best example of an organized system of national education;
and he was persuaded that " to carry back the education of
Prussia into France afforded a nobler (if a bloodless) triumph
than the trophies of Austerlitz and Jena." In the summer of
1 83 1, commissioned by the government, he visited Frankfort and
Saxony, and spent some time in Berlin. The result was a series
of reports to the minister, afterwards published as Rapport sur
I' Stat de I' instruction publique dans quelques pays de I'Allemagne
et .particulierement en Prusse. (Compare also De V instruction
publique en Hollande, 1837.) His views were readily accepted on
his return to France, and soon afterwards through his influence
there was passed the law of primary instruction. (See his
Exposi des motifs et projet de loi sur I'instruction primaire,
prtsentes a la chambre des depute" s, seance du 2 Janvier 1833.)

In the words of the Edinburgh Review (July 1833), these
documents " mark an epoch in the progress of national education,
and are directly conducive to results important not only to
France but to Europe." The Report was translated into English
by Mrs Sarah Austin in 1834. The translation was frequently
reprinted in the United States of America. The legislatures of
New Jersey and Massachusetts distributed it in the schools at
the expense of the states. Cousin remarks that, among all the
literary distinctions which he had received, " None has touched
me more than the title of foreign member of the American
Institute for Education." To the enlightened views of the
ministries of Guizot and Thiers under the citizen-king, and to the
zeal and ability of Cousin in the work of organization, France
owes what is best in her system of primary education,— a national
interest which had been neglected under the Revolution, the
Empire and the Restoration (see Expose, p. 17). In the first two
years of the reign of Louis Philippe more was done for the
education of the people than had been either sought or accom-
plished in all the history of France. In defence of university
studies he stood manfully forth in the chamber of peers in 1844,
against the clerical party on the one hand and the levelling
or Philistine party on the other. His speeches on this occasion
were published in a tractate Defense de I'universite et de la
philosophic (1844 and 1845).

This period of official life from 1830 to 1848 was spent, so far as
philosophical study was concerned, in revising his former lectures
and writings, in maturing them for publication or
reissue, and in research into certain periods of the sol ,hicai
history of philosophy. In 1835 appeared De la writings.
Metaphysique d'Aristote, suivi d'un essai de traduction
des deux premiers livres; in 1836, Cours de philosophie professi d
la faculty des leltres pendant I'annee 18 18, and Ouvrages inidits
d'AMlard. This Cours de philosophie appeared later in 1854 as
Du vrai, du beau, et du bien. From 1825 to 1840 appeared
Cours de I'histoire de la philosophie, in 1829 Manuel de I'histoire de
la philosophie de Tennemann, translated from the German. In
1840-1841 we have Cours d'histoire de la philosophie morale au
XVIII e siecle (5 vols.). In 1841 appeared his edition of the
CEuvres philosophiques de Maine-de-Biran; in 1842, Lecons de
philosophie sur Kant (Eng. trans. A. G. Henderson, 1854), and in
the same year Des Pensies de Pascal. The Nouveaux fragments
were gathered together and republished in 1847. Later, in 1859,
appeared Petri Abaelardi Opera.

During this period Cousin seems to have turned with fresh
interest to those literary studies which he had abandoned for
speculation under the influence of Laromiguiere and Royer-
Collard. To this renewed interest we owe his studies of men

332

COUSIN, V.

and women of note in France in the 17th century. As the results
of his work in this line, we have, besides the Des PensSes de
Pascal, 1842, £tudes sur les femmes et la sociStS du
studies? XVII e siecle, 1853. He has sketched Jacqueline Pascal
(1844), Madame de Longueville (1853), the marquise de
Sable (1854), the duchesse de Chevreuse (1856), Madame de
Hautefort (1856).

When the reign of Louis Philippe came to a close through the
opposition of his ministry, with Guizot at its head, to the demand
for electoral reform and through the policy of the Spanish
marriages, Cousin, who was opposed to the government on these
points, lent his sympathy to Cavaignac and the Provisional
government. He published a pamphlet entitled Justice et
charite, the purport of which showed the moderation of his
political views. It was markedly anti-socialistic. But from this
period he passed almost entirely from public life, and ceased to
wield the personal influence which he had done during the
preceding years. After the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December,
he was deprived of his position as permanent member of the
superior council of public instruction. From Napoleon and the
Empire he stood aloof. A decree of 1852 placed him along with
Guizot and Villemain in the rank of honorary professors. His
sympathies were apparently with the monarchy, under certain
constitutional safeguards. Speaking in 1853 of the political
issues of the spiritual philosophy which he had taught during his
lifetime, he says, — " It conducts human societies to the true
republic, that dream of all generous souls, which in our time can
be realized in Europe only by constitutional monarchy." 1

During the last years of his life he occupied a suite of rooms in
the Sorbonne, where he lived simply and unostentatiously. The
chief feature of the rooms was his noble library, the cherished
collection of a lifetime. He died at Cannes on the 13 th of
January 1867, in his sixty-fifth year. In the front of the
Sorbonne, below the lecture rooms of the faculty of letters, a
tablet records an extract from his will, in which he bequeaths
his noble and cherished library to the halls of his professorial
work and triumphs. •

Philosophy. — There are three distinctive points in Cousin's
philosophy. These are his method, the results of his method,
and the application of the method and its results to history, —
especially to the history of philosophy. It is usual to speak of his
philosophy as eclecticism. It is eclectic only in a secondary and
subordinate sense. All eclecticism that is not self-condemned
and inoperative implies a system of doctrine as its basis, — in fact,
a criterion of truth. Otherwise, as Cousin himself remarks, it
is simply a blind and useless syncretism. And Cousin saw and
proclaimed from an early period in his philosophical teaching the
necessity of a system on which to base his eclecticism. This is
indeed advanced as an illustration or confirmation of the truth of
his system, — as a proof that the facts of history correspond to his
analysis of consciousness. These three points — the method, the
results, and the philosophy of history — are with him intimately
connected; they are developments in a natural order. of sequence.
They become in practice Psychology, Ontology and Eclecticism
in history.

First, as to method. On no point has Cousin more strongly
insisted than the importance of method in philosophy. That
Method which he adopts, and the necessity of which he so
strongly proclaims, is the ordinary one of observation,
analysis and induction. This observational method Cousin
regards as that of the 18th century, — the method which Descartes
began and abandoned, and which Locke and Condillac applied,
though imperfectly, and which Reid and Kant used with more
success, yet not completely. He insists that this is the true
method of philosophy as applied to consciousness, in which
alone the facts of experience appear. But the proper condition
of the application of the method is that it shall not through
prejudice of system omit a single fact of consciousness. If the
authority of consciousness is good in one instance, it is good in all.
If not to be trusted in one, it is not to be trusted in any. Previous
systems have erred in not presenting the facts of consciousness,
1 Du vrai, du beau, et du bien (preface).

Results.

i.e. consciousness itself, in their totality. The observational
method applied to consciousness gives us the science of psycho-
logy. This is the basis and the only proper basis of ontology or
metaphysics — the science of being — and of the philosophy of
history. To the observation of consciousness Cousin adds
induction as the complement of his method, by which he means
inference as to reality necessitated by the data of consciousness,
and regulated by certain laws found in consciousness, viz.
those of reason. By his method of observation and induction as
thus explained, his philosophy will be found to be marked ofi
very clearly, on the one hand from the deductive construction of
notions of an absolute system, as represented either by Schelling
or Hegel, which Cousin regards as based simply on hypothesis
and abstraction, illegitimately obtained; and on the other,
from that of Kant, and in a sense, of Sir W. Hamilton, both of
which in the view of Cousin are limited to psychology, and
merely relative or phenomenal knowledge, and issue in scepticism
so far as the great realities of ontology are concerned. What
Cousin finds psychologically in the individual consciousness, he
finds also spontaneously expressed in the common sense or
universal experience of humanity. In fact, it is with him the
function of philosophy to classify and explain universal con-
victions and beliefs; but common-sense is not with him
philosophy, nor is it the instrument of philosophy; it is
simply the material on which the philosophical method works,
and in harmony with which its results must ultimately be found.

The three great results of psychological observation
are Sensibility, Activity or Liberty, and Reason.

These three facts are different in character, but are not found
apart in consciousness. Sensations, or the facts of the sensibility,
are necessary; we do not impute them to ourselves. The facts of
reason are also necessary, and reason is not less independent of
the will than the sensibility. Voluntary facts alone are marked
in the eyes of consciousness with the characters of imputability
and personality. The will alone is the person or Me. The me
is the centre of the intellectual sphere without which conscious-
ness is impossible. We find ourselves in a strange world, between
two orders of phenomena which do not belong to us, which we
apprehend only on the condition of our distinguishing ourselves
from them. Further, we apprehend by means of a light which
does not come from ourselves. All light comes from the reason,
and it is the reason which apprehends both itself and the sensi-
bility which envelops it, and the will which it obliges but does not
constrain. Consciousness, then, is composed of these three
integrant and inseparable elements. But Reason is the im-
mediate ground of knowledge and of consciousness itself.

But there is a peculiarity in Cousin's doctrine of activity or
freedom, and in his doctrine of reason, which enters deeply into
his system. This is the element of spontaneity in
volition and in reason. This is the heart of what is ttneitv
new alike in his doctrine of knowledge and being. in will.
Liberty or freedom is a generic term which means a
cause or being endowed with self-activity. This is to itself and
its own development its own ultimate cause. Free-will is so,
although it is preceded by deliberation and determination, i.e.
reflection, for we are always conscious that even after determina-
tion we are free to will or not to will. But there is a primary kind
of volition which has not reflection for its condition, which is yet
free and spontaneous. We must have willed thus spontaneously
first, otherwise we could not know, before our reflective volition,
that we could will and act. Spontaneous volition is free as
reflective, but it is the prior act of the two. This view of liberty
of will is the only one in accordance with the facts of humanity;
it excludes reflective volition, and explains the enthusiasm of the
poet and the artist in the act of creation; it explains also the
ordinary actions of mankind, which are done as a rule spon-
taneously and not after reflective deliberation.

But it is in his doctrine of the Reason that the distinctive
principle of the philosophy of Cousin lies. The reason given to
us by psychological observation, the reason of our consciousness,
is impersonal in its nature. We do not make it; its character
is precisely the opposite of individuality; it is universal and

COUSIN, V.

Laws of
reason.

necessary. The recognition of universal and necessary principles
in knowledge is the essential point in psychology; it ought to
be put first and emphasized to the last that these
mperson- ex j stj anc j that they are wholly impersonal or absolute.
reason. The number of these principles, their enumeration
and classification, is an important point, but it is
secondary to that of the recognition of their true nature. This
was the point which Kant missed in his analysis, and this is the
fundamental truth which Cousin thinks he has restored to the
integrity of philosophy by the method of the observation of
consciousness. And how is this impersonality or absoluteness of
the conditions of knowledge to be established ? The answer is in
substance that Kant went wrong in putting necessity first as the
criterion of those laws. This brought them within the sphere of
reflection, and gave as their guarantee the impossibility of
thinking them reversed; and led to their being regarded as
wholly relative to human intelligence, restricted to the sphere of
the phenomenal, incapable of revealing to us substantial reality —
necessary, yet subjective. But this test of necessity is a wholly
secondary one; these laws are not thus guaranteed to us; they
are each and all given to us, given to our consciousness, in an
act of spontaneous apperception or' apprehension, immediately,
instantaneously, in a sphere above the reflective consciousness,
yet within the reach of knowledge. And " all subjectivity with
all reflection expires in the spontaneity of apperception. The
reason becomes subjective by relation to the voluntary and free
self; but in itself it is impersonal; it belongs not to this or to that
self inhumanity; it belongs not even to humanity. We may say
with truth that nature and humanity belong to it, for without
its laws both would perish."

But what is the number of those laws? Kant reviewing the
enterprise of Aristotle in modern times has given a complete list
of the laws of thought, but it is arbitrary in classifica-
tion and may be legitimately reduced. According to
Cousin, there are but two primary laws of thought, that
of causality and that of substance. From these flow naturally
all the others. In the order of nature, that of substance is the
first and causality second. In the order of acquisition of our
knowledge, causality precedes substance, or rather both are given
us in each other, and are contemporaneous in consciousness.

These principles of reason, cause and substance, given thus
psychologically, enable us to pass beyond the limits of the
relative and subjective to objective and absolute reality,- — enable
us, in a word, to pass from psychology, or the science of know-
ledge, to ontology or the science of being. These laws are
inextricably mixed in consciousness with the data of volition and
sensation, with free activity and fatal action or impression, and
they guide us in rising to a personal being, a self or free cause,
and to an impersonal reality, a not-me — nature, the world of
force — lying out of us, and modifying us. As I refer to myself
the act of attention and volition, so I cannot but refer the
sensation to some cause, necessarily other than myself, that is,
to an external cause, whose existence is as certain for me as my
own existence, since the phenomenon which suggests it to me is
as certain as the phenomenon which had suggested my reality,
and both are given in each other. I thus reach an objective
impersonal world of forces which corresponds to the variety of my
sensations. The'relation of these forces or causes to each other
is the order of the universe.

But these two forces, the me and the not-me, are reciprocally
limitative. As reason has apprehended these two simultaneous
phenomena, attention and sensation, and led us
r*f immediately to conceive the two sorts of distinct

absolute, causes, correlative and reciprocally finite, to which
they are related, so, from the notion of this limitation,
we find it impossible under the same guide not to conceive a
supreme cause, absolute and infinite, itself the first and last
cause of all. This is relatively to self and not-self what these
are to their proper effects. This cause is self-sufficient, and
is sufficient for the reason. This is God; he must be conceived
under the notion of cause, related to humanity and the world.
He is absolute substance only in so far as he is absolute cause,

333

and his essence lies precisely in his creative power. He thus
creates, and be creates necessarily.

This theodicy of Cousin laid him open obviously enough to
the charge of pantheism. This he repels, and his answer may be
summed up as follows. Pantheism is properly the
deification of the law of phenomena, the universe God. £*"?" ot

PuBinG"

But I distinguish the two finite causes self and not-self / smo
from each other and from the infinite cause. They
are not mere modifications of this cause or properties, as with
Spinoza, — they are free forces having' their power or spring of
action in themselves, and this is sufficient for our idea of
independent finite reality. I hold this, and I hold the relation of
these as effects to the one supreme cause. The God I plead for
is neither the deity of Pantheism, nor the absolute unity of the
Eleatics, a being divorced from all possibility of creation or
plurality, a mere metaphysical abstraction. The deity I maintain
is creative, and necessarily creative. The deity of Spinoza and
the Eleatics is a mere substance, not a cause in any sense. As
to the necessity under which Deity exists of acting or creating,
this is the highest form of liberty, it is the freedom of spontaneity,
activity without deliberation. His action is not the result of a
struggle between passion and virtue. He is free in an unlimited
manner the purest spontaneity in man is but the shadow of the
freedom of God. He acts freely but not arbitrarily, and with
the consciousness of being able to choose the opposite part.
He cannot deliberate or will as we do. His spontaneous action
excludes at once the efforts and the miseries of will and the
mechanical operation of necessity.

The elements found in consciousness are also to be found in
the history of humanity and in the history of philosophy. In
external nature there are expansion and contraction
which correspond to spontaneity and reflection. Ex- ,'!!!?'
ternal nature again in contrast with humanity expresses S ophy. '
spontaneity; humanity expresses reflection. In
human history the East represents the spontaneous stage;
the Pagan and Christian world represent stages of reflection.
. This was afterwards modified, expanded and more fully
expressed by saying that humanity in its universal development
has three principal moments. First, in the spontaneous stage,
where reflection is not yet developed, and art is imperfect,
humanity has thought only of the immensity around it. It is
preoccupied by the infinite. Secondly, in the reflective stage,
mind has become an object to itself. It thus knows itself ex-
plicitly or reflectively. Its own individuality is now the only
or at least the supreme thing. This is the moment of the finite.
Thirdly, there comes an epoch in which the self or me is sub-
ordinated. Mind realizes another power in the universe. The
finite and the infinite become two real correlatives in the relation
of cause and product. This is the third and highest stage of
development, the relation of the finite and the infinite. As
philosophy is but the highest expression of humanity, these three
moments will be represented in its history. The East typifies
the infinite, Greece the finite or reflective epoch, the modern
era the stage of relation or correlation of infinite and finite. In
theology, the dominant philosophical idea of each of these epochs
results in pantheism, polytheism, theism. In politics we have
in correspondence also with the idea, monarchy, democracy,
constitutionalism.

Eclecticism thus means the application of the psychological
method to the history of philosophy. Confronting the various
systems co-ordinated as sensualism, idealism, seep-
ticism, mysticism, with the facts of consciousness, the c y* m>
result was reached " that each system expresses an
order of phenomena and ideas, which is in truth very real, but
which is not alone in consciousness, and which at the same time
holds an almost exclusive place in the system; whence it
follows that each system is not false but incomplete, and that
in re-uniting all incomplete systems, we should have a complete
philosophy, adequate to the totality of consciousness." Philo-
sophy, as thus perfected, would not be a mere aggregation of
systems, as is ignorantly supposed, but an integration of the
truth in each system after the false or incomplete is discarded.

334

COUSIN, V.

Such is the system in outline. The historical position of the
system lies in its relations to Kant, Schelling and Hegel. Cousin
Relations was °PP°sed to Kant in asserting that the uncondi-
te Kant, tioned in the form of infinite or absolute cause is but
Schelling a m ere unrealizable tentative or effort on the part of
and Hegel. ^ j^^ something different from a mere negation,
yet not equivalent to a positive thought. With Cousin the
absolute as the ground of being is grasped positively by the
intelligence, and it renders all else intelligible; it is not as with
Kant a certain hypothetioal or regulative need.

With Schelling again Cousin agrees in regarding this supreme
ground of all as positively apprehended, and as a source of
development, but he utterly repudiates Schelling's method.
The intellectual intuition either falls under the eye of conscious-
ness, or it does not. If not, how do you know it and its object
which are identical? If it does, it comes within the sphere of
psychology; and the objections to it as thus a relative, made
by Schelling himself, are to be dealt with. Schelling's intellectual
intuition is the mere negation of knowledge.

Again the pure being of Hegel is a mere abstraction, — a
hypothesis illegitimately assumed, which he has nowhere sought
to vindicate. The very point to be established is the possibility
of reaching being per se or pure being; yet in the Hegelian
system this is the very thing assumed as a starting-point. Besides
this, of course, objections might be made to the method of
development, as not only subverting the principle of contradic-
tion, but as galvanizing negation into a means of advancing or
developing the whole body of human knowledge and reality.
The intellectual intuition of Schelling, as above consciousness,
the pure being of Hegel, as an empty abstraction, unvindicated,
illegitimately assumed, and arbitrarily' developed, are equally
useless as bases of metaphysics. This led Cousin, still holding
by essential knowledge of being, to ground it in an analysis of
consciousness,— in psychology.

The absolute or infinite — the unconditioned ground and source
of all reality — is yet apprehended by us as an immediate datum
ox reality; and it is apprehended in consciousness — under its
condition, that, to wit, of distinguishing subject and object,
knower and known. The doctrine of Cousin was criticized by
Sir W. Hamilton in the Edinburgh Review of 1829, and it was
animadverted upon about the same time by Schelling.
Hamilton's objections are as follows. The correlation of the
ideas of infinite and finite does not necessarily imply their
correality, as Cousin supposes; on the contrary, it is a pre-
sumption that finite is simply positive and infinite negative of
the same — that the finite and infinite are simply contradictory
relatives. Of these " the positive alone is real, the negative is
only an abstraction of the other, and in the highest generality
even an abstraction of thought itself." A study of the few
sentences under this head might have obviated the trifling
criticism of Hamilton's objection which has been set afloat
recently, that the denial of a knowledge of the absolute or in-
finite implies a foregone knowledge of it. How can you deny
the reality of that which you do not know? The answer to this
is that in the case of contradictory statements — A and not A
— the latter is a mere negation of the former, and posits nothing;
and the negation of a notion with positive attributes, as the
finite, does not extend beyond abolishing the given attributes as
an object of thought. The infinite or non-finite is not necessarily
known, ere the finite is negated, or in order to negate it ; all that
needs be known is the finite itself; and the contradictory
negation of it implies no positive. Non-organized may or may
not correspond to a positive — i.e. an object or notion with
qualities contradictory of the organized; but the mere sublation
of the organized does not posit it, or suppose that it is known
beforehand, or that anything exists corresponding to it. This is
one among many flaws in the Hegelian dialectic, and it paralyzes
the whole of the Logic. Secondly, the conditions of intelligence,
which Cousin allows, necessarily exclude the possibility of know-
ledge of the absolute — they are held to be incompatible with its
unity. Here Schelling and Hamilton argue that Cousin's absolute
is a mere relative. Thirdly, it is objected that in order to deduce

the conditioned, Cousin makes his absolute a relative; for he
makes it an absolute cause, i.e. a cause existing absolutely under
relation. As such it is necessarily inferior to the sum total of its
effects, and dependent for reality on these — in a word, a mere
potence or becoming. Further, as a theory of creation, it makes
creation a necessity, and destroys the notion of the divine.
Cousin made no reply to Hamilton's criticism beyond alleging
that Hamilton's doctrine necessarily restricted human knowledge
and certainty to psychology and logic, and destroyed meta-
physics by introducing nescience and uncertainty into its highest
sphere — theodicy.

The attempt to render the laws of reason or thought impersonal
by professing to find them in the sphere of spontaneous appercep-
tion, and above reflective necessity, can hardly be
regarded as successful. It may be that we first of all //,/s S ™
primitively or spontaneously affirm cause, substance, sophy.
time, space, &c, in this way. But these are still in Impersou-
each instance given us as realized in a particular form. ^.^a.
In no single act of affirmation of cause or substance,
much less in such a primitive act, do we affirm the universality
of their application. We might thus get particular instances or
cases of these laws, but we could never get the laws themselves
in their universality, far less absolute impersonality. And as
they are not supposed to be mere generalizations from experience,
no amount of individual instances of the application of any one
of them by us would give it a true universality. The only sure
test we have of their universality in our experience is the test
of their reflective necessity. We thus after all fall back on
reflection as our ground for their universal application; mere
spontaneity of apprehension is futile; their universality is
grounded in their necessity, not their necessity in their uni-
versality. How far and in what sense this ground of necessity
renders them personal are of course questions still to be solved.

But if these three correlative facts are immediately given, it
seems to be thought possible by Cousin to vindicate them in
reflective consciousness. He seeks to trace the steps which the
reason has spontaneously and consciously, but irreflectively,
followed. And here the question arises — Can we vindicate in a
reflective or mediate process this spontaneous apprehension of
reality?

The self is found to be a cause of force, free in its action, on the
ground that we are obliged to relate the volition of consciousness
to the self as its cause, and its ultimate cause. It is not clear from
the analysis whether the self is immediately observed as an acting
or originating cause, or whether reflection working on the principle
of causality is compelled to infer its existence and character. If
self is actually so given, we do not need the principle of causality
to infer it; if it is not so given, causality could never give us
either the notion or the fact of self as a cause or force, far less
as an ultimate one. All that it could do would be to warrant
a cause of some sort, but not this or that reality as the cause.
And further, the principle of causality, if fairly carried out, as
universal and necessary, would not allow us to stop at personality
or will as the ultimate cause of its effect — volition. Once
applied to the facts at all, it would drive us beyond the first
antecedent or term of antecedents of volition to a still further
cause or ground — in fact, land us in an infinite regress of causes.

The same criticism is even more emphatically applicable to
the influence of a not-self, or world of forces, corresponding to
our sensations, and the cause of them. Starting from sensation
as our basis, causality could never give us this, even though it
be allowed that sensation is impersonal to the extent of being
independent of our volition. Causality might tell us that a cause
there is of sensation somewhere and of some sort; but that this
cause is a force or sum of forces, existing in space, independently
of us, and corresponding to our sensations, it could never tell us,
for the simple reason that such a notion is not supposed to exist
in our consciousness. Causality cannot add to the number of
our notions, — cannot add to the number of realities we know.
All it can do is to necessitate us to think that a cause there is
of a given change, but what that cause is it cannot of itself inform
us, or even suggest to us, beyond implying that it must be adequate

COUSIN— COUSINS

335

to the effect. Sensation might arise, for aught we know, so far
as causality leads us, not from a world of forces at all, but from
a will like our own, though infinitely more powerful, acting upon
us, partly furthering and partly thwarting us. And indeed such
a supposition is, with the principle of causality at work, within
the limits of probability, as we are already supposed to know
such a reality — a will — in our own consciousness. When Cousin
thus set himself to vindicate those points by reflection, he gave up
the obvious advantage of his other position that the realities in
question are given us in immediate and spontaneous apprehension.
The same criticism applies equally to the inference of an absolute
cause from the two limited forces which he names self and not-self.
Immediate spontaneous apperception may seize this supreme
reality; but to vindicate it by reflection as an inference on the
principle of causality is impossible. This is a mere paralogism;
we can never infer either absolute or infinite from relative or
finite.

The truth is that Cousin's doctrine of the spontaneous apper-
ception of impersonal truth amounts to little more than a pre-
sentment in philosophical language of the ordinary convictions
and beliefs of mankind. This is important as a preliminary
stage, but philosophy properly begins when it attempts to co-
ordinate or systematize those convictions in harmony, to conciliate
apparent contradiction and opposition, as between the correlative
notions of finite and infinite, the apparently conflicting notions
of personality and infinitude, self and not-self; in a word, to
reconcile the various sides of consciousness with each other.
And whether the laws of our reason are the laws of all intelligence
and being — whether and how we are to relate our fundamental,
intellectual and moral conceptions to what is beyond our
experience, or to an infinite being — are problems which Cousin
cannot be regarded as having solved. These are in truth the
outstanding problems of modern philosophy.

Cousin's doctrine of spontaneity in volition can hardly be said
to be more successful than his impersonality of the reason through
spontaneous apperception. Sudden, unpremeditated
volition may be the earliest and the most artistic,
but it is not the best. Volition is essentially a free choice between
alternatives, and that is best which is most deliberate, because
it is most rational. Aristotle touched this point in his distinction
between /SoMwjtns and ■Kpoaipecis. The sudden and unpre-
meditated wish represented by the former is wholly inferior in
character to the free choice of the latter, guided and illumined
by intelligence. In this we can deliberately resolve upon what
is in our power; in that we are subject to the vain impulse of
wishing the impossible. Spontaneity is pleasing, sometimes
beautiful, but it is not in this instance the highest quality of
the thing to be obtained. That is to be found in a guiding and
illumining reflective activity.

Eclecticism is not open to the superficial objection of pro-
ceeding without a system or test in determining the complete
or incomplete. But it is open to the objection of
estimate, assuming that a particular analysis of consciousness has
reached all the possible elements in humanity and in
history, and all their combinations. It may be asked, Can
history have that which is not in the individual consciousness?
In a sense not; but our analysis may not give all that is there,
and we ought not at once to impose that analysis or any formula
on history. History is as likely to reveal to us in the first place
true and original elements, and combinations of elements in
man, as a study of consciousness. Besides, the tendency of
applying a formula of this sort to history is to assume that the
elements are developed in a certain regular or necessary order,
whereas this may not at all be the case; but we may find at
any epoch the whole mixed, either crossing or co-operative,
as in the consciousness of the individual himself. Further, the
question as to how these elements may possibly have grown up
in the general consciousness of mankind is assumed to be non-
existent or impossible.

It was the tendency of the philosophy of Cousin to outline
things and to fill up the details in an artistic and imaginative
interest. This is necessarily the case, especially in the application

VolHloa.

to history of all formulas supposed to be derived either from an
analysis of consciousness, or from an abstraction called pure
thought. Cousin was observational and generalizing rather than
analytic and discriminating. His search into principles was not
profound, and his power of rigorous consecutive development
was not remarkable. He left no distinctive permanent principle
of philosophy. But he left very interesting psychological
analyses, and several new, just, and true expositions of philo-
sophical systems, especially that of Locke and the philosophers
of Scotland. He was at the same time a man of impressive
power, of rare and wide culture, and of lofty aim, — far above
priestly conception and Philistine narrowness. He was familiar
with the broad lines of nearly every system of philosophy ancient
and modern. His eclecticism was the proof of a reverential
sympathy with the struggles of human thought to attain to
certainty in the highest problems of speculation. It was
eminently a doctrine of comprehension and of toleration. In
these respects it formed a marked and valuable contrast to the
arrogance of absolutism, to the dogmatism of sensationalism,
and to the doctrine of church authority, preached by the theo-
logical school of his day. His spirit, while it influenced the youth
of France, saved them from these influences. As an educational
reformer, as a man of letters and learning, who trod " the large
and impartial ways of knowledge," and who swayed others to the
same paths, as a thinker influential alike in the action and the
reaction to which he led, Cousin stands out conspicuously among
the memorable Frenchmen of the 19th century.

Sir W. Hamilton {Discussions, p. 541), one of his most resolute
opponents, described Cousin as " A profound and original thinker,
a lucid and eloquent writer, a scholar equally at home in ancient
and in modern learning, a philosopher superior to all prejudices
of age or country, party or profession, and whose lofty eclecticism,
seeking truth under every form of opinion, traces its unity even
through the most hostile systems."

Bibliography. — J. Barthelemy StHilaire, V. Cousin, sa vie etsa
correspondence (3 vols., Paris, 1895) ; H. Hoffding, Hist, of Mod. Phil.
ii. 311 (Eng. trans., 1900); C. E. Fuchs, Die Philosophic Victor
Cousins (Berlin, 1847); J. Alaux, La Philos. de M. Cousin (Paris,
1864); P. Janet, Victor Cousin et son ceuvre (Paris, 1885); Jules
Simon, V. Cousin (1887) ; Adolphe Franck, Moralistes et philosophes
(1872) ; J. P. Damiron, Souvenirs de vingt ans d'enseignement (Paris,
1859); H. Taine in Les Philosophes (Paris, 1868), pp. 79-202.

(J. V.; X.)

COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps
a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the
same sense in classical Latin), a term of relationship. Children
of brothers and sisters are to each other first cousins, or cousins-
german; the children of first cousins are to each other second
cousins, and so on; the child of a first cousin is to the first cousin
of his father or mother a first cousin once removed.

The word cousin has also, since the 16th century, been used
by sovereigns as an honorific style in addressing persons of
exalted, but not equal sovereign, rank, the term " brother "
being reserved as the style used by one sovereign in addressing
another. Thus, in Great Britain, dukes, marquesses and earls
are addressed by the sovereign in royal writs, &c, as " cousin."
In France the kings thus addressed princes of the blood royal,
cardinals and archbishops, dukes and peers, the marshals of
France, the grand officers of the crown and certain foreign
princes. In Spain the right to be thus addressed is a privilege of
the grandees.

COUSINS, SAMUEL (1801-1887), English mezzotint engraver,
was born at Exeter on the 9th of May 1801. He was pre-
eminently the interpreter of Sir Thomas Lawrence, his con-
temporary. During his apprenticeship to S. W. Reynolds he
engraved many of the best amongst the three hundred and sixty
little mezzotints illustrating the works of Sir Joshua Reynolds
which his master issued in his own name. In the finest of his
numerous transcripts of Lawrence, such as " Lady Acland and
her Sons," " Pope Pius VII." and " Master Lambton," the
distinguishing characteristics of the engraver's work, brilliancy
and force of effect in a high key, corresponded exactly with
similar qualities in the painter. After the introduction of steel

336

COUSTOU— COUTANCES

for engraving purposes about the year 1823, Cousins and his
contemporaries were compelled to work on it, because the soft
copper previously used for mezzotint plates did not yield a
sufficient number of fine impressions to enable the method to
compete commercially against line engraving, from which much
larger editions were obtainable. The painter-like quality which
distinguished the 18th-century mezzotints on copper was wanting
in his later works, because the hardness of the steel on which
they were engraved impaired freedom of execution and richness
of tone, and so enh anced the labour of scraping that b e accele rated
the work by stipple, etching the details instead of scraping them
out of the "ground" in the manner of his predecessors. To
this "mixed style," previously used by Richard Earlom on
copper, Cousins added heavy roulette and rocking-tool textures,
tending to fortify the darks, when he found that the "burr"
even on steel failed to yield enough fine impressions to meet the
demand. The effect of his prints in this method after Reynolds
and Millais was mechanical and out of harmony with the
picturesque technique of these painters, but the phenomenal
popularity which Cousins gained for his works at least kept alive
and in favour a form of mezzotint engraving during a critical
phase of its history. Abraham Raimbach, the line engraver,
dated the decline of his own art in England from the appearance
in 1837 of Cousins's print (in the "mixed style") after Landseer's
"Bolton Abbey." Such plates as "Miss Peel," after Lawrence
(published in 1833); "A Midsummer Night's Dream," after
Landseer (1857); "The Order of Release" and "The First
Minuet," after Millais (1856 and 1868); "The Strawberry Girl"
and "Lavinia, Countess Spencer," after Reynolds; and " Miss
Rich," after Hogarth (1873-1877), represent various stages
of Cousins's mixed method. It reached its final development
in the plates after Millais's "Cherry Ripe" and "Pomona,"
published in 1881 and 1882, when the invention of coating
copper-plates with a film of steel to make them yield larger
editions led to the revival of pure mezzotint on copper, which
has since rendered obsolete the steel plate and the mixed style
which it fostered. The fine draughtsmanship of Cousins was as
apparent in his prints as in his original lead-pencil portraits
exhibited in London in 1882. In 1885 he was elected a full
member of the Royal Academy, to which institution he later gave
in trust £15,000 to provide annuities for superannuated artists
who had not been so successful as himself. One of the most
important figures in the history of British engraving, he died in
London, unmarried, on the 7th of May 1887.

See George Pycroft, M.R.C.S.E., Memoir of Samuel Cousins, R.A.,
Member of the Legion of Honour (published for private circulation by
E. E. Leggatt, London, 1899); Algernon Graves, Catalogue of the
Works of Samuel Cousins, R.A. (published by H. Graves and Co.,
London, 1888); and Alfred Whitman, Samuel Cousins (published
by George Bell & Sons, London, 1904), which contains a catalogue,
good illustrations, and much detail useful to the collector and
dealer. (G. P. R.)

COUSTOU, the name of a famous family of French sculptors.

Nicolas Coustou (1658-1733) was the son of a wood-carver at
Lyons, where he was born. At eighteen he removed to Paris,
to study under C. A. Coysevox, his mother's brother, who
presided over the recently-established Academy of Painting and
Sculpture; and at three-and-twenty he gained the Colbert
prize, which entitled him to four years' education at the French
Academy at Rome. He afterwards became rector and chancellor
of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. From the year 1700
he was a most active collaborator with Coysevox at the palaces
of Marly and Versailles. He was remarkable for his facility;
and though he was specially influenced by Michelangelo and
Algardi, his numerous works are among the most typical speci-
mens of his age now extant. The most famous are "La Seine et
la Marne," "La Saone," the "Berger Chasseur" in the gardens
of the Tuiieries, the bas-relief "Le Passage du Rhin" in the
Louvre, and the " Descent from the Cross " placed behind the
choir altar of Notre Dame at Paris.

His younger brother, Guillaume Coustou (1677-1746), was
a sculptor of still greater merit. He also gained the Colbert
prize; but refusing to submit to the rules of the Academy, he

soon left it, and for some time wandered houseless through the
streets of Rome. At length he was befriended by the sculptor
Legros, under whom he studied for some time. Returning to Paris,
he was in 1704 admitted into the Academy of Painting and
Sculpture, of which he afterwards became director; and, like
his brother, he was employed by Louis XIV. , His finest works
are the famous group of the "Horse Tamers," originally at
Marly, now in the Champs Elysees at Paris, the colossal group
"The Ocean and the Mediterranean" at Marly, the bronze
"Rhone" which formed part of the statue of Louis XIV. at
Lyons, and the sculptures at the entrance of the Hotel des
Invalides. Of these latter, the bas-relief representing Louis
XIV. mounted and accompanied by Justice and Prudence was
destroyed during the Revolution, but was restored in 1815 by
Pierre Cartellier from Coustou's model; the bronze figures of
Mars and Minerva, on either side of the doorway, were not
interfered with.

Another Guillaume Coustou (1716-1777), the son of Nicolas,
also studied at Rome, as winner of the Colbert prize. While
to a great extent a copyist of his predecessors, he was much
affected by the bad taste of his time, and produced little or
nothing of permanent value.

See Louis Gougenot, LXloge de M. Coustou le jeune (1903) ; Arsene
Houssaye, Histoire de I'art francais au XVIII' siecle (i860); Lady
Dilke, Gazette des beaux-arts, vol. xxv. (1901) (2 articles).

COUTANCES, WALTER OF (d. 1207), bishop of Lincoln and
archbishop of Rouen, commenced his career in the chancery of
Henry II., was elected bishop of Lincoln in 1182, and in 1184
obtained, with the king's help, the see of Rouen. Throughout
his career he was much employed in diplomatic and administra-
tive duties. He started with Richard I. for the Third Crusade,
but was sent back from Messina to investigate the charges which
the barons and the official class had brought against the chan-
cellor, William Longchamp. There was no love lost between
the two; and they were popularly supposed to be rivals for
the see of Canterbury. The archbishop of Rouen sided with the
barons and John, and sanctioned Longchamp 's deposition — a
step which was technically warranted by the powers which
Richard had given, but by no means calculated to protect the
interests of the crown. The Great Council now recognized the
archbishop as chief justiciar, and he remained at the head of the
government till 1193, when he was replaced by Hubert Walter.
The archbishop did good service in the negotiations for Richard's
release, but subsequently quarrelled with his master and laid
Normandy under an interdict, because the border stronghold
of Chateau Gaillard in the Vexin had been built on his land
without his consent. After Richard's death the archbishop
accepted John as the lawful heir of Normandy and consecrated
him as duke. But his personal inclinations leaned to Arthur
of Brittany, whom he was with difficulty dissuaded from support-
ing. The archbishop accepted the French conquest of Normandy
with equanimity (1204), although he kept to his old allegiance
while the issue of the struggle was in doubt. He did not long
survive the conquest, and his latfer history is a blank.

See W. Stubbs's editions of Benedictus A bbas, Hoveden and Diceto
(Rolls series) ; R. Hewlett's edition of " William of Newburgh " and
" Richard of Devizes " in Chronicles, &C, of the Reigns of Stephen,
Henry II. and Richard I. (Rolls series). See also the preface to the
third volume of Stubbs's Hoveden, pp. lix.-xeviii. ; J. H. Round's
Commune of London, and the French poem on Guillaume le Marechal
(ed. P. Meyer, Soc. de V Histoire de France). (H. W. C. D.)

COUTANCES, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement of the department of Manche, 7 m. E. of the
English Channel and 58 m. S. of Cherbourg on the Western
railway. Pop. (1906) 6089. Coutances is beautifully situated
on the right bank of the Soulle on a granitic eminence crowned
by the celebrated cathedral of Notre-Dame. The date of this
church has been much disputed, but while traces of Romanesque
architecture survive, the building is, in the main, Gothic in
style and dates from the first half of the 13th century. The
slender turrets massed round the western towers and the octagonal
central tower, which forms a lantern within, are conspicuous
features of the church. In the interior, which comprises the

COUTHON— COWADE

337

nave with aisles, transept and choir with ambulatory and side
chapels, there are fine rose-windows with stained glass of the
14th century, and other works of art. Of the other buildings of
Coutances the church of St Pierre, in which Renaissance archi-
tecture is mingled with Gothic, and that of St Nicolas, of the
16th and 1 7th centuries, demand mention. There is an aqueduct
of the 14th century to the west of the town. Coutances is a quiet
town with winding streets and pleasant boulevards bordering
it on the east; on the western slope of the hill there is a public
garden. The town is the seat of a bishop, a court of assizes and
a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a lycee for boys, a communal college and a training college for
girls, and an ecclesiastical seminary. Leather-dressing and
wool-spinning are carried on and there is trade in live-stock, in
agricultural produce, especially eggs, and in marble.

Coutances is the ancient Cosedia, which before the Roman
conquest was one of the chief towns in the country of the Unelli.
Towards the end of the 3rd century its name was changed to
Constantia, in honour of the emperor Constantius Chlorus, who
fortified it. It became the capital of the pagus Constantinus
(Cotentin), and in the middle ages was the seat of a viscount.
It has been an episcopal see since the 5th century. In the 17th
century it was the centre of the revolt of the Nu-pieds, caused
by the imposition of the salt- tax (gabelle).

A good bibliography of general works and monographs on the
archaeology and the history of the town and diocese of Coutances
is given in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources, &c, Topo-Biblio-
graphie (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s.v.

COUTHON, GEORGES (1755-1794), French revolutionist,
was born at Orcet, a village in the district of Clermont in
Auvergne. He studied law, and was admitted advocate at
Clermont in 1785. At this period he was noted for his integrity,
gentle-heartedness and charitable disposition. His health was
feeble and both legs were paralysed. In 1787 he was a member
of the provincial assembly of Auvergne. On the outbreak of
the Revolution Couthon, who was now a member of the munici-
pality of Clermont-Ferrand, published his L' Aristocrate eonverti,
in which he revealed himself as a liberal and a champion of
constitutional monarchy. He became very popular, was ap-
pointed president of the tribunal of the town of Clermont in
1 791, and in September of the same year was elected deputy to
the Legislative Assembly. His views had meanwhile been
embittered by the attempted flight of Louis XVI., and he
distinguished himself now by his hostility to the king. A visit
to Flanders for the sake of his health brought him into close
intercourse and sympathy with Dumouriez. In September 1792
Couthon was elected member of the National Convention, and
at the trial of the king voted for the sentence of death without
appeal. He hesitated for a time as to which party he should
join, but finally decided for that of Robespierre, with whom he
had many opinions in common, especially in matters of religion.
He was the first to demand the arrest of the proscribed Girondists.
On the 30th of May 1 793 he became a member of the Committee of
Public Safety, and in August was sent as one of the commissioners
of the Convention attached to the army before Lyons. Impatient
at the slow progress made by the besieging force, he decreed
a levee en masse in the department of Puy-de-D6me, collected
an army of 60,000 men, and himself led them to Lyons. When
the city was taken, on the 9th of October 1793, although the
Convention ordered its destruction, Couthon did not carry out
the decree, and, showed moderation in the punishment of the
rebels. The Republican atrocities began only after Couthon
was replaced, on the 3rd of November 1793, by Collot d'Herbois.
Couthon returned to Paris, and on the 21st of December was
elected president of the Convention. He contributed to the
prosecution of the Hebertists, and was responsible for the law
of the 22nd Prairial, which in the case of trials before the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal deprived the accused of the aid of counsel or
of witnesses or their defence, on the pretext of shortening the
proceedings. During the crisis preceding the 9th Thermidor,
Couthon showed considerable courage, giving up a journey to
Auvergne in order, as he wrote, that he might either die or

triumph with Robespierre and liberty. Arrested with Robes-
pierre and Saint-Just, his colleagues in the triumvirate of the
Terror, and subjected to indescribable sufferings and insults,
he was taken to the scaffold on the same cart with Robespierre
on the 28th of July 1794 (10th Thermidor).

See Fr. Mege, Correspondance de Couthon . . . suivie de " I' Aristo-
crate eonverti," comedie en deux actes de Couthon (Paris, 1872) ; and
Nouveaux Documents sur Georges Couthon (Clermont-Ferrand, 1890);
also F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention
(Paris, 1885-1886), ii. 425-443.

COUTTS, THOMAS (1735-1822), English banker and founder of
the banking house of Coutts & Co., was born on the 7th of
September 1735. He was the fourth son of John Coutts (1699-
1751), who carried on business in Edinburgh as a corn factor and
negotiator of bills of exchange, and who in 1742 was elected lord
provost of the city. The family was originally of Montrose, but
one of its members had settled at Edinburgh about 1696. Soon
after the death of John Coutts the business was divided into two
branches, one carried on in Edinburgh, the other in London.
The banking business in London was in the hands of James and
Thomas Coutts, sons of John Coutts. From the death of his
brother in 1778, Thomas, as surviving partner, became sole head
of the firm; and under his direction the banking house rose
to the highest distinction. His ambition was to establish his
character as a man of business and to make a fortune; and he
lived to succeed in this aim and long to enjoy his reputation and
wealth. A gentleman in manners, hospitable and benevolent, he
counted amongst his friends some of the literary men and the
best actors of his day. Of the enormous wealth which came into
his hands he made munificent use. His private life was not
without its romantic elements. Soon after his settlement in
London he married Elizabeth Starkey, a young woman of humble
origin, who was in attendance on the daughter of his brother
James. They lived happily together, and had three daughters —
Susan, married in 1796 to the 3rd earl of Guilford; Frances,
married in 1800 to John, 1st marquess of Bute; and Sophia,
married in 1793 to Sir Francis Burdett. Mrs Coutts dying in
181 5, her husband soon after married the popular actress,
Harriet Mellon; and to her he left the whole of his immense
fortune. He died in London on the 24th of February 1822.
His widow married in 1827 the 9th duke of St Albans, and died
ten years later, having bequeathed her property to Angela,
youngest daughter of Sir Francis Burdett, who then assumed the
additional name and arms of Coutts. In 1871 this lady was
created Baroness Burdett-Coutts (q.v.).

See C. Rogers, Genealogical Memoirs of the Families of Colt and
Coutts (1879); and R. Richardson, Coutts & Co. (1900).

COUTURE, THOMAS (1815-1879), French painter, was born
at Senlis (Oise), and studied under Baron A. J. Gros and Paul
Delaroche, winning a Prix de Rome in 1837. He began exhibiting
historical and genre pictures at the Salon in 1840, and obtained
several medals. His masterpiece was his "Romans in the
Decadence of the Empire" (1847), now in the Luxembourg;
and his "Love of Money " (1844; at Toulouse), "Falconer"
(1855), and "Damocles" (1872), are also good examples.

COUVADE (literally a "brooding," from Fr. couver, to hatch,
Lat. cubare, to lie down), a custom so called in Beam, prevalent
among several peoples in different parts of the world, requiring
that the father, at and sometimes before the birth of his child,
shall retire to bed and fast or abstain from certain kinds of food,
receiving the attentions generally shown to women at their
confinements. The existence of the custom in ancient classical
times is testified to by Apollonius Rhodius, Diodorus (who refers
to its existence among the Corsicans), and Strabo (who noticed it
among the Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as by the Gascons,
it has been said to be still observed, though the most recent
researches entirely discredit this). Travellers, from the time of
Marco Polo, who relates its observance in Chinese Turkestan,
have found the custom to prevail in China, India, Borneo, Siam,
Africa and the Americas. Even in Europe it cannot be said to
have entirely disappeared. In certain of the Baltic provinces of
Russia the husband, on the lying-in of the wife, takes to his bed
and groans in mock pain. One writer believes he found traces of

338

COVE— COVENANT

it in the little island of Marken in the Zuyder Zee. Even in rural
England, notably in East Anglia, a curiously obstinate belief
survives (the prevalence of which in earlier times is proved by
references to it in Elizabethan drama) that the pregnancy of the
woman affects the man, and the young husband who complains
of a toothache is assailed by pleasantries as to his wife's condition.
In Guiana the custom isobserved in its most typical form. The
woman works to within a few hours of the birth, but some days
before her delivery the father leaves his occupations and abstains
from certain kinds of animal food lest the child should suffer.
Thus the flesh of the agouti is forbidden, lest the child should be
lean, and that of the capibara or water-cavy, for fear he should
inherit through his father's gluttony that creature's projecting
teeth. A few hours before delivery the woman goes alone, or
with one or two women-friends, into the forest, where the baby is
born She returns as soon as she can stand, to her work, and the
man then takes to his hammock and becomes the invalid. He
must do no work, must touch no weapons, is forbidden all meat
and food, except at first a fermented liquor and after the twelfth
day a weak gruel of cassava meal. He must not even smoke, or
wash himself, but is waited on hand and foot by the women.
So far is the comedy carried that he whines and groans as if in
actual pain. Six weeks after the birth of the child he is taken in
hand by his relatives, who lacerate his skin and rub him with a
decoction of the pepper-plant. A banquet is then held from
which the patient is excluded, for he must not leave his bed till
several days later; and for six months he must eat the flesh
of neither fish nor bird. Almost identical ceremonies have been
noticed among the natives of California and New Mexico; while
in Greenland and Kamchatka the husband may not work for
some time before and after his wife's confinement. Among the
Larkas of Bengal a period of isolation and uncleanness, syn-
chronous with that compulsory on the woman, is imperative for
the man, on the conclusion of which the child's parentage is
publicly proclaimed.

No certain explanation can be offered for the custom. The
most reasonable view is that adopted by E. B. Tylor, who traces
in it the transition from the earlier matriarchal to the later
patriarchal system of tribe-organization. Among primitive
tribes, and probably in all ages, the former order of society, in
which descent and inheritance are reckoned through the mother
alone, as being the earliest form of family life, is and was very
common, if not universal. The acknowledgment of a relation-
ship between father and son is characteristic of the progress of
society towards a true family life. It may well be that the
Couvade arose in the father's desire to emphasize the bond of
blood between himself and his child. It is a fact that in some
countries the father has to purchase the child from its mother;
and in the Roman ceremony of the husband raising the baby from
the floor we may trace the savage idea that the male parent must
formally proclaim his adoption of and responsibility for the
offspring. Max Muller, in his Chips from a German Workshop,
endeavoured to find an explanation in primitive " henpecking,"
asserting that the unfortunate husband was tyrannized over by
" his female relatives and afterwards frightened into superstition,"
— that, in fact, the whole fabric of ceremony is reared on nothing
but masculine hysteria; but this theory can scarcely be taken
seriously. The missionary, Joseph Francois Lafitau, suspected a
psychological reason, assuming the custom to be a dim recollec-
tion of original sin, the isolation and fast types of repentance.
The explanation of the American Indians is that if the father
engaged in any hard or hazardous work, e.g. hunting, or was
careless in his diet, the child would suffer and inherit the physical
faults and peculiarities of the animals eaten. This belief that a
person becomes possessed of the nature and form of the animal he
eats is widespread, being as prevalent in the Old World as in the
Neft, but it is insufficient to account for the minute ceremonial
details of La Couvade as practised in many lands. It is far more
likely that so universal a practice has no trivial beginnings, but is
to be considered as a mile-stone marking a great transitional
epoch in human progress.

AUTHORITIES. — E. B. Tylor's Early History of Man (1865; 2nd

ed. p. 301); F. Max Muller, Chips from a German Workshop (1868-
1875), ii. 281; Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilisation (1900);
Brett's Indian Tribes of Guiana; Johann Baptist von Spix and
Karl F. P. von Martius, Travels in Brazil (1823-1831), ii. 281;
J. F. Lafitau, Mosurs des sauvages americains (1st ed., 1724) ; W. Z.
Ripley, Races of Europe (1900); A. H. Keane's Ethnology (1896),
p. 368 and footnote; A. Giraud-Teulon, Les Origines du mariage et
de la famille (Paris, 1884).

COVE, a word mostly used in the sense of a small inlet or
sheltered bay in a coast-line. In English dialect usage it is also
applied to a cave or to a recess in a mountain-side. The word
in O. Eng. is cofa, and cognate forms are found in the Ger.
Koben, Norwegian kove, and in various forms in other Teutonic
languages. ' It has no connexion with "alcove," recess in a room
or building, which is derived through the Span, alcoba from Arab.
al, the, and qubbah, vault, arch, nor with "cup" or "coop,"
nor with "cave" (Lat. cava). The use of the word was first
confined to a small chamber or cell or inner recess in a room or
tfuilding. From this has come the particular application in
architecture to any kind of concave moulding, the term being
usually applied to the quadrantal curve rising from the cornice
of a lofty room to the moulded borders of the horizontal ceiling.
The term "coving" is given in half-timbered work to the curved
soffit under a projecting window, or in the 18th century to that
occasionally found carrying the gutter of a house. In the Musee
Plantin at Antwerp the hearth of the fireplace of the upper
floor is carved on coving, which forms part of the design of the
chimney-piece in the room below. The slang use of "cove"
for any male person, like a "fellow," "chap," &c, is found in
the form "cofe" in T. Harman's Caveat for Cursetors (1587)
and other early quotations. This seems to be identical with the
Scots word "cofe," a pedlar, hawker, which is formed from
"coff," to sell, purchase, cognate with the Ger. kaufen, to
buy, and the native English "cheap." The word "cove,"
therefore, is in ultimate origin the same as " chap," short for
"chapman," a pedlar.

COVELLITE, a mineral species consisting of cupric sulphide,
CuS, crystallizing in the hexagonal system. It is of less frequent
occurrence in nature than copper-glance, the orthorhombic
cuprous sulphide. Crystals are very rare, the mineral being
usually found as compact and earthy masses or as a blue coating
on other copper sulphides. Hardness I5-2; specific gravity 4-6.
The dark indigo-blue colour is a characteristic feature, and the
mineral was early known as indigo-copper (Ger. Kupferindig) .
The name covellite is taken from N. Covelli, who in 1839 observed
crystals of cupric sulphide encrusting Vesuvian lava, the mineral
having been formed here by the interaction of hydrogen sulphide
and cupric chloride, both of which are volatile volcanic products.
Covellite is, however, more commonly found in copper-bearing
veins, where it has resulted by the alteration of other copper
sulphides, namely chalcopyfite, copper-glance and erubescite.
It is found in many copper mines; localities which may be
specially mentioned are Sangerhausen in Prussian Saxony,
Butte in Montana, and Chile; in the Medicine Bow Mountains
of Wyoming a platiniferous covellite is mined, the platinum
being present as sperrylite (platinum arsenide). (L. J. S.)

COVENANT (an 0. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir,
to agree, Lat. convenire), a mutual agreement of two or more
parties, or an undertaking made by one of the parties. In the
Bible the Hebrew word ma, berUh, is used widely for many
kinds of agreements; it is then applied to a contract between
two persons or to a treaty between two nations, such as the
covenant made between Abimelech and Isaac, representing p
treaty between the Israelites and the Philistines (Gen. xxvi.
26 seq.); more particularly to an engagement made between
God and men, or such agreements as, by the observance of a
religious rite, regarded God as a party to the engagement. Two
suggestions have been made for the derivation of tenth: (ii
tracing the word from a root "to cut," and the reference is to
the primitive rite of cutting victims into parts, between which
the parties to an agreement passed, cf. the Greek Spiaa. reiivav,
and the account (Gen. xv. 17) of the covenant between God and
Abraham, where "a smoking furnace and burning lamp passed

COVENANT— COVENANTERS

339

between the pieces" of the victims Abraham had sacrificed;
(2) connecting it with an Assyrio-Babylonian biritu, fetter,
alliance. Birith was translated in the Septuagint by hadr\Kr\,
which in classical Greek had the meaning of "will"; hence
the Vulgate, in the Psalms and the New Testament, translates
the word by testamentum, but elsewhere in the Old Testament
by foedus or pactum; similarly Wy cliff e's version gives "testa-
ment" and "covenant" respectively. The books of Scripture
dealing with the old or Mosaic, and new or Christian dispensation
are sometimes known as the Books of the Old and the New
Covenant. The word appears in the system of theology developed
by Johannes Cocceius (q.v.), and known as the "Covenant"
or " Federal " Theology, based on the two Covenants of Works
or Life made by God with Adam, on condition of obedience,
and of grace or redemption, made with Christ. In Scottish
ecclesiastical history, covenant appears in the two agreements
signed by the members of the Scottish Church in defence of
their religious and ecclesiastical systems (see Covenanters).

COVENANT, in law, is the English equivalent of the Lat.
convenlio, which, although not technical, was the most general
word in Roman law for " agreement." It was frequently used
along with pactum, also a general term, but applied especially
to agreements to settle a question without carrying it before the
courts of law.

The word " covenant " has been used in a variety of senses
in English law.

1. In its strict sense, covenant means an agreement under
seal, that something has or has not already been done, or shall
or shall not be done hereafter (Shep. Touchstone, 160, 162). It
is most commonly used with reference to sales or leases of land,
but is sometimes applied to any promise or stipulation, whether
under seal or not. The person who makes, and is bound to
perform, the promise or stipulation is the covenantor: the
person in whose favour it is made is the covenantee.

2. Covenants have been subdivided into numerous classes,
only a few of which need to be described. It is unnecessary
to do more than mention affirmative, and negative covenants,
joint or several, alternative or disjunctive covenants, dependent
or independent covenants. As to collateral covenants, covenants
" running with the land," and covenants in leases (including
"usual," "proper" and "restrictive" covenants), see Land-
lord and Tenant. But there are other classes as to which
something must be said.

A covenant is said to be express when it is created by the
express words of the parties to the deed declaratory of their
intention. It is not indispensable that the word " covenant "
should be used. Any word which clearly indicates the intention
of the parties to covenant will suffice. An implied covenant,
ox covenant in law, " depends for its existence on the intendment
and construction of law. There are some words which of them-
selves do not import an express covenant, yet, being made use of
in certain contracts, have a similar operation and are called
covenants in law; and they are as effectually binding on the
parties as if expressed in the most unequivocal terms " (Piatt on
Covenants, p. 40). Thus, the word "demise," used in a lease
of deed, raises the implication of a covenant both for "quiet
enjoyment" and for title to let; and it has been judicially
suggested that a covenant for quiet enjoyment may be implied
from any word or words of like import (Budd-Scott v. Daniell,
1902, 2 K.B. p. 359). The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides
(§ 7) that in a conveyance for valuable consideration, other
than a mortgage, there shall be implied, as against the person
who conveys and is expressed to convey as " beneficial owner,"
certain qualified covenants — i.e. covenants extending only to
the acts or omissions of the vendor, persons through whom he
derives title otherwise than by purchase for value, and persons
claiming under them — for "right to convey," "quiet enjoyment,"
" freedom from incumbrances " and "further assurance." Of
these statutory covenants for title the only one which requires
explanation is the covenant for further assurance. It imports
an agreement on the part of the covenantor to do such reasonable
acts, in addition to those already performed, as may be necessary

for the completion of the transfer made (or intended to be made)
at the requirements of the covenantee (Piatt on Covenants, p. 341).
All these statutory implied covenants "run with the land"
(see Landlord and Tenant). Where a mortgagor conveys,
and is expressed to convey, as " beneficial owner," there are
implied absolute covenants — i.e. covenants amounting to a
warranty against and for the acts and' omissions of the whole
world — that he has a right to convey, that the mortgagee shall
have quiet enjoyment of the property after default, free from
incumbrances and for further assurance. Special provisions as
to implied covenants by the lessor in leases are made in England
by § 7 (B) of the Conveyancing Act 1881 and in Ireland by the
Land Act (Ireland) i860, § 41. The distinction between real
and personal covenants is that the former do, while the latter
do not, run with the land. An inherent covenant is another
name for a real covenant (Shep. Touchstone, 176; Piatt, 60).
When a covenant relates to an act already done, it is usually
termed a covenant executed; where the performance is future,
the covenant is termed executory. The covenant for seisin was
an assurance to the grantee that the grantor had the estate
which he purported to convey. In England it is now included
in the covenant for right to convey; but is still in separate use
in several states in America. The covenant to stand seised to
uses was an assurance by means of which, under the Statute of
Uses [1536] (see Uses), a conveyance of an estate might be
effected. When such a covenant is made, the legal estate in the
land passes at once to the covenantee under the statute. The
consideration for the covenant must be relationship by blood or
marriage. It is still occasionally though very rarely employed.
The covenant not to sue belongs to the law of contract and needs
no explantion.

Most of the classes of covenants above mentioned are in use in
the United States. In New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon,
Wisconsin and Wyoming the implication of covenants for title has
been, with certain exceptions, prohibited by statute. In Alabama,
Arkansas, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana,
Nevada, New Mexico, Pennsylvania and Texas the words grant, bar-
gain and sell, in conveyances in fee, unless specially restricted, amount
to qualified covenants that the grantor was seised in fee, free from
incumbrances, and for quiet enjoyment (4 Kent, Commentaries, § 473 ;
Bouvier, Law Dictionary, s.v. Covenant). In some of the states
a covenant of non-claim, or of warranty, an assurance by the grantor
that neither he nor his heirs, nor any other person shall claim any
title in the premises conveyed, is in general use.

3. An action of covenant lay for breaking covenant. As to the
history of this action see Pollock and Maitland, History of
English Law, ii. 106; and Holmes, The Common Law, p. 272.
There was also a writ of covenant. But this remedy had fallen
into disuse before 1830 (see Piatt on Covenants, p. 543), and was
abolished by the Common Law Procedure Acts. Since the
Judicature Acts, an action on a covenant follows the same
course as, and is indistinguishable from, any ordinary action
for breach of contract. The remedy is by damages, decree of
specific performance or injunction to prevent the breach.

The term " covenant " is unknown to Scots law. But its place is
filled to some extent by the doctrine of " warrandice." Many of the
British colonies have legislated, as to the implication of covenants
for title, on the lines of the English Conveyancing Act 1881 ; e.g.
Tasmania, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act 1884 (47 Vict.
No. 10).

As to covenants in restraint of trade see Restraint.

Authorities. — In addition to the authorities cited in the text
see: English Law; Goodeve, Law of Real Property (5th ed.,
London, 1906) ; C. Foa, Landlord and Tenant (3rd ed., London, 1901) ;
Hamilton, Law of Covenants (London) ; Fawcett, Law of Landlord
and Tenant (3rd ed., London, 1905). American Law: Rawle, Law
of Covenants for Title (Boston, 1887); Encyclopaedia of American.
Law (3rd ed., 1890), vol. viii., tit. " Covenants." (A. W. R.)

COVENANTERS, the name given to a party which, originating
in the Reformation movement, played an important part in the
history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent in that of England,
during the 17 th century. The Covenanters were thus named
because in a series of bands or covenants they bound themselves
to maintain the Presbyterian doctrine and polity as the sole
religion of their country. The first "godly band" is dated
December 1557; but more important is the covenant of 1581,
drawn up by John Craig in consequence of the strenuous efforts

34°

COVENT GARDEN— COVENTRY, LORD

which the Roman Catholics were making to regain their hold
upon Scotland, and called the King's Confession or National
Covenant. Based upon the Confession of Faith of 1560, this
document denounced the pope and the doctrines of the Roman
Catholic Church in no measured terms. It was adopted by the
General Assembly, signed by King James VI. and his household,
and enjoined on persons of all ranks and classes; and was again
subscribed in 1590 and 1596. In 1637 Scotland was in a state of
turmoil. Charles I. and Archbishop Laud had just met with a
reverse in their efforts to impose the English liturgy upon the
Scots; and fearing further measures on the part of the king,
it occurred to Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston, to revive
the National Covenant of 1581. Additional matter intended
to suit the document to the special circumstances of the time
was added, and the covenant was adopted and signed by a large
gathering in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edinburgh, on the 28th
of February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the
country for additional signatures. The subscribers engaged by
oath to maintain religion in the state in which it existed in 1580,
and to reject all innovations introduced since that time, while
professed expressions of loyalty to the king were added. The
General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters,
and in 1640 the covenant was adopted by the parliament, and
its subscription was required from all citizens. Before this date
the Covenanters were usually referred to as Supplicants, but from
about this time the former designation began to prevail.

A further development took place in 1643. The leaders of
the English parliament, worsted in the Civil War, implored the
aid of the Scots, which was promised on condition that the
Scottish system of church government was adopted in England.
After some haggling a document called the Solemn League and
Covenant was drawn up. This was practically a treaty between
England and Scotland for the preservation of the reformed
religion in Scotland, the reformation of religion in England and
Ireland "according to the word of God and the example of the
best reformed churches," and the extirpation of popery and
prelacy. It was subscribed by many in both kingdoms and also
in Ireland, and was approved by the English parliament, and
with some slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of
Divines. Charles I. refused to accept it when he surrendered
himself to the Scots in 1646, but he made important concessions
in this direction in the " Engagement " made with the Scots in
December 1647. Charles II. before landing in Scotland in June
1650 declared by a solemn oath his approbation of both covenants,
and this was renewed on the occasion of his coronation at Scone
in the following January.

From 1638 to 1651 the Covenanters were the dominant party
in Scotland, directing her policy both at home and abroad.
Their power, however, which had been seriously weakened by
Cromwell's victory at Dunbar in September 1651, was practically
destroyed when Charles II. was restored nine years later. Firmly
seated upon the throne Charles renounced the covenants, which
in 1662 were declared unlawful oaths, and were to be abjured
by all persons holding public offices. Episcopacy was restored,
the court of high commission was revived, and ministers who
refused to recognize the authority of the bishops were expelled
from their livings. Gathering around them many of the
Covenanters who clung tenaciously to their standards of faith,
these ministers began to preach in the fields, and a period of
persecution marked by savage hatred and great brutality
began. Further oppressive measures were directed against the
Covenanters, who took up arms about 1665, and the struggle
soon assumed the proportions of a rebellion. The forces of the
crown under John Graham of Claverhouse and others were sent
against them, and although the insurgents gained isolated
successes, in general they were worsted and were treated with
great barbarity. They maintained, however, their cherished
covenants with a zeal which persecution only intensified; in
1680 the more extreme members of the party signed a document
known as the " Sanquhar Declaration," and were afterwards
called Cameronians from the name of their leader, Richard
Cameron {q.v.). They renounced their allegiance to King James

and were greatly disappointed when their standards found no'
place in the religious settlement of 1689, continuing to hold the
belief that the covenants should be made obligatory upon the
entire nation. The Covenanters had a martyrology of their own,
and the halo of romance has been cast around their exploits and
their sufferings. Their story, however, especially during the
time of their political predominance, is part of the general history
of Scotland (q.v.).

The texts of the National Covenant and the Solemn League and
Covenant are printed in S. R. Gardiner's Constitutional Documents
of the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1899). See also J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1905) ; A. Lang, History of Scotland
(Edinburgh, 1900) ; S. R. Gardiner, History of England (London,
1883-1884) ; G. Grub,' Ecclesiastical History of Scotland (Edinburgh. '
1861); J. Maepherson, History of the Church in Scotland (Paisley,
1901); and J. K. Hewison, The Covenanters (1908).

COVENT GARDEN, formerly an open space north of the
Strand, London, England, now occupied by the principal flower,
fruit and vegetable market in the metropolis. This was originally
the so-called " cdnvent garden " belonging to the abbey of St
Peter, Westminster. In the first half of the 17th century the
site of the garden was laid out as a square by Inigo Jones, with a
piazza on two sides; and as early as 1656 it was becoming a
market place for the same commodities as are now sold in it.
Co vent Garden Theatre (1858) is the chief seat of grand opera
in London. The site has carried a theatre since 1733, but earlier
buildings were burnt in 1809 and 1856.

COVENTRY, SIR JOHN (d. 1682), son of John Coventry, the
second son of Thomas, Lord Keeper Coventry, was returned to
the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Evesham. During
the Civil War he served for the king, and at the Restoration was
created a knight. In 1667, and in the following parliaments of
1678, 1679 and 1681, he was elected for Weymouth, and opposed
the government. On the 21st of December 1670, owing to a jest
made by Coventry in the House of Commons on the subject of
the king's amours, Sir Thomas Sandys, an officer of the guards,
with other accomplices, by the order of Monmouth, and (it was
said) with the approval of. the king himself, waylaid him as he
was returning home to Suffolk Street and slit his nose to the bone.
The outrage created an extraordinary sensation, and in conse-
quence a measure known as the " Coventry Act " was passed,
declaring assaults accompanied by personal mutilation a felony
without benefit of clergy. Sir John died in 1682. Sir William
Coventry, his uncle, speaks slightingly of him, ridicules his
vanity and wishes him out of the House of Commons to be " out
of harm's way."

COVENTRY, THOMAS COVENTRY, ist Baron (1578-1640),
lord keeper of England, eldest son of Sir Thomas Coventry,
judge of the common pleas (a descendant of John Coventry,
lord mayor of London in the reign of Henry VI.) , and of Margaret
Jeffreys of Earls Croome, or Croome D'Abitot, in Worcestershire,
was born in 1578. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1592,
and the Inner Temple in 1594, becoming bencher of the society
in 1614, reader in 1616, and holding the office of treasurer from
1617 till 1621. His exceptional legal abilities were rewarded
early with official promotion. On the 16th of November 1616 he
was made recorder of London in spite of Bacon's opposition, who,
although allowing him to be " a well trained and an honest man,"
objected that he was " bred by my Lord Coke and seasoned in
his ways." a On the 14th of March 1617 he was appointed
solicitor-general and was knighted; was returned for Droitwich
to the parliament of 1621; and on the nth of January in that
year was made attorney-general. He took part in the proceedings
against Bacon for corruption, and was manager for the Commons
in the impeachment of Edward Floyd for insulting the elector
and electress palatine.

On the ist of November 1625 he was made lord keeper of the
great seal; in this capacity he delivered the king's reprirnand to
the Commons on the 29th of March 1626, when he declared that
" liberty of counsel " alone belonged to them and not " liberty of
control." On the 10th of April 1628 he received the title of
Baron Coventry of Aylesborough in Worcestershire. At the
1 Spedding's Bacon, vi. 97.

COVENTRY, SIR W.

34- 1

opening of parliament in 1628 he threatened that the king
would use his prerogative if further thwarted in the matter of
supplies. In the subsequent debates, however, while strongly
supporting the king's prerogative against the claims of the
parliament to executive power, he favoured a policy of modera-
tion and compromise. He defended the right of the council to
commit to prison without showing cause, and to issue " general "
warrants; though he allowed it should only be employed in
special circumstances, disapproved of the king's sudden dis-
solution of parliament, and agreed to the liberation on bail of the
seven imprisoned members on condition of their giving security
for their good behaviour. He showed less subservience than
Bacon to Buckingham, and his resistance to the latter's pretensions
to the office of lord high constable greatly incensed the duke.
Buckingham taunted Coventry with having gained his place by
his favour; to which the lord keeper replied, " Did I conceive I
had my place by your favour, I would presently unmake myself
by returning the seal to his Majesty." 1 After this defiance
Buckingham's sudden death alone probably prevented Coventry's
displacement. He passed sentence of death on Lord Audley in
163 1, drafted and enforced the proclamation of the 20th of June
1632 ordering the country gentlemen to leave London, and in
1634 joined in Laud's attack on the earl of Portland for pecula-
tion. The same year, in an address to the judges, he supported
the proposed levy of ship-money on the inland as well as the
maritime counties on the plea of the necessity of effectually
arming, " so that they might not be enforced to fight," " the
wooden walls " being in his opinion " the best walls of this
kingdom." 2 In the Star Chamber Coventry was one of Lilburne's
judges in 1637, but he generally showed conspicuous moderation,
inclining to leniency in the cases of Richard Chambers in 1629 for
seditious speeches, and of Henry Sherfield in 1632 for breaking
painted glass in a church. He prevented also the hanging of men
for resistance to impressment, and pointed out its illegality, since
the men were not subject to martial law. While contributing
thirty horse to the Scottish expedition in 1638, and lending the
king £10,000 in 1639, he gave no support to the forced loan
levied upon the city in the latter year. He died on the 14th of
January 1640.

Lord Coventry held the great seal for nearly fifteen years, and
was enabled to collect a large fortune. He was an able judge, and
he issued some important orders in chancery, probably alluded to
by Wood, who ascribes to him a tract on " The Fees of all law
Officers." 3 Whitelocke accuses him of mediocrity, 4 but his
contemporaries in general have united in extolling his judicial
ability, his quick despatch of business and his sound and sterling
character. Clarendon in particular praises his statesmanship,
and compares his capacity with Lord Strafford's, adding,
however, that he seldom spoke in the council except on legal
business and had little influence in political affairs; to the latter
circumstance he owed his exceptional popularity. He describes
him as having " in the plain way of speaking and delivery a
strange power of making himself believed," as a man of " not
only firm gravity but a severity and even some morosity," as
" rather exceedingly liked than passionately loved."

Lord Coventry married (1) Sarah, daughter of Sir Edward
Sebright of Besford in Worcestershire, by whom besides a
daughter he had one son, Thomas, who succeeded him as 2nd
baron, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of John Aldersley of Spurstow,
Cheshire, and widow of William Pitchford, by whom he had four
sons, John, Francis, Henry and Sir William Coventry, the
statesman.

Thomas Coventry, 5th baron (d. 1699), was created an earl in
1697 with a special limitation, on failure of his own male issue,
to that of Walter, youngest brother of the lord keeper, from
whom the present earl of Coventry is descended.

COVENTRY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1628-1686), English statesman,
son of the lord* keeper, Thomas, Lord Coventry, by his second

1 Hacket's Life of Bishop Williams, ii. 19.

2 Rushworth (1680), part ii. vol. i. 294. 3 Ath. Oxon. ii. 650.

4 There is an adverse opinion also expressed in Pepys's Diary,
August 26, 1666, probably based on little real knowledge.

wife Elizabeth Aldersley, was born about 1628. He matriculated
at Queen's College, Oxford, at the age of fourteen. Owing to the
outbreak of the Civil War he was obliged to quit his studies, but
according to Sir John Bramston " he had a good tutor who made
him a scholar, and he travelled and got the French language in
good perfection." " He was young whilst the war continued,"
wrote Clarendon, " yet he had put himself before the end of it
into the army and had the command of a foot company and
shortly after travelled into France." Here he remained till all
hopes of obtaining foreign assistance and of raising a new army
had to be laid aside, when he returned to England and kept
aloof from the various royalist intrigues. When, however, a new
prospect of a restoration appeared in 1660, Coventry hastened to
Breda, was appointed secretary to James, duke of York, lord
high admiral of England, and headed the royal procession when
Charles entered London in triumph.

He was returned to the Restoration parliament of 1661 for
Great Yarmouth, became commissioner for the navy in May 1662
and in 1663 was made D.C.L. at Oxford. His great talents were
very soon recognized in parliament, and his influence as an
official was considerable. His appointment was rather that of
secretary to the admiralty than of personal assistant to the duke
of York, 6 and was one of large gains. Wood states that he
collected a fortune of £60,000. Accusations of corruption in his
naval administration, and especially during the Dutch war, were
brought against him, but there is nothing to show that he ever
transgressed the limits sanctioned by usage and custom in
obtaining his emoluments. Pepys in his diary invariably testifies
to the excellence of his administration and to his zeal for reform
and economy. His ability and energy, however, did little to
avert the 'naval collapse, owing chiefly to financial mismanage-
ment and to the ill-advised appointments to command. Coventry
denied all responsibility for the Dutch War in 1665, which
Clarendon sought to place upon his shoulders, and his repudiation
is supported by Pepys; it was, moreover, contrary to his well-
known political opinion. The war greatly increased his influence,
and shortly after the victory off Lowestoft, on the 3rd of June
1665, he was knighted and made a privy councillor (26th of June)
and was subsequently admitted to the committee on foreign
affairs. In 1667 he was appointed to the board of treasury to
effect financial reforms. " I perceive," writes Pepys on the 23rd
of August 1667, " Sir William Coventry is the man and nothing
done till he comes," and on his removal in 1669 the duke of
Albemarle, no friendly or partial critic, declares that " nothing
now would be well done." His appointment, however, came too
late to ward off the naval disaster at Chatham the same year and
the national bankruptcy in 1672.

Meanwhile Coventry's rising influence had been from the first
the cause of increasing jealousy to the old chancellor Clarendon,
who especially disliked and discouraged the younger generation.
Coventry resented this repression and thought ill of the conduct
of the administration. He became the chief mover in the success-
ful attack made upon Clarendon, but refused to take any part in
his impeachment. Two days after Clarendon's resignation (on
the 31st of August), Coventry announced his intention of leaving
the duke's service and of terminating his connexion with the
navy. 6 As the principal agent in effecting Clarendon's fall he
naturally acquired new power and influence, and the general
opinion pointed to him as his successor as first minister of the
crown. Personal merit, patriotism and conspicuous ability,
however, were poor passports to place and power in Charles II. 's
reign. Coventry retained merely his appointment at the
treasury, and the brilliant but unscrupulous and incapable duke
of Buckingham, a favourite of the king, succeeded to Lord
Clarendon. The relations between the two men soon became
unfriendly. Buckingham ridiculed Sir William's steady attention
to business, and was annoyed at his opposition to Clarendon's
impeachment. Coventry rapidly lost influence, was excluded
from the cabinet council, and six months after Clarendon's fall
complains he has scarcely a friend at court. Finally, in March

6 Pepysiana, by H. B. Wheatley (1903), 154.
6 Foxcroft, Life of Sir G. Savile, i. 54.

342

COVENTRY

1669, Buckingham having written a play in which Sir William
was ridiculed, the latter sent him a challenge. Notice of the
challenge reached the authorities through the duke's second,
and Sir William was imprisoned in the Tower on the 3rd of March
and subsequently expelled from the privy council. He was
superseded in the treasury on the 1 ith of March by Buckingham's
favourite, Sir Thomas Osborne, afterwards earl of Danby and
duke of Leeds, and was at last released from the Tower on the
21st in disgrace. The real cause of his dismissal was clearly the
final adoption by Charles of the policy of subservience to France
and desertion of Holland and Protestant interests. Six weeks
before Coventry's fall, the conference between Charles, James,
Arlington, Clifford and Arundel had taken place, which resulted
a year and a half later in the disgraceful treaty of Dover. To
such schemes Sir William, with his steady hostility to France
and active devotion to Protestantism, was doubtless a formidable
opponent. He now withdrew definitely from official life, still
retaining, however, his ascendancy in the House of Commons, and
leading the party which condemned and criticized the reactionary
and fatal policy of the government, his credit and reputation
being rather enhanced than diminished by his dismissal. 1

In 1673 was published a pamphlet which went through five
editions the same year, entitled England's appeal from the
Private Cabal at Whitehall to the Great Council of the Nation . . .
by a true Lover of his Country, an anonymous work universally
ascribed to Sir William, which forcibly reflects his opinions on
the French entanglement. In the great matter of the Indulgence,
while refusing to discuss the limits of prerogative and liberty, he
argued that the dispensing power of the crown could not be valid
during the session of parliament, and criticized the manner of
the declaration while approving its ostensible object.* • He sup-
ported the Test Act, but maintained a statesmanlike moderation
amidst the tide of indignation rising against the government, and
refused to take part in the personal attacks upon ministers,
drawing upon himself the same unpopularity as his nephew
Halifax incurred later. In the same year he warmly denounced
the alliance with France. During the summer of 1674 he was
again received at court. In 1675 he supported the bill to ex-
clude Roman Catholics from both Houses, and also the measure
to close the House of Commons to placemen; and he showed
great activity in his opposition to the French connexion, especially
stigmatizing the encouragement given by the government to
the levying of troops for the French service. In May 1677 he
voted for the Dutch alliance. Like most of his contemporaries
he accepted the story of the popish plot in 1678. Coventry
several times refused the highest court appointments, and he was
not included in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council in April
1679. In the exclusion question he favoured at first a policy of
limitations, and on his nephew Halifax, who on his retirement
became the leader of the moderate party, he enjoined prudence
and patience, and greatly regretted the violence of the opposition
which eventually excited a reaction and ruined everything. He
refused to stand for the new parliament, and retired to his country
residence at Minster Lovell near Witney, in Oxfordshire. He
died unmarried on the 23rd of June 1686, at Somerhill near
Tunbridge Wells, where he had gone to take the waters, and
was buried at Penshurst, where a monument was erected to his
memory. In his will he ordered his funeral to be at small expense,
and left £2000 to the French Protestant refugees in England,
besides £3000 for the liberation of captives in Algiers. He had
shortly before his death already paid for the liberation of sixty
slaves. He was much beloved and respected in his family circle,
his nephew, Henry Savile, alluding to him in affectionate terms
as " our dearest uncle " and " incomparable friend."

Though Sir William Coventry never filled that place in the
national administration to which his merit and exceptional
ability clearly entitled him, his public life together with his
correspondence are sufficient to distinguish him from amongst
his contemporaries as a statesman of the first rank. Lord
Halifax obviously derived from his honoured mentor those
principles of government which, by means of his own brilliant
1 Savile Correspondence (Camden Soc), 295.

intellectual gifts, originality and imaginative insight, gained
further force and influence. Halifax owed to him his interest
in the navy and his grasp of the necessity to a country of a
powerful maritime force. He drew his antagonism to France,
his religious tolerance, wide religious views but firm Protestantism
doubtless from the same source. Sir William was the original
"Trimmer." Writing to his nephew Viscount Weymouth,
while denying the authorship of The Character of a Trimmer,
he says: — " I have not been ashamed to own myself to be a
trimmer . . . one who would sit upright and not overturn the
boat by swaying too much to either side." He shared the
Trimmer's dislike of party, urging Halifax in the exclusion
contest " not to be thrust by the opposition of his enemies into
another party, but that he keep upon a national bottom which
at length will prevail." His prudence is expressed in his
" perpetual unwillingness to do things which I cannot undo."
" A singular independence of spirit, a breadth of mind which
refused to be contracted by party formulas, a sanity which was
proof against the contagion of national delirium, were equally
characteristic of uncle and nephew." 2 Sir William Coventry's
conceptions of statesmanship, under the guiding hand of his
nephew, largely inspired the future revolution settlement, and
continued to be an essential condition of English political
growth and progress.

Besides the tract already mentioned Coventry was the author
of A Letter to Dr Burnet giving an Account of Cardinal Pool's
Secret Powers . . . (1685). The Character of a Trimmer, often
ascribed to him, is now known to have been written by Lord
Halifax. " Notes concerning the Poor," and an essay " concern-
ing the decay of rents and the remedy," are among the Malet
Papers {Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser. 5th Rep. app. 320 (a)) and
Add. MSS. Brit. Mus. (cal. 1882-1887); an " Essay concerning
France " (4th Rep. app. 229 (b)) and a "Discourseon the Manage-
ment of the Navy " (230b) are among the MSS. of the marquess
of Bath, also a catalogue of his library (233(0)).

Bibliography. — No adequate life of Sir William Coventry has
been written; the most satisfactory appreciation of his character
and abilities is to be found in the several passages relating to him
in the Life of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax, by Miss A. C. Fox-
croft (1898); see also Hist. MSS. Comm. 3 and 4 Rep. (Longleat
Collection), 5 Rep. (Malet Collection and see Index) now in the Brit.
Mus. add. Cal. (1882-1887), some of his papers being also at Devon-
shire House; MSS. of Marquis of Ormond, iii. of J. M. Heathcote
and Miscellaneous Collections; Clarendon's Life and Continuation
(Oxford, 1857); Calendar of Clarendon Papers; Burnet's Hist, of
His Own Times (Oxford, 1823); Hallam's Constitutional Hist. (1854),
chap. xi. ; John Evelyn's Memoirs; Pepys's Diary and Pepysiana
(ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1903); Calendar of State Papers, Domestic;
Savile Correspondence (Camden Society, 1858, vol. lxxi.) ; A. Grey's
Debates; Sir John Bramston's Autobiography (Camden Soc, 1845);
Wood's Athenae Oxonienses, iv. 190; Saturday Review {Oct. 11,
1873)- (P- C. Y.)

COVENT'RY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Warwickshire, England; 94 m. N.W. from London by the
London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 69,978. The
Coventry canal communicates with the Trent and Mersey and
Birmingham canals, and the midland system generally.
Coventry stands on a gentle eminence, with higher ground lying
to the west, and is watered by the Sherbourne and the Radford
Brook, feeders of the Avon, which unite within the town. Of its
ancient fortifications two gates and some portions of the wall are
still extant, and several of the older streets are picturesque from
the number of half-timbered houses projecting over the footways.

The most remarkable buildings are the churches; of these the
oldest are St Michael's, one of the finest specimens of Perpen-
dicular architecture in England, with a beautiful steeple rising
to a height of 303 ft. ; Holy Trinity church, a cruciform structure
with a lofty steeple at the intersection ; and St John's, or
Bablake church, which is nearly a parallelogram on the ground
plan, but cruciform in the clerestory with a central tower.
Christ church dates only from 1832, but it is attached to the
ancient spire of the Grey Friars' church. Of secular buildings the
most interesting is St Mary's hall, erected by the united gilds in
the early part of the 15th century. The principal chamber,
2 Foxcroft's Life of Sir G. Savile, i. 36.

COVERDALE

343

situated above a fine crypt, is 76 ft. long, 30 ft. wide and 34 ft.
high; its roof is of carved oak, and in the north end there is a
large window of old stained glass, with a curious piece of tapestry
beneath nearly as old as the building. In the treasury is preserved
a valuable collection of ancient muniments. A statue of Sir
Thomas White, lord mayor of London (1532-1533), founder of
St John's College, Oxford, was erected in 1883. The cemetery,
laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect and landscape
gardener, and enlarged in 1887, is particularly beautiful. The
educational institutions include a well-endowed free grammar
school, founded in the reign of Elizabeth, in modern buildings
(1885), a technical school, school of art, endowed charity schools,
and a county reformatory for girls; and among the charitable
foundations, which are numerous and valuable, Bond's hospital
for old men and Ford's hospital for old women are remarkable as
fine specimens of ancient timber work. Swanswell and Spenser
Parks were opened in 1883, and a recreation ground in 1880.

Coventry was formerly noted for its woollens, and subsequently
acquired such a reputation for its dyeing that the expression "as
true as Coventry blue " became proverbial. Existing industries
are the making of motor cars, cycles and their accessories, for
which Coventry is one of the chief centres in Great Britain;
sewing machines are also produced; and carpet- weaving and
dyeing, art metal working and watch making are carried on.
An ancient fairisheldin Whit-week. A countyof itself till 1843,
the town became a county borough in 1888. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The
parliamentary borough returns one member. In 1 894 a suffragan
bishopric of Coventry was established under the see of Wor-
cester, but no longer exists. Area, 4149 acres.

The village which afterwards became important as Coventry
(Covenlreu, Covenlre) owed its existence to the foundation of a
Benedictine monastery by Earl Leofric and his wife Godgyfu,
the famous Lady Godiva (q.v.), in 1043. The manor, which in
1066 belonged to the latter, descended to the earls of Chester and
to Robert de Montalt, and from him passed to Isabella queen of
Edward II. and the crown. Ranulf, earl of Chester, granted the
earliest extant charter to the town in 1 1 53, by which his burgesses
were to hold of him in free burgage as they held of his father,
and to have their portmote. This, with further privileges, was
confirmed by Henry II. in n 77, and by nearly every succeeding
sovereign until the 17th century. In 1345 Edward III. gave
Coventry a corporation, mayor and bailiffs empowered to hold
pleas and keep the town prison. Edward the Black Prince
granted the mayor and bailiffs the right to hold the town in fee
farm of £50 and to build a wall. In 1452 Henry VI. formed the
city and surrounding hamlets into a county, and James I.
incorporated Coventry in 1622. It first sent two representatives
to parliament »in 1295, but the returns were irregular. The
prior's market on Fridays was probably of Saxon origin; a
second market was granted in 1348, while fairs, still held, were
obtained in 1 2 1 7 for the octave of Holy Trinity, and in 1 348 and in
1442 for eight days from the Friday after Corpus Christi. As
early as 12 16 Coventry was important for its trade in wool, cloth
and caps, its gilds later being particularly numerous and wealthy.
In 1568 Flemish weavers introduced new methods, but the trade
was destroyed in the wars of the 17th century. During the
middle of the 16th century there was a flourishing manufacture
of blue thread, but this decayed before 1581; in the 18th
century the manufacture of ribbon was introduced.

The popular phrase " to send to Coventry " (i.e. to refuse to
associate with a person) is of uncertain derivation. The New
English Dictionary selects the period of the Civil War of the 1 7th
century as that in which the origin of the phrase is probably to be
found. Clarendon (History of the Great Rebellion, 1647) states
that the citizens of Birmingham rose against certain small
parties of the king's supporters, and sent the prisoners they
captured to Coventry, which was then strongly parliamentarian.

See Victoria County History, Warwick; William Dugdale, The
Antiquities of Coventre, illustrated from records (Coventry, 1765).

COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat.
cooperire), that which hides, shuts»in or conceals, a lid to a

box or vessel, &c, the binding of a book or wrapper of a parcel;
as a hunting term, the wood or undergrowth which shelters game.
As a commercial term, the word means in its widest sense a
security against loss, but is employed more particularly in
connexion with stock exchange transactions to signify a " deposit
made with a broker to secure him from being out of pocket in the
event of the stocks falling against his client and the client not
paying the difference " (In re Cronmire, 1898, 2 Q. B. 383). It is a
mode of speculation engaged in almost entirely by persons who
wish to limit their risk to a small amount, and, as a rule, the
transactions are largely carried out in England with " outside "
brokers, i.e. those dealers in securities who are not members of
the Stock Exchange. The deposit is so much per cent or per
share, usually 1 % on the market value of the securities up to
about twice the amount of the turn of the market; the client
being able to close the transaction at any time during the currency
of the cover, but the broker only when the cover is exhausted or
has " run off." Cover is not money deposited to abide the event
of a wager, but as security against a debt which may arise from
a gaming contract, and it may be recovered back, if un-
appropriated.

COVERDALE, MILES (1488 ?-is69), English translator of the
Bible and bishop of Exeter, was born of Yorkshire parents about
1488, studied philosophy and theology at Cambridge, was
ordained priest at Norwich in 1514, and then entered the convent
of Austin friars at Cambridge. Here he came under the influence
of the prior, Robert Barnes, made the acquaintance of Sir Thomas
More and of Thomas Cromwell, and began a thorough study of
the Scriptures. He was one of those who met at the White
Horse tavern to discuss theological questions, and when Barnes
was arrested on a charge of heresy, Coverdale went up to London
to assist him in drawing up his defence. Soon afterwards he
left the convent, assumed the habit of a secular priest, and began
to preach against confession and the worship of images. In
1 53 1 he graduated bachelor of canon law at Cambridge, but from
1528 to 1534 he prudently spent most of his time abroad. No
corroboration has, however, been found for Foxe's statement
that in 1529 he was at Flamburg assisting Tyndale in his transla-
tion of the Pentateuch. In 1534 he published two translations of
his own, the first Dulichius's Vom alten und newen Gott, and the
second a Paraphrase upon the Psalms, and in 1535 he completed
his translation of the Bible. The venture seems to have been
projected by Jacob van Meteren, who apparently employed
Coverdale to do the translation, and Froschover of Zurich to
do the printing. No perfect copy is known to exist, and the five
or six which alone have title-pages give no name of publisher
or place of publication. The volume is dedicated to the king of
England, where Convocation at Cranmer's instance had, in
December 1534, petitioned for an authorized English version of
the Scriptures. As a work of scholarship it does not rank
particularly high. Some of the title-pages state that it had been
translated out of " Douche " (i.e. German) " and Latyn " : and
Coverdale mentions that he used five interpreters, which are
supposed to have been the Vulgate, the Latin version of Pagninus,
Luther's translation, the Zurich version, and Tyndale's Penta-
teuch and New Testament. There is no definite mention of the
original Greek and Hebrew texts; but it has considerable
literary merit, many of Coverdale's phrases are retained in the
authorized version, and it was the first complete Bible to be
printed in English. Two fresh editions were issued in 1537, but
none of them received official sanction. Coverdale was, however,
employed by Cromwell to assist in the production of the Great
Bible of 1539, which was ordered to be placed in all English
churches. The work was done at Paris until the French govern-
ment stopped it, when Coverdale and his colleagues returned
to England early in 1539 to complete it. He was also employed
in the same year in assisting at the suppression of superstitious
usages, but the reaction of 1540 drove him once more abroad.
His Bible was prohibited by proclamation in 1 542 , while Coverdale
himself defied the Six Articles by marrying Elizabeth Macheson,
sister-in-law to Dr John MacAlpine.

For a time Coverdale lived at Tubingen, where he was created

344

COVERTURE— COVILHAM

D.D. In 1545 he was pastor and schoolmaster at Bergzabern
in the duchy of Pfalz-Zweibriicken. In March 1548 he was at
Frankfort, when the new English Order of Communion reached
him; he at once translated it into German and Latin and sent
a copy to Calvin, whose wife had befriended Coverdale at Strass-
burg. Calvin, however, does not seem to have approved of it
so highly as Coverdale.

Coverdale was already on his way back to England, and in
October 1 548 he was staying at Windsor Castle, where Cranmer
and some other divines, inaccurately called the Windsor Com-
mission, were preparing the First Book of Common Prayer. His
first appointment had been as almoner to Queen Catherine Parr,
then wife of Lord Seymour; and he preached her funeral sermon
in September 1548. He was also chaplain to the young king
and took an active part in the reforming measures of his reign.
He was one of the most effective preachers'of the time. A sermon
by him at St Paul's on the second Sunday in Lent, 1549, was
immediately followed by the pulling down of " the sacrament
at the high altar." A few weeks later he preached at the penance
of some Anabaptists, and in January 1550 he was put on a
commission to prosecute Anabaptists and all who infringed the
Book of Common Prayer. In 1549 he wrote a dedication to
Edward for a translation of the second volume of Erasmus's
Paraphrases; and in 1550 he translated Otto Wermueller's
Precious Pearl, for which Protector Somerset, who had derived
spiritual comfort from the book while in the Tower, wrote a
preface. He was much in request at funerals: he preached
at Sir James Wilford's in November 155°, and at Lord Went-
worth's before a great concourse in Westminster Abbey in*
March 1551.

Perhaps it was his gift of oratory which suggested his appoint-
ment as bishop of the refractory men of Devon and Cornwall.
He had already, in August 1549, at some risk, gone down with
Lord Russell to turn the hearts of the rebels by preaching and
persuasion, and two years later he was appointed bishop of Exeter
by letters patent, on the compulsory retirement of his pre-
decessor, Veysey, who had reached an .almost mythical age.
He was an active prelate, and perhaps the vigorous Protestantism
of the West in Elizabeth's reign was partly due to his persuasive
powers. He sat on the commission for the reform of the canon
law, and was in constant attendance during the parliaments of
1552 and 1553. On Mary's accession he was at once deprived
on the score of his marriage, and Veysey in spite of his age was
restored. Coverdale was called before the privy council on the
1 st of September, and required to find sureties; but he was not
further molested, and when Christian III. of Denmark at the
instance of Coverdale's brother-in-law, MacAlpine, interceded
in his favour, he was in February 1555 permitted to leave for
Denmark with two servants, and his baggage unsearched; one
of these " servants " is said to have been his wife. He declined
Christian's offer of a living in Denmark, and preferred to preach
at Wesel to the numerous English refugees there, until he was
invited by Duke Wolfgang to resume his labours at Bergzabern.
He was at Geneva in December 1558, and is said to have partici-
pated in the preparation of the Geneva version of the Bible.

In 15 59 Coverdale returned to England and resumed his
preaching at St Paul's and elsewhere. Clothed in a plain black
gown, he assisted at Parker's consecration, in spite of the facts
that he had himself been deprived, and did not resume his
bishopric, and that his original appointment had been by the
uncanonical method of letters patent. Conscientious objections
were probably responsible for his non-restoration to the see of
Exeter, and his refusal of that of Llandaff in 1563. He objected
to vestments, and in his living of St Magnus close to London
Bridge, which he received in 1563, he took other liberties with
the Act of Uniformity. His bishop, Grindal, was his friend, and
his vagaries were overlooked until 1566, when he resigned his
living rather than conform. He still preached occasionally, and
always drew large audiences. He died in February 1568, and
was buried on the 19th in St Bartholomew's behind the Exchange.
When this church was pulled down in 1840 to make room for
the new Exchange, his remains were removed to St Magnus.

Coverdale's works, most of them translations, number twenty-six
in all; nearly all, with his letters, were published in a collected
edition by th'e Parker Soc, 2 vols., 1846. An excellent account is
given in the Diet. Nat. Biog. of his life, with authorities, to which
may be added R. W. Dixon's Church History, Bishop and Gasquet's
Edward VI. and the Book of Common Prayer; Acts of the Privy
Council; Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Lit. Rem. of
Edward VI. (Roxburghe Club) ; Whittingham's Brief Discourse oV
Troubles at Frankfort; Pocock's Troubles connected with the Prayer*
Book (Camden Soc). (A. F. P.)

COVERTURE (a covering, an old French form of the modern
couverture), a term in English law applied to the condition of a
woman during marriage, when she is supposed to be under the
cover, influence and protection of her husband, and so immune
in certain cases from punishment for crime committed in the
presence and on the presumed coercion of her husband. (See
further Husband and Wife.)

COVILHA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Castello
Brahco, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the
eastern slope of the Serra da Estrella, and on the Abrantes-
Guarda railway. Pop. (1900) 15,469. Covilha., which has been
often compared with a collection of swallows' nests clinging to
the rugged granitic mountain side, is shaped like an amphi-
theatre of closely crowded houses, overlooking the river Zezere
and its wild valley from a height of 2 1 80 ft. Over 4000 operatives
are employed in the manufacture of saragoca, a coarse brown
cloth worn by the peasantry throughout Portugal. The village
of Unhaes da Serra (1507), 6 m. W.S.W., is noted for its sulphurous
springs and baths.

COVILHAM (Covilhao, Covilha), PERO or Pedro de,
Portuguese explorer and diplomatist (fl. 1487-1525), was a native
of Covilha in Beira. In early life he had gone to Castile and
entered the service of Alphonso, duke of Seville; later, when war
broke out between Castile and Portugal, he returned to his own
country, and attached himself, first as a " groom," then as a
" squire," to King Alphonso V. and his successor John II.
On the 7th of May 1487, he was despatched, in company with
Alphonso de Payva, on a mission of exploration in the Levant and
adjoining regions of Asia and Africa, with the special object of
learning where " cinnamon and other spices could be found," as
well as of discovering the land of Prester John, by " overland "
routes. Bartholomeu Diaz, at this very time, went out to find
the Prester's country, as well as the termination of the African
continent and the ocean route to India, by sea. Covilham and
Payva were provided with a " letter of credence for all the
countries of the world " and with a " map for navigating, taken
from the map of the world" and compiled by Bishop Calcadilha,
and doctors Rodrigo and Moyses. The first two of these were
prominent members of the commission which advised the
Portuguese government to reject the proposals, of Columbus.
The explorers started from Santarem and travelled by Barcelona
to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of
Cosimo de' Medici; thence they passed to Rhodes, where they
lodged with two other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and
Cairo, where they posed as merchants. In company with certain
Moors from Fez and Tlemcen they now went by way of Tor to
Suakin and Aden, where (as it was now monsoon time) they
parted, Covilham proceeding to India and Payva to Ethiopia —
the two companions agreeing to meet again in Cairo. Covilham
thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, whence he retraced his
course to Goa and Ormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an
excursion on his way down the East African coast to Sofala,
which he was probably the first European to visit. At Cairo he
heard of Payva's death, and met with two Portuguese Jews —
Rabbi Abraham of Beja, and Joseph, a shoe-maker of Lamego — •
who had been sent by King John with letters for Covilham
and Payva. By Joseph of Lamego Covilham replied with an
account of his Indian and African journeys, and of his observa-
tions on the cinnamon, pepper and clove trade at Calicut,
together with advice as to the ocean way to India. This he truly
represented as quite practicable: " to this they (of Portugal)
could navigate by their coast and the seas of Guinea." The
first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Sofala or the

COVIN— COWBRIDGE

345

Island of the Moon, our Madagascar — " from each of these lands
one can fetch the coast of Calicut." With this information
Joseph returned to Portugal, while Covilham, with Abraham of
Beja, again visited Aden and Ormuz. At the latter he left the
rabbi; and himself came back to Jidda, the port of the Arabian
holy land, and penetrated (as he told Alvarez many years later)
even to Mecca and Medina. Finally, by Mount Sinai, Tor and
the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck inland to the
court of Prester John (i.e. Abyssinia). Here he was honourably
received; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him; but he
was not permitted to leave. When the Portuguese embassy
under Rodrigo de Lima, including Father Francisco Alvarez,
entered Abyssinia in 1520, Covilham wept with joy at the sight
of his fellow-countrymen. It was then forty years since he had
left Portugal, and over thirty since he had been a prisoner of
state in " Ethiopia." Alvarez, who professed to know him well,
and to have heard the story of his life, both " in confession and
out of it," praises his power of vivid description " as if things
were present before him," and his extraordinary knowledge of
" all spoken languages of Christians, Moors and Gentiles." His
services as an interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima's
embassy; but he never succeeded in escaping from Abyssinia.

See Francisco Alvarez, Verdadera Informacam das terras do
Preste Joam, esp. chs. 73, 89, 98, 102-103, io 5 (PP- 1.77. 22 4> 2 54> 264,
265-270, 275, of the Hakluyt Society's English edition, The Portu-
guese Embassy to Abyssinia . . . 1 520-1727, London, 1881); an
abstract of this, with some inaccuracies, is given in Major's Prince
Henry the Navigator (London, 1868), pp. 339-340.

COVIN (from the Fr. covine, or couvine, from Lat. convenire, to
come together) , an association of persons, so used in the Statute of
Labourers of 1360, which, inter alia, declared void " all alliances
and covins of masons and carpenters." The more common use of
the term in English law was for a secret agreement between
persons to cheat and defraud, but the word is now obsolete, and
has been superseded by " collusion " or " conspiracy to cheat
and defraud."

COVINGTON, a city and one of the two county-seats of Kenton
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Ohio river opposite Cincinnati,
with which it is connected by bridges; and at the mouth of the
Licking river (also spanned by bridges), opposite Newport, Ky.
Pop. (1890) 37,371; (1900) 42,938, of whom 5223 were foreign-
born and 2478 were negroes; (1910) 53,270. In 1900 it ranked
second in population among the cities of Kentucky. The
city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the Louisville
& Nashville railways, by interurban electric railways, and by
steamboat lines to the Ohio river ports. It is built on a plain
commanding good views and partly shut in by neighbouring
hills. Its streets, mostly named from eminent Kentuckians,
are paved chiefly with asphalt, macadam and brick. There
are numerous fine residences and several attractive public
buildings, including that of the United States government —
modern Gothic in style — the court-house and city hall com-
bined, and the public library. Covington is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, in the flamboyant
Gothic style, is one of the finest church buildings in the state.
In the city are the Academy of Notre Dame and St Joseph's
high school for boys, both Roman Catholic. The principal
charitable institutions are the hospital of Saint Elizabeth, a
German orphan asylum, a Protestant children's home, a home
for aged women and a Wayfarers' Rest. Covington is the trade
centre of an extensive district engaged in agriculture and stock
raising, and as a manufacturing centre it ranked second in the
state in 1905 (value of factory products $6,099,715), its products
including tobacco, cotton goods, structural iron and steel, foundry
and machine shop products, liquors and cordage. A settlement
was established here in 1 8 1 2 , and three years later a town was laid
out and named in honour of Gen. Leonard Covington (1768-18 13),
who was mortally wounded at Chrystler's Field during the War
of 181 2. In 1834 Covington was chartered as a city; and in
1908 it annexed Central Covington (pop. in 1900, 2155).

COWARD, a term of contempt for one who, before danger,
pain or trouble, shows fear, whether physical or moral. The
derivation of the word has been obscured by a connexion in sense

with the verb " cow," to instil fear into, which is derived from
old Norse kuga, a word of similar meaning, and with the verb
" cower," to crouch, which is also Scandinavian in origin. 1 The
true derivation is from the French coe, an old form of queue, a
tail, from Lat. cauda, hence couart or couard. The reference to
" tail " is either to the expression " turn tail " in flight, or to the
habit of animals dropping the tail between the legs when
frightened; in heraldry, a lion in this position is a " lion coward."
In the fable of Reynard the Fox the name of the hare is Coart,
Kywart, Cuwaert or other variants.

COWBRIDGE, a market town and a municipal and contri-
butory parliamentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, with
a station on the Taff Vale railway branch from Llantrisant to
Aberthaw on the coast, distant by rail 1625 m. from London,
12 m. W. of Cardiff, 7 m. S.E. of Bridgend, and 6 m. S. of Llan-
trisant station. The population in 1901 was 1202, a decrease
of over 12 % since 1891. Less than one- third of the number was
Welsh-speaking. The town mainly consists of one long street
running east and west, and is in a wide valley through which
runs the river Thaw (Welsh, Ddawan), here crossed by a stone
bridge.

Cowbridge is probably situated on the Roman road from
Cardiff westwards, which seems to have kept nearly the course
of the present main road. Roman coins have been discovered
here. It has in fact been suggested, mainly on etymological
grounds, that the town occupies the site of the Roman Bovium:
the modern Welsh name, y Bontfaen (" stone bridge ") is
probably a corruption of the medieval, Pont y fon, the precise
equivalent of " Cowbridge," which is first found in documents
of the second half of the 13th century as Covbruge and Cubrigg.
Others place Bovium on a vicinal road, at Boverton near
Llantwit Major, about 6 m. to the south near the coast, though
the most likely site is near Ewenny, 5 m. to the west of Cow-
bridge. After the Norman conquest of Glamorgan, the town
grew up as an appanage of the castle of St Quentin, which
occupies a commanding position half a mile south-west of the
town. It was walled round before the 13th century. A tower
is mentioned in 1487 when it was granted away by the burgesses.
Leland in his itinerary (c. 1535) describes the town wall as three-
quarters of a mile round and as having three gates. There was
even then a considerable suburb on the west bank of the river
and outside the walls. The south wall and gateway are still
standing.

The town was a borough by prescription until 1682, when it
received a charter of incorporation from Charles II. confirming
its previous privileges. Under the Unreformed Corporations
Act of 1883 the corporation was dissolved, but on the petition
of the inhabitants a new charter was granted in March 1887.
During the Tudor and Stuart periods Cowbridge was almost
if not quite the chief town of Glamorgan, its importance being
largely due to its central and accessible position in a rich agri-
cultural district where a large number of the county gentry lived.
The great sessions were held here alternately with Cardiff and
Swansea from 1542 till their abolition in 1830, and the quarter
sessions were held here once a year down to 1850. From 1536
to 1832 it was one of the eight contributory boroughs within the
county which returned a member to parliament, but since 1832
it has been contributory with Cardiff and Llantrisant in returning
a member. It has a separate commission of the peace. Sir
Edward Stradling (1 529-1609) established a grammar school
here, but died before endowing it; it was refounded in 1685 by
Sir Leoline Jenkins, who provided that it should be administered
by Jesus College, Oxford, which body erected the present
buildings in 1847. It has throughout its existence been one of
the leading schools in Wales. An intermediate school for girls
was established here by the county in 1896. The church of St
Mary (formerly chapelry to Llanblethian) is of early English
style and has a fine embattled tower, of the same military

1 A connexion has also been imagined with cow (O. Eng. cu ; common
in Scandinavian languages, and of similar root to Skr. go, whence
also Gr. /Sous, Lat. bos), the female bovine animal, on account of its
timidity.

34-6

COWDENBEATH— COWES

type as the towers of Llamblethian and Ewenny. There are
three Nonconformist chapels. There are a town hall and market
place. The town is now wholly dependent on agriculture, and
has good markets and cattle fairs, that on the 4th of May being
a charter fair.

COWDENBEATH, a police burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 5! m.
N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1891)
4249; (1901) 7908. The principal industry is coal-mining,
and the public buildings include churches, schools and a hall.
Meetings in connexion with the adoption and promulgation of
the Covenant were held in the old parish church of Beath.

COWELL, JOHN (1554-1611), English jurist, was born at
Ernsborough, Devonshire. He was educated at Eton, and
King's College, Cambridge, ultimately becoming professor of
civil law in that university, and master of Trinity Hall. In
1607 he compiled a law dictionary, The Interpreter, in which he
exalted the king's prerogative so much that he was prosecuted
before the House of Commons by Sir Edward Coke, and saved
from imprisonment only by the interposition of James I. His
book was burnt by order of the House of Commons. Dr Cowell
also wrote a work entitled Institutiones Juris Anglicani. He
died at Oxford on the nth of October 1611.

COWEN, FREDERIC HYMEN (1852- ), English musical
composer, was born at Kingston, Jamaica, on the 29th of January
1852. At four years old he was brought to England, where his
father became treasurer to the opera at Her Majesty's theatre,
and private secretary to the earl of Dudley. His first teacher
was Henry Russell, and his first published composition appeared
when he was but six years old. He studied the piano with
Benedict, and composition with Goss; in 1865 he was at Leipzig
under Hauptmann, Moscheles, Reinecke and Plaidy. Returning
home on the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, he appeared
as a composer for the orchestra in an overture played at the
Promenade Concerts at Covent Garden in September 1866. In
the following autumn he went to Berlin, where he was under
Kiel, at Stern's conservatorium. A symphony and a piano
concerto were given in St James's Hall in 1869, and from that
time Cowen has been recognized as primarily a composer, his
talents as a pianist being subordinate, although his public
appearances were numerous for some time afterwards. His
cantata, The Rose Maiden, was given in London in 1870, his
second symphony by the Liverpool Philharmonic Society in 187 2,
and his first festival work, The Corsair, in 1876 at Birmingham.
In that year his opera, Pauline, was given by the Carl Rosa
Company with moderate success. In 1884 he conducted five
concerts of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1888, on the
resignation of Arthur Sullivan, became the regular conductor
of the society, resigning the post in 1892. In the year of his
appointment, 1888, he went to Melbourne as the conductor of
the daily concerts given in connexion with the Exhibition there.
In 1896 Cowen was appointed conductor of the Liverpool
Philharmonic Society and of the Manchester orchestra, in succes-
sion to Sir Charles Halle. In 1899 he was reappointed conductor
of the Philharmonic Society. His works include: — Operettas:
Garibaldi (i860) and One Too Many (1874); operas: Pauline
(1876), Thorgrim (1&90), Signa (Milan, 1893), and H arold (1895) ;
oratorios: The Deluge (1878), St Ursula (1881), Ruth (1887),
Song of Thanksgiving (1888), The Transfiguration (1895);
cantatas: The Rose Maiden (1870), The Corsair (1876), The
Sleeping Beauty (1885), St John's Eve (1889), The Water Lily
(1893), Ode to the Passions (1898), besides short cantatas for
female voices; a large number of songs, ranging from the popular
" ballad " to more artistic lyrics, anthems, part-songs, duets,
&c; six symphonies, among which No 3, the " Scandinavian,"
has had the greatest success; four overtures; suites, The
Language 0} Flowers (1880), In the Olden Times (1883), In Fairy-
land (1896); four English dances (1896); a concerto for piano
and orchestra, and a fantasia for the same played by M.
Paderewski (1900) ; a quartet in C minor, and a trio in A minor,
both early works; pianoforte pieces, &c. Cowen is never so
happy as when treating of fantastic or fairy subjects; and
whether in his cantatas for female voices, his charming Sleeping

Beauty, his Water Lily or his pretty overture, The Butterfly's
Ball ( 1 901) , he succeeds wonderfully in finding graceful expression
for the poetical idea. His dance music, such as is to be found
in various orchestral suites, is refined, original and admirably
instrumented; and if he is seldom as successful in portraying
the graver aspects of emotion, the vogue of his semi-sacred songs
has been widespread.

COWEN, JOSEPH (1831-1900), English politician and
journalist, son of Sir Joseph Cowen, a prominent citizen and
mine-owner of Newcastle-on-Tyne, was born in 1831, and was
educated at Edinburgh University, In 1874 he was elected
member of parliament for the borough on the death of his father,
who had held the seat as a Liberal since 1865. Joseph Cowen was
at that time a strong Radical on domestic questions, an advocate
of co-operation, an admirer of Garibaldi, Mazzini and Kossuth, a
sympathizer with Irish Nationalism, and one who in speech,
dress and manner identified himself with the North-country
mining class. Short in stature and uncouth in appearance, his
individuality first shocked and then by its earnestness impressed
the House of Commons; and his sturdy independence of party
ties, combined with a gift of rough but genuine eloquence (of
which his speech on the Royal Title Bill of 1876 was an example),
rapidly made him one of the best-known public men in the
country. He was, moreover, an Imperialist and a Colonial
Federationist at a time when Liberalism was tied and bound to the
Manchester traditions; and, to the consternation of the official
wire-pullers, he vigorously supported Disraeli's foreign policy,
and in 1881 opposed the Gladstonian settlement with the Boers.
His independence (which his detractors attributed in some
degree to his alleged susceptibility to Tory compliments) brought
him into collision both with the Liberal caucus and with the
party organization in Newcastle itself, but Cowen's personal
popularity and his remarkable powers as an orator triumphed
in his own birthplace, and he was again elected in 1885 in spite of
Liberal opposition. Shortly afterwards, however, he retired
both from parliament and from public Hie, professing his disgust
at the party intrigues of politics, and devoted himself to conduct-
ing his newspaper, the Newcastle Daily Chronicle, and to his
private business as a mine-owner. In this capacity he exercised
a wide influence on local opinion, and the revolt of the Newcastle
electorate in later years against doctrinaire Radicalism was
largely due to his constant preaching of a broader outlook on
national affairs. He continued behind the scenes to play a
powerful part in forming North-country opinion until his death
on the 18th of February 1900.

His letters were published by his daughter in 1909.

COWES, a seaport and watering-place in the Isle of Wight,
England, 12 m. S.S.E. of Southampton. West Cowes is separ-
ated from East Cowes by the picturesque estuary of the river
Medina, the. two towns (each of which is an urban district)
lying on opposite sides of its mouth at the apex of the northern
coast of the island. Pop. (1901) West Cowes, 8652; East Cowes,
3196. The port between them is the chief on the island, and is
the headquarters of the Royal Yacht Squadron (founded in 181 2) ;
it is in regular steamship communication with Southampton and
Portsmouth. West Cowes is served by the Isle of Wight Central
railway. A steam ferry and a floating bridge across the Medina,
here 600 yds. broad, unite the towns. Behind the harbour the
houses rise picturesquely on gentle wooded slopes, and numerous
villas adorn the vicinity. The towns owe their origin to two
forts or castles, built on each side of the mouth of the Medina by
Henry VIII. in 1540, for the defence of the coast; the eastern
one has disappeared, but the west castle remains and is used as
the club-house of the Yacht Squadron. The marine parade of
West Cowes, and the public promenade called the Green, are
close to the castle. The industrial population is chiefly employed
in the shipbuilding yards, in the manufacture of ships' fittings,
and in engineering works. The harbour is under an elective
body of commissioners. On the opposite side of the Medina a
broad carriageway leads to East Cowes Castle, a handsome
edifice built by John Nash, the favourite architect of George IV.,
in 1798, and immediately beyond it are the grounds surrounding

COWL— COWLEY, ABRAHAM

. 347

Osborne House (see Osborne), built in 1845 after the property
had been purchased by Queen Victoria, the church of St Mildred,
Whippingham, lying a mile to the south.

COWL (through Fr. coule, from Lat. cucullus or cuculla, a
covering ; the word is found in various forms in most European
languages, cf. Ger. Kugel or Kigel, Dutch hovel, Irish cochal or
cochull ; the ultimate origin may be the root kal, found in Lat.
clam, secretly, and Gr. KaKinrreiv, to hide, cover up), an outer
garment worn by both sexes in the middle ages; a part of the
monastic dress, hence the phrase " to take the cowl," signifying
entry upon the religious life. The cucullus worn by the early
Egyptian anchorites was a hood covering the head and neck.
Later generations lengthened the garment until it reached to the
heels, and St Benedict issued a rule restricting its length to two
cubits. Chapter 55 of his Institute prescribes the following dress
in temperate climates: a cowl and tunic, thick in winter and
thin in summer, with a scapular for working hours and shoes and
stockings, all of simple material and make. In the 14th century
the cowl and the frock were frequently confounded, but the
council of Vienne defined the former as " a habit long and full
without sleeves," and the latter as " a long habit with long and
wide sleeves." While the term thus seems strictly to imply a
hooded gown it is often applied to the hood alone. It is also
used to describe a loose vestment worn over the frock in the
winter season and during the night office.

The word " cowl " is also applied to a hood-shaped covering
to a chimney or ventilating shaft, to help down-draught, and to
clear the up-current of foul air (see Ventilation).

COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667), English poet, was born in
the city of London late in 1618. His father, a wealthy citizen,
who died shortly before his birth, was a stationer. His mother
was wholly given to works of devotion, but it happened that
there lay in her parlour a copy of The Faery Queen. This became
the favourite reading of her son, and he had twice devoured it all
before he was sent to school. As early as 1628, that is, in his
tenth year, he composed his Tragicall History of Piramus and
Thisbe, an epical romance written in a six-line stanza, of his own
invention. It is not too much to say that this work is the most
astonishing feat of imaginative precocity on record; it is
marked by no great faults of immaturity, and possesses con-
structive merits of a very high order. Two years later the child
wrote another and still more ambitious poem, Constantia and
Philetus, being sent about the same time to Westminster school.
Here he displayed the most extraordinary mental precocity and
versatility, and wrote in his thirteenth year yet another poem,
the Elegy on the Death of Dudley, Lord Carlton. These three
poems of considerable size, and some smaller ones, were collected
in 1633, and published in a volume entitled Poetical Blossoms,
dedicated to the head master of the school, and prefaced by
many laudatory verses by schoolfellows. The author at once
became famous, although he had not, even yet, completed his
fifteenth year. His next composition was a pastoral comedy,
entitled Love's Riddle, a marvellous production for a boy of
sixteen, airy, correct and harmonious in language, and rapid in
movement. The style is not without resemblance to that of
Randolph, whose earliest works, however, were at that time only
just printed. In 1637 Cowley was elected into Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he betook himself with enthusiasm to the
study of all kinds of learning, and early distinguished himself as a
ripe scholar. It was about this time that he composed his
scriptural epic on the history of King David, one book of which
still exists in the Latin original, the rest being superseded in
favour of an English version in four books, called the Davideis,
which he published a long time after. This his most grave and
important work is remarkable as having suggested to Milton
several points which he afterwards made use of. The epic,
written in a very dreary and turgid manner, but in good rhymed
heroic verse, deals with the adventures of King David from his
boyhood to the smiting of Amalek by Saul, where it abruptly
closes. In 1638 Love's Riddle and a Latin comedy, the Nau-
fragium Joculare, were printed, and in 1641 the passage of Prince
Charles through Cambridge gave occasion to the production of

another dramatic work, The Guardian, which was acted before
the royal visitor with much success. During the civil war this
play was privately performed at Dublin, but it was not printed
till 1650. It is bright and amusing, in the style common to the
" sons " of Ben Jonson, the university wits who wrote more
for the closet than the public stage.

The learned quiet of the young poet's life was broken up by
the Civil War; he warmly espoused the royalist side. He became
a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, but was ejected by the
Parliamentarians in 1643. He made his way to Oxford, where he
enjoyed the friendship of Lord Falkland, and was tossed, in the
tumult of affairs, into the personal confidence of the royal family
itself. After the battle of Marston Moor he followed the queen to
Paris, and the exile so commenced lasted twelve years. This
period was spent almost entirely in the royal service, " bearing
a share in the distresses of the royal family, or labouring in their
affairs. To this purpose he performed several dangerous journeys
into Jersey, Scotland, Flanders, Holland, or wherever else the
king's troubles required his attendance. But the chief testimony
of his fidelity was the laborious service he underwent in maintain-
ing the constant correspondence between the late king and the
queen his wife. In that weighty trust he behaved himself with
indefatigable integrity and unsuspected secrecy; for he ciphered
and deciphered with his own hand the greatest part of all the
letters that passed between their majesties, and managed a vast
intelligence in many other parts, which for some years together
took up all his days, and two or three nights every week." In
spite of these labours he did not refrain from literary industry.
During his exile he met with the works of Pindar, and determined
to reproduce their lofty lyric passion in English. At the same
time he occupied himself in writing a history of the Civil War,
which he completed as far as the battle of Newbury, but un-
fortunately afterwards destroyed. In 1647 a collection of his love
verses, entitled The Mistress, was published, and in the next year
a volume of wretched satires, The Four Ages of England, was
brought out under his name, with the composition of which he
had nothing to do. In spite of the troubles of the times, so fatal
to poetic fame, his reputation steadily increased, and when, on
his return to England in 1656, he published a volume of his
collected poetical works, he found himself without a rival in
public esteem. This volume included the later works already
mentioned, the Pindarique Odes, the Davideis, the Mistress and
some Miscellanies. Among the latter are to be found Cowley's
most vital pieces. This section of his works opens with the
famous aspiration —

" What shall I do to be for ever known,
And make the coming age my own?"

It contains elegies on Wotton, Vandyck, Falkland, William
Hervey and Crashaw, the last two being among Cowley's finest
poems, brilliant, sonorous and original; the amusing ballad of
The Chronicle, giving a fictitious catalogue of his supposed
amours; various gnomic pieces; and some charming para-
phrases from Anacreon. The Pindarique Odes contain weighty
lines and passages, buried in irregular and inharmonious masses
of moral verbiage. Not more than one or two are good through-
out, but a full posy of beauties may easily be culled from them.
The long cadences of the Alexandrines with which most of the
strophes close, continued to echo in English poetry from Dryden
down to Gray, but the Odes themselves, which were found to be
obscure by the poet's contemporaries, immediately fell into
disesteem. The Mistress was the most popular poetic reading of
the age, and is now the least read of all Cowley's works. It was
the last and most violent expression of the amatory affectation of
the 17th century, an affectation which had been endurable in
Donne and other early writers because it had been the vehicle of
sincere emotion, but was unendurable in Cowley because in him it
represented nothing but a perfunctory exercise, a mere exhibition
of literary calisthenics. He appears to have been of a cold, or at
least of a timid, disposition; in the face of these elaborately
erotic volumes, we are told that to the end of his days he nevei
summoned up courage to speak of love to a single woman in real
life. The " Leonora " of The Chronicle is said to have been the

348

COWLEY, HANNAH— COWPER, ist EARL

only woman he ever loved, and she married the brother of his
biographer, Sprat.

Soon after his return to England he was seized in mistake for
another person, and only obtained his liberty on a bail of £1000.
In 1658 he revised and altered his play of The Guardian, and
prepared it for the press under the title of The Cutter of Coleman
Street, but it did not appear until 1663. Late in 1658 Oliver
Cromwell died, and Cowley took advantage of the confusion of
affairs to escape to Paris, where he remained until the Restora-
tion brought him back in Charles's train. He published in 1663
Verses upon several occasions, in which The Complaint is
included.

Wearied with the broils and fatigues of a political life, Cowley
obtained permission to retire into the country; through his
friend, Lord St Albans, he obtained a property- near Chertsey,
and here, devoting himself to the study of botany, and buried in
his books, he lived in comparative solitude until his death. He
took a great and practical interest in experimental science, and he
was one of those who were most prominent in advocating the
foundation of an academy for the protection of scientific enter-
prise. Cowley's pamphlet on The Advancement of Experimental
Philosophy, 1661, led directly to the foundation of the Royal
Society, to which body Cowley, in March 1667, at the suggestion
of Evelyn, addressed an ode which is the latest and one of the
strongest of his poems. He died in the Porch House, in Chertsey,
on the 28th of July 1667, in consequence of having caught a cold
while superintending his farm-labourers in the meadows late on a
summer evening. On the 3rd of August Cowley was buried in
Westminster Abbey beside the ashes of Chaucer and Spenser,
where in 1675 the duke of Buckingham erected a monument to his
memory. His Poemata Latina, including six books " Plantarum,"
were printed in 1668.

Throughout their parallel lives the fame of Cowley completely
eclipsed that of Milton, but posterity instantly and finally reversed
the judgment of their contemporaries. The poetry of Cowley
rapidly fell into a neglect as unjust as the earlier popularity had
been. As a prose writer, especially as an essayist, he holds, and
will not lose, a high position in literature; as a poet it is hardly
possible that he can enjoy more than a very partial revival.
The want of nature, the obvious and awkward art, the defective
melody of his poems, destroy the interest that their ingenuity and
occasional majesty would otherwise excite. He had lofty views
of the mission of a poet and an insatiable ambition, but his chief
claim to poetic life is the dowry of sonorous lyric style which he
passed down to Dryden and his successors of the 18th century.

The works of Cowley were collected in 1668, when Thomas Sprat,
afterwards bishop of Rochester, brought out a splendid edition
in folio, to which he prefixed a graceful and elegant life of the
poet. There were many reprints of this collection, which formed
the standard edition till 1 881, when it was superseded by A. B.
Grosart's privately printed edition in two volumes, for the Chertsey
Worthies library. The Essays have frequently been revived with
approval. (E. G.)

COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809), English dramatist and poet,
daughter of Philip Parkhouse, a bookseller at Tiverton, Devon-
shire, was born in 1743. When about twenty-five years old she
married Mr Cowley, of the East India Company's service, who
died in 1797. ' Some years after her marriage, being at the theatre
with her husband, she expressed the opinion that she could
write as good a piece as the one being performed, and within a
fortnight she had written her first play, The Runaway. She sent
it to Garrick, who produced it at Drury Lane in 1776. Between
then and 1795 she wrote twelve more plays, all of which (with one
exception) were produced at Drury Lane or Covent Garden; and
The Belle's Stratagem (1782), with one or two others, still survives
in the list of acting plays. Among other, piecesi were Albina,
Countess Raimond, A Bold Stroke for a Husband, More Ways
than One, and A School for Greybeards, or The Mourning Bride.
Mrs Cowley was the author of a number of indifferent poems,
mainly historical, and under the name of " Anna Matilda,"
which has since become proverbial, she carried on a sentimental
correspondence in the World with Robert Merry. She died at
Tiverton on the nth of March 1809.

COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY, ist

Earl (1804-1884), British diplomatist, was the eldest son of
Henry Wellesley, ist Baron Cowley (1773-1847), and Charlotte,
daughter of Charles, ist Earl Cadogan, and was consequently a
nephew of the duke of Wellington and of the marquess Wellesley.
Born on the 17th of June 1804, he entered the diplomatic service
in 1824, receiving his first important appointment in 1848, when
he became minister plenipotentiary to the Swiss cantons; and
in the same year he was sent to Frankfort to watch the proceed-
ings of the German parliament. This was followed by his
appointment as envoy extraordinary to the new Germanic
confederation, a position which he only held for a short time,
as he was chosen in 1852 to succeed the ist marquess of Normanby
as the British ambassador in Paris. Baron Cowley, as Wellesley
had been since his father's death in 1847, held this important
post for fifteen years, and the story of his diplomatic life in Paris
cannot be separated from the general history of England and
France. As minister during the greater part of the reign of
Napoleon III., he conducted the delicate negotiations between
the two countries during the time of those eastern complications
which preceded and followed the Crimean War, and also during
the excitement and unrest produced by the attempt made in
1858 by Felice Orsini to assassinate the emporor of the French;
while his diplomatic skill was no less in evidence during the war
between France and Austria and the subsequent course of events
in Italy. In 1857 he had been created Earl Cowley and Viscount
Dangan; in 1866 he was made a knight of the Garter; and
having assisted Richard Cobden to conclude the commercial
treaty between Great Britain and France in i860, he retired in
1867 from a position which he had filled with distinction to
himself and with benefit to his country. In 1863 Cowley had
inherited the estate of Draycot in Wiltshire from his kinsman
the 5th earl of Mornington, and he lived in retirement until his
death on the 15th of July 1884. He had married in 1833 Olivia
Cecilia (d. 1885), daughter of Charlotte, baroness de Ros and
Lord Henry Fitzgerald, by whom he had three sons and two
daughters, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son,
William Henry, 2nd Earl Cowley (1834-1895), father of Henry
Arthur Mornington, 3rd earl (b. 1866).

COWLEY FATHERS, the name commonly given to the members
of the Society of Mission Priests of St John the Evangelist, an
Anglican religious community, the headquarters of which are
in England, at Cowley St John, close to Oxford. The society
was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M. Benson " for the cultiva-
tion of a life dedicated to God according to the principles of
poverty, chastity and obedience." The society, which is occupied
both with educational and missionary work, has a house in
London and branch houses at Bombay and Poona in India, at
Cape Town and at St Cuthbert's, Kaffraria, in South Africa; and
at Boston in the United States of America. The costume of the
Cowley Fathers consists of a black frock or cassock confined by
a black cord and a long black cloak.

COWPENS, a town of Spartanburg county, South Carolina,
U.S.A., in the N. part of the state. Pop. (1900) 692; (1910) 1101.
It is served by the Southern railway. In colonial days cattle
were rounded up and branded here — whence the name. Seven
miles N. of the town is the field of the battle of Cowpens, fought
on the 17th of January 1781, during the War of American
Independence, between the Americans under Gen. Daniel
Morgan and the British under Gen. Banastre Tarleton, the
British being defeated. A monument was erected on the battle-
field in 1859, but was much defaced during the Civil War. The
town of Cowpens was founded in 1876, and was incorporated
in 1880.

COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, ist Earl (c. 1665-1723),
lord chancellor of England, was the son of Sir William Cowper,
Bart., of Ratling Court, Kent, a Whig member of parliament
of some mark in the two last Stuart reigns. Educated at St
Albans school, Cowper was called to the bar in 1688; having
promptly given his allegiance to the prince of Orange on his
landing in England, he was made recorder of Colchester in 1694,
and in 1695 entered parliament as member for Hertford. He

COWPER, WILLIAM

349

enjoyed a large practice at the bar, and had the reputation of
being one of the most effective parliamentary orators of his
generation. He lost his seat in parliament in 1702 owing to
the unpopularity caused by the trial of his brother Spencer on
a charge of murder. In 1705 he was appointed lord keeper of
the great seal, and took his seat on the woolsaskwithoutapeerage.
In the following year he conducted the negotiations between the
English and Scottish commissioners for arranging the union
with Scotland. In November of the same year (1706) he succeeded
to his father's baronetcy; and on the 14th of December he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Cowper of Wingham, Kent.

When the union with Scotland came into operation in May
1707 the queen in council named Cowper lord high chancellor
of Great Britain, he being the first to hold this office. He presided
at the trial of Dr Sacheverell in 17 10, but resigned the seal when
Harley and Bolingbroke took office in the same year. On the
death of Queen Anne, George I. appointed Cowper one of the
lords justices for governing the country during the king's
absence, and a few weeks later he again became lord chancellor.
A paper which he drew up for the guidance of the new king on
constitutional matters, entitled An Impartial History of Parties,
marks the advance of English opinion towards party government
in the modern sense. It was published by Lord Campbell in
his Lives of the Lord Chancellors. Cowper supported the impeach -
ment of Lord Oxford for high treason in 1715, and in 1716
presided as lord high steward at the trials of the peers charged
with complicity in the Jacobite rising, his sentences on whom
have been censured as unnecessarily severe. He warmly sup-
ported the septennial bill in the same year. On the 18th of
March 17 18 he was created Viscount Fordwich and Earl Cowper,
and a month later he resigned office on the plea of ill-health, but
probably in reality because George I. accused him of espousing
the prince of Wales's side in his quarrel with the king. Taking
the lead against his former colleagues, Cowper opposed the
proposal brought forward in 1710 to limit the number of peers,
and also the bill of pains and penalties against Atterbury in
1723. In his last years he was accused, but probably without
reason, of active sympathy with the Jacobites. He died at his
residence, Colne Green, built by himself on the site of the present
mansion of Panshanger on the 10th of October 1723.

Cowper was not a great lawyer, but Burnet says that "tie
managed the court of chancery with impartial justice and great
despatch " ; the most eminent of his contemporaries agreed in
extolling his oratory and his virtues. He was twice married —
first, about 1686, to Judith, daughter and heiress of Sir Robert
Booth, a London merchant; and secondly, in 1706, to Mary,
daughter of John Clavering, of Chopwell, Durham. Swift
{Examiner, xvii., xxii.) alludes to an allegation that Cowper
had been guilty of bigamy, a slander for which there appears to
have been no solid foundation. His younger brother, Spencer
Cowper (1669-1728), was tried for the murder of Sarah Stout in
1699, but was acquitted; the lady, who had fallen in love with
Cowper, having in fact committed suicide on account of his
inattention. He was one of the managers of the impeachment
of Sacheverell; was attorney-general to the prince of Wales
(1714), chief justice of Chester (1717), and judge of the common
pleas (1727). He was grandfather of William Cowper, the poet.

The 1st earl left two sons and two daughters by his second
wife. The eldest son, William (1 709-1 764), who succeeded to
the title, assumed the name of Clavering in addition to that of
Cowper on the death of his maternal uncle. His wife was a
daughter of the earl of Grantham, and grand-daughter of the
earl of Ossory. The son of this marriage, George Nassau, 3rd
Earl Cowper (1738-1789), inherited the estates of the earl of
Grantham; and in 1778 he was created by the emperor Joseph
II. a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The 5th earl (1778-
1837) married a daughter of Lord Melbourne, the prime minister,
by whom he had two sons; and his widow married as her second
husband Lord Palmerston, who devised his property of Broad-
lands to her second son, William Francis Cowper-Temple (181 1-
who was created Baron Mount Temple in 1880. The

Cowper, married Anne Florence, daughter of Thomas Philip,
earl de Grey; and this lady at her father's death became suo
jure baroness Lucas of Cradwell. Francis Thomas de Grey,
7th Earl Cowper (1834-1905), in addition to the other family
titles, became in 187 1 10th Baron Dingwall in the peerage of
Scotland, and 8th Baron Butler of Moore Park in the peerage
of Ireland as heir-general of Thomas, earl of Ossory, son of the
1 st duke of Ormonde; the attainder of 1715 affecting those
titles having been reversed in July 1871. On the death of his
mother he also inherited the barony of Lucas of Cradwell. On
the death without issue in 1905 of the 7th earl, who was lord
lieutenant of Ireland 1880-1882, the earldom and barony of
Cowper, together with the viscountcy of Fordwich, became
extinct; the barony of Butler fell into abeyance among his
sisters and their heirs, and the baronies of Lucas and Dingwall
devolved on his nephew, Auberon Thomas Herbert (b. 1876).

See Private Diary of Earl Cowper, edited by E. C. Hawtrey for the
Roxburghe Club (Eton, 1833) ; The Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper,
edited by the Hon. Spencer Cowper (London, 1864); Lord Camp-
bell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal (8 vols.,
London, 1 845-1 869); Edward Foss, The Judges of England (9 vols.,
London, 1848-1864); Gilbert Burnet, History of his Own Time
(6 vols., Oxford, 1833); T. B. Howell, State Trials, vol. xii.-xv.
(33 vols., London, 1809-1828); G. E. C, Complete Peerage (London,
1889). (R- J- M.)

COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800), English poet, was born in
the rectory (now rebuilt) of Great Berkhampstead, Hertfordshire,
on the 26th of November (O.S. 15th) 1731, his father the Rev.
John Cowper being rector of the parish as well as a chaplain to
George II. On both the father's and the mother's side he was
of ancient lineage. The father could trace his family back to
the time of Edward IV. when the Cowpers were Sussex land-
owners, while his mother, Ann, daughter of Roger Donne of
Ludham Hall, Norfolk, was of the same race as the poet Donne,
and the family claimed to have Plantagenet blood in its veins.
Of more human interest were Cowper's immediate predecessors.
His grandfather was that Spencer Cowper who, after being tried
for his life on a charge of murder, lived to be a judge of the court
of common pleas, while his elder brother became lord chancellor
and Earl Cowper, a title which became extinct in 1905. Here is
the poet's genealogical tree.

John Cooper, 1 Alderman of London (d. 1609).

Sir William Cowper, Bart. (d. 1642).

John Cowper (died in prison 1643).

Sir William Cowper, 2nd Bart. (d. 1706).

William, Earl Cowper,
Lord Chancellor (d. 1723).

Spencer Cowper,
Judge (1669-1728).

William Cowper
(d. 1740).

Rev. John Cowper
(d. 1756).

Ashley Cowper
(d. 1788).

£

elder son, George Augustus Frederick (1806-1856), 6th Earl

William Cowper,

the poet Lady Hesketh. Theodora.
(1731-1800).

The Rev. John Cowper was twice married. Cowper's mother,
to whom the memorable lines were written beginning " Oh that
these lips had language," was his first wife. She died in 1737
at the age of thirty-four, when the poet was but six years old,
and she is buried in Berkhampstead church. Cowper's step-
mother is buried in Bath, and a tablet on the walls of the cathedral
commemorates her memory. The father, who appears to have
been a conscientious clergyman with no special interest in his
sons, died in 1756 and was buried in the Cowper tomb at Pans-
hanger. Only one other of his seven children grew to manhood —
John, who was born in 1737.

The poet appears to have attended a dame's school in earliest
infancy, but on his mother's death, when he was six years old,
he was sent to boarding-school, to a Dr Pitman at Markyate, a

1 Alderman Cooper thus spelt his name and all the family from
that day to this, including the poet, have so pronounced it.

35o

COWPER, WILLIAM

village 6 m. from Berkhampstead. From 1738 to 1741 he was
placed in the care of an oculist, as he suffered from inflammation
of the eyes. In the latter year he was sent to Westminster
school, where he had Warren Hastings, Impey, Lloyd, Churchill
and Colman for schoolfellows. It was at the Markyate school
that he suffered the tyranny that he commemorated in Tirocinium.
His days at Westminster, Southey thinks, were " probably the
happiest in his life," but a boy of nervous temperament is always
unhappy at school. At the age of eighteen Cowper entered a
solicitor's office in Ely Place, Holborn. Here he had Thurlow,
the future lord chancellor, as a fellow-clerk, and it is stated that
Thurlow promised to help his less pushful comrade in the days
of realized ambition. Three years in Ely Place were rendered
happy by frequent visits to his uncle Ashley's house in South-
ampton Row, where he fell deeply in love with his cousin
Theodora Cowper. At twenty-one years of age he took chambers
in the Middle Temple, where we first hear of the dejection of
spirits that accompanied him periodically through manhood.
He was called to the bar in 1754. In 1759 he removed to the
Inner Temple and was made a commissioner of bankrupts. His
devotion to his cousin, however, was a source of unhappiness. Her
father, possibly influenced by Cowper's melancholy tendencies,
perhaps possessed by prejudices against the marriage of cousins,
interposed, and the lovers were separated — as it turned out for
ever. During three years he was a member of the Nonsense
Club with his two schoolfellows from Westminster, Churchill
and Lloyd, and he wrote sundry verses in magazines and trans-
lated two books of Voltaire's Henriade. A crisis occurred in
Cowper's life when his cousin Major Cowper nominated him to
a clerkship in the House of Lords. It involved a preliminary
appearance at the bar of the house. The prospect drove him
insane, and he attempted suicide; he purchased poison, he placed
a penknife at his heart, but hesitated to apply either measure
of self-destruction. He has told, in dramatic manner, of his
more desperate endeavour to hang himself with a garter. Here
he all but succeeded. His friends were informed, and he was
sent to a private lunatic asylum at St Albans, where he remained
for eighteen months under the charge of Dr Nathaniel Cotton,
the author of Visions. Upon his recovery he removed to
Huntingdon in order to be near his brother John, who was a
fellow of St Benet's College, Cambridge. John had visited his
brother at St Albans and arranged this. An attempt to secure
suitable lodgings nearer to Cambridge had been ineffectual. In
June 1765 he reached Huntingdon, and his life here was essentially
happy. His illness had broken him off from all his old friends
save only his cousin Lady Hesketh, Theodora's sister, but new
acquaintances were made, the Unwins being the most valued.
This family consisted of Morley Unwin (a clergyman), his wife
Mary, and his son (William) and daughter (Susannah) . The son
struck up a warm friendship which his family shared. Cowper
entered the circle as a boarder in November (1765). All went
serenely until in July 1767 Morley Unwin was thrown from his
horse and killed. A very short time before this event the Unwins
had received a visit from the Rev. John Newton (q.v.), the curate
of Olney in Buckinghamshire, with whom they became friends.
Newton suggested that the widow and her children with Cowper
should take up their abode in Olney. This was achieved in the
closing months of 1767. Here Cowper was to reside for nineteen
years, and he was to render the town and its neighbourhood
memorable by his presence and by his poetry. His residence
in the Market Place was converted into a Cowper Museum a
hundred years after his death, in 1900. Here his life went on its
placid course, interrupted only by the death of his brother in
1770, until 1773, when he became again deranged. It can scarcely
be doubted that this second attack interrupted the contemplated
marriage of Cowper with Mary Unwin, although Southey could
find no evidence of the circumstance and Newton was not in-
formed of it. J. C. Bailey brings final evidence of this (The
Poems of Cowper, page 1 5) . The fact was kept secret in later
years in order to spare the feelings of Theodora Cowper, who
thought that her cousin had remained as faithful as she had done
to their early love.

It was not until 1776 that the poet's mind cleared again. In
1779 he made his first appearance as an author by the Olney
Hymns, written in conjunction with Newton, Cowper's verses
being indicated by a " C." Mrs Unwin suggested secular verse,
and Cowper wrote much, and in 1782 when he was fifty-one
years old there appeared Poems of William Cowper of the Inner
Temple, Esq. : London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's
Churchyard. The volume contained "Table Talk," "The
Progress of Error," " Truth," "Expostulation " and much else
that survives to be read in our day by virtue of the poet's finer
work. This finer work was the outcome of his friendship with
Lady Austen, a widow who, on a visit to her sister, the wife of the
vicar of the neighbouring village of Clifton, made the acquaint-
ance of Cowper and Mrs Unwin. The three became great friends.
Lady Austen determined to give up her house in London and to
settle in Olney. She suggested The Task and inspired John
Gilpin and The Royal George. But in 1784 the friendship was at
an end, doubtless through Mrs Unwin's jealousy of Lady Austen.
Cowper's second volume appeared in 1785; — The Task : A Poem
in Six Books. By William Cowper of the Inner Temple, Esq.; To
which are added by the same author An Epistle to Joseph Hill, Esq.,
Tirocinium or a Review of Schools, and the History of John
Gilpin: London, Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72 St Paul's Church
Yard; 1785. His first book had been a failure, one critic even
declaring that " Mr Cowper was certainly a good, pious man, but
without one spark of poetic fire." This second book was an
instantaneous success, and indeed marks an epoch in literary
history. But before its publication — in 1784 — the poet had
commenced the translation of Homer. In 1786 his life at Olney
was cheered by Lady Hesketh taking up a temporary residence
there. The cousins met after an interval of twenty-three years,
and Lady Hesketh was to be Cowper's good angel to the end, even
though her letters disclose a considerable impatience with Mrs
Unwin. At the end of 1786 a removal was made to Weston
Underwood, the neighbouring village which Cowper had
frequently visited as the guest of his Roman Catholic friends the
Throckmortons. This was to be his home for yet another ten
years. Here he completed his translation of Homer, materially
assisted by Mr Throckmorton's chaplain Dr Gregson. There are
six more months of insanity to record in 1787. In 1790, a
year before the Homer was published, commenced his friendship
with his cousin John Johnson, known to all biographers of the
poet as " Johnny of Norfolk." Johnson also aspired to be a
poet, and visited his cousin armed with a manuscript. Cowper
discouraged the poetry, but loved the writer, and the two
became great friends. New friends were wanted, for in 1792 Mrs
Unwin had a paralytic stroke, and henceforth she was a hopeless
invalid. A new and valued friend of this period was Hayley,
famous in his own day as a poet and in history for his association
with Romney and Cowper. He was drawn to Cowper by the fact
that both were contemplating an edition of " Milton," Cowper
having received a commission to edit, writing notes and trans*
latiiig the Latin and Italian poems. The work was never com-
pleted. In 1794 Cowper was again insane and his lifework was
over. In the following year a removal took place into Norfolk
under the loving care of John Johnson. Johnson took Cowper and
Mary Unwin to North Tuddenham, thence to Mundesley, then to
Dunham Lodge, near Swaffham, and finally in October 1796 they
moved to East Dereham. In December of that year Mrs Unwin
died. Cowper lingered on, dying on the 25th of April 1800. The
poet is buried near Mrs Unwin in East Dereham church.

Cowper is among the poets who are epoch-makers. He brought
a new spirit into English verse, and redeemed it from the arti-
ficiality and the rhetoric of many of his predecessors. With him
began the " enthusiasm of humanity " that was afterwards to
become so marked in the poetry of Burns and Shelley, Words-
worth and Byron. With him began the deep sympathy with
nature, and love of animal life, which was to characterize so
much of later poetry.

Although Cowper cannot rank among the world's greatest
poets or even among the most distinguished of poets of his own
country, his place is a very high one. He had what is a rare

COWRY— COX, DAVID

351

quality among English poets, the gift of humour, which was very
singularly absent from others who possessed many other of the
higher qualities of the intellect. Certain of his poems, moreover,
— for example, " To Mary," " The Receipt of my Mother's
Portrait," and the ballad " On the Loss of the Royal George," —
will, it may safely be affirmed, continue to be familiar to each
successive generation in a way that pertains to few things in
literature. Added to this, one may note Cowper's distinction as a
letter-writer. He ranks among the half-dozen greatest letter-
writers in the English language, and he was perhaps the only
great letter-writer with whom the felicity was due to the power of
what he has seen rather than what he has read.

Bibliography. — The first important life of Cowper was by Hayley
in 1803. In its complete form it appeared in 4 volumes in 1806 and
was reprinted in 1809 and 1812. It was reprinted again by the Rev.
T. S. Grimshawe with the Correspondence in 8 volumes in 1835.
Robert Southey's much more valuable Life and Letters appeared
also in 15 volumes in 1834-1837. The Private Correspondence, edited
by John Johnson, appeared in 2 volumes in 1824 and again in 1835.
The Complete Correspondence, edited by Thomas Wright, was pub-
lished in 1904, but more correspondence appeared in Notes and
Queries, July, August and September 1904, and in The Poems of
William Cowper, edited by J. C. Bailey (1905). Edward Dowden
unearthed new correspondence with William Hayley in The Atlantic
Monthly (1907). Short lives of Cowper have appeared in many
quarters, from Thomas Taylor's (1833) to Goldwin Smith's in the
" English Men of Letters " series (1880). Another brief biography
of great merit is attached to the Globe edition of Cowper's Works.
Essays by Leslie Stephen, Stopford Brooke, Whitwell Elwin, George
Eliot and Walter Bagehot deserve attention. See also St Beuve's
Causeries du Lundi (1868), vol. xi. ; Letters of Lady Hesketh to John
Johnson (1901); John Newton, by the Rev. Josiah Bull (1868);
Cowper and Mary Unwin, by Caroline Gearey (1900); and A Con-
cordance to the. Poetic Works of William Cowper, by John Neave
(1887). (C. K. S.)

COWRY, the popular name of the shells of the Cypraeida, a
family of mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized,
and they are widely distributed over the world — their habitat
being the shallow water along the sea-shore. The best known
is the money cowry or Cypraea moneta, a small shell about half
an inch in length, white and straw-coloured without and blue
within, which derives its distinctive name from the fact that in
various countries it has been employed as a kind of currency.
(See Shell-money.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the
Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the
shells are in demand as fashionable decorations, just as in
Germany they were in use as an ornament for horses' harness, and
were popular enough to acquire several native names, such as
Brustharnisch or breastplates, and Otterkopfchen or little adders'
heads. Besides the Cypraea moneta various species are employed
in this decorative use. The Cypraea aurora is a mark of chieftain-
ship among the natives of the Friendly Islands; the Cypraea
annulus is a favourite with the Asiatic islanders; and several of
the larger kinds have been used in Europe for the carving of
cameos. The tiger cowry, Cypraea tigris, so well known as a
mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly
used by the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets;
and they have also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of
several shells into a smooth oval ball which they then employ as a
bait to catch the cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned
occur in myriads in their respective habitats, the Cypraea princeps
and the Cypraea umbilicala are extremely rare.

COW-TREE, or Milk-tree, Brosimum Galactodendron (natural
order Moraceae) , a native of Venezuela. As in other members of
the order, the stem contains a milky latex, which flows out in
considerable quantities when a notch is cut in it. The " milk "
is sweet and pleasant tasting. Another species, B. AKcastrum,
the bread-nut tree, a native of central America and Jamaica,
bears a fruit which is cooked and eaten. The bread-fruit
(Artocarpus) is an allied genus of the same natural order.

COX, DAVID (1783-18 59), English painter, was born on the
29th of April 1783, in a small house attached to the forge of his
father,a hardworking master smith, in a mean suburb of Birming-
ham. Turning his hand to what he could get to do, Joseph Cox,
the father, was both blacksmith and whitesmith, and when the
war with France began took to the making of bayonets and horse

shoes, on wholesale commission, and immediately the boy David
was thought able to assist he was taken from the poor elementary
school in the neighbourhood, and set to the anvil. The attempt
to turn the boy to this kind of labour had, however, been made
too early; it was too heavy for his strength, and he was sent to
what was called by the cyclops of Birmingham a " toy trade,"
making lacquered buckles, painted lockets, tin snuff-boxes and
other " fancy "articles. Here David very soon acquired some
power of painting miniatures, and his talents might have been
misdirected had his master, Fieldler by name, not released him
from his apprenticeship by dying by his own hand; and David
found an opening as colour-grinder and scene-painter's fag in the
theatre then leased, with several others, by the father of
Macready, the tragedian.

This obscure step, not one of promotion at the time, was really
the most important incident in the uneventful career of Cox.
The boy, who had inherited a rather weakly body, and had been
trained with care by a pious mother, while intellectually negative
and unable to cope with any kind of learning whatever, had
endless perseverance, great strength of application, and all
through life remained genial, gentle, simple-minded and modest,
his penetration and self-reliance being wholly professional,
inspired by his love of nature and his knowledge of his subject.
Not very quick, and with little versatility, he went step by step
in one line of study from the time he began to get the smallest
remuneration for his pictures to the age of seventy-five, when he
painted large in oil very much the same class of subjects he had
of old produced small in water-colours, with the same impressive
and unaffectedly noble sentiment, only increased by the mastery
of almost infinite practice. He was never led astray by fictitious
splendour of any kind, except once indeed in 1825, when he
imitated Turner, and produced a classic subject he called
" Carthage, Aeneas, and Achates." He never visited Venice or
Egypt, or crossed the Channel except for a week or two in
Belgium and Paris, and never even went to Scotland for painting
purposes. Bettws-y-Coed and its neighbourhood was everything
to him, and characteristics most truly English were beloved by
him with a sort of filial instinct. So completely did he love the
country, that even London, where it was his interest to live, had
few attractions, and did not retain him long.

This residence in the metropolis which began in 1804 was,
however, of the most essential educational advantage to him.
The Water-Colour Society was established the year after he
arrived, and was mainly supported by landscape-painters. He
was not,of course,admitted at first into membership, not till 1813,
before which time an attempt to establish a rival exhibition had
been made. In this Cox joined, the result being very serious to
him, an entire failure entailing the seizure and forced sale of all
the pictures. At that time the tightest economy was the rule
with him, and to save the trifling cost of new strainers or stretch-
ing boards, he covered up one picture by another. When these
works were prepared for re-sale, fifty years afterwards, some of
them yielded picture after picture, peeled off the boards like the
waistcoats from the body of the gravedigger in Hamlet !

While lodging near Astley's Circus he married his landlady's
daughter, and then took a modest cottage at Dulwich, where he
gradually left off scene-painting and became teacher, giving
lessons at ten shillings a lesson. This entailed walking to the
pupils' homes, and the gift of the paintings done before the pupils.
These have since been frequently sold for large sums, but his own
price, when lucky enough to sell his best works, was never over
a few pounds, and more frequently about fifteen shillings.
Sometimes, indeed, he sold them in quantities at two pounds a
dozen to be resold to country teachers. By and by he resisted the
leaving of the work done to the pupil, but with little advantage
to himself, as he saw no end to the accumulation of his own
productions, and actually tore them up, and threw them into
areas, or pushed them into drains during his trudge homeward.
A number of years after he pointed out a particular drain to a
friend, and said, " Many a work of mine has gone down that way
to the Thames!"

Shortly after he had turned thirty, his stay in London suddenly

352

COX, SIR G. W.— COX, J. D.

ended. He was offered the enormous sum of £100 per annum,
by a ladies' college in Hereford, and thither he went. This sum he
supplemented by teaching in the Hereford grammar school for
many years, at six guineas a year, and in other schools at better
pay, but still, and up to his fortieth year, we find his prices for
pictures from eight to twenty-five shillings. Cox has no history
apart from his productions, and these particulars as to his
remuneration possess an interest almost dramatic when we
contrast them with the enormous sums realized by his later
works, and with the " honours and observance, troops of friends,''
that accompanied old age with him, when settled down in his own
home at Harborne, near his native town, where he died on the
7th of June 1859.

Cox's second short residence in London, dating from 1835 to
1840, marks the period of his highest powers. During those
years, and for twelve years after, his productiveness kept pace
with his mastery, and it would be difficult to overrate the
impressiveness of effect, and high feeling, within the narrow range
of subject displayed by many of these works. He was now
surrounded by dealers, and wealth flowed in upon him. Still he
remained the same, a man with few wants and scarcely any
enjoyments except those furnished by his brush and his colours.
The home at Harborne was a pleasant one, but the approach to
the front was useless as the door was kept fastened up, the only
entrance being through the garden at the back, and the principal
room appropriated as his studio he was content to reach by a
narrow stair from the kitchen. Neither in it nor elsewhere was
there any luxury or even taste visible:— no bric-d-brac, no
objects of interest, few or no books, no pictures except landscapes
by his friends. When in winter, after his wife's death, the fire
went out, and the cold at last surprised him, he lifted his easel
into the little dining-room and began again. A union of his friends
was formed in 1855 to procure a portrait of him, which was
painted by Sir J. Watson Gordon ; and an exhibition of his works
was opened in London in 1858 and again another in 1859. This
was actually open when the news of his death arrived.

The number of David Cox's works, great and small, is enormous.
He produced hundreds annually for perhaps forty-five years.
Before his death and for ten years thereafter, their prices were
remarkable, as witness the following obtained at auction —
" Going to the Mill," £1575; " Old Mill at Bettws-y-Coed,"
£1575; " Outskirts of a Wood, with Gipsies," £2305; " Peace
and War," £3430.

See Hall, Biography of David Cox (1881). (W. B. Sc.)

COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902), English divine
and scholar, was born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares,
India, and was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford.
In 1830 he was ordained, and in i860 took a mastership at
Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year. He had
already contributed to the Edinburgh Review, and had published
in 1850 Poems, Legendary and Historical (with E. A. Freeman),
and in 1853 a Life of St Boniface. From 1 861 he devoted himself
entirely to literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and
comparative mythology. Many of his works were avowedly
popular in character, and the most important, the History of
Greece, has been superseded and is now of little value. His
studies in mythology were inspired by Max Miiller, but his
treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme
supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of
myths. He also edited (with W. T. Brande) A Dictionary of
Science, Literature and Art (1875). Sir George Cox (who suc-
ceeded to the baronetcy in 1877 )was a Broad Churchman, and a
prominent** supporter of Bishop Colenso in 1863-1865; and five
years after Colenso 's death he published (1888) his Life of the
bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but was
refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham,
York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a
civil list pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February
1902.

Works. — Tales from Greek Mythology (1861); A Manual of
Mythology (1867); Latin and Teutonic Christendom (1870); The
Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870, new ed., 1882) ; History

of Greece (1874); General History of Greece (1876) ; History of the
Establishment of British Rule, in India, and An Introduction to the
Science of Comparative Mythology (1881,); Lives of Greek Statesmen
(188S); Concise History of 'England (1887).

COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900), American general, political
leader and educationalist, was born on the 27th of October 1828
in Montreal, Canada, His father, a shipbuilder of German
descent (Koch) ,and his mother,a descendant of William Brewster,
were natives of New York City, where the boy grew up, studying
law in an office in 184 2-1.844,. and working in a broker's office in
1844^1846, and where, under the influence of Charles G. Finney
(1792-1875), whose daughter he afterwards married, he prepared
himself for the ministry. He graduated at Oberlin College in
1851, having in the meantime given up his theological: studies in
rebellion at Finney's dogmatism. In 1851-1853 he was super-
intendent of schools at Warren, Ohio; in 1853 was admitted
to the Ohio bar, being at that time an anti-slavery Whig; and in
1859 was elected to the state senate, in which with Garfield and
JamesMonroe(i82i-i898) he formed the "Radical Triumvirate,"
Cox himself presenting a petition for a personal liberty law and
urging woman's rights, especially larger property rights to married
women. Appointed by Governor Dennisonone of three brigadiers-
general of militia in i860, he eagerly undertook the study of
tactics, strategy and military history. He rendered great
assistance in raising troops for the Union service in 1861, enlisted
himself in spite of poor health and a family of six small children,
and in April was commissioned a brigadier-general, U.S.V. He
took, part in the West Virginia campaign of 1861, served in the
Kanawha region, in supreme command after Rosecrans's relief
in the spring, until August 1862, when his troops were ordered to
join Burnside's 9th Corps in Virginia. After the death at his
side of General Reno in the battle of South Mountain, and during
Antietam, Cox commanded the corps, and at the close of the
campaign (6th Oct. 1862) he was appointed major-general,
U.S. V., but the appointment was not confirmed. In April-
December 1863 he was head of the department of Ohio. In
1864 he took part in the Atlanta campaign under Sherman, as a
divisional and subsequently corps-commander: at the battle
of Franklin he commanded the 23rd Corps, and he served at
Nashville also. He led an expedition following Sherman into
the Carolinas and fought two successful actions with Bragg at
Kinston, N.C. He was governor of Ohio in 1866-1867, and as
such advocated the colonization of the freedmen in a restricted
area, and sympathized with President Johnson's programme of
Reconstruction and worked for a compromise between Johnson
and his opponents, although he finally deserted Johnson. In
1868 he was chairman of the Republican national convention
which nominated Grant. He was secretary of the interior in
1869-1870; opposed the confirmation of the treaty for the
annexation of Santo Domingo, negotiated by O. E. Babcock
and urged by President Grant; introduced the merit system
in his department, and resigned in October 1870 because of
pressure put on him by politicians piqued at his prohibition of
campaign levies on his clerks, and because of the interference
of Grant in favour of William McGarrahan's attempt by legal
proceedings to obtain from Cox a patent to certain California
mining lands. He took up legal practice in Cincinnati, became
president in 1873, and until 1877 was receiver, of the Toledo
& Wabash & Western. In 1877-1879 he was a representative in
Congress. From 1881 to 1897 he was dean of the Cincinnati
law school, and from 1885 to 1889 president of the University of
Cincinnati. He died at Magnolia, Massachusetts, on the 4th
of August 1900. A successful lawyer, and in his later years a
prominent microscopist, who won a gold medal of honour for
microphotography at the Antwerp Exposition of 1891, he is
best known as one of the greatest " civilian " generals of the
Civil War, and, with the possible exception of J. C. Ropes, the
highest American authority of his time on military history,
particularly the history of the American Civil War. He wrote
Atlanta (New York, 1882) and The March to the Sea, Franklin
and Nashville (New York, 1882), both in the series Campaigns
of the Civil War; The Second Battle of Bull Run, as Connected

COX, KENYON— COX, S. H.

353

wilh the Fitz-John Porter Case (Cincinnati, 1882); and the
valuable Military Reminiscences of the Civil War (2 vols., New
York, 1900) published posthumously.

See J. R. Ewing, Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox (Washington,
1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran,
" Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox,"
in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).

COX, KENYON (1856- ), American painter, was born at
Warren, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1856, being the son of
Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was a pupil of Carolus-Duran and
of J. L. Gerome in Paris from 1877 to 1882, when he opened a
studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much success
in the Art Students' League. His earlier work was mainly of
the nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat
conventional colour. Receiving little encouragement for such
pictures, he turned to mural decorative work,in which he achieved
prominence. Among his better-known examples are the frieze
for the court room of the Appellate Court, New York, and decora-
tions for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin College; for the
Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public and private
buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and is
the author of the critical reviews, Old Masters and New (1905)
and Painters and Sculptors (1907), besides some poems. He
became a National Academician in 1903. His wife, nte Louise
H. King (b. 1865), whom he married in 1892, also became a
figure and portrait-painter of note.

COX, RICHARD (1500 ?-is8i), dean of Westminster and
bishop of Ely, was born of obscure parentage at Whaddon,
Buckinghamshire, in 1499 or 1500. He was educated at the
Benedictine priory of St Leonard Snelshall near Whaddon, at
Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated
B.A. in 1524. At Wolsey's invitation he became a member of
the cardinal's new foundation at Oxford, was incorporated B.A.
in 1525, and created M.A. in 1526. In 1530 he was engaged in
persuading the more unruly members of the university to approve
of the king's divorce. A premature expression of Lutheran
views is said to have caused his departure from Oxford and even
his imprisonment, but the records are silent on these sufferings
which do not harmonize with his appointment as master of the
royal foundation at Eton. In 1533 he appears as author of an
ode on the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1535 he graduated B.D.
at Cambridge, proceeding D.D. in 1537, and in the same year
subscribing the Institution of a Christian Man. In 1 540 he was
one of the fifteen divines to whom were referred crucial questions
on the sacraments and the seat of authority in the Church; his
answers (printed in Pocock's Burnet, iii. 443-496) indicate a
mind tending away from Catholicism, but susceptible to " the
king's doctrine "; and, indeed, Cox was one of the divines by
whom Henry said the " King's Book " had been drawn up when
he wished to impress upon the Regent Arran that it was not
exclusively his own doing. Moreover, he was present at the
examination of Barnes, subscribed the divorce of Anne of Cleves,
and in that year of reaction became archdeacon and prebendary
of Ely and canon of Westminster. He was employed on other
royal business in 1541, was nominated to the projected bishopric
of Southwell, and was made king's chaplain in 1542. In 1543
he was employed to ferret out the " Prebendaries' Plot " against
Cranmer, and became the archbishop's chancellor. In December
he was appointed dean of Oseney (afterwards Christ Church)
Oxford, and in July was made almoner to Prince Edward, in
whose education he took an active part. He was present at
Dr Crome's recantation in 1546, denounced it as insincere and
insufficient, and severely handled him before the privy council.

After Edward's accession, Cox's opinions took a more Pro-
testant turn, and he became one of the most active agents of
the Reformation. He was consulted on the compilation of the
Communion office in 1548, and the first and second books of
Common Prayer, and sat on the commission for the reform of the
canon law. As chancellor of the university of Oxford (1547-
1552) he promoted foreign divines such as Peter Martyr, and was
a moving spirit of the two commissions which sought with some
success to eradicate everything savouring of popery from the

books, MSS., ornaments and endowments of the university, and
earned Cox the sobriquet of its cancellor rather than its chan-
cellor. He received other rewards, a canonry of Windsor (1548),
the rectory of Harrow (1547) and the deanery of Westminster
(1549). He lost these prefermentson Mary's accession, and wasfor
a fortnight in August 1553 confined to the Marshalsea. He was
not of the stuff of which martyrs are made; he remained in
obscurity until after the failure of Wyatt's rebellion, and then in
May 1554 escaped in the same ship as the future archbishop
Sandys, to Antwerp. Thence in March 1 555 he made his way to
Frankfort, where he played an important part in the first struggle
between Anglicanism and Puritanism. The exiles had, under the
influence of Knox and Whittingham, adopted Calvinistic doctrine
and a form of service far more Puritanical than the Prayer-Book
of 1 552. Cox stood up for that service, and the exiles were divided
into Knoxians and Coxians. Knox attacked Cox as a pluralist,
Cox accused Knox of treason to the emperor Charles V. This
proved the more dangerous charge: Knox and his followers
were expelled, and the Prayer-Book of 1552 was restored.

In 1559 Cox returned to England, and was elected bishop of
Norwich, but the queen changed her mind and Cox's destination
to Ely, where he remained twenty-one years. He was an honest,
but narrow-minded ecclesiastic, who held what views he did hold
intolerantly, and was always wanting more power to constrain
those who differed from him (see his letter in Hatfield MSS. i.
308) . While he refused to minister in the queen's chapel because
of the crucifix and lights there, and was a bitter enemy to the
Roman Catholics, he had little more patience with the Puritans.
He was grasping, or at least tenacious of his rights in money
matters, and was often brought into conflict with courtiers who
coveted episcopal lands. The queen herself intervened, when he
refused to grant Ely House to her favourite, Sir Christopher
Hatton; but the well-known letter beginning " Proud Prelate "
and threatening to unfrock him seems to be an impudent forgery
which first saw the light in the Annual Register for 1761. It
hardly, however, misrepresents the queen's meaning, and Cox
was forced to give way. These and other trials led him to
resign his see in 1580, and it is significant that it remained vacant
for nineteen years. Cox died on the 22nd of July 1581: a
monument erected to his memory twenty years later in Ely
cathedral was defaced, owing, it was said, to his evil repute.
Strype (Whitgift, i. 2) gives Cox's hot temper and marriage as
reasons why he was not made archbishop in 1583 in preference to
Whitgift, who had been his chaplain; but Cox had been dead two
years in 1583. His first wife's name is unknown; she was the
mother of his five children, of whom Joanna married the eldest
son of Archbishop Parker. His second wife was the widow of
William Turner (d. 1568), the botanist and dean of Wells.

Voluminous details about Cox's life are given in Strype's Works,
Parker Soc. Publ., and Cooper's Athenae Cantab, i. 437-445. See also
Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. ; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal.
Dom. State Papers; Cal. Hatfield MSS.; Lit. Rem. of Edward VI.;
Whittingham's Troubles at Frankfort; Machyn's Diary; Pocock's
Burnet; Bentham's Ely; Willis's Cathedrals; Le Neve's Fasti;
R. W. Dixon's Church History. (A. F. P.)

COX, SAMUEL (1826-1893), English nonconformist divine,
was born in London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years
he worked as an apprentice in the London docks, and then
entered the Baptist College at Stepney. In 1851 he became
pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea, removing in 1855 to Ryde,
and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of the Baptist
Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St
Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor
and was the founder and first editor of a monthly journal The
Expositor (18 7 5-1 884). Among the best known of his numerous
theological publicationsare SalvatorMundi (i&'j'j), A Commentary
on the Book of Job (1880), The Larger Hope (1883).

COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1 793-1880), American Presbyterian
divine, was born at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793,
of Quaker stock. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church at
Mendham, N.J., in 1817-1821, and of two churches in New York
from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the University of the
City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor of pastoral

354

COXCIE— COXWELL

theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in
active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat
affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville,
N.Y., on the 2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a
speech made in Exeter Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsi-
bility for slavery in America on the British government, made
a great impression. It was he who described the appellation
D.D. as a couple of " semi-lunar fardels."

His son, Arthur Cleveland Coxe (1818-1896), who changed
the spelling of the family name, graduated at the University of
the City of New York in 1838 and at the General Theological
Seminary in 1841. He was rector of St John's Church, Hartford,
in 1843-1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in 1854-1863, and of
Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he became
assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He
was strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe
wrote spirited defences of Anglican orders and published several
volumes of verse, notably Christian Ballads (1845).

COXCIE, MICHAEL (1490-1592), Flemish painter, was born at
Malines, and studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably
induced him to visit Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the
chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in the church of Santa Maria
dell' Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says with truth " that he
fairly acquired the manner of an Italian." But Coxcie's principal
occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable of Psyche
in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of the
Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent
residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice
in this branch of art. But his productions were till lately con-
cealed under an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie
returned in 1539 to Malines, where he matriculated, and painted
for the chapel of the gild of St Luke the wings of an altar-
piece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The centre of this altar-
piece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the Virgin;
the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision
of St John in Patmos. At van Orley's death in 1541 Coxcie
succeeded to the office of court painter to the regent Mary of
Hungary, for whom he decorated the castle of Binche. He was
subsequently patronized by Charles V., who often coupled his
works with those of Titian; by Philip II., who paid him royally
for a copy of van Eyck's " Agnus Dei "; and by the duke of Alva,
who once protected him from the insults of Spanish soldiery at
Malines. There are large and capital works of his ( 1 587-1 588) in
St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in the
museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque
grafted on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it
distantly recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation
and stiffness. He died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.

COXE, HENRY OCTAVIUS (1811-1881), English librarian and
scholar, was born at Bucklebury, in Berkshire, on the 20th of
September 181 1. He was educated at Westminster school and
Worcester College, Oxford. Immediately on taking his degree in
1833, he began work in the manuscript department of the British
'"" Museum, became in 1838 sub-librarian of the Bodleian, at Oxford,
and in i860 succeeded Dr Bandinel as head librarian, an office he
held until his death in 188 1. Having proved himself an able
palaeographer, he was sent out by the British government in
1857 to inspect the libraries in the monasteries of the Levant.
He discovered some valuable manuscripts, but the monks were
too wise to part with their treasures. One valuable result of his
travels was the detection of the forgery attempted by Constantine
Simonides. He was the author of various catalogues, and under
his direction that of the Bodleian, in more than 720 volumes, was
completed. He published Rogiri de Wendover Chronica, 5 vols.
(184 1- 1 844); the Black Prince, an historical poem written in
French by Chandos Herald (1842); and Report on the Greek
Manuscripts yet remaining in the Libraries of the Levant (1858).
He was not only an accurate librarian but an active and hard-
working clergyman, and was for the last twenty-five years of his
life in charge of the parish of Wytham, near Oxford. He was
likewise honorary fellow of Worcester and Corpus Christi Colleges.
He died on the 8th of July 1881.

COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828), English historian, son of Dr
William Coxe, physician to the royal household, was born in
London on the 7th of March 1747. Educated at Marylebone
grammar school and at Eton College, he proceeded to King's
College, Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of this society in
1768. In 1771 he took holy orders, and afterwards visited many
parts of Europe as tutor and travelling companion to various
noblemen and gentlemen. In 1786 he was appointed vicar of
Kingston-on-Thames, and in 1788 rector of Bemerton, Wiltshire.
He also held the rectory of Stourton from 1801 to 181 1 and that
of Fovant from 181 1 until his death. In 1791 he was made
prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1804 archdeacon of Wiltshire.
He married in 1803 Eleanora, daughter of William Shairp, consul-
general for Russia, and widow of Thomas Yeldham of St Peters-
burg. He died on the 8th of June 1828.

During a long residence at Bemerton Coxe was mainly occupied
in literary work. His Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (London,
1798), Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole (London, 1802), Memoirs
of John, duke of Marlborough (London, 1818-1819), Private and
Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury
(London, 1821), Memoirs of the Administrations of Henry Pelham
(London, 1829), are very valuable for the history of the 18th
century. His History of the House of Austria (London, 1807,
new ed. 1853 and 1873), and Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings of
Spain (London, 1813), give evidence of careful and painstaking
work on the part of the author. The style, however, as in all his
works, is remarkably dull. His other works are mainly accounts
of his travels: Sketches of the Natural, Political and Civil State
of Switzerland (London, 1779), Account of the Russian Discoveries
between Asia and America (London, 1780), Account of Prisons
and Hospitals in Russia, Sweden and Denmark (London, 1781),
Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden and Denmark (London, 1784),
Travels in Switzerland (London, 1789), Letter on Secret Tribunals
of Westphalia (London, 1796), Historical Tour in Monmouthshire
(London, 1801). He also edited Gay's Fables, and wrote a Life
of John Gay (Salisbury, 1797), Anecdotes of G. F. Handel and
J. C. Smith (London, 1798), and a few other works of minor
importance. Some of his books have been translated into
French, and several have gone through two or more editions.

COXSWAIN (properly " cockswain," and pronounced cox'n,
usually shortened to " cox "; from " cock," a small boat, and
swain, a servant), in the navy, a petty officer in charge of a ship's
boat and its crew, who steers; the coxswain of the captain's
gig takes a special rank among petty officers. In the National
Lifeboat Institution of Great Britain the " coxswain " is a paid
permanent official on each station, who has charge of the lifeboat
and house, is responsible for its care, and steers and takes com-
mand when afloat. The word is also used, generally, of any one
Who steers a boat.

COXWELL, HENRY TRACEY (1819-1900), English aeronaut,
was born at Wouldham, Kent, on the 2nd of March 18 19, the
son of a naval officer. He was educated for the army, but
became a dentist. From a boy he had been greatly interested
in ballooning, then in its infancy, but his own first ascent was not
made until 1844. In 1848 he became a professional aeronaut,
making numerous public ascents in the chief continental cities.
Returning to London, he gave exhibitions from the Crerhorne
and subsequently from the Surrey Gardens. By 1861 he had
made over 400 ascents. In 1862 in company with Dr James
Glaisher, he attained the greatest height on record, about
7 m. His companion became insensible, and he himself,
unable to use his frost-bitten hands, opened the gas-valve with
his teeth, and made an extremely rapid but safe descent. The
result of this and other aerial voyages by Coxwell and Glaisher
was the making of some important contributions to the science
of meteorology. Coxwell was most pertinacious in urging the
practical utility of employing balloons in time of war. He says:
" I had hammered away in The Times for little less than a decade
before there was a real military trial of ballooning for military
purposes at Aldershot." His last ascent was made in 1885, and
he died on the 5th of January 1900.

See his My Life and Balloon Experiences (1887).

COYOTE— COYSEVOX

355

COYOTE, the Indian name for a North American member of
the dog family, also known as the prairie-wolf, and scientifically
as Canis latrans. Ranging from Canada in the north to Guatemala
in the south, and chiefly frequenting the open plains on both
sides of the chain of the Rocky Mountains, the coyote, under all
its various local phases, is a smaller animal than the true wolf,
and may apparently be regarded as the New World repre-
sentative of the jackals, or perhaps, like the Indian wolf (C.
pallipes), as a type intermediate between wolves and jackals.
In addition to its inferior size, the coyote is also shorter in the
leg than the wolf, and carries a more luxuriant coat of hair.
The average length is about 40 in., and the general tone of
colour tawny mingled with black and white above and whitish
below, the tail having a black tip and likewise a dark gland-
patch near the root of the upper surface. There is, however,
considerable local variation both in the matter of size and
of colour from the typical coyote of Iowa, which measures
about 50 in. in total length and is of a full rich tint. The
coyote of the deserts of eastern California, Nevada and Utah
is, for instance, a smaller and paler-coloured animal, whose
length is usually about 42 in. On this and other local varia-
tions a number of nominal species have been founded; but
it is preferable to regard them in the light of geographical phases
or races, such as the above-mentioned C. latrans estor of Nevada
and Utah, C. I. mearnsi of Arizona and Sonora, and C. I. frustor
of Oklahoma and the Arkansas River district.

It is to distinguish them from the grey, or timber, wolves that
coyotes have received the name of " prairie-wolves "; the two
titles indicating the nature of the respective habitats of the two
species. Coyotes are creatures of slinking and stealthy habits,
living in burrows in the plains, and hunting in packs at night,
when they utter yapping cries and blood-curdling yells as they
gallop. Hares (" jack-rabbits ") , chipmunks or ground-squirrels,
and mice form a large portion of their food; but coyotes also
kill the fawns of deer and prongbuck, as well as sage-hens and
other kinds of game-birds. " In the flat lands," write Messrs
Witmer Stone and W. E. Cram, in their American Animals
(1902), " they dig burrows for themselves or else take possession
of those already made by badgers and prairie-dogs. Here in the
spring the half-dozen or more coyote pups are brought forth;
and it is said that at this season the old ones systematically
drive any large game they may be chasing as near to their burrow,
where the young coyotes are waiting to be fed, as possible before
killing it, in order to save the labour of dragging it any great
distance. When out after jack-rabbits two coyotes usually
work together. When a jack-rabbit starts up before them, one
of the coyotes bounds away in pursuit while the other squats
on his haunches and waits his turn, knowing full well that the
hare prefers to run in a circle, and will soon come round again,
when the second wolf takes up the chase and the other rests in
his turn. . . . When hunting antelope (prongbuck) and deer
the coyotes spread out their pack into a wide circle, endeavouring
to surround their game and keep it running inside their ring
until exhausted. Sage-hens, grouse and small birds the coyote
hunts successfully alone, quartering over the ground like a trained
pointer until he succeeds in locating his bird, when he drops
flat in the grass and creeps forward like a cat until close enough
for the final spring."

When hard put to it for food, coyotes will, it is reported, eat
hips, juniper-berries and other wild fruits. (R. L.*)

COYPEL, the • name of a French family of painters. Noel
Coypel (1628-1707), also called, from the fact that he was much
influenced by Poussin, Coypel le Poussin, was the son of an
unsuccessful artist. Having been employed by Charles Errard to
paint some of the pictures required for the Louvre, and having
afterwards gained considerable fame by other pictures produced
at the command of the king, in 1672 he was appointed director
of the French Academy at Rome. After four years he returned to
France; and not long after he became director of the Academy
of Painting. The Martyrdom of St James in Notre Dame is
perhaps his finest work.

His son, Antoine Coypel (1661-1772), was still more celebrated

than his father. Antoine studied under his father, with whom
he spent four years at Rome. At the age of eighteen he was
admitted into the Academy of Painting, of which he became
professor and rector in 1707, and director in 1714. In 1716 he
was appointed king's painter, and he was ennobled in the follow-
ing year. Antoine Coypel received a careful literary education,
the effects of which appear in his works; but the graceful
imagination displayed by his pictures is marred by the fact that
he was not superior to the artificial taste of his age. He was a
clever etcher, and engraved several of his own works. His
Discours prononces dans les conferences de V AcadSmie royale de
Peinture, &°c; appeared in 1741.

Antoine's half-brother, Noel Nicholas Coypel (1602-1734),
was also an exceedingly popular artist; and his son, Charles
Antoine (1694-1752), was painter to the king and director
of the Academy of Painting. The latter published interesting
academical lectures in Le Mercure and wrote several plays which
were acted at court, but were never published.

COYPU, the native name of a large South American aquatic
rodent mammal, known very generally among European residents
in the country as nutria (the Spanish word for otter) and scientifi-
cally as Myocastor (or Myopotamus) coypu. Its large size,
aquatic habits, partially webbed hind-toes, and the smooth,
broad, orange-coloured incisors, are sufficient to distinguish
this rodent from the other members of the family Capromyidae.
Coypu are abundant in the fresh waters of South America, even
small ponds being often tenanted by one or more pairs. Should
the water dry up, the coypu seek fresh homes. Although
subsisting to a considerable extent on aquatic plants, these
rodents frequently come ashore to feed, especially in the evening.
Several young are produced at a birth, which are carried on their
mother's back when swimming. The fur is of some commercial
value, although rather stiff and harsh; its colour being reddish-
brown. (See Rodentia.)

COYSEVOX, CHARLES ANTOINE (1640- 1720), French
sculptor, was born at Lyons on the 29th of September 1640, and
belonged to a family which had emigrated from Spain. The
name should be pronounced Coezevo. He was only seventeen
when he produced a statue of the Madonna of considerable
merit; and having studied under Lerambert and trained himself
by taking copies in marble from the Greek masterpieces (among
others from the Venus de Medici and the Castor and Pollux), he
was engaged by the bishop of Strassburg, Cardinal Furstenberg,
to adorn with statuary his chateau at Saverne (Zabern). In
1666 he married Marguerite Quillerier, Lerambert's niece, who
died a year after the marriage. In 167 1, after four years spent
on Saverne, which was subsequently destroyed by fire in 1780,
he returned to Paris. In 1676 his bust of the painter Le Brun
obtained admission for him to the Academie Royale. A year
later he married Claude Bourdict.

In consequence of the influence exercised by Le Brun between
the years 1677 and 1685, he was employed by Louis XIV.
in producing much of the decoration and a large number of
statues for Versailles; and he afterwards worked, between 1701
and 1709, with no less facility and success, for the palace at
Marly, subsequently destroyed in the Revolution.

Among his works are the " Mercury and Fame," first at Marly
and afterwards in the gardens of the Tuileries; "Neptune and
Amphitrite," in the gardens at Marly; " Justice and Force," at
Versailles; and statues, in which the likenesses are said to have
been remarkably successful, of most of the celebrated men of his
age, including Louis XIV. and Louis XV. at Versailles, Colbert
(at Saint-Eustache), Mazarin (in the church desQuatre-Nations),
Conde the Great (in the Louvre), Maria Theresa of Austria,
Turenne, Vauban, Cardinals de Bouillon and de Polignac,
Fenelon, Racine, Bossuet (in the Louvre), the comte d'Harcourt,
Cardinal Furstenberg and Charles Le Brun (in the Louvre).
Coysevox died in Paris on the 10th of October 1720.

Besides the works given above he carved about a dozen
memorials, including those to Colbert (at Saint-Eustache), to
Cardinal Mazarin( in the Louvre), and to the painter Le Brun (in
the church of Saint Nicholas-du-Chardon).

356

CRAB

Among the pupils of Coysevox were Nicolas and Guillaume
Coustou.

See Henry Jouin, A. Coysevox, sa vie, son osuvre (1883); Jean du
Seigneur, Revue universelle des arts, vol. i. (1855), pp. 32 et seq.

CRAB (Ger. Krabbe, Krebs), a name applied to the Crustacea of
the order Brachyura, and to other forms, especially of the order
Anomur a, which resemble them more or less closely in appearance
and habits.

The Brachyura, or true crabs, are distinguished from the long-
tailed lobsters and shrimps which form the order Macrura, by
the fact that the abdomen or tail is of small size and is carried
folded up under the body. In most of them the body is trans-
versely oval or triangular in outline and more or less flattened,
and is covered by a hard shell, the carapace. There are five
pairs of legs. The first pair end in nippers or chelae and are
usually much more massive than the others which are used in
walking or swimming. The eyes are set on movable stalks and
can be withdrawn into sockets in the front part of the carapace.
There are six pairs of jaws and foot-jaws (maxiliipedes) enclosed
within a " buccal cavern," the opening of which is covered by the

FlG. I. — Side view of Crab (Morse), the abdomen extended and

carrying a mass of eggs beneath it ; e, eggs.

broad and flattened third pair of foot-jaws. The abdomen is
usually narrow and triangular in the males, but in the females it
is broad and rounded and bears appendages to which the eggs are
attached after spawning (fig. 1).

As in most Crustacea, the young of nearly all crabs, when
newly hatched, are very different from their parents. The first

larval stage is known
as a Zoea, this name
having been given to it
when it was believed
by naturalists to be
a distinct and inde-
pendent species of
animal. The Zoea is
a minute transparent
organism, swimming
at the surface of the
sea. It has a rounded
body, armed with
long spines, and along
segmented tail. The
eyes are large but not
set on stalks, the legs
are not yet developed,
and the foot-jaws form
swimming paddles.
After casting its skin
several times as it

Fig. 2 .-Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in S rows { \ size > . the
its second stage, r. Rostral spine; s, Dorsal young crab passes into
spine; m, Maxillipeds; t, Buds of thoracic a stage known as the
feet; a, Abdomen. (Spence Bate.) Megalopa (fig. 2), also

formerly regarded as
an independent animal, in which the body and limbs are more
crab-like, but the abdomen is large and not filled up'. After a

further moult the animal assumes a form very similar to that of
the adult. There are a few crabs, living on land or in fresh water,
which do not pass through a metamorphosis but leave the egg as
miniature adults.

Most crabs live in the sea, and even the land-crabs, which are
abundant in tropical countries, nearly all visit the sea occasionally
and pass through their early stages in it. Many shore-crabs
living between tide-marks are more or less amphibious, and the
river-crab of southern Europe or Lenten crab (Potamon edule,
better known as Thelphusa fluviatilis) is an example of the fresh-
water crabs which are abundant in most of the warmer regions of
the world. As a rule, crabs breathe by gills, which are lodged in
a pair of cavities at the sides of the carapace, but in the true
land-crabs the cavities become enlarged and modified so as to act
as lungs for breathing air.

Walking or crawling is the usual mode of locomotion, and the
peculiar sidelong gait familiar to most people in the common
shore-crab, is characteristic of most members of the group. The
crabs of the family Portunidae, and some others, swim with
great dexterity by means of their flattened paddle-shaped
feet.

Like many other Crustacea, crabs are often omnivorous and
act as the scavengers of the sea, but many are predatory in their
habits and some are content with a vegetable diet.

Though no crab, perhaps, is truly parasitic, some live in
relations of " commensalism " with other animals. The best
known examples of this are the little " mussel-crabs " (Pinno-
theridae) which live within the shells of mussels and other bivalve
mollusca and probably share the food of their hosts. Some
crabs live among corals, and one species at least gives rise to
hollow swellings on the branches of a coral like the "galls"
which are formed on plants by certain insects. Another
crab (Melia tesselata) carries in each of its claws a living sea-
anemone which it uses as an animated weapon of defence and
an implement for the capture of prey. Many of the sluggish
spider-crabs (Maiidae) have their shells covered- by a forest
of growing sea-weeds, zoophytes and sponges, which are
" planted " there by the crab itself, and which afford it a very
effective disguise.

Many of the larger crabs are sought for as food by man. The
most important and valuable are the edible crab of British
and European coasts (Cancer pagurus) and the blue crab of the
Atlantic coast of the United States (Callinectes sapidus).

Among the Anomura, the best known are the hermit-crabs,
which live in the empty shells of Gasteropod Mollusca, which
they carry about with them as portable dwellings. In these,
the abdomen is soft-skinned and spirally twisted so as to fit into
the shells which they inhabit. The common hermit-crab of the
British coasts {Pagurus or Eupagurus Bernhardus) is sometimes
called the soldier-crab from its pugnacity. Small specimens
are found between tide-marks inhabiting the shells of periwinkles
and other small molluscs, but the full-grown specimens live in
deeper water and are usually found in the shell of the whelk
(Buccinum). As the crab grows it changes its dwelling from
time to time, often having to fight with its fellows for the pos-
session of an empty shell. Sometimes an annelid worm lives
inside the shell along with the hermit and often the outside is
covered with zoophytes. In some species, as in the British
Eupagurus prideauxi, a sea-anemone is constantly found attached
to the shell, profiting by the active locomotion of the crab and
probably sharing the crumbs of its food, while it affords its host
protection by its stinging powers.

In tropical countries the hermit-crabs of the family Coeno-
bitidae live on land, often at considerable distances from the
sea, to which, however, they return for the purpose of hatching
out their spawn. The large robber-crab or cocoa-nut crab of
the Indo-Pacific islands (Birgus latro), which belongs to this
family, has given up the habit of carrying a portable dwelling,
and the upper surface of its abdomen has become covered by
shelly plates. The stories of its climbing palm-trees to get the
fruit were long doubted, but it has been seen, and even photo-
graphed in the act. (W. T. Ca.)

CRAB

357

Fig. 6. — Eupagurus Bern-
hardus (Soldier Crab).

Fig. 7. — Pinnotheres
pisum (Pea Crab).

Fig. 8. — Corysles
Cassivelaunus (Masked
Crab).

Fig. 9. — Eupagurus angulatus (a Hermit Crab).

358

CRABBE

CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832), English poet, was born at
Aldeburgh in Suffolk on the 24th of December 1754. His family
was partly of Norfolk, partly of Suffolk origin, and the name
was doubtless originally derived from " crab." His grandfather,
Robert Crabbe, was the first of the family to settle at Aldeburgh,
where he held the appointment of collector of customs. He died
in 1 734, leaving one son, George,who practised many occupations,
including that of a schoolmaster, in the adjoining village of
Orford. Finally the poet's father obtained a small post in the
customs of Aldeburgh, married Mary Lodwick, the widow of a
publican, and had six children, of whom George was the eldest.

The sea has swept away the small cottage that was George
Crabbe's birthplace,but one may still visit the quay at Slaughden,
some half-mile from the town, where the father worked and the
son was at a later date to work with him. At first attending
a dame's school in Aldeburgh, when nine or ten years of age he
was sent to a boarding-school at Bungay, and at twelve to a school
at Stowmarket, where he remained two years. His father dreamt
of the medical profession for his clever boy, and so in 1768 he
went to Wickham Brook near Newmarket as an apothecary's
assistant. In 1 771 we find him assisting a surgeon at Woodbridge,
and it was while here that he met Sarah Elmy. Crabbe was now
only eighteen years of age, but he became " engaged " to this
lady in 1772. It was not until 1783 that the pair were married.
The intervening years were made up of painful struggle, in which,
however, not only the affection but the purse of his betrothed
assisted him. About the time of Crabbe's return from Wood-
bridge to Aldeburgh he published at Ipswich his first work, a
poem entitled Inebriety (1775). He found his father fallen on
evil days. There was no money to assist him to a partnership,
and surgery for the moment seemed out of the question. For
a few weeks Crabbe worked as a common labourer, rolling butter
casks on Slaughden quay. Before the year was out, however,
the young man bought on credit " the shattered furniture of an
apothecary's shop and the drugs that stocked it." This was at
Aldeburgh. A year later Crabbe installed a deputy in the
surgery and paid his first visit to London. He lodged in White-
chapel, took lessons in midwifery and walked the hospitals.
Returning to Aldeburgh after nine months — in 1777 — he found
his practice gone. Even as a doctor for the poor he was an utter
failure, poetry having probably taken too firm a hold upon his
mind. At times he suffered hunger, so utterly unable was he
to earn a livelihood. After three years of this, in 1780 Crabbe
paid his second visit to London, enabled thereto by the loan of
five pounds from Dudley Lang, a local magnate. This visit
to London, which was undertaken by sea on board the " Unity "
smack, made for Crabbe a successful career. His poem The
Candidate, issued soon after his arrival, helped not at all. For
a time he almost starved, and was only saved, it is clear, by gifts
of money from his sweetheart Sarah Elmy. He importuned
the great, and the publishers also. Everywhere he was refused,
but at length a letter which reached Edmund Burke in March
1781 led to the careful consideration on the part of that great
man of Crabbe's many manuscripts. Burke advised the publi-
cation of The Library, which appeared in 1781. He invited him
to Beaconsfield, and made interest in the right quarters to secure
Crabbe's entry into the church. He was ordained in December
1 781 and was appointed curate to the rector of Aldeburgh.

Crabbe was not happy in his new post. The Aldeburgh folk
could not reverence as priest a man they had known as a day
labourer. Crabbe again appealed to Burke, who persuaded the
duke of Rutland to make him his chaplain (1782), and Crabbe
took up his residence in Belvoir Castle, accompanying his new
patron to London, when Lord Chancellor Thurlow (who told
him he was " as like Parson Adams as twelve to the dozen ")
gave him the two livings of Frome St Quentin and Evershot in
Dorsetshire, worth together about £200 a year. In May 1783
Crabbe's poem The Village was published by Dodsley, and in
December of this year he married Sarah Elmy. Crabbe continued
his duties as ducal chaplain, being in the main a non-resident
priest so far as his Dorsetshire parishes were concerned. In
1 785 he published The Newspaper. Shortly after this he moved

with his wife from Belvoir Castle to the parsonage of Stathern,
where he took the duties of the non-resident vicar Thomas Parke,
archdeacon of Stamford. Crabbe was at Stathern for four years.
In 1789, through the persuasion of the duchess of Rutland (now
a widow, the duke having died in Dublin as lord-lieutenant of
Ireland in 1787), Thurlow gave Crabbe the two livings of Muston
in Leicestershire and West Allington in Lincolnshire. At
Muston parsonage Crabbe resided for twelve years, divided by
a long interval. He had been four years at Muston when his
wife inherited certain interests in a property of her uncle's that
placed her and her husband in possession of Ducking Hall,
Parham, Suffolk. Here he took up his residence from 1793 to
1796, leaving curates in charge of his two livings. In 17.96 the
loss of their son Edmund led the Crabbes to remove from Parham
to Great Glemham Hall, Suffolk, where they lived until 1801.
In that year Crabbe went to live at Rendham, a village in the
same neighbourhood. In 1805 he returned to Muston. In 1807
he broke a silence of more than twenty years by the publication
of The Parish Register, in 1810 of The Borough, and in 1812 of
Tales in Verse. In 1813 Crabbe's wife died, and in 1814 he was
given the living of Trowbridge, Wiltshire, by the duke of Rutland,
a son of his early patron, who, it is interesting to recall, wanted
the living of Muston for a cousin of Lord Byron. From 18 14
to his death in 1832 Crabbe resided at Trowbridge.

These last years were the most prosperous of his life. He was
a constant visitor to London, and in friendship with all the
literary celebrities of the time. " Crabbe seemed to grow young
again," remarks his biographer, M. Rene Huchon. He certainly
carried on a succession of mild flirtations, and one Of his
parishioners, Charlotte Ridout, would have married him. The
elderly widower had proposed to her and had been accepted in
1814, but he drew out of the engagement in 1816. He proposed
to yet another friend, Elizabeth Charter, somewhat later. In
his visits to London Crabbe was the guest of Samuel Rogers, in
St James's Place, and was a frequent visitor to Holland House,
where he met his brother poets Moore and Campbell. In 1817
his Tales of the Hall were completed, and John Murray offered
£3000 for the copyright, Crabbe's previous works being included.
The offer after much negotiation was accepted, but Crabbe's
popularity was now on the wane.

In 1822 Crabbe went to Edinburgh on a visit to Sir Walter
Scott. The adventure, complicated as it was by the visit of
George IV. about the same time, is most amusingly described in
Lockhart's biography of Scott, although one episode — that of the
broken wine-glass — is discredited by Crabbe's biographer, M.
Huchon. Crabbe died at Trowbridge on the 3rd of February
1832, and' was buried in Trowbridge church, where an ornate
monument was placed over his tomb in August 1833.

Never was any poet at the same time so great and continuous
a favourite with the critics, and yet so conspicuously allowed to
fall into oblivion by the public. All the poets of his earlier and
his later years, Cowper, Scott, Byron, Shelley in particular, have
been reprinted again and again. With Crabbe it was long quite
otherwise. His works were collected into eight volumes, the
first containing his life by his son, in 1832. The edition was
intended to continue with some of his prose writings, but the
reception of the eight volumes was not sufficiently encouraging.
A reprint, however, in one volume was made in 1847, and it has
been reproduced since in 1854, 1867 and 1901. The exhaustion of
the copyright, however, did no good for Crabbe's reputation, and
it was not until the end of the century that sundry volumes of
" selections " from his poems appeared; Edward FitzGerald, of
Omar Khayyam fame, always a loyal admirer, made a
" Selection," privately printed by Quaritch, in 1879. A " Selec-
tion " by Bernard Holland appeared in 1899, another by C. H.
Herford in 1902 and a third by Deane in 1903. The Complete
Worki were published by the Cambridge University Press in
three volumes, edited by A. W. Ward, in 1906.

Crabbe's poems have been praised by many competent pens, by
Edward FitzGerald in his Letters, by Cardinal Newman in his
Apologia, and by Sir Leslie Stephen in his Hours in a Library,
most notably. His verses comforted the last hours of Charles

CRACKER— CRACOW

359

James Fox and of Sir Walter Scott, while Thomas Hardy has
acknowledged their influence on the realism of his novels. But
his works have ceased to command a wide public interest. He
just failed of being the artist in words who is able to make the
same appeal in all ages. Yet to-day his poems will well repay
perusal. His stories are profoundly poignant and when once
read are never forgotten. He is one of the great realists of
English fiction, for even considered as a novelist he makes
fascinating reading. He is more than this: for there is true
poetry in Crabbe, although his most distinctively lyric note was
attained when he wrote under the influence of opium, to which he
became much addicted in his later years.

Bibliography. — Tlie Works of Crabbe (8 vols., Murray, 1834;
I vol. .Murray, 1901), and the Works in the Cambridge Press Classics,
edited by A. W. Ward (1906), have already been referred to. The
life by Crabbe's son in one volume, The Life of the Rev. George Crabbe,
LL.B., by his son the Rev. George Crabbe, A.M. (1834), has not been
separately reprinted as it deserves to be. A recent biography is
George Crabbe and His Times, 1754-1832; A Critical and Bio-
graphical Study, by Rene Huchon, translated from the French by
Frederick Clarke (1907). Brief biographies by T. H. Kebbel
(" Great Writers " series) and by Canon Ainger (" English Men of
Letters " series) also deserve attention. (C. K. S.)

CRACKER (from " crack," a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger.
krachen, Dutch kraken, meaning to break with a sharp sound),
that which " cracks "; it is, therefore, applied (1) to a firework
so constructed that it explodes with several reports and jumps at
each explosion, when placed on the ground (see Fireworks);
(2) to a roll of coloured and ornamented paper containing sweets,
small articles of cheap jewelry, paper caps and other trifles,
together with a strip of card with a fulminant which explodes
with a " crack " on being pulled; (3) to a thin crisp biscuit
(q.v.); in America the general name for a biscuit. In the
southern states of America, " cracker " is a term of contempt for
the " poor " or " mean whites," particularly of Georgia and
Florida; the term is an old one and dates back to the Revolution,
and is supposed to be derived from the "cracked corn " which
formed the staple food of the class to whom the term refers.

CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau), a town and episcopal
see of Austria, in Galicia, 212 m. W. by N. of Lemberg by rail.
Pop. (1900) 91,310, of which 21,000 were Jews, 5000 Germans
and the remainder Poles. Although in regard to its population
it is only the second place in Galicia, Cracow is the most interest-
ing town in the whole of Poland. No other Polish town possesses
so many old and historic buildings, none of them contains so
many national relics, or has been so closely associated with
the development and destinies of Poland as Cracow. And the
ancient capital is still the intellectual centre of the Polish nation.

Cracow is situated in a fertile plain on the left bank of the
Vistula (which becomes navigable here) and occupies a position of
great strategical importance. It consists of the old inner town
and seven suburbs. The only relics of the fortifications of the
old town, whose place is now occupied by shady promenades, is
the Florian's Gate and the Rondell, a circular structure, built in
1498. Cracow has 39 churches — about half the number it
formerly had — and 25 convents for monks and nuns. Of these
the most important is the Stanislaus cathedral, in Gothic style,
consecrated in 1359, and built on the Wawel, the rocky eminence
to the S.W. of the old town. Here the kings of Poland were
crowned, and this church is also the Pantheon of the Polish
nation, the burial place of its kings and its great men. Here
he the remains of John Sobieski, of Thaddaeus Kosciuszko, of
Joseph Poaiatowski and of Adam Mickiewicz. Here also are
conserved the remains of St Stanislaus, the patron saint of the
Poles, who, as bishop of Cracow, was slain before the altar by
King Boleslaus in 1079. The cathedral is adorned with many
valuable objects of art, paintings and sculptures, by such artists
as Veit Stoss, Guido Reni, Peter Vischer, Thorwaldsen, &c.
Part of the ancient Polish regalia is also kept here. The Gothic
church of St Mary, founded in 1223, rebuilt in the 14th century
with several chapels added in the 15th and 16th centuries, was
restored in 1889-1893, and decorated with paintings from the
designs by Matejko. It contains a huge high altar, the master-
piece of Veit Stoss, who was a native of Cracow, executed in

1477-1489; a colossal stone crucifix, dating from the end of the
15th century, and several sumptuous tombs of noble families
from the 16th and 17th centuries. The Dominican church, a
Gothic building of the 13th century, but practically rebuilt after a
fire in 1850; the Franciscan church, also of the 13th century, also
much modernized; the church of St Florian of the 12th century,
rebuilt in 1768, which contains the late-Gothic altar by Veit
Stoss, executed in 15 18, during his last sojourn in Cracow; the
church of St Peter, with a colossal dome, built in 1597, after the
model of that of St Peter at Rome, and the beautiful Augustinian
church in the suburb of Kazimierz, are all worth mentioning.
Of the principal secular buildings, the royal castle (Zamek
Krdlowsk), a huge building, begun in the 13th century, and
successively enlarged by Casimir the Great and by Sigismund I.
Jagiello (1510-1533), is situated on the Wawel, and was until
1610 the residence of the Polish kings. It suffered much from
fires and other disasters, and from 1846 onward was used as a
barracks and a military hospital; it has now, however, been
cleared out and restored. The Jagellonian university, now
housed in a magnificent Gothic building erected in 1881-1887,
was attended in 1901 by 1255 students, and had 175 professors
and lecturers. The language of instruction is Polish. It is the
second oldest university in Europe — the oldest being that of
Prague- — and was famous during the 15th and 16th centuries.
It was founded by Casimir the Great in 1364, and completed by
Ladislaus Jagiello in 1400. Its rich library is now housed in the
old university buildings, erected in the 15th century, in the
beautiful Gothic court of which a bronze statue of Copernicus was
placed in 1900. The Polish Academy of Science, founded in 1872,
is housed in the new university buildings. In the Ring-Platz,
or the principal square, opposite the church of St Mary, is the
Tuchhaus (cloth-hall, Pol. Sukiennice), a building erected in 1257,
several times renovated and enlarged, most recently in 1879,
which contains the Polish national museum of art. Behind it is a
Gothic tower, the only relic of the old town hall, demolished in
1820. The Czartoryski museum contains a large collection of
objects of art, a rich library and a precious collection of manu-
scripts, relating to the history of Poland.

Among the manufactures of the town are machinery, agri-
cultural implements, chemicals, soap, tobacco, &c. But Cracow
is more important as a trading than as an industrial centre.
Its position on the Vistula and at the junction of several railways
makes it the natural mart for the exchange of the products of
Silesia, Hungary and Russian and Austrian Poland. Its trade
in timber, salt, textiles, cattle, wine and agricultural produce of
all kinds is very considerable. In the neighbourhood of Cracow
there are mines of coal and zinc, and not far away lies the village
of Krzeszowice with sulphur baths. About 2\ m. N.W. lies the
Kosciuszko Hill, a mound of earth 100 ft. high, thrown up in
1820-1823 on the Borislava hill (1093 ft.), in honour of Thaddaeus
Kosciuszko, the hero of Poland. On the opposite bank of the
Vistula, united to Cracow by a bridge, lies the town of Podgorze
(pop. 18,142); near it is the Krakus Hill, smaller than the
Kosciuszko Hill, and a thousand years older than it, erected in
honour of Krakus, the founder of Cracow. About 8 m. S.E. of
Cracow is situated Wieliczka (q.v.), with its famous salt mines.

History. — Tradition assigns the foundation of Cracow to the
mythical Krak, a Polish prince who is said to have built a strong-
hold here about a.d. 700. Its early history is, however, entirely
obscure. In the latter part of the 10th century it was annexed to
the Bohemian principality, but was recaptured by Boleslaus
Chrobry, who made it the seat of a bishopric, and it became the
capital of one of the most important of the principalities into
which Poland was divided from the 12th century onwards. The
city was practically ruined during the first Tatar invasion in
1 24 1, but the introduction of German colonists restored its
prosperity, and in 1257 it received " Magdeburg rights," i.e. a
civic constitution modelled on that of"Magdeburg. In this year
the Tuchhalle was built. The town, however, had yet to pass
through many vicissitudes. It suffered again from Tatar in-
vasions; in 1290 it was captured by Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia
and was held by the Bohemians until, in 1305, the Polish king

3 6 °

CRADDOCK— CRAG

Ladislaus Lokietek recovered it from Wenceslaus III. Ladislaus
made it his capital, and from this time until 1764 it remained
the coronation and burial place of the Polish kings, even after
the royal residence had been removed by Siegmund III. (1587-
1632) to Warsaw. On the third partition of Poland in 1795
Austria took possession of Cracow; but in 1809 Napoleon
wrested it from that power, and incorporated it with the duchy
of Warsaw, which was placed under the rule of the king of
Saxony. In the campaign of 181 2 the emperor Alexander made
himself master of this and the other territory which formed the
duchy of Warsaw. At the general settlement of the affairs of
Europe by the great powers in 181 5, it was agreed that Cracow
and the adjoining territory should be formed into a free state;
and, by the Final Act of the congress signed at Vienna in 181 5,
" the town of Cracow, with its territory, is declared to be for
ever a free, independent and strictly neutral city, under the
protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia." In February 1846,
however, an insurrection broke out in Cracow, apparently a
ramification of a widely spread conspiracy throughout Poland.
The senate and the other authorities of Cracow were unable to
subdue the rebels or to maintain order, and, at their request, the
city was occupied by a corps of Austrian troops for the protection
of the inhabitants. The three powers, Russia, Austria and
Prussia, made this a pretext for extinguishing this independent
state; and as the outcome of a conference at Vienna (November
1846) the three courts, contrary to the assurance previously
given, and in opposition to the expressed views of the British and
French governments, decided to extinguish the state of Cracow
and to incorporate it with the dominions of Austria.

CRADDOCK, CHARLES EGBERT (1850- ), the pen-name
of Mary Noaixles Murfree, American author, who was born
near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, on the 24th of January 1850, the
great-granddaughter of Col. Hardy Murfree. She was crippled
in childhood by paralysis. She attended school in Nashville and
Philadelphia. Spending her summers in the mountains of eastern
Tennessee, she came to know the primitive people there with
whose life her writings deal. She contributed to Appleton's
Journal, and, first in 1878, to The Atlantic Monthly. No one,
apparently, suspected that the author of these stories was a
woman, and her identity was not disclosed until 1885, a year
after the publication of her first volume of short stories, In the
Tennessee Mountains. She deals mainly with the narrow, stern
life of the Tennessee mountaineers, who, left behind in the advance
of civilization, live amid traditions and customs, and speak a
dialect, peculiarly their own; and her work abounds in exquisite
descriptions of scenery. Among her other books are: Where
the Battle was Fought (1884), a novel dealing with the old aristo-
cratic southern life; Down the Ravine (1885) and The Story of
Keedon Bluffs (1887) for young people; The Prophet of the Great
Smoky Mountains (1885), a novel; In the Clouds (1886), a novel ;
The Despot of Broomsedge Cow (1888), a novel; In the " Stranger-
People's" Country (1891); His Vanished Star (1894), a novel;
The Mystery of Witch-Face Mountain and Other Stories (1895);
The Phantoms of the Footbridge and Other Stories (1895); The
Young Mountaineers (1897), short stories; The Juggler (1897)4
The Story of Old Fort Loudon (1899); The Bushwhackers and
Other Stories (1899); The Champion (1902); A Spectre of Power
(1903); The Frontiersman (1904); The Storm Centre (1905);
The Amulet (1906) ; The Windfall (1907) ; and Fair Mississippian
(1908).

CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with
" crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic
word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English
Dictionary), a child's bed of wood, wicker or iron, with enclosed
sides, slung upon pivots or mounted on rockers. It is a very
ancient piece of furniture, but the date when it first assumed
its characteristic swinging or rocking form is by no means clear.
A miniature in an illuminated Hisloire de la belle Hilaine in the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (end of the 14th or beginning of
the 15th century) shows an infant sleeping in a tiny four-post
bed slung upon rockers. In its oldest forms the cradle is an
oblong oak box without a lid — originally the rockers appear to

have been detachable— but, like all other household appliances,
it has been subject to changes of fashion alike in shape and
adornment. It has been panelled and carved, supported on
Renaissance pillars, inlaid with marqueterie or mounted in
gilded bronze. The original simple shape persisted for two or
three centuries — even the hood made its appearance very early.
In the 1 8th century, however, cradles were often very elaborate —
indeed in France they had begun to be so much earlier, but the
richly carved and upholstered examples were used chiefly for
purposes of state, being in fact miniature His de parade. In
modern times they have become lighter and simpler, the old hood
being very often replaced by a draped curtain dependent from a
carved or shaped upright. About the middle of the 1 9th century
iron cradles were introduced, along with iron bedsteads. A
number of undoubted historic cradles have been preserved,
together with many others with doubtful attributions. Two
alleged cradles of Henry V. exist ; one which claims to have been
used by the unhappy earl of Derwentwater is in the Victoria
and Albert Museum in London; the other is at Windsor Castle.
That of Henry IV. of France, now in the Chateau de Pau, is
mounted upon a large tortoiseshell. That of the king of Rome
(" Napoleon II.") was designed by Prud'hon, and along with that
of the comte de Chambord is preserved in the Garde Meuble.
In England a cradle is now often called a " bassinet " (i.e.
little basket), and the " cot "has to some extent taken its place.
By analogy, the word " cradle " is also applied to various
sorts of framework in engineering, and to a rocking-tool
used in engraving.

CRADOCK, a town of South Africa, capital of a division of the
Cape province, in the upper valley of the Great Fish river, 181 m.
by rail N. by E. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 7762. It is one
of the chief centres of the wool industry of the Cape, and does also
a large trade in ostrich feathers, mohair, &c. The town enjoys
a reputation as one of the best health resorts in the province.
It stands at an altitude of 2856 ft.; the climate is very dry,
the average annual rainfall being 14- 50 in. The mean maximum
temperature is 77-6° F. Three miles N. of the town are sulphur
baths (temp. ioo° F.) used for the treatment of rheumatism. In
the neighbouring district survive a few herds of zebras, now
protected by the game laws. The town dates from the beginning
of the 19th century and is named after Sir John Cradock,
governor of the Cape 1811-1813. The division has an area of
3048 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of 18,803, of whom 41 % are white.
CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength,
or power; cf. Get. Kraft), a word confined in English only, of
the Teutonic languages in which it occurs, to intellectual power,
and used as a synonym of " art." It then means skill or in-
genuity, especially in the manual arts, hence its use in the
expression " Arts and Crafts " (q.v.), and it is 'thus applied to
the trade or profession in which such skill is displayed, to an
association of workmen of a particular trade, a trade gild, and
in particular to Freemasons, "the craft"; the word appears
also in words such as " handicraft " or " craftsman." Skill
applied to outwit or deceive gives the common sense of cunning
or trickery, and it is this meaning which is implied in such
combined words as " priestcraft," " witchcraft " and the like.
A more particular use of the word is in the nautical sense of
vessels of transport by water; this is probably a colloquially
shortened form either of " vessels of a fisherman's, lighterman's
&c, craft," i.e. "art," or of "vessels of a heavier or lighter
craft," i.e. burden or capacity; in both cases the , qualifying
words are dropped and the word comes to be used of vessels in
general.

CRAG (a Celtic word, cf . Gael, creag, Manx cr eg, and Welsh and
modern Scots craig), a steep rock. The word appears in many
place-names in the north of England and in Scotland, and is also
connected with " carrick," a word of similar meaning, also
found in place-names. In geology, the term is applied to the
strata in which a shelly sand deposit is found, and, in the expres-
sion " crag and tail," to a formation of hills, in which one side is
precipitous and lofty and the other slopes or " tails " gradually
away, as in the Castle Rock in Edinburgh.

CRAGGS— CRAIGIE

361

CRAGGS, JAMES (1657-1721), English politician, was a son of
Anthony Craggs of Holbeck, Durham, and was baptized on the
10th of June 1657. After following various callings in London,
Craggs, who was a person of considerable financial ability,
entered the service of the duchess of Marlborough, and through
her influence became in 1702 member of parliament for Gram-
pound, retaining his seat until 1713. He was in business as an
army clothier and held several official positions, becoming joint
postmaster-general in 1715; and, making the most of his
opportunities in all these capacities, he amassed a great deal of
money. Craggs also increased his wealth by mixing in the
affairs of the South Sea Company, but after his death an act of
parliament confiscated all the property which he had acquired
since December 1719. He left an enormous fortune when he
died on the 16th of March 1721. It is possible that Craggs
committed suicide.

His son, Jakes Craggs the younger (1686-1721), was born at
Westminster on the 9th of April 1686. Part of his early life was
spent abroad, where he made the acquaintance of George
Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards King George I. In 17 13
he became member of parliament for Tregoney, in 171 7 secretary -
at-war, and in the following year one of the principal secretaries
of state. Craggs was implicated in the South Sea Bubble, but
not so deeply as his father, whom he predeceased, dying on the
16th of February 1721. Among Craggs's friends were Pope, who
wrote the epitaph on his monument in Westminster Abbey,
Addison and Gay.

CRAIG, JOHN (1512 ?-i6oo), Scottish reformer, born about
1512, was the son of Craig of Craigston, Aberdeenshire, who was
killed at Flodden in 1513. After an education at St Andrews,
and acting as tutor to the children of Lord Darcy, the English
warden of the North, he became a Dominican, but was soon in
trouble as a heretic. In 1536 he made his way to England, but
failing to obtain the preferment he desired at Cambridge, he
went on to Italy, where the influence of Cardinal Pole, who was
himself accused of heresy, secured him the post of master of the
novices in the Dominican convent at Bologna. For some years he
was busy travelling in the Levant in the interests of his order, but
a perusal of Calvin's Institutes revived his heretical tendencies,
and he was condemned to be burnt. Like the English scholar and
statesman, Thomas Wilson, he owed his escape to the riot which
broke out on the death of Paul IV. on the 18th of August 1559,
when the mob burst open the prison of the Inquisition. After
various adventures he reached Vienna, where he preached, and
was protected by the semi-Lutheran archduke (afterwards the
emperor) Maximilian II.

In 1560 he returned to Scotland, where in 1561 he was ordained
minister of Holyrood, and in 1562 Knox's colleague in the High
Church. His defence of church property and privilege against the
predatory instincts of the nobles and the pretensions of the state
brought him into conflict with Lethington and others; but he
seems to have condoned, if he was not privy to, Riccio's murder.
At first he refused to publish the banns of marriage between
Mary and Bothwell, though in the end he yielded with a protest
that he " abhorred and detested the marriage." He had been
associated with Knox in various commissions for the organization
of the church, but he wished to compromise between the two
extreme parties. From 1571-1579 Craig was in the north,
whither he had been sent to " illuminate those dark places in Mar,
Buchan and Aberdeen." In 1579 he was appointed chaplain to
the young James VI., and returned to Edinburgh. In 1581
episcopacy was abolished as a result of the report of a commission
on which Craig had sat; he also assisted at the composition of
the Second Book of Discipline and the National Covenant of 1580,
and in 1581 compiled "Ane Shorte and Generate Confession"
called the " King's Confession," which was imposed on all parish
ministers and graduates and became the basis of the Covenant of
1638. He approved of the Ruthven raid, and admonished James
in terms which made him weep, but produced no alteration in his
conduct, and before long Craig was denouncing the supremacy of
Arran. But he was averse from the violence of Melville, and was
willing to admit the royal supremacy " as far as the word of God

allows." James VI., Like Henry VIII., accepted this compromise,
and the oath in this form was taken by Craig, the royal chaplains
and some others. In 1592 was published Craig's Catechism.
He died on the 12th of December 1600.

See T. G. Law's Pref. to Craig's Catechism (1885) ; Bain's Cal.
Scottish State Papers; Reg. P. C. Scotl. ; Hew Scott's Fasti Eccles.
Scot. ; Knox's, Calderwood's and Grub's Eccles. Histories ; McCrie's
Life of Melville; Hay Fleming's Mary, Queen of Scots; Bannatyne's
Memorials. (A. F. P.)

CRAIG, SIR THOMAS ( c. 1538-1608), Scottish jurist and poet,
was born about 1538. It is probable that he was the eldest son of
William Craig of Craigfintray, or Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, but
beyond the fact that he was in some way related to the Craigfin-
tray family nothing regarding his birth is known with certainty.
He was educated at St Andrews, where he took the B.A. degree in
1555. From St Andrews he went to France, to study the canon
and the civil law. He returned to Scotland about 1561, and was
admitted advocate in February 1563. In 1564 he was appointed
justice-depute by the justice-general, Archibald, earl of Argyll;
and in this capacity he presided at many of the criminal trials
of the period. In 1573 he was appointed sheriff -depute of
Edinburgh, and in 1606 procurator for the church. He never
became a lord of session, a circumstance that was unquestionably
due to his own choice. It is said that he refused the honour of
knighthood which the king wished to confer on him in 1604,
when he came to London as one of the Scottish commissioners
regarding the union between the kingdoms — the only political
object he seems to have cared about; but in accordance with
James's commands he has always been styled and reputed a
knight. Craig was married to Helen, daughter of Heriot of
Lumphoy in Midlothian, by whom he had four sons and three
daughters. His eldest son, Sir Lewis Craig (1569-1622), was
raised to the bench in 1604, and among his other descendants are
several well-known names*in the list of Scottish lawyers. He died
on the 26th of February 1608.

Except his poems, the only one of Craig's works which appeared
during his lifetime was his Jus feudale (1603; ed. R. Burnet,
1655; Leipzig, 1716; ed. J. Baillie 1732). The object of this
treatise was to assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, but,
instead of this, it was an important factor in building up and
solidifying the law of Scotland into a separate system. Other
works were De unione regnorum Britanniae tractatus, De jure
successionis regni Angliae and De hominio dispulalio. Translations
of the last two have been published, and in 1910 an edition of the
De Unione appeared, with translation and notes by C. S. Terry.
Craig's first poem, an Epithalamium in honour of the marriage of
Mary queen of Scots and Darnley, appeared in 1 565. Most of his
poems have been reprinted in the Delitiae poetarum Scolorum.

See P. F. Tytler, Life of Craig (1823) ; Life prefixed to Baillie's
edition of the Jus feudale.

CRAIGIE, PEARL MARY TERESA (1867-1906), Anglo-
American novelist and dramatist, who wrote under the pen-name
of " John Oliver Hobbes," was born at Boston, U.S.A., on the
3rd of November 1867. She was the elder daughter of John
Morgan Richards, and was educated in London and Paris.
When she was nineteen she married Reginald Walpole Craigie,
by whom she had one son, John Churchill Craigie: but the
marriage proved an unhappy one, and was dissolved on her
petition in July 1895. She was brought up as a Noncon-
formist, but in 1892 was received into the Roman Catholic
Church, of which she remained a devout and serious member.
Her first little book, the brilliant and epigrammatic Some
Emotions and a Moral, was published in 189 1 in Mr Fisher Un win's
" Pseudonym Library," and was followed by The Sinner's
Comedy (1892), A Study in Temptations (1893), A Bundle of Life
(1894), The Gods, Some Mortals, and Lord Wickenham. The Herb
Moon (1896), a country love story, was followed by The School for
Saints (1897), with a sequel, Robert Orange (1900). Mrs Craigie
had already written a one-act " proverb," Journeys end in Lovers
Meeting, produced by Ellen Terry in 1894, and a three-act
tragedy, " Osbern and Ursyne," printed in the Anglo-Saxon
Review (1899), when her successful piece, The Ambassador, was
produced at the St James's Theatre in 1898. A Repentance (one

362

CRAIK— CRAMBO

act, 1899) and The Wisdom of the Wise (1900) were produced at
the same theatre, and The Flute of Pan (1904) first at
Manchester and then at the Shaftesbury theatre; she was also
part author of The Bishop's Move (Garrick Theatre, 1902).
Later books are The Serious Wooing (1901), Love and the Soul
Hunters (1902), Tales about Temperament (1002), The Vineyard
( 1 904) . Mrs Craigie died suddenly of heart failure in London on
the 13th of August 1906.

CRAIK, DINAH MARIA (1826-1887), English novelist,
better known by her maiden name of Mulock, and still better
as " the author of John Halifax, Gentleman," was the daughter
of Thomas Mulock, an eccentric religious enthusiast of Irish
extraction, and was born on the 20th of April 1826 at Stoke-upon-
Trent, in Staffordshire, where her father was the minister of a
small congregation. She settled in London about 1846, deter-
mined to obtain a livelihood by her pen, and, beginning with
fiction for children, advanced steadily until John Halifax,
Gentleman (1857), placed her in the front rank of the women
novelists of her day. A Life for a Life (1859), though inferior,
maintained a high position, but she afterwards wrote little of
importance except some very charming tales for children. Her
most remarkable novels, after those mentioned above, were The
Ogiivies (1849), Olive (1850), The Head of the Family (1851),
Agatha's Husband (1853). There is much passion and power in
these early works, and all that Mrs Craik wrote was characterized
by high principle and deep feeling. Some of the short stories in
Avillion and other Tales also exhibit a fine imagination. She
published some poems distinguished by genuine lyrical spirit,
narratives of tours in Ireland and Cornwall, and A Woman's
Thoughts about Women. She married Mr G. L. Craik, a partner in
the house of Macmillan & Company, in 1864, and died at Short-
lands, near Bromley, Kent, on the 12th of October 1887.

CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866), English man of letters,
the son of a schoolmaster, was born at Kennoway, Fifeshire, in
1798. He studied at the university of St Andrews with the
intention of entering the church, but, altering his plans, became
the editor of a local newspaper, and went to London in 1824 to
devote himself to literature. He became connected with a short-
lived literary paper called the Verulam; in 1831 he published his
Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties among the works of the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; he contributed a
considerable number of biographical and historical articles to
the Penny Cyclopaedia; and he edited the Pictorial History of
England, himself writing much of the work. In 1844 he published
his History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman
Conquest to the Present Time, illustrated by extracts. Craik is
best known for his abridged version of this work, The History of
English Literature and the English Language (1861), which passed
through several editions. In the next year appeared his Spenser
and his Poetry, an abstract of Spenser's poems, with historical
and biographical notes and frequent quotations; and in 1847 his
Bacon, his Writings and his Philosophy, a work of a similar kind.
The two last-mentioned works appeared among Knight's Weekly
Volumes. Two years later Craik obtained the chair of history and
English literature at Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he
held till his death, which took place on the 25th of June 1866.
He had married Miss Jeannette Dempster (d. 1856) in 1826, and
his daughter, Georgiana Marion Craik (Mrs A. W. May), wrote
over thirty novels, of which Lost and Won (1859) was the best.
Besides the works already noticed, Craik published the History of
British Commerce from the Earliest Times (1844), Romance of the
Peerage (1848-1850) and The English of Shakespeare (1856).

CRAIL (formerly Karel) , a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire,
Scotland, 2 m. from Fife Ness, the most easterly point of the
county, and n m. S.E. of St Andrews by the North British
railway, but 2 m. nearer by road. Pop. (1901) 1077. It is said
to have been a town of some note as early as the 9th century;
and its castle, of which there are hardly any remains, was the
residence of David I. and other Scottish kings. It was consti-
tuted a royal burgh by a charter of Robert Bruce in 1306, and
had its privileges confirmed by Robert II. in 1371, by Mary in
1553, and by Charles I. in 1635. Of its priory, dedicated to

St Rufus, a few ruins still exist. The church of Maelrubha, the
patron saint of Crail, is an edifice of great antiquity. Many of the
ordinary houses are massive and quaint. The public buildings
include a library and reading-room and town hall. The chief
industries comprise fisheries, especially for crabs, shipping and
brewing. It is growing in favour as a summer resort. It unites
with St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, Kilrenny, Pittenweem
and Cupar in returning one member to parliament.

Balcomie Castle, about 2 m. to the N.E., dates from the 14th
century. Here Mary of Guise landed in 1538, a few days before
her marriage to James V. in St Andrews cathedral. In the 18th
century it passed through the hands of various proprietors and
was ultimately shorn of much of its original size and grandeur.
The East Neuk is a term applied more particularly to the
country round Fife Ness, and more generally to all of the peninsula
east of an imaginary line drawn from St Andrews to Elie. For
fully half the year the cottages of its villages are damp with the
haar, or dense mist, borne on the east wind from the North Sea.

CRAILSHEIM, or Krailsheim, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the Jagst, a tributary of the
Neckar, at the junction df railways to Heilbronn and Furth.
Pop. (1900) 5251. There are two Evangelical churches and a
Roman Catholic church, and a handsome town hall, with a tower
225 ft. high. The industrial establishments include extensive
tanneries and machine workshops, and there is a brisk trade in
cattle and agricultural produce.

Crailsheim was incorporated as a town in 1338, successfully
withstood a siege by the forces of several Swabian imperial cities
(13 79-1380), a feat which is annually celebrated, passed later
into the possession of the burgraves of Nuremberg, and came
in 1791 to Prussia, in 1806 to Bavaria and 1810 to Wurttemberg.

CRAIOVA, or Krajova, the capital of the department of
Doljiu, Rumania, situated near the left bank of the river Jiu, and
on the main Walachian railway from Verciorova to Bucharest.
Pop. (1900) 45,438. A branch railway to Calafat facilitates the
export trade with Bulgaria. Craiova is the chief commercial
town west of Bucharest; the surrounding uplands are very rich
in grain, pasturage and vegetable products, and contain extensive
forests. The town has rope and carriage factories, and close by
is a large tannery, worked by convict labour, and supplying the
army. The principal trade is in cattle, cereals, fish, linen,
pottery, glue and leather. In the town, which is the head-
quarters of the First Army Corps, there are military and com.
mercial academies, an appeal court and a chamber of commerce,
besides many churches, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
Protestant, with synagogues for the Jews.

Craiova, which occupied the site of the Roman Castra Nova,
was formerly the capital of Little Walachia. Its ancient bans or
military governors were, next to the princes, the chief dignitaries
of Walachia, and the district is still styled the banat of Craiova.
Among the holders of this office were Michael the Brave (1593-
1601), and several members of the celebrated Bassarab family
(q.v.). The bans had the right of coining money stamped with
their own effigies, and hence arose the name of bani (centimes).
The Rumanian franc, or leu (" lion ") , so called from the imagg'it
bore, came likewise from Craiova. In 1397 Craiova was the
scene of a victory won by Prince Mircea over Bayezid I. sultan
of the Turks; and in October 1853, of an engagement between
Turks and Russians.

CRAMBO, an old rhyming game which, according to Strutt
(Sports and Pastimes), was played as early as the 14th century
under the name of the ABC of Aristotle. In the days of the
Stuarts it was very popular, and is frequently mentioned in the
writings of the time. Thus Congreve's Love for Love, i. 1 , contains
the passage, " Get the Maids to Crambo in an Evening, and
learn the knack of Rhiming." Crambo, or capping the rhyme,
is now played by one player thinking of a word and telling the
others what it rhymes with, the others not naming the actual
word they guess but its meaning. Thus one says " I know a word
that rhymes with bird." A second asks "Is it ridiculous?"
" No, it is not absurd." " Is it a part of speech ? " " No, it is not
a word." This proceeds until the right word is guessed.

CRAMER— CRAMP

3 6 3

In Dumb Crambo the guessers, instead of naming the word,
express its meaning by dumb show, a rhyme being given them as
a clue.

CRAMER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1771-1858), English musician,
of German extraction, was born in Mannheim, on the 24th of
February 1771. Hewas theson of Wilhelm Cramer (1 743-1 799),
a famous London violinist and musical conductor, one of a
numerous family who were identified with the progress of music
during the 18th and 19th centuries. Johann Baptist was brought
to London as a child, and it was in London that the greater part
of his musical efforts was exercised. From 1782 to 1784 he
studied the pianoforte under Muzio Clementi, and soon became
known as a professional pianist both in London and on the
continent; he enjoyed a world-wide reputation, and was
particularly appreciated by Beethoven. He died in London
on the 16th of April 1858. Apart from his pianoforte-playing
Cramer is important as a composer, and as principal founder
in 1824 of the London music-publishing house of Cramer & Co.
He wrote a number of sonatas, &c, for pianoforte, and other
compositions; but his £tudes is the work by which he lives as
a composer. These " studies " have appeared in numerous
editions, from 1810 onwards, and became the staple pieces in the
training of pianists.

CRAMER, JOHN ANTONY (1793-1848), English classical
scholar and geographer, was born at Mitlodi in Switzerland.
He was educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford.
He resided in Oxford till 1844, during which time he held many
important offices, being public orator, principal of New Inn Hall
(which he rebuilt at his own expense), and professor of modern
history. In 1844 he was appointed to the deanery of Carlisle,
which he held until his death at Scarborough on the 24th of
August 1848. His works are of considerable importance: A
Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps, published
anonymously with H. L. Wickham (2nd ed., 1828), " a scholar-
like work of first-rate ability"; geographical and historical
descriptions of Ancient Italy (1826), Ancient Greece (1828), Asia
Minor (1832); Travels of Nicander Nucius of Corcyra [Greek
traveller of the 16th century] in England (1841); Catenae
Graecorum Patrum in Novum Testamentum (1838-1844);
Anecdola Graeca (from the MSS. of the royal library in Paris,
1839-1841).

CRAMER, KARL VON (1818-1902), Bavarian politician, had
a very remarkable career, rising gradually from a mere workman
in a factory at Doos near Nuremberg to the post of manager,
and finally becoming part proprietor of the establishment. Leav-
ing business in 1870 he devoted his time entirely to politics.
From 1848 he had been a member of the Bavarian second chamber,
at first representing the district of Erlangen-Fiirth, and after-
wards Nuremberg, which city also sent him after the war of
1866 as its deputy to the German customs parliament, and from
1871 to 1874 to the first German Reichstag. He sat in these
bodies as a member of the Progressive party (Fortschrittspartei) ,
and in Bavaria was one of the leaders of the Liberal (Freisinnige)
party. His eloquence had a great hold upon the masses. As a
parliamentarian he was very clear-headed, and thoroughly
understood how to lead a party. For many years he was the
reporter of the finance committee of the chamber. In 1882, on
account of his great services in connexion with the Bavarian
National Exhibition of Nuremberg, the order of the crown of
Bavaria was conferred upon him, carrying with it the honour of
nobility. He died at Nuremberg on the 31st of December 1902.

CRAMP, CHARLES HENRY (1828- ), American ship-
builder, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 9th
of May 1828, of German descent, his family name having been
Krampf. He was the eldest of eleven children of William
Cramp (1807-1869)^ pioneer American shipbuilder, who in 1830
established shipyards on the Delaware river near Philadelphia.
The son was educated at the Philadelphia Central high school,
after which he was employed in his father's shipyards and made
himself master of every detail of ship construction. He showed
especial aptitude as a naval architect and designer, and after
becoming his father's partner in 1849 it was to that branch of

the work that he devoted himself. His inventive capacity and
resourcefulness, together with the complete success of his
innovations in naval construction, soon gave him high rank
as an authority on shipbuilding, and made his influence in that
industry widely felt. In the Mexican War he designed surf
boats for the landing of troops at Vera Cruz; during the Civil
War he designed and built several ironclads for the United
States navy, notably the " New Ironsides " in 1862, and the
light-draught monitors used in the Carolina sounds ; and after
1887 constructed wholly or in part from his own designs many
of the most powerful ships in the " new " navy, including
the cruisers "Columbia," "Minneapolis" and "Brooklyn,"
and the battleships " Indiana," " Iowa," " Massachusetts,"
" Alabama " and " Maine." In every progressive step in ocean
shipbuilding, in the transformation from sail to steam, and
from wood to iron and steel, Cramp had a prominent part. His
fame as a shipbuilder extended to Europe, and he built war-
ships for several foreign navies, among others the " Retvizan "
and the " Variag " for the Russian government. He also con-
structed a number of freight and passenger steamships for several
trans-Atlantic lines.

See A. C. Buel, Memoirs of C. H. Cramp (Philadelphia, 1906).

CRAMP, a painful spasmodic contraction of muscles, most
frequently occurring in the limbs, but also apt to affect certain
internal organs. This disorder belongs to the class of diseases
known as local spasms, of which other varieties exist in such
affections as spasmodic asthma and colic. The cause of these
painful seizures resides in the nervous system, and operates
either directly from the great nerve centres, or, as is generally
the case, indirectly by reflex action, as, for example, when attacks
are brought on by some derangement of the digestive organs.

In its most common form, that of cramp in the limbs, this
disorder comes on suddenly, often during sleep, the patient
being aroused by an agonizing feeling of pain in the calf of the
leg or back of the thigh, accompanied in many instances with a
sensation of sickness or faintness from the intensity of the suffer-
ing. During the paroxysm the muscular fibres affected can often
be felt gathered up into a hard knot. The attack in general
lasts but a few seconds, and then suddenly departs, the spasmodic
contraction of the muscles ceasing entirely, or, on the other
hand, relief may come more gradually during a period of minutes
or even hours. A liability to cramp is often associated with a
rheumatic or gouty tendency, but occasional attacks are common
enough apart from this, and are often induced by some peculiar
posture which a limb has assumed during sleep. Exposure of the
limbs to cold will also bring on cramp, and to this is probably to
be ascribed its frequent occurrence in swimmers. Cramp of the
extremities is also well known as one of the most distressing
accompaniments of cholera. It is likewise of frequent occurrence
in the process of parturition, just before delivery.

This painful disorder can be greatly relieved and often entirely
removed by firmly grasping or briskly rubbing the affected part
with the hand, or by anything which makes an impression on the
nerves, such as warm applications. Even a sudden and vigorous
movement of the limb will often succeed in terminating the attack.

What is termed cramp of the stomach, or gastralgia, usually
occurs as a symptom in connexion with some form of gastric
disorder, such as aggravated dyspepsia, or actual organic disease
of the mucous membrane of the stomach.

The disease known as Writer's Cramp, or Scrivener's Palsy, is
a spasm which affects certain muscles when engaged in the per-
formance of acts, the result of education and long usage, and
which does not occur when the same muscles are employed in
acts of a different kind. This disorder owes its name to the
relative frequency with which it is met in persons who write
much, although it is by no means confined to them, but is liable
to occur in individuals of almost any handicraft. It was termed
by Dr Duchenne Functional Spasm.

The symptoms are in the first instance a gradually increasing
difficulty experienced in conducting the movements required
for executing the work in hand. Taking, for example, the case
of writers, there is a feeling that the pen cannot be moved with

3 6 4

CRAMP-RINGS— CRANACH

the same freedom as before, and the handwriting is more or less
altered in consequence. At an early stage of the disease the
difficulty may be to a large extent overcome by persevering
efforts, but ultimately, when the attempt is persisted in, the
muscles of the fingers, and occasionally also those of the forearm,
are seized with spasm or cramp, so that the act of writing is
rendered impossible. Sometimes the fingers, instead of being
cramped, move in a disorderly manner and the pen cannot be
grasped, while in other rare instances a kind of paralysis affects
the muscles of the fingers, and they are powerless to make the
movements necessary for holding the pen. It is to be noted that
it is only in the act of writing that these phenomena present
themselves, and that for all other movements the fingers and
arms possess their natural power. The same symptoms are
observed and the same remarks apply mutatis mutandis in the
case of musicians, artists, compositors, seamstresses, tailors and
many mechanics in whom this affection may occur. Indeed,
although actually a rare disease, no muscle or group of muscles
in the body which is specially called into action in any particular
occupation is exempt from liability to this functional spasm.

The exact pathology of writer's cramp has not been worked
out, but it is now generally accepted that the disease is not a local
one of muscles or nerves, but that it is an affection of the central
nervous system. The complaint never occurs under thirty years
of age, and is more frequent in males than females. Occasionally
there is an inherited tendency to the disease, but more usually
there is a history of alcoholism in the parents, or some neuro-
pathic heredity. In its treatment the first requisite is absolute
cessation from the employment which caused it. Usually,
however, complete rest of the arm is undesirable, and recovery
takes place more speedily if other actions of a different kind are
regularly practised. If a return to the same work is a necessity,
then Sir W. R. Gowers insists on some modification of method in
performing the act, as writing from the shoulder instead of the
wrist.

CRAMP-RINGS, rings anciently worn as a cure for cramp and
" falling-sickness " or epilepsy. The legend is that the first one
was presented to Edward the Confessor by a pilgrim on his
return from Jerusalem, its miraculous properties being explained
to the king. At his death it passed into the keeping of the abbot
of Westminster, by whom it was used medically and was known
as St Edward's Ring. From that time the belief grew that the
successors of Edward inherited his powers, and that the rings
blessed by them worked cures. Hence arose the custom for the
successive sovereigns of England each year on Good Friday
formally to bless a number of cramp-rings. A service was held;
prayers and psalms were said; and water " in the name of the
Father, Son and Holy Ghost " was poured over the rings, which
were always of gold or silver, and made from the metal that the
king offered to the Cross on Good Friday. The ceremony
survived to the reign of Queen Mary, but the belief in the curative
powers of similar circlets of sacred metal has lingered on even to
the present day.

For an account of the ceremony see F. G. Waldron, The Literary
Museum (London, 1792); see also Notes and Queries, yol. vii.,1853;
vol. ix., 1878.

CRANACH, LUCAS (1472-1553), German painter, was born at
Cronach in upper Franconia, and learnt the art of drawing from
his father. It has not been possible to Irace his descent or the
name of his parents. We are not informed as to the school in
which he was taught, and it is a mere guess that he took lessons
from the south German masters to whom Mathew Grunewald
owed his education. But Grunewald practised at Bamberg and
Aschaffenburg, and Bamberg is the capital of the diocese in
which Cronach lies. According to Gunderam, the tutor of
Cranach's children, Cranach signalized his talents as a painter
before the close of the 15th century. He then drew upon himself
tne attention of the elector of Saxony, who attached him to his
person in 1 504. The records of Wittenberg confirm Gunderam's
statement to this extent that Cranach's name appears for the
first time in the public accounts on the 24th of June 1504, when
he drew 50 gulden for the salary of half a year, as pictor ducalis.

The only clue to Cranach's settlement previous to his Witten-
berg appointment is afforded by the knowledge that he owned a
house at Gotha, and that Barbara Brengbier, his wife, was the
daughter of a burgher of that city.

Of his skill as an artist we have sufficient evidence in a picture
dated 1504. But as to the development of his manner prior to
that date we are altogether in ignorance. In contrast with this
obscurity is the light thrown upon Cranach after 1504. We find
him active in several branches of his profession, — sometimes a
mere house-painter; more frequently producing portraits and
altar-pieces, a designer on wood, an engraver of copper-plates,
and draughtsman for the dies of the electoral mint. Early in the
days of his official employment he startled his master's courtiers
by the realism with which he painted still life, game and antlers
on the walls of the country palaces at Coburg and Lochau ; his
pictures of deer and wild boar were considered striking, and the
duke fostered his passion for this form of art by taking him out to
the hunting field, where he sketched " his grace " running the
stag, or Duke John sticking a boar. Before 1508 he had painted
several altar-pieces for the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg in
competition with Diirer, Burgkmair and others; the duke and his
brother John were portrayed in various attitudes and a number
of the best woodcuts and copper-plates were published. Great
honour accrued to Cranach when he went in 1509 to the Nether-
lands, and took sittings from the emperor Maximilian and the boy
who afterwards became Charles V. Till 1 508 Cranach signed his
works with the initials of his name. In that year the elector gave
him the winged snake as a motto, and this motto or Kleinod, as it
was called, superseded the initials on all his pictures after that
date. Somewhat later the duke conferred on him the monopoly
of the sale of medicines at Wittenberg, and a printer's patent with
exclusive privileges as to copyright in Bibles. The presses of
Cranach were used by Luther. His chemist's shop was open for
centuries, and only perished by fire in 1 87 1 . Relations of friend-
ship united the painter with the Reformers at a very early period;
yet it is difficult to fix the time of his first acquaintance with
Luther. The oldest notice of Cranach in the Reformer's corre-
spondence dates from 1520. In a letter written from Worms in
1 521, Luther calls him his gossip, warmly alluding to his
" Gevatterin," the artist's wife. His first engraved portrait by
Cranach represents an Augustinian friar, and is dated 1520.
Five years later the friar drdpped the cowl, and Cranach was
present as " one of the council " at the betrothal festival of
Luther and Catherine Bora. The death at short intervals of the
electors Frederick and John (1525 and 1532) brought no change
in the prosperous situation of the painter; he remained a
favourite with John Frederick I., under whose administration he
twice (1537 and 1540) filled the office of burgomaster of Witten-
berg. But 1 547 witnessed a remarkable change in these relations.
John Frederick was taken prisoner at the battle of Miihlberg,
and Wittenberg was subjected to stress of siege. As Cranach
wrote from his house at the corner of the market-place to the
grand-master Albert of Brandenburg at Konigsberg to tell him
of John Frederick's capture, he showed his attachment by
saying, " I cannot conceal from your Grace that we have been
robbed of our dear prince, who from his youth upwards has been a
true prince to us, but God will help him out of prison, for the
Kaiser is bold enough to revive the Papacy, which God will
certainly not allow." During the siege Charles bethought him of
Cranach, whom he remembered from his childhood and summoned
him to his camp at Pistritz. Cranach came, reminded his majesty
of his early sittings as a boy, and begged on his knees for kind
treatment to the elector. Three years afterwards, when all the
dignitaries of the Empire met at Augsburg to receive commands
from the emperor, and when Titian at Charles's bidding came to
take the likeness of Philip of Spain, John Frederick asked
Cranach to visit the Swabian capital ; and here for a few months
he was numbered amongst the household of the captive elector,
whom he afterwards accompanied home in 1552. He died
on the 16th of October 1553 at Weimar, where the house in
which he lived still stands in the market-place.

The oldest extant picture of Cranach, the " Rest of the Virgin

CRANBERRY

365

during the Flight into Egypt," marked with the initials L.C., and
the date of 1504, is by far the most graceful creation of his pencil.
The scene is laid on the margin of a forest of pines, and discloses
the habits of a painter familiar with the mountain scenery of
Thuringia. There is more of gloom in landscapes of a later time ;
and this would point to a defect in the taste of Cranach, whose
stag hunts are otherwise not unpleasing. Cranach's art in its
prime was doubtless influenced by causes which but slightly
affected the art of the Italians, but weighed with potent con-
sequence on that of the Netherlands and Germany. The business
of booksellers who sold woodcuts and engravings at fairs and
markets in Germany naturally satisfied a craving which arose
out of the paucity of wall-paintings in churches and secular
edifices. Drawing for woodcuts and engraving of copper-plates
became the occupation of artists of note, and the talents devoted
in Italy to productions of the brush were here monopolized for
designs on wood or on copper. We have thus to account for
the comparative unproductiveness as painters of Dtirer and
Holbein, and at the same time to explain the shallowness apparent
in many of the later works of Cranach; but we attribute to the
same cause also the tendency in Cranach to neglect effective
colour and light and shade for strong contrasts of flat tint.
Constant attention to mere contour and to black and white
appears to have affected his sight, and caused those curious
transitions of pallid light into inky grey which often characterize
his studies of flesh; whilst the mere outlining of form in black
became a natural substitute for modelling and chiaroscuro.
There are, no doubt, some few pictures by Cranach in which
the flesh-tints display brightness and enamelled surface, but
they are quite exceptional. As a composer Cranach was not
greatly gifted. His ideal of the human shape was low; but he
showed some freshness in the delineation of incident, though he
not unfrequently bordered on coarseness. His copper-plates
and woodcuts are certainly the best outcome of his art; and
the earlier they are in date the more conspicuous is their power.
Striking evidence of this is the " St Christopher" of 1506, or the
plate of " Elector Frederick praying before the Madonna " (1 509).
It is curious to watch the changes which mark the development
of his instincts as an artist during the struggles of the Reformation.
At first we find him painting Madonnas. His first woodcut
(1505) represents the Virgin and three saints in prayer before
a crucifix. Later on he composes the marriage of St Catherine,
a series of martyrdoms, and scenes from the Passion. After 1517
he illustrates occasionally the old gospel themes, but he also
gives expression to some of the thoughts of the Reformers.
In a picture of 15 18 at Leipzig, where a dying man offers " his
soul to God, his body to earth, and his worldly goods to his
relations," the soul rises to meet the Trinity in heaven, and
salvation is clearly shown to depend on faith and not on good
works. Again sin and grace become a familiar subject of pictorial
delineation. Adam is observed sitting between John the Baptist
and a prophet at the foot of a tree. To the left God produces
the tables of the law, Adam and Eve partake of the forbidden
fruit, the brazen serpent is reared aloft, and punishment super-
venes in the shape of death and the realm of Satan. To the
right, the Conception, Crucifixion and Resurrection symbolize
redemption, and this is duly impressed on Adam by John the
Baptist, who points to the sacrifice of the crucified Saviour.
There are two examples of this composition in the galleries of
GothS and Prague, both of them dated 1529. One of the latest
pictures with which the name of Cranach is connected is the altar-
piece which Cranach's son completed in 1555, and which is now
in the Stadtkirche (city church) at Weimar. It represents Christ
in two forms, to the left trampling on Death and Satan, to the
right crucified, with blood flowing from the lance wound. John
the Baptist points to the suffering Christ, whilst the blood-stream
falls on the head of Cranach, and Luther reads from his book
the words, " The blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin." Cranach
sometimes composed gospel subjects with feeling and dignity.
" The Woman taken in Adultery " at Munich is a favourable speci-
men of his skill, and various repetitions of Christ receiving little
children show the kindliness of his disposition. But he was not

exclusively a religious painter. He was equally successful, and
often comically naive, in mythological scenes, as where Cupid,
who has stolen a honeycomb, complains to Venus that he has been
stung by a bee (Weimar,iS3o; Berlin, 1534), or where Hercules
sits at the spinning-wheel mocked by Omphale and her maids.
Humour and pathos are combined at times with strong effect in
pictures such as the "Jealousy" (Augsburg, 1527; Vienna, 1530),
where women and children are huddled into telling groups as
they watch the strife of men wildly fighting around them. Very
realistic must have been a lost canvas of 1545, in which hares
were catching and roasting sportsmen. In 1 546, possibly under
Italian influence, Cranach composed the " Fons Juventutis "
of the Berlin Gallery, executed by his son, a picture in which
hags are seen entering a Renaissance fountain, and are received
as they issue from it with all the charms of youth by knights
and pages.

Cranach's chief occupation was that of portrait-painting, and
we are indebted to him chiefly for the preservation of the features
of all the German Reformers and their princely adherents. But
he sometimes condescended to depict such noted followers of the
papacy as Albert of Brandenburg, archbishop elector of Mainz,
Anthony Granvelle and the duke of Alva. A dozen likenesses
of Frederick III. and his brother John are found to bear the date
of 1532. It is characteristic of Cranach's readiness, and a proof
that he possessed ample material for mechanical reproduction,
that he received payment at Wittenberg in 1533. for "sixty
pairs of portraits of the elector and his brother " in one day.
Amongst existing likenesses we should notice as the best that of
Albert, elector of Mainz, in the Berlin museum, and that of John,
elector of Saxony, at Dresden.

Cranach had three sons, all artists: — John Lucas, who died
at Bologna in 1536; Hans Cranach, whose life is obscure; and
Lucas, born in 1515, who died in 1586.

See Heller, Leben und Werke Lukas Cranachs (2nd ed., Bamberg,
1844) ; Chr. Schuchard, Lukas Cranachs des dlteren Leben und Werke
(3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1871) ; Warnecke, Cranach derMtere (Gorlitz,
1879); M. B. Lindau, Lucas Cranach (1883); Lippmann, Lukas
Cranach, Sammlung, &c. (Berlin, 1895), reproductions of his most
notable woodcuts and engravings; Woermann, Verzeichnis der
Dresdener Cranach- Ausstellung von iSgg (Dresden, 1899); Flechsie,
Tafelbilder Cranach's des altern und seiner Werkstatt (Leipzig, 1900) ;
Muther, Lukas Cranach (Berlin, 1902) ; Michaelson, L. Cranach der
altere (Leipzig, 1902). , (J. A. C.)

CRANBERRY, the fruit of plants of the genus Oxycoccus,
(natural order Vacciniaceae) , often considered part of the genus
V actinium. 0. palustris (or V actinium Oxycoccus), the common
cranberry plant, is found in marshy land in northern and central
Europe and North America. Its stems are wiry, creeping and
of varying length; the leaves are evergreen, dark and shining
above, glaucous below, revolute at the margin, ovate, lanceolate
or elliptical in shape, and not more than half an inch long; the
flowers, which appear in May or June, are small and stalked, and
have a four-lobed, rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments, and
anther-cells forming two long tubes. The berries ripen in August
and September; they are pear-shaped and about the size of
currants, are crimson in colour and often spotted, and have
an acid and astringent taste. The American species, O. macro-
carpus, is found wild from Maine to the Carolinas. It attain&a
greater size than O. palustris, and bears bigger and finer berries,
which are of three principal sorts, the cherry or round, the bugle
or oblong, and the pear or bell-shaped, and vary in hue from
light pink to dark purple, or may be mottled red and white.
O. erythrocarpus is a species indigenous in the mountains from
Virginia to Georgia, and is remarkable for the excellent flavour
of its berry.

Air and moisture are the chief requisites for the thriving of the
cranberry plant. It is cultivated in America on a soil of peat or
vegetable mould, free from loam and clay, and cleared of turf,
and having a surface layer of clean sand. The sand, which needs
renewal every two or three years, is necessary for the vigorous
existence of the plants, and serves both to keep the underlying
soil cool and damp, and to check the growth of grass and weeds.
The ground must be thoroughly drained, and should be provided
with a supply of water and a dam for flooding the plants during

3 66

CRANBROOK— CRANE, WALTER

winter to protect them from frost, and occasionally at other
seasons to destroy insect pests; but the use of spring water
should be avoided. 'The flavour of the fruit is found to be
improved by growing the plants in a soil enriched with well-
rotted dung, and by supplying them with less moisture than they
obtain in their natural habitats. Propagation is effected by
means of cuttings, of which the wood should be wiry in texture,
and the leaves of a greenish-brown colour. In America, where,
in the vicinity of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, the cultivation of the
cranberry commenced early in the last century, wide tracts of
waste land have been utilized for that purpose — low, easily
flooded, marshy ground, worth originally not more than from
$10 to $20 an acre, having been made to yield annually $200 or
$300 worth of the fruit per acre. The yield varies between 50
and 400 bushels an acre, but 100 bushels, or about 35 barrels,
is estimated to be the average production when the plants
have begun to bear well. The approximate cranberry crop of
the United States from 1890 to 1899 varied from 410,000 to
1,000,000 bushels.

Cranberries should be gathered when ripe and dry, otherwise
they do not keep well. The darkest-coloured berries are those
which are most esteemed. The picking of the fruit begins in New
Jersey in October, at the close of the blackberry and whortleberry
season, and often lasts until the coming in of cold weather.
From 3 to 4 bushels a day may be collected by good workers.
New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore are the leading
American markets for cranberries, whence they are exported to
the West Indies, England and France in great quantities.
England was formerly supplied by Lincolnshire and Norfolk
with abundance of the common cranberry, which it now largely
imports from Sweden and Russia. The fruit is much used for
pies and tarts, and also for making an acid summer beverage.
The cowberry, or red whortleberry, Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea, is
sometimes sold for the cranberry. The Tasmanian and the
Australian cranberries are the produce respectively of Astroloma
humifusum and Lissanthe sapida, plants of the order Epacridaceae.'

For literature of the subject see the Proceedings of the American
Cranberry Growers' Association (Trenton, N. J.). There is a good
article on the American cranberry in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopaedia, of
American Horticulture (1900).

CRANBROOK, GATHORNE GATHORNE-HARDY, ist Earl
of (1814-1906), British statesman, was born at Bradford on
the ist of October 18 14, the son of John Hardy, and belonged to
a Yorkshire family. Entering upon active political life in 1847,
eleven years after his graduation at Oxford, and nine years after
his call to the bar, he offered himself as a candidate for Bradford,
but was unsuccessful. In 1856 he was returned for Leominster, and
in 1865 defeated Mr Gladstone at Oxford. In 1866 he became
president of the Poor Law Board in Lord Derby's new administra-
tion. When in 1867 Mr Walpole resigned, from dissatisfaction
with Mr Disraeli's Reform Bill, Mr Hardy succeeded him at
the home office. In 1874 he was secretary for war; and when in
1878 Lord Salisbury took the foreign office upon the resignation
of Lord Derby, Viscount Cranbrook (as Mr Hardy became
within a month afterwards) succeeded him at the India office.
At the same time he had assumed the additional family surname
of Gathorne, which had been that of his mother. In Lord
Salisbury's administrations of 1885 and 1886 Lord Cranbrook
was president of the council, and upon his retirement from
public life concurrently with the resignation of the cabinet in
1892 he was raised to an earldom. He died on the 30th of
October 1906, being succeeded as 2nd earl by his son John
Stewart Gathorne-Hardy, previously known as Lord Medway
(b. 1839), who from 1868 to 1880 sat in parliament as a conserva-
tive for Rye, and from 1884 to 1892 for a division of Kent.

See Gathorne Hardy, ist earl of Cranbrook, a memoir with extracts
from his correspondence, edited by the Hon. A. E. Gathorne-Hardy
(1910).

CRANBROOK, a market-town in the southern parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 45 m. S.E. of London on a branch of
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway from Paddock Wood.
Pop. (1901) 3949. It lies on the Crane brook, a feeder of the
river Beult, in a pleasant district, hilly and well wooded. It has

a fine church (mainly Perpendicular) dedicated to St Dunstan,
which is remarkable for a baptistery, built in the early part of the
1 8th century, and some ancient stained glass. As the centre of
the agricultural district of the Kentish Weald, it carries on an
extensive trade in malt, hops and general goods; but its present
condition is in striking contrast to the activity it displayed from
the 14th to the 17th century, when it was one of the principal
seats of the broadcloth manufacture. Remains of some of the
old factories still exist. The town has a grammar school of
Elizabethan foundation, which now ranks as one of the
smaller public schools. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of
the old mansion house of Sissinghurst, or Saxenhurst, built in the
time of Edward VI.

CRANDALL, PRUDENCE (1803-1889), American school-
teacher, was born, of Quaker parentage, at Hopkinton, Rhode
Island, on the 3rd of September 1803. She was educated in the
Friends' school at Providence, R. I., taught school at Plainfield,
Conn., and in 1831 established a private academy for girls at
Canterbury, Windham county, Connecticut. By admitting a
negro girl she lost her white patrons, and in March 1833, on the
advice of William Lloyd Garrison and Samuel J. May (1797-
187 1), she opened a school for " young ladies and little misses of
colour." For this she was bitterly denounced, not only in Canter-
bury but throughout Connecticut, and was persecuted, boycotted
and socially ostracized; measures were taken in the Canterbury
town-meeting to break up the school, and finally in May 1833 the
state legislature passed the notorious Connecticut " Black Law,"
prohibiting the establishment of schools for non-resident negroes
in any city or township of Connecticut, without the consent of the
local authorities. Miss Crandall, refusing to submit, was arrested,
tried and convicted in the lower courts, whose verdict, however,
was reversed on a technicality by the court of appeals in July 1834.
Thereupon the local opposition to her redoubled, and she was
finally in September 1834 forced to close her school. Soon
afterward she married the Rev. Calvin Philleo. She died at Elk
Falls, Kansas, on the 28th of January 1889. The Connecticut
Black Law was repealed in 1838. Miss CrandalFs attempt to
educate negro girls at Canterbury attracted the attention of the
whole country; and the episode is of considerable significance as
showing the attitude of a New England community toward the
negro at that time.

See J. C. Kimball's Connecticut Canterbury Tale (Hartford, Conn.,
1889), and Samuel J.May's Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery Conflict
(Boston, 1869).

CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900), American writer, was born
at Newark, New Jersey, on the ist of November 1870, and was
educated at Lafayette College and Syracuse University. His
first story, Maggie, a Girl of the Streets, was published in 189 1,
but his greatest success was made with The Red Badge of Courage
( 1 896) , a brilliant and highly realistic, though of course imaginary,
description of the experiences of a private in the Civil War. He
was also the author of various other stories, and acted as a war
correspondent in the Greco-Turkish War (1897) and the Spanish
American War (1898). His health became seriously affected in
Cuba, and on his return he settled down in England. He died
at Badenweiler, Germany, on the 5 th of June 1900.

CRANE, WALTER (1845- ), English artist, second son
of Thomas Crane, portrait painter and miniaturist, was born
in Liverpool on the 15th of August 1845. The family soon
removed to Torquay, where the boy gained his early artistic
impressions, and, when he was twelve years old, to London. He
early came under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelites, and was
a diligent student of Ruskin. A set of coloured page designs
to illustrate Tennyson's " Lady of Shalott " gained the approval
of William James Linton, the wood-engraver, to whom Walter
Crane was apprenticed for three years (1859-1862). As a wood-
engraver he had abundant opportunity for the minute study of
the contemporary artists whose work passed through his hands,
of Rossetti, Millais, Tenniel and F. Sandys, and of the masters
of the Italian Renaissance, but he was more influenced by the
Elgin marbles in the British Museum. A further and important
element in the development of his talent, was the study of

CRANE, W. H.— CRANE

3 6 7

Japanese colour-prints, the methods of which he imitated in a
series of toy-books, which started a new fashion. In 1862 a
picture of his, " The Lady of Shalott," was exhibited at the
Royal Academy, but the Academy steadily refused his maturer
work; and after the opening of the Grosvenor Gallery in 1877
he ceased to send pictures to Burlington House. In 1864 he
began to illustrate for Mr Edmund Evans, the colour printer, a
series of sixpenny toy-books of nursery rhymes, displaying
admirable fancy and beauty of design, though he was limited
to the use of three colours. He was allowed more freedom in a
delightful series begun in 1873, The Frog Prince, &c, which showed
markedly the influence of Japanese art, and of a long visit to
Italy following on his marriage in 1871. The Baby's Opera was
a book of English nursery songs planned in 1877 with Mr Evans,
and a third series of children's books with the collective title,
A Romance of the Three R's, provided a regular course of instruc-
tion in art for the nursery. In his early " Lady of Shalott " the
artist had shown his preoccupation with unity of design in book
illustration by printing in the words of the poem himself, in the
view that this union of the calligrapher's and the decorator's art
was one secret of the beauty of the old illuminated books. He
followed the same course in The First of May: A Fairy Masque
by his friend John R. Wise, text and decoration being in this
case reproduced by photogravure. The " Goose Girl " illustra-
tion taken from his beautiful Household Stories from Grimm
(1882) was reproduced in tapestry by William Morris, and is
now in the South Kensington Museum. Flora's Feast, A Masque
of Flowers had lithographic reproductions of Mr Crane's line
drawings washed in with water colour; he also decorated in
colour The Wonder Book of Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret
Deland's Old Garden; in 1894 he collaborated with William
Morris in the page decoration of The Story of the Glittering Plain,
published at the Kelmscott press, which was executed in the
style of 16th-century Italian and German woodcuts; but in
purely decorative interest the finest of his works in book illustra-
tion is Spenser's Faerie Queene (12 pts., 1894-1896) and the
Shepheard's Calendar. The poems which form the text of Queen
Summer (1891), Renascence (1891), and The Sirens Three (1886)
are by the artist himself.

In the early 'eighties under Morris's influence he was closely
associated with the Socialist movement. He did as much as
Morris himself to bring art into the daily life of all classes. With
this object in view he devoted much attention to designs for
textile stuffs, for wall-papers, and to house decoration; but he
also used his art for the direct advancement of the Socialist
cause. For a long time he provided the weekly cartoons for the
Socialist organs, Justice and The Commonweal. Many of these
were collected as Cartoons for the Cause. He devoted much time
and energy to the work of the Art Workers' Guild, and to the
Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, founded by him in 1888.
His own easel pictures, chiefly allegorical in subject, among them
" The Bridge of Life " (1884) and " The Mower " (1891), were
exhibited regularly at the Grosvenor Gallery and later at the
New Gallery. " Neptune's Horses," which, with many other of
Mr Crane's pictures, came into the possession of Herr Ernst
Seeger of Berlin, was exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893, and
with it may be classed his " The Rainbow and the Wave."

His varied work includes examples of plaster relief, tiles,
stained glass, pottery, wall-paper and textile designs, in all of
which he applied the principle that in purely decorative design
" the artist works freest and best without direct reference to
nature, and should have learned the forms he makes use of by
heart." An exhibition of his work of different kinds was held
at the Fine Art Society's galleries in Bond Street in 1891, and
taken over to the United States in the same year by the artist
himself. It was afterwards exhibited in the chief German,
Austrian and Scandinavian towns, arousing great interest
throughout the continent.

Mr Crane became an associate of the Water Colour Society
in 1888; he was an examiner of the science and art department
at South Kensington; director of design at the Manchester
Municipal school (1894); art director of Reading College (1896);

and in 1898 for a short time principal of the Royal College of Art.
His lectures at Manchester were published with illustrated
drawings as The Bases of Design (1898) and LineandForm{ 1900).
The Decorative Illustration of Books, Old and New (2nd ed.,
London and New York, 1900) is a further contribution to theory.
A well-known portrait of Mr Crane by G. F. Watts, R.A., was
exhibited at the New Gallery in 1893. There is a comprehensive
and sumptuously illustrated book on The Art of Walter Crane, by
P. G. Konody; a monograph (1902) by Otto von Schleinitz in the
Kunstler Monographien series (Bielefeld and Leipzig) ; and an
account of himself by the artist in the Easter number of 1898 of the
Art Journal.

CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845- ), American actor,
was born on the 30th of April 1845, m Leicester, Massachusetts,
and made his first appearance at Utica, New York, in Donizetti's
Daughter of the Regiment in 1863. Later he had a great success
as Le Blanc the Notary, in the burlesque Evangeline (1873). He
made his first hit in the legitimate drama with Stuart Robson
(1836-1903), in The Comedy of Errors and other Shakespearian
plays, and in The Henrietta (1881) by Bronson Howard (1842-
1908). This partnership lasted for twelve years, and subse-
quently Crane appeared in various eccentric character parts in
such plays as The Senator and David Harum. In 1904 he turned
to more serious work and played Isidore Izard in Business is
Business, an adaptation from Octave Mirbeau's Les Affaires
sont les affaires.

CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also
the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span, grulla,
with the Gr. ytpavos), the Grus communis or G. cinerea of
ornithologists, one of the largest wading-birds, and formerly a
native of England, where William Turner, in 1544, said that he
had very often seen its young (" earum pipiones saepissime vidi ").
Notwithstanding the protection afforded it by sundry acts of
parliament, it has long since ceased from breeding in England.
Sir T. Browne (ob. 1682) speaks of it as being found in the open
parts of Norfolk in winter. In Ray's time it was only known as
occurring at the same season in large flocks in the fens of Lincoln-
shire and Cambridgeshire; and though mention is made of cranes'
eggs and young in the fen-laws passed at a court held at Revesby
in 1780, this was most likely but the formal repetition of an
older edict; for in 1768 Pennant wrote that after the strictest
inquiry he found the inhabitants of those counties to be wholly
unacquainted with the bird. The crane, however, no doubt
then appeared in Britain, as it does now, at uncertain intervals
and in unwonted places, having strayed from the migrating
bands whose movements have been remarked from almost the
earliest ages. Indeed, the crane's aerial journeys are of a very
extended kind; and on its way from beyond the borders of the
Tropic of Cancer to within the Arctic Circle, or on the return
voyage, its flocks may be descried passing overhead at a
marvellous height, or halting for rest and refreshment on the
wide meadows that border some great river, while the seeming
order with which its ranks are marshalled during flight has long
attracted attention. The crane takes up its winter quarters
under the burning sun of Central Africa and India, but early in
spring returns northward. Not a few examples reach the chill
polar soils of Lapland and Siberia, but some tarry in the south
of Europe and breed in Spain, and, it is supposed, in Turkey.
The greater number, however, occupy the intermediate zone and
pass the summer in Russia, north Germany, and Scandinavia.
Soon after their arrival in these countries the flocks break up into
pairs, whose nuptial ceremonies are accompanied by loud and
frequent trumpetings, and the respective breeding-places of each
are chosen. '

The nest is formed with little art on the ground in large open
marshes, where the herbage is not very high — a tolerably dry
spot being selected and used apparently year after year. Here
the eggs, which are of a rich brown colour with dark spots, and
always two in number, are laid. The young are able to run soon
after they are hatched, and are at first clothed with tawny down.
In the course of the summer they assume nearly the same grey
plumage that their parents wear, except that the elongated
plumes, which in the adults form a graceful covering of the hinder

3 68

CRANES

parts of the body, are comparatively undeveloped, and the clear
black, white and red (the last being due to a patch of papillose
skin of that colour) of the head and neck are as yet indistinct.
During this time they keep in the marshes, but as autumn
approaches the different families unite by the rivers and lakes,
and ultimately form the enormous bands which after much more
trumpeting set out on their southward journey.

The crane's power of uttering its sonorous and peculiar
trumpet-like notes is commonly ascribed to the formation of its
trachea, which on quitting the lower end of the neck passes
backward between the branches of the furcula and is received
into a hollow space formed by the bony walls of the carina or
keel of the sternum. Herein it makes three turns, and then runs
upwards and backwards to the lungs. The apparatus on the
whole much resembles that found in the whooping swans (Cygnus
musicus, C. buccinator and others), though differing in some not
unimportant details; but at the same time somewhat similar
convolutions of the trachea occur in other birds which do not
possess, so far as is known, the faculty of trumpeting. The
crane emits its notes both during flight and while on the ground.
In the latter case the neck and bill are uplifted and the mouth
kept open during the utterance of the blast, which may be often
heard from birds in confinement, especially at the beginning of
the year.

As usually happens in similar cases, the name of the once
familiar British species is now used in a general sense, and applied
to all others which are allied to it. Though by former systematists
placed near or even among the herons, there is no doubt that the
cranes have only a superficial resemblance and no real affinity to
the Ardeidae. In fact the Gruidae form a somewhat isolated
group. Huxley included them together with the Rallidae in his
Geranomorphae; but a more extended view of their various
characters would probably assign them rather as relatives of the
Bustards — not that it must be thought that the two families have
not been for a very long time distinct. Grus, indeed, is a very
ancient form, its remains appearing in the Miocene of France and
Greece, as well as in the Pliocene and Post-pliocene of North
America. In France, too, during the " Reindeer Period "
there existed a huge species — the G. primigenia of Alphonse
Milne-Edwards — which has doubtless been long extinct. At the
present time cranes inhabit all the great zoogeographical regions
of the earth, except the Neotropical, and some sixteen or seventeen
species are discriminated. In Europe, besides the G. communis
already mentioned, the Numidian or demoiselle-crane (G. virgo) is
distinguished from every other by its long white ear-tufts. This
bird is also widely distributed throughout Asia and Africa, and is
said to have occurred in Orkney as a straggler. The eastern part
of the Palaearctic Region is inhabited by four other species that
do not frequent Europe (G. antigone, G. japonensis, G. monachus,
and G. leucogeranus), of which the last is perhaps the finest of the
family, with nearly the whole plumage of a snowy white. The
Indian Region, besides being visited in winter by four of the
species already named, has two that are peculiar to it (G. torquata
and G. indica, both commonly confounded under the name of
G. antigone). The Australian Region possesses a large species
known to the colonists as the " native companion " (G. australis),
while the Nearctic is tenanted by three species (G. americana,
G. canadensis and G.fraterculus), to say nothing of the possibility
of a fourth (G. schlegeli), a little-known and somewhat obscure
bird, finding its habitat here. In the Ethiopian Region are two
species (G. paradisea and G. carunculata) , which do not occur out
of Africa, as well as three others forming the group known as
" crowned cranes " — differing much from other members of the
family, and justifiably placed in a separate genus, Balearica.
One of these (B. pavonina) inhabits northern and western Africa,
while another (B. regulorum) is confined to the eastern and
southern parts of that continent. The third (B. ceciliae), from
the White Nile, has been described by Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell
(P.Z.S., 1904).

With regard to the literature of this species, a paper " On the
Breeding of the Crane in Lapland " (Ibis, 1859, p. 191), by John
Wolley, is one of the most pleasing contributions to natural history

ever written, and an admirably succinct account of all the different
species was communicated by Blyth to The Field in 1873 (vol. xl.
p. 631, vol. xli. pp. 7, 61, 136, 189, 248, 384, 408, 418). A beautiful
picture representing a flock of cranes resting by the Rhine during
one of their annual migrations is to be found in Wolf's Zoological
Sketches. (A. N.)

CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the
bird, cf. Gr. ykpavos, Fr. grue), machines by means of which
heavy bodies may be lifted, and also displaced horizontally, within
certain defined limits. Strictly speaking, the name alludes to the
arm or jib from which the load to be moved is suspended, but
it is now used in a wider sense to include the whole mechanism
by which a load is raised vertically and moved horizontally.
Machines used for lifting only are not called cranes, but winches,
lifts or hoists, while the term elevator or conveyor is commonly
given to appliances which continuously, not in separate loads,
move materials like grain or coal in a vertical, horizontal or
diagonal direction (see Conveyors) . The use of cranes is of great
antiquity, but it is only since the great industrial development of
the 19th century, and the introduction of other motive powers
than hand labour, that the crane has acquired the important
and indispensable position it now occupies. In all places where
finished goods are handled, or manufactured goods are made,
cranes of various forms are in universal use.

Cranes may be divided into two main classes — revolving and
non-revolving. In the first the load can be lifted vertically, and
then moved round a central pivot, so as to be deposited
at any convenient point within the range. The type of a ™ ca ~
this class is the ordinary jib crane. In the second
class there are, in addition to the lifting motion, two horizontal
movements at right angles to one another. The type of this
class is the overhead traveller. The two classes obviously
represent respectively systems of polar and rectangular co-
ordinates. Jib cranes can be subdivided into fixed cranes and
portable cranes; in the former the central- post or pivot is
firmly fixed in a permanent position, while in the latter the
whole crane is mounted on wheels, so that it may be transported
from place to place.

The different kinds of motive power used to actuate cranes —
manual, steam, hydraulic, electric — give a further classification.
Hand cranes are extremely useful where the load is not
excessive, and the quantities to be dealt with are not
great; also where speed is not important, and first cost
is an essential consideration. The net effective work of lifting
that can be performed by a man turning a handle may be taken,
for intermittent work, as being on an average about 5000 foot-lb
per minute; this is equivalent to 1 ton lifted about 2| ft. per
minute, so that four men can by a crane raise 1 ton 9 ft. in a
minute or 9 tons 1 ft. per minute. It is at once evident that
hand power is only suitable for cranes of moderate power, or in
cases where heavy loads have to be lifted only very occasionally.
This point is dwelt upon, because the speed limitations of the
hand-crane are often overlooked by engineers. Steam is an
extremely useful motive power for all cranes that are not worked
off a central power station. The steam crane has the immense
advantage of being completely self-contained. It can be moved
(by its own locomotive power, if desired) long distances without
requiring any complicated means of conveying power to it; and
it is rapid in work, fairly economical, and can be adapted to the
most varying circumstances. Where, however, there are a
number of cranes all belonging to the same installation, and
these are placed so as to be conveniently worked from a central
power station, and where the work is rapid, heavy and con-
tinuous, as is the case at large ports, docks and railway or other
warehouses, experience has shown that it is best to produce the
power in a generating station and distribute it to the cranes.
Down to the closing decades of the 19th century hydraulic
power was practically the only system available for working
cranes from a power station. The hydraulic crane is rapid in
action, very smooth and silent in working, easy to handle, and
not excessive in cost or upkeep, — advantages which have secured
its adoption in every part of the world. Electricity as a motive
power for cranes is of more recent introduction. The electric

Motive
powers.

CRANES

369

transmission of energy can be performed with an efficiency not
reached by any other method, and the electric motor readily
adapts itself to cranes. When they are worked from a power
station the great advantage is gained that the same plant which
drives them can be used for many other purposes, such as
working machine tools and supplying current for lighting. For
dock-side jib cranes the use of electric power is making rapid
strides. For overhead travellers in workshops, and for most of
the cranes which fall into our second class, electricity as a
motive power has already displaced nearly every other method.
Cranes driven by shafting, or by mechanical power, have been
largely superseded by electric cranes, principally on account of
the much greater economy of transmission. For many years the
best workshop travellers were those driven by quick running
ropes; these performed admirable service, but they have given
place to the more modern electric traveller. - ■,

The principal motion in a crane is naturally the hoisting or
lifting motion. This is effected by slinging the load to an eye or
hook, and elevating the hook vertically. There are three
typical methods: (1) A direct pull may be applied to
the hook, either by screws, or by a cylinder fitted with
piston and rod and actuated by direct hydraulic or other
pressure, as shown diagrammatically in fig. I. These methods are
used in exceptional cases, but present the obvious difficulty of giving

Lifting

mechaa

Isms.

gi-

f

#

Fig. 1.

Fig 2.

Fig. 3.

a very short range of lift. (2) The hook maybe attached to a rope
or chain, and the pulling cylinder connected with a system of pulleys
around which the rope is led ; by these means the lift can be very
largely increased. Various arrangements are adopted; the one
indicated in fig. 2 gives a lift of load four times the stroke of the
cylinder. This second method forms the basis of the lifting gear in
all hydraulic cranes. (3) The lifting rope or chain is led over pulley
to a lifting barrel, upon which it is coiled as the barrel is rotated by
the source of power (fig. 3). Sometimes, especially in the case of
overhead travelling cranes for very heavy loads, the chain is a special
pitch chain, formed of flat links pinned together, and the barrel is
reduced to a wheel provided with teeth, or " sprockets," which
engage in the links. In this case the chain is not coiled, but simply
passes over the lifting wheel, the free end hanging loose. All the
methods in this third category require a rotating lifting or barrel
shaft, and this is the important difference between them and the
hydraulic cranes mentioned above. Cranes fitted with rotating
hydraulic engines may be considered as coming under the third
category.

When the loads are heavy the above mechanisms are supple-
mented by systems of purchase blocks suspended from the jib or the
traveller crab; and in barrel cranes trains of rotating gearing are
interposed between the motor, or manual handle, and the barrel

When a load is lifted, work has to be done m overcoming the
action of gravity and the friction of the mechanism; when it is
„ . lowered, energy is given out. To control the speed and

Brakes. a b sor t) this energy, brakes have to be provided. The
hydraulic crane has a great advantage in possessing an almost ideal
brake, for by simply throttling the exhaust from the lifting cylinder
the speed of descent can be regulated within very wide limits and
with perfect safety. Barrel cranes are usually fitted with band
brakes, consisting of a brake rim with a friction band placed round
it, the band being tightened as required. In ordinary cases conduc-
tion and convection suffice to dissipate the heat generated by the
brake, but when a great deal of lowering has to be rapidly performed,
or heavy loads have to be lowered to a great depth, special arrange-
ments have to be provided. An excellent brake for very large cranes
is Matthew's hydraulic brake, in which water is passed from end to
end of cylinders fitted with reciprocating pistons, cooling jackets
being provided. In electric cranes a useful method is to arrange
the connexions so that the lifting motor acts as a dynamo, and,
driven by the energy of the falling load, generates a current which
is converted into heat by being passed through resistances. That
the quantity of heat to be got rid of may become very considerable
is seen when it is considered that the energy of a load of 60 tons

descending through 50 ft. is equivalent to an amount of heat sufficient
to raise nearly 6 gallons of water from 60° F. to boiling point. Crane
brakes are usually under the direct control of the driver, and they are
generally arranged in one of two ways. In the first, the pressure
is applied by a handle or treadle, and is removed by a spring or
weight; this is called " braking on." In the second, or " braking
off " method, the brake is automatically applied by a spring or
weight, and is released either mechanically or, in the case of electric
cranes, by the pull of a solenoid or magnet which is energized by the
current passing through the motor. When the motor starts the
brake is released; when it stops, or the current ceases, the brake
goes on. The first method is in general use for steam cranes; it
allows for a far greater range of power in the brake, but is not
automatic, as is the second.

In free-barrel cranes the lifting barrel is connected to the revolving
shaft by a powerful friction clutch; this, when interlocked with
the brake and controller, renders electric cranes exceedingly rapid
in working, as the barrel can be detached and lowering performed
at a very high speed, without waiting for the lifting motor to come
to rest in order to be reversed. This method of working is very
suitable for electric dock-side cranes of capacities up to about 5 or
7 tons, and for overhead travellers where the height of lift is
moderate. Where high speed lowering is not required it is usual to
employ a reversing motor and keep it always in gear.

In steam cranes it is usual to work all the motions from one double
cylinder engine. In order to enable two or more motions to be
worked together, or independently as required, reversing friction
cones are used for the subsidiary motions, especially the slewing
motion. With the exception of a few special cranes in which friction
wheels are employed, it is universally the practice, in steam cranes,
to connect the engine shaft with the barrel shaft by spur toothed
gearing, the gear being connected or disconnected by sliding pinions.
In electric cranes the motor is connected to the barrel, either in a
similar manner by spur gear or by worm gear. The toothed wheels
give a slightly better efficiency, but the worm gear is somewhat
smoother in its action and entirely silent ; the noise of gearing can,
however, be considerably reduced by careful machining of the teeth,
as is now always done, and also by the use of pinions made of raw-
hide leather or other non-resonant material. When quick-running
metal pinions are used they are arranged to run in closed oil^baths.
Leather pinions must be protected from rats, which eat them freely.
Worm wheel gearing is of very high efficiency if made very quick in
pitch, with properly formed teeth perfectly lubricated, and with
the end thrust of the worm taken on ball bearings. Much attention
has been paid to the improvement of the mechanical details of the
lifting and other motions of cranes, and in important installations
the gearing is now usually made of cast steel. In revolving cranes
ease of slewing can be greatly increased by the use of a live ring of
conical rollers.

Electric motors for barrel Cranes are not essentially different from
those used for other purposes, but in proportioning the sizes th*>
intermittent output has to be taken into consideration. _
This fact has led to the introduction of the " crane rated " rower
motor, With a given " load factor." This latter gives the re 9 u ' re *-
ratio of the length of the working periods to the whole time; e.g.
a motor rated for a quarter load factor means that the motor is
capable of exerting its full normal horse-power for three minutes
out of every twelve, the pause being nine minutes, or one minute
out of every four, the pause being three minutes. The actual load
factor to be chosen depends on the nature of the work and the kind
of crane. A dock-side crane unloading cargo with high lifts follow-
ing one another in rapid succession will require a higher load factor
than a workshop traveller with a very short lift and only a very
occasional maximum load ; and a traveller with a very long longi-
tudinal travel will require a higher load factor for the travelling
motor than for the lifting motor. In practice, the load factor for
electric crane motors varies from \ to 5. In steam cranes much the
same principle obtains in proportioning the boiler; e.g. the engines
of a 10-ton steam crane have cylinders capable of indicating about
60 horse-power when working at full speed, but it is found that, in
consequence of the intermittent working, sufficient steam can be
supplied with a boiler whose heating surface is only J to i of that
necessary for the above power, when developed continuously by a
stationary engine.

In well-designed, quick-running cranes the mechanical efficiency
of the lifting gear may be taken as about 85 %; a good electric jib
crane will give an efficiency of 72 %, i.e. when actually lifting at
full speed the mechanical work of lifting represents about 72 % <X
the electric energy put into the lifting motor. A very convenient
rule is to allow one brake horse-power of motor for every 10 foot-
tons of work done at the hook; this is equivalent to an efficiency
of 66f %, and is well on the safe side.

The motor in most common use for electric cranes is the series
wound, continuous current motor, which has many advantages.
It has a very large starting torque, which enables it to overcome the
inertia of getting the load into motion, and it lifts heavy loads at a
slower speed and lighter loads at a quicker one, behaving, under the
action of the controller in a somewhat similar manner to that in
which the cylinders of the steam crane respond to the action of
the stop-valve. Three-phase motors are also much used for

370

CRANES

crane-driving, and ft is probable that improvements in single and
two-phase motors will eventually largely increase their use for this
class of work.

Tests of the comparative efficiencies of hydraulic and electric
cranes tend to show that, although they do not vary to any very
considerable extent with full load, yet the efficiency of the hydraulic
crane falls away very much more rapidly than that of the electric
crane when working on smaller loads. This drawback can be
corrected to a slight extent by furnishing the hydraulic crane with
more than one cylinder, and thus compounding it, but the arrange-
ment does not give the same economical range of load as in an
electric crane. In first cost the hydraulic crane has the advantage,
but the power mains are much less expensive and more convenient
to arrange in the electric crane.

The limit of speed of lift of hand cranes has already been men-
tioned; for steam jib cranes average practice is represented by the
Speed. formula V = 30+20o/T, where V is the speed of lift in
' feet per minute, and T the load in tons. Where electric
or hydraulic cranes are worked from a central station the speed is
greater, and may be roughly represented by V = 5-|-30o/T; e.g. a
30-cwt. crane would lift with a speed of about 200 ft. per minute,
and 100-ton crane with a speed of about 8 ft. per minute, but these
speeds vary with local circumstances. The lifting speed of electric
travellers is generally less, because the lift is generally much shorter,
and may in ordinary cases be taken as V = 3-(-85/T. The cross-
traversing speed of travellers varies from 60 to 120 ft. per minute,
and the longitudinal from 100 to 300 ft. per minute. The speed of
these two motions depends much on the length of the span and of the
longitudinal run, and on the nature of the work to be done; in
certain cases, e.g. foundries, it is desirable to be able to lift, on
occasions, at an extremely slow speed. In addition to the brakes
on the lifting gear of cranes it is found necessary, especially in quick-
running electric cranes, to provide a brake on the subsidiary
motions, and also devices to stop the motor at the end of the lift
or travel, so as to prevent over-running.

There are many other important points of crane construction too
numerous to mention here, but it may be said generally that the
advent of electricity has tended to increase speeds, and in conse-
quence great attention is paid to all details that reduce friction and
wear, such as roller and ball bearings and improved methods of
lubrication; and, as in all other quick-running machinery, great
stress has to be laid on accuracy of workmanship. The machinery,
thus being of a higher class, requires more protection, and cranes
that work in the open are now fitted with elaborate crane-houses or
cabins, furnished with weather-tight doors and windows, and more
care is taken to provide proper platforms, hand-rails and ladders
of access, and also guards for the revolving parts of gearing.

Typical Forms of Cranes. — Fig. 4 is a diagram of a fixed hand
revolving jib crane, of moderate size, as used in railway goods yards
and similar places. It consists of a heavy base, which is
securely bolted to the foundation, and which carries the
strong crane-post, or pillar, around which the crane re-
volves. The revolving part is made with two side frames of cast
iron or steel plates, and to these the lifting gear is attached. The

Fixed

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

load is suspended from the crane jib; this jib is attached at the
lower end to the side frames, and the upper end is supported by tie-
rods, connected to the framework, the whole revolving together.
This simple form of crane thus embodies the essential elements of
foundation, post, framework, jib, tie-rods and gearing.

Fig. 5 shows another type of fixed crane, known as a derrick crane.
Here the crane-post is extended into a long mast and is furnished
with pivots at the top and bottom; the mast is supported by two
" back ties," and these are connected to the socket of the bottom
pivot by the " sleepers." This is a very good and comparatively
cheap form of crane, where a long and variable radius is required,
but it cannot slew through a complete circle. Derrick cranes are
made of all powers, from the timber i-ton hand derrick to the steel
150-ton derrick used in shipbuilding yards. The derrick crane
introduces a problem for which many solutions have been sought,
that of preventing the load from being lifted or lowered when the
jib is pivoted up or down to alter the radius. To keep the load
level, there are various devices for automatically coupling the jib-
raising and the load-lowering motions.

Somewhat allied to the derrick are the sheer legs (fig. 6). Here
the place of the jib is taken by two inclined legs joined together

at the top and pivoted at the bottom ; a third back-leg is connected
at the top to the other two, and at the bottom is coupled to a nut
which runs on a long horizontal screw. This horizontal movement
of the lower end of the back
leg allows the whole arrange-
ment to assume the position
shown in fig. 7, so that a
load can be taken out of a
vessel and deposited on a
quay wall. The same effect
can be produced by shorten-
ing the back leg by a screw
placed in the direction of its
length. Sheer legs are gener-
ally built in very large sizes, #""
and their use is practically
confined to marine work.

Another type of fixed crane Fig. 6.

is the " Fairbairn " crane,

shown in fig. 8. Here the jib, superstructure and post are all united
in one piece, which revolves in a foundation well, being supported at
the bottom by a toe-step and near the ground level by horizontal

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

rollers. This type of crane used to be in great favour, in consequence
of the great clearance it gives under the jib, but it is expensive and
requires very heavy foundations.

The so-called " hammer-headed " crane (fig. 9) consists of a steel
braced tower, on which revolves a large horizontal double canti-
lever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting
crab, and the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support
for the machinery and counter-balance. Besides the motions of
lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking"
motion, by which the lifting crab, with the load suspended, can be
moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load.
Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later
crane design; it first became prominent in the so-called " Titan "
cranes, mentioned below (fig. 14). Hammer-headed cranes are
generally constructed in large sizes, up to 200 tons.

Another type of fixed revolving crane is the foundry or smithy
crane (fig. 10). It has the horizontal racking motion mentioned

Fig.

Fig. 10.

above, and revolves either on upper and lower pivots supported by
the structure of the workshop, or on a fixed pillar secured to a heavy
foundation. The type is often used in foundries, or to serve heavy
hammers in a smithy, whence the name.

_ Portable cranes are of many kinds. Obviously, nearly every
kind of crane can be made portable by mounting it on a carriage,
fitted with wheels; it is even not unusual to make the
Scottish derrick portable by using three trucks, one under Portable
the mast, and the others under the two back legs. cranes.

Fig. 11 represents a portable steam jib crane; it contains the
same elements as the fixed crane (fig. 4), but the foundation bed
is mounted on a truck which is carried on railway or road wheels.
With portable cranes means must be provided to ensure the requisite
stability against overturning ; this is done by weighting the tail of
the revolving, part with heavy weights, and in steam cranes the

CRANES

37i

boiler is so placed as also to form part of the counterbalance. Where
the rail-gauge is narrow and great weight is not desired, blocking
girders are provided across the under side of the truck; these are
arranged so that, by means of wedges or screws, they can be made
to increase the base. In connexion with the stability of portable
cranes, it may be mentioned that accidents more often arise from

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

overturning backwards than forwards. In the latter case the over-
turning tendency begins as soon as the load leaves the ground, but
ceases as soon as the load again touches the ground and thus relieves
the crane of the extra weight, whereas overturning backwards is
caused either by the reaction of a chain breaking or by excessive
counterweight. When portable cranes are fitted with springs and

axle-boxes, drawgear and
buffers, so that they can be
coupled to an ordinary railway
train, they are called " break-
down " or " wrecking " cranes.
Dock-side jib cranes for
working general cargo are
almost always made portable,
in order to enable them to be
placed in correct position in
regard to the hatchways of
the vessels which they serve.
Fig. 12 shows an ordinary
hydraulic dock-side jib crane.
This type is usually fitted with
a very high jib, so as to lift
goods in and out of high-sided
vessels. The hydraulic lifting
cylinders are placed inside the
revolving steel mast or post,
and the cabin for the driver
is arranged high up in the front
of the post, so as to give a good
view of the work. The pressure is conveyed to the crane by means of
jointed " walking " pipes, or flexible hose, connected to hydrants
placed at regular intervals along the quay. It is often very desirable
to have the quay space as little obstructed by the cranes as possible,
so as not to interfere with railway traffic ; this has led to the intro-
duction of cranes mounted on high trucks or gantries, sometimes
also called " portal " cranes. Where warehouses or station buildings
run parallel to the quay line, the high truck is often extended, so
as to span the whole quay; on one side the " long leg " runs on a
rail at the quay edge, and on the other the " short leg " runs on a
runway placed on the building. Cranes of this type are called
" half -portal " cranes. Fig. 13 shows an electric crane of this class.

They give the minimum of
interference with quay space
and have rapidly come into
favour. Where the face of the
warehouse is sufficiently close
to the water to permit of the
crane rope plumbingthe hatches
without requiring a jib of ex-
cessive radius, it is a very
convenient plan to place the
whole crane on the warehouse
roof.

A special form of jib crane,
designed to meet a particular
purpose, is the " Titan " (fig. 14) largely used in the construction of
piers and breakwaters. It contains all the essential elements of the
hammer-headed crane, of which it may be considered to be the parent ;
in fact, the only essential difference is that the Titan is portable and
the hammer-head crane fixed. The Titan was the first type of large

portable crane in which full use was made of a truly horizontal
movement of the load; for the purpose for which the type is de-
signed, viz. setting concrete blocks in courses, this motion is almost
a necessity.

p-fl pp

J

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

As types of non-revolving cranes, fig. 15 shows an overhead
traveller worked by hand, and fig. 16 a somewhat similar machine
worked by electric power. The principal component N
parts of a traveller are the main cross girders forming the on '. .
bridge, the two end carriages on which the bridge rests, the rev0 v "^
running wheels which enable the end carriages to travel craaes -
on the longitudinal gantry girders or runway, and the crab or jenny,
which carries the hoisting mechanism, and moves across the span on

J

^^m^^

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

rails placed on the bridge girders. There are numerous and important
variations of these two types, but the above contain the elements
out of which most cranes of the class are built.

One variation is illustrated in fig. 17, and is called a " Goliath "
or " Wellington." It is practically a traveller mounted on high
legs, so as to permit of its being travelled on rails placed on the
ground level, instead of on an elevated gantry. Of other variations
and combinations of types, fig.
18 shows a modern design of
crane intended to command the
maximum of yard space, and
having some of the character-
istics both of the Goliath and
of the revolving jib crane, and
fig. 19 depicts a combination of
a traveller and a hanging jib
crane.

When the cross traverse
motion of a traveller crab is
suppressed, and the longitudinal
travelling motion is increased
in importance we come to a
type of crane, the use of which
is rapidly increasing; it goes by the name of "transporter."
Transporters can only move the load to any point on a vertical
surface (generally a plane surface) ; they Jjave a lifting _
motion and a movement of translation. They are of two Tra " Sm
kinds: (1) those in which the motive power and lifting porters.
gear are self-contained on the crab ; and (2) those in which the motive
power is placed in a fixed position. A transporter of the first class is
shown in fig. 20. From the
lower flange of a. suspended
runway, made of a single I
section, run wheels, from the
axles of which the trans-
porter is suspended. The
latter consists of a frame-
work carrying the hoisting
barrel, with its driving motor
and gearing, and a travelling
motor, which is geared to the
running wheels in such a
manner as to be able to
propel the whole machine;
a seat is provided for the

Q*

Fig. 20.

driver who manipulates the controllers. A transporter of this kind,
when fitted with a grab, is a very efficient machine for taking coal
from barges and depositing it in a coal store.

In the other class of transporter the load is not usually moved

372

CRANIOMETRY

through such long distances. It consists essentially of a jib made
of single | -sections, and supported by tie-rods (fig. 21), the load to be
lifted being suspended from a small travelling carriage which runs
on the lower flange. The lifting gear is located in any convenient

fixed position. In order that
only one motor may be used,
and also that the load may be
lifted by a single part of rope,
various devices have been in-
vented. The jib is usually in-
clined, so as to enable the
travel to be performed by

rmbm r 1 gravity in one direction, and

1 I ii'i the object of the transporter

I mechanism is to ensure that

I pulling in or slacking out the

p IG 2 j * lifting rope shall perform the

cycle of operations in the
following order: — Supposing the load is ready to be lifted out of
a vessel on to a quay, the pull of the lifting rope raises the load, the
travelling jenny being meanwhile locked in position. On arriving
at a certain height the lift ceases and the jenny is released, and by
the continued pull of the rope, it runs up the jib; on arriving at an
adjustable stop, the jenny is again locked, and the load can be
lowered out ; the hook can then be raised, when the jenny is auto-
matically unlocked, and on paying out the rope the jenny gravitates
to its first position, when the load is lowered and the cycle repeated.
The jibs of transporters are often made to slide forward, or lift up,
so as to be out of the way when not in use. Transporters are largely
used for dealing with general cargo between vessels and warehouses,
and also for coaling vessels; they have a great advantage in not
interfering with the rigging of vessels.

Nearly all recent advances in crane design are the result of the
introduction of the electric motor. It is now possible to apply
motive power exactly where it is wanted, and to do so economically,
so that the crane designer has a perfectly free hand in adding, the
various motions required by the special circumstances of each case.
The literature which deals specially with cranes is not a large one,
but there are some good German text-books on the subject, amongst
which may be mentioned Die Hebezeuge by Ernst (4th ed., Berlin,
1903), and Cranes, by Anton Bottcher, translated with additions by
A. Tolhausen (London, 1908). (W. P.*)

CRANIOMETRY. The application of precise methods of
measurement marks a definite phase in the development of most
branches of modern science, and thus craniometry, a compre-
hensive expression for all methods of measuring the skull
(cranium), provides a striking landmark in the progress of
anthropological studies. The origin of craniometry appears to be
twofold. Certain artists made measurements of heads and skulls
with a view to attaining greater accuracy in their representation
of those parts of the human frame. Bernard de Palissy and
A. Diirer may be mentioned as pioneers in such researches.
Again, it is clearly shown in the literature of this subject, that
anatomists were led to employ methods of measurement in their
study of the human skull. The determining cause of this
improvement in method is curious, for it appeared at the end of a
famous anatomical controversy of the later middle ages, namely
the dispute as to whether the Galenic anatomy was based on the
study of the human body or upon those of apes. In the descrip-
tion of the dissection of a chimpanzee (in 1680) Tyson explains
that the measurements he made of the skull of that animal were
devised with a view to exhibiting the difference between this and
the human skull.

The artists did not carry their researches very far. The
anatomists on the contrary continued to make measurements, and
in 1764 Daubenton published a noteworthy contribution to
craniometry. Six years later, Pieter Camper, distinguished both
as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures contain-
ing an account of his craniometrical methods, and these may be
fairly claimed as having laid the foundation of all subsequent
work. That work has been described above as anthropological,
but as the studies thus defined are very varied in extent, it is
necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they naturally
fall.

In the first place (and omitting further reference to the contri-
butions of artists), it has been explained that the measurements
were first made with a view to elucidating the comparison of the
skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison
constitutes the first subdivision of craniometric studies. And
craniometric methods have rendered the results of comparison

much more clear and comprehensible than was formerly the case.
It is further remarkable that among the first measurements
employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the name of
Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by the
" facial angle " invented by that artist-anatomist (fig. 1). It
appears impossible to improve on the simple terms in which

M

Fig. 1. — The skull and head of a young orang-utan, and of a negro,
showing the lines including the facial angle (MGND) devised by
Pieter Camper.

Camper describes the general results of the employment of this
angle for comparative purposes, as will appear from the following
brief extract from the translation of the original work: " The
two extremities of the facial line are from 70 to 80 degrees from
the negro to the Grecian antique: make it under 70, and you
describe an ourang or an ape: lessen it still more, and you have
the head of a dog. Increase the minimum, and you form a fowl,
a snipe for example, the facial line of which is nearly parallel
with the horizon." (Camper's Works, p. 42, translated by
Cogan, 1821.)

In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the
literature of craniometry quickly increase in number; while it
is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a
complete list of the names of the authors, it must be added that
for the purposes of far-reaching comparisons of the lower animals
with mankind, craniometric methods were used by P. P. Broca in
France and by T. H. Huxley (figs. 2 and 3) in England, with such
genius and success as have not yet been surpassed.

The second division of craniometric studies includes those in
which the skulls of the higher and lower races of mankind are
compared. And in this domain, the advent of accurate numerical
methods of recording observations brought about great advances.
In describing the facial angle, it will be seen that the modern
European, the Greek of classical antiquity and the Negro are
compared. Thus it is that Camper's name appears as that of a
pioneer in this second main division of the subject. Broca and
Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields of research,
but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must be
added here. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the
merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the
skull, and of a classification based on such comparisons. These
indices will be further defined below. It is convenient to mention
here that the first aim of all these investigators was to obtain
from the skull reliable data having reference to the conformation
or size of the brain once contained within it. Only in later days
did the tendency to overlook this, the fundamental aim and end

CRANIOMETRY

373

of craniometry, make its appearance; such nevertheless was the
case, much to the detriment of craniometric science, which for a
time seems to have become purely empirical.

The third subdivision of craniometric researches is one in which
the field of comparison is still further narrowed. For herein the

Fig. 2. — The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-basal angles are shown in the
crania of: — A, a New Britain native (male); B, a gorilla (male); C, a dog. N.Pr.B, Spheno-
ethmoidal angle; P. Pr. B, Spheno-maxillary angle; Pr. B.Op, Foramino-basal angle. The spheno-
ethmoidal and spheno-maxillary angles were first employed by Huxley.

various sub-racial types such as the dark and fair Europeans are
brought together for the purposes of comparison or contrast.
But although the range of research is thus narrowed and re-
stricted, the guiding principles and the methods remain un-
changed. In this department of craniometry, Anders Retzius
has gained the foremost place among the pioneers of research.

Fig. 3. — The spheno-ethmoidal, spheno-maxillary and foramino-
basal angles are shown in the crania of : — A, a New Guinea native
(male); B, a European woman. N.Pr.B, Spheno-ethmoidal angle;
P.Pr.B, Spheno-maxillary angle; Pr.B.Op, Foramino-basal angle.

Retzius's name is, as already mentioned, associated not with any
particular angle or angular measurement, but rather with a
method of expressing as a formula two cranial dimensions
which have been measured and which are to be compared. Thus
for instance one skull may be so proportioned that its greatest
width measures 75% of its greatest length {i.e. its width is to its
length as three to four).

This ratio (of 75%) is termed the cephalic or breadth-index,
which in such an instance would be described as equal to 75.

A B C

f 'rom Tylor's Anthropology, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.

Fig. 4. — Top view of skulls. (A) Negro, index 70, dolichocephalic ;
(B) European, index 80, mesaticephalic ; (C) Samoyed, index 85,
brachycephalic.

A skull providing a breadth-index of 75 will naturally possess
very different proportions from another which provides a corre-
sponding index equal to 85. And in fact this particular index in
human skulls varies from about 58 to 90 in undistorted examples
(fig. 4). Such is the general scheme of Retzius's system of
classification of skulls by means of indices, and one of his earliest
applications of the method was to the inhabitants of Sweden.

One striking result was to exhibit a most marked contrast in
respect of the breadth-index of the skull, between the Lapps and
their Scandinavian neighbours, and thus a craniometric difference
was added to the list of characters (such as stature, hair-colour
and complexion) whereby these two types were already dis-
tinguished. Since the publication
of Retzius's studies, the cephalic or
breadth-index of the skull has
retained a premier position among
its almost innumerable successors,
though it is of historical interest to
note that, while Retzius had un-
doubtedly devised the method of
comparing " breadth-indices," he
always qualified the results of its
use by reference to other data.
These qualifications were over-
looked by the immediate successors
of Retzius, much to the disadvan-
tage of craniometry. In addition
to the researches on the skull
forms of Lapps and Swedes, others dealing with the comparison
of Finns and Swedes (by Retzius) as well as the investigation of
the form of skull in Basques and Guanches (by Broca) possess
historic interest.

Thus far little or nothing has been said with regard to instru-
ments. Camper devised a four-sided open frame with cross-
wires, through which skulls were
viewed and by means of which
accurate drawings could be pro-
jected on to paper. The methods
of Retzius as here described
require the aid of callipers of
various sorts, and such instru-
ments were quickly devised and
applied to the special needs of
the case. Such instruments are
still in use, and two forms of
simple craniometer are shown in
the accompanying illustrations
(figs. 5 and 6). For the more
accurate comparison required in
the study of various European
types, delicate instruments for
measuring angles were invented
by Anthelme in Paris (1836) and
John Grattan in Belfast (1853).
These instruments enabled the observer to transmit to the plane
surface of a sheet of drawing paper a correct tracing of the contour
of the specimen under investigation. A further modification was
devised by the talented Dr Busk in the year 1861, and since that
date the number and forms of these instruments have been
greatly multiplied. With reference to contributors to the advance
of knowledge in this particular department of craniometry,
there should be added to the foregoing names those of Huxley,
Sir W. H. Flower and Sir W. Turner in England, J. L. A. de
Quatrefages in France, J. C. G. Lucae and H. Welcker in Germany.
Moreover, the methods
have also been multi-
plied, so that in addition
to angular and linear
measurements, those of
the capacity or cubical
contents of the cranium
and those of the curva-
ture of its surface demand
reference. The masterly
work of Cleland claims
And finally while two

Fig. 5. — Callipers used in
Craniometry, Professor Martin's
(P. Hermann, Zurich) model.

Fig. 6. — Flower's Craniometer as modi-
fied by Dr W. L. H. Duckworth.

special mention in this connexion,
dimensions are combined in the
cephalic index of Retzius, the combination of three dimen-
sions (in a formula called a modulus) distinguishes some
recent work, although the employment of the modulus is

374

CRANK

actually a return to a system devised in 1859 by Karl E.
von Baer.

The fourth subdivision of craniometry is closely allied to that
which has just been described, and it deals with the comparison
of the prehistoric and the recent types of mankind. The methods
are exactly similar to those employed in the comparison of
living races; but in some particular instances where the pre-
historic individual is represented only by a comparatively minute
portion of the skull, some special modifications of the usual
procedures have been necessitated. In this field the works of
W. His and L. Rutimeyer on the prehistoric races of Switzerland,
those of Ecker (South Germany), of Broca in France, of Thurnam
and Davis in England, must be cited. G. Schwalbe, Kramberger,

Fig. 7. — The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of : — A, a New Britain
native (male) 62°; B, a gorilla (male) 50 ; C, a dog 42°. This angle has now replaced the facial
angle of Camper (cf. fig. 1).

W. J. Sollas and H. Klaatsch are the most recent contributors to
this department of craniometry.

Thus the complexity of craniometric studies has inevitably
increased. In the hands of von Torok of Budapest, as in those of
M. Benedikt of Vienna at an earlier date, the number of measure-
ments regarded as necessary for the complete " diagnosis " of a
skull has reached a colossal total. Of the trend and progress of
craniometry at the present day, three particular developments
are noteworthy. First come the attempts made at various times
to co-ordinate the systems of measurements so as to ensure
uniformity among all observers; of these attempts two, viz. that
of the German anthropologists at Frankfort in 1882 (figs. 7 and
8), and that of the Anthropometric Committee of the British

Fig. 8. — The facial angle of the Frankfort Agreement is shown in the crania of : — A, a New
Guinea native (male) 75 ; B, a European (woman) 93°; C, a new-born infant (93 °).

Association (1906) seem to require at least a record. In the
second place, the application of the methods of statistical
science in dealing with large numbers of craniometric data has
been richly rewarded in Prof. Karl Pearson's hands. Thirdly,
and in connexion with such methods, there may be mentioned
the extension of these systems of measurement, and of the
methods of dealing with them on statistical principles, to the
study of large numbers of the skulls of domestic and feral
animals, such as white rats or the varieties of the horse. And
lastly no account of craniometry would be complete without
mention of the revolt, headed by the Italian anthropologist
Sergi, against metrical methods of all kinds. It cannot, however,
be alleged that the substitutes offered by the adherents of
Sergi's principles encourage others to forsake the more orthodox
numerical methods.

Literature. — Tyson, The Anatomy of a Pygmie (London, 1699) ;
Daubenton, " Sur la difference de la situation du tron occipital dans

l'homme et dans les animaux," Comptes rendus de I'academie des
sciences (Paris, 1764); Camper, Works (1770, translated by Cogan,
1821); Broca, Memoires (1862 and following years); Huxley,
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. 1 (1867); Retzius, Uber
die Schadelformen der Nordbewohner (Stockholm, 1842); Anthelme,
Physiologie de la pensee (Paris, 1836); Grattan, Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. 1 (1853); Busk, "A System of Craniometry,
Transactions of the Ethnological Society (1861); Flower, Catalogue
of the Hunterian Museum, Osteology, part 1 (London, 1879) ; Turner,
" ' Challenger ' Reports," Zoology, vol. x. pt. 29, " Human Crania "
(1884); de Quatrefages, Crania ethnica (Paris, 1873); Lucae,
Architectur des menschlichen Schddels (Frankfort, 1855); Welcker,
Bau und Wachsthum des menschlichen Schddels (1862); Cleland,
" An Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull," Phil. Trans.
Roy. Society (1870), vol. 160, pp. 117 et seq. ; von Baer, " Crania
selecta," Academie imperiale des sciences de S. Petersbourg (1859);

His and Rutimeyer, Crania Helvetica
(Basel, 1866); Ecker, Crania Ger-
maniae meridionalis (1865) ; Thurnam
and Davis, Crania Britannica; von
Torok, Craniometrie (Stuttgart, 1890) ;
Benedikt, Manuel technique et pra-
tique d' anthropometric cranio-ckpha-
lique (Paris, 1889); Pearson, Biome-
trika, from vol. 1 (in 1902) onwards;
Sergi, " The Varieties of the Human
Species," English translation, Smith-
sonian Institution (Washington,
1894); Schwalbe, "Der Neander-
thalschadel," Bonner Jahrbiicher, Heft
106; also Sonderheft der Zeitschrift
fur Morphologic und Anthropologie ;
Kramberger, Der palaolithische
Mensch von Krapina (Nagele, Stutt-
gart, 1901); Sollas, "The Cranial
Characters of the Neanderthal Race,"
Phil. Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 199, Series B, p. 298, 1908 ;
Klaatsch, " Bericht uber einen anthropologischen Streifzug nach
London," Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Heft 6, 1903, p. 875.

Handbooks. — Topinard, Elements a" anthropologie generate (Paris,
1885); Schmidt, Anthropologische Methoden (Leipzig, 1888); Duck-
worth, Morphology and Anthropology (Cambridge, 1904).

Journals. — Bulletins de la Societi d' 'Anthropologic de Paris, Journal
of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
Archiv fur Anthropologie, Zeitschrift filr Morphologie und Anthro-
pologie. (W. L. H. D.)

CRANK, a word of somewhat obscure etymology, probably
connected with a root meaning " crooked," and appearing in the
Ger. krank, ill, a figurative use of the original word; among
other words in English containing the same original meaning are
" cringe " and " crinkle." In mechanics, a crank is a device by

which reciprocating motion is con-
verted into circular motion or
vice versa, consisting of a crank-
arm, one end of which is fastened
rigidly at right angles to the
rotating shaft or axis, while the
other end bears a crank-pin, pro-
jecting from it at right angles and
parallel to the shaft. When the
reciprocating part of a machine, as
the piston and piston-rod of a
steam engine, is linked to this
crank by a crank-rod or connecting
rod, one end of which works on the crank-pin and the other
on a pin in the end of the reciprocating part, the to-and-fro
motion of the latter imparts a circular motion to the shaft
and vice versa. The crank, instead of being made up as de-
scribed above, may be formed by bending the shaft to the
required shape, as sometimes in the handle of a winch. A
bell-crank, so called because of its use in bell-hanging to change
the direction of motion of the wires from horizontal to vertical
or vice versa, consists of two arms rigidly connected at an angle,
say of 90°, to each other and pivoted on a pin placed at the point
of junction.

Crank is also the name given to a labour machine used in
prisons as a means of punishment (see Tread-mill). Other uses
of the word, connected with the primary meaning, are for a
crooked path, a crevice or chink; and a freakish turn of thought
or speech, as in Milton's phrase " quips and cranks." It is also
used as a slang expression, American in origin, for a harmless

CRANMER

375

lunatic, or a faddist, whose enthusiasm for some one idea or
hobby becomes a monomania. " Crank " or " crank-sided " is a
nautical term used of a ship which by reason of her build or from
want of balance is liable to overturn. This strictly nautical
sense is often confused with " crank " or " cranky," that is,
rickety or shaky, probably derived direct from the German
krank, weak or ill.

CRANMER, THOMAS (1480-1556), archbishop of Canterbury,
born at Aslacton or Aslockton in Nottinghamshire on the 2nd of
July 1489, was the second son of Thomas Cranmer and of his
wife Anne Hatfield. He received his early education, according
to Morice his secretary, from " a marvellous severe and cruel
schoolmaster," whose discipline must have been severe indeed to
deserve this special mention in an age when no schoolmaster
bore the rod in vain. The same authority tells us that he was
initiated by his father in those field sports, such as hunting and
hawking, which formed one of his recreations in after Kfe. To
early training he also owed the skilful horsemanship for which
he was conspicuous. At the age of fourteen he was sent by his
mother, who had in 1501 become a widow, to Cambridge.
Little is known with certainty of his university career beyond the
facts that he became a fellow of Jesus College in 1510 or 1511,
that he had soon after to vacate his fellowship, owing to his
marriage to " Black Joan," a relative of the landlady of the
Dolphin Inn, and that he was reinstated in it on the death of his
wife, which occurred in childbirth before the lapse of the year of
grace allowed by the statutes. During the brief period of his
married life he held the appointment of lecturer at Buckingham
Hall, now Magdalene College. The fact of his marrying would
seem to show that he did not at the time intend to enter the
church; possibly the death of his wife caused him to qualify
for holy orders. He was ordained in 1523, and soon after he took
his doctor's degree in divinity. According to Strype, he was
invited about this time to become a fellow of the college founded
by Cardinal Wolsey at Oxford; but Dean Hook shows that
there is some reason to doubt this. If the offer was made, it was
declined, and Cranmer continued at Cambridge filling the
offices of lecturer in divinity at his own college and of public
examiner in divinity to the university. It is interesting, in view
of his later efforts to spread the knowledge of the Bible among
the people, to know that in the capacity of examiner he insisted
on a thorough acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and re-
jected several candidates who were deficient in this qualification.

It was a somewhat curious concurrence of circumstances that
transferred Cranmer, almost at one step, from the quiet seclusion
of the university to the din and bustle of the court. In August
1529 the plague known as the sweating sickness, which prevailed
throughout the country, was specially severe at Cambridge, and
all who had it in their power forsook the town for the country.
Cranmer went with two of his pupils named Cressy, related to
him through their mother, to their father's house at Waltham in
Essex. The king (Henry VIII.) happened at the time to be
visiting in the immediate neighbourhood, and two of his chief
counsellors, Gardiner, secretary of state, afterwards bishop of
Winchester, and Edward Fox, the lord high almoner, afterwards
bishop of Hereford, were lodged at Cressy's house. Meeting
with Cranmer, they were naturally led to discuss the king's
meditated divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Cranmer suggested
that if the canonists and the universities should decide that
marriage with a deceased brother's widow was illegal, and if it
were proved that Catherine had been married to Prince Arthur,
her marriage to Henry could be declared null and void by the
ordinary ecclesiastical courts. The necessity of an appeal to
Rome was thus dispensed with, and this point was at once seen
by the king, who, when Cranmer's opinion was reported to him,
is said to have ordered him to be summoned in these terms:
" I will speak to him. Let him be sent for out of hand. This
man, I trow, has got the right sow by the ear."

At their first interview Cranmer was commanded by the king
to lay aside all other pursuits and to devote himself to the
question of the divorce. He was to draw up a written treatise,
stating the course he proposed, and defending it by arguments

from scripture, the fathers and the decrees of general councils.
His material interests certainly did not suffer by compliance.
He was commended to the hospitality of Anne Boleyn's father,
the earl of Wiltshire, in whose house at Durham Place he resided
for some time; the king appointed him archdeacon of Taunton
and one of his chaplains; and he also held a parochial benefice,
the name of which is unknown. When the treatise was finished
Cranmer was called upon to defend its argument before the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which he visited, accom-
panied by Fox and Gardiner. Immediately afterwards he was
sent to plead the cause before a more powerful if not a higher
tribunal. An embassy, with the earl of Wiltshire at its head,
was despatched to Rome in 1530, that " the matter of the divorce
should be disputed and ventilated," and Cranmer was an im-
portant member of it. He was received by the Pope with
marked courtesy, and was appointed " Grand Penitentiary of
England," but his argument, if he ever had the opportunity of
stating it, did not lead to any practical decision of the question.

Cranmer returned in September 1530, but in January 1531 he
received a second commission from the king appointing him
" Conciliarius Regius et ad Caesarem Orator." In the summer
of 1 53 1 he accordingly proceeded to Germany as sole ambassador
to the emperor. He was also to sound the Lutheran princes
with a view to an alliance, and to obtain the removal of some
restrictions on English trade. At Nuremberg he became ac-
quainted with Osiander, whose somewhat isolated theological
position he probably found to be in many points analogous to his
own. Both were convinced that the old order must change;
neither saw clearly what the new order should be to which it was
to give place. They had frequent interviews, which had doubtless
an important influence on Cranmer's opinions. But Osiander's
house had another attraction of a different kind from theological
sympathy. His niece Margaret won the heart of Cranmer, and in
1532 they were married. Hook finds in the fact of the marriage
corroboration of Cranmer's statement that he never expected or
desired the primacy; and it seems probable enough that, if he
had foreseen how soon the primacy was to be forced upon him,
he would have avoided a disqualification which it was difficult to
conceal and dangerous to disclose.

Expected or not, the primacy was forced upon him within a
very few months of his marriage. In August 1532 Archbishop
Warham died, and the king almost immediately afterwards
intimated to Cranmer; who had accompanied the emperor in his
campaign against the Turks, his nomination to the vacant see.
Cranmer's conduct was certainly consistent with his profession
that he did not desire, as he had not expected, the dangerous
promotion. He sent his wife to England, but delayed his own
return in the vain hope that another appointment might be made.
The papal bulls of confirmation were dated February and March
1533, and the consecration took place on the 30th March. One
peculiarity of the ceremony had occasioned considerable discus-
sion. It was the custom for the archbishop elect to take two
oaths, the first of episcopal allegiance to the pope, and the second
in recognition of the royal supremacy. The latter was so wide
in its scope that it might fairly be held to supersede the former in
so far as the two were inconsistent. Cranmer, however, was not
satisfied with this. He had a special protest recorded, in which
he formally declared that he swore allegiance to the pope only in
so far as that was consistent with his supreme duty to the king.
The morality of this course has been much canvassed, though it
seems really to involve nothing more than an express declaration
of what the two oaths implied. It was the course that would
readily suggest itself to a man of timid nature who wished to
secure himself against such a fate as Wolsey's. It showed
weakness, but it added nothing to whatever immorality there
might be in successively taking two incompatible oaths.

In the last as in the first step of Cranmer's promotion Henry
had been actuated by one and the same motive. The business of
the divorce — or rather, of the legitimation of Anne Boleyn's
expected issue — had now become very urgent, and in the new
archbishop he had an agent who might be expected to forward it
with the needful haste. The celerity and skill with which

37 6

CRANMER

Cranmer did the work intrusted to him must have fully satisfied
his master. During the first week of April Convocation sat almost
from day to day to determine questions of fact and law in relation
to Catherine's marriage with Henry as affected by her previous
marriage with his brother Arthur. Decisions favourable to the
object of the king were given on these questions, though even
the despotism of the most despotic of the Tudors failed to secure
absolute unanimity. The next step was taken by Cranmer, who
wrote a letter to the king, praying to be allowed to remove the
anxiety of loyal subjects as to a possible case of disputed succes-
sion, by finally determining the validity of the marriage in his
archiepiscopal court. There is evidence that the request was
prompted by the king, and his consent was given as a matter of
course. Queen Catherine was residing at Ampthill in Bedford-
shire, and to suit her convenience the court was held at the priory
of Dunstable in the immediate neighbourhood. Declining to
appear, she was declared contumacious, and on the 23rd of May
the archbishop gave judgment declaring the marriage null and
void from the first, and so leaving the king free to marry whom he
pleased. The Act of Appeals had already prohibited any appeal
from the archbishop's court. Five days later he pronounced
the marriage between Henry and Anne — which had been secretly
celebrated about the 25th of January 1533 — to be valid. On the
1 st of June he crowned Anne as queen, and on the 10th of Sep-
tember stood godfather to her child, the future Queen Elizabeth.

The breach with Rome and the subjection of the church in
England to the royal supremacy had been practically achieved
before Cranmer's appointment as archbishop: and he had little
to do with the other constitutional changes of Henry's reign.
But his position as chief minister of Henry's ecclesiastical
jurisdiction forced him into unpleasant prominence in connexion
with the king's matrimonial experiences. In 1536 he was
required to revise his own sentence in favour of the validity of
Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn; and on the 17th of May
the marriage was declared invalid. The ground on which this
sentence is pronounced is fairly clear. Anne's sister, Mary
Boleyn, had been Henry VIII. 's mistress; this by canon law was
a bar to his marriage with Anne — a bar which had been removed
by papal dispensation in 1527, but now the papal power to
dispense in such cases had been repudiated, and the original ob-
jection revived. The sentence was grotesquely legal and unjust.
With Anne's condemnation by the House of Lords Cranmer
had nothing to do. He interceded for her in vain with the
king, as he had done in the cases of Fisher, More and the monks
of Christchurch. His share in the divorce of Anne of Cleves was
less prominent than that of Gardiner, though he did preside over
the Convocation in which nearly all the dignitaries of the church
signified their approval of that measure. To his next and last
interposition in the matrimonial affairs of the king no discredit
attaches itself. When he was made cognizant of the charges
against Catherine Howard, his duty to communicate them to the
king was obvious, though painful.

Meanwhile Cranmer was actively carrying out the policy
which has associated his name more closely, perhaps, than that
of any other ecclesiastic with the Reformation in England. Its
most important feature on the theological as distinct from the
political side was the endeavour to promote the circulation of the
Bible in the vernacular, by encouraging translation and procuring
an order in 1538 that a copy of the Bible in English should be
set up in every church in a convenient place for reading. Only
second in importance to this was the re -adjustment of the creed
and liturgy of the church, which formed Cranmer's principal work
during the latter half of his life. The progress of the archbishop's
opinion towards that middle Protestantism, if it may be so
called, which he did so much to impress on the formularies of the
Church of England, was gradual, as a brief enumeration of the
successive steps in that progress will show. In 1 538 an embassy
of German divines visited England with the design, among other
things, of forming a common confession for the two countries.
This proved impracticable, but the frequent conferences Cranmer
had with the theologians composing the embassy had doubtless a
great influence in modifying his views. Both in parliament and

in Convocation he opposed the Six Articles of 1539, but he stood
almost alone. During the period between 1540 and 1543 the
archbishop was engaged at the head of a commission in the
revision of the "Bishop's Book" (1537) or Institutions of a
Christian Man, and the preparation of the Necessary Erudition
(1543) known as the " King's Book," which was a modification
of the former work in the direction of Roman Catholic doctrine.
In June 1545 was issued his Litany, which was substantially the
same as that now in use, and shows his mastery of a rhythmical
English style.

The course taken by Cranmer in promoting the Reformation
exposed him to the bitter hostility of the reactionary party or
" men of the old learning," of whom Gardiner and Bonner were
leaders, and on various occasions — notably in 1543 and 1545 —
conspiracies were formed in the council or elsewhere to effect his
overthrow. The king, however, remained true to him, and ail the
conspiracies signally failed. It illustrates a favourable trait in
the archbishop's character that he forgave all the conspirators.
He was, as his secretary Morice testifies, " a man that delighted
not in revenging."

Cranmer was present with Henry VIII. when he died (1547).
By the will of the king he was nominated one of a council of
regency composed of sixteen persons, but he acquiesced in the
arrangement by which Somerset became lord protector. He
officiated at the coronation of the boy king Edward VI., and is
supposed to have instituted a sinister change in the order of the
ceremony, by which the right of the monarch to reign was made to
appear to depend upon inheritance alone, without the concurrent
consent of the people. But Edward's title had been expressly
sanctioned by act of parliament, so that there was no more room
for election in his case than in that of George I., and the real
motive of the changes was to shorten the weary ceremony for the
frail child.

During this reign the work of the Reformation made rapid
progress, the sympathies both of the Protector and of the young
king being decidedly Protestant. Cranmer was therefore enabled
without let or hindrance to complete the preparation of the church
formularies, on which he had been for some time engaged. In
1547 appeared the Homilies prepared under his direction.
Four of them are attributed to the archbishop himself — those on
Salvation, Faith, Good Works and the Reading of Scripture.
His translation of the German Catechism of Justus Jonas, known
as Cranmer's Catechism, appeared in the following year. Im-
portant, as showing his views on a cardinal doctrine, was the
Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament,
which he published in 1550. It was immediately answered from
the side of the " old learning " by Gardiner. The first prayer-
book of Edward VI. was finished in November 1548, and received
legal sanction in March 1549; the second was completed and
sanctioned in April 1552. The archbishop did much of the work
of compilation personally. The forty-two articles of Edward
VI. published in 1553 owe their form and style almost entirely
to the hand of Cranmer. The last great undertaking in which he
was employed was the revision of his codification of the canon
law, which had been all but completed before the death of Henry.
The task was one eminently well suited to his powers, and the
execution of it was marked by great skill in definition and arrange-
ment. It never received any authoritative sanction, Edward VI.
dying before the proclamation establishing it could be made, and
it remained unpublished until 1571, when a Latin translation by
Dr Walter Haddon and Sir John Cheke appeared under the title
Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum. It laid down the lawfulness
and necessity of persecution to the death for heresy in the most
absolute terms; and Cranmer himself condemned Joan Bocher
to the flames. But he naturally loathed persecution, and was as
tolerant as any in that age.

Cranmer stood by the dying bed of Edward as he had stood by
that of his father, and he there suffered himself to be persuaded to
take a step against his own convictions. He had pledged himself
to respect the testamentary disposition of Henry VIII. by which
the succession devolved upon Mary, and now he violated his oath
by signing Edward's " device " of the crown to Lady Jane Grey.

CRANNOG

377

On grounds of policy and morality alike the act was quite
indefensible; but it is perhaps some palliation of his perjury
that it was committed to satisfy the last urgent wish of a dying
man, and that he alone remained true to the nine days' queen
when the others who had with him signed Edward's device
deserted her. On the accession of Mary he was summoned to the
council — most of whom had signed the same device — reprimanded
for his conduct, and ordered to confine himself to his palace at
Lambeth until the queen's pleasure was known. He refused to
follow the advice of his friends and avoid the fate that was
clearly impending over him by flight to the continent. Any
chance of safety that lay in the friendliness of a strong party in
the council was more than nullified by the bitter personal enmity
of the queen, who could not forgive his share in her mother's
divorce and her own disgrace. On the 14th of September 1 553 he
was sent to the Tower, where Ridley and Latimer were also
confined. The immediate occasion of his imprisonment was a
strongly worded declaration he had written a few days previously
against the mass, the celebration of which, he heard, had been
re-established at Canterbury. He had not taken steps to
publish this, but by some unknown channel a copy reached the
council, and it could not be ignored. In November, with Lady
Jane Grey, her husband, and two other Dudleys, Cranmer was
condemned for treason. Renard thought he would be executed,
but so true a Romanist as Mary could scarcely have an ecclesiastic
put to death in consequence of a sentence by a secular court, and
Cranmer was reserved for treatment as a heretic by the highest of
clerical tribunals, which could not act until parliament had
restored the papal jurisdiction. Accordingly in March 1554 he
and his two illustrious fellow-prisoners, Ridley and Latimer, were
removed to Oxford, where they were confined in the Bocardo or
common prison. Ridley and Latimer were unflinching, and
suffered bravely at the stake on the 16th of October 1555.
Cranmer had been tried by a papal commission, over which
Bishop Brooks of Gloucester presided, in September 1555.
Brooks had no power to give sentence, but reported to Rome,
where Cranmer was summoned, but not permitted, to attend.
On the 25th of November he was pronounced contumacious by
the pope and excommunicated, and a commission was sent to
England to degrade him from his office of archbishop. This was
done with the usual humiliating ceremonies in Christ Church,
Oxford, on the 14th of February 1556, and he was then handed
over to the secular power. About the same time Cranmer
subscribed the first two of his " recantations." His difficulty
consisted in the fact that, like all Anglicans of the 16th century, he
recognized no right of private judgment, but believed that the
state, as represented by monarchy, parliament and Convocation,
had an absolute right to determine the national faith and to
impose it on every Englishman. All these authorities had now
legally established Roman Catholicism as the national faith, and
Cranmer had no logical ground on which to resist. His early
" recantations " are merely recognitions of his lifelong conviction
of this right of the state. But his dilemma on this point led him
into further doubts, and he was eventually induced to revile his
whole career and the Reformation. This is what the govern-
ment wanted. Northumberland's recantation had done much
to discredit the Reformation, Cranmer's, it was hoped, would
complete the work. Hence the enormous effect of Cranmer's
recovery at the final scene. On the 21st of March he was taken
to St Mary's church, and asked to repeat his recantation in the
hearing of the people as he had promised. To the surprise of all
he declared with dignity and emphasis that what he had recently
done troubled him more than anything he ever did or said in his
whole life; that he renounced and refused all his recantations as
things written with his hand, contrary to the truth which he
thought in his heart; and that as his hand had offended, his
hand should be first burned when he came to the fire. As he had
said, his right hand was steadfastly exposed to the flames. The
calm cheerfulness and resolution with which he met his fate show
that he felt that he had cleared his conscience, and that his
recantation of his recantations was a repentance that needed not
to be repented of.

It was a noble end to what, in spite of its besetting sin of
infirmity of moral purpose, was a not ignoble life. The key to his
character is well given in what Hooper said of him in a letter to
Bullinger, that he was " too fearful about what might happen to
him." This weakness was the worst blot on Cranmer's character,
but it was due in some measure to his painful capacity for seeing
both sides of a question at the same time, a temperament fatal to
martyrdom. As a theologian it is difficult to class him. As early
as 1538 he had repudiated the doctrine of Transubstantiation;
by 1550 he had rejected also the Real Presence (Pref. to his
Answer to Dr Richard Smith) . But here he used the term " real "
somewhat unguardedly, for in his Defence he asserts a real presence,
but defines it as exclusively a spiritual presence; and he re-
pudiates the idea that the bread and wine were " bare tokens."
His views on church polity were dominated by his implicit
belief in the divine right of kings (not of course the divine
hereditary right of kings) which the Anglicans felt it necessary to
set up against the divine right of popes. He set practically no
limits to the ecclesiastical authority of kings; they were as fully
the representatives of the church as the state, and Cranmer hardly
distinguished between the two. Church and state to him were
one.

Authorities. — Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vols, iv.-xx. :
Acts of the Privy Council, 1542-1556; Cal. of State Papers, Dom.
and Foreign; Foxe's Acts and Monuments; Strype's Memorials of
Cranmer (1694) ; Anecdotes and Character of Archbishop Cranmer,
by Ralph Morice, and two contemporary biographies (Camden
Society's publications) ; Remains of Thomas Cranmer, by Jenkyns
(1833) ; Lives of Cranmer, by Gilpin (1784), Todd (1831), Le Bas, in
Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vols. vi. and vii. (1868),
by Canon Mason (1897), A. D. Innes (1900) and A. F. Pollard (1904) ;
Froude's History; R. W. Dixon's History; J. Gairdner's History
of the Church, 1485-15 58; Bishop Cranmer's Recantacyons, ed.
Gairdner (1885). R. E. Chester Waters's Chesters of Chicheley (1877)
contains a vast amount of genealogical information about Cranmer .
which has only been used by one of his biographers. (A. F. P.)

CRANNOG (Celt, crann, a tree), the term applied in Scotland
and Ireland to the stockaded islands so numerous in ancient
times in the lochs of both countries. The existence of these lake-
dwellings in Scotland was first made known by John Mackinlay, a
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in a letter sent to
George Chalmers, the author of Caledonia, in 1 813, describing two
crannogs, or fortified islands in Bute. The crannog of Lagore, the
first discovered in Ireland, was examined and described by Sir
William Wilde in 1840. But it was not until after the discovery
of the pile-villages of the Swiss lakes, in 1853, had drawn public
attention to the subject of lake-dwellings, that the crannogs of
Scotland and Ireland were systematically investigated.

The results of these investigations show that they have little
in common with the Swiss lake-dwellings, except that they are
placed in lakes. Few examples are known in England, although
over a hundred and fifty have been examined in Ireland, and more
than half that number in Scotland. As a rule they have been
constructed on islets or shallows in the lochs, which have been
adapted for occupation, and fortified by single or double lines of
stockaded defences drawn round the margin. To enlarge the
area, or raise the surface-level where that was necessary,
layers of logs, brushwood, heather and ferns were piled on
the shallow, and consolidated with gravel and stones. Over all
there was laid a layer of earth, a floor of logs or a pavement of
flagstones. In rare instances the body of the work is entirely of
stones, the stockaded defence and the huts within its enclosure
being the only parts constructed of timber. Occasionally a
bridge of logs, or a causeway of stones, formed a communication
with the shore, but often the only means of getting to and from
the island was by canoes hollowed out of a single tree. Remains
of huts of logs, or of wattled work, are often found within the
enclosure. Three crannogs in Dowalton Loch, Wigtownshire,
examined by Lord Lovaine in 1863, were found to be constructed
of layers of fern and birch and hazel branches, mixed with
boulders and penetrated by oak piles, while above all there was a
surface layer of stones and soil. The remains of the stockade
round the margin were of vertical piles mortised into horizontal
bars, and secured by pegs in the mortised holes. The crannog of

37»

CRANSAC— CRANTOR

Lochlee, near Tarbolton, Ayrshire, explored by Dr R. Munro in
1878, was 100 ft. in diameter, and had a double row of piles, bound
by horizontal stretchers with square mortise-holes, enclosing an
area 60 ft. in diameter. In the centre was a space 40 ft. square,
bounded by the remains of a wooden wall and paved inside with
split logs. A partition divided it into two equal parts, one of
which had a doorway opening to the south, and close by it an
extensive refuse-heap. In the middle of the other part was a
stone-paved hearth, with remains of three former hearths
underneath. The substructure was built up from the bottom of
the loch, partly of brushwood but chiefly of logs and trunks of
trees with the branches lopped off, placed in layers, each disposed
transversely or obliquely across the one below it. A crannog in
Loch-an-Dhugael, Balinakill, Argyllshire, described by the same
explorer in 1893, revealed a substructure similar to that at
Lochlee, with a double row of piles enclosing an area 45 to 50 ft.
in diameter, within which was a circular construction 3 2 ft. in
diameter, which had been supported by a large central post and
about twenty uprights ranged round the circumference.

From their common feature of a substructure of brushwood and
logs built up from the bottom, the crannogs have been classed as
fascine-dwellings, to distinguish them from the typical pile-
dwellings of the earlier periods in Switzerland, whose platforms
are supported by piles driven into the bed of the lake. The
crannog of Cloonfinlough in Connaught had a triple stockade of
oak piles, connected by horizontal stretchers and enclosing an
area 130 ft., in diameter, laid with trunks of oak trees. In the
crannog of Lagore, county Meath, there were about 1 50 cartloads
of bones, chiefly of oxen, deer, sheep and swine, the refuse of the
food of the occupants. In the crannog of Lisnacroghera, county
Antrim, iron swords, with sheaths of thin bronze ornamented with
scrolls characteristic of the Late Celtic style, iron daggers, an iron
spear-head i6| in. in length, and pieces of what, are called large,
caldrons of iron, were found. Among the few remains of
lacustrine settlements in England and Wales, some are suggestive
of the typical crannog structure. The most important of these is
the Glastonbury lake village, excavated by Mr A. Bulleid and
Mr St George Gray. It consists of more than sixty separate
dwellings, grouped within a triangular palisaded defence, formed
in the midst of a marsh now partially reclaimed. The dwellings
were circular, from 18 to 35 ft. in diameter, the substructure
formed of logs and brushwood mingled with stones and clay, and
outlined by piles driven into the bottom of the shallow lake.
The walls of the houses seem to have been made of wattle-work,
supported by posts sometimes not more than a single foot apart.
The floors are of clay, with a hearth of stones in the centre, often
showing several renewals over the original. The relics recovered
show unmistakably that the occupation must be dated within
the Iron Age, but probably pre-Roman, as no evidence of contact
with Roman civilization has been discovered. The stage of
civilization indicated is nevertheless not a low one. Besides the
implements and weapons of iron there are fibulae and brooches of
bronze, weaving combs and spindle-whorls, a bronze mirror and
tweezers, wheel-made pottery as well as hand-made, ornamented
with Late Celtic patterns, a bowl of thin bronze decorated with
bosses, the nave of a wooden wheel with holes for twelve - spokes,
and a dug-out canoe. Another site in Holderness, Yorkshire,
examined by Mr Boynton in 1881, yielded evidence of fascine
construction, with suggestions of occupation in the latter part of
the Bronze Age. Similar indications are adduced by Professor
Boyd Dawkins from the site on Barton Mere. On the other
hand, the implements and weapons found in the Scottish and
Irish crannogs are usually of iron, or, if objects of bronze and
stone are found, they are commonly such as were in use in the
Iron Age. Crannogs are frequently referred to in the Irish
annals. Under the year 848 the Annals of the Four Masters
record the burning of the island of Lough Gabhor (the crannog
of Lagore), and the same stronghold is noticed as again destroyed
by the Danes in 933. Under the year 1246 it is recorded that
Turlough O'Connor made his escape from the crannog of Lough
Leisi, and drowned his keepers. Many other entries occur in the
succeeding centuries. In the register of the privy council of

Scotland, April 14, 1608, it is ordered that " the haill houssis of
defence, strongholds, and crannokis in the YUis (the western
isles) pertaining to Angus M'Conneill of Dunnyvaig and Hector
M'Cloyne of Dowart sal be delyverit to His Majestie." Judging
from the historical evidence of their late continuance, and from
the character of the relics found in them, the crannogs may be
included among the latest prehistoric strongholds, reaching their
greatest development in early historic times, and surviving
through the middle ages. In Ireland, Sir William Wilde has
assigned their range approximately to the period between the
9th and 1 6th centuries; while Dr Munro holds that the vast
majority of them, both in Ireland and in Scotland, were not only
inhabited, but constructed during the Iron Age, and that their
period of greatest development was as far posterior to Roman
civilization as that of the Swiss Pfahlbauten was anterior to it.
(See Lake Dwellings.)

Authorities. — Dr R. Munro, The Lake Dwellings of Europe:
being the Rhind Lectures in Archaeology for 1888 (with a bibliography
of the subject) (London, 1890); Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings
or Crannogs (Edinburgh, 1882); Col. W. G. Wood-Martin, The
Lake-Dwellings of Ireland, or Ancient Lacustrine Habitations of Erin,
commonly called Crannogs (Dublin, 1886); Sir W. Wilde, Descriptive
Catalogue of the A ntiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish A cademy,
article "Crannogs," pp. 220-233 (Dublin, 1857); John Stuart,
" Scottish Artificial Islands or Crannogs," in the Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. vi. (Edinburgh, 1865); A.
Bulleid, " The Lake Village near Glastonbury," in Proceedings of
the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, vol. xl. (1894). (J. An.)

CRANSAC, a town of southern France, in the department of
Aveyron, 28 m. N.W. of Rodezby rail. Pop. (1906) town, 4988;
commune, 6953. The town is a coal-mining centre and has cold
mineral springs, known in the middle ages. There are iron-
mines in the neighbourhood. Hills to the north of the town
contain disused coal-mines which have been on fire for centuries.
About 5 m. to the south is the fine Renaissance chateau of
Bournazel, built for the most part by Jean de Buisson, baron of
Bournazel, about 1545- The barony of Bournazel became a
marquisate in 1624.

CRANSTON, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., adjoining the city of Providence on the S. Pop. (1890)
8099; (1900) 13,343; (1910) 21,107; area, 30 sq. m. It is
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway.
The surface of the E. part is level, that of the W. part is some-
what rolling. Within the city are several villages, including
Arlington, Auburn, Edgewood, Fiskeville and Oaklawn. The
inhabitants of the country districts are engaged largely in the
growing of hay, Indian corn, rye, oats and market-garden
produce; in the several villages cotton and print goods, fuses for
electrical machinery, and automatic fire-protection sprinklers are
manufactured. The value of Cranston's factory product
increased from $1,402,359 in 1900 to $2,130,969 in 1905, or 52%.
The state has a farm of 667 acres in the S. part of the city;
on this are the state prison, the Providence county jail, the
state workhouse and the house of correction, the state alms-
house, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for
boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls — the last two being
departments of the state reform school. The post-office address
of all these state institutions is Howard. Cranston was settled
as a part of Providence about 1640 by associates of Roger Williams,
and in 1754 was incorporated as a separate township, but in 1868,
in 1873 and in 1892 portions of it were reannexed to Providence.
The township is said to have been named in honour of Samuel
Cranston (1659-1727), governor of Rhode Island from 1698 until
his death. It was incorporated as a city in 1910.

CRANTOR, a Greek philosopher of the Old Academy, was born,
probably about the middle of the 4th century B.C., at Soli in
Cilicia. He was a fellow-pupil of Polemo in the school of Xeno-
crates at Athens, and was the first commentator on Plato. He
is said to have written some poems which he sealed up and
deposited in the temple of Athens at Soli (Diog. Laertius
iv. 5- 25). Of his celebrated work On Grief (Hepl Tevdovs), a
letter of condolence to his friend Hippocles on the death of his
children, numerous extracts have been preserved in Plutarch's
Consolatio ad Apollonium and in the De consolatione of Cicero,

CRANWORTH— CRASHAW

379

who speaks of it (Acad. ii. 44. 135) in the highest terms (aureolus
et ad verbum ediscendus). Crantor paid especial attention to
ethics, and arranged " good " things in the following order —
virtue, health, pleasure, riches.

See F. Kayser,,Z)e Crantore Academico (1841); M. H. E. Meier,
Opuscula academica, ii. (1863); F. Susemihl, Ceschichte der griechi-
schen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit, i. (1891), p. 118.

CRANWORTH, ROBERT MONSEY ROLFE, Baron (1790-
1868), lord chancellor of England, elder son of the Rev. E.
Rolfe, was born at Cranworth, Norfolk, on the 18th of December
1790. Educated at Bury St Edmunds, Winchester, and Trinity
College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
18 16, and attached himself to the chancery courts. He repre-
sented Penryn and Falmouth in parliament from 1832 till his
promotion to the bench as baron of the exchequer in 1839. In
1850 he was appointed a vice-chancellor and created Baron
Cranworth, and in 1852 he became lord chancellor in Aberdeen's
ministry. He continued to hold the chancellorship in the
administration of Palmerston until the latter's resignation in
1857. He was not reappointed when Palmerston returned to
office in 1859, but on the retirement of Lord Westbury in 1865 he
accepted the great seal for a second time, and held it till the fall
of the Russell administration in 1866. Cranworth died in London
on the 26th of July 1868. Never a very zealous law reformer,
Cranworth's name is associated in the statute book with only one
small measure on conveyancing. But as a judge he will continue
to hold first rank. His judgments were marked by sound common
sense, while he himself was remarkably free from the prejudices
of his profession. Few men of his day enjoyed greater personal
popularity than Cranworth. He left no issue and the title
became extinct on his death.

See The Times, 27th of July 1868; E. Manson, The Builders of
our Law (1904) ; E. Foss, The Judges of England (1848-1864) ;
J. B. Atlay, Lives of the Chancellors, vol. ii. (1908).

CRAPE (an anglicized version of the Fr. crepe), a silk fabric of
a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance.
It is woven of hard spun silk yarn " in the gum " or natural
condition. There are two distinct varieties of the textile — soft,
Canton or Oriental crape, and hard or crisped crape. The wavy
appearance of Canton crape results from the peculiar manner in
which the weft is prepared, the yarn from two bobbins being
twisted together in the reverse way. The fabric when woven is
smooth and even, having no crepe appearance, but when the gum
is subsequently extracted by boiling it at once becomes soft, and
the weft, losing its twist, gives the fabric the waved structure
which constitutes its distinguishing feature. Canton crapes are
used, either white or coloured, for ladies' scarves and shawls,
bonnet trimmings, &c. The Chinese and Japanese excel in the
manufacture of soft crapes. The crisp and elastic structure of
hard crape is not produced either in the spinning or in the weaving,
but is due to processes through which the gauze passes after it is
woven. What the details of these processes are is known to only
a few manufacturers, who so jealously guard their secret that, in
some cases, the different stages in the manufacture are conducted
in towns far removed from each other. Commercially they are
distinguished as single, double, three-ply and four-ply crapes,
According to the nature of the yarn used in their manufacture.
They are almost exclusively dyed black and used in mourning
dress, and among Roman Catholic communities for nuns' veils,
&c. In Great Britain hard crapes are made at Braintree in Essex,
Norwich, Yarmouth, Manchester and Glasgow. The crape
formerly made at Norwich was made with a silk warp and
worsted weft, and is said to have afterwards degenerated into
bombazine. A very successful imitation of real crape is made in
Manchester of cotton yarn, and sold under the name of Victoria
crape.

CRASH, a technical textile term applied to a species of narrow
towels, from 14 to 20 in. wide. The name is probably of Russian
origin, the simplest and coarsest type of the cloth being known as
" Russia crash." The latter is made from grey flax or tow yarns,
and sometimes from boiled yarns. The simple term " crash " is
given to all these narrow cloths, but the above distinction is
very convenient, as also are the following: grey, boiled, bleached,

plain, twilled and fancy crash. A large variety obtains with and
without fancy borders, while of late years cotton has been
introduced as warp, as well as mixed and jute yarns for weft.
After the cloth has passed through all the finishing operations,
it is cut up into lengths of about 3 yds., the two ends sewn
together and it is then ready to be placed over a suspended roller;
for this reason it is often termed "roller towelling."
(< CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613-1650), English poet, styled
" the divine," was born in London about 1613. He was the son
of a strongly anti-papistical divine, Dr William Crashaw (1572-
1626), who distinguished himself, even in those times, by the
excessive acerbity of his writings against the Catholics. In spite
of these opinions, however, he was attracted by Catholic devotion,
for he translated several Latin hymns of the Jesuits. Richard
Crashaw was originally put to school at Charterhouse, but in
July 1631 he was admitted to Pembroke College, Cambridge,
where he took the degree of B.A. in 1634. The publication of
Herbert's Temple in 1633 seems to have finally determined the
bias of his genius in favour of religious poetry, and next year he
published his first book, Epigrammatum sacrorum liber, a
volume of Latin verses. In March 1636 he removed to Peter-
house, was made a fellow of that college in 1637, and proceeded
M.A. in 1638. It was about this time that he made the acquaint-
ance and secured the lasting friendship of Abraham Cowley.
He was also on terms of intimacy with the Anglican monk
Nicholas Ferrar, and frequently visited him at his religious
house at Little Gidding. In 1641 he is said to have gone to
Oxford, but only for a short time; for when in 1643 Cowley left
Cambridge to seek a refuge at Oxford, Crashaw remained behind,
and was forcibly ejected from his fellowship in 1644. In the
confusion of the civil wars he escaped to France, where he
finally embraced the Catholic religion, towards which he had
long been tending.

During his exile his religious and secular poems were collected
by an anonymous friend, and published under the title of Steps to
the Temple and The Delights of the Muses, in one volume, in 1646.
The first part includes the hymn to St Teresa and the version of
Marini's Sospetto d' Herode. This same year Cowley found him in
great destitution at Paris, and induced Queen Henrietta Maria to
extend towards him what influence she still possessed. At her
introduction he proceeded to Italy, where he became attendant
to Cardinal Palotta at Rome. In 1648 he published two Latin
hymns at Paris. He remained until 1649 in the service of the
cardinal, to whom he had a great personal attachment; but his
retinue contained persons whose violent and licentious behaviour
was a source of ceaseless vexation to the sensitive English
mystic. At last his denunciation of their excesses became so
public that the animosity of those persons was excited against
him, and in order to shield him from their revenge he was sent by
the cardinal in 1650 to Loretto, where he was made a canon of the
Holy House. In less than three weeks, however, he sickened of
fever, and died on the 2 5th of August, not without grave suspicion
of having been poisoned. He was buried in the Lady chapel at
Loretto. A collection of his religious poems, entitled Carmen
Deo nostro, was brought out in Paris in 1652, dedicated at
the dead poet's desire to the faithful friend of his sufferings,
the countess of Denbigh. The book is illustrated by thirteen
engravings after Crashaw's own designs.

Crashaw excelled in all manner of graceful accomplishments;
besides being an excellent Latinist and Hellenist, he had an
intimate knowledge of Italian and Spanish ; and his skill in music,
painting and engraving was no less admired in his lifetime than
his skill in poetry. Cowley embalmed his memory in an elegy
that ranks among the very finest in our language, in which he,
a Protestant, well expressed the feeling left on the minds of
contemporaries by the character of the young Catholic poet: —

"His faith, perhaps, in some nice tenets might
Be wrong; his life, I'm sure, was in the right:
And I, myself, a Catholic will be,
So far at least, dear saint, to pray to thee ! "

The poetry of Crashaw will be best appreciated by those who can
with most success free themselves from thebondage of a traditional

3 8o

CRASSULACEAE— CRASSUS

sense of the dignity of language. The custom of his age permitted
the use of images and phrases which we now justly condemn as
incongruous and unseemly, and the fervent fancy of Crashaw
carried this licence to excess. At the same time his verse is
studded with fiery beauties and sudden felicities of language,
unsurpassed by any lyrist between his own time and Shelley's.
There is no religious poetry in English so full at once of gross and
awkward images and imaginative touches of the most ethereal
beauty. The temper of his intellect seems to have been delicate
and weak, fiery and uncertain; he has a morbid, almost
hysterical, passion about him, even when his ardour is most
exquisitely expressed, and his adoring addresses to the saints have
an effeminate falsetto that makes their ecstasy almost repulsive.
The faults and beauties of his very peculiar style can be studied
nowhere to more advantage than in the Hymn to Saint Teresa.
Among the secular poems of Crashaw the best are Music's Duel,
which deals with that strife between the musician and the night-
ingale which has inspired so many poets, and Wishes to his
supposed Mistress. In his latest sacred poems, included in the
Carmen Deo noslro, sudden and eminent beauties are not wanting,
but the mysticism has become more pronounced, and the ecclesi-
astical mannerism more harsh and repellent. The themes of
Crashaw's verses are as distinct as possible from those of Shelley's,
but it may, on the whole, be said that at his best moments he
reminds the reader more closely of the author of Epipsychidion
than of any earlier or later poet.

Crashaw's works were first collected, in one volume, in 1858 by
VV. B. Turnbull. In 1872 an edition, in 2 volumes, was printed for
private subscription by the Rev. A. B. Grosart. A complete edition
was edited (1904) for the Cambridge University Press by Mr A. R.
Waller. (E. G.)

CRASSULACEAE, in botany, a natural order of dicotyledons,
containing 13 genera and nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan
distribution, but most strongly developed in South Africa. The
plants are herbs or small shrubs, generally with thick fleshy stems
and leaves, adapted for life in dry, especially rocky places. The
fleshy leaves are often reduced to a more or less cylindrical
structure, as in the stonecrops (Sedum), or form closely crowded
rosettes as in the house-leek (Sempervivum). Correlated with
their life in dry situations, the bulk of the tissue is succulent,
forming a water-store, which is protected from loss by evapora-
tion by a thickly cuticularized epidermis covered with a waxy
secretion which gives a glaucous appearance to the plant. The
flowers are generally arranged in terminal or axillary clusters, and
are markedly regular with the same number of parts in each
series. This number is, however, very variable, and often not

Stonecrop (Sedum acre) slightly reduced. I , Horizontal plan of
arrangement of flower of stonecrop ; 2, flower of Sedum rubens.

constant in one and the same species. The sepals and petals are
free or more or less united, the stamens as many or twice as many
as the petals; the carpels, usually free, are equal to the petals in
number, and form in the fruit follicles with two or more seeds.

Opposite each carpel is a small scale which functions as a nectary.
Means of vegetative propagation are general. Many species
spread by means of a creeping much-branched rootstock, or as in
house-leek, by runners which perish after producing a terminal
leaf-rosette. In other cases small portions of the stem or leaves
give rise to new plants by budding, as in Bryophyllum, where
buds develop at the edges of the leaf and form new plants.

The order is almost absent from Australia and Polynesia, and
has but few representatives in South America; it is otherwise very
generally distributed. The largest genus, Sedum, contains about
140 species in the temperate and colder parts of the northern
hemisphere; eight occur wild in Britain, including S. Telephium
(orpine) and S. acre (common stonecrop) (see fig.). The species
are easily cultivated and will thrive in almost any soil. They
are readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or divisions. Crassula
has about 100 species, chiefly at the Cape. Cotyledon, a widely
distributed genus with about 90 species, is represented in the
British Isles by C. Umbilicus, pennywort, or navelwort, which
takes its name from the succulent peltate leaves. It grows
profusely on dry rocks and walls, especially on the western
coasts, and bears a spike of drooping greenish cup-shaped flowers.
The Echeveria of gardens is now included in this genus. Semper-
vivum has about 50 species in the mountains of central and
southern Europe, in the Himalayas, Abyssinia, and the Canaries
and Madeira; S. tectorum, common house-leek, is seen often
growing on tops of walls and house-roofs. The hardy species will
grow well in dry sandy soil, and are suitable for rockeries,old walls
or edgings. They are readily propagated by offsets or by seed.

The order is closely allied to Saxifragaceae, from which it is
distinguished by its fleshy habit and the larger number of carpels.

CRASSUS (literally " dense," " thick," " fat "), a family name
in the Roman gens Licinia (plebeian). The most important of
the name are the following:

1. Ptjblius Licinius Crasstjs, surnamed Dives Mucianus,
Roman statesman, orator and jurist, consul, 131 B.C. He was
the son of P. Mucius Scaevola (consul 175) and was adopted by
a P. Licinius Crassus Dives. An intimate friend of Tiberius
Gracchus, he was chosen after his death to take his place on the
agrarian commission (see Gracchus). In 131 when Crassus was
consul with L. Valerius Flaccus, Aristonicus, an illegitimate son
of Eumenes II. of Pergamum, laid claim to the kingdom, which
had been bequeathed by Attalus III. to Rome. Both consuls
were anxious to obtain the command against him; Crassus
was pontifex maximus, and Flaccus a flamen of Mars. Crassus
declared that Flaccus could not neglect his sacred office, and im-
posed a conditional fine on him in the event of his leaving Rome.
The popular assembly remitted the fine, but Flaccus was ordered
to obey the pontifex maximus. Crassus accordingly proceeded
to Asia, although in doing so he violated the rule which forbade
the pontifex maximus to leave Italy. Nothing is known of his
military operations. But in the following year, when he was
making preparations to return, he was surprised near Leucae.
He was himself taken prisoner by a Thracian band, and provoked
his captors, who were ignorant of his identity, to put him to
death. Crassus does not seem to have possessed much military
ability, but he was greatly distinguished for his knowledge of law
and his accomplished oratory. He had acquired such a mastery
of the Greek language that, when he presided over the courts in
Asia, he was able to answer each suitor in ordinary Greek or any
of the dialects in use.

Cicero, De oratore, i. 50; Philippics, xi. 8; Plutarch, Tib.
Gracchus, 21; Livy, Epit. 59; Val. Max. iii. 2. 12, viii. 7. 6; Veil.
Pat. ii. 4; Justin xxxvi. 4; Orosius v. 10.

2. Lucius Licinius Crassus (140-01 B.C.), the orator, of
unknown parentage. At the age of nineteen (or twenty-one) he
made his reputation by a speech against C. Papirius Carbo, the
friend of the Gracchi. The law passed by him and his colleague
Q. Mucius Scaevola during their consulship (95), to prevent those
passing as Roman citizens who had no right to the title, was one of
the prime causes of the Social War (Cicero, Pro Balbo, xxi., De
officiis, iii. 11). During his censorship Crassus suppressed the
newly founded schools of Latin rhetoricians (Aulus Gellius

CRATER— CRATINUS

381

xv. 11). He died from excitement caused by his passionate
speech against the consul L. Marcius Philippus, who had insulted
the Senate. Crassus is one of the chief speakers in the De oratore
of Cicero, who has also preserved a few fragments of his speeches.

3. Publius Licinius Crassus, called Dives, father of the
triumvir. Little is known of him before he became consul in 97,
except that he proposed a law regulating the expenses of the table,
which met with general approval. During his consulship the
practice of magic arts was condemned by a decree of the senate,
and human sacrifice was abolished. He was subsequently
governor of Spain for some years, during which he gained several
successes over the Lusitanians, and on his return in 93 was
honoured with a triumph. After the Social War, as censor with
L. Julius Caesar, he had the task of enrolling in new tribes certain
of the Latins and Italians as a reward for their loyalty to the
Romans, but the proceedings seem to have been interrupted
by certain irregularities. They also forbade the introduction of
foreign wines and unguents. Crassus committed suicide in 87, to
avoid falling into the hands of the Marian party.

Plutarch, Crassus, 4; Aulus Gellius ii. 24; Macrobius, Saturnalia,
ii. 13; Livy, Epit. 80; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxx. 3; Appian, Bell. Civ.
i. 72 ; Festus, under Referri.

4. Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115-53 B.C.), the Triumvir,
surnamed Dives (rich) on account of his great wealth. His
wealth was acquired by traffic in slaves, the working of silver
mines, and judicious purchases of lands and houses, especially
those of proscribed citizens. The proscription of Cinna obliged
him to flee to Spain; but after Cinna's death he passed into
Africa, and thence to Italy, where he ingratiated himself with
Sulla. Having been sent against Spartacus, he gained a decisive
victory, and was honoured with a minor triumph. Soon after-
wards he was elected consul with Pompey, and (70) displayed his
wealth by entertaining the populace at 10,000 tables, and
distributing sufficient corn to last each family three months. In
65 he was censor, and in 60 he joined Pompey and Caesar in the
coalition known as the' first triumvirate. In 55 he was again
consul with Pompey, and a law was passed, assigning the provinces
of the two Spains and Syria to the two consuls for five years.
Crassus was satisfied with Syria, which promised to be an
inexhaustible source of wealth. Having crossed the Euphrates
he hastened to make himself master of Parthia; but he was
defeated at Carrhae (53 B.C.) and taken prisoner by Surenas, the
Parthian general, who put him to death by pouring molten gold
down his throat. His head was cut off and sent to Orodes, the
Parthian king. Crassus was a man of only moderate abilities,
and owed his importance to his great wealth.

See Plutarch's Life; also Caesar-j Gaius Julius; Pompey;
Rome: History, II. " The Republic."

CRATER, the cavity at the mouth of a volcanic duct, usually
funnel-shaped or presenting the form of a bowl, whence the name,
from the Gr. Kparrip, a bowl. A volcanic hill may have a single
crater at, or near, its summit, or it may have several minor craters
on its flanks: the latter are sometimes called " adventitious
craters " or " craterlets." Much of the loose ejected material,
falling in the neighbourhood of the vent, rolls down the inner
wall of the crater, and thus produces a stratification with an
inward dip. The crater in an active volcano is kept open by
intermittent explosions, but in a volcano which has become
dormant or extinct the vent may become plugged, and the bowl-
shaped cavity may subsequently be filled with water, forming a
crater-lake, or as it is called in the Eifel a Maar. In some
basaltic cones, like those of the Sandwich Islands, the crater may
be a broad shallow pit, having almost perpendicular walls, with
horizontal stratification. Such hollows are consequently called
pit-craters. The name caldera (Sp. for cauldron) was suggested
for such pits by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who regarded them as
having been formed by subsidence of the walls. The term
caldera is often applied to bowl-shaped craters in Spanish-
speaking countries. (See Volcano.)

CRATES, Athenian actor and author of comedies, flourished
about 470 B.C. He was regarded as the founder of Greek comedy
proper, since he abandoned political lampoons on individuals,
and introduced more general subjects and a well-developed plot

(Aristotle, Poetica, 5). He is stated to have been the first to
represent the drunkard on the stage (Aristophanes, Knights,

37 ff.)-

Fragments in Meineke, Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum frag-
menta, i.

CRATES, the name of two Greek philosophers.

1. Crates, of Athens, successor of Polemo as leader of the
Old Academy.

2. Crates, of Thebes, a Cynic philosopher of the latter half of
the 4th century. He was the famous pupil of Diogenes, and the
last great representative of Cynicism. It is said that he lost his
ample fortune owing to the Macedonian invasion, but a more
probable story is that he sacrificed it in accordance with his
principles, directing the banker, to whom he entrusted it, to give
it to his sons if they should prove fools, but to the poor if his sons
should prove philosophers. He gave up his life to the attainment
of virtue and the propagation of ascetic self-control. His habit of
entering houses for this purpose, uninvited, earned him the
nickname QvperavolKT7]s (" Door-opener "). His marriage with
Hipparchia, daughter of a wealthy Thracian family, was in
curious contrast to the prosaic character of his life. Attracted by
the nobility of his character and undeterred by his poverty and
ugliness, she insisted on becoming his wife in defiance of her
father's commands. The date of his death is unknown, though he
seems to have lived into the 3rd century. His writings were few.
According to Diogenes Laertius, he was the author of a number
of letters on philosophical subjects; but those extant under the
name of Crates (R. Hercher, Epistolographi Graeci, 1873) are,
spurious, the work of later rhetoricians. Diogenes Laertius
credits him with a short poem, Haiyvia, and several philosophic
tragedies. Plutarch's life of Crates is lost. The great importance
of Crates' work is that he formed the link between Cynicism and
the Stoics, Zeno of Citium being his pupil.

See N. Postumus, De Cratete Cynico (1823) ; F. Mullach, Frag.
Philosophorum Graecorum, ii. (1867); E. Wellmann in Ersch and
Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie ; Diog. Laert. vi. 85-93, 96-98.

CRATES, of Mallus in Cilicia, a Greek grammarian and Stoic
philosopher of the 2nd century B.C., leader of the literary school
and head of the library of Pergamum. His principles were
opposed to those of Aristarchus, the leader of the Alexandrian
school. He was the chief representative of the allegorical theory
of exegesis, and maintained that Homer intended to express
scientific or philosophical truths in the form of poetry. About
170 B.C. he visited Rome as ambassador of Attalus II., king of
Pergamum; and having broken his leg and been compelled to
stay there for some time, he delivered lectures which gave the
first impulse to the study of grammar and criticism among the
Romans (Suetonius, De grammaticis, 2). His chief work was a
critical and exegetical commentary on Homer.

See C. Wachsmuth, De Cratete Mallota (i860), containing an
account of the life, pupils and writings of Crates; J. E. Sandys,
Hist, of Class. Schol. i. 156 (ed. 2, 1906).

CRATINUS (c. 520-423 B.C.), Athenian comic poet, chief
representative of the old, and founder of political, comedy.
Hardly anything is known of his life, and only fragments of his
works have been preserved. But a good idea of their character
can be gained from the opinions of his contemporaries, especially
Aristophanes. His comedies were chiefly distinguished by their
direct and vigorous political satire, a marked exception being the
burlesque '08vcro-e?s, dealing with the story of Odysseus in the
cave of Polyphemus, probably written while a law was in force
forbidding all political references on the stage. They were also
remarkable for the absence of the parabasis and chorus. Persius
calls the author " the bold," and even Pericles at the height of his
power did not escape his vehement attacks, as in the Nemesis and
Archilochi, the last-named a lament for the loss of the recently
deceased Cimon, with whose conservative sentiments Cratinus
was in sympathy. The Panoptae was a satire on the sophists
and omniscient speculative philosophers of the day. Of his last
comedy the plot has come down to us. It was occasioned by the
sneers of Aristophanes and others, who declared that he was no
better than a doting drunkard. Roused by the taunt, Cratinus
put forth all his strength, and in 423 B.C. produced the Hvrivri,

382

CRATIPPUS— CRAUFURD

or Bottle, which gained the first prize over the Clouds of Aristo-
phanes. In this comeaV, good-humouredly making fun of his
own weakness, Cratinus represents the comic muse as the
faithful wife of his youth. His guilty fondness for a rival — the
bottle — has aroused her jealousy. She demands a divorce from
the archon; but her husband's love is not dead and he returns
penitent to her side. In Grenfell and Hunt's Oxyrhynchus
Papyri, iv. (1904), containing a further instalment of their
edition of the Behnesa papyri discovered by them in 1896-189 7,
one of the greatest curiosities is a scrap of paper bearing the
argument of a play by Cratinus, — the Dionysalexandros {i.e.
Dionysus in the part of Paris), aimed against Pericles; and the
epitome reveals something of its wit and point. The style of
Cratinus has been likened to that of Aeschylus ; and Aristophanes,
in the Knights, compares him to a rushing torrent. He appears to
have been fond of lofty diction and bold figures, and was most
successful in the lyrical parts of his dramas, his choruses being the
popular festal songs of his day. According to the statement of a
doubtful authority, which is not borne out by Aristotle, Cratinus
increased the number of actors in comedy to three. He wrote
21 comedies and gained the prize nine times.

Fragments in Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum Graecorum, or
Kock, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta. A younger Cratinus
flourished in the time of Alexander the Great. It is considered that
some of the comedies ascribed' to the elder Cratinus were really the
work of the younger.

CRATIPPUS (fl. c. 375 B.C.), Greek historian. There are only
three or four references to him in ancient literature, and his
importance is due to the fact that he has been identified by several
scholars {e.g. Blass) with the author of the historical fragment
discovered by Grenfell and Hunt, and published by them in
Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v. It may be regarded as a fairly
certain inference from # a passage in Plutarch {De Gloria Athe-
niensium, p. 345 e, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was an
Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and
Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucy-
dides, from the point at which the latter historian stopped (410
B.C.) down to the battle of Cnidus (394 B.C.).

The fragments are published in C. Muller' sFragmentaHistoricorum
Graecorum. For authorities see under Theopompus.

CRATIPPUS, of Mitylene (1st century B.C.), Peripatetic
philosopher, contemporary with Cicero, whose son he taught at
Athens, and by whom he is praised in the De officiis as the
greatest of his school. He was the friend of Pompey also and
shared his flight after the battle of Pharsalia, for the purpose, it
is said, of convincing him of the justice of providence. Brutus,
while at Athens after the assassination of Caesar, attended his
lectures. The freedom of Rome was conferred upon him by
Caesar, at the request of Cicero. The only work attributed to
him is a treatise on divination, but his reputation may be
gauged by the fact that in 44 b.c the Areopagus invited him to
succeed Andronicus of Rhodes as scholarch. He seems to have
held that, while motion, sense and appetite cannot exist apart
from the body, thought reaches its greatest power when most free
from bodily influence, and that divination is due to the direct
action of the divine mind on that faculty of the human soul
which is not dependent on the body.

Cicero, De divinatione, i. 3, 32, 50, ii. 48, 52 ; De officiis, i. I, iii. 2 ;
Plutarch, Cicero, 24.

CRAU (from a Celtic root meaning " stone "), a region of
southern France, comprised in the department of Bouches-du-
Rhone, and bounded W. by the canal from Aries to Port du
Bouc and the Rhone, N. by the chain of the Alpines separating it
from an analogous region, the Petite Crau, E. by the hills around
Salon and Istres, S. by the gulf of Fos, an inlet of the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Covering an area of about 200 sq. m., the Crau is a
low-lying, waterless plain, owing its formation to a sudden
inundation, according to some authorities, of the Rhone and the
Durance, according to others of the Durance alone. Its surface
is formed chiefly of stones varying in size from an egg to a man's
head; these, mixed with a proportion of fine soil, overlie a
subsoil formed of stones cemented into a hard mass by deposits of
calcareous mud, beneath which lies a bed of loose stones, once the

sea-bed. Naturally sterile and poor in lime, the Crau is adapted
for agriculture by the process of warping, carried out by means of
the Canal de Craponne, which dates from the middle of the 16th
century; about one-quarter of the region in the north and east
has thus been covered by the rich deposits of the waters of the
Durance. The soil also responds in places to deep cultivation
and the application of artificial manures. By these aids, un-
cultivated land, which before supplied only rough and scanty
pasture for a few sheep, has been fitted for the growth of the vine,
olive and other fruits; where irrigation is practicable, water-
meadows have been formed. The dryness of the climate is
unfavourable to the production of cereals.

CRAUCK, GUSTAVE (1827-1905), French sculptor, was born
and died at Valenciennes, where a special museum for his works
was erected in his honour. Though little known to the world
at large during his long life, he ranks among the best modern
sculptors of France. At Paris his " Coligny " monument is in the
rue de Rivoli; his " Victory " in the Place des Arts et Metiers;
and " Twilight " in the Avenue de l'Observatoire. Among his
finest works is his " Combat du Centaure," on which he was
engaged for thirty years, the figure of the Lapith having been
modelled after the athlete, Eugene Sandow. In 1907 an exhibi-
tion of his works was held in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.

CRAUFURD, QUINTIN (1743-1819), British author, was born
at Kilwinnock on the 22nd of September 1743. In early life he
went to India, where he entered the service of the East India
Company. Returning to Europe before the age of forty with a
handsome fortune, he settled in Paris, where he gave himself to
the cultivation of literature and art, and formed a good library
and collection of paintings, coins and other objects of antiquarian
interest. Craufurd was on intimate terms with the French court
especially with Marie Antoinette, and was one of those who
arranged the flight to Varennes. He escaped to Brussels, but in
1792 he returned to Paris in the hope of rescuing the royal
prisoners. He lived among the French emigre's until the peace of
Amiens made it possible to return to Paris. Through Talley-
rand's influence he was able to remain in Paris after the war was
renewed, and he died there on the 23rd of November 1819.

He wrote, among other works, The History, Religion, Learning
and Manners of the Hindus ( I 790) , Secret History of the King of France
and his Escape from Paris (first published in 1885), Researches con-
cerning the Laws, Theology, Learning and Commerce of Ancient and
Modern India (18 17), History of the Bastille (1798), On Pericles and
the Arts in Greece (1815), Essay on Swift and his Influence on the
British Government (1808), Notice sur Marie Antoinette, (1809),
Memoires de Mme du Hausset (1808).

CRAUFURD, ROBERT (1764-1812), British major-general,
was born at Newark, Ayrshire, on the 5th of May 1764, and
entered the 25th Foot in 1779. As captain in the 75th regiment
he first saw active service against Tippoo Sahib in 1 790-92. The
next year he was employed, under his brother Charles, with the
Austrian armies operating against the French. Returning to
England in 1797, he soon saw further service, as a lieutenant-
colonel, on Lake's staff in the Irish rebellion. A year later he was
British commissioner onSuvarov's staff when the Russians invaded
Switzerland, and at the end of 1799 was in the Helder expedition.
From 1 801 to 1805 Lieutenant-Colonel Craufurd sat in parliament
for East Retford, but in 1807 he resumed active service with
Whitelock in the unfortunate Buenos Aires expedition. He was
almost the only one of the senior officers who added to his
reputation in this affair, and in 1808 he received a brigade
command under Sir John Moore. His regiments were heavily
engaged in the earlier part of the famous retreat, but were not
present at Corunna, having been detached to Vigo, whence they
returned to England. Later in 1809, once more in the Peninsula,
Brigadier- General Craufurd was three marches or more in rear
of Wellesley's army when a report came in that a great battle was
in progress. The march which followed is one almost un-
paralleled in military annals. The three battalions of the
" Light Brigade " (43rd, 52nd and 95th) started in full marching
order, and arrived at the front on the day after the battle of
Talavera, having covered 62 m. in twenty-six hours. Beginning
their career with this famous march, these regiments and their

CRAVAT— CRAVEN, EARL OF

383

chief, under whom served such men as Charles and William
Napier, Shaw and Colborne, soon became celebrated as one of the
best corps of troops in Europe, and every engagement added to
their laurels. Craufurd's operations on the Coa and Agueda in
1810 were daring to the point of rashness, but he knew the
quality of the men he led better than his critics did, and though
Wellington censured him for his conduct, he at the same time
increased his force to a division by the addition of two picked
regiments of Portuguese Cacadores. The conduct of the renowned
" Light Division " at Busaco is described by Napier in one of his
most vivid passages. The winter of 1810-1811 Craufurd spent in
England, and his division was commanded in the interim by
another officer, who did not display much ability. He reappeared
on the field of the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro amidst the cheers of
his men, and nothing could show his genius for war better than his
conduct on this day, in covering the strange readjustment of his
line which Wellington was compelled to make in the face of the
enemy. A little later he obtained major-general's rank;- and on
the 19th of January 181 2, as he stood on the glacis of Ciudad
Rodrigo, directing the stormers of the Light Division, he fell
mortally wounded. His body was carried out of action by his
staff officer, Lieutenant Shaw of the 43rd (see Shaw Kennedy),
and, after lingering four days, he died. He was buried in the
breach of the fortress where he had met his death, and a
monument in St Paul's cathedral commemorates Craufurd and
Mackinnon, the two generals killed at the storming of Ciudad
Rodrigo. The exploits of Craufurd and the Light Division are
amongst the most cherished traditions of the British and
Portuguese armies.. One of the quickest and most brilliant, if not
the very first, of Wellington's generals, he had a fiery temper,
which rendered him a difficult man to deal with, but to the day of
his death he possessed the confidence and affection of his men in
an extraordinary degree.

His elder brother, Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Craufurd
(1761-1821), entered the 1st Dragoon Guards in 1778. Made
captain in the Queen's Bays in 1785, he became the equerry and
intimate friend of the duke of York. He studied in Germany for
some time, and, with his brother Robert's assistance, translated
Tielcke's book on the Seven Years' War {The Remarkable Events
of the War between Prussia, Austria and Russia from 1756 to 1763).
As aide-de-camp he accompanied the duke of York to the French
War in 1793, and was at once sent as commissioner to the
Austrian headquarters, with which he was present at Neerwinden,
Caesar's Camp, Famars, Landrecies, &c. Major in 1793, and
lieutenant-colonel in 1794, he returned to the English army in the
latter year, and on one occasion distinguished himself at the
head of two squadrons, taking 3 guns and 1000 prisoners. When
the British army left the continent Craufurd was again attached
to the Austrian army, and was present at the actions on the
Lahn, the combat of Neumarkt, and the battle of Amberg. At
the last battle a severe wound rendered him incapable of further
service, and cut short a promising career. He succeeded his
brother Robert as member of parliament for East Retford (1806-
1812). He died in 1821, having become a lieutenant-general and
aG.C.B.

CRAVAT (from the Fr. cravate, a corruption of " Croat "),
the name given by the French in the reign of Louis XIV. to the
scarf worn by the Croatian soldiers enlisted in the royal Croatian
regiment. Made of linen or muslin with broad edges of lace, it
became fashionable, and the name was applied both in England
and France to various forms of neckerchief worn at different
times, from the loosely tied lace cravat with long flowing ends,
called a " Steinkirk " from the battle of 1692 of that name, to the
elaborately folded and lightly starched linen or cambric neckcloth
worn during the period of Beau Brummell.

CRAVEN, PAULINE MARIE ARMANDE AGLAE (1808-
1891), French author, the daughter of an emigre' Breton nobleman,
was born in London on the 12th of April 1808. Her father, the
comte Auguste de la Ferronays, was a close friend of the due de
Berri, whom he accompanied on his return to France in 1814.
He and his wife were attached to the court of Charles X. at the
Tuileries, but a momentary quarrel with the due de Berri made

retirement imperative to the count's sense of honour. He was
appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, and in 1827 became
foreign minister in Paris. Pauline was thus brought up in
brilliant surroundings, but her strongest impressions were those
which she derived from the group of Catholic thinkers gathered
round Lamennais, and her ardent piety furnishes the key of her
life. In 1828 her father was sent to Rome, and Pauline, at the
suggestion of Alexis Rio, the art critic, made her first literary
essay with a description of the emotions she experienced on a
visit to the catacombs. At the revolution of July, M. de la
Ferronays resigned his position, and retired with his family to
Naples. Here Pauline met her future husband, Augustus
Craven, who was then attache to the British embassy. His
father, Keppel Richard Craven, the well-known supporter of
Queen Caroline, objected to his son's marriage with a Catholic;
but his scruples were overcome, and immediately after the
marriage (1834) Augustus Craven was received into the Roman
Catholic Church. Mrs Craven, whose family life as revealed in
the Ricit d'une sozur was especially tender and intimate, suffered
several severe bereavements in the years following on her
marriage. The Cravens lived abroad until 1851, when the death
of Keppel Craven made his son practically independent of his
diplomatic career, in which he had not been conspicuously
successful. He stood unsuccessfully for election to parliament
for Dublin in 1852, and from that time retired into private life.
They went to live at Naples in 1853, and Mrs Craven began to
write the history of the family life of the la Ferronays between
1830 and 1836, its Incidents being grouped round the love story
of her brother Albert and his wife Alexandrine. This book, the
Ricit d'une sozur (1866, Eng. trans. 1868), was enthusiastically
received and was awarded a prize by the French Academy.
Straitened circumstances made it desirable for Mrs Craven to earn
money by her pen. Anne Severin appeared in 1868, Fleurange in
1871, Le Mot d'enigme in 1874, Le Valbriant (Eng. trans., Lucia)
in 1886. Among her miscellaneous works may be mentioned
La Sozur 'Natalie Narischkin (1876), Deux Incidents de la question
catholique en Angleterre (1875), Lady Georgiana Fullerton, sa
vie et ses ceuvres (1888). Mrs Craven's charming personality won
her many friends. She was a frequent guest with Lord
Palmerston, Lord Ellesmere and Lord Granville. She died in
Paris on the 1st of April 1891. Her husband, who died in 1884,
translated the correspondence of Lord Palmerston and of the
Prince Consort into French.

See Memoir of Mrs Augustus Craven (1894), by her friend Mrs
Mary Catherine Bishop ; also Paolina Craven, by T. F. Ravaschieri
Fieschi (i892) ; There is a biography of Mrs Craven's father, " En
Emigration," in Etienne Lamy's Temoins des jours passes (1907).

CRAVEN, WILLIAM CRAVEN, Earl of (1608-1697), eldest
son of Sir William Craven, lord mayor of London, and of
Elizabeth, daughter of Alderman William Whitmore, was born in
June 1608, matriculated at Trinity College, Oxford, in 1623, and
joined the society of the Middle Temple in 1624. He had already
inherited his father's vast fortune by the latter's death in 1618,
and before he came of age he had distinguished himself in the
military service of the princes of Orange. Returning home he was
knighted and created Baron Craven of Hampstead Marshall in
Berkshire in 1627. He early showed enthusiasm for the cause of
the unfortunate king and queen of Bohemia, driven from their
dominions, and in 1632 joined Frederick in a military expedition
to recover the Palatinate, meeting Gustavus Adolphus at
Hochst, whose praise he gained by being the first, though
wounded, to mount the breach at the capture of Kreuznach on
the 22nd of February. The Swedish king, however, refused to
allow the elector an independent command for the defence of the
Palatinate, and Craven returned to England. In May 1633 he
was placed on the council of Wales. In 1637 he took part in a
second expedition in aid of the palatine family on the Lower
Rhine, with the young elector Charles Louis and his brother
Rupert, and offered as a contribution the sum of £30,000, but
their forces were defeated near Wessel and Craven wounded and
taken prisoner together with Rupert. He purchased his freedom
in 1639, and then joined the small court of the exiled queen

384

CRAWFORD, EARLS OF

Elizabeth at the Hague and at Rhenen, supplying her generously
with funds on the cessation of her English pension owing to the
outbreak of the Civil War. He contributed also large sums in aid
of Charles I., and, after his execution, of Charles II., the amount
bestowed upon the latter being alone computed at £50,000/
notwithstanding that since 1651 the greater part of his estates had
been confiscated by the parliament and his house at Caversham
reduced to ruins. 2 At the Restoration he accompanied Charles to
England, regained his estates, and was rewarded with offices and
honours. He was made colonel of several regiments including
'the Coldstream, and in 1667 lieutenant-general and also high
steward of Cambridge University. In 1666 he became a privy
councillor, but was not included later in 1679 in Sir William
Temple's remodelled council. 3 In 1668 he became a governor of
the Charterhouse, was appointedlord-lieu tenant of Middlesex, and
master of the Trinity House in 1670; and in 1673 a commissioner
for Tangier. He was one of the lords proprietors of Carolina and
a member of the Fishery Committee.

In March 1664 he was created viscount and earl of Craven.
Meanwhile his devotion to the interests of the queen of Bohemia
was unceasing, and on her return to England he offered her
hospitality at his house in Drury Lane, where she remained till
February 1662. At her death, within a fortnight afterwards, she
bequeathed to Craven her papers and her valuable collection of
portraits, but there is no foundation for the belief entertained
later that she had married him. In 1682 he became the guardian
of Ruperta, the natural daughter of his old comrade in arms,
Prince Rupert. He was again made a privy councillor and
lieutenant-general of the forces by James on his accession, and at
the age of eighty was in command of the Coldstreams at Whitehall
on the 17th of December 1688 when the Dutch troops arrived.
He refused to withdraw them at the bidding of Count Solms, the
Dutch commander, but obeyed later James's own orders to
retire. His public career now closed and he filled no office after
the revolution. Although his claims upon the gratitude of the
Stuart royal family were immense, Craven had never been
considered a possible candidate for high political place. His
ability was probably small, and he is spoken of with little respect
in the Verney Papers and by the electress Sophia in her Memoirs.
The latter retails some foolish observations made by Craven, and
Pepys was disgusted at his coarse and stupid jests at the Fishery
Board, where his " very confused and very ridiculous proceedings "
are also censured. 4 His military prowess, however, his generosity
and his public spirit are undoubted. He showed great activity
during the plague and fire of London. He was a patron of
letters and a member of the Royal Society. He inherited Combe
Abbey near Coventry from his father, and purchased Hampstead
Marshall in Berkshire, where he built a house on the model of
Heidelberg Castle.

He died unmarried on the 9th of April 1697, when the earldom
became extinct, the barony passing by special remainder to his
cousin William, 2nd Baron Craven; the present earl of Craven
(the earldom being revived in 1801) is descended from John, a
younger brother of the latter. The first Lord Craven's brother
John, who was created Baron Craven of Ryton in Shropshire and
who died in 1648, was the founder of the Craven scholarships
at Oxford and Cambridge universities, of which the first was
awarded in 1649.

Bibliography. — See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography
(and Errata) ; Lives of the Princesses of England (Elizabeth, eldest
daughter of James I.), vol. vi., by M. A. E. Green (1854); Memoirs
of Elizabeth Stuart, by Miss Benger (1825) ; Memoiren der Herzogin
Sophie, ed. by A. Kocher in Publ. aus den k. preussischen Staats-
archiven, Bd. iv. (1879) ; " Briefe der Elisabeth Stuart " in Bibliothek
des Utterarischen Vereins (Stuttgart, 1903), 155, 157; G. E. C.'s
Complete Peerage (1889), ii. 404; Lives and Characters of the Most
Illustrious Persons (1713), p. 546; Macaulay's Hist, of England, ii.
584 (1858); Verney Papers (Camden Soc, 1853); Cal. of St. Pap.
Dom. ; Tracts relating to the confiscation of his estate in Cat. of the
British Museum. Much information also doubtless exists in the
Craven MSS. at Combe Abbey. (P. C. Y.)

1 Verney Papers, 189 note. 2 Evelyn's Diary, June 8th, 1654.

3 Hist. MSS. Com.: Various Collections, ii. 394.

4 Diary, Oct. 18th and Nov. 18th, 1664, and March 10th, 1665.

CRAWFORD, EARLS OF. The house of Lindsay, of which the
earl of Crawford is the head, traces its descent back to the barons
of Crawford who flourished in the 12 th century, and has included
a number of men who have played leading parts in the history oi
Scotland. It is said that " though other families in Scotland may
have been of more historic, none can in genealogical importance
equal that of Lindsay," and the Lindsays claim that " the pre-
decessors of the 1 st earl of Crawford were barons at the period oi
the earliest parliamentary records, and that, in fact, they were
never enrolled in the modern sense of the term, but were among
the pares, of which kings are primi, from the commencement oi
recorded history." Again we are told, " the earldom of Crawford,
therefore, like those of Douglas, of Moray, Ross, March and others
of the earlier times of feudalism, formed a petty principality, an
imperium in imperio." Moreover, the earls " had also a concilium,
or petty parliament, consisting of the great vassals of the earldom,
with whose advice they acted on great and important occasions."

Sir James Lindsay (d. 1396), 9th lord of Crawford in Lanark-
shire, was the only son of Sir James Lindsay, the 8th lord (d. c.
1357), and was related to King Robert II.; he was descended
from Sir Alexander Lindsay of Luffness (d. 1309), who obtained
Crawford and other estates in 1 297 and who was high chamberlain
of Scotland. The 9th lord fought at Otterburn, and Froissart
tells of his wanderings after the fight. He was succeeded by his
cousin, Sir David Lindsay (c. 1360-1407), son of Sir Alexander
Lindsay of Glenesk (d. 1382), and in 1398 Sir David, who married
a daughter of Robert II., was made earl of Crawford. •

The most important of the early earls of Crawford are the 4th
and the 5th earls. Alexander Lindsay, the. 4th earl (d. 1454),
called the " tiger earl," was, like his father David the 3rd earl,
who was killed in 1446, one of the most powerful of the Scottish
nobles; for some time he was in arms against King James II., but
he submitted in 1452. His son David, the 5th earl (c. 1440-
1495), was lord high admiral and lord chamberlain; he went
frequently as an ambassador to England and was created duke of
Montrose in 1488, but the title did not descend to his son.
Montrose fought for James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn, and
his son John, the 6th earl (d. 1513), was slain at Flodden.

David Lindsay, 8th earl of Crawford (d. 1542), son of
Alexander, the 7th earl (d. 1517), had a son Alexander, master of
Crawford (d. 1542), called the " wicked master," who quarrelled
with his father and tried to kill him. Consequently he was
sentenced to death, and the 8th earl conveyed the earldom to his
kinsman, David Lindsay of Edzell (d. 1558), a descendant of the
3rd earl of Crawford, thus excluding Alexander and his descend-
ants, and in 1542 David became 9th earl of Crawford. But the
9th earl, although he had at least two sons, named the wicked
master's son David as his heir, and consequently in 1558 the
earldom came back to the elder line of the Lindsays, the 9th earl
being called the " interpolated earl."

David Lindsay, 10th earl of Crawford (d. 1574) , was a supporter
of Mary Queen of Scots; he was succeeded by his son David
(c. 1547-1607) as nth earl. This David, a grandson of Cardinal
Beaton, was concerned in some of the risings under James VI. ;
he was converted to Roman Catholicism and was in communica-
tion with the Spaniards about an invasion of England. After his
death the earldom passed to his son David (d. 1621), a lawless
ruffian, and then to his brother, Sir Henry Lindsay or Charteris
(d. 1623), who became 13th earl of Crawford. Sir Henry's three
sons became in turn earls of Crawford, the youngest, Ludovic,
succeeding in 1639.

Ludovic Lindsay, 16th earl of Crawford (1600-1652), took part
in the strange plot of 1641 called the " incident." Having
joined Charles I. at Nottingham in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, at
Newbury and elsewhere during the Civil War; in 1644, just after
Marston Moor, the Scottish parliament declared he had forfeited
his earldom, and, following the lines laid down when this was
regranted in 1642, it was given to John Lindsay, 1st earl of
Lindsay. Ludovic was taken prisoner at Newcastle in 1644 and
was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried out,
and in 1645 he was released by Montrose, under whom he served
until the surrender of the king at Newark. Later he was in

CRAWFORD, EARLS OF

85

Ireland and in Spain and he died probably in France in 1652.
He left no issue.

The earl of Lindsay, who thus supplanted his kinsman,
belonged to the family of Lindsay of the Byres, a branch of the
Lindsays descended from Sir David Lindsay of Crawford (d. c.
1355), the grandfather of the 1st earl of Crawford. Sir David's
descendant, Sir John Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1482), was created
a lord of parliament as Lord Lindsay of the Byres in 1445, and
his son David, the and lord (d. 1490), fought for James III. at the
battle of Sauchieburn. The most prominent member of this line
was Patrick, 6th Lord Lindsay of the Byres (d. 1589), a son of
John the 5th lord (d. 1563), who was a temperate member of the
reforming party. Patrick was one of the first of the Scottish
nobles to join the reformers, and he was also one of the most
violent. He fought against the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and the
French; then during a temporary reconciliation he assisted
Mary, queen of Scots, to crush the northern rebels at Corrichie in
1562, but again among the enemies of the queen he took part in
the murder of David Rizzio and signed the bond against Bothwell,
whom he wished to meet in single combat after the affair at
Carberry Hill in 1565. Lindsay, who was a brother-in-law and
ally of the regent Murray, carried Mary to Lochleven castle and
obtained her signature to the deed of abdication; he fought
against her at Langside, and after Murray's murder he was one
of the chiefs of the party which supported the throne of James
VI. In 1578, however, he was among those who tried to drive
Morton from power, and in 1582 he helped to seize the person of
the king in the plot called the " raid of Ruthven," afterwards
escaping to England. Lindsay had returned to Scotland when
he died on the 1 1 th of December 1 589. His successor was his son,
James the 7th lord (d. 1601).

Patrick's great-grandson, John Lindsay, 17th earl of Crawford
and 1st earl of Lindsay (c. 1598-1678), was the son of Robert
Lindsay, 9th Lord Lindsay of the Byres, whom he succeeded as
10th lord in 1616. In 1633 he was created earl of Lindsay, and
having become a leader of the Covenanters he marched with the
Scottish army into England in 1644 and was present at Marston
Moor; in 1644 also he obtained the earldom of Crawford in the
manner already mentioned. In the same year he became lord
high treasurer of Scotland, and in 1645 president of the parlia-
ment. Having fought against Montrose at Kilsyth, the earl of
Crawford-Lindsay, as he was called, changed sides, and in 1647
he signed the " engagement " for the release of Charles I.,
losing all his offices by the act of classes when his enemy, the
marquess of Argyll, obtained the upper hand. After the defeat
of the Scots at Dunbar, however, Crawford regained his influence
in Scottish politics, but from 1651 to 1660 he was a prisoner in
England. In 1661 he was restored to his former dignities, but his
refusal to abjure the covenant compelled him to resign them two
years later. His son, William, 18th earl of Crawford and 2nd
earl of Lindsay (1644-1698), was, like his father, an ardent
covenanter; in 1690 he was president of the Convention parlia-
ment. Mr Andrew Lang says this earl was " very poor, very
presbyterian, and his letters, almost alone among those of the
statesmen of the period, are rich in the texts and unctuous style
of an older generation."

William's grandson, John Lindsay, 20th earl of Crawford and
4th earl of Lindsay (1 702-1 749), won a high reputation as a
soldier. He held a command in the Russian army, seeing service
against the Turk, and he also served against the same foe under
Prince Eugene. Having returned to the English army he led the
life-guards at Dettingen and distinguished himself at Fontenoy;
later he served against France in the Netherlands. He left no
sons when he died in December 1749, and his kinsman, George
Crawford-Lindsay, 4th Viscount Garnock (c. 1723-1781), a
descendant of the 17th earl, became 21st earl of Crawford and
5th earl of Lindsay. When George's son, George, the 22nd earl
(1758-1808), died unmarried in January 1808, the earldoms of
Crawford and Lindsay were separated, George's kinsman, David
Lindsay (d. 1809), a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of
the Byres, becoming 7th earl of Lindsay. Both David and his
successor Patrick (d. 1839) died without sons, and in 1878 the
vii. 13

House of Lords decided that Sir John Trotter Bethune ; Bart.
(182 7-1 894), also a descendant of the 4th Lord Lindsay of the
Byres, was entitled to the earldom. In 1894 John's cousin,
David Clark Bethune (b. 1832), became nth earl of Lindsay.

The earldom of Crawford remained dormant from 1808, when
this separation took place, until 1848, when the House of Lords
adjudged it to James Lindsay, 7th earl of Balcarres.

The earls of Balcarres are descended from John Lindsay, Lord
Menmuir (1 552-1 598), a younger son of David Lindsay, oth
earl of Crawford. John, who bought the estate of Balcarres in
Fifeshire, became a lord of session as Lord Menmuir in 1 581; he
was a member of the Scottish privy council and one of the com-
missioners of the treasury called the Octavians. He had great
influence with James VI., helping the king to restore episcopacy
after he had become, in 1595, keeper of the privy seal and a
secretary of state. Menmuir, a man of great intellectual attain-
ments, left two sons, the younger, David, succeeding to the
family estates on his brother's death in 1601. David (c. 1586-
1641), a notable alchemist, was created Lord Lindsay of Balcarres
in 1633, and in 1651 his son Alexander was made earl of Balcarres.

Alexander Lindsay, 1st earl of Balcarres (1618-1659), the
" Rupert of the Covenant," fought against Charles I. at Marston
Moor, at Alford and at Kilsyth, but later he joined the royalists,
signing the " engagement " for the release of the king in 1647,
and having been created earl of Balcarres took part in Glencairn's
rising in 1653. Richard Baxter speaks very highly of the earl,
who died at Breda in August 1659. His son Charles (d. 1662)
became 2nd earl of Balcarres, and another son, Colin (c. 1654-
1722), became 3rd earl. Colin, who was perhaps the most
trusted of the advisers of James II., wrote some valuable Memoirs
touching the Revolution in Scotland, i688-i6go; these were first
published in 1714, and were edited for the Bannatyne Club by the
25th earl of Crawford in 1841. Having been allowed to return to
Scotland after an exile in France, the earl joined the Jacobite
rising in 171 5. His successor was his son Alexander, the 4th
earl (d. 1736), who was followed by another son, James, the 5th
earl (1691-1768), who fought for the Stuarts at Sheriffmuir.
Afterwards James was pardoned and entered the English army,
serving under George II. at Dettingen. This earl wrote some
Memoirs of the Lindsays, which were completed by his son
Alexander, the 6th earl (1752-1825). Alexander was with the
English troops in America during the struggle for independence,
and was governor of Jamaica from 1794 to 1801, filling a difficult
position with great credit to himself. He became a general in
1803, and died at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, which he had received
through his wife, Elizabeth Dalrymple (1759-1816), on the 27th
of May 1825. This earl did not claim the earldom of Crawford,
although he became earl dejure in 1808, but in 1843 his son James
Lindsay (1 783-1 869) did so, and in 1848 the claim was allowed by
the House of Lords. James was thus 24th earl pf Crawford and
7th earl of Balcarres; in 1826 he had been created a peer of the
United Kingdom as Baron Wigan of Haigh Hall.

His son, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, 25th earl of
Crawford (1812-1880), was born at Muncaster Castle, Cumber-
land, on the 16th of October 181 2, and educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge. He travelled much in Europe and the East, and was
most learned in genealogy and history. His more important
works include Lives of the Lindsays (3 vols., 1849), Letters on
Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land (1838), Sketches of the History of
Christian Art (1847 aR d 1882), Etruscan Inscriptions Analysed
(1872), and The Earldom of Mar during §00 years (1882). He
succeeded to the title in September 1869, and died at Florence
on the 13th of December 1880. A year later it was discovered
that the family vault at Dunecht had been broken into and the
body stolen. It was not until the 18th of July 1882 that the
police, acting on the confession of an eye-witness of the desecra-
tion, found the remains, which were then reinterred at Haigh
Hall, Wigan.

His only son, James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th earl of Crawford
(1847- ), British astronomer and orientalist, was born at St
Germain-en-Laye, France, on the 28th of July 1847. Educated
at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he devoted himself to

3 86

CRAWFORD, F. MARION— CRAWFORD, W. H.

astronomy, in which he early achieved distinction. In 1870 he
went to Cadiz to observe the eclipse of the sun, and, in 1874, to
Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus. ' In the interval,
with the assistance of his father, he had built an observatory
at Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, which in 1888 he presented,
together with his unique library of astronomical and mathe-
matical works, to the New Royal Observatory on Blackford Hill,
Edinburgh, where they were installed in 1895. His services to
science were recognized by his election to the presidentship of
the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878 and 1879 in succession
to Sir William Huggins, and to the fellowship of the Royal
Society in 1878. He also received the degree of LL.D. from
Edinburgh University in 1882, and in the following year was
nominated honorary associate of the Royal Prussian Academy of
Sciences. An enthusiastic bibliophile, he became a trustee of the
British Museum, and acted for a term as president of the Library
Association. To the free library of Wigan, Lancashire, he gave a
series of oriental and English MSS. of the oth to the 19th centuries
in illustration of the progress of handwriting, while for the use of
specialists and students he issued the invaluable Bibliotheca
Lindesiana. He represented Wigan in the House of Commons
from 1874 till his succession to the title in 1880.

Another title held by the Lindsays was that of Spynie, Sir
Alexander Lindsay (c. 1555-1607), created Baron Spynie in
1590, being a younger son of the 10th earl of Crawford. The 2nd
Lord Spynie was Alexander's son, Alexander (d. 1646), who
served in Germany under Gustavus Adolphus and assisted
Charles I. in Scotland during the Civil War; and the 3rd lord
was the latter's son, George. When George, a royalist who was
taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, died in 167 1 this title
became extinct.

The dukedom of Montrose, which had lapsed on the death of
the 5th earl of Crawford in 1495 and had been revived in 1707 in
the Graham family, was claimed in 1848 by the 24th earl of
Crawford, but in 1853 the House of Lords gave judgment
against the earl.

The Lindsays have furnished the Scottish church with several
prelates. John Lindsay (d. 1335) was bishop of Glasgow;
Alexander Lindsay (d. 1639) was bishop of Dunkeld until he
was deposed in 1638; David Lindsay (d. c. 1641) was bishop
of Brechin and then of Edinburgh until he, too, was deposed in
1638; and a similar fate attended Patrick Lindsay (1566-1644),
bishop of Ross from 1613 to 1633 and archbishop of Glasgow
from 1633 to 1638. Perhaps the most famous of the Lindsay
prelates was David Lindsay (c. 1531-1613), a nephew of the
9th earl of Crawford. David, who married James VI. to Anne of
Denmark at Upsala, was one of the leaders of the Kirk party; he
became bishop of Ross under the new scheme for establishing

episcopacy in 1600.

See Lord Lindsay (25th earl of Crawford), Lives of the Lindsays
(1849) ; A. Jervise, History and Traditions of the Land of the Lindsays
(1882); G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-1898); H. T.
Folkard, A Lindsay Record (1899); and Sir J. B. Paul's edition of
the Scots Peerage of Sir R. Douglas, vol. iii. (1906).

CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909), American
author, was born at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, on the 2nd of August
1854, being the son of the American sculptor Thomas Crawford
(5.11.), and the nephew of Julia Ward Howe, the American poet.
He studied successively at St Paul's school, Concord, New
Hampshire; Cambridge University; Heidelberg; and Rome.
In 1879 he went to India, where he studied Sanskrit and edited
the Allahabad Indian Herald. Returning to America he con-
tinued to study Sanskrit at Harvard University for a year,
contributed to various periodicals, and in 1882 produced his first
novel, Mr Isaacs, a brilliant sketch of modern Anglo-Indian life
mingled with <t touch of Oriental mystery. This book had an
immediate success, and its author's promise was confirmed by the
publication of Dr Claudius (1883). After a brief residence in
New York and Boston, in 1883 he returned to Italy, where he
made his permanent home. This accounts perhaps for the fact
that, in spite of his nationality, Marion Crawford's books stand
apart from any distinctively American current in literature.
Year by year he published a number of successful novels: A

Roman Singer (1884), An American Politician (1884), To Leeward
(1884), Zoroaster (1885), A Tale of a Lonely Parish (1886),
Marzio's Crucifix (1887), Saracinesca (1887), Paul Palojf (1887),
Withthe Immortals (1888), Greifenstein (1889), Sant' Ilario (1889),
A Cigarette-maker' s Romance (1890), Khaled (1891), The Witch of
Prague (1891), The Three Fates (1892), The Children of the King
(1892), Don Orsino (1892), Marion Darche (1893), Pietro Ghisleri
(1893), Katharine Lauderdale (1894), Love in Idleness (1894), The
Ralstons, (1894), Casa Braccio (1895), Adam Johnston's Son
(1895), Taquisara (1896), A Rose of Yesterday (1897), Corleone
(1897), Via Crucis (1899), In the Palace of the King (1900),
Marietta (1901), Cecilia (1902), Whosoever Shall Of end (1904),
Soprano (1905), A Lady of Rome (1906). He also published the
historical works, Ave Roma Immortalis (1898), Rulers of the
South (1900) — renamed Sicily, Calabria and Malta in 1904, — and
Gleanings from Venetian History (1905). In these his intimate
knowledge of local Italian history combines with the romancist's
imaginative faculty to excellent effect. But his place in con-
temporary literature depends on his novels. He was a gifted
narrator, and his books of fiction, full of historic vitality and
dramatic characterization, became widely popular among
readers to whom the realism of " problems " or the eccentricities
of subjective analysis were repellent, for he could unfold a
romantic story in an attractive way, setting his plot amid
picturesque surroundings, and gratifying the reader's intelligence
by a style at once straightforward and accomplished. The
Saracinesca series shows him perhaps at his best. A Cigarette-
maker's Romance was dramatized, and had considerable popu-
larity on the stage as well as in its novel form; and in 1902 an
original play from his pen, Francesca da Rimini, was produced in
Paris by Sarah Bernhardt. He died at Sorrento on the 9th of
April 1909.

CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814-1857), American sculptor, was
born of Irish parents in New York on the 22nd of March 1814.
He showed at an early age great taste for art, and learnt to draw
and to carve in wood. In his nineteenth year he entered the
studio of a firm of monumental sculptors in his native city; and
in the summer of 1835 he went to Rome and became a pupil of
Thorwaldsen. The first work which made him generally known
as a man of genius was his group of " Orpheus entering Hades
in Search of Eurydice," executed in 1839. This was followed by
other poetical sculptures, among which were the " Babes in the
Wood," " Flora," " Hebe and Ganymede," " Sappho," " Vesta,"
the " Dancers," and the " Hunter." Among his statues and busts
are especially noteworthy the bust of Josiah Quincy, executed
for Harvard University (now in the Boston Athenaeum), the
equestrian statue of Washington at Richmond, Virginia, the
statue of Beethoven in the Boston music hall, statues of Channing
and Henry Clay, and the colossal figure of " Armed Liberty " for
the Capitol at Washington. For this building he executed also
the figures for the pediment and began the bas-reliefs for the
bronze doors, which were afterwards completed by W. H.
Rinehart. The groups of the pediment symbolize the progress
of civilization in America. Crawford's works include a large
number of bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects taken from both the
Old and the New Testaments. He made Rome his home, but he
visited several times his native land — first in 1844 (in which year
he married Louisa Ward), next in 1849, and lastly in 1856. He
died in London on the 10th of October 1857.

See Das Lincoln Monument, eine Rede des Senator Charles Sumner,
to which are appended the biographies of several sculptors, in-
cluding that of Thomas Crawford (Frankfort a. M., 1868) ; Thomas
Hicks, Eulogy on Thomas Crawford (New York, 1865).

CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (17 7 2-1834), American
statesman, was born in Amherst county, Virginia, on the 24th of
February 1772. When he was seven his parents moved into
Edgefield district, South Carolina, and four years later into
Columbus county, Georgia. The death of his father in 1788 left
the family in reduced circumstances, and William made what he
could by teaching school for six years. He then studied at
Carmel Academy for two years, was principal, for a time, of one
of the largest schools in Augusta, and in 1798 was admitted to the

CRAWFORDSVILLE— CRAYFISH

387

bar. From 1800 to 1802, with Horatio Marbury, he prepared a
digest of the laws of Georgia from 1755 to 1800. From 1803 to
1807 he was a member of the State House of Representatives,
becoming during this period the leader of one of two personal-
political factions in the state that long continued in bitter
strife, occasioning his fighting two duels, in one of which he
killed his antagonist, and in the other was wounded in his wrist.
From 1807 to 1813 he was a member of the United States Senate,
of which he was president pro tempore from March 181 2 to March
1813. In 1813 he declined the offer of the post of secretary of
war, but from that year until 181 5 was minister to the court
of France. He was then secretary of war in 1815-1816, and
secretary of the treasury from 1816 to 1825. In 1816 in the
congressional caucus which nominated James Monroe for the
presidency Crawford was a strong opposing candidate, a
majority being at first in his favour, but when the vote was
finally cast 65 were for Monroe and 54 for Crawford. In 1824,
when the congressional caucus was fast becoming extinct,
Crawford, being prepared to control it, insisted that it should
be held, but of 216 Republicans only 66 attended; of these, 64
voted for Crawford. Three other candidates, however, Andrew
Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay, were otherwise
put in the field. During the campaign Crawford was stricken
with paralysis, and when the electoral vote was cast Jackson
received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. It remained
for the house of representatives to choose from Jackson, Adams
and Crawford, and through Clay's influence Adams became
president. Crawford was invited by Adams to continue as
secretary of the treasury, but declined. He recovered his health
sufficiently to become (in 1827) a circuit judge in his own state,
but died while on circuit, in Elberton, Georgia, on the 15th of
September 1834. In his day he was undoubtedly one of the
foremost political leaders of the country, but his reputation has
not stood the test of time. He was of imposing presence and had
great conversational powers; but his inflexible integrity was not
sufficiently tempered by tact and civility to admit of his winning
general popularity. Consequently, although a skilful political
organizer, he incurred the bitter enmity of other leaders of his
time — Jackson, Adams and Calhoun. He won the admiration of
Albert Gallatin and others by his powerful support of the move-
ment in 18 1 1 to recharter the Bank of the United States; he
earned the condemnation of posterity by his authorship in 1820 of
the four-years-term law, which limited the term of service of
thousands of public officials to four years, and did much to
develop the " spoils system." He was a Liberal Democrat, and
advised the calling of a constitutional convention as preferable to
nullification or secession.

CRAWFORDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Mont-
gomery county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated about 40 m. N.W. of
Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 6089; (1900) 6649, including 230
negroes and 221 foreign-born; (1910) 9371. It is served by the
Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis, and the Vandalia railways, and by interurban
electric lines. Wabash College, founded here in 1832 by Presby-
terian missionaries but now non-sectarian, had in 1908 27
instructors, 345 students, and a library of 43,000 volumes.
Among manufactures are flour, iron, wagons and carriages,
acetylene lights, wire and nails, matches, brick paving blocks, and
electrical machinery. North-east of the city there are valuable
mineral springs, from which the city obtains its water-supply.
Crawfordsville, named in honour of W. H. Crawford, was first
settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in 1823, and was
chartered as a city in 1863. It was for many years the home of
Gen. Lew Wallace.

CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868), Scottish orientalist, was
born in the island of Islay, Scotland, on the 13th of August 1783.
After studying at Edinburgh he became surgeon in the East India
Company's service. He afterwards resided for some time at
Penang, and during the British occupation of Java from 181 1 to
1817 his local knowledge made him invaluable to the government.
In 1821 he served as envoy to Siam and Cochin-China, and in
1823 became governor of Singapore. His last political service in

the East was a difficult mission to Burma in 1827. In 1861 he was
elected president of the Ethnological Society. He died at South
Kensington on the nth of May 1868.

Crawfurd wrote a History of the Indian Archipelago (1820), De-
scriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries
(1856), Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava in 1827 (1829),
Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China, exhibit-
ing a view of the actual State of these Kingdoms (1830), Inquiry into
the System of Taxation in India, Letters on the Interior of India, an
attack on the newspaper stamp-tax and the duty on paper entitled
Taxes on Knowledge (1836), and a valuable Malay grammar and
dictionary (1852).

CRAYER, GASPARD DE (1582-1669), Flemish painter, was
born at Antwerp, and learnt the art of painting from Raphael
Coxcie. He matriculated in the guild of St Luke at Brussels in
1607, resided in the capital of Brabant till after 1660, and finally
settled at Ghent. Amongst the numerous pictures which he
painted in Ghent, one in the town museum represents the
martyrdom of St Blaise, and bears the inscription A° 1668 aet.
86. Crayer was one of the most productive yet one of the most
conscientious artists of the later Flemish school, second to
Rubens in vigour and below Vandyck in refinement, but nearly
equalling both in most of the essentials of painting. He was well
known and always well treated by Albert and Isabella, governors
of the Netherlands. The cardinal-infant Ferdinand made him a
court-painter. His pictures abound in the churches and museums
of Brussels and Ghent; and there is scarcely a country chapel in
Flanders or Brabant that cannot boast of one or more of his
canvases. But he was equally respected beyond his native
country; and some important pictures of his composition are to
be found as far south as Aix in Provence and as far east as
Amberg in the Upper Palatinate. His skill as a decorative artist
is shown in the panels executed for a triumphal arch at the entry
of Cardinal Ferdinand into the Flemish capital, some of which
are publicly exhibited in the museum of Ghent. Crayer died at
Ghent. His best works are the " Miraculous Draught of Fishes "
in the gallery of Brussels, the " Judgment of Solomon " in the
gallery of Ghent, and " Madonnas with Saints " in the Louvre,
the Munich Pinakothek, and the Belvedere at Vienna. His
portrait by Vandyck was engraved by P. Pontius.

CRAYFISH (Fr. Screvisse), the name of freshwater crustaceans
closely allied to and resembling the lobsters, and, like them,
belonging to the order Macrura. They are divided into two
families, the Astacidae and Paraslacidae, inhabiting respectively
the northern and the southern hemispheres.

The crayfishes of England and Ireland (Astacus, or Potamobius,
pailipes) are generally about 3 or 4 in. long, of a dull green or
brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below. They

Crayfish (Cambarus sp.) from the Mississippi River. (After Morse.)

are abundant in some rivers, especially where the rocks are of a
calcareous nature, sheltering under stones or in burrows which
they dig for themselves in the banks and coming out at night in
search of food. They are omnivorous feeders, killing and eating
insects, snails, frogs and other animals, and devouring any carrion
that comes in their way. It is stated that they sometimes come
on land in search of vegetable food.

On the continent of Europe, Astacus pailipes occurs chiefly in
the west and south, being found in France, Spain, Italy and the

3 88

CRAYON— CREBILLON

Balkan Peninsula. It is known in France as Screvisse a pattes
blanches and in Germany as Steinkrebs, and is little used as food.
The larger Astacus fluviatilis (ecrevisse a pattes rouges, Edelkrebs)
is not found in Britain, but occurs in France and Germany,
southern Sweden, Russia, &c. It is distinguished, among other
characters, by the red colour of the under side of the large claws.
It is the species most highly esteemed for the table. Other
species of the genus are found in central and eastern Europe and
as far east as Turkestan. Farther east a gap occurs in the
distribution and no crayfishes are met with till the basin of the
Amur is reached, where a group of species occurs, extending
into northern Japan. In North America, west of the Rocky
Mountains, the genus Astacus again appears, but east of the
watershed it is replaced by the genus Cambarus, which is repre-
sented by very numerous species, ranging from the Great Lakes
to Mexico. Several blind species inhabit the subterranean
waters of caves. The best known is Cambarus pellucidus,
found in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.

The area of distribution occupied by the southern crayfishes or
Parastacidae is separated by a broad equatorial zone from that of
the northern group, unless, as has been asserted, the two come
into contact or overlap in Central America. None is found in any
part of Africa, though a species occurs in Madagascar. They are
absent also from the oriental region of zoologists, but reappear
in Australia and New Zealand. Some of the Australian species,
such as the " Murray River lobster " (Astacopsis spinifer), are of
large size and are used for food. In South America crayfishes
are found in southern Brazil, Argentina and Chile. (W. T. Ca.)

CRAYON (Fr. crate, chalk, from Lat. creta), a coloured material
for drawing, employed generally in the form of pencils, but
sometimes also as a powder, and consisting of native earthy and
stony friable substances, or of artificially prepared mixtures of a
base of pipe or china clay with Prussian blue, orpiment, vermilion,
umber and other pigments. Calcined gypsum, talc and com-
pounds of magnesium, bismuth and lead are occasionally used as
bases. The required shades of tints are obtained by adding
varying amounts of colouring matter to equal quantities of the
base. Crayons are used by the artist to make groupings of
colours and to secure landscape and other effects with ease and
rapidity. The outline as well as the rest of the picture is drawn in
crayon. The colours are softened off and blended by the finger,
with the assistance of a stump of leather or paper; and shading is
produced by cross-hatching and stippling. The art of painting in
crayon or pastel is supposed to have originated in Germany in the
17th century. Byjohann Alexander Thiele (1685-1752) it was
carried to great perfection, and in France it was early practised
with much success. Amongst the earlier pastellists may be
mentioned Rosalba Camera (1675-1757), W. Hoare (1707-1792),
F. Cotes (1726-1770), and J. Russell (1744-1806); and in recent
years the art has been successfully revived. (See Pastel.)

CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878), English
historian, was born at Bexley in Kent, and educated at Eton
and King's College, Cambridge. He became a fellow of King's
College in 1834, and having been called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn three years later, was made assistant judge at the West-
minster sessions court. In 1840 he was appointed professor of
modern and ancient history in the university of London, and in
i860 became chief justice of Ceylon and a knight. Broken down
in health he returned to England in 1870, and after a further but
short stay in Ceylon died in London on the 27th of January 1878.
Creasy's most popular work is his Fifteen decisive Battles of the
World, which, first published in 1851, has passed through many
editions. He also wrote The History of the Ottoman Turks
(London, 1854-1856); History of England (London, 1869-1870);
Rise and Progress of the English Constitution (London, 1853, and
other editions); Historical and Critical Account of the several
Invasions of England (London, 1852); a novel entitled Old Love
and the New (London, 1870) ; and various other works.

CREATIANISM AND TRADUCIANISM. Traducianism is the
doctrine about the origin of the soul which was taught by
Tertullian in his De anima — that souls are generated from souls
in the same way and at the same time as bodies from bodies:

creatianism is the doctrine that God creates a soul for each
body that is generated. The Pelagians taunted the upholders of
original sin with holding Tertullian's opinion, and called them
Traduciani (from tradux: vid. Du Cange s. vv.), a name which was
perhaps suggested by a metaphor in De an. 19, where the soul is
described " velutsurculusquidam exmatriceAdaminpropaginem
deducta." Hence we have formed " traducianist," " traducian-
ism," and by analogy " creatianist," " creatianism." Augustine
denied that traducianism was necessarily connected with the
doctrine of original sin, and to the end pi his life was unable to
decide for or against it. His letter to Jerome (Epist. Clas. iii.
166) is a most valuable statement of his difficulties. Jerome
condemned it, and said that creatianism was the opinion of the
Church, though he admitted that most of the Western Christians
held traducianism. The question has never been authoritatively
determined, but creatianism, which had always prevailed in the
East, became the general opinion of the medieval theologians,
and Peter Lombard's creando infundit animas Deus et infundendo
creat was an accepted formula. Luther, like Augustine, was
undecided, but Lutherans have as a rule been traducianists.
Calvin favoured creatianism.

Peter Lombard's phrase perhaps shows that even in his time it
was felt that some union of the two opinions was needed, and
Augustine's toleration pointed in the same direction, for the tradu-
cianism he thought possible was one in which God operatur institutas
administrando non novas instituendo naturas (Ep. 166. 5. n).
Modern psychologists teach that while " personality " can be dis-
cerned in its " becoming," nothing is known of its origin. Lotze,
however, who may be taken as representing the believers in the
immanence of the divine Being, puts forth — but as a " dim con-
jecture " — something very like creatianism (Microcosmus, bk. iii.
chap. v. ad fin.). It is still, as in the days of Augustine, a question
whether a more exact division of man into body, soul and spirit may
help to throw light on this subject.

See indices to Augustine, vol. xi., and Jerome, vol. xi. in Migne's
Patrologia, s.v. "Anima"; Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Psychology,
ii. § 7 ; G. P. Fisher, History of Chr. Doct. pp. 187 ff . ; A. Harnack,
History of Dogma (passim; see Index); Liddon, Elements of
Religion, Lect. iii.; Mason, Faith of the Gospel, iv. §§ 3, 4, 9, 10.

(A. N.*)

CREBILLON, PROSPER JOLYOT DE (1674-1762), French
tragic poet, was born on the 13th of January 1674 at Dijon,
where his father, Melchior Jolyot, was notary-royal. Having
been educated at the Jesuits' school of the town, and at the
College Mazarin, he became an advocate, and was placed in the
office of a lawyer named Prieur at Paris. With the encourage-
ment of his master, son of an old friend of Scarron's, he produced
a Mort des enfants de Brutus, which, however, he failed to bring
upon the stage. But in 1705 he succeeded with Idom&nee; in
1707 his Atree et Thyeste was repeatedly acted at court; Electre
appeared in 1709; and in 1711 he produced his finest play, the
Rhadamiste et Zenobie, which is his masterpiece and held the
stage for a long period, although the plot is so complicated as
to be almost incomprehensible. But his Xerxes (1714) was only
once played, and his SSmiramis (1717) was an absolute failure.
In 1707 Crebillon had married a girl without fortune, who had
since died, leaving him two young children. His father also had
died, insolvent. His three years' attendance at court had been
fruitless. Envy had circulated innumerable slanders against him.
Oppressed with melancholy, he removed to a garret, where he
surrounded himself with a number of dogs, cats and ravens,
which he had befriended; he became utterly careless of cleanli-
ness or food, and solaced himself with constant smoking. But in
1 73 1, in spite of his long seclusion, he was elected member of the
French Academy; in 1735 he was appointed royal censor; and in
1745 Mme de Pompadour presented him with a pension of 1000
francs and a post in the royal library. He returned to the stage
in 1726 with a successful play, Pyrrhus; in 1748 his Catilina was
played with great success before the court; and in 1754, when he
was eighty years old, appeared his last tragedy, Le Triumvirat.
Crebillon died on the 1 7th of June 1 7 54. The enemies of Voltaire
maintained that Crebillon was his superior as a tragic poet.
The spirit of rivalry thus provoked induced Voltaire to take the
subjects of no less than five of Crebillon's tragedies — Simiramis,
Electre, Catilina, Le Triumvirat, Atree — as subjects for tragedies

CRECHE— CRECY

389

of his own. The so-called Eloge de Crebillon (1762), really a
depreciation, which appeared in the year of the poet's death, is
generally attributed to Voltaire, though he strenuously denied
the authorship. Crebillon's drama is marked by a force too often
gained at the expense of scenes of unnatural horror; his pieces
show lack of culture and a want of care which displays itself even
in the mechanism of his verse, though fine isolated passages are
not infrequent.

There are numerous editions of his works, among which may be
noticed: CEuvres (1772), with preface and " eloge," by Joseph de la
Porte; CEuvres (1828), containing D'Alembert's Eloge de Crebillon
(1775); and Thedtre complet (1885) with a notice by Auguste Vitu.
A complete bibliography is given by Maurice Dutrait, in his Etude
sur la vie et le theatre de Crebillon (1895).

His only son, Claude Prosper Jolyot Crebillon (1707-
1777), French novelist, was born at Paris on the 14th of February
1707. His life was spent almost entirely in Paris, but the
publication of L'Ecumoire, ou Tanzal et Neadarne, histoire
japonaise (1734), which contained veiled attacks on the bull
Unigenitus, ithe cardinal de Rohan and the duchesse du Maine,
brought Crebillon into disgrace. He was first imprisoned and
afterwards forced to live in exile for five years at Sens and
elsewhere. With Alexis Piron and Charles Colle he founded in
1752 the gay society which met regularly to dine at the famous
" Caveau," where many good stories were elaborated. From
1759 onwards he was to be found at the Wednesday dinners of the
Pelletier, at which Garrick, Sterne and Wilkes were sometimes
guests. He married in 1748 an English lady of noble family,
Lady Henrietta Maria Stafford, who had been his mistress from
1744. Their life is said to have been passed in much affection
and mutual fidelity; and there could be no greater contrast than
that between Crebillon's private life and the tone of his novels,
the immorality of which lent irony to the author's tenure of the
office of censor, bestowed on him in 1759 through the favour of
Mme de Pompadour. He died in Paris on the 12th of April 1777.
The most famous of his numerous novels are: Les Amours de
Ztokinizul, rot des Kofirans (1740), in which " Zeokinizul " and
" Kofirans " may be translated Louis XIV. and the French
respectively; and Le Sopha, conte moral (1740), where the moral
is supplied in the title only. This last novel is given by some
authorities as the reason for his imprisonment.

His CEuvres were collected and printed in 1772. See a notice of
Crebillon prefixed to O. Uzanne's edition of his Contes dialogues in
the. series of Conteurs du XVIII 6 siecle. Crebillon's novels might
be pronounced immoral to the last degree if it were not that two
writers slightly later in date surpassed even his achievements in this
particular. Andre Robert de Nerciat (1 739-1 800) produced under
a false name a number of licentious tales, and was followed by
Donatien, marquis de Sade.

CR&CHE (Fr. for a " crib " or cradle), the name given to a
day-nursery, a public institution for the feeding and care of
infants while the mothers are engaged in work outside their
homes, or are otherwise prevented from giving them proper
attention. Infants are usually admitted when over a month old,
and are kept till they are capable of looking after themselves.
The advantages of such institutions are that the attention of
skilled and trained nurses is given to the children, the food is
better and more adapted to their needs than that given in their
homes, the surroundings are cleaner and healthier, and habits of
discipline and cleanliness are instilled, which, in many cases,
react on the mothers. The nurseries are usually under medical
supervision, and the small fees charged, which average in London
from 3d. to 4d. a day, and on the continent of Europe about 2d.,
are much less than the cost to the mother who places her young
children under the care of neighbours when at work or away from
home. Institutions of this kind were started in France in 1844,
and have been established in the majority of the large towns on
the continent of Europe. In the industrial centres of France and
Germany they have helped to check infantile mortality. The
state or municipality in nearly every case grants subsidies, but
few are maintained entirely by public authorities; voluntary
contributions are depended upon for the main support, and the
organization and management are left in the hands of private
societies and charitable institutions, although some outside

official supervision with regard to the number of infants
admitted to each institution, air-space, and ventilation and
general hygienic conditions is considered useful. In Great
Britain the establishment of such institutions has been left
almost entirely to private initiative; and in comparison with the
continent the provision is inadequate and unsatisfactory, Paris
having nearly double the proportion of accommodation for
infants to the population that is provided in London. The
National Society of Day Nurseries was founded in 1901 for the
purpose of providing a bureau where information may be found of
good methods of founding and managing a creche.

See the Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
Attendance of Children below the Age of Five, issued by the Board of
Education (1908).

CR^CY (Cressy), a town of northern France, in the department
of Somme, on the Maye, 12 m. N. by E. of Abbeville by road.
It is famous in history for the great victory gained here on the
26th of August 1346 by the English under Edward III. over the
French of King Philip of Valois. After its campaign in northern
France, the English army retired into Ponthieu, and encamped
on the 25th of August at Crecy, the French king in the meantime
marching from Abbeville on Braye. Early on the 26th Edward's
army took up its position for battle, and Philip's, hearing of this,
moved to attack him, though the French army marched in much
disorder, and on arrival formed only an imperfect line of battle.
The English lay on the forward slope of a hillside, with their
right in front of the village of Crecy, their left resting on
Wadicourt. Two of the three divisions or " battles " were in first
line, that of the young prince of Wales (the Black Prince) on the
right, that of the earls of Northampton and Arundel on the left;

EnwryVaUccftc

the third, under the king's own command, in reserve, and the
baggage was packed to the rear. Each battle consisted of a
centre of dismounted knights and men-at-arms, and two wings of
archers. The total force was 3900 men-at-arms, 11,000 English
archers, and 5000 Welsh light troops (Froissart, first edition, the
second gives a different estimate) . The French were far stronger,
having at least 1 2,000 men-at-arms, 6000 mercenary crossbowmen
(Genoese), perhaps 20,000 of the milice des communes, besides a
certain mimber of foot of the feudal levy. Along with these
served a Luxemburg contingent of horse under John, king of
Bohemia, and other feudatories of the Holy Roman Empire, and
the whole force was probably about 60,000 strong.

The day was far advanced when the French came upon the
English position. Philip, near Estrees, decided to halt and
bivouac, deferring the battle until the army was better closed up,
but the indiscipline of his army committed him to an immediate
action, and he ordered forward the Genoese crossbowmen, while a
line of men-at-arms deployed for battle behind them; the rest of
the army was still marching in an irregular column of route along
the road from Abbeville. A sudden thunderstorm caused a short
delay, then the archers and the crossbowmen opened the battle.
Here, for the first time in continental warfare, the English

39°

CREDENCE— CREDIT FONCIER

long-bow proved its worth. After a brief contest the crossbow-
men, completely outmatched, were driven back with enormous
loss. Thereupon the first line of French knights behind them
charged down upon the " faint-hearted rabble " of their own
fugitives, and soon the first two lines of the French were a mere
mob of horse and foot struggling with each other. The archers
did not neglect the opportunity, and shot coolly and rapidly into
the helpless target in front of them. The second attack was
made by another large body of knights which had arrived, and
served but to increase the number of the casualties, though here
and there a few charged up to the English line and fell near it,
among them the blind king of Bohemia, who with a party of
devoted knights penetrated, and was killed amongst, the ranks of
the prince of Wales's men-at-arms. The battle was now one long
series of desperate but ill-conducted charges, a fresh onslaught
being made as each new corps of troops appeared on the scene.
The English archers on the flanks of the two first line battles had
been wheeled up, the centres of dismounted men-at-arms held
back, so that the whole line resembled a " herse " or harrow with
three points formed by the archers (see sketch). Each successive
body of the French sought to come to close quarters with the men-
at-arms, and exposed themselves therefore at short range to the
arrows on either flank. Under these circumstances there could
be but one issue of the battle. Though sixteen distinct attacks
were made, and the fighting lasted until long after dark, no
impression was made on the English line. At one moment the
prince was so far in danger that his barons sent to the king for
aid. Even then Edward was not disquieted and he sent a mere
handful of knights to the prince's battle, saying, " Let the boy
win his spurs." The left battle of the English, hitherto somewhat
to the rear, moved up into line with the prince, and the French
attack slackened. By midnight the army of France was practic-
ally annihilated; 1542 men of gentle blood were left dead on
the field and counted by Edward's heralds, the losses of the
remainder are unknown. Some fifty of the victors fell in the
battle. The story that the Black Prince adopted from the fallen
king of Bohemia the crest and motto now borne by the princes
of Wales lacks foundation (see John, King of Bohemia). A
memorial to the French and their allies was erected, by public
subscription in France, Luxemburg and Bohemia, in 1905.

See H. B. George, Battles of English History (London, 1S95), and
C. W. C. Oman, A History of the Art of War; The Middle Ages
(London, 1898).

CREDENCE, or Ckedence Table, a small side-table, originally
an article of furniture placed near the high table in royal or noble
houses, at which the ceremony of the praegustatio, Italian
credenziare, the " assay " or tasting of food and drink for poisons
was performed by an official of the household, the praegustator
or credentiarius as he was caHed in Medieval Latin. Both the
ceremony and the table were known as credentia (Lat. credere, to
believe, trust), Ital. credenza, Fr. credence. After the need for the
ceremony had disappeared the name still survived, and the table
developed a back and several shelves for the display of plate, and
gradually merged into the buffet (q.v.). It is, however, as an
article of ecclesiastical furniture that the credence table is most
familiar. I't takes the form of a small table of wood or stone,
sometimes fixed and sometimes merely a shelf above or near the
piscina. It usually stands on the south or Epistle side of the
altar, and on it are placed, in the Roman Catholic Church, the
cruets containing the wine and water, the chalice, the candlesticks
to be carried by the acolytes, and other objects to be used in the
ceremony of the Mass. The use of such a table, to which earlier
the name of paratorium or oblationarium was given, appears to
have come into use when the personal presentation of the obla-
tions at the Mass became obsolete. When the pope celebrates
Mass a special credence table on the Gospel side of the altar is
used, and the ceremony of tasting for poison in the unconsecrated
elements is still observed. In some churches in England the old
credence tables still exist, as at the church of St Cross near
Winchester, where there is a fine stone 15th-century example;
more frequent are examples of the stone shelf near the piscina.
There are some carved wooden ones surviving, one type being

with a semicircular top and three legs placed in a triangle with a
lower shelf. The formal use of the credence table for the un-
consecrated elements and the holy vessels before the celebration
has been revived in the English Church.

CREDENTIALS (leltres de cr&ance), a document which
ambassadors, ministers plenipotentiary, and charges d'affaires
hand to the government to which they are accredited, for the
purpose, chiefly, of communicating to the latter the envoy's
diplomatic rank. It also contains a request that full credence be
accorded to his official statements. Until his credentials have
been presented and found in proper order, an envoy receives
no official recognition. The credentials of an ambassador or
minister plenipotentiary are signed by the chief of the state, those
of a charge d'affaires by the foreign minister.

CREDI, LORENZO DI (1459-1537), Italian artist, whose
surname was Barducci, was born at Florence. He was the least
gifted of three artists who began life as journeymen with Andrea
del Verrocchio. Though he was the companion and friend of
Leonardo da Vinci and Perugino, and closely allied in style to
both, he had neither the genius of the one nor the facility of the
other. We admire in Da Vinci's heads a heavenly contentment
and smile, in his technical execution great gloss and smoothness of
finish. Credi's faces disclose a smiling beatitude; his pigments
have the polish of enamel. But Da Vinci imparted life to his
creations and modulation to his colours, and these are qualities
which hardly existed in Credi. Perugino displayed a well-
known form of tenderness in heads, moulded on the models of
the old Umbrian school. Peculiarities of movement and attitude
become stereotyped in his compositions; but when put on his
mettle, he could still exhibit power, passion, pathos. Credi often
repeated himself in Perugino's way; but being of a pious and
resigned spirit, he generally embodied in his pictures a feeling
which is yielding and gentle to the verge of coldness. Credi had a
respectable local practice at Florence. He was consulted on most
occasions when the opinion of his profession was required on
public grounds, e.g. in 1491 as to the fronting, and in 1498 as to
the lantern of the Florentine cathedral, in 1 504 as to the place
due to Michelangelo's " David." He never painted frescoes; at
rare intervals only he produced large ecclesiastical pictures. The
greater part of his time was spent on easel pieces, upon which he
expended minute and patient labour. But he worked with such
industry that numbers of his Madonnas exist in European
galleries. The best of his altar-pieces is that which represents'the
Virgin and Child with Saints in the cathedral of Pistoia. A fine
example of his easel rounds is in the gallery of Mainz. Credi
rivalled Fra Bartolommeo in his attachment to Savonarola; but
he felt no inclination for the retirement of a monastery. Still, in
his old age, and after he had outlived the perils of the siege of
Florence (1527), he withdrew on an annuity into the hospital
of Santa Maria Nuova, where he died. The National Gallery,
London, has two pictures of the Virgin and Child by him.

CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe), in a general sense, belief or
trust. The word is used also to express the repute which a person
has, or the estimation in which he is held. In a commercial sense
credit is the promise to pay at a future time for valuable con-
sideration in the present: hence, a reputation of solvency and
ability to make such payments is also termed credit. In book-
keeping credit is the side of the account on which payments arc
entered; hence, sometimes, the payments themselves.

The part which credit plays in the production and exchange of
wealth is discussed in all economic text-books, but special reference
may be made to K. Knies, Geld und Kredit (1873-1879), and H. D.
Macleod, Theory of Credit (1889-1891). See also Hartley Withers,
The Meaning of Money (1909).

CREDIT FONCIER, in France, an institution for advancing
money on mortgage of real securities. Due to a great extent to
the initiative of the economist L. Wolowski, it was created by
virtue of a governmental decree of the 28th of February 1852.
This decree empowered the issue of loans at a low rate of interest,
secured by mortgage bonds, extending over a long period, and
repayable by annuities, including instalments of capital. On its
inception it had a capital of 25,000,000 francs and took the title

CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA— CREDITON

39 1

of Banque Fonciere de Paris. The parent institution in Paris
was followed by similar institutions in Nevers and Marseilles.
These two were afterwards amalgamated with the first under the
title of Credit Fonder de France. The capital was increased
to 60,000,000 francs, the government giving a subvention of
10,000,000 francs, and exercising control over the bank by
directly appointing the governor and two deputy-governors. The
administration was vested in a council chosen by the shareholders,
but its decisions have no validity without the approval of the
governor. The Credit Foncier has the right to issue bonds,
repayable in fifty or sixty years, and bearing a fixed rate of
interest. A certain number of the bonds carry prizes. The
loans must not exceed half the estimated value of the property
mortgaged, upon which the bank has the first mortgage. The
bank also makes advances to local bodies, departmental and
communal, for short or long periods, and with or without
mortgage. Its capital amounts to £13,500,000. Its charter was
renewed in 1881 for a period of ninety-nine years.

In i860 the Credit Foncier lent its support to the foundation of
an organization for supplying capital and credit for agricultural
and allied industries. This Credit Agricole rendered but trifling
services to agriculture, however, and soon threw itself into
speculation. Between 1873 and 1876 it lent enormous sums to
the Egyptian government, obtaining the money by opening
credit with the Credit Foncier and depositing with it the securities
of the Egyptian government. On the failure of the Egyptian
government to meet its payments the Credit Agricole went into
liquidation, and the Credit Foncier suffered severely in conse-
quence. The impracticability of the credit system to aid agri-
culture as worked by the Credit Agricole was very marked, and,
as a consequence, the financing of agricultural associations is
now entirely in the hands of the Banque de France.

The Credit Mobilier is an institution for advancing loans on
personal or movable estate. It was constituted in 1871, on the
liquidation of the Societe Generate de Credit Mobilier, founded in
1852, which it absorbed. v r > ~"

CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, a construction company
whose operations in connexion with the building of the Union
Pacific Railroad gave rise to the most serious political scandal in
the history of the United States Congress. The company was
originally chartered as the Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency in 1859.
In March 1864 a controlling interest in the stock was secured by
Thomas Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific Railroad
Company, and the Pennsylvania legislature authorized the
adoption of the name Credit Mobilier of America. Durant
proposed to utilize it as a construction company, pay it an
extravagant sum for the work, and thus secure for the stock-
holders of the Union Pacific, who now controlled the Credit
Mobilier, the bonds loaned by the United States government.
The net proceeds from the government and the first mortgage
bonds issued to the construction company were $50,863,172.05,
slightly more than enough to pay the entire cost of construction.
According to the report of the Wilson Congressional Committee,
the Credit Mobilier received in addition, in the form of stock,
income bonds, and land grant bonds, $23,000,000 — a profit of
about 48%. The defenders of the company assert that several
items of expense were not included in this report, and that the
real net profit was considerably smaller, although they admit
that it was still unusually large. The work extended over the
years 1865-1867. During the winter of 1867-1868, when adverse
legislation by Congress was feared, it is alleged that Oakes Ames
(q.v.) , a representative from Massachusetts and principal promoter
of the Credit Mobilier, distributed a number of shares among
congressmen and senators to influence their attitude. Shares
were sold at par when a few dividends repaid a purchaser at this
price. Some in fact received dividends without any initial outlay
at all. As the result of a lawsuit between Ames and H. S.
McComb, some private letters were brought out in September
1872 which gave publicity to the entire proceedings. The House
appointed two investigating committees, the Poland and the
Wilson committees, and on the report of the former (1873) Ames
and James Brooks of New York were formally censured by the

House, the former for disposing of the stock and the latter for
improperly using his official position to secure part of it. Charges
were also made against Schuyler Colfax, then vice-president but
Speaker of the House at the time of the transaction, James A.
Garfield, William D. Kelley (1814-1880), John A. Logan, and
several other members either of the House or of the Senate. The
Senate later appointed a special committee to investigate the
charges against its members. This committee, on the 27th of
February 1873, recommended the expulsion from the Senate of
James W. Patterson, of New Hampshire; but as his term expired
within five days no action was taken. The evidence was exagger-
ated by the Democrats for partisan purposes, but the investiga-
tion showed clearly that many of those accused were at least
indiscreet if not dishonest. The company itself was merely a
type of the construction companies by which it was the custom
to build railways between i860 and about 1880.

See J. B. Crawford, The CrSdit Mobilier of America (Boston, 1880),
and R. Hazard, The Credit Mobilier of America (Providence, 1881),
both of which defend Ames; also the histories of the Union Pacific
Railroad Company by J. P. Davis (Chicago, 1894) and H. K. White
(Chicago, 1895); and for a succinct and impartial account, James
Ford Rhodes, History of the United States, vol. vii. (New York, 1906).
The Poland and Wilson reports are to be found in House of Represent-
atives Reports, 42nd Congress, 3rd session, Nos. 77 and 78, and the
report of the Senate Committee in Senate Reports, 42nd Congress,
3rd session, No. 519.

CREDITON, a market town in the South Molton parlia-
mentary division of Devonshire, England, 8 m. N.W. of Exeter
by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 3974. It is situated in the narrow vale of the river
Creedy near its junction with the Exe, between two steep hills,
and is divided into two parts, the east or old town and the west
or new town. The church of Holy Cross, formerly collegiate, is
a noble Perpendicular building with Early English and other
early portions, and a fine central tower. The grammar school,
founded by Edward VI. and refounded by Elizabeth, has
exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge universities. Shoe-making,
tanning, agricultural trade, tin-plating, and the manufacture
of confectionery and cider have superseded the former large
woollen and serge industries. In 1897 Crediton was made the
seat of a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Exeter.

The first indication of settlement at Crediton (Credington,
Cryditon, Kirton) is the tradition that Winfrith or Boniface was
born there in 680. Perhaps in his memory (for the great extent
of the parish shows that it was thinly populated) it became in 909
the seat of the first bishopric in Devonshire. It was probably
only a village in 1049, when Leofric, bishop of Crediton, requested
Leo IX. to transfer the see to Exeter, as Crediton was " an open
town and much exposed to the incursions of pirates." At the
Domesday Survey much of the land was still uncultivated, but
its prosperity increased, and in 1269 each of the twelve prebends
of the collegiate church had a house and farmland within the
parish. The bishops, to whom the manor belonged until the
Reformation, had difficulty in enforcing their warren and other
rights; in 13 51 Bishop Grandison obtained an exemplification of
judgments of 1282 declaring that he had pleas of withernam,
view of frank pledge, the gallows and assize of bread and ale.
Two years later there was a serious riot against the increase of
copyhold. Perhaps it was at this time that the prescriptive
borough of Crediton arose. The jury of the borough are
mentioned in 1275, and Crediton returned two members to
parliament in 1306-1307, though never afterwards represented.
A borough seal dated 1469 is extant, but the corporation is not
mentioned in the grant made by Edward VI. of the church to
twelve principal inhabitants. The borough and manor were
granted by Elizabeth to William Killigrew in 1595, but there is no
indication of town organization then or in 1630, and in the 18th
century Crediton was governed by commissioners. In 1231 the
bishop obtained a fair, still held, on the vigil, feast and morrow
of St Lawrence. This was important as the wool trade was
established by 1249 and certainly continued until 1630, when the
market for kersies is mentioned in conjunction with a saying " as
fine as Kirton spinning."

392

CREDNER— -CREEDS

See Rev. Preb. Smith, " Early History o£Credition," in Devonshire
Association for the Advancement of Science, Literature and Art,
Transactions, vol. xiv. (Plymouth, 1882); Richard J. King, "The
Church of St Mary and of the Holy Cross, Credition," in Exeter
Diocesan Architectural Society, Transactions, vol. iv. (Exeter, 1878).

CREDNER, CARL FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1809-1876),
German geologist, was born at Waltershausen near Gotha, on
the 13th of March 1809. He investigated the geology of the
Thuringer Waldes, of which he published a map in 1846. He
was author of a work entitled Uber die Gliederung der oberen
Juraformation und der Wealden-Bildung im nordwestlichen
Deutschland (Prague, 1863), also of a geological map of Hanover
(1865). He died at Halle on the 28th of September 1876.

His son, Carl Hermann Credner (1841- ), was born at
Gotha on the 1st of October 1841, educated at Breslau and
Gottingen, and took the degree of Ph.D. at Breslau in 1864. In
1870 he was appointed professor of geology in the university of
Leipzig, and in 1872 director of the Geological Survey of Saxony.
He is author of numerous publications on the geology of Saxony,
and of an important work, Elemente der Geologie (2 vols., 1872;
7th ed., 1891), regarded as the standard manual in Germany.
He has also written memoirs on Saurians and Labyrinthodonts.

CREE, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock.
They are still a considerable tribe, numbering some 15,000, and
living chiefly in Manitoba and Assiniboia, about Lake Winnipeg
and the Saskatchewan river. They gave trouble by their
constant attacks upon the Sioux and Blackfeet, but are now
peaceable and orderly.
, See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700), English classical scholar,
was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 1659. He received his
early education from Thomas Curgenven, master of Sherborne
school. In 1675 he entered Wadham College, Oxford, and
obtained a fellowship in 1683 at All Souls'. He was headmaster
of Sherborne school from 1694 to 1696, and in 1699 he received
a college living, but in June 1700 he hanged himself. The
immediate cause of the act was said to be a money difficulty,
though according to some it was a love disappointment; both
of these circumstances no doubt had their share in a catastrophe
primarily due to an already pronounced melancholia. Creech's
fame rests on his translation of Lucretius (1682) in rhymed
heroic couplets, in which, according to Otway, the pure ore of the
original " somewhat seems refined." He also published a version
of Horace (1684), and translated the Idylls of Theocritus (1684),
the Thirteenth Satire of Juvenal (1693), the Astronomicon of
Manilius (1697), and parts of Plutarch, Virgil and Ovid.

CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe) , or Confessions of Faith. We
are accustomed to regard the whole conception of creeds, i.e.
reasoned statements of religious belief, as inseparably connected
with the history of Christianity. But the new study of com-
parative religion has something to teach us even here. The
saying lex orandi lex credendi is true of all times and of all peoples.
And since we must reckon praise as the highest form of prayer,
such an early Christian hymn as is found in 1 Tim. iii. 16 must be
acknowledged to be of the nature of a creed: " He who was
manifested in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of angels,
preached among the nations, believed on in the world, received up
in glory." It justifies the expansion of the second article of the
developed Christian creed from the standpoint of the earliest
Christian tradition. It also supplies a reason for including in our
survey of creeds some reference to pre-Christian hymns and
beliefs. The pendulum has swung back. Rather than despise
the faulty presentation of truth which we find in heathen re-
ligions and their more or less degraded rites, we follow the apostle
Paul in his endeavour to trace in them attempts " to feel after
God " (Acts vii. 27). Augustine, the great teacher of the West,
was true to the spirit of the great Alexandrians, when he wrote
(Ep. 166): " Let every good and true Christian understand that
truth, wherever he finds it, belongs to his Lord."

We are not concerned with the question whether the earliest
forms of recorded religious consciousness such. as animism, or
totemism, or fetishism, were themselves degradations of a

primitive revelation or not. 1 We are only concerned with the
fact of experience that the human soul yearns to express its
belief. The hymn to the rising and setting sun in the Book of the
Dead (ch. 15), which is said by Egyptologists to be the oldest
poem in the world, carries us back at once to the dawn of
history.

" Hail to thee, Ra, the self-existent . . . Glorious is
thine uprising from the horizon. Both worlds are
illumined by thy rays . . . Hail to thee, Ra, when thou
returnest home in renewed beauty, crowned and almighty."

In a later hymn Amen-Ra is confessed as "the good god -
beloved, maker of men, creator of beasts, maker of things below
and above, lord of mercy most loving." A similar note is struck
in the Indian Vedas. In the more ethical religion of the Avesta
the creator is more clearly distinguished from the creature: " I
desire to approach Ahura and Mithra with my praise, the lofty
eternal, and the holy two." 2 The Persian poet is not far from
the kingdom into which Hebrew psalmists and prophets entered.

The whole history of the Jewish religion is centred in the
gradual purification of the idea of God. The morality of the Jews
did not outgrow their religion, but their interest was always
ethical and not speculative. The highest strains of the psalmists
and the most fervent appeals of the prophets were progressively
directed to the great end of praising and preaching the One true
God, everlasting, with sincere and pure devotion. The creed of
the Jew, to this day, is summed up in the well-remembered words,
which have been ever on his lips, living or dying: " Hear, O
Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord " (Deut. vi. 4).

The definiteness and persistence of this creed, which of course
is the strength also of Mahommedanism, presents a contrast to
the fluid character of the statements in the Vedas, and to the
chaos of conflicting opinions of philosophers among the Greeks
and Romans. As Dr J. R. Illingworth has said very concisely:
" The physical speculations of the Ionians and Atomists rendered
a God superfluous, and the metaphysical and logical reasoning of
the Eleatics declared Him to be unknowable." 3 Plato regarding
the world as an embodiment of eternal, archetypal ideas, which he
groups under the central idea of Good, identified with the divine
reason, at the same time uses the ordinary language of the day,
and speaks of God and the gods, feeling his way towards the
conception of a personal God, which, to quote Dr Illingworth
again, neither he nor Aristotle could reach because they had not
" a clear conception of human personality." They were followed
by an age of philosophizing which did little to advance specula-
tion. The Stoics, for example, were more successful in criticizing
the current creed than in explaining the underlying truth which
they recognized in polytheism. The final goal of Greek philosophy
was only reached when the great thinkers of the early Christian
Church, who had been trained in the schools of Alexandria and
Athens, used its modes of thought in their analysis of theChristian
idea of God. " In this sense the doctrine of the Trinity was the
synthesis, and summary, of all that was highest in the Hebrew
and Hellenic conceptions of God, fused into union by the electric
touch of the Incarnation." 4

Space does not permit enlargement on this theme, but enough
has been said to introduce the direct study _of the ancient creeds
of Christendom.

I. The Ancient Creeds of Christendom.- — The three creeds
which may be called oecumenical, although the measure of
their acceptance by the universal church has not been uniform,
represent three distinct types provided for the use of the cate-
chumen, the communicant, and the church teacher respectively.
The Apostles' Creed is the ancient baptismal creed, held in
common both by East and West, in its final western form.
Tne Nicene Creed is the baptismal c eed of an eastern church
enlarged in order to combine theological interpretation with
the facts of the historic faith. Its use in the Eucharist of the
undivided Church has been continued since the great schism,
although the Eastern Church protests against the interpolation

1 Jevons, Introd. to the History of Religion, p. 394.

2 Sacred Books of the East, xxxi.

8 Personality, Human and Divine (cheap edition), p. 36.
* lb. p. 38.

CREEDS

393

of the words " And the Son " in clause 9. The Athanasian Creed
is an instruction designed to confute heresies which were current
in the 5th century.

1. The Apostles' Creed. — The increased interest which has been
shown in the history of all creed-forms since the latter part of the
19th century is due in a great measure to the work of
Creed * S t ^ le veteran pioneer, Professor P. Caspari of Christiania,
who began the herculean task of classifying the
enormous number of creed-forms which have been recovered
from obscure pages of early Christian literature. In England
we owe much to Professors C. A. Heurtley and Swainson. In
Germany the monumental work of Professor Kattenbusch has
overshadowed all other books on the subject, providing even his
most ardent critics with an indispensable record of the literature
of the subject.

The majority of critics agree that the only trace of a formal
creed in tne New Testament is the simple confession of Jesus as
the Lord, or the Son of God (Rom. x. 9; 1 Cor. xii. 3). While the
apostles were agreed on an outline of teaching (Rom. vi. 17)
which included the doctrine of God, the person and work of
Christ, and the person and work of the Holy Spirit, it does not
appear that they provided any summary, which would cover
this ground, as an authoritative statement of their belief. The
tradition which St Paul received included, so to speak, the
germ of the central prayer in the Eucharist (1 Cor. xi. 23 fL), and
no doubt included also teaching on conduct, " the way of a
Christian life " (1 Thess. iv. 1; Gal. v. 21). The creed in all its
forms lies behind worship, which it preserves from idolatry, and
behind ethics, to which it supplies a motive power which the
pre-Christian system so manifestly lacked. Whether the first
creed of the primitive Church was of the simple Christological
character which confession of Jesus as the Lord expresses, or of
an enlarged type based on the baptismal formula (Matt, xxviii.
19), makes no difference to the statement that the faith which
overcame the world derived its energy from convictions which
strove for utterance. "With the heart man believeth unto
righteousness, and with the mouth confession is made unto
salvation " (Rom. x. 10).

When St Paul reminds Timothy (1 Tim. vi. 13) of his confession
before many witnesses he does not seem to imply more than
confession of Christ as king. He calls it " the beautiful con-
fession " to which Christ Jesus had borne witness before Pontius
Pilate, and charges Timothy before God, who quickeneth all
things, to keep this commandment. Some writers, notably
Professor Zahn, 1 piecing together this text with 2 Tim. i. 13, ii. 8,
iv. 1, 2, reconstructs a primitive Apostles' Creed of Antioch, the
city from which St Paul started on his missionary journeys. But
there is no mention of a third article in the creed, beyond a
reference to the Holy Ghost in the context of 2 Tim. i. 14, which
would prove the apostolic use of a Trinitarian confession imagin-
able as the parent of the later Eastern and Western forms. The
eunuch's creed interpolated in Acts viii. 57, " I believe that
Jesus is the Son of God," since the reading was known to
Irenaeus, probably represents the form of baptismal confession
used in some church of Asia Minor, and supplies us with the type
of a primitive creed. This theory is confirmed by the evidence
of the Johannine epistles (1 John iv. 15, v. 5; cf. Heb. iv. 14).

From this point of view it is easy to explain the occurrence of
creed-like phrases in the New Testament as fragments of early
hymns (1 Tim. iii. 16) or reminiscences of oral teaching (1 Cor. xv.
1 ff.). The following form which Seeberg gives as the creed of St
Paul is an artificial combination of fragments of oral teaching,
which naturally reappear in the teaching of St Peter, but finds no
attestation in the later creeds of particular churches which
would prove its claim to be their parent form :

" The living God who created all things sent His Son Jesus Christ,
born of the seed of David, who died for our sins according to the
scriptures, and was buried, who was raised on the third day according
to the scriptures, and appeared to Cephas and the XII., who sat at the

1 Der Katechismus der Urchristenheit, p. 85. Zahn's reasoned argu-
ment stands in contrast to the blind reliance on tradition shown by
Macdonald, The Symbol of the Apostles, and the fanciful reconstruc-
tion of the primitive creed by Baeumer, Harnack or Seeberg.

right hand of God in the heavens, all rule and authority and power
being made subject unto Him, and is coming on the clouds of heaven
with power and great glory."

The evidence of the apostolic fathers is disappointing. Clement
{Cor. lviii. 2) supplies only parallels to the baptismal formula
(Matt, xxviii. 19). Polycarp (Ep. 7) echoes St John. But
Ignatius might seem to offer in the following passage some
confirmation of Zahn's theory of a primitive creed of Antioch
( Trail. 9) : "Be ye deaf, therefore, when any man speaketh to you
apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the race of David, who was
the Son of Mary, who was truly born and ate and drank, was
truly persecuted under Pontius Pilate, was truly crucified and
died in the sight of those in heaven and those on earth and those
under the earth; who, moreover, was truly raised from the dead,
His Father having raised Him, who in the like fashion will so
raise us also who believe on Him — His Father, I say, will raise us
— in Christ Jesus, apart from whom we have not true life."

The differences, however, which divide this from the later
creed forms are scarcely less noticeable than their agreement,
and the evidence of the Ignatian epistles generally (Eph. xviii. ;
Smyrn. i.), while it confirms the conclusion that instruction was
given in Antioch on all points characteristic of the developed
creed, e.g. the Miraculous Birth, Crucifixion, Resurrection, the
Catholic Church, forgiveness of sins, the hope of resurrection,
does not prove that this teaching was as yet combined in a
Trinitarian form which classified the latter clauses under the
work of the Holy Ghost.

At this point a word must be said on the important question of
interpretation. While we may hope for eventual agreement on
the history of the different types of creed forms, there can be no
hope of agreement on the interpretation of the words Holy Spirit
between Unitarian and Trinitarian critics. Writers who follow
Harnack explain " holy spirit " as the gift of impersonal influence,
and between wide limits of difference agree in regarding Christ as
Son of God by adoption and not by nature. Amid the chaos of
conflicting opinions as to the original teaching of Jesus, the
Gospel within the Gospel, the central question " What think ye
of Christ ? " emerges as the test of all theories. " No man can
say that Jesus is the Lord save in the Holy Ghost " (1 Cor. xii. 3).
Belief in the fact of the Incarnation of the eternal Word, as it is
stated in the words of Ignatius quoted above, or in any of the
later creeds, stands or falls with belief in the Holy Ghost as the
guide alike of their convictions and destinies, no mere impersonal
influence, but a living voice.

If the essence of Christianity is winnowed down to a bare
imitation of the Man Jesus, and his religion is accepted as
Buddhists accept the religion of Buddha, still it cannot be
denied that the early Christians put their trust in Christ rather
than his religion. " I am the life," not " I teach the life," " I am
the truth," not merely " I teach the truth," are not additions of
Johannine theology but the central aspect of the presentation of
Christ as the good physician, healer of souls and bodies, which the
most rigid scrutiny of the Synoptic Gospels leaves as the residuum
of accepted fact about Jesus of Nazareth. To say more would be
out of place in this article, but enough has been said to introduce
the exhaustive discussion by Kattenbusch (ii. 471-728) of the
meaning of the theological teaching both of the New Testament
and of the earliest creeds.

To return within our proper limits. Kattenbusch, with whom
Harnack is in general agreement, regards the Old Roman Creed,
which comes to light in the 4th century, as the parent of all
developed forms, whether Eastern or Western. Marcellus, the
exiled bishop of Ancyra, is quoted by Epiphanius as presenting
it to Bishop Julius of Rome c. a.d. 340. Ussher's recognition of
the fact that this profession of faith by Marcellus was the creed of
Rome, not of Ancyra, is the starting-point of modern discussions
of the history of the creeds. Some sixty years later Rufinus, a
priest of Aquileia, wrote a commentary on the creed of his native
city and compared it with the Roman Creed. His Latin text is
probably as ancient as the Greek text of Marcellus, because the
Roman Church must always have been bilingual in its early days.
It was as follows:

394

CREEDS

I. i. I believe in God (the) Father almighty;
II. 2. And in Christ Jesus His only Son our Lord,

3. who was born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,

4. crucified under Pontius Pilate and buried

5. the third day He rose from the dead,

6. He ascended into heaven,

7. sitteth at the right hand of the Father,

8. thence He shall come to judge living and dead.
III. 9. And in the Holy Ghost,

10. (the) holy Church,

11. (the) remission of sins,

12. (the) resurrection of the flesh.

This Old Roman Creed may be traced back in the writings of
Bishops Felix and Dionysus (3rd century), and in the writings of
Tertullian in the 2nd century.

Tertullian calls the creed the " token " which the African
Church shares with the Roman (de Praescr. 36): " The Roman
Church has made a common token with the African Churches, has
recognized one God, creator of the universe, and Christ Jesus, of
the Virgin Mary, Son of God the Creator, and the resurrection of
the flesh." The reference is to the earthenware token which two
friends broke in order that they might commend a stranger for
hospitality by sending with him the broken half. Their creed
became the passport by which Christians in strange cities could
obtain admission to assemblies for worship and to common meals.
The passage quoted is obviously a condensed quotation of the
Roman Creed, which reappears also in the following (de Virg.
vel. i.):

" The rule of faith is one altogether ... of believing in one God
Almighty, maker of the world, and in His Son Jesus Christ, born of
Mary the Virgin, crucified under Pontius Pilate; the third day
raised from the dead, received in the heavens, sitting now at the
right hand of the Father, about to come and judge quick and dead
through the resurrection also of the flesh."

There are many references in Tertullian to the teaching of the
Gnostic Marcion, whose breach with the Roman Church may be
dated a.d. 145. He seems to have still held to the Roman
creed interpreted in his own way. An ingenious conjecture by
Zahn enables us to add the words " holy Church " to our recon-
struction of the creed from the writings of Tertullian. In his
revised New Testament Marcion speaks of " the covenant which
is the mother of us all, which begets us in the holy Church, to
which we have vowed allegiance." He uses a word used by
Ignatius of the oath taken on confession of the Christian faith.
It follows that the words " holy Church " were contained in the
Roman Creed. 1

While all critics agree in tracing back this form to the earliest
years of the 2nd century, and regard it as the archetype of all
similar Western creeds, there is great diversity of opinion on its
relation to Eastern forms. Kattenbusch maintains that the
Roman Creed reached Gaul and Africa in the course of the 2nd
century, and perhaps all districts of the West that possessed
Christian congregations, also the western end of Asia Minor
possibly in connexion with Polycarp's visit to Rome a.d. 154.
He finds that materials fail for Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Syria, Palestine, Egypt. Further, he holds that all the Eastern
creeds which are known to us as existing in the 4th century, or
may be traced back to the 3rd, lead to Antioch as their starting-
point. He concludes that the Roman Creed was accepted at
Antioch after the fall of Paul of Samosata in a.d. 272, and was
adapted to the dogmatic requirements of the time, all the later
creeds of Palestine, Asia Minor and Egypt being dependent on it.

On the other hand, Kunze, Loofs, Sanday, and Zahn find
evidence of the existence of an Eastern type of creed of equal
or greater antiquity and distinguished from the Roman by such
phrases as " One " (God), " Maker of heaven and earth,"
" suffered," " shall come again in glory." Thus Kunze recon-
structs a creed of Antioch for the 3rd century, and argues that it
is independent of the Roman Creed.

Creed of Antioch.
I. I. I believe in one and one only true God, Father Almighty,
maker of all things, visible and invisible.

1 McGiffert, on the other hand, argues that the Roman Creed was
composed to meet the errors of Marcion, p. 58 ff . He omits, however,
to mention this, which is Zahn's strongest argument.

II. 2. And in our Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only-begotten
and first born of all creation, begotten of Him before all
the ages, through whom also the ages were established,
and all things came into existence ;

3. Who for our sakes, came down, and was born of Mary the

Virgin.

4. And crucified under Pontius Pilate, and buried,

5. And the third day rose according to the scriptures,

6. and ascended into heaven.
7-

8. And is coming again to judge quick and dead.

9. [The beginning of the third article has not been recorded.]
10.

11. Remission of sins.

12. Resurrection of the dead, life everlasting.

Along similar lines Loofs selects phrases as typical of creeds
which go back to a date preceding the Nicene Council.

A. Creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, presented to the Nicene

Council.

B. Revised Creed of Cyril of Jerusalem.

C. Creed of Antioch quoted by Cassian.

D. Creed of Antioch quoted in the Apostolic Constitutions.

E. Creed of Lucian the Martyr (Antioch).

F. Creed of Arius (Alexandria).

1. One (God), A, B, C, D, E, F.

Maker of heaven and earth and of all things visible and
invisible (or a like phrase), A, B, C, D, E.

2. Lord Jesus Christ, His Son, the only begotten (or a like

phrase), A, B, C, D, E, F.

3. Crucified under Pontius Pilate, B, C, D (A, E, F omit

because they are theological creeds. Loofs thinks that
the baptismal creeds on which they are based may have
contained the words).

5. Rose the third day, A, B, D, E (F omits " the third day "

being a theological creed; the translation of C is un-
certain).

6. Went up, A, B, D, E, F.

+and . . . and . . . and, A, B, C, D, E, F.
8. And is coming, B, C, D, E, F; and is about to come, A;
+again, A, C, D, E, F(B?); -fin glory, A, B; with glory,
D, E.
10. -fCatholic, B, D, F (A, C, E?)
12. -(-life eternal, B, C ; -{-life of the age to come, D, F.

Sanday (Journal Theol. Studies, iii. 1) does not attempt a recon-
struction on this elaborate scale, but contents himself with
pointing out evidence, which Kattenbusch seems to him to have
missed, for the existence of creeds of Egypt, Cappadocia and
Palestine before the time of Aurelian. He criticizes Harnack's
theory that there existed in the East, that is, in Asia Minor, or in
Asia Minor and Syria as far back as the beginning of the 2nd
century, a Christological instruction (ixddr)jj.a) organically related
to the second article of the Roman Creed, and formulas which
taught that the " One God " was " Creator of heaven and earth,"
and referred to the holy prophetic spirit, and lasted on till they
influenced the course of creed-development in the 4th century.
He asks, is it not simpler to believe that there was a definite type
in the background?

Another English student, the Rev. T. Barns, engaged specially
in work upon the history of the creed of Cappadocia, points out
the importance of the extraordinary influence of Firmilian ol
Caesarea in the affairs of the church of Antioch in the early part
of the 3rd century. He is led to argue that the creed of Antioch
came rather from Cappadocia than Rome. Whether his con-
clusion is justified or not, it helps to show how strongly the trend
of contemporary research is setting against the theory of Katten-
busch that the Roman Creed when adopted at Antioch became
the parent of all Eastern forms. It does not, however, militate
against the possibility that the Roman Creed was carried from
Rome to Asia Minor and to Palestine in the 2nd century. It is
evidently impossible to arrive at a final decision until much more
spade work has been done in the investigation of early Eastern
creeds. Connolly's study of the early Syrian creed (Zeilschrift
fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1906, p. 202) deserves
careful consideration. His reconstruction of the creed of
Aphraates is interesting in relation to the other traces of a
Syriac creed form existing prior to the 4th century.

[I believe] in God the Lord of all, that made the heavens and the
earth and the seas and all that in them is ; [And in our Lord Jesus

CREEDS

395

Christ] [the Son of God,] God, Son of God, King, Son of the King,
Light from Light, (Son and Counsellor, and Guide, and Way, and
Saviour, and Shepherd, and Gatherer, and Door, and Pearl, and
Lamo,) and first-born of all creatures, who came and put on a body
from Mary the Virgin (of the seed of the house of David, from the
Holy Spirit), and put on our manhood, and suffered, or and was
crucified, went down to the place of the dead, or to Sheol, and lived
again, and rose the third day, and ascended to the height, or to
heaven, and sat on the right hand of His Father, and He is the Judge
of the dead and of the living, who sitteth on the throne ; [And in the
Holy Spirit ;] [And I believe] in the coming to life of the dead ;
[and] in the mystery of Baptism (of the remission of sins).

The probable battle-ground of the future between the oppos-
ing theories lies in the writings of Irenaeus. He has most of
the characteristic expressions of the Eastern creeds. He inserts
" one " in clause i and 2. He has the phrases " Maker of heaven
and earth," " suffered," and " crucified," with " under Pontius
Pilate " after instead of before it. Probably also he had " in
glory " in clause 8. But there is always the possibility to be faced
that Irenaeus drew his creed from Rome rather than Asia Minor.
Kattenbusch does not shrink from suggesting that he shows
acquaintance with the Roman Creed, and that Justin Martyr
also knew it, in which case all the so-called Eastern characteristics
have been imprinted on the original Roman form, and are not
derived from an Eastern archetype. But the ordinary reader need
not feel concern about the future victory of either theory. The
plain fact is that the same facts were taught in Palestine, Asia
Minor and Gaul, whether gathered up in a parallel creed form
or not. The contrast which Rufinus draws between the Roman
Creed and others, both of the East and the West, is justified.
In comparison with them it was guarded more carefully from
change. 1 We have yet to inquire how it received the additions
which distinguish the derived form now in use as the baptismal
creed of all Western Christendom. Some had already found an
entrance into Western creeds. We find " suffered " in the creed
of Milan, " descended into hell " in the creed of Aquileia, the
Danubian lands and Syria; the words " God " and " almighty "
were shortly added to clause 7 in the Spanish creed; " life
everlasting " had stood from an early date in the African creed.
The creed of Caesarius of Aries (d. 543) proves that these varia-
tions had all been united in one Gallican creed together with
" catholic " and " communion of saints," but this Gallican form
still lacked " Maker of heaven and earth " and the additions in
clause 7.

Two newly-discovered creeds help us greatly to narrow down
the limits of the problem. The creed of Niceta of Remesiana in
Dacia proves that c. a.d. 400 the Dacian church had added to the
Roman Creed " maker of heaven and earth," " suffered," " dead,"
" Catholic," " communion of saints " and " life everlasting."
Parallel to it is the Faith of St Jerome discovered in 1903 by
Dom. Morin. 2

The Faith of St Jerome.

" I believe in one God the Father almighty, maker of things
visible and invisible. I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son
of God, born of God, God of God, Light of Light, almighty of
almighty, true God of true God, born before the ages, not made,
by whom all things were made in heaven and in earth. Who
for our salvation descended from heaven, was conceived of the
Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered by suffering under
Pontius Pilate, under Herod the King, crucified, buried, descended
into hell, trod down the sting of death, rose again the third day,
appeared to the apostles. After this He ascended into heaven,
sitteth at the right of God the Father, thence shall come to judge
the quick and the dead. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, God not
unbegotten nor begotten, not created nor made, but co-eternal with
the Father and the Son. I believe (that there is) remission of sins
in the holy catholic church, communion of saints, resurrection of
the flesh unto eternal life. Amen."

This creed may be the form which Jerome mentions in one of his
letters (Ep. 17, n. 4)as sent to Cyril of Jerusalem. It is important
as connecting the creeds of East and West. Since Jerome was
born in Pannonia we may conjecture that he is inserting Nicene
phrases from the Jerusalem creed into his baptismal creed, and

1 It is probable that " one " has dropped out of the first clause.
Zahn acutely suggests that it was omitted in the time of Zephyrinus
to counteract Monarchian teaching such as the formula : believe
in one God, Jesus Christ."

2 Anecdota Maredsolana, iii. iii. p. 199.

that this form added to Niceta's creed proves that the creed of
the Danube lands possessed the clauses " maker of heaven and
earth " and " communion of saints."

The first occurrence of the completed form is in a treatise
(Scarapsus) of the Benedictine missionary Pirminius, abbot of
Reichenau (c. a.d. 730). The difficulty hitherto has been to
trace the source from which the clause " maker of heaven and
earth " has come into it. It has been known that the forms in use
in the south of France approximated to it but without those
words. In the 6th century we find creed forms in use in Gaul
which include them, but include also other variations distinguish-
ing them from the form which we seek. The missing link which
has hitherto been lacking in the evidence has been found by
Barns in the influence of Celtic missionaries who streamed
across from Europe until they came in touch with the remnants
of the Old Latin Christianity of the Danube. The chief documents
of the date a.d. 700, which contain forms almost identical with
the received text, are connected with monasteries founded by
Columban and his friends : Bobbio, Luxeuil, S. Gallen, Reichenau.
From one of these monasteries the received text seems to 'have
been taken to Rome. Certainly it was from Rome that it was
spread. We can trace the use of the received text along the line
of the journeys both of Pirminius and Boniface, and there is
little doubt that they received it from the Roman Church, with
which Boniface was in frequent communication. Pope Gregory
II. sent him instructions to use what seems to have been an
official Roman order of Baptism, which would doubtless include a
Roman form of creed. Pirminius, who was far from being an
original writer, made great use of a treatise by Martin of Braga,
but substituted a Roman form of Renunciation, and refers to the
Roman rite of Unction in a way which leads us to suppose that the
form of creed which he substituted for Martin's form was also
Roman. It seems clear, therefore, that the received text was
either made or accepted in Rome, c. a.d. 700, and disseminated
through the Benedictine missionaries. At the end of the 8th
century Charlemagne inquired of the bishops of his empire as to
current forms. The reply of Amalarius of Trier is important
because it shows that he not only used the received text, but also
connected it with the Roman order of Baptism. The emperor's
wish for uniformity doubtless led in a measure to its eventual
triumph over all other forms.

2. The Nicene Creed of the liturgies, often called the Constanti-
nopolitan creed, is the old baptismal creed of Jerusalem revised
by the insertion of Nicene terms. The idea that the
council merely added to the last section has been
disproved by Hort's famous dissertation in 1876. 3
The text of the creed of the Nicene Council was based on the
creed of Eusebius of Caesarea, and a comparison of the four
creeds side by side proves to demonstration their distinctness, in
spite of the tendency of copyists to confuse and assimilate the
forms. 4

Nicene
Creed

Creed of Eusebius, A.D. 325
(Caesarea).
We believe
I. 1. In one God the Father
Almighty, the maker of
all things visible and in-
visible.
II. 2. And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the Word of God.

God of God, Light of
Light, (Life of Life,) only
begotten Son (first-born
of all creation, before all
worlds begotten of God
the Father), by whom
all things were made ;

Revision by the Council of Nicaea,
A.D. 325.
We believe
I. I. In one God the Father
Almighty, the maker of
all things visible and
invisible.
II. 2. And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the Son of God,
begotten of the Father,
only begotten, that is
of the substance of the
Father, God of God,
Light of Light, very
God of very God, be-
gotten not made, of one
substance with the
Father, by whom all
things were made, both
those in heaven and
those on earth.

3 Dorholt has shown that Petavius (d. 1652) was the first to remark
that the. so-called Constantinopolitan form was quoted by Epi-
phanius before the Council met, but was not able to explain the fact.

4 Burn, " Note on the Old Latin text," Journal of Theol. Studies.

39 6

CREEDS

3. Who for our salvation

was incarnate (and lived
as a citizen amongst
men),

4. And suffered,

5. And rose the third day,

6. And ascended (to the

Father) ,

7. And shall come again

(in glory) to judge quick
and dead.
III. 8. And (we believe) in (one)
Holy Ghost.

Creed of Jerusalem, A.D.348.

I (or We) believe
I. 1. In one God the Father,
Almighty, maker of
heaven and earth, and
of all things visible and
invisible.
II. 2. And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only be-
gotten Son of God, be-
gotten of His Father,

very God before all
worlds,

by whom all things were
made;

was incarnate,

and was made Man,
4. Crucified and buried.

5. Rose again the third day,

6. And ascended into

heaven and sat on the
right hand of the
Father,

7. And shall come in glory

to judge the quick and
the dead, whose king-
dom shall have no end.
III. 8. And in One Holy Ghost,
the Paraclete,

who spake in the
Prophets,
9. And in one baptism of
repentance for re-
mission of sins,

10. And in one holy Catholic

Church,

11. And in resurrection of

the flesh,

12. And in life eternal.

3. Who for us men and for

our salvation came
down and was incarnate,
was made man,

4. And suffered,

5. And rose the third day,

6. Ascended into Heaven,

7. Is coming to judge quick

and dead.

III. 8. And in the Holy Ghost.
Revision by Cyril, AD. 362.

Council of Constantinople, a.d.

381. Council of Chalcedon,

A.D. 451-

We believe

I. 1. In one God the Father
Almighty, maker of
heaven and earth, and
of all things visible and
invisible.
II. 2. And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only be-
gotten Son of God, be-
gotten of His Father
before all worlds, [God of
God,] Light of Light,
very God of very God,
begotten, not made,
being of one substance
with the Father, by
whom all things were
made;
Who for us men and for
our salvation came
down from heaven and
Was incarnate of the
Holy Ghost and the
Virgin Mary, and was
made Man.

4. And was crucified also

for us under Pontius
Pilate, and suffered and
was buried, and

5. He rose again the third

day, according to the
Scriptures,

6. And ascended into

heaven and sitteth on
the right hand of the
Father,

7. And He shall come again

to judge the quick and
the dead, whose king-
dom shall have no end.
III. 8. And in the Holy Ghost,
the Lord and Giver of
Life, who proceedeth
from the Father [and
the Son], who with the
Father and the Son
together is worshipped
and glorified,
who spake by the
Prophets,
9. In the Catholic and
Apostolic Church.

10. We acknowledge one

baptism for remission
of sins.

11. We look for the resur-

rection of the dead,

12. And the life of the world

to come.

The revised Jerusalem Creed was quoted by Epiphanius in his
treatise The Anchored One, c. a.d. 374, some years before the
council of Constantinople (a.d. 381). We gather that it had
already been introduced into Cyprus asabaptismal creed. Hort's
identification of it as the work of Cyril of Jerusalem is now
generally accepted. On his return from exile in a.d. 362 Cyril
would find " a natural occasion for the revision of the public
creed by the skilful insertion of some of the conciliar language,
including the term which proclaimed the restoration of full

communion with the champions of Nicaea, and other phrases and
clauses adapted for impressing on the people positive truth."
Some of Cyril's personal preferences expressed in his catechetical
lectures find expression, e.g. " resurrection of the dead " for
" flesh."

The weak point in Hort's theory was the suggestion that the
creed was brought before the council by Cyril in self justification.
The election of Meletius of Antioch as the first president of the
council carried with it the vindication of his old ally Cyril.
Kunze's suggestion is far more probable that it was used at the
baptism of Nektarius, praetor of the city, who was elected third
president of the council while yet unbaptized. Unfortunately
the acts of the council have been lost, but they were quoted at
the council of Chalcedon in a.d. 451, and the revised Jerusalem
Creed was quoted as " the faith of the 150 Fathers," that is, as
confirmed in some way by the council of Constantinople, while at
the time it was distinguished from " the faith of the 3 18 Fathers "
of Nicaea. One of the signatories of the Definition of Faith made
at Chalcedon, in which both creeds were quoted in full,
Kalemikus, bishop of Apamea in Bithynia, refers to the council of
Constantinople as having been held at the ordination of the most
pious Nektarius the bishop. Obviously there was some connexion
in his mind between the creed and the ordination.

The reasons which brought the revised creed into prominence
at Chalcedon are still obscure. It is possible that Leo's letter
to Flavian gave the impulse to put it forward because it contained
a parallel to words which Leo quoted from the Old Roman Creed,
" born of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary," "crucified and
buried," which do not occur in the first Nicene Creed. If, as
is probable, it was from the election of Nektarius the baptismal
creed of Constantinople, we may even ask whether the pope did
not refer to it when he wrote emphatically of the " common and
indistinguishable confession " of all the faithful. Kattenbusch
supposes that Anatolius, bishop of Constantinople, or his arch-
deacon Aetius, who read the creed at the 2nd session of the
council, took up the idea that through its likeness to the Roman
Creed it would be a useful weapon against Eutyches and others
who were held to interpret the Nicene Creed in an Apollinarian
sense. But Kunze thinks that it was not used as a base of opera-
tions against Eutyches because there is some evidence that
Monophysites were willing to accept it. Certainly it won its
way to general acceptance in the East as the creed of the church
of the imperial city; regarded as an improved recension of the
Nicene Faith. The history of the introduction of the creed into
liturgies is still obscure. Peter Fullo, bishop of Antioch, was the
first to use it in the East, and in the West a council held by King
Reccared at Toledo in 589. The theory of Probst that it had been
used in Rome before this time has not been confirmed. King
Reccared's council is usually credited with the introduction of
the words " And the Son " into clause 9 of the creed. But some
MSS. 1 omit them in the creed-text While inserting them in a canon
of the faith drawn up at the time. Probably they were inter-
polated in the creed by mistake of copyists. When attention
was called to the interpolation in the 9th century it became one
cause of the schism between East and West. Charlemagne was
unable to persuade Pope Leo III. to alter the text used in Rome
by including the words. But it was so altered by the pope's
successor.

The interpolation really witnessed to a deep-lying difference
between Eastern and Western theology. Eastern theologians
expressed the mysterious relationship of the Holy Spirit to the
Father and the Son in such phrases as " Who proceedeth from
the Father and receiveth from the Son," rightly making the
Godhead of the Father the foundation and primary source of
the eternally derived Godhead of the Sonand the Spirit. Western
theologians approached the problem from another point of view.
Hilary, starting from the thought of Divine self-consciousness

1 e.g. Cod. Escurial J.c. 12, saec. x. xi. In Cod. Matritensis, p. 21
(1872), saec. x. xi., and Cod. Matritensis 10041 (begun in the year a.d
948), the words are omitted under the heading council of Constan-
tinople but inserted under the heading council of Toledo, in the
former MS., above the line and in a later hand, which shows con-
clusively how the interpolation crept in.

CREEDS

397

as the explanation of the coinherence of the Father in the Son
and the Son in the Father, says that the Spirit receives of both.
Augustine teaches that the Father and the Son are the one
principle of the Being of the Spirit. From this it is a short step
to say with the Quicumque vult that the Spirit proceeds from the
Son, while guarding the idea that the Father is the one fountain of
Deity. Since Eastern theologians would be willing to say " pro-
ceeds from the Father through the Son," it is clear that the two
views are not irreconcilable.

3. The Athanasian Creed, so called because in many MSS.
it bears the title " The Faith of S. Athanasius," is more accurately
designated by its first words Quicumque vult} Its
Athaa- history has been the subject of much controversy for
Creed. years past, but no longer presents an insoluble problem.
Critics indeed agree on the main outline. Until 1870
the standard work on the subject was Waterland's Critical
History of the A thanasian Creed, first published in 1 7 2 3 . Having
traced " the opinions of the learned moderns " from Gerard
Vossius, a.d. 1642," who led the way to a more strict and critical
inquiry," Waterland passed in review all the known MSS. and
commentaries, and after a searching investigation concluded that
the creed was written in Gaul between 420 and 430, probably
by Hilary of Aries.

In 1870 the controversy on the use of the creed in the Book of
Common Prayer led to fresh investigation of the MSS., and a
theory known as the " Two-portion theory " was started by
C. A. Swainson, developed by J. R. Lumby, and adopted by
Harnack. Swainson thought that the Quicumque was brought
into its present shape in the 9th century. The so-called profession
of Denebert, bishop-elect of Worcester, in a.d. 798 presented to
the archbishop of Canterbury (which includes clauses 1, 3-6,
20-22, 24, 25), and the Treves fragment (a portion of a sermon
in Paris bibl. nat. Lat. 3836, saec. viii., which quoted clauses
27-34, 36-40), seemed to him to represent the component parts
of the creed as they existed separately. He conjectured that they
were brought together in the province of Rheims c. 860.

This theory, however, depended upon unverified assumptions,
such as the supposed silence of theologians about the creed at
the beginning of the 9th century; the suggestion that the
completed creed would have been useful to them if they had
known it as a weapon against the heresy of Adoptianism;
the assertion that no MS. containing the complete text was of
earlier date than c. 813. This was Lumby 's revised date, but
the progress of palaeographical studies has made it possible
to demonstrate that MSS. of the 8th century do exist which
contain the complete creed.

The two-portion theory was vigorously attacked by G. D. W.
Ommanney, who was successful in the discovery of new docu-
ments, notably early commentaries, which contained the text
of the creed embedded in them, and thus supplied independent
testimony to the fact that the creed was becoming fairly widely
known at the end of the 8th century. Other new MSS. and
commentaries were found and collated by the Rev. A. E. Burn
and Dom Morin. In 1897 Loofs, summing up the researches of
25 years in his article Athanasianum {Realencyclopiidie f. prot.
Theol. u. Kirche, 3rd ed. ii. p. 177), declared that the two-portion
theory was dead.

This conclusion has never been seriously challenged. It has
been greatly strengthened by the discovery of a MS. which was
presented by Bishop Leidrad of Lyons with an autograph in-
scription to the altar of St Stephen in|that town,[some time before
814. As M. Delisle at once pointed out {Notices et extraits des
manuscrits, 1898), this MS. supplies a fixed date from which
palaeographers can work in dating MSS. The Quicumque occurs
in a collection of materials forming an introduction to the psalter.
The suggestion has been made that Leidrad intended to use the
Quicumque in his campaign against the Adoptianists in 798.
But the phrases of the creed seem to have needed sharpening

1 The first person who doubted the authorship seems to have
been Joachim Camerarius, 1551, who was so fiercely attacked in
consequence that he omitted the passage from his Latin edition.
Zeitschrift fur K.G. x. (1889), p. 497.

against the .Nestorian tendency of the Adoptianists. It is more
probable that Leidrad was interested in the growing use of the
creed as a canticle, and was consulted in the preparation of the
famous Golden Psalter, now at Vienna, which contains the same
collection of documents as an introduction. This MS. may now
without hesitation be assigned to the date 7 7 2-788. The earliest
known MS. is at Milan {Cod. Ambros. O, 212, sup.), and is dated
by Traube as early as c. 700.

There is a reference to the Quicumque in the first canon of the
fourth council of Toledo of the year 633, which quotes part or
the whole of clauses 4, 20-22, 28 f., 31, 33, 35 f., 40. The council
also quoted phrases from the so-called Creed of Damasus, a docu-
ment of the 4th century, which in some cases they preferred to
the phrases of the Quicumque. Their quotations form a connect-
ing link in the chain of evidence by which the use of the creed
may be traced back to the writings of Caesarius, bishop of Aries
(503-543). Dom Morin has now demonstrated (" Le Symbole
d'Athanase et son premier temoin S. Cesaire d'Arles," Rev.
Benedictine, Oct. 1901) that Caesarius used the creed continually
as a sort of elementary catechism. The fact that it exactly
reproduces both the qualities and the literary defects of Caesarius
is a strong argument in favour of Morin's suggestion that he may
have been the author. Further, Caesarius was in the habit of
putting some words of a distinguished writer at the head of his
compositions, which would account for the fact that the name
of Athanasius was subsequently attached to the creed.

The use, however, of the Quicumque by Caesarius as a catechism
may be explained by the suggestion that it had been taught him
in his youth, so that his style had been moulded by it. He was
not an original thinker. Moreover, the creed is quoted by his
rival Avitus, bishop of Vienne 490-523, who quotes clause 22,
as from the Rule of Catholic Faith, but was not likely to value
a composition of Caesarius so highly. Morin does not deal fully
with the arguments from internal evidence which point back
to the beginning of the 5th century as the date of the creed. If
the creed-phrases needed sharpening against the revived
Nestorian error of the Adoptianists, it is scarcely likely to have
been written during the generation following the condemnation
of Nestorius in 431. Burn suggests that it was written to meet
the Sabellian and Apollinarian errors of the Spanish heretic
Priscillian, possibly by Honoratus, bishop of Aries (d. 429).
He suggests further that the Creed of Damasus was the reply
of that pope to Priscillian's appeal. This would explain the
quotation of the two documents together by the council of Toledo,
since the heresy lasted on for a long time in Spain. But the
theory has been carried to extravagant lengths by Kiinstle, who
thinks that the creed was written in Spain in the 5th century,
and soon taken to the monastery of Lerins. There are phrases in
the writings of Vincentius of Lerins and of Faustus, bishop of
Riez, which are parallel to the teaching of the creed, though they
cannot with any confidence be called quotations. They tend in
any case to prove that the Quicumque comes to us from the school
of Lerins, of which Honoratus was the first abbot, and to which
Caesarius also belonged.

The earliest use of the Quicumque was in sermons, in which
the clauses were quoted, as by the council of Toledo without
reference to the creed as a whole. From the 8th century, if
not from earlier times, commentaries were written on it. The
writer of the Oratorian Commentary (Theodulf of Orleans?)
addressing a synod which instructed him to provide an ex-
position of this work on the faith, writes of it, as " here and
there recited in our churches, and continually made the subject
of meditation by our priests." It was soon used as a canticle.
Angilbert, abbot of St Riquier (c. 814), records that it was sung
by his school in procession on rogation days. It passed into the
office of Prime, apparently first at Fleury. In the first Prayer
Book of Edward VI. it was " sung or said " after the Benedictus
on the greater feasts, and this use was extended in the second
Prayer Book. In 1662 the rubric was altered and it was sub-
stituted for the Apostles' Creed. It has no place in the offices of
the Eastern Orthodox Church, but is found, without the words
" And the Son " of clause 22, in the appendix of many modern

39

8

CREEDS

editions. In the Russian service books it appears at the beginning
of the psalter.

The controversy on its use in modern times has turned mainly
on the interpretation of the warning clauses. No new translation
can put an end to the difficulty. While it is true that the Church
has never condemned individuals, and that the warnings refer
only to those who have received the faith, and do not touch
the question of the unbaptized, there is a growing feeling that
they go beyond the teaching of Holy Scripture on the responsi-
bility of intellect in matters of faith. 1 ■

On the other hand the creed is a valuable statement of Catholic
faith on the Trinity and the Incarnation, and its use for students
and teachers at least is by no means obsolete. The special
characteristic of its theology is in the first part where it owes
most to the teaching of Augustine, who in his striving after
self-knowledge analysed the mystery of his own triune person-
ality and illustrated it with psychological images, " I exist
and I am conscious that I exist, and I love the existence and
the consciousness; and all this independently of any external
influence." Such a riper analysis of the mystery of his own
personality enabled him to arrive at a clearer conception of
the idea of divine personality, " whose triunity has nothing
potential or unrealized about it; whose triune elements are
eternally actualized, by no outward influence, but from within;
a Trinity in Unity." 2

II. Modern Confessions or Faith. — The second great
cieed-making epoch of Church history opens in the 16th century
with the Confession of Augsburg. The famous theses which
Luther nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg in 151 7
cannot be called a confession, but they expressed a protest which
could not rest there. Some reconstruction of popular beliefs
was needed by many consciences. There is a striking contrast
between the crudeness of much and widely accepted medieval
theology and the decrees of the council of Trent. Even from the
Roman Catholic standpoint such a need was felt. Luther himself
had a gift of words which through his catechisms made the re-
formed theologypopular in Germany. Ini53oitbecamenecessary
to define his position against both Romanists and Zwinglians.

1. The Confession of Augsburg was drawn up by Melanchthon,
revised by Luther, and presented to the emperor Charles V. at
the diet of Augsburg. Some 21 of its articles dealt
confession, with doctrine, 7 with ecclesiastical abuses. It ex-
pounded in terse and significant teaching the doctrine
(1) of God, (2) of original sin, (3) of the Son of God, (4) of justi-
fication . . . , (21) of the worship of saints. The abuses which
it was maintained had been corrected by Lutheranism were
discussed in articles (1) on Communion in both kinds, (2) on
the marriage of clergy, (3) on the Mass, &c. (see Augsburg,
Confession of).

The main difference between these, the first of a long series
of articles of religion and the ancient creeds, lies in the fact that
they are manifestoes embodying creeds and answering more
than one purpose. This is the reason of their frequent failure
to convey any sense of proportion in the expression ' of truth.
The disciplinary question of clerical marriage is not of the same
primary importance as the doctrinal questions involved in the
restoration of the cup to the laity, or discussed in the subsequent
article on the mass. As has been well said by a learned Baptist
theologian, Dr Green: " It was by a true divine instinct that the
early theologians made Christ Himself, in His divine-human per-
sonality, their centre of the creeds." 3 The fundamental questions
of Christianity, exhibited in theApostles' Creed, should be marked

1 In response to an invitation issued by the archbishop of Canter-
bury, acting on a resolution of the Lambeth Conference of 1908, a
committee of eminent scholars met in April and May 1909 for the
purpose of preparing a new translation. Their report, issued on the
1 8th of October, stated that they had " endeavoured to represent the
Latin original more exactly in a large number of cases." The general
effect of the new version is to make the creed more comprehensible,
eg. by the substitution of "infinite" and "reasoning" for such
archaisms as " incomprehensible " and " reasonable." The sense of
the damnatory clauses has, however, not been weakened. [Ed.]

2 Illingworth, Personality, Human and Divine, p. 40.

8 The Christian Creed and the Creeds of Christendom, p. 181.

off as standing on a higher plane than others. In this respect
catechisms of modern times, from Luther's down to the recent
Evangelical catechism of the Free Churches, and including
from their respective points of view both the catechism of the
Church of England and the catechism of the council of Trent, are
markedly superior to articles and synodical decrees. The failure
of the latter was really inevitable. In the 16th century a spirit
of universal questioning was rife, and it is this utter unsettlement
of opinion which is reflected in the discussions of doubts on
matters only remotely connected with " the faith once for all
delivered unto the saints " (Jude 3). Moreover, fresh complica-
tions arose from the confusion in which the question of the duties
and rights of the civil power was entangled. In an age when the
foundations of the system on which society had rested for cen-
turies were seriously shaken, such subjects as the right of the
magistrate to interfere with the belief of the individual, and the
limits of his authority over conscience, naturally assumed a
prominence hitherto unknown. 4

2. Other Lutheran Formularies. — For the purpose of classifica
tion it will be convenient to discuss Lutheran, Zwinglian and
Calvinistic confessions separately.

An elaborate Apology for the confession of Augsburg was drawn
up by Melanchthon in reply to Roman Catholic criticisms.
This, together with the confession, the articles of L U t aeran .
Schmalkalden, drawn up by Luther in 1536, Luther's
catechisms, and the Formula of Concord which was an attempt
to settle doctrinal divisions promulgated in 1580, sum up what
is called " the confessional theology of Lutheranism." Of less
influence in the subsequent history of Lutheranism, but of
interest as used by Archbishop Parker in the preparation of the
Elizabethan articles of 1563, is the confession of Wurttemberg.
It was presented to the council of Trent by the ambassador of the
state of Wurttemberg in 1552. Its thirty-five articles contain a
moderate statement of Lutheran teaching.

3. Zwinglian and Calvinistic Confessions. — The confession of
the Four Cities, Strassburg, Constance, Memmingen and London,
was drawn up by M. Bucer and was presented to Charles

V. at Ausburg in 1 530. These cities were inclined to Zw '"X ,laa
follow Zwingli in his sacramental teaching which was calvinist
more fully expressed in the Confession of Basel (1534)
and the First Helvetic Confession (1536). Calvin's views were
expressed in the Gallican Confession, containing forty articles,
which was drawn up in 1559, and was presented both to Francis II.
of France and to Charles IX. On the same lines the Belgian
Confession of 1561, written by Guido de Bres in French, and
translated into Dutch was widely accepted in the Netherlands
and confirmed by the synod of Dort (1619). The second Helvetic
Confession was the work of Bullinger, published at the request
of the Elector Palatine Frederick III. in 1566, and was held in
repute in Switzerland, Poland and France as well as the Pala-
tinate. It was sanctioned in Scotland and was well received
in England.

These confessions teach the root idea of Calvin's theology,
the immeasurable awfulness of God, His eternity, and the
immutability of His decrees. Such strict Calvinism was the
strength also of the Westminster Confession (see below), but was
soon weakened in Germany. This same Elector Frederick invited
two young divines, Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus,
to prepare the afterwards celebrated Heidelberg catechism,
which in 1563 superseded Calvin's catechism in the Palatinate.
While Calvin began sternly with the question; " What is the
chief end of human life? " Ans. : " That men may know God
by whom they were created," — the Heidelberg catechism has:
" What is thy only comfort in life and death?" Ans.: " That I
with body and soul, both in life and death, am not my own, but
belong to my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ." This catechism
has been called the charter of the German Reformed Church.
It contains three divisions dealing with (1) man's sin, misery,
redemption, (2) the Trinity, (3) thankfulness, under which is
included all practical Christian life lived in gratitude for mercies
received.

4 Gibson, The Thirty-nine Articles, p. 2,

CREEDS

399

Articles of
religion.

4. English Articles of Religion. — The ten articles of 1536
were drawn up by Convocation at the bidding of Henry VIII.
" to stablysh Christian Quietnes and Unitie." They
exhibit a traditional character, a compromise be-
tween the old and the new learning. Thus the
doctrine of the Real Presence is asserted, but no mention is
made of Transubstantiation. Medieval ceremonies are described
as useful but without power to remit sins. Two years later, after
negotiations with the Lutheran princes, a conference on theological
matters was held at Lambeth with Lutheran envoys. Thirteen
articles were drawn up, which, though never published (they were
found among Cranmer's papers at the beginning of the 19th
century), had some influence on the forty-two articles. Some
of them were taken from the confession of Augsburg, but the
sections on Baptism, the Eucharist and penance, show that the
English theologians desired to lay more emphasis on the character
of sacraments as channels of grace. The Statute of the Six Articles
(1539), " the whip with six strings," was the outcome of the retro-
grade policy which distinguished the latter years of Henry VIII.

With the accession of Edward VI. liturgical reforms were
set on foot before an attempt was made to systematize doctrinal
teaching. But as early as 1549 Cranmer had in hand " Articles
of Religion " to which he required all preachers and lecturers
to subscribe. In 1552 they were revised by other bishops and
were laid before the council and the royal chaplains. They were
then published as " Articles agreed on by the bishops and other
learned men in the Synod of London." But there is considerable
doubt whether they really received the sanction of Convocation
(Gibson, p. 15). They were not devised as a complete scheme
of doctrine, but only as a guide in dealing with current errors of
(i.) the Medievalists and (ii.) the Anabaptists. Under (i.) they
condemned the doctrine of the school authors on congruous
merit (Art. xii.), the doctrine of grace ex opere operato (xxvi.).
Transubstantiation (xxix.). Under (ii.) they laid stress on the
fundamental articles of the faith (Art. i.-iv.), affirmed the Three
Creeds (vii.), since many Anabaptists held Arian and Socinian
opinions which were rife in Switzerland, Italy and Poland,
condemning also their views on original sin (viii.), community
of goods (xxxvii.), and on other subjects in articles which do not
mention them by name.

The revision undertaken in 1563 by Archbishop Parker,
aided by Edm. Guest, bishop of Rochester, shows " an attempt to
give greater completeness to the formulary," and to make
clearer the Catholic position of the Church of England. For
the clause (Art. xxviii.) which denied the Real Presence was
substituted one by Guest with the desire " not to deny the
reality of the presence of the Body of Christ in the Supper, but
only the grossness and sensibleness in the receiving thereof."
At the same time the substitution of " Romish doctrine " for
" doctrine of School authors " (Art. xxii.) marks an effort to define
the line of the Church of England sharply against current Roman
teaching. The revision was passed by Convocation and again
revised in 1571, when the queen had been excommunicated by
papal bull, and an act was passed ordering all clergy to subscribe
to them. They have remained unchanged ever since, though
the terms of subscription have been modified.

An attempt was made to add nine articles of a strong Calvin-
istic tone, which were drawn up by Dr Whitaker, regius professor
of divinity at Cambridge, and submitted to Archbishop Whitgift.
They were rejected both by Queen Elizabeth, and, after the Hamp-
ton Court Conference petitioned about them, by King James I.

The first Scottish confession dates from 1 560. It is a memorial
of the intellectual power and enthusiasm of John Knox. It
exhibits the leading features of the Reformed theology, but
" disclaims Divine authority for any fixed form of church govern-
ment or worship." It also asks that " if anyone shall note in
this our confession any articles or sentence repugnant of God's
Holy Word, that it would please him of his gentleness and for
Christian charity's sake, to admonish of the same in writing,"
promising that if the teaching cannot be proved, to reform it.
Between this and the Westminster Confession must be noted
the first Baptist confession, published in Amsterdam in 161 1.

It shows the influence of Arminian theology against Calvinism,
which was vigorously upheld in the Quin-particular formula, put
forward by the synod of Dort in 1619 to uphold the five points of
Calvinism, after heated discussion, in which English delegates took
part, of the problems of divine omniscience and human free-will.

5. The Westminster Confession (1648), with its two catechisms.
is perhaps the ablest of the reformed confessions from the stand-'
point of Calvinism. Its keynote is sovereignty. west-

" The Decrees of God are His eternal Purpose according minster
to the Counsel of His Will, whereby for His Own Glory Contes-
He hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass." sion '
Man's part is to accept them with submission. As the Anglican
divines soon ceased to attend the assembly, and the Independents
were few in number, it was the work of Presbyterians only, the
Scottish members carrying their proposal to make it an independ-
ent document and not a mere revision of the Thirty-nine Articles.
After discussions lasting for two years it was debated in parlia-
ment, finished on the 22nd of March 1648, and was adopted by
the Scottish parliament in the following year. It is the only
confession which has been imposed by authority of parliament
on the whole of the United Kingdom. This lasted in England for
ten years. In Scotland its influence has continued to the present
day, contributing not a little to mould the high qualities of
religious insight and courage and perseverance which have honour-
ably distinguished Scottish Presbyterians all the world over.
This was the last great effort in constructive theology of the
Reformation period. When Cromwell before his death in 1658
allowed a conference to prepare a new confession of faith for the
whole commonwealth, the Westminster Confession was accepted
as a whole with an added statement on church order and disci-
pline. We must note, however, that the Baptist divines who
were excluded from the Westminster Assembly issued a declara-
tion of their principles under the title, " A Confession of Faith of
seven Congregations or Churches in London which are commonly
but unjustly called Anabaptists, for the Vindication of the Truth
and Information of the Ignorant."

Two other declarations may be quoted to show how necessary
such confessions are even to religious societies which refuse to be
bound by them. In 1675 Robert Barclay published an " Apology
for the Society of Friends," in which he declared what they held
concerning revelation, scripture, the fall, redemption, the inward
light, freedom of conscience.

In 1833 the Congregational Union published a Declaration or
Confession of Faith, Church Order and Discipline. It was prepared
by Dr George Redford or Worcester, and was presented, not as a
scholastic or critical confession of faith, but merely such a state-
ment as any intelligent member of the body might offer as con-
taining its leading principles. It deals with the Bible as the final
appeal in controversy, the doctrines of God, man, sin, the Incar-
nation, the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, " both the
Son of man and the Son of God," the work of the Holy Spirit, justi-
fication by faith, the perpetual obligation of Baptism and the
Lord's Supper, final judgment, the law of Christian fellowship.
The same principles have been lucidly stated in the Evangelical
Free Church catechism.

6. Confessions in the Eastern Orthodox Church. — The Eastern
Church has no general doctrinal tests beyond the Nicene Creed,
but from time to time synods have approved exposi-
tions of the faith such as the Athanasian Creed
(without the words "And the Son"), and the
Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern
Church. This was the work of Petrus Mogilas, metro-
politan of Kiev, and other theologians. It was written in 1640
in Russian, was translated into Greek, and approved by the
council of Jassy and the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexan-
dria, Antioch and Jerusalem. It was affirmed by the council
of Jerusalem in 1672, which also affirmed the Confession of
Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem. Both of these confessions
were drawn up to confute the teaching of a remarkable man who
had been patriarch of Constantinople, Cyril Lucar. He was a
student of Western theology, a correspondent of Archbishop
Laud, and had travelled in Germany and Switzerland. In 1629 he

Oreek
church.

400

CREEK

published a confession in which he attempted to incorporate ideas
of the reformers while preserving the leading ideas of Eastern
traditional theology. The controversy chiefly turned on the
question of the necessity of episcopacy. Dositheus taught that
the existence of bishops is as necessary to the Church as " breath
to a man and the sun to the world." Christ is the universal
and perpetual Head of the Church, but he exercises his rule by
means of "the holy Fathers," that is, the bishops whom the
Holy Ghost has appointed to be in charge of local churches.

Mention may also be made of the longer catechism of the
Orthodox Catholic Church compiled by Philaret, metropolitan
of Moscow, revised and adopted by the Russian Holy Synod in
1839. The Church is defined as "a divinely-instituted community
of men, united by the orthodox faith, the law of God, the hier-
archy and the sacraments."

7. Roman Catholic Formularies. — For our present purpose the

distinctive features of Roman Catholicism may be said to be

summed up in the decrees of the council of Trent and

*°™ a f. the creed of Pope Pius IV. The council sat at intervals
Catholic. ;T * , 111.

from 1545-1563, but there was a marked divergence

between the opinions advocated by prominent members of the

council and its final decrees. Cardinal Pole had to leave the

council because he advocated the doctrine of justification by

faith. Even at the later sessions the cardinal of Lorraine with

the French prelates supported the German representatives in

requests for the cup for the laity,the permission of the marriage of

priests, and the revision of the breviary. Finally the decisions

of the council were promulgated in a declaration of XII. articles,

usually called the Creed of Pius IV., which reaffirmed the Nicene

Creed, and dealt with the preservation of the apostolic and

ecclesiastical traditions, the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures

" according to the sense which our Holy Mother Church has held,"

the seven sacraments, the offering of the mass, transubstantiation,

purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, images, the efficacy

of indulgences, the supremacy of the Roman Church and of the

bishop of Rome as vicar of Christ. To this summary of doctrine

should be added the dogmas of the immaculate conception of

the Blessed Virgin declared in 1854, and of papal infallibility

decreed by the Vatican council of 1870.

Conclusion. — In this survey of Christian confessions it has
been impossible to do more than barely name many which
deserve discussion. This is a subject which has grown in import-
ance and is likely to grow further. The very intensity of that
phase of modern thought which declaims fervently against all
creeds, and would maintain what George Eliot called " the right
of the individual to general haziness," is likely to draw all
Christian thinkers nearer to one another in sympathy through
acceptanceof the Apostles' Creed as the common basis of Christian
thought. In the words of Hilary of Poitiers, " Faith gathers
strength through opposition."

The question at once arises, Can the simple historic faith be
maintained without adding theological interpretations, those
arid wastes of dogma in which the springs of faith and reverence
run dry? The answer is No. We cannot ask to be as if through
nineteen centuries no one had ever asked a question about the
relation of the Lord Jesus Christ to the Father and the Holy
Spirit. If we could come back to the Bible and use biblical terms
only, as Cyril of Jerusalem wished in his early days, we know
from experience that the old errors would reappear in the form
of new questions, and that we should have to pass through the
dreary wilderness of controversy from implicit to explicit dogma,
from " I believe that Jesus is the Lord " to the confession that
the Only Begotten Son is " of one substance with the Father."
In the words of Hilary again:

" Faithful souls would be contented with the word of God which
bids us: ' Go teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost.' But also we are
drawn by the faults of our heretical opponents to do things unlawful,
to scale heights inaccessible, to speak out what is unspeakable, to
presume where we ought not. And whereas it is by faith alone
that we should worship the Father and reverence the Son, and be
filled with the Spirit, we are now obliged to strain our weak human
language in the utterance of things beyond its scope; forced into

this evil procedure by the evil procedure of our foes. Hence what
should be matter of silent religious meditation must now needs be
imperilled by exposition in words."

The province of reverent theology is to aid accurate thinking
by the use' ofimetaphysical or psychological terms. Its definitions
are no more an end in themselves than an analysis of good
drinking water, which by itself leaves us thirsty but encourages
us to drink. So the Nicene Creed is the analysis of the river of
the water of life of which the Sermon on the Mount is a descrip-
tion, flowing on from age to age, freely offered to the thirsty souls
of men.

This justification of the ancient creeds carries with it the
justification of later confessions so far as they answered questions
which would be fatal to religion if they were not answered.
As Principal Stewart puts it very clearly: " The answer given is
based on the philosophy or science of the period. It does not
necessarily form part of the religion itself, but is the best which
with the materials at its command, in its own defence and in
its love for truth, the religion (and its advocates) can give. But
the answers may be superseded by better answers, or they may
be rendered unnecessary because the questions are no longer
asked. Thus the Calvinism of the 16th and 17th centuries
elaborated answers to questions, which if no attempt had been
made to answer them, would have perplexed earnest souls and
condemned the 'system; but many parts of the system are now
obsolete, because the conditions which suggested the questions
which they sought to answer no longer exist or have no longer
any interest or importance."

Literature. — See J. Pearson, Exposition of the Creed (new ed.,
1849); A. E. Burn, Introduction to the Creeds (1899), and The
Athanasian Creed in vol. iv. of Texts and Studies (1896) ; H. B. Swete,
The Apostles' Creed (1899) ; F. Kattenbusch, Das apostolische
Symbol (1894-1900); C. A. Heurtley, Harmonia Symbolica (1858):
C. P. Caspari, Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols und der Glaubens-
regel (Christiama, 1866) ; and Alte und neue Quellen (1879) ; T. Zahn,
Das apostolische Symbolum (1893) ; C. A. Swainson, The Nicene and
Apostles' Creed (1875); G. D. W. Ommanney, The Athanasian Creed
(1897); B. F. Westcott, The Historic Faith (1882); J. Jayne, The
; Athanasian Creed (1905) ; J. A. Robinson, The Athanasian Creed
(1905); E. C. S. Gibson, The Three Creeds (1908); F. J. A. Hort,
Two Dissertations (1876); D. Waterland, Crit. Hist, edited by E.
King (Oxford, 1870); F. Loofs and A. Harnack articles in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopddie (" Athanasianum " and " Konstantino-
politanisches Symbol") (1896), &c. ; K. Kunstle, Antipriscilliana
(Freiburg i. B., 1905); A. Stewart, Croall Lectures (in the press);
S. G. Green, The Christian Creed (1898); P. Hall, Harmony of
Protestant Confessions (London, 1842) ; F. Kattenbusch, Con-
fessionskunde (Freiburg i. B., 1890); Winex's Confessions of
Christendom (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1865) ; A. Seeberg, Der
Katechismus der Urchristenheit (Leipzig, 1903) ; F. Wiegand, Die
Stellung des apostolischen Symbols (Leipzig, 1899); H. Goodwin, The
Foundations of the Creed (London, 1889); T. H. Bindley, The
Oecumenical Documents of the Faith (London, 1906) ; J. Kunze,
Das nicdnisch-konstantinopolitanische Symbol; S. Baeumer, Das
apostolische Glaubensbekenntnis (Mainz, 1893); B. Doxholt, Das
Taufsymbol. der alten Kirche (Paderborn, 1898); L. Hahn,
Bibliothek der Symbole u. Glaubensregeln (Breslau, 1897) ; A. C.
McGiffert, The Apostles' Creed (Edinburgh, 1902) ; and F. Loofs,
Symbolik (Leipzig, 1902). (A. E. B.)

CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N.
European languages), a small inlet on a low coast, an inlet in
a river formed by the mouth of a small stream, a shallow narrow
harbour for small vessles. In America and Australia especially
there are many long streams which can be everywhere forded and
sometimes dry up, and are navigable only at their tidal estuaries,
mere brooks in width which are of great economic importance.
They form complete river-systems, and are the only supply of
surface water over many thousand square miles. They are at
some seasons a mere chain of " water-holes," but occasionally
they are strongly flooded. Since exploration began at the coast
and advanced inland, it is probable that the explorers, advancing
up the narrow inlets or " creeks," used the same word for the
streams which flowed into these as they followed their courses
upward into the country. The early settlers would use the same
word for that portion of the stream which flowed through their
own land, and in Australia particularly the word has the same
local meaning as brook in England. On a map the whole system
is called a river, e.g. the river Wakefield in South Australia gives

CREEK INDIANS— CREIGHTON

401

its name to Port Wakefield, but the stream is always locally
called " the creek."

CREEK or MUSKOGEE (Muscogee) INDIANS (Algonquin
maskoki, " creeks," in reference to the many creeks and rivulets
running through their country) , a confederacy of North American
Indians, who formerly occupied most of Alabama and Georgia.
The confederacy seems to have been in existence in 1 540, and then
included the Muskogee, the ruling tribe, whose language was
generally spoken, the Alabama, the Hichiti, Koasati and others
of the Muskogean stock, with the Yuchi and the Natchez,
a large number of Shawano and the Seminoles of Florida as a
branch. The Creeks were agriculturists living in villages of log
houses. They were brave fighters, but during the 18th century
only had one struggle, of little importance, with the settlers.
The Creek War of 1813-14 was, however, serious. The con-
federacy was completely defeated in three hard-fought battles,
and the peace treaty which followed involved the cession to the
United States government of most of the Creek country. In the
Civil War the Creeks were divided in their allegiance and suffered
heavily in the campaigns. The so-called Creek nation is now
settled in Oklahoma, but independent government virtually
ceased in 1906. In 1904 they numbered some 16,000, some
two-thirds being of pure or mixed Creek blood.

CREETOWN, a seaport of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 991. It is situated near the head of Wigtown Bay,
18 m. W. of Castle Douglas, but 235 m. by the Portpatrick and
Wigtownshire Railway. The granite quarries in the vicinity
constitute the leading industry, the stone for the Liverpool docks
and other public works having been obtained from them. The
village dates from 1785, and it became a burgh of barony in
1792. Sir Walter Scott laid part of the scene of Guy Mannering
in this neighbourhood. Dr Thomas Brown, the metaphysician
(1778-1820), was a native of the parish (Kirkmabreck) in which
Creetown lies.

CREEVEY, THOMAS (1 768-1838), English politician, son of
William Creevey, a Liverpool merchant, was born in that city
in March 1768. He went to Queen's College, Cambridge, and
graduated as seventh wrangler in 1789. The same year he be-
came a student at the Inner Temple, and was called to the bar
in 1794. In 1802 he entered parliament through the duke of
Norfolk's nomination as member for Thetford, and married
a widow with six children, Mrs Ord, who had a life interest in a
cgmfortable income. Creevey was a Whig and a follower of Fox,
and his active intellect and social qualities procured him a con-
siderable intimacy with the leaders of this political circle. In
1806, when the brief " All the Talents " ministry was formed, he
was given the office of secretary to the Board of Control; in
1830, when next his party came into power, Creevey, who had
lost his seat in parliament, was appointed by Lord Grey treasurer
of the ordnance; and subsequently Lord Melbourne made him
treasurer of Greenwich hospital. After 1818, when his wife died,
he had very slender means of his own, but he was popular with
his friends and was well looked after by them; Greville, writing
of him in 1829, remarks that " old Creevey is a living proof that
a man may be perfectly happy and exceedingly poor. I think
he is the only man I know in society who possesses nothing."
He died in February 1838. He is remembered through the
Creevey Papers, published in 1903 under the editorship of Sir
Herbert Maxwell, which, consisting partly of Creevey's own
journals and partly of correspondence, give a lively and valuable
picture of the political and social life of the late Georgian era,
and are characterized by an almost Pepysian outspokenness.
They are a useful addition and correction to the Croker Papers,
written from a Tory point of view. For thirty-six years Creevey
had kept a " copious diary," and had preserved a vast miscellane-
ous correspondence with such people as Lord Brougham, and
his step-daughter, Elizabeth Ord, had assisted him, by keeping
his letters to her, in compiling material avowedly for a collection
of Creevey Papers in the future. At his death it was found that
he had left his mistress, with whom he had lived for four years,
his sole executrix and legatee, and Greville notes in his Memoirs
the anxiety of Brougham and others to get the papers into their I

hands and suppress them. The diary, mentioned above, did not
survive, perhaps through Brougham's success, and the papers
from which Sir Herbert Maxwell made his selection came into
his hands from Mrs Blackett Ord, whose husband was the grand-
son of Creevey's eldest step-daughter.

CREFELD, or Krefeld, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, on the left side of and 3 m. distant from the
Rhine, 3 2 m. N.W. from Cologne, and 15 m.N.W. fromDiisseldorf.
with which it is connected by a light electric railway. Pop. (1875)
62,905; (1905) 110,410. The town is one of the finest in the
Rhine provinces, being well and regularly built, and possessing
several handsome squares and attractive public gardens. A
striking point about the inner town is that it forms a large rect-
angle, enclosed by four wide boulevards or " walls." This feature,
rare in German towns, is due to the fact that Crefeld was always
an " open place," and that therefore the circular form of a
fortress town could be dispensed with. It has six Roman Catholic
and four Evangelical churches (of which the Gothic Friedens-
kirche with a lofty spire, and the modern church of St Joseph, in
the Romanesque style, are alone worth special mention) ; there
are also a Mennonite and an Old Catholic church. The town hall,
decorated with frescoes by P. Janssen (b.1844), and the Kaiser
Wilhelm Museum are the most noteworthy secular buildings.
In the promenades are monuments to Moltke, Bismarck and
Karl Wilhelm, the composer of the Wacht am Rhein. Among the
schools and scientific institutions of the town the most important
is the higher grade technical school for the study of the textile
industries, which is attended by students from all parts of the
world. Connected with this are subsidiary schools, notably one
for dyeing and finishing.

Crefeld is the most important seat of the silk and velvet
manufactures in Germany, and in this industry the larger part
of the population of town and neighbourhood is employed.
There are upwards of 12,000 silk power-looms in operation, and
the value of the annual output in this branch alone is estimated
at £3,000,000. A special feature is the manufacture of silk for
covering umbrellas; while of its velvet manufacture that of velvet
ribbon is the chief. The other industries of the town, notably
dyeing, stuff-printing and stamping, are very considerable,
and there are also engineering and machine shops, chemical,
cellulose, soap, and other factories, breweries, distilleries and
tanneries. The surrounding fertile district is almost entirely
laid out in market gardens. Crefeld is an important railway
centre, and has direct communication with Cologne, Rheydt,
Miinchen-Gladbach and Holland (via Zevenaar).

Crefeld is first mentioned in records of the 12th century.
From the emperor Charles IV. it received market rights in 1361
and the status of a town in 1373. It belonged to the counts of
Mors, and was annexed to Prussia, with the countship, in 1702.
It remained a place of little importance until the 17th century,
when religious persecution drove to it a number of Calvinists and
Separatists from Julich and Berg (followed later by Mennonites),
who introduced the manufacture of linen. The number of such
immigrants still further increased in the 18th century, when,
the silk industry having been introduced from Holland, the town
rapidly developed. The French occupation in 1795 and the
resulting restriction of trade weighed for a while heavily upon
the new industry; but with the termination of the war and the
re-establishment of Prussian rule the old prosperity returned.

CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901), English historian and
bishop of London, was born at Carlisle on the 5th of July 1843,
being the eldest son of Robert Creighton, a well-to-do upholsterer
of that city. He was educated at Durham grammar school and
at Merton College, Oxford, where he was elected to a postmaster-
ship in 1862. He obtained a first-class in literae humaniores, and
a second in law and modern history in 1866. In the same year he
became tutor and fellow of Merton. He was ordained deacon, on
his fellowship, in 1870, and priest in 1873; in 1872 he had
married Louise, daughter of Robert von Glehn, a London
merchant (herself a writer of several successful books of history).
Meanwhile he had published several small historical works;
but his college and university duties left little time for writing,

4-02

CREIL— CRELL

and in 1875 he accepted the vicarage of Embleton, a parish on
the coast of Northumberland, near Dunstanburgh, with an
ancient and beautiful church and a fortified parsonage house,
and within reach of the fine library in Bamburgh Keep. Here
he remained for nearly ten years, acquiring that experience of
parochial work which afterwards stood him in good stead, taking
private pupils, studying and writing, as well as taking
an active part in diocesan business. Here too he planned and
wrote the first two volumes of his chief historical work, the
History of the Papacy; and it was in part this which led to his
being elected- in 1884 to the newly-founded Dixie professor-
ship of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge, where he went into
residence early in 1885. At Cambridge his influence at once
made itself felt, especially in the reorganization of the historical
school. His lectures and conversation classes were extra-
ordinarily good, possessing as he did the rare gift of kindling the
enthusiasm without curbing the individuality of his pupils.
In 1886 he combined with other leading historians to found the
English Historical Review, of which he was editor for five years.
Meanwhile the vacations were spent at Worcester, where he had
been nominated a canon residentiary in 1885. In 1891 he was
made canon of Windsor; but he never went into residence,
being appointed in the same year to the see of Peterborough.
He threw himself with characteristic energy into his new work,
visiting, preaching and lecturing in every part of his diocese.
He also found time to preach and lecture elsewhere, and to deliver
remarkable speeches at social functions; he worked hard with
Archbishop Benson on the Parish Councils Bill (1894) ; he became
the first president of the Church Historical Society (1894), and
continued in that office till his death; he took part in the Laud
Commemoration (1895); he represented the English Church at
the coronation of the tsar (1896). He even found time for
academical work, delivering the Hulsean lectures (1893-1894)
and the Rede lecture (1894) at Cambridge, and the Romanes
lecture at Oxford (1896).

In 1897, on the translation of Dr Temple to Canterbury, Bishop
Creighton was transferred to London. During Dr Temple's
episcopate ritual irregularities of all kinds had grown up, which
left a very difficult task to his successor, more especially in view
of the growing public agitation on the subject, of which he had
to bear the brunt. As was only natural, his studied fairness
did not satisfy partisans on either side; and his efforts towards
conciliation laid him open to much misunderstanding. His
administration, none the less, did much to preserve peace. He
strained every nerve to induce his clergy to accept his ruling
on the questions of the reservation of the Sacrament and of the
ceremonial use of incense in accordance with the archbishop's
judgment in the Lincoln case; but when, during his last illness,
a prosecutor brought proceedings against the clergy of five
recalcitrant churches, the bishop, on the advice of his arch-
deacons, interposed his veto. One other effort on behalf of
peace may be mentioned. In accordance with a vote of the
diocesan conference, the bishop arranged the " Round Table
Conference " between representative members of various
parties, held at Fulham in October 1900, on " the doctrine of the
Holy Eucharist and its expression in ritual," and a report of
its proceedings was published with a preface by him. The true
work of his episcopate was, however, positive, not negative.
He was an excellent administrator; and his wide knowledge,
broad sympathies, and sound common sense, though they placed
him outside the point of view common to most of his clergy,
made him an invaluable guide in correcting their too often in-
discreet zeal. He fully realized the special position of the
English Church in Christendom, and firmly maintained its
essential teaching. Yet he was no narrow Anglican. His love
for the English Church never blinded him to its faults, and no
man was less insular than he. As he was a historian before he
became a bishop, so it was his historical sense which determined
his general attitude as a bishop. It was this, together with a
certain native taste for ecclesiastical pomp, which made him —
while condemning the unhistorical extravagances of the ultra-
ritualists — himself a ritualist. He was the first bishop of London,

since the Reformation, to " pontificate " in a mitre as well as the
cope, and though no man could have been less essentially
" sacerdotal " he was always careful of correct ceremonial
usage. His interests and his sympathies, however, extended
far beyond the limits of the church. He took a foremost part
in almost every good work in his diocese, social or educational,
political or religious; while he found time also to cultivate
friendly relations with thinking men and women of all schools,
and to help all and sundry who came to him for advice and
assistance. It was this multiplicity of activities and interests
that proved fatal to him. By degrees the work, and especially
the routine work, began to tell on him. He fell seriously ill
in the late summer of 1900, and died on the 14th of January 1901.
He was buried in St Paul's cathedral, where a statue surmounts
his tomb.

He was a man of striking presence and distinguished by a fine
courtesy of manner. His irrespressible and often daring humour,
together with his frank distaste for much conventional religious
phraseology, was a stumbling-block to some pious people. But
beneath it all lay a deep seriousness of purpose and a firm faith
in what to him were the fundamental truths of religion.

Bishop Creigh ton's principal published works are: History oj
the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation (5 vols., 1882-
1897, new ed.); History of the Papacy from the Great Schism
to the Sack of Rome (6 vols., 1897); The Early Renaissance in
England (1895); Cardinal Wolsey (1895); Life of Simon de
Montfort (1876, new ed. 1895); Queen Elizabeth (1896). He also
edited the series of Epochs of English History, for which he
wrote "The Age of Elizabeth" (13th ed., 1897); Historical
Lectures and Addresses by Mandell Creighton, htc, edited by
Mrs Creighton, were published in 1903.

See Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, &fc, by his wife (2 vols.,
1904) ; and the article " Creighton and Stubbs " in Church Quarterly
Review for Oct. 1905.

CREIL, a town of northern France, in the department of Oise,
32 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway, on which it is an
important junction. Pop. (1906) 9234. The town is situated on
the Oise, on which it has a busy port. The manufacture of
machinery, heavy iron goods and nails, and copper and iron
founding, are important industries, and there are important
metallurgical and engineering works at Montataire, about 2 m.
distant; bricks and tiles and glass are also manufactured, and
the Northern railway has workshops here. The church (12th
to 15th centuries) is in the Gothic style. There are some traces
of a castle in which Charles VI. resided during the period of his
madness. Creil played a part of some importance in the wars of
the 14th, 15th and 1 6th centuries.

CRELL (or Krell), NICHOLAS (c. 1551-1601), chancellor of
the elector of Saxony, was born at Leipzig, and educated at the
university of his native town. About 1580 he entered the service
of Christian, the eldest son of Augustus I., elector of Saxony,
and when Christian succeeded his father as elector in 1586, be-
came his most influential counsellor. Crell's religious views were
Calvinistic or Crypto-Calvinistic, and both before and after his
appointment as chancellor in 1589 he sought to substitute his
own form of faith for the Lutheranism which was the accepted
religion of electoral Saxony. Calvinists were appointed to many
important ecclesiastical and educational offices; a translation of
the Bible with Calvinistic annotations was brought out; and
other measures were taken by Crell to attain his end. In foreign
politics, also, he sought to change the traditional policy of
Saxony, acting in unison with John Casimir, administrator
of the Rhenish Palatinate, and promising assistance to Henry IV.
of France. These proceedings, coupled with the jealousy felt
at Crell's high position and autocratic conduct, made the chan-
cellor very unpopular, and when the elector died in October
1 59 1 he was deprived of his offices and thrown into prison by
order of Frederick William, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, the regent
for the young elector Christian II. His trial was delayed until
1 595, and then, owing partly to the interference of the imperial
court of justice (Reichskammergericht) , dragged on for six years.
At length it was referred by the emperor Rudolph II. to a court

CREMA— CREMATION

403

of appeal at Prague, and sentence of death was passed. This
was carried out at Dresden on the 9th of October 1601.

See A. V. Richard, Der kurfurstliche sdchsische Kanzler Dr
Nicolaus Krell (Frankfort, i860) ; B. Bohnenstadt, Das Prozessver-
fahren gegen den kursdchsischen Kanzler Dr Nikolaus Krell (Halle,
1901); F. Brandes, Der Kanzler Krell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus
(Leipzig, 1873) ; and E. L. T. Henke, Caspar Peucer und Nicolaus
Krell (Marburg, 1865).

CREMA, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Cremona, 26 m. N.E. by rail from the town of
Cremona. Pop. (1901) town, 8027; commune, 9609. It is
situated on the right bank of the Serio, 240 ft. above sea-level,
in the centre of a rich agricultural district. The cathedral has a
fine Lombard Gothic facade of the second half of the 14th century ;
the campanile belongs to the same period; the rest of the church
has been restored in the baroque style. The clock tower opposite
dates from the period of Venetian dominion in the 16th and 1 7th
centuries. The castle, which was one of the strongest in Italy,
was demolished in 1809. The church of S. Maria, f m. E. of the
town, was begun in 1490 by Giov. Batt. Battaggio; it is in the
form of a Greek cross, with a central dome, and the exterior is
a fine specimen of polychrome Lombard work (E. Gussalli in
Rassegna d' arte, 1905, p. 17).

The date of the foundation of Crema is uncertain. In the
10th century it appears to have been the principal place of the
territory known as Isola Fulcheria. In the 12th century it
was allied with Milan and attacked by Cremona, but was taken
and sacked by Barbarossa in 1160. It was rebuilt in 1185.
It fell under the Visconti in 1338, ajid joined the Lombard
republic in 1447 ; but was taken by the Venetians in 1449, and,
except from 1509 to 1529, remained under their dominion
until 1797.

CREMATION (Lat. cremare, to burn), the burning of human
corpses. This method of disposal of the dead may be said to have
been the general practice of the ancient world, with the important
exceptions of Egypt, where bodies were embalmed, Judaea,
where they were buried in sepulchres, and China, where they were
buried in the earth. In Greece, for instance, so well ascertained
was the law that only suicides, unteethed children, and persons
struck by lightning were denied the right to be burned. At
Rome, one of the XII. Tables said, " Hominem mortuum in urbe
ne sepelito, neve urito " ; and in fact, from the close of the
republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, burning on the
pyre or rogus was the general rule. 1 Whether in any of these
cases cremation was adopted or rejected for sanitary or for
superstitious reasons, it is difficult to say. Embalming would
probably not succeed in climates less warm and dry than the
Egyptian. The scarcity of fuel might also be a consideration.
The Chinese are influenced by the doctrine of Feng-Shui, or
incomprehensible wind water; they must have a properly placed
grave in their own land, and with this view their corpses are sent
home from long distances abroad. Even the Jews used cremation
in the vale of Tophet when a plague came; and the modern
Jews of Berlin and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews at Mile
End cemetery were among the first to welcome the lately revived
process. Probably also, some nations had religious objections
to the pollution of the sacred principle of fire, and therefore
practised exposure, suspension, throwing into the sea, cave-
burial, desiccation or envelopment. 2 Some at least of these
methods must obviously have been suggested simply by the
readiest means at hand. ■ Cremation is still practised over a great
part of Asia and America, but not always in the same form.
Thus, the ashes may be stored in urns, or buried in the earth,
or thrown to the wind, or (as among the Digger Indians) smeared
with gum on the heads of the mourners. In one case the three
processes of embalming, burning and burying are gone through ;
and in another, if a member of the tribe die at a great distance
from home, some of his money and clothes are nevertheless
burned by the family. As food, weapons, &c, are sometimes

1 Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger Theo-
dosius (Gibbon v. 411).

2 The Colchians, says Sir Thos, Browne, made their graves in the
air, i.e. on trees.

buried with the body, so they are sometimes burned with the
body, the whole ashes being collected. 3 The Siamese have a
singular institution, according to which, before burning, the
embalmed body lies in a temple for a period determined by the
rank of the dead man, — the king for six months, and so down-
wards. If the poor relatives cannot afford fuel and the other
necessary preparations, they bury the body, but exhume it* for
burning when an opportunity occurs.

There can be little doubt that the practice of cremation in
modern Europe was at first stopped, and has since been prevented
in great measure, by the Christian doctrine of the resurrection
of the body; partly also by the notion that the Christian's body
was redeemed and purified. 4 Some clergymen, however, as the
late Mr Haweis in his Ashes to Ashes, a Cremation Prelude
(London, 1874), have been prominent in favour of cremation.
The objection of the clergy was disposed of by the philanthropist
Lord Shaftesbury when he asked, " What would in such a case
become of the blessed martyrs? " The very general practice of
burying bodies in the precincts of a church in order that the
dead might take benefit from the prayers of persons resorting to
the church, and the religious ceremony which precedes both Euro-
pean burials and Asiatic cremations, have given the question a
religious aspect. It is, however, in the ultimate resort, really a
sanitary one. The disgusting results of pit-burial made ceme-
teries necessary. But cemeteries are equally liable to over-
crowding, and are often nearer to inhabited houses than the old
churchyards. It is possible, no doubt, to make a cemetery safe
approximately by selecting a soil which is dry, close and porous,
by careful drainage, and by rigid enforcement of the rules
prescribing a certain depth (8 to 10 ft.) and a certain superficies
(4 yds.) for graves. But a great mass of sanitary objections may
be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries.
A dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas,
is the worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is
strikingly illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs
to absorb the carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins,
even when sawdust charcoal is used, is still more dangerous
than ordinary burial. It must also be remembered that the
cemetery system can only be temporary. The soil is gradually
filled with bones; houses crowd round; the law itself permits
the reopening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. We
shall not, indeed, as Browne says, " be knaved out of our graves
to have our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned
into pipes!" But on this ground of sentiment cremation would
certainly prevent any interruption of that " sweet sleep and
calm rest " which the old prayer that the earth might lie lightly
has associated with the grave. And in the meantime we should
escape the horror of putrefaction and of the " small cold worm
that fretteth the enshrouded form."

In Europe Christian burial was long associated entirely with the
ordinary practice of committing the corpse to the grave. But
in the middle of the 19th century many distinguished physicians
and chemists, especially in Italy, began prominently to advocate
cremation. In 1874, a congress called to consider the matter at
Milan resolved to petition the Chamber of Deputies for a clause
in the new sanitary code, permitting cremation under the super-
vision of the syndics of the commune. In Switzerland Dr
Vegmann Ercolani was the champion of the cause (see his
Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead,
4th ed., Zurich, 1874). So long ago as 1797 cremation was
seriously discussed by the French Assembly under the Directory,
and the events of the Franco-Prussian War again brought the
subject under the notice of the medical press and the sanitary
authorities. The military experiments at Sedan, Chalons and
Metz, of burying large numbers of bodies with quicklime, or
pitch and straw, were not successful, but very dangerous. The
matter was considered by the municipal council of Paris in con-
nexion with the new cemetery at Mery-sur-Oise; and the prefect

3 In the case of a great man there was often a burnt offering of
animals and even of slaves (see Caesar, De bell. Gall. iv.).

4 A temple of the Holy Ghost (see Tertullian, De anima, c. 51, cited
in Miiller, Lex. des Kirchenrechts, s.v. " Begrabniss ").

4°4

CREMATION

of the Seine in 1874 sent a circular asking information to all the
cremation societies in Europe. In Britain the subject had
slumbered for two centuries, since in 1658 Sir Thomas Browne
published his quaint Hydriotaphia, or Urn-burial, which was
mainly founded on the De funere Romanorum of the learned
Kirchmannus. In 181 7 Dr J. Jamieson gave a sketch of the
" Origin of Cremation " (Proc. Royal Soc. Edin., 1817), and for
many years prior to 1874 Dr Lord, medical officer of health for
Hampstead, continued to urge the practical necessity for the
• introduction of the system.

It was Sir Henry Thompson, however, who first brought the
question prominently before the public. Thompson's problem
was — " Given a dead body, to resolve it into carbonic acid, water
and ammonia, rapidly, safely and not unpleasantly." To solve
this problem, experiments were made by Dr Polli at the Milan
gas works, fully described in Dr Pietra Santa's book, La Crema-
tion des morts en France et d I'etranger, and by Professor Brunetti,
who exhibited an apparatus at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873,
and who stated his results in La Cremazione dei cadaveri (Padua,
1873). Polli obtained complete incineration or calcination of
dogs by the use of coal-gas mixed with atmospheric air, applied
to a cylindrical retort of refracting clay, so as to consume the
gaseous products of combustion. The process was complete
in two hours, and the ashes weighed about 5% of the weight
before cremation. Brunetti used an oblong furnace of refracting
brick with side-doors to regulate the draught, and above a cast-
iron dome with movable shutters. The body was placed on
a metallic plate suspended on iron wire. The gas generated
escaped by the shutters, and in two hours carbonization was
complete. The heat was then raised and concentrated, and at the
end of four hours the operation was over; 180 lb cf wood costing
2s. 4d. sterling was burned. In a reverberating furnace used by
Sir Henry Thompson a body, weighing 144 lb, was reduced in
fifty minutes to about 4 lb of lime dust. The noxious gases,
which were undoubtedly produced during the first five minutes
of combustion, passed through a flue into a second furnace and
were entirely consumed: In the ordinary Siemens regenerative
furnace (which was adapted by Reclam in Germany for crema-
tion, and also by Sir Henry Thompson) only the hot-blast was
used, the body supplying hydrogen and carbon; or a stream
of heated hydrocarbon mixed with heated air was sent from a
gasometer supplied with coal, charcoal, peat or wood, — the brick
or iron-cased chamber being thus heated to a high degree before
cremation begins.

Steps were at once taken to form an English society to pro-
mote the practice of cremation. A declaration of its objects was
drawn up and signed on the 13th January 1874 by the follow-
ing persons — Shirley Brooks, William Eassie, Ernest Hart, the
Rev. H. R. Haweis, G. H. Hawkins, John Cordy Jeaffreson, F„
Lehmann, C. F. Lord, W. Shaen, A. Strahan, (Sir) Henry Thomp-
son, Major Vaughan, Rev. C. Voysey and (Sir) T. Spencer Wells;
and they frequently met to consider the necessary steps in order
to attain their object. The laws and regulations having been
thoroughly discussed, the membership of the society was con-
stituted by an annual contribution for expenses, and a sub-
scription to the following declaration : —

" We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and
desire to substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the
body into its component elements by a process which cannot offend
the living, and shall render the remains absolutely innocuous.
Until some better method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually
known as cremation."

Finally, on 29th April a meeting was held, a council was
formed, and Sir H. Thompson was elected president and chair-
man. Mr Eassie (who in 1875 published a valuable work on
Cremation of the Dead) was at the same time appointed honorary
secretary. 1 In 1875 the following were added: — Mrs Rose Mary
Crawshay, Mr Higford Burr, Rev. J. Long, Mr W. Robinson
and the Rev. Brooke Lambert. Subsequently followed Lord
Bramwell, Sir Chas. Cameron, Dr Farquharson, Sir Douglas
Galton, Lord Playfair, Mr Martin Ridley Smith, Mr James A.

1 This was the first society formed in Europe for the promotion of
cremation.

Budgett, Mr Edmund Yates, Mr J. S. Fletcher, Mr J. C. Swin-
burne-Hanham, the duke of Westminster (on Lord BramwelFs
death), and Sir Arthur Arnold. These may be considered the
pioneers of the movement for reform.

On account" of difficulties and prejudices 2 the council was unable
to purchase a freehold until 1878, when an acre was obtained
at Woking, not far distant from the cemetery. At this time the
furnace employed by Professor Gorini of Lodi, Italy, appeared
to be the best for working with on a small scale; and he was
invited to visit England to superintend its erection. This was
completed in 1879, and the body of a horse was cremated
rapidly and completely without any smoke or effluvia from the
chimney. No sooner was this successful step taken than the
president received a communication from the Home Office,
which resulted in a personal interview with the home secretary;
the issue of which was that if the society desired to avoid direct
hostile action, an assurance must be given that no cremation
should be attempted without leave first obtained from the
minister. This of course was given, no further building took
place, and the society's labours were confined to employing
means to diffuse information on the subject. Sir Spencer Wells
brought it before the annual meeting of the British Medical
Association in 1880, when a petition to the home secretary for
permission to adopt cremation was largely signed by the leading
men in town and country, but without any immediate result.
The next important development was an application to the
council in 1882, by Captain Hanham in Dorsetshire, to undertake
the cremation of two deceased relatives who had left express in-
struction? to that effect. The home secretary was applied to, and
refused. The bodies were preserved, and Captain Hanhamerected
a crematorium on his estate, and the cremation took place there.
He himself, dying a year later, was cremated also; in both cases
the result was attained under the supervision of Mr J. C. Swin-
burne-Hanham, who succeeded Mr Eassie in 1888 as honorary
secretary to the society. The government took no notice. But
in 1883 a cremation was performed in Wales by a man on the body
of his child, and legal proceedings were taken against him. Mr
Justice Stephen, in February 1884, delivered his well-known
judgment at the Assizes there, declaring cremation to be a
legal procedure, provided no nuisance were caused thereby to
others. The council of the society at once declared themselves
absolved from their promise to the Home Office, and publicly
offered to perform cremation, laying down strict rules for careful
inquiry into the cause of death in every case. They stated that
they were fully aware that the chief practical objection to cre-
mation was that it removed traces of poison or violence which
might have caused death. Declining to trust the very imperfect
statement generally made respecting the cause of death in the
ordinary death certificate (unless a coroner's inquest had been
held), they adopted a system of very stringent inquiry, the result
of which in each case was to be submitted to the president, to
be investigated and approved by him before cremation could take
place, with the right to decline or require an inquest if he thought
proper; and this course has been followed ever since the first
cremation.

It was on 26th March 1885 that the first cremation at
Woking took place, the subject being a lady. 3 In 1888 it became
necessary, nearly 100 bodies having been by this date cremated,
to build a large hall for religious service, as well as waiting-rooms,
in connexion with the crematorium there.' The dukes of Bedford
and Westminster headed the appeal for funds, each with £105.
The former (the 9th duke of Bedford) especially took great
interest in the progress of the society, and offered to furnish
further donations to any extent necessary. During the next
two years he generously defrayed costs to the amount of £3500,
and built a smaller crematorium adjacent for himself and family.
The latter building was first used on the 18th of January 1891,
a few days after the duke's own death. The number of cremations

2 For a full account of these, see Modern Cremation: Its History
and Practice to the Present Date, by Sir H. Thompson, Bart-. F.R.C.§„
&c. (4th ed., Smith, Elder, Waterloo Place, 1901).

3 The Times, 27th March 1885.

CREMATION

405

slowly increased year by year, and the total at the end of
1900 was 1824. Many of these were persons of distinction — by
rank, or by attainments in art, literature and science, or in
public life.

The council next turned their attention to the need for a
national system of death certification, to be enforced by law

as an essential and much-needed reform in connexion
Death with cremation. On the 6th of January 1893 the duke
c*rf' /,ca " q j w es t m i ns t er introduced a deputation to the secretary

of state for the home department, Mr Asquith, and the
president of the Cremation Society opened the case, showing that
no less than 7 % of the burials in England took place without any
certificate, while in some districts it was far greater. In con-
sequence of this the home secretary appointed a select committee
of the House of Commons, which was presided over by Sir Walter
Foster, of the Local Government Board, to " inquire into the
sufficiency of the existing law as to the disposal of the dead . . .
and especially for detecting the causes of death due to poison,
violence, and criminal neglect." After a prolonged inquiry
and careful consideration of the evidence, a full report and
conclusions drawn therefrom were unanimously agreed to, and
published as a blue-book in the autumn of 1893. 1

The following conclusions are quoted from this volume: — Page iii.
" So far as affording a record of the true cause of death and the
detection of it in cases where death may have been due to violence,
poison, or where criminal neglect is concerned, the class of certified
deaths leaves much to be desired." Page iv. Certification is ex-
tremely important as a deterrent of crime, and numerous proofs are
given at length in support of the statement. ..." Contrast this
class with that of uncertified deaths, when the result is such as to
force upon your Committee the conviction that vastly more deaths
occur annually from foul play and criminal neglect than the law
recognizes." Page viii. Great uncertainty in resorting to the coroner's
court, and want of system in connexion with the practice of it, are
affirmed to exist. Page x. It is stated that the opportunity for
perpetrating crime is great in the considerable class of uncertified
cases ..." in short, the existing procedure plays into the hands of
the criminal classes." " Your Committee are much impressed with
the serious possibilities implied in a system which permits death
and burial to take place without the production of satisfactory
medical evidence of the cause of death." Pagexii. " Your Committee
have arrived at the conclusion that the appointment of medical
officials, who should investigate all cases of death which are not
certified by a medical practitioner in attendance, is a proposal which
deserves their support."

In considering cremation, the committee reported as follows: —
Page xxii. " Your Committee are of opinion that there is only one
question in connexion with this method of disposing of a dead body
to which it is necessary for them to refer. That question is the sup-
posed danger to the community arising from the fact that with the
destruction of the body the possibility of obtaining evidence of the
cause of death by post-mortem examination also disappears." The
mode of proceeding adopted by the Cremation Society of England
having been described, " your Committee are of opinion that with the
precautions adopted in connexion with cremation, as carried out by
the Cremation Society, there is little probability that cases of crime
would escape detection, but inasmuch as these precautions are
purely voluntary, your Committee consider that in the interests of
public safety such regulations should be enforced by law."

The Cremation Society felt that this report much strengthened
the case for legislation amending the law of death certification.
In August 1894 the president of the society laid the results of the
select committee before the British Medical Association at
Bristol, and a unanimous vote was obtained in favour of the
suggestions made by it. In November a second deputation
waited on Mr Asquith, in which the president of the society
begged him to carry out the system recommended. The home
secretary replied that the business belonged to the department
of the Local Government Board, and that it was already dealing
with the question and bringing it to a satisfactory solution. Soon
afterwards, however, the government changed, other questions
became pressing and further consideration of the subject was
postponed.

With reference to the recommendations of the select committee
before mentioned, the regulations necessary for registration of
death and the disposal of the dead may be outlined as follows: —

1 Reports on Death Certification (1893), Eyre & Spottiswoode,
London (373.472).

(1) That no body should be buried, cremated, or otherwise disposed
of without a medical certificate of death signed, after personal
knowledge and observation, or by information obtained after in-
vestigation made by a qualified medical officer appointed for the
purpose. (2) A qualified medical man should be appointed as official
certifier in every parish, or district of neighbouring parishes, his duty
being to inquire into all cases of death and report the cause in
writing, together with such other details as may be deemed neces-
sary. This would naturally fall within the duties of the medical
officer of health for the district, and registration should be made
at his office. (3) If the circumstances of death obviously demand
a coroner's inquest, the case should be transferred to his court and
the cause determined, with or without autopsy. If there appears
to be no ground for holding an inquest, and autopsy be necessary
to the furnishing of a certificate, the official certifier should make it,
and state the result in his report. (4) No person or company should
be henceforth permitted to construct or use an apparatus for cremat-
ing human bodies without license from the Local Government Board
or other authority. (5) No crematory should be so employed unless
the site, construction, and system of management have been ap-
proved after survey by an officer appointed by government for the
purpose. But the licence to construct or use a crematory should
not be withheld if guarantees are given that the conditions required
are or will be complied with. All such crematories to be subject at
all times to inspection by an officer appointed by the government.

(6) The burning of a human body, otherwise than in an officially
recognized crematory, should be illegal, and punishable by penalty.

(7) No human body should be cremated unless the official examiner
added the words " Cremation permitted." This he should be bound
to do if, after due inquiry, he can certify that the deceased has died
from natural causes, and not from ill-treatment, poison or violence.

The Cremation Act 1902 (2 Ed. VII. ch. 8), and the regula-
tions 2 made thereunder by the home secretary, have since
given legislative effect to some of the foregoing recommendations
and have laid down a code of laws applicable and binding where
cremation is resorted to. But the amendments in the law of
death certification generally, so long pressed for by the Cremation
Society of England and recommended by the select committee,
are none the less necessary.

Undoubtedly in populous communities and in crowded
districts the burial of dead bodies is liable to be a source of
danger to the living. As early as 1840 a commission had been
appointed, including some of the earliest authorities on sanitary
science, — namely, Drs Southwood Smith, Chadwick, Milroy,
Sutherland, Waller Lewis and others, — to conduct a searching
inquiry into the state of the burial-grounds of London and large
provincial towns. By the report 3 the existence of such a danger
was strikingly demonstrated, and intramural interments were in
consequence made illegal. The advocates of burial then declared
that interment in certain light soils would safely and efficiently
decompose the putrefying elements which begin to be developed
the moment death takes place, and which rapidly become
dangerous to the living, still more so in the case of deaths from
contagious disease. But these light dry soils and elevated spots
are precisely those best adapted for human habitation; to say
nothing of their value for food-production. Granted the
efficiency of such burial, it only effects in the course of a few
years what exposure to a high temperature accomplishes with
absolute safety in an hour. In a densely populated country
the struggle between the claims of the dead and the living to
occupy the choicest sites becomes a serious matter. All decaying
animal remains give off effluvia — gases — which are transferred
through the medium of the atmosphere to become converted into
vegetable growth of some kind — trees, crops, garden produce,
grass, &c. Every plant absorbs these gases by its leaves, each
one of which is provided with hundreds of stomata — open mouths
— by which they fix or utilize the carbon to form woody fibre,
and give off free oxygen to the atmosphere. Thus it is that the
air we breathe is kept pure by the constant interaction between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may be taken as certain
that the gaseous products arising from a cremated body —
amounting, although invisible, to no less than 97 % of its weight,
3 % only remaining as solids, in the form of a pure white ash —

2 Statutory Rules and Orders, 1903, No. 286, Eyre & Spottiswoode.

3 A Special Inquiry into the Practice of Interment in Towns, by
Edwin Chadwick (London, 1843), is replete with evidence, and should
be read by those who desire to pursue the inquiry further.

406

CREMATION

become in the course of a few hours integral and active elements
in some form of vegetable life. The result of this reasoning has
been that, by slow degrees, crematoria have been constructed
at many of the populous cities in Great Britain and abroad
(see Statistics below).

The subject of employing cremation for the bodies of those
who die of contagious disease is a most important one. Sir H.
Thompson advocated this course in a paper read before the
International Congress of Hygiene held in London in 1801; and
a resolution strongly approving the practice was carried unan-
imously at a large meeting of experts and medical officers of health.
Such diseases are small-pox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, consump-
tion, malignant cholera, enteric, relapsing and puerperal fevers,
the annual number of deaths from which in the United Kingdom
is upwards of 80,000. Complete disinfection takes place by
means of the high temperature to which the body is exposed.
At the present day it is compulsory to report any case in the
foregoing list, whenever it occurs, to the medical officer of health
for the district; and it is customary to disinfect the rooms
themselves, as well as the clothes and furniture used by the
patient if the case be fatal; but the body, which is the source
and origin of the evil, and is itself loaded with the germs of a
specific poison, is left to the chances which attach to its preserva-
tion in that condition, when buried in a fit or unfit soil or
situation.

The process of preparing a body for cremation requires a brief
notice. The plan generally adopted is to place it (in the usual
shroud) in a light pine shell, discarding all heavy oak or other
coffin, and to introduce it into the furnace in that manner.
Thus there is no handling or exposure of the body after it reaches
the crematorium. The type of furnace in general use is on the
reverberatory principle, the body being consumed in a separate
chamber heated to over 2000 Fahr. by a coke fire. In a few
instances a furnace burning ordinary illuminating gas instead of
coke is in use. (H. Th.)

Statistics. — The following statistics show the history of modern
cremation and its progress at home and abroad: —

Foreign Countries. — The first experiment in Italy was made by
Brunetti in 1869, his second and third in 1870. Gorini and Polli
published their first cases in 1872. Brunetti exhibited his at Vienna
in 1873. All were performed in the open air. The next in Europe
was a single case at Breslau in 1874.- Soon after, an English lady
was cremated in a closed apparatus (Siemens) at Dresden. The next
cremation in a closed receptacle took place at Milan in 1876. In
the same year a Cremation Society was formed, a handsome building
was erected, and two Gorini furnaces were at work in i88tt. In
1899 the total number of cremations was 1355. In Italy 28:C#ema-
toria exist, viz. at Alessandria, Asti, Bologna, Bra, Brescia,,rGomo,
Cremona, Florence, Genoa, Leghorn, Lodi, Mantua, Milan, M^dena,
Novara, Padua, Perugia, Pisa, Pistoia, Rome, San Remo, Siena,
Spezia, Turin, Udine, Verona and Venice. The total number of
cremations in Italy in 1906 was 440.

In Germany the first crematorium was erected at Gotha; it was
opened in 1878, and the total cremations down to September 1st, 1907,
numbered 4584. At Ohlsdorf, Hamburg, the crematorium was
opened in November 1892, and the total cremations down to
September 1st, 1907, numbered 2521. At Heidelberg the crema-
torium was opened in 1 891, and the total cremations down to
September 1st, 1907, numbered 1741. Throughout the German
empire there are, in addition to the above, crematoria at Bremen,
Eisenach, Jena, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Mainz, Offenbach, Heilbronn,
Ulm, Chemnitz and Stuttgart, besides over eighty societies for pro-
moting cremation. The total number of cremations which took
place in Germany in 1906 was 2057, making a total of 13,614 down
to September 1st, 1907.

Other societies exist in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Sweden,
Norway and Switzerland. At the crematorium at Copenhagen
77 bodies were cremated in 1906, the total being 500. The Stock-
holm crematorium was opened in October 1887, and the cremations
in 1906 numbered 56. The Gothenburg crematorium (also in
Sweden) was opened in January 1890, and the cremations there
in 1906 were 14. Switzerland has four crematoria, viz. at Basel,
Geneva, Zurich and St Gallen — 524 cremations took place in that
country in 1906.

In Paris a cremation society was founded in 1880, and in 1886—
1887 a large crematorium was constructed by the municipal council
at Pere Lachaise, containing three Gorini furnaces. It was first
used in October 1887 for two men who died of small-pox. The
demand became large; an improved furnace was soon devised, the
unclaimed bodies at the hospitals and the remains at the dissecting

rooms being cremated there, besides a large number of embryos.
In 1906 the number, including the last-named class, was 6906.
The total number of incinerations at Pere Lachaise down to
December 31st, 1906 (including both classes) was 86,962; but the
employment of cremation for the purposes named has deterred a
resort to it by many. Had a separate establishment been organized
for the public, its success would have been greater. A magnificent
edifice has been constructed by the municipality of Paris for the
conservation of the ashes of persons who have been cremated.
Crematoria have been established also at Rouen, Rheims and
Marseilles, and the construction of crematoria in other of the great
provincial centres of France was in contemplation.

In Buenos Aires, since 1844, the bodies of all persons dying of
contagious disease are cremated, and there is also a separate estab-
lishment for the use of the public.

At Tokio in Japan no fewer than 22 crematoria exist, and about
an equal number of cremations and burials in earth take place.
At Calcutta a crematorium was opened in 1906.
At Montreal, Canada, there is a crematorium which began opera-
tions in 1902, and completed 44 cremations up to the 31st of
December 1905.

United States. — There were 33 crematoria in the United States on
September 1st, 1907. At Fresh Pond, New York, erectedin 1885,
the total number of cremations to December 31st, 1906, being 8514.
At Buffalo, N.Y., the first cremation taking place in 1885, and the
total number down to December 31st, 1905, being 787. At Troy
(Earl Crematorium) ,N. Y., the first cremation takingplace in 1 890, and
the total number down to December 31st, 1905, 249. At Swinburne
Island, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1890, total to December 31st,
1905, 123. At Waterville, N.Y., cremations beginning in 1893, total
to December 31st, 1906, 62. At St Louis, Missouri, cremations begin-
ning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907, 2151. At Philadelphia,
Penn., cremations beginning in 1888, total to September 1st, 1907,
1685. At San Francisco, Cal., " Odd Fellows," opened in 1895,
total to December 31st, 1906, 6151. Also at San Francisco, Cal.,
" Cypress Lawn," opened in 1893, total to December 31st, 1905,
1492. At Los Angeles, Cal., No. I, Rosedale, opened in 1887, total
to December 31st, 1905, 866; No. 2, Evergreen, opened in 1902,
total to December 31st, 1905, 413; No. 3, Gower Street, opened in
1907 with 54 down to September 1st. At Boston, Mass., opened in
1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2493. At Cincinnati, Ohio,
opened in 1887, total to September 1st, 1907, 1245. At Chicago,
opened in 1893, total to September 1st, 1907, 2188. At Detroit,
Michigan, opened in 1887, total to December 31st, 1905, 689. At
Pittsburg, Penn., opened in 1886, total to September 1st, 1907, 377.
At Baltimore, opened in 1889, total to December 31st, 1905, 263.
At Lancaster, Penn., opened in 1884, total to December 31st, 1906,
106. At Davenport, Iowa, opened in 1891, total to September 1st,
1907,331. At Milwaukee, opened in 1896, total to October 1905,442.
At Washington, opened in 1897, total to December 31st, 1905, 275.
The Le Moyne (Washington, Pa.) crematory, the first in the United
States, was erected by Dr F. Julius le Moyne in 1876, for private
use. The first cremation was that of the baron de Palin, of New York,
December 6th, 1876. Dr F. Julius le Moyne died October 1879, and
his remains were cremated in his own crematory. Total number
of cremations (to 1907) 41. At Pasadena, Cal., opened in 1895, total
to September 1st, 1907, 491. At St. Paul, Minn., opened in 1897,
total to December 31st, 1905, 145. At Fort Wayne, Ind., opened in
1897, total to September 1st, 1907, 41. At Cambridge, Mass.,
opened in 1900, total to September 1st, 1907, 1090. At Cleveland,
Ohio, opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 283. At Denver,
Col., opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 109. At Indiana-
polis, opened in 1904, total to December 31st, 1905, 32. At Oakland,
Cal., opened in 1902, total to September 1st, 1907, 2196. At Port-
land, Ore., opened in 1901, total to December 31st, 1905, 327. At
Seattle, Washington, opened in 1905, with 21 to the end of that
year.

United Kingdom. — There were 13 crematoria in operation in the
United Kingdom on September 1st, 1907. The oldest is that at
Woking, Surrey, which was first used for the cremation of human
remains in 1885. In that year three cremations took place there,
the number gradually increasing each year until in 1901 301 bodies
were cremated. Up to September 1st, 1907, the total number-of
cremations at Woking was 2939. Then followed the crematorium
at Manchester, opened in 1892 with 90 in 1906 and a total of 1085;
at Glasgow, opened in 1895 with 45 in 1906 and a total of 252; at
Liverpool, opened in 1896, with 46 in 1906 and a total of 374; at
Hull, opened in 1901 (the first municipal crematorium), with 17 in
1906 and a total of 116; at Darlington, also opened in 1901, with 13
in 1906 and a total of 33. The Leicester Corporation crematorium
was opened in 1902, with 12 in 1906 and a total of 50. Next in order
came the Golder's Green crematorium, Hampstead, London, which
was opened in December 1902. in 1906 298 cremations took place
there, making a total of 1091. After this followed the Birmingham
crematorium, opened in 1903, with 21 in 1906 and a total of 84; the
City of London crematorium at Little Ilford, opened in 1905, with
23 for 1906 and a total of 46; the Leeds crematorium, opened in
1905, with 15 in 1906 and a total of 42 ; the Bradford Corporation
crematorium, opened in 1905, with 13 in 1906, and a total of 20;
and the Sheffield Corporation crematorium, opened in 1905, with

CREMER— CREMONA

407

6 in 1906 and a total of 26. Thus there were 739 cremations in the
United Kingdom in 1906, making a total at the above crematoria
down to September 1st, 1907, of 6158. The Golder's Green crema-
torium, situated on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath,
stands in its own grounds of 12 acres, and is but 35 minutes' drive
from Oxford Circus. London thus has two crematoria within
driving distance of its centre, and the Woking crematorium within
easy reach of the south-west suburbs. (J. C. S.-H.)

CREMER, JAKOBUS JAN (1837-1880), Dutch novelist, born
at Arnhem in September 1837, started life as a painter, but soon
exchanged the brush for the pen. The great success of his first
novelettes (Betuwsche Novellen and Overbetuwsche Novellen),
published about 1855 — reprinted many times since, and trans-
lated into German and French — showed Cremer the wisdom of
his new departure. These short stories of Dutch provincial life
are written in the quaint dialect of the Betuwe, the large flat
Gelderland island, formed by the Rhine, the name recalling the
presumed earliest inhabitants, the Batavi. Cremer is strongest
in his delineation of character. His picturesque humour, coming
out, perhaps, most forcibly in his numerous readings of the
Betuwe novelettes, soon procured him the name of the " Dutch
Fritz Reuter." In his later novels Cremer abandons both the
language and the slight love-stories of the Betuwe, depicting
the Dutch life of other centres in the national tongue. The
principal are: Anna Rooze (1867), Dpkter Helmond enzijn Vrouw
(1870), Hanna de Freule (1873), Daniel Sils, &c. Cremer was
less successful as a playwright, and his two comedies, Peasant
and Nobleman and Emma Bertholt, did not enhance his fame;
nor did a volume of poems, published in 1873. He died at the
Hague in June 1880. His collected novels have appeared at
Leiden. An English novel, founded by Albert Vandam upon
Anna Rooze, considered by many his best work, was published
in London (1877, 3 vols.) under the title of An Everyday Heroine.

CREMERA (mod. Fosso della Valchetta), a small stream in
Etruria which falls into the Tiber about 6 m. N. of Rome. The
identification with the Fosso della Valchetta is fixed as correct
by the account in Livy ii. 49, which shows that the Saxa Rubra
were not far off, and this we know to be the Roman name of the
post station of Prima Porta, about 7 m. from Rome on the Via
Flaminia. It is famous for the defeat of the three hundred Fabii,
who had established a fortified post on its banks.

CREMIEUX, ISAAC MOISE [known as Adolphe] (1796-1880),
French statesman, was born at Nimes, of, a rich Jewish family.
He began life as an advocate in his native town. After the revolu-
tion of 1830 he came to Paris, formed connexions with numerous
political personages, even with King Louis Philippe, and became
a brilliant defender of Liberal ideas in the law courts and in the
press, — witness his £loge funebre of the bishop Gregoire (1830),
his Mimoire for the political rehabilitation of Marshal Ney ( 1 83 3 ) ,
and his plea for the accused of April (1835). Elected deputy in
1842, he was one of the leaders in the campaign against the
Guizot ministry, and his eloquence contributed greatly to the
success of his party. On the 24th of February 1 848 he was chosen
by the Republicans as a member of the provisional government,
and as minister of justice he secured the decrees abolishing
the death penalty for political offences, and making the office
of judge immovable. When the conflict between the Republicans
and Socialists broke out he resigned office, but continued to sit
in the constituent assembly. At first he supported Louis
Napoleon, but when he discovered the prince's imperial ambitions
he broke with him. Arrested and imprisoned on the 2nd of
December 1851, he remained in private life until November 1869,
when he was elected as a Republican deputy by Paris. On the 4th
of September 1870 he was again chosen member of the govern-
ment of national defence, and resumed the ministry of justice.
He then formed part of the Delegation of Tours, but took no
part in the completion of the organization of defence. He
resigned with his colleagues on the 14th of February 1871.
Eight months later he was elected deputy, then life senator in
1875. He died on the 10th of February 1880. Cremieux did
much to better the condition of the Jews. He was president of
the Universal Israelite Alliance, and while in the government
of the national defence he secured the franchise for the Jews in

Algeria. This famous Dicret Crimieux was tne origin of the anti-
Semitic movement in Algiers. Cremieux published a Recueil
of his political cases (1869), and the Actes de la delegation de Tours
et de Bordeaux (2 vols., 1871).

CREMONA, LUIGI (1830-1903), Italian mathematician, was
born at Pa via on the 7th of December 1830. In 1848, when
Milan and Venice rose against Austria, Cremona, then only a
lad of seventeen, joined the ranks of the Italian volunteers, and
remained with them, fighting on behalf of his country's freedom,
till, in 1849, the capitulation of Venice put an end to the hopeless
campaign. He then returned to Pavia, where he pursued his
studies at the university under Francesco Brioschi, and deter-
mined to seek a career as teacher of mathematics. His first
appointment was as elementary mathematical master at the
gymnasium and lyceum of Cremona, and he afterwards obtained
a similar post at Milan. In i860 he was appointed to the pro-
fessorship of higher geometry at the university of Bologna, and in
1866 to that of higher geometry and graphical statics at the
higher technical college of Milan. In this same year he competed
for the Steiner prize of the Berlin Academy, with a treatise
entitled " Memoria sulle superficie de terzo ordine," and shared
the award with J. C. F. Sturm. Two years later the same prize
was conferred on him without competition. In 1873 he was
called to Rome to organize the college of engineering, and was
also appointed professor of higher mathematics at the university.
Cremona's reputation had now become European, and in 1879 he
was elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society. In
the same year he was made a senator of the kingdom of Italy.
He died on the 10th of June 1903.

As early as 1856 Cremona had begun to contribute to the
Annali di scienze matematiche e fisiche, and to the Annali di
matematica, of which he became afterwards joint editor. Papers
by him have appeared in the mathematical journals of Italy,
France, Germany and England, and he has published several
important works, many of which have been translated into other
languages. His manual on Graphical Statics and his Elements
of Projective Geometry (translated by C. Leudesdorf), have been
published in English by the Clarendon Press. His life was
devoted to the study of higher geometry and reforming the more
advanced mathematical teaching of Italy. His reputation mainly
rests on his Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica delle curve piane,
which proclaims him as a follower of the Steinerian or synthetical
school of geometricians. He notably enriched our knowledge of
curves and surfaces.

CREMONA, a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy,
the capital of the province of Cremona, situated on the N. bank
of the Po, 155 ft. above sea-level, 60 m. by rail S.E. of Milan.
Pop. (1901) town, 31,655; commune, 39,344. It is oval in shape,
and retains its medieval fortifications. The line of the streets
is as a rule irregular, but the town as a whole is not very
picturesque.

The finest building is the cathedral, in the Lombard Roman-
esque style, begun in 1107 and consecrated in 1190.' The wheel
window of the main fagade dates from 1274. The transepts,
added in the 13th and 14th centuries (before 1370), have pictur-
esque brick facades, with fine terra-cotta ornamentation. The
great Torrazzo, a tower 397 ft. high, which stands by the cathedral,
and is connected with it by a series of galleries, dates from 1267-
1291. It is square below, with an octagonal summit of a slightly
later period. The main facade of the cathedral was largely
altered in 1491, to which date the statues upon it belong; the
portico in front was added in 1497. The building would be
much improved by isolation, which it is hoped may be effected.
The interior is fine, and is covered with frescoes by Cremonese
masters of the 16th century (Boccaccio Boccaccino, Romanino,
Pordenone, the Campi, &c), which are not of first-rate import-
ance. The choir has fine stalls of 1489-1490, upon one of which
there is a view of the facade of the cathedral before its alteration
in 1 49 1. The treasury contains a richly worked silver crucifix
9 ft. high, of 1478, the base of which was added in 1774-1775.
It contains 408 statues and busts altogether, the central three
of which belong to an earlier cross of 1231. Adjacent to the

4-o8

CREMORNE GARDENS— CREODONTA

cathedral is the octagonal baptistery of 1167, 92 ft. in height
and 75 ft. in external diameter, also in the Lombard Romanesque
style. The so-called Campo .Santo, close to the baptistery,
contains a mosaic pavement with emblematic figures belonging
probably to the 8th and 9th centuries, and running under the
cathedral. Of the other churches, S. Michele has a simple and
good Lombard Romanesque 13th-century facade, and a plain
interior of the 10th century; and S. Agata a good campanile in
the former style. Many of them contain paintings by the later
Cremonese masters, especially Galeazzo Campi (d. 1536) and his
sons Giulio and Antonio. The latter are especially well repre-
sented in S. Sigismondo, 1 1 m. outside the town to the E. On the
side of the Piazza del Comune opposite to the cathedral are two
13th-century Gothic palaces in brick, the Palazzo Comunale and
the former Palazzo dei Giureconsulti, now the seat of the com-
missioners for the water regulation of the district. Another
palace of the same period is now occupied by the Archivio
■jsfotarile. The modern Palazzo Ponzoni contains a museum
and a technical institute. In front of it is a statue of the com-
poser Amilcare Ponchielli, who was a native of Cremona. The
Palazzo Fodri, now the Monte di Pieta, has a beautiful 15th-
century frieze of terra-cotta bas-reliefs, as have some other
palaces in private hands.

Cremona was founded by the Romans in 218 B.C. (the same
year as Placentia) as an outpost against the Gallic tribes. It
was strengthened in 190 B.C. by the sending of 6000 new settlers
and soon became one of the most flourishing towns of upper
Italy. It probably acquired municipal rights in 90 B.C., but
Augustus, owing to the fact that it did not support him, assigned
a part of its territory to his veterans in 41 B.C., and henceforth it
is once more called colonia. It remained prosperous (we may note
that Virgil came here to school from Mantua) until it was taken
and destroyed by the troops of Vespasian after the second battle
of Betriacum (Bedriacum) in a.d. 69; the temple of Mefitis
alone being left standing (see Tacitus, Hist. iii. 15 seq.). One of
the bronze plates which decorated the exterior of the war-chest
of the legio III. Macedonica, one of the legions which had been
defeated at Betriacum, has been found near Cremona itself
(F. Barnabei in Notiz. scavi, 1887, p. 210). Vespasian ordered
its immediate reconstruction, but it never recovered its former
prosperity, though its position on the N. bank of the Po, at the
meeting-point of roads from Placentia, Mantua (the Via Postumia
in both cases), Brixellum (where the roads from Cremona and
Mantua to Parma met and crossed the river), Laus Pompeia
and Brixia, still gave it considerable importance. It was
destroyed once more by the Lombards under Agilulf in a.d. 60s,
and rebuilt in 615, and was ruled by dukes; but in the 9th
century the bishops of Cremona began to acquire considerable
temporal power. Landulf, a German to whom the see was
granted by Henry II., was driven out in 1022, and his palace
destroyed, but other Germans were invested with the see after-
wards. The commune of Cremona is first mentioned in a docu-
ment of 1098, recording its investiture by the countess Matilda
with the territory known as Isola Fulcheria. It had to sustain
many wars with its neighbours in order to maintain itself in its
new possessions. In the war of the Lombard League against
Barbarossa, Cremona, after having shared in the destruction of
Crema in 1160 and Milan in 1162, finally joined the league, but
took no part in the battle of Legnano, and thus procured itself
the odium of both sides. In the Guelph and Ghibelline struggles
Cremona took the latter side, and defeated Parma decisively in
1250. It was during this period that Cremona erected its finest
buildings. There was, however, a Guelph reaction in 1264; the
city was taken and sacked by Henry VII. in 1311, and was a prey
to struggles between the two parties, until Galeazzo Visconti
took possession of it in 1322. In 1406 it fell under the sway
of Cabrino Fondulo, who received with great festivities both the
emperor Sigismund and Pope John XXIII. , the latter on his way
to the council at Constance; he, however, handed it over to
Filippo Maria Visconti in 1419. In 1499 it was occupied by
Venetians, but in 151 2 it came under Massimiliano Sforza.
In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish domina-

tion, and was compelled to furnish large money contributions.
The population fell to 10,000 in 1668. The surprise of the
French garrison on the 2nd of February 1702, by the Imperialists
under Prince Eugene, was a celebrated incident of the War of the
Spanish Succession. The Imperialists were driven from Cremona
after a sharp struggle, but captured Marshal Villeroi, the French
commander. Hence the celebrated verse:

" Francais, rendons gr&ce a Bellone;

Notre bonheur est sans 6gal ;

Nous avons conserve Cremonee,

Et perdu notre general."

In the 1 8th century the prosperity of Cremona revived. In the
Italian republic it was the capital of the department of the upper
Po. Like the rest of Lombardy it fell under Austria in 1814,
and became Italian in 1859.
See Guida di Cremona (Cremona, 1904). (T. As.)

CREMORNE GARDENS, formerly a popular resort by the
side of the Thames in Chelsea, London, England. Originally the
property of the earl of Huntingdon (c. 1750), father of Steele's
" Aspasia," who built a mansion here, the property passed
through various hands into those of Thomas Dawson, Baron
Dartrey and Viscount Cremorne (1725-1813), who greatly
beautified it. It was subsequently sold and converted into a
proprietary place of entertainment, being popular as such from
1845 to 1877. It never, however, acquired the fashionable fame
of Vauxhall, and finally became so great an annoyance to
residents in the neighbourhood that a renewal of its licence was
refused; and the site of the gardens was soon built over. The
name survives in Cremorne Road.

CRENELLE (an O. Fr. word for " notch," mod. crSneau; the
origin is obscure; cf. " cranny "), a term generally considered
to mean an embrasure of a battlement, but really applying to
the whole system of defence by battlements. In medieval times
no one could " crenellate " a building without special licence
from his supreme lord.

CREODONTA, a group of primitive early Tertiary Carnivora,
characterized by their small brains, the non-union in most cases
of the scaphoid and lunar bones of the carpus, and the general
absence of a distinct pair of " sectorial " teeth (see Carnivora).
In many respects the Lower Eocene creodonts come very close
to the primitive ungulates, or Condylarthra (see Phenacodus),
from which, however, they are distinguished by the approxima-
tion in the form of the skull to the carnivorous type, the more
trenchant teeth (at least in most cases) and the more claw-like
character of the terminal joints of the toes. The general char-
acter of the dentition in the more typical forms,such as Hyaenodon
(see fig.), recalls that of the carnivorous marsupials, this being
especially the case with the Patagonian species, which have been

Dentition of Hyaenodon leptorhynchus, from the Lower Oligocene
of France. The last upper molar is concealed by the penultimate
tooth.

separated as a distinct group under the name of Sparassodonta
(q.v.). The skull, however, is not of the marsupial type, and in
the European forms at any rate there is a complete replacement
of the milk-molars by pre-molars, while the minute structure of

CREOLE— CREOPHYLUS

409

the enamel of the teeth is of the carnivorous as distinct from
the marsupial type. The head is large in proportion to the body,
the lumbar region is unusually rigid, owing to the complexity of
the articulations, and the tail and hind-limbs are relatively long
and powerful. In life the tail probably passed almost impercept-
ibly into the body, as in the Tasmanian thylacine.

That the Creodonta are the ancestors of the modern Carnivora
is now generally admitted. They are apparently the most
generalized and primitive of all (placental?) mammals, and
probably the direct descendants of the mammal-like anomodont
or theromorphous reptiles of the Triassic epoch; the evolution
from that group having perhaps taken place in Africa or in the
lost area connecting that continent with India. The relationship
of the creodonts to the carnivorous marsupials is not yet deter-
mined, but it seems scarcely probable that the remarkable
resemblance existing between the teeth of the two groups can be
solely due to parallelism; and it has been suggested by Dr L.
Wortman that both creodonts and marsupials are descended
from a common non-placental stock. In other words, the latter
are a side-branch from the anomodont-creodont line of descent.
Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out that certain of the Egyptian
creodonts appear to have been aquatic or subaquatic in their
habits; and it is possible that from such types are derived the
true seals, or Phocidae.

With the exception of Australasia, and perhaps South Africa,
creodonts (on the supposition that the Patagonian forms are
rightly included) appear to have had a nearly world-wide dis-
tribution. In Europe and North America they date from the
Lowest Eocene and lived till the early Oligocene, while in India
they apparently survived till a much later epoch. Some of the
Oligocene forms, alike as regards dentition, the union of the
scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and the complexity of the
brain, approximated to modern Carnivora.

As regards classification Mr W. D. Matthew includes in the
typical family Hyaenodontidae not only the widely spread genera
Hyaenodon and Pterodon, but likewise Sinopa (Stypolophus) ,
Cynohyaenodon and Proviverra; but Viverravus (Didymictis)
and Vulpavus (Miacis) are assigned to a separate family ( Viver-
ravidae). It is these latter forms which come nearest to modern
Carnivora, most of them being of Oligocene age. The American
and European Oxyaena apparently represents a family by itself,
as does the American Oxyclaena; and Palaeonictis and Patriofelis
are assigned to yet another family; while the North American
Lower Eocene and Eocene Arctocyon typifies a family character-
ized by the somewhat bear-like type of dentition. Mesonyx
is also a very distinct type, from the North American Eocene
and Oligocene. Some of the species of Patriofelis and Hyaenodon
attained the size of a tiger, although with long civet-like skulls.
In the earlier forms the claws often retained somewhat of a hoof- .
like character.

The South American Borhyaenidae include Borhyaena, Prothy-
lacinus, Amphiproviverra, and allied forms from the Santa Cruz
beds of Patagonia, and have been referred to a distinct group,
the Sparassodonta, mainly on account of the alleged replacement
of some only of the milk-molars by premolars. By their first
describer, Dr F. Ameghino, they were regarded as nearly related
to the marsupials, to which group they were definitely referred
in 1905 by Mr W. J. Sinclair, by whom they are considered
near akin to Thylacinus, but this view seems to be disproved by
the investigations of Mr C. S. Tomes into the structure of the
dental enamel.

It should be added that Dr J. L. Wortman transfers Viverravus
and its allies, together with Palaeonictis, to the true Carnivora,
the latter genus being regarded as the ancestral type of the sabre-
toothed cats (see Machaerodus).

Authorities. — J. L. Wortman, " Eocene Mammalia in the Pea-
body Museum, pt. i. Carnivora," Amer. J. Sci. vols, xi.-xiv. (1901-
1902); W. D. Matthew, "Additional Observations on the Creo-
donta," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. xiv. p. i. (1901); C. W. Andrews,
Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum, British
Museum (1906); W. J. Sinclair, "The Marsupial Fauna of the
Santa Cruz Beds," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xlix. p. 73 (1905).

(R. L.*)

CREOLE (the Fr. form of criollo, a West Indian, probably a
negro corruption of the Span, criadillo, the dim. of criado, one
bred or reared, from criar, to breed, a derivative of the Lat.
creare, to create), a word used originally (16th century) to denote
persons born in the West Indies of Spanish parents, as dis-
tinguished from immigrants direct from Spain, aboriginals,
negroes or mulattos. It is now used of the descendants of non-
aboriginal races born and settled in the West Indies, in various
parts of the American mainland and in Mauritius, Reunion and
some other places colonized by Spain, Portugal, France, or (in
the case of the West Indies) by England. In a similar sense the
name is used of animals and plants. The use of the word by
some writers as necessarily implying a person of mixed blood is
totally erroneous; in itself " Creole " has no distinction of colour;
a Creole may be a person of European, negro, or mixed extraction
— or even a horse.

Local variations occur in the use of the word as applied to
people. In the West Indies it designates the descendants of any
European race; in the United States the French-speaking native
portion of the white race in Louisiana, whether of French or
Spanish origin. The French Canadians are never termed Creoles,
nor is the word now used of the South Americans of Spanish or
Portuguese descent, but in Mexico whites of pure Spanish ex-
traction are still called Creoles. In all the countries named,
when a non-white Creole is indicated the word negro is added.
In Mauritius, Reunion, &c, on the other hand, Creole is commonly
used to designate the black population, but is also occasionally
used of the inhabitants of European descent. The difference in
type between the white Creoles and the European races from
whom they have sprung, a difference often considerable, is due
principally to changed environment — especially to the tropical
or semi-tropical climate of the lands they inhabit. The many
patois founded on French and Spanish, and used chiefly by Creole
negroes, are spoken of as Creole languages, a term extended by
some writers to include similar dialects spoken in countries
where the word Creole is rarely used.

See G. W. Cable, The Creoles of Louisiana (1884) ; A. Coelho, " Os
Dialetos romanicos on neo latinos na Africa, Asia e America," Bol.
Soc. Geo. Lisboa ( 1 884-1 886), with bibliography. For the Creole
French of Haiti see an article by. Sir H. H. Johnston in The Times,
April 10th, 1909.

CREON, in Greek legend, son of Lycaethus, king of Corinth
and father of Glauce or Creusa, the second wife of Jason.

CREON, in Greek legend, son of Menoeceus, king of Thebes
after the death of Laius, the husband of his sister Jocasta.
Thebes was then suffering from the visitation of the Sphinx, and
Creon offered his crown and the hand of the widowed queen to
whoever should solve the fatal riddle. Oedipus, the son of Laius,
ignorant of his parentage, successfully accomplished the task
and married Jocasta, his mother. By her he had two sons,
Eteocles and Polyneices, who agreed after their father's death
to reign in alternative years. Eteocles first ascended the throne,
being the elder, but at the end of the year refused to resign,
whereupon his brother attacked him at the head of an army
of Argives. The war was to be decided by a single combat
between the brothers, but both fell. Creon, who had resumed
the government during the minority of Leodamas, the son of
Eteocles, commanded that the Argives, and above all Polyneices,
the cause of all the bloodshed, should not receive the rites of
sepulture, and that any one who infringed this decree should be
buried alive. Antigone, the sister of Polyneices, refused to obey,
and sprinkled dust upon her brother's corpse. The threatened
penalty was inflicted; but Creon's crime did not escape un-
punished. His son, Haemon, the lover of Antigone, killed
himself on her grave; and he himself was slain by Theseus.
According to another account he was put to death by Lycus,
the son or descendant of a former ruler of Thebes (Euripides,
Here. Fur. 31; Apollodorus iii. 5, 7; Pausanias ix. 5).

CREOPHYLUS of Samos, one of the earliest Greek epic
poets. According to an epigram of Callimachus (quoted in
Strabo xiv. p. 638) he was the author of a poem called OtxaXias
oXoxris, which told the story of the conquest of Oechalia by
Heracles. Creophylus was said to have been a friend or relative

410

CREOSOTE— CREQUY FAMILY

of Homer, who, according to another tradition, was himself the
author of the "AAawus, and presented it to Creophylus in return
for the latter's hospitality.

See F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1865-1882).

CREOSOTE, Creasote or Kreasote (from Gr. Kpkas, flesh,
and cru^av, to preserve), a product of the distillation of coal,
bone oil, shale oil, and wood-tar (more especially that made
from beech-wood). The creosote is extracted from the distillate
by means of alkali, separated from the filtered alkaline solution
by sulphuric acid, and then distilled with dilute alkali; the
distillate is again treated with alkali and acid, till its purification
is effected; it is then redistilled at 200 C, and dried by means
of calcium chloride. It is a highly refractive, colourless, oily
liquid, and was first obtained in 1832 by K. Reichenbach from
beech-wood tar. It consists mainly of a mixture of phenol,
cresol, guaiacol, creosol, xylenol, dimethyl guaiacol, ethyl
guaiacol, and various methyl ethers of pyrogallol. Creosote has
a strong odour and hot taste, and burns with a smoky flame.
It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, resins, and many acids and
colouring matters; and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and carbon
disulphide, and in 80 parts by volume of water. It is dis-
tinguished from carbolic acid by the following properties: —
it rotates the plane of polarized light to the right, forms with
collodion a transparent fluid, and is nearly insoluble in glycerin;
whereas carbolic acid has no effect on polarized light, gives with
about two-thirds of its volume of collodion a gelatinous mass,
and is soluble in all proportions in glycerin; further, alcohol and
ferric chloride produce with creosote a green solution, turned
brown by water, with carbolic acid a brown, and on the addition
of water a blue solution. Creosote, like carbolic acid, is a
powerful antiseptic, and readily coagulates albuminous matter;
wood-smoke and pyroligneous acid or wood-vinegar owe to its
presence their efficacy in preserving animal and vegetable sub-
stances from putrefaction.

Creosote oil is the name generally applied to the fraction of the
coal tar distillate which boils between 200° and 300 C. (see
Coal Tar). It is a greenish-yellow fluorescent liquid, usually
containing phenol, cresol, naphthalene, anthracene, pyridine,
quinoline, acridine and other substances. Its chief use is for the
preservation of timber.

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Creosote derived from wood-
tar is given medicinally in doses of from one to five minims, either
suspended in mucilage, or in capsules. It should always be
administered after a meal, when the gastric contents dilute it
and prevent irritation. Creosote and carbolic acid (q.v.) have a
very similar pharmacology; but there is one conspicuous excep-
tion. Beech-wood creosote alone should be used in medicine,
as its composition renders it much more valuable than other
creosotes. Its constituents circulate unchanged in the blood
and are excreted by the lungs. Although carbolic acid has no
value in phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis) or in any other
bacterial condition of the lungs, creosote, having volatile con-
stituents which are excreted in the expired air and which are
powerfully antiseptic, may well be of much value in these^con-
ditions. In phthisis creosote is now superseded by both its
carbonate (creosotal) — given in the same doses — which causes
less gastric disturbance, and by guaiacol itself, which may be
given in doses up to thirty minims in capsules. The phosphate
(phosote or phosphote), phosphite (phosphotal), and valerianate
(eosote) also find application. Similarly the carbonate of guaiacol
may be given in doses even as large as a drachm. Creosote may
also be used as an inhalation with a steam atomizer. It is applic-
able not only in phthisis but in bronchiectasis, bronchitis,
broncho-pneumonia, lobar pneumonia and all other bacterial
lung diseases. Like carbolic acid, creosote may be used in
toothache, and the local antiseptic and anaesthetic action which
it shares with that substance is often of value in relieving gastric
pain due to simple ulcer or cancer, and in those forms of vomiting
which are due to gastric irritation.

For the determination and separation of the various constituents
of creosote see F. Tiemann, Ber. (1881), 14, p. 2005; A. Behal and C.
Choay, Comptes rendus (1893), 116, p. 197; and L. F. Kebler, Amer.
Jour. Phartn. (1899), p. 409.

CREPUSCULAR (from Lat. crepusculum, twilight), of or
belonging to the twilight, hence indistinct or glimmering; in
zoology the word is used of animals that appear before sunrise
or nightfall.

CREQUY, a French family which originated in Picardy, and
took its name from a small lordship in the present Pas-de-Calais.
Its genealogy goes back to the 10th century, and from it origin-
ated the noble houses of Blecourt, Canaples, Heilly and Royon.
Henri de Crequy was killed at the siege of Damietta in 1240;
Jacques de Crequy, marshal of Guienne, was killed at Agincourt
with his brothers Jean and Raoul; Jean de Crequy, lord of
Canaples, was in the Burgundian service, and took part in the
defence of Paris against Joan of Arc in 1429, received the order
of the Golden Fleece in 143 1, and was ambassador to Aragon
and France; Antoine de Crequy was one of the boldest captains
of Francis I., and died in consequence of an accident at the siege
of Hesdin in 1523. Jean VIII., sire de Crequy, prince de Poix,
seigneur de Canaples (d. 1 5 5 5) , left three sons, the eldest of whom >
Antoine de Crequy (1535-1574), inherited the family estates on
the death of his brothers at St Quentin in 1557. He was raised
to the cardinalate, and his nephew and heir, Antoine de Blanche-
fort, assumed the name and arms of Crequy.

Charles I. de Blanchefort, marquis de Crequy, prince de Poix,
due de Lesdiguieres (1 578-1638), marshal of France, son of the
last-named, saw his first fighting before Laon in 1594, and was
wounded at the capture of Saint Jean d'Angely in 1621. In
the next year he became a marshal of France. He served through
the Piedmontese campaign in aid of Savoy in 1624 as second in
command to the constable, Francois de Bonne, due de Lesdi-
guieres, whose daughter Madeleine he had married in 1595. He
inherited in 1626 the estates and title of his father-in-law, who
had induced him, after the death of his first wife, to marry
her half-sister Francoise. He was also lieutenant-general of
Dauphine. In 1633 he was ambassador to Rome, and in 1636
to Venice. He fought in the Italian campaigns of 1630, 1635,
1636 and 1637, when he helped to defeat the Spaniards at
Monte Baldo. He was killed on the 17th of March 1638 in an
attempt to raise the siege of Crema, a fortress in the Milanese.
He had a quarrel extending over years with Philip, the bastard of
Savoy, which ended in a duel fatal to Philip in 1599; and in 1620
he defended Saint-Aignan, who was his prisoner of war, against
a prosecution threatened by Louis XIII. Some of his letters
are preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and his
life was written by N. Chorier (Grenoble, 1683).

His eldest son, Francois, comte de Sault, due de Lesdiguieres
(1600-1677), governor and lieutenant-general of Dauphine,
took the name and arms of Bonne. The younger, Charles II.
de Crequy, seigneur de Canaples, was killed at the siege of
Chambery in 1630, leaving three sons — Charles III., sieur de
Blanchefort, prince de Poix, due de Crequy (i623?-i687);
Alphonse de Crequy, comte de Canaples (d. 1711), who became
on the extinction of the elder branch of the family in 1702
due de Lesdiguieres, and eventually succeeded also to his younger
brother's honours; and Francois, chevalier de Crequy and
marquis de Marines, marshal of France (1625-1687).

The last-named was born in 1625, and as a boy took part in
the Thirty Years' War, distinguishing himself so greatly that
at the age of twenty-six he was made a mare'chal de camp, and
a lieutenant-general before he was thirty. He was regarded
as the most brilliant of the younger officers, and won the favour
of Louis XIV. by his fidelity to the court during the second
Fronde. In 1667 he served on the Rhine, and in 1668 he com-
manded the covering army during Louis XIV. 's siege of Lille,
after the surrender of which the king rewarded him with the
marshalate. In 1670 he overran the duchy of Lorraine. Shortly
after this Turenne, his old commander, was made marshal-general,
and all the marshals were placed under his orders. Many re-
sented this, and Crequy, in particular, whose career of uninter-
rupted success had made him over-confident, went into exile
rather than serve under Turenne. After the death of Turenne
and the retirement of Conde, he became the most important
general officer in the army, but his over-confidence was punished

CREQUY, MARQUISE DE— CRESCIMBENI

411

by the severe defeat of Conzer Briick (1675) and the surrender of
Trier and his own captivity which followed. But in the later
campaigns of this war (see Dutch Wars) he showed himself
again a cool, daring and successful commander, and, carrying on
the tradition of Turenne and Conde, he was in his turn the
pattern of the younger generals of the stamp of Luxembourg
and Villars. He died in Paris on the 3rd of February 1687.

Alphonse de Crequy had not the talent of his brothers, and
lost his various appointments in France. He went to London in
1672, where he became closely allied with Saint Evremond,
and was one of the intimates of King Charles II.

Charles III. de Crequy served in the campaigns of 1642 and
1645 in the Thirty Years' War, and in Catalonia in 1640. In 1646,
after the siege of Orbitello, he was made lieutenant-general by
Louis. By faithful service during the king's minority he had won
the gratitude of Anne of Austria and of Mazarin, and in 1652 he
became due de Crequy and a peer of France. The latter half of
his life was spent at court, where he held the office of first gentle-
man of the royal chamber, which had been bought for him by
his grandfather. In 1659 he was sent to Spain with gifts for the
infanta Maria Theresa, and on a similar errand to Bavaria in
1680 before the marriage of the dauphin. He was ambassador
to Rome from 1662 to 1665, and to England in 1677 ; and became
governor of Paris in 1675. He died in Paris on the 13th of
February 1687. His only daughter, Madeleine, married Charles
de la Tremoille (1655-1709).

The marshal Francois de Crequy had two sons, whose brilliant
military abilities bade fair to rival his own. The elder, Francois
Joseph, marquis de Crequy (1662-1702), already held the grade
of lieutenant-general when he was killed at Luzzara on the
13th of August 1702; and Nicolas Charles, sire de Crequy, was
killed before Tournai in 1696 at the age of twenty-seven.

A younger branch of the Crequy family, that of Hemont, was
represented by Louis Marie, marquis de Crequy (1705-1741),
author of the Principes philosophiques des saints solitaires
d'Egypte (1779), and husband of the marquise separately noticed
below, and became extinct with the death in 1801 of his son,
Charles Marie, who had some military reputation.

For a detailed genealogy of the family and its alliances see Moreri,
Dictionnaire historique; Annuaire de la noblesse francaise (1856 and
1867). There is much information about the Crequys in the Memoires
of Saint-Simon. ,

CREQUY, RENEE CAROLINE DE FROULLAY, Marquise de
(1714-1803), was born on the 19th of October 17 14, at the chateau
of Monfleaux (Mayenne), the daughter of Lieutenant-General
Charles Francois de Froullay. She was educated by her maternal
grandmother, and married in 1737 Louis Marie, marquis de
Crequy (see above), who died four years after the marriage.
Madame de Crequy devoted herself to the care of her only son,
who rewarded her with an ingratitude which was the chief
sorrow of her life. In 1755 she began to receive in Paris, among
her intimates being D'Alembert and J. J. Rousseau. She had
none of the frivolity generally associated with the women of her
time and class, and presently became extremely religious with
inclinations to Jansenism. D'Alembert's visits ceased when she
adopted religion, and she was nearly seventy when she formed
the great friendship of her life with Senac de Meilhan, whom she
met in 1781, and with whom she carried on a correspondence
(edited by Edouard Fournier, with a preface by Sainte-Beuve
in 1856). She commented on and criticized Meilhan's works and
helped his reputation. She was arrested in 1793 and imprisoned
in the convent of Les Oiseaux until the fall of Robespierre
(July 1794). The well-known Souvenirs de la marquise de
Crequy (1710-1803), printed in 7 volumes, 1834-1835, and
purporting to be addressed to her grandson, Tancrede de Crequy,
was the production of a Breton adventurer, Cousin de Cour-
champs. The first two volumes appeared in English in 1834 and
were severely criticized in the Quarterly Review.

See the notice prefixed by Sainte-Beuve to the Lettres; P. L.
Jacob, Enigmes et decouvertes bibliographiques (Paris, 1866) ; Querard,
Supercheries litteraires, s.v. " Crequy " ; L 'Ombre de la marquise de
Crequy aux lecteurs des souvenirs (1836) exposes the forgery of the
Memoires.

CRESCAS, HASDAI BEN ABRAHAM (1340-1410), Spanish
philosopher. His work, The Light of the Lord ('Or 'Adonai) i
deeply affected Spinoza, and thus his philosophy became of
wide importance. Maimonides (q.v.) had brought Jewish thought
entirely under the domination of Aristotle. The work of Crescas ,
though it had no immediate success, ended in effecting its libera-
tion. He refused to base Judaism on speculative philosophy
alone; there was a deep emotional side to his thought. Thus he
based Judaism on love, not on knowledge; love was the bond
between God and man, and man's fundamental duty was love as
expressed in obedience to God's will. Spinoza derived from
Crescas his distinction between attributes and properties; he
shared Crescas's views on creation and free will, and in the whole
trend of his thought the influence of Crescas is strongly marked.

See E. G. Hirsch, Jewish Encyclopaedia, iv. 350. (I. A.)

CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing), originally the waxing
moon, hence a name applied to the shape of the moon in its first
quarter. The crescent is employed as a charge in heraldry, with
its horns vertical ; when they are turned to the dexter side of the
shield, it is called increscent, when to the sinister, decrescent.
A crescent is used as a difference to denote the second son of a
house; thus the earls of Harrington place a crescent upon a
crescent, as descending from the second son of a second son.
An order of the crescent was instituted by Charles I. of Naples
and Sicily in 1268, and revived by Rene of Anjou in 1464. A
Turkish order or decoration of the crescent was instituted by
Sultan Selim III. in 1799, in memory of the diamond crescent
which he had presented to Nelson after the battle of the Nile, and
which Nelson wore on his coat as if it were an order.

The crescent is the military and religious symbol of the
Ottoman Turks. ■ According to the story told by Hesychius
of Miletus, during the siege of Byzantium by Philip of Macedon
the moon suddenly appeared, the dogs began to bark and
aroused the inhabitants, who were thus enabled to frustrate
the enemy's scheme of undermining the walls. The grateful
Byzantines erected a statue to " torch-bearing " Hecate, and
adopted the lunar crescent as the badge of the city. It is gener-
ally supposed that it was in turn adopted by the Turks after the
capture of Constantinople in 1453, either as a badge of triumph,
or to commemorate a partial eclipse of the moon on the night of
the final attack. In reality, it seems to have been used by them
long before that event. Ala ud-din, the Seljuk sultan of Iconium
(1245-1254), and Ertoghrul, his lieutenant and the founder of
the Ottoman branch of the Turkish race, assumed it as a device,
and it appeared on the standard of the janissaries of Sultan
Orkhan (1326-1360). Since the new moon is associated with
special acts of devotion in Turkey — where, as in England, there
is a popular superstition that it is unlucky to see it through glass
— it may originally have been adopted in consequence of its re-
ligious significance. According to Professor Ridgeway, however,
the Turkish crescent, like that seen on modern horse-trappings,
has nothing to do with the new moon, but is the result of the base-
to-base conjunction of two claw or tusk amulets, an example of
which has been brought to light during the excavations of the
site of the temple of Artemis Orthia at Sparta (see Athenaeum,
March 21, 1908). There is nothing distinctively Turkish in
the combination of crescent and star which appears on the
Turkish national standard; the latter is shown by coins and
inscriptions to have been an ancient Illyrian symbol, and is of
course common in knightly and decorative orders. It is doubtful
whether any opposition between crescent and cross, as symbols
of Islam and Christianity, was ever intended by the Turks; and
it is an historical error to attribute the crescent to the Saracens
of crusading times or the Moors in Spain.

Crescent is also the name of a Turkish musical instrument.
In architecture, a crescent is a street following the arc of a circle;
the name in this sense was first used in the Royal Crescent at
Bath.

CRESCIMBENI, GIOVANNI MARIO (1663-1728), Italian
critic and poet, was born at Macerata in 1663. Having been
educated by a French priest at Rome, he entered the Jesuits'
college of his native town, where he produced a tragedy on the

412

CRESILAS— CRESS

story of Darius, and versified the Pharsalia. In 1679 he received
the degree of doctor of laws, and in 1680 he removed again to
Rome. The study of Filicaja and Leonico having convinced
him that he and all his contemporaries were working in a wrong
direction, he resolved to attempt a general reform. In 1690,
in conjunction with fourteen others, he founded thecelebrated
academy of the Arcadians, and began the contest against false
taste and its adherents. The academy was most successful;
branch societies were opened in all the principal cities of Italy;
and the influence of Marini, opposed by the simplicity and ele-
gance of such models as Costanzo, soon died away. Crescimbeni
officiated as secretary to the Arcadians for thirty-eight years.
In 1705 he was made canon of Santa Maria; in 17 15 he obtained
the chief curacy attached to the same church; and about two
months before he died (1728) he was admitted a member of the
order of Jesus.

His principal work is the Istoria delta, volgar poesia (Rome, 1698),
an estimate of all the poets of Italy, past and contemporary, which
may yet be consulted with advantage. The most important of his
numerous other publications are the Commentary (5 vols., Rome,
1702-1711), and La Bellezza delta volgar poezia (Rome, 1700).

CRESILAS, a Cretan sculptor of Cydonia. He was a con-
temporary of Pheidias, and one of the sculptors who vied in
producing statues of amazons at Ephesus (see Greek Art)
about 450 B.C. As his amazon was wounded (volnerata; Pliny,
Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 75), we may safely identify it with the figure,
of which several copies are extant, who is carefully removing
her blood-stained garment from a wound under the right breast.
Another work of Cresilas of which copies survive is the portrait
of Pericles, the earliest Greek portrait which has been with
certainty identified, and which fully confirms the statement
of ancient critics that Cresilas was an artist who idealized and
added nobility to men of noble type. An extant portrait of
Anacreon is also derived from Cresilas.

CRESOLS or Methyl Phenols, C 7 H s O or C 6 H 4 -CH 3 -OH.
The three isomeric cresols are found in the tar obtained in the
destructive distillation of coal, beech- wood and pine. The crude
cresol obtained from tar cannot be separated into its different
constituents by fractional distillation, since the boiling points of
the three isomers are very close together. The pure substances
are best obtained by fusion of the corresponding toluene sul-
phonic acids with potash.

Ortho-cresol, CH 3 (i)-C 6 H 4 -OH(2), occurs as sulphate in the
urine of the horse. It may be prepared by fusion of ortho-toluene
sulphonic acid with potash; by the action of phosphorus pent-
oxide on carvacrol; or by the action of zinc chloride on camphor.
It is a crystalline solid, which melts at 30 C. and boils at 190-8°
C. Fusion with alkalis converts it into salicylic acid.

Meta-cresol,CH 3 (i) • C<jHrOH(3), is formed when thymol (para-
isopropyl-meta-cresol) is heated with phosphorus pentoxide.
Propylene is liberated during the reaction, and the phosphoric
acid ester of meta-cresol which is formed is then fused with
potash. It can also be prepared by distilling meta-oxyuvitic acid
with lime, or by the action of air on boiling toluene in the presence
of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts, Ann. Chim.
Phys., 1888 [6], 14, p. 436). It solidifies in a freezing mixture, on
the addition of a crystal of phenol, and then melts at 3°-4° C.
It boils at 202°-8 C. Its aqueous solution is coloured bluish-violet
by ferric chloride.

Para-cresol, CH 3 (i)-C 6 H 4 -OH(4), occurs as sulphate in the
urine of the horse. It is also found in horse's liver, being one of
the putrefaction products of tyrosine. It may be prepared by the
fusion of para- toluene sulphonic acid with potash; by the action
of nitrous acid on para-toluidine; or by heating para-oxyphenyl
acetic acid with lime. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at
36° C. and boil at 2oi°-8 C. It is soluble in water, and the aqueous
solution gives a blue coloration with ferric chloride. When
treated with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate, no
chlorinated quinones are obtained (M. S. Southworth, Ann.
(1873), 168, p. 271), a behaviour which distinguishes it from
ortho- and meta-cresol.

On the composition of commercial cresylic acid see A. H. Allen,
Jour. Soc. Chem. Industry (1890), 9, p. 141. See also Creosote.

CRESPI, DANIELE (1 590-1630), Italian historical painter,
was born near Milan, and studied under Giovanni Battista Crespi
and Giulio Procaccini. He was an excellent colourist; his
drawing was correct and vigorous, and he grouped his composi-
tions with much ability. His best work, a series of pictures from
the life of Saint Bruno, is in the monastery of the Carthusians
at Milan. Among the most famous of his paintings is a " Stoning
of St Stephen " at Brera, and there are several excellent examples
of his work in the city of his birth and at Pa via.

CRESPI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1557-1663), called II Cerano,
Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, was born at Cerano in
the Milanese. He was a scholar of considerable attainments,
and held a position of dignity in his native city. He was head of
the Milanese Academy founded by Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo,
and he was the teacher of Guercino. He is most famous as a
painter; and, though his figures are neither natural nor graceful,
his colouring is good, and his designs full of ideal beauty.

CRESPI, GIUSEPPE MARIA (1665-1747), Italian painter,
called " Lo Spagnuolo " from his fondness for rich apparel,
was born at Bologna, and was trained under Angelo Toni,
Domenico Canuti and Carlo Cignani. He then went through
a course of copying from Correggio and Barocci; this he followed
up with a journey to Venice for the sake of Titian and Paul
Veronese; and late in life he # proclaimed himself a follower of
Guercino and Pietro da Cortona. He was a good colourist and
a facile executant, and was wont to employ the camera obscura
with great success in the treatment of light and shadow; but
he was careless and unconscientious. He was a clever portrait-
painter and a brilliant caricaturist; and his etchings after
Rembrandt and Salvator are in some demand. His greatest
work, a " Massacre of the Innocents," is at Bologna; but the
Dresden gallery possesses twelve examples of him, among which
is his celebrated series of the Seven Sacraments.

CRESS, in botany. " Garden Cress " (Lepidium sativum) is
an annual plant (nat. ord. Cruciferae), known as a cultivated
plant at the present day in Europe, North Africa, western Asia
and India, but its origin is obscure. Alphonse de Candolle
(L'Origine des plantes cultiv&es) says its cultivation must date from
ancient times and be widely diffused, for very different names
for it exist in ths Arab, Persian, Albanian, Hindustani and
Bengali tongues. He considered the plant to be of Persian
origin, whence it may have spread after the Sanskrit epoch
(there is no Sanskrit name for it) into the gardens of India,
Syria, Greece and North Africa. It is used in salads, the young
plants being cut and eaten while still in the seed-leaf, forming,
along with plants of the white mustard in the same stage of
growth, what is commonly called " small salad." The seeds
should be sown thickly broadcast or in rows in succession every
ten or fourteen days, according to the demand. The sowings
"may be made in the open ground from March till October, the
earliest under hand-glasses, and the summer ones in a cool
moist situation, where water from trees, shrubs, walls, &c,
cannot fall on or near them. The grit thrown up by falling
water pierces the tender tissues of the cress, and cannot be
thoroughly removed by washing. During winter they must be
raised on a slight hotbed, or in shallow boxes or pans placed
in any of the glass-houses where there is a temperature of 6o°
or 65°. Cress is subject to the attack of a fungus (Pythium de-
Baryanum) if kept too close and moist. The pest very quickly
infects a whole sowing. There is no cure for it; preventive
measures should therefore be taken by keeping the sowings
fairly dry and well ventilated. The seed should be sown on new
soil, and should not be covered.

The " Golden " or " Australian " cress is a dwarf, yellowish-
green, mild-flavoured sort, which is cut and eaten when a little
more advanced in growth but while still young and tender. It
should be sown at intervals of a month from March onwards, the
autumn sowing, for winter and spring use, being made in a
sheltered situation.

The " curled " or " Normandy " cress is a very hardy sort,
of good flavour. In this, which is allowed to grow like parsley,
the leaves are picked for use while young; and, being finely cut

CRESSENT— CRESSY

4i3

and curled, they are well adapted for garnishing. It should be
sown thinly, in drills, in good soil in the open borders, in March,
April and May, and for winter and spring use at the foot of a south
wall early in September, and about the middle of October.

Water - cress. — "Water-cress" (Nasturtium officinale) is a
member of the same natural order, and a native of Great Britain.
Although now so largely used, it does not appear to have been
cultivated in England prior to the 19th century, though in
Germany, especially near Erfurt, it had been grown long pre-
viously. Its flavour is due to an essential oil containing sulphur.
Water-cress is largely cultivated in shallow ditches, prepared
in wet, low-lying meadows, means being provided for flooding
the ditches at will. Where the amount of water available is
limited, the ditches are arranged at successively higher levels,
so as to allow of the volume admitted to the upper ditch being
passed successively to the others. The ditches are usually
puddled with clay, which is covered to the depth of 9 to 12 in.
with well-manured soil.

A stock of plants may be raised in two ways — by cuttings, and
by seeds. If a stock is to be raised from cuttings, the desired
quantity of young shoots is gathered — those sold in bunches for
salad serve the purpose well — and reduced where necessary to
about 3 in. in length, the basal and frequently rooted portion
being rejected. They are dibbled thickly into one of the ditches,
and only enough water admitted to just cover the soil. If the
start is made in late spring, the cuttings will be rooted in a week.
They are allowed to remain for another week or two, and are then
taken up and dropped about 9 in. apart into the other ditches,
which have been slightly flooded to receive them. There is no
need to plant them — the young roots will very soon be securely
anchored. The volume of water is increased as the plants grow.
If raised from seed, the seed-bed is prepared as for cuttings, and
seed sown either in drills or broadcast. No flooding is done until
the seedlings are up. Water is then admitted, the level being
raised as the plants grow. When 5 or 6 in. high, they are taken
up and dropped into their permanent quarters precisely like
those raised from cuttings.

Cultivated as above described, the plants afford frequent
cuttings of large clean cress of excellent flavour for market
purposes. Sooner or later growth will become less vigorous and
flowering shoots will be produced. This will be accompanied by
a pronounced deterioration of the remaining vegetative shoots.
These signs will be interpreted by the grower to mean that his
plants, as a market crop, are worn out. He will therefore take
steps to repeat the routine of culture above described. In the
winter the ditches are flooded to protect the cress from frost.

The best-flavoured water-cress is produced in the pure water of
running streams over chalk or gravel soil. Should the water be
contaminated by sewage or other undesirable matter, the plants
not only absorb some of the impurities but also serve to anchor
much of the solid particles washed as scum among them. This is
extremely difficult to dislodge by washing, and renders the cress a
source of danger as food.

Water-cress for domestic use may be raised as a kitchen-garden
crop if frequently watered overhead. Beds to afford cress during
the summer should be made in broad trenches on a border facing
north. It may also be raised in pots or pans stood in saucers of
water and frequently watered overhead.

In recent years in America attention has been paid to the
injury done to water-cress beds by the " water-cress sow-bug "
(Mancasellus brachyurus) , and the " water-cress leaf -beetle "
(Phaedon aeruginosa). Another species of Phaedon is known in
England as " blue beetle " or " mustard beetle," and is a pest
also of mustard, cabbage and kohlrabi (see F. H. Chittenden, in
Bulletin 66, part ii. of Bureau of Entomology, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1907).

The name "nasturtium" is applied in gardens, but incorrectly,
to species of Tropaeolum.

CRESSENT, CHARLES (1685-1768), French furniture-maker,
sculptor and fondeur-ciseleur. As the second son of Francois
Cressent, sculpteur du roi, and grandson of Charles Cressent, a
furniture-maker of Amiens, who also became a sculptor, he

inherited the tastes and aptitudes which were likely to make a
finished designer and craftsman. Even more important perhaps
was the fact that he was a pupil of Andre Charles Boulle.
Trained in such surroundings, it is not surprising that he should
have reached a degree of achievement which has to a great
extent justified the claim that he was the best decorative artist
of the 18th century. Cressent's distinction is closely connected
with the regency, but his earlier work had affinities with the
school of Boulle, while his later pieces were full of originality.
He was an artist in the widest sense of the word. He not
only designed and made furniture, but created the magnificent
gilded enrichments which are so characteristic of his work. He
was likewise a sculptor, and among his plastic work is known
to have been a bronze bust of Louis, due d'Orleans, the son '
of the regent, for whom Cressent had made one of the finest
examples of French furniture of the 18th century — the famous
medaillier now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. Cressent's bronze
mounts were executed with a sharpness of finish and a grace and
vigour of outline which were hardly excelled by his great con-
temporary Jacques Caffieri. His female figures placed at the
corners of tables are indeed among the most delicious achieve-
ments of the great days of the French metal worker. Much of
Cressent's work survives, and can be identified; the Louvre and
the Wallace collection are especially rich in it, and his commode
at Hertford House with gilt handles representing Chinese dragons
is perhaps the most elaborate piece he ever produced. The work
of identification is rendered comparatively easy in his case by the
fact that he published catalogues of three sales of his work. These
catalogues are highly characteristic of the man, who shared in no
small degree the personal bravoura of Cellini, and could sometimes
execute almost as well. He did not hesitate to describe himself
as the author of " a clock worthy to be placed in the very finest
cabinets," "the most distinguished bronzes," or pieces of "the
most elegant form adorned with bronzes of extra richness." He
worked much in marqueterie, both in tortoiseshell and in brilliant
coloured woods. He was indeed an artist to whom colour
appealed with especial force. The very type and exemplar of
the " feeling " of the regency, he is worthy to have given his own
name to some of the fashions which he deduced from it.

CRESSWELL, SIR CRESSWELL (1794-1863), English judge,
was a descendant of an old Northumberland family, and was born
at Newcastle in 1 794. He was educated at the Charterhouse and
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1814,
and M.A. four years later. Having chosen the profession of the
law he studied at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in
1819. He joined the northern circuit, and was not long in earning
a distinguished position among his professional brethren. In 183 7
he entered parliament as Conservative member for Liverpool,
and he soon gained a reputation as an acute and learned debater
on all constitutional questions. In January 1842 he was made a
judge of the court of common pleas, being knighted at the same
time; and this post he occupied for sixteen years. When the
new court for probate, divorce and matrimonial causes was
established (1858), Sir Cresswell Cresswell was requested by the
Liberal government to become its first judge and undertake the
arduous task of its organization. Although he had already
earned a right to retire, and possessed large private wealth,
he accepted this new task, and during the rest of his life devoted
himself to it most assiduously and conscientiously, with complete
satisfaction to the public. In one case only, out of the very large
number on which he pronounced judgment, was his decision
reversed. His death was sudden. By a fall from his horse on the
nth of July 1863 his knee-cap was injured. He was recovering
from this when on the 29th of the same month he died of disease
of the heart.

See Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law
(1904).

CRESSY, HUGH PAULINUS DE (c. 1605-1674), English Bene-
dictine monk, whose religious name was Serenus, was born at
Wakefield, Yorkshire, about 1605. He went to Oxford at the
age of fourteen, and in 1626 became a fellow of Merton College.
Having taken orders, he rose to the dignity of dean of Leighlin,

4H

CREST— CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

Ireland, and canon of Windsor. He also acted as chaplain to Lord
Wentworth, afterwards the celebrated earl of Strafford. For some
time he travelled abroad as tutor to Lord Falmouth, and in 1646,
during a visit to Rome, joined the Roman Catholic Church. In
the following year he published his Exomologesis (Paris, 1647), or
account of his conversion, which was highly valued by Roman
Catholics as an answer to William Chillingworth's attacks.
Cressy entered the Benedictine Order in 1649, and for four years
resided at Somerset House as chaplain to Catherine of Braganza,
wife of Charles II. He died at West Grinstead on the 10th
of August 1674. Cressy's chief work, The Church History of
Brittanny or England, from the beginning of Christianity to the
Norman Conquest (1st vol. only published, Rouen, 1668), gives an
exhaustive account of the foundation of monasteries during the
Saxon heptarchy, and asserts that they followed the Benedictine
rule, differing in this respect from many historians. The work
was much criticized by Lord Clarendon, but defended by Antony
a. Wood in his Athenae Oxoniensis, who supports Cressy's state-
ment that it was compiled from original MSS. and from the
Annates Ecclesiae Britannicae of Michael Alford, Dugdale's
Monasticon, and the Decern Scriptores Historiae Anglicanae. The
second part of the history, which has never been printed, was
discovered at Douai in 1856. To Roman Catholics Cressy's name
is familiar as the editor of Walter Hilton's Scale of Perfection
(London, 1659); of Father A. Baker's Sancla Sophia (2 vols.,
Douai, 1657); and of Juliana of Norwich's Sixteen Revelations
on the Love of God (1670). These books, which would have been
lost but for Cressy's zeal, have been frequently reprinted, and
have been favourably regarded by a section of the Anglican
Church.

For a complete list of Cressy's works see J. Gillow's Bibl. Diet,
of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.

CREST, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
Drome, on the right bank of the Drome, 20 m. S.S.E. of Valence
by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 3971; commune, 5660. It carries
on silk-worm breeding, silk-spinning, and the manufacture of
woollens, paper, leather and cement. There is trade in truffles.
On the rock which commands the town stands a huge keep, the
sole survival of a castle (12th century) to which Crest was in-
debted for its importance in the middle ages and the Religious
Wars. The rest of the castle was destroyed in the first half of
the 17 th century, after which the keep was used as a state prison.
Crest ranked for a time as the capital of the duchy of Valentinois,
and in that capacity belonged before the Revolution to the
prince of Monaco. The communal charter, graven on stone and
dating from the 12th century, is preserved in the public archives.
Ten miles south-east of Crest lies the picturesque Forest of
Saon.

CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft), the " comb " on an
animal's head, and so any feathery tuft or excrescence, the
" cone " of a helmet (by transference, the helmet itself), and the
top or summit of anything. In heraldry (q.v.) a crest is a device,
originally borne as a cognizance on a knight's helmet, placed on
a wreath above helmet and shield in armorial bearings, and used
separately on a seal or on articles of property.

Cresting, in architecture, is an ornamental finish in the wall
or ridge of a building, which is common on the continent of
Europe. An example occurs at Exeter cathedral, the ridge of
which is ornamented with a range of small fleurs-de-lis in lead.

CRESTON, a city and the county-seat of Union county, Iowa,
U.S.A., about 60 m. S.W. of Des Moines, at the crossing of the
main line and two branches of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
railway. Pop. (1890) 7200; (1900) 7752; (1905, state census)
8382 (753 foreign-born); (1910) 6924. The city is on the crest
of the divide between the Mississippi and the Missouri basins
at an altitude of about 1310 ft. — whence its name. It is situated
in a fine farming and stock-raising region, for which it is a
shipping point. The site was chosen in 1869 by the Burlington
& Missouri River Railroad Company (subsequently merged in
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Company) for the
location of its shops. Creston was incorporated as a town in
1869, and was chartered as a city in 1871.

CRESWICK, THOMAS (1811-1860), English landscape-painter,
was born at Sheffield, and educated at Hazelwood, near Birming-
ham. At Birmingham he first began to paint. His earliest
appearance as an exhibitor was in 1827, at the Society of British
Artists in London; in the ensuing year he sent to the Royal
Academy the two pictures named " Llyn Gwynant, Morning,"
and " Carnarvon Castle." About the same time he settled in
London; and in 1836 he took a house in Bayswater. He soon
attracted some attention as a landscape-painter, and had a
career of uniform and encouraging, though not signal success.
In 1842 he was elected an associate, and in 1850 a full member
of the Royal Academy, which, for several years before his death,
numbered hardly any other full members representing this branch
of art. In his early practice he set an example, then too much
needed, of diligent study of nature out of doors, painting on the
spot all the substantial part of several of his pictures. English
and Welsh streams may be said to have formed his favourite
subjects, and generally 'British rural scenery, mostly under its
cheerful, calm and pleasurable aspects, in open daylight. This
he rendered with elegant and equable skill, colour rather grey in
tint, especially in his later years, and more than average technical
accomplishment; his works have little to excite, but would, in
most conditions of public taste, retain their power to attract.
Creswick was industrious and extremely prolific; he produced,
besides a steady outpouring of paintings, numerous illustrations
for books. He was personally genial — a dark, bulky man,
somewhat heavy and graceless in aspect in his later years. He
died at his house in Bayswater, Linden Grove, on the 28th of
December 1869, after a few years of declining health. Among
his principal works may be named " England " (1847); " Home
by the Sands, and a Squally Day" (1848); "Passing
Showers " (1849); " The Wind on Shore, a First Glimpse of the
Sea, and Old Trees" (1850); "A Mountain Lake, Moonrise "
(1852); "Changeable Weather" (1865); also the "London
Road, a Hundred Years ago"; "The Weald of Kent"; the
"Valley Mill" (a Cornish subject); a "Shady Glen"; the
'Windings of a River"; the " Shade of the Beech Trees";
the " Course of the Greta" ; the " Wharfe "; " Glendalough,"
and other Irish subjects, 1836 to 1840; the " Forest Farm."
Frith for figures, and Ansdell for animals, occasionally worked in
collaboration with Creswick.

In 1873 T. O. Barlow, the engraver, published a catalogue of
Creswick's works.

CRESWICK, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia..
85! m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3060. It is the
centre of a mining, pastoral and agricultural district. Gold is
found both in alluvial and quartz formations, the quartz being
especially rich. The surrounding country is fertile and well-
timbered, and there is a government plantation and nursery in
connexion with the forests department.

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM, in geology, the group of stratified
rocks which normally occupy a position above the Jurassic
system and below the oldest Tertiary deposits; therefore it is
in this system that the closing records of the great Mesozoic era
are to be found. The name furnishes an excellent illustration of
the inconvenience of employing a local lithological feature in
the descriptive title of a wide-ranging rock-system. The white
chalk (Lat. creta), which gives its name to the system, was first
studied in the Anglo-Parisian basin, where it takes a prominent
place; but even in this limited area there is a considerable
thickness and variety of rocks which are not chalky, and the
Cretaceous system as a whole contains a remarkable diversity
of types of sediment.

Classification. — The earlier subdivisions of the Cretaceous rocks
were founded upon the uncertain ground of similarity in litho-
logical characters, assisted by observed stratigraphical sequence.
This method yielded poor results even in a circumscribed area like
Great Britain, and it breaks down utterly when applied to the
correlation of rocks of similar age in Europe and elsewhere
Study of the fossils, however, has elicited the fact that certain
forms characterize certain " zones," which are preceded and
succeeded by other zones each bearing a peculiar species or

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

415

distinctive assemblage of species. By these means the Cretaceous
rocks of the world have now been correlated zone with zone,
with a degree of exactitude proportional to the palaeontological
information gained in the several areas of occurrence.

The Cretaceous system falls naturally into two divisions,
an upper and a lower, in all but a few limited regions. In the
table on page 288 the names of the principal stages are
enumerated; these are capable of world-wide application.
The sub-stages are of more local value, and too much importance
must not be attached to them for the correlation of distant
deposits. The general table is designed to show the relative
position in the system of some of the more important and better-
known formations; but it must be remembered that the Cretace-
ous rocks of Europe can now be classified in considerable detail

by their fossils, the most accurate group for this purpose being
the cephalopods. The smaller table was compiled by T. C.
Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury to show the main subdivisions
of the North American Cretaceous rocks. The correlation of the
minor subdivisions of Europe and America are only approximate.

Relation of the Cretaceous Strata to the Systems above and below.
— In central and northern Europe the boundary between the
Cretaceous and Tertiary strata is sharply defined by a fairly
general unconformity, except in the Danian and Montian beds,
where there is a certain commingling of Tertiary with Cretaceous
fossils. The relations with the underlying Jurassic rocks are not
so clearly defined, partly because the earliest Cretaceous rocks are
obscured by too great a thickness of younger strata, and partly
because the lowest observable rocks of the system are not the
oldest, but are higher members of the system that have overlapped
on to much older rocks. However, in the south of England,
in the Alpine area, and in part of N. W. Germany the passage from
Jurassic to Cretaceous is so gradual that there is some divergence
of opinion as to the best position for the line of separation.
In the Alpine region this passage is formed by marine beds, in
the other two by brackish-water deposits. In a like manner
the Potomac beds of N. America grade downwards into the
Jurassic; while in the Laramie formation an upward passage is
observed into the Eocene deposits. There is a very general
unconformity and break between the Lower and Upper Cretace-
ous; this has led Chamberlin and Salisbury to suggest that the
Lower Cretaceous should be regarded as a separate period with
the title " Comanchean."

Physiographical Conditions and Types of Deposit. — With the
opening of the Cretaceous in Europe there commenced a period
of marine transgression; in the central and western European
region this took place from the S. towards the N., slow at first and
local in effect, but becoming more decided at the beginning of
the upper division. During the earlier portion of the period, S.
England, Belgium and Hanover were covered by a great series of
estuarine sands and clays, termed the Wealden formation (<?•».),
the delta of a large river or rivers flowing probably from the N. W.

Meanwhile, in the rest of Europe alternations of marine and
estuarine deposits were being laid down; but over the Alpine
region lay the open sea, where there flourished coral reefs and
great banks of clam-like molluscs. The sea gradually encroached
upon the estuarine Wealden area, and at the time of the Aptian
deposits uniform marine conditions prevailed from western
Europe through Russia into Asia. This extension of the sea is
illustrated in England by the overlap of, the Gault over the
Lower Greensand on to the older rocks, and by similar occurrences
in N. France and Germany.

Almost throughout the Upper Cretaceous period the marine
invasion continued, varied here and there by slight movements
in the opposite sense which did not, however, interfere with the
quiet general advance of the sea. This marine extension made
itself felt over the old central plateau of France, the N. of Great
Britain, the Spanish peninsula, the Armorican peninsula, and
also in the Bavarian Jura and Bohemia; it affected the northern
part of Africa and East Africa; in N. America the sea spread
over the entire length of the Rocky Mountain region; and in
Brazil, eastern Asia and western Australia, Upper Cretaceous
deposits are found resting directly upon much older rocks.
Indeed, at this time there happened one of the greatest changes
in the distribution of land and water that have been recorded
in geological history.

We have seen that in early Cretaceous times marine limestones
were being formed in southern Europe, while estuarine sands and
muds were being laid down in the Anglo-German delta, and that
beds of intermediate character were being made in parts of N.
France and Germany. During later Cretaceous times this striking
difference between the northern and southern fades was main-
tained, notwithstanding the fact that the later deposits were of
marine origin in both regions. In the northern region the gradual
deepening and accompanying extension of the sea caused the
sandy deposits to become finer grained in N.W. Europe. The
sandy beds and clays then gave way to marly deposits, and in
these early stages glauconitic grains are very characteristically
present both in the sand and in the marls. In their turn these
marly deposits in the Anglo-Parisian basin were succeeded
gradually and somewhat intermittently by the purer, soft lime-
stone of the chalk sea, and by limestones, similar in character, in
N. France, extra-Alpine Germany, S. Scandinavia, Denmark and
Russia. Meanwhile, the S. European deposits maintained the
characters already indicated; limestones (not chalk) prevailed,
except in certain Alpine and Carpathian tracts where detrital
sandstones were being laid down.

The great difference between the lithological characters of the
northern and southern deposits is accompanied by an equally
striking difference between their respective organic contents. In
the north, the genera Inoceramus and Belemnitella are particu-
larly abundant. In the south, the remarkable, large, clam-like,
aberrant pelecypods, the Hippurilidae, Rudistes, Caprotina, &c,
attained an extraordinary development; they form great
lenticular banks, like the clam banks of warm seas, or like our
modern oyster-beds; they appear in successive species in the
different stages of the Cretaceous system of the south, and can be
used for marking palaeontological horizons as the cephalopods
are used elsewhere. Certain genera of ammonites, Haploceras,
Lytoceras, Phylloceras, rare in the north, are cemmon in the
south; and the southern fades is further characterized by the
peculiar group of swollen belemnites {Dumontia), by the gastero-
pods Aclionella, Nerinea, &c, and by reef-building corals. The
southern fades is far more widespread and typical of the period
than is the chalk; it not only covers all southern Europe, but
spreads eastwards far into Asia and round the Mediterranean
basin into Africa. It is found again in Texas, Alabama, Mexico,
the West Indies and Colombia; though limestones of the chalk
type are found in Texas, New Zealand, and locally in one or two
other places. The marine deposits are organically formed
limestones, in which foraminifera and large bivalve mollusca
play a leading part, marls and sandstones; dolomite and oolitic
and pisolitic limestones are also known.

The Cretaceous seas were probably comparatively shallow;

i6

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

European Classification.

Britain.

Germany, &c, several
other parts of Europe.

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Lower Greensand.

Weald Clay ;

and
Hastings sands.

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iVofe to Table.

Montian from Mons in Belgium.

Danian ,, Denmark = Garumnien of Leymene.

Aturian ,, Adour.

Maestrichtian „ Maestricht.

Campanian „ Champagne.

Emscherian ,, Emscher river in Westphalia.

Santonian „ Saintonge.

Coniacian „ Cognac.

Senonian , ,, Sens in department of Yonne.

Turonian „ Touraine.

Angoumian „ Angoumois.

Ligerian ,, the Loire.

Cenomanian „ Le Mans (Cenomanum).

Carentonian „ Charente.

Rothomagian „ Rouen (Rothomagus) .

Albian „ dept. of Aube.

Selbornian ,, Selborne in Hampshire.

Aptian „ Apt in Vaucluse.

Gargasian ,, Gargas near Apt.

Bedoulian „ la Bedoule (Var) = Rhodanien of Renevier.

Barremian „ Barreme in Basses Alpes.

Hauterivian ,, Hauterive on Lake of Neuchatel.

Valengian ,, Chateau de Valengin near Neuchatel.

Neocomian ,, Neuchatel (Neocomum).

Berriasian ,, Berrias (Ardeche) near Besseges.

Urgonian „ Orgon near Aries.

this was certainly the case where the deposits are sandy, and in
the regions occupied by the hippuritic fauna. Much discussion
has taken place as to the depth of the chalk sea. Stress has been
laid upon the resemblance of this deposit to the modern deep-sea
globigerina-ooze; but on the whole the evidence is in favour of
moderate depth, perhaps not more than iooo fathoms; the
freedom of the deposit from detrital matter being regarded as due
to the low elevation of the surrounding land, and the main lines of
drainage being in other directions. Sandy and shore deposits are
common throughout the system in every region. Besides the
Weald, there were great lacustrine and terrestrial deposits in
N. America (the Potomac, Kootenay, Morrison, Dakota and
Laramie formations) as well as in N. Spain, and in parts of
Germany, &c. The general distribution of land and sea is indi-
cated in the map.

Earth Movements and Vulcanicily. — During the greater part of
the Cretaceous period crustal movements had been small and
local in effect, but towards the close a series of great deformative
movements was inaugurated and continued into the next period.
These movements make it possible to discriminate between the
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, because the conditions of sedi-
mentation were profoundly modified by them, and in most

CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

417

j

Atlantic Coast.

Eastern Gulf Region.

Western Gulf Region.

Western Interior.

Pacific Coast.

European.

tfi

3

in O

u <u

W u

Manasquan.
Rancocas.

Denver,Livingstone, &c.
(possibly Eocene).

Laramie.

Not differ-
entiated or
wanting.

Danian.

Monmouth.

Ripley.
Selma.

Montana Series.
Navarro.

Montana Series.
2. Fox Hills.
1. Fort Pierre and
Belly River.

Senonian.

3MANCHEAN Cf

er Cretaceous. Uppe

* , , _ _

Matawan.

Eutaw.

Colorado Series.
2. Austin.
1. Eagle Ford.

Colorado Series.
2. Niobrara.
1. Benton.

Chico.

Turonian.

Un

Dakota.
Woodbine.

conformity.

Dakota.

Cenomanian.
Albian.

Unconformity in
places.

Potomac Series.
4. Raritan.
3. Patapsco.

Tuscaloosa Series.

Washita.
Fredericksburg.

Trinity.

Kootenay and Morrison
(or Como).

Horsetown"| c

la
I s

Knoxville J jjj

Aptian.
Urgonian.

Neocomian.
Wealden.

►J

2. Arundel 1
'55

-

[2
1. Patuxentj ^

parts of the world there resulted a distinct break in the sequence
of fossil remains. Great tracts of our modern continental land
areas gradually emerged, and several mountainous tracts began
to be elevated, such as the Appalachians, parts of the Cordilleras,
and the Rocky Mountains, and their northern continuation, and
indeed the greater part of the western N. American continent was
intensely affected; the uplifting was associated with extensive
faulting. Volcanic activity was in abeyance in Europe and in
much of Asia, but in America there were many eruptions and
intrusions of igneous rock towards the close of the period.
Diabases and peridotites had been formed during the Lower
Cretaceous in the San Luis Obispo region. Great masses of ash
and conglomerate occur in the Crow's Nest Pass in Canada;
porphyries and porphyritic tuffs of later Cretaceous age are
important in the Andes; while similar rocks are found in the
Lower Cretaceous of New Zealand. It is, however, in the Deccan
lava flows of India that we find eruptions on a scale more vast
than any that have been recorded either before or since. These
outpourings of lava cover 200,000 sq. m. and are from 4000 to
6000 ft. thick. They lie upon an eroded Cenomanian surface and
are to some extent interbedded with Upper Cretaceous sediments.
Economic Products of Cretaceous Rocks. — Coal is one of the
most important products of the rocks of this system. The
principal Cretaceous coal-bearing area is in the western interior
of N. America, where an enormous amount of coal — mostly
lignitic, but in places converted into anthracite — lies in the rocks
at the foot of the Rocky Mountains; most of this is of Laramie
age. Similar beds occur locally in Montana. Coal seams of Lower
Cretaceous age are found in the Black Hills (S. Dakota), Alaska,
Greenland, and in New Zealand; and the " Upper Quader " of
Lowenberg in Silesia also contains coal seams. Coals also occur
in the brackish and fresh-water deposits of Carinthia, Dalmatia
and Istria, while unimportant lignitic beds are known in many
other regions. The Fort Pierre beds are oil-bearing at Boulder,
Colorado; and the Trinity formation bears asphalt and bitumen.
Important clay deposits are worked in the Raritan formation of
New Jersey, &c, and pottery clays are found in the Lowenberg
district in Germany. The Washita beds yield the well-known
hone stone. Great beds of gypsum exist in the Cretaceous rocks
of S. America. Near Salzburg a variety of the hippuritic lime-

vii. 14

stone is quarried for marble. Lithographic stone occurs in the
Pyrenees. The economic products peculiar to the chalk are
mentioned in the article Chalk. Beds of iron ore are found in the
Lower Cretaceous of Germany and England.

The Life of the Cretaceous Period. — The fossils from the
Cretaceous series comprise marine, fresh-water and terrestrial
animals and plants. Foremost in interest and importance is the
appearance in the Lower Potomac (Lower Cretaceous) of eastern
and central N. America of the earliest representatives of angio-
spermous dicotyledons, and undoubted monocotyledons, the
progenitors of our modern flowering plants. The angiosperms
spread outward from the Atlantic coast region of N. America, and
first appeared in Europe in the Aptian of Portugal; towards the
close of the Lower Cretaceous period they occupied parts of
Greenland, the remaining land areas of N. America, and were
steadily advancing in every quarter of the globe. At first the
Jurassic plants, the Cycads, ferns and conifers, lived on and
were the dominant plant forms. Gradually, however, they took a
subordinate place, and by the close of the Cretaceous period the
angiosperms had gained the upper hand. The earliest of these
fossil angiosperms is not in a true sense a primitive form, and no
records of such types have yet been discovered. Some of the
early forms of the Lower Cretaceous are distinctly similar to
modern genera, such as Ficus, Sassafras and Aralia; others
bore leaves closely resembling our elm, maple, willow, oak,
eucalyptus, &c. Before the close of the period many other
representatives of living genera had appeared, beech, walnut,
tamarisk, plane, laurel (Laurus), cinnamon, ivy, ilex, viburnum,
buckthorn, breadfruit, oleander and others; there were also
junipers, thujas, pines and sequoias and monocotyledons such
as Potamogeton and Arundo. This flora was widely spread and
uniform; there was great similarity between that of Europe and
N. America, and in parts of the United States (Virginia and
Maryland) the plants were very like those in Greenland. The
general aspect of the flora was sub-tropical; the eucalyptus and
other plants then common in Europe and N. America are now
confined to the southern hemisphere.

The marine fauna comprised foraminifera which must have
swarmed in the Chalk and some of the limestone seas; their
shells have formed great thickness of rock. Common forms are

12

418

CRETE

the genera Alveolina, Cristellaria, Rotalia, Textularia, Orbito-
lina Globigerina. Radiolarians were doubtless abundant, but
their remains are rare. Sponges with calcareous (Peronidilla,
Barroisia) and siliceous skeletons (Siphonia, Coeloptychium,
Ventriculites) were very numerous in certain of the Cretaceous
waters. Corals were comparatively rare, Trochosmilia, Para-
smilia, Holocystis being typical genera; reefs were formed in the
Maestricht beds of Denmark and Faxoe, in the Neocomian and
Turonian of France, in the Turonian of the Alps and Pyrenees,
and also in the Gosau beds and in the Utatur group of India.
Sea-urchins were a conspicuous feature, and many nearly allied-
forms are still living; Cidaris, Micr aster, Discoidea are examples.
Crinoids were represented by Marsupites, Uintacrinus and
Bourgueticrinus; starfish {Collider ma and Pentagonaster) were
not uncommon. Polyzoa were abundant; brachiopods were
fairly common, though subordinate to the pelecypods; they were
mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids, which lived side by
side with the ancient forms, like Crania and Discina. The
bivalve mollusca were very important during this period,
Inoceramus, Ostrea, Spondylus, Gervillia, Exogyra, Pecten,
Trigonia being particularly abundant in the northern seas,
while in the southern waters the remarkable Hippurites, Radio-
lites, Caprotina, Caprina, Monopleura and Requienia prevailed.
Gasteropods were well represented and included many modern
genera. Cephalopods were important as a group, but the
ammonites, so vigorous in the foregoing period, were declining
and were assuming curious degenerate forms, often with a
tendency to uncoil the shell; Baculites, Hoplites, Turrilites,
Plychoceras, Hamites are some of the typical genera, while
Belemnites and Belemnitella were abundant in the northern seas.

The vertebrate fauna of the Cretaceous period differed in many
features from that of the present day; mammals appear to have
been only poorly represented by puny forms, related to Triassic
and Jurassic types; they were mainly marsupials (Batodon,
Cimolestes) with a few monotreme-like forms; carnivores,
rodents and ungulates were still unknown. As in Jurassic times,
reptiles were the dominant forms, and not a few genera lived
on from the former period into the Cretaceous; but, on the whole,
the reptilian assemblage was no longer so varied, and most of the
distinctive mesozoic types had passed away
before the close of this period. Dinosaurs
were represented by herbivorous and carniv-
orous genera as in the Jurassic period, but the
latter were less abundant than before. The
Iguanodon of the Sussex- Weald and Bernissart
in Belgium is perhaps the best-known genus;
but there were many others, their remains
being particularly abundant and well-preserved
in the Cretaceous deposits of N. America.
Titanosaurus, Acanthopholis, Megalosaurus
and Hypsilophodon may be mentioned, some
of these being of great size, while Diclonius
was a curious duck-billed creature; but most
remarkable in appearance must have been the
horned Dinosaurs, Ceratops and Triceratops,
gross, unwieldy creatures, 25 to 30 ft. long,
whose huge heads were grotesquely armed
with horns and bony frills.

Coincident, perhaps, with the widespread extension of the
sea was the development of aquatic habits and structures. suitable
thereto amongst all the reptilian groups including also the birds.
The foremost place was undoubtedly taken by the pythono-
morphs or sea-serpents, including Mosasaurus and many others;
these were enormously elongated creatures, reaching up to 75 ft.,
with swimming flappers and powerful swimming tails, and they
lived a predatory life in the open sea. Ichthyosaurians soon
disappeared from Cretaceous waters; but the plesiosaurians
(Cimoliosaurus and others) reached their maximum develop-
ment in this period. The remarkable flying lizards, pterosaurs,
likewise attained their great development and then passed away;
they ranged in size from that of a pigeon to creatures with a
wing-spread of 25 ft.; notable genera are Pteranodon, Ornitho-

cheirus, Nyctiosaurus. Ordinary lizard-like forms were repre-
sented by Coniosaurus, Dolichosaurus, &c; and true crocodiles,
Goniopholis, Suchosaurus, appeared in this period, and continued
to approximate to modern genera. The earliest known river
turtles are found in the Belly River deposits of Canada; marine
turtles also made their first appearance and were widely repre-
sented, some of them, Archelon and Protostega, being of great
size. True snakes appeared later in the period.

The birds, as far as existing evidence goes, were aquatic;
some, like Ichthyornis, were built for powerful flight; others, like
Hesperornis, were flightless. Enaliornis is a form well known
from the Cambridge Greensand. They were toothed birds having
structural affinities with the Dinosaurs and Pterodactyles.

Fish remains of this period show that a marked change was
taking place; teleosteans (with bony internal skeleton) were
taking a more prominent place, and although ganoids were still
represented {Macropoma, Lepidotus, Amiopris, &c.) they had
quite ceased to be the dominant types before the close of Creta-
ceous times. Sharks and rays were of the modern types, though
distinct in species. Amongst the early forms of Cretaceous
teleosteans may be mentioned Elopopsis, Ichthyodectes, Diplo-
mystus (herring), Haplopteryx and Urenchelys (eel).

For further information see the articles Chalk; Greensand;
Wealden. Sir A. Geikie's Text-book of Geology, vol. ii. (4th ed.,
!9 3)> contains in addition to a full general account of the system
very full references to the literature.

CRETE (Gr. Kpifrij; Turk. Kiridjtal. Candia), after Sicily, Sar-
dinia and Cyprus the largest island in the Mediterranean, situated
between 34°5o'and 35°4o' N. lat. and between 23°3o' and 26°2o' E.
long. Its north-eastern extremity, Cape Sidero, is distant about
no m. from Cape Krio in Asia Minor, the interval being partly
filled by the islands of Carpathos and Rhodes; its north-western,
Cape Grabusa, is within 60 m. of Cape Malea in the Morea.
Crete thus forms the natural limit between the Mediterranean
and the Archipelago. The island is of elongated form; its length
from E. to W. is 160 m., its breadth from N. to S. varies from
35 to 7! m., its area is 3330 sq. m. The northern coast-line is
much indented. On the W. two narrow mountainous pro-
montories, the western terminating in Cape Grabusa or Busa

Longitude Easi 25" of Greenwich

(ancient Corycus), the eastern in Cape Spada, shut in the Bay
of Kisamos; beyond the Bay of Canea, to the E., the rocky
peninsula of Akrotiri shelters the magnificent natural harbour
of Suda (85 sq. m.), the only completely protected anchorage
for large vessels which the island affords. Farther E. are the bays
of Candia and Malea, the deep Mirabello Bay and the Bay of
Sitia. The south coast is less broken, and possesses no natural
harbours, the mountains in many parts rising almost like a wall
from the sea; in the centre is Cape Lithinos, the southernmost
point of the island, partly sheltering the Bay of Messara. on the
W. Immediately to the E. of Cape Lithinos is the small bay of
Kali Limenes or Fair Havens, where the ship conveying St Paul
took refuge (Acts xxvii. 8). Of the islands in the neighbourhood
of the Cretan coast the largest is Gavdo (ancient Clauda, Acts

CRETE

419

xxvii. 16), about 25 m. from the south coast at Sphakia, in the
middle ages the see of a bishop. On the N. side the small island
of Dia, or Standia, about 8 m. from Candia, offers a convenient
shelter against northerly gales. Three small islands on the
northern coast — Grabusa at the N.W. extremity, Suda, at the
entrance to Suda harbour, and Spinalonga, in Mirabello Bay —
remained for some time in the possession of Venice after the
conquest of Crete by the Turks. Grabusa, long regarded as an
impregnable fortress, was surrendered in 1692, Suda (where the
flags of Turkey and the four protecting powers are now hoisted)
and Spinalonga in 171 5.

Natural Features. — The greater part of the island is occupied
by ranges of mountains which form four principal groups. In
the western portion rises the massive range of the White
Mountains (Aspra .Vouna), directly overhanging the southern
coast with spurs projecting towards the W. and N.W. (highest
summit^ Hagios Theodoros, 7882 ft.). In the centre is the smaller,
almost detached mass of Psiloriti ('Ti/'iXopemo!', ancient Ida),
culminating in Stavros (8193 ft.), the highest summit in the
island. To theE. are theLassithi mountains with Aphenti Christos
(7165 ft.), and farther E. the mountains of Sitia with Aphenti
Kavousi (4850 ft.). The Kophino mountains (3888 ft.) separate
the central plain of Messara from the southern coast. The
isolated peak of Iuktas (about 2700 ft.), nearly due S. of Candia,
was regarded with veneration in antiquity as the burial-place of
Zeus. The principal groups are for the greater part of the year
covered with snow, which remains in the deeper clefts throughout
the summer; the intervals between them are filled by connecting
chains which sometimes reach the height of 3000 ft. The largest
plain is that of Monofatsi and Messara, a fertile tract extending
between Mt. Psiloriti and the Kophino range, about 37 m. in
length and 10 m. in breadth. The smaller plain, or rather slope,
adjoining Canea and the valley of Alikianu, through which the
Platanos (ancient Iardanos) flows, are of great beauty and
fertility. A peculiar feature is presented by the level upland
basins which furnish abundant pasturage during the summer
months; the more remarkable are the Omalo in the White
Mountains (about 4000 ft.) drained by subterranean outlets
(KaraPodpa), Nida (ets rfiv'ISav) in Psiloriti (between 5000 and
6000 ft.), and the Lassithi plain (about 3000 ft.), a more extensive
area, on which are several villages. Another remarkable
characteristic is found in the deep narrow ravines (4>apayyi.a) ,
bordered by precipitous cliffs, which traverse the mountainous
districts; into some of these the daylight scarcely penetrates.
Numerous large caves exist in the mountains; among the most
remarkable are the famous Idaean cave in Psiloriti, the caves of
Melidoni, in Mylopotamo, and Sarchu, in Malevisi, which sheltered
hundreds of refugees after the insurrection of 1866, and the
Dictaean cave in Lassithi, the birth-place of Zeus. The so-called
Labyrinth, near the ruins of Gortyna, was a subterranean quarry
from which the city was built. The principal rivers are the
Metropoli Potamos and the Anapothiari, which drain the plain of
Monofatsi and enter the southern sea E. and W. respectively
of the Kophino range; the Platanos, which flows northwards
from the White Mountains into the Bay of Canea; and the
Mylopotamo (ancient Oaxes) flowing northwards from Psiloriti
to the sea E. of Retimo.

Geology. 1 — The metamorphic rocks of western Crete form a series
some 9000 to 10,000 ft. in thickness, of very varied composition.
They include gypsum, dolomite, conglomerates, phyllites, and a
basic series of eruptive rocks (gabbros, peridotites, serpentines).
Glaucophane rocks are widely spread. In the centre of the folds
fossilifeious beds with crinoids have been found, and the black slates
at the top of the series contain Myophoria and other fossils, indicat-
ing that the rocks are of Triassic age. It is, however, not impossible
that the metamorphic series includes also some of the Lias. The later
beds of the island belong to the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary
systems. At the western foot of the Ida massif calcareous beds with
corals, brachiopods (Rhynchonella inconstans, &c.) have been found,
the fossils indicating the horizon of the Kimmeridge clay. Lower
Cretaceous limestones and schists, with radiolarian cherts, are ex-
tensively developed ; and in many parts of the island Upper Creta-

1 See L. Cayeux, " Les Lignes directrices des plissements de l'ile
de Crete," C.R. IX. Cong.geol. internat. Vienna, pp. 383-392 (1904).

ceous limestones with Rudistes and Eocene beds with nummulites
have been found. All these are involved in the earth movements
to which the mountains of the island owe their formation, but the
Miocene beds (with Clypeaster) and later deposits lie almost un-
disturbed upon the coasts and the low-lying ground. With the
Jurassic beds is associated an extensive series of eruptive rocks
(gabbro, peridotite, serpentine, diorite, granite, &c.) ; they are
chiefly of Jurassic age, but the eruptions may have continued into
the Lower Cretaceous.

The structure of the island is complex. In the west the folds run
from north to south, curving gradually westward towards the
southern and western coasts; but in the east the folds appear to
run from west to east, and to be the continuation of the Dinaric
folds of the Balkan peninsula. The structure is further complicated
by a great thrust-plane which has brought the Jurassic and Lower
Cretaceous beds upon the Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.

Vegetation. — The forests which once covered the mountains
have for the most part disappeared and the slopes are now
desolate wastes. The cypress still grows wild in the higher
regions; the lower hills and the valleys, which are extremely
fertile, are covered with olive woods. Oranges and lemons also
abound, and are of excellent quality, furnishing almost the whole
supply of continental Greece and Constantinople. Chestnut
woods are found in the Selino district, and forests of the valonia
oak in that of Retimo; in some parts the carob tree is abundant
and supplies an important article of consumption. Pears, apples,
quinces, mulberries and other fruit-trees flourish, as well as vines;
the Cretan wines, however, no longer enjoy the reputation which
they possessed in the time of the Venetians. Tobacco and cotton
succeed well in the plains and low grounds, though not at present
cultivated to any great extent.

Animals. — Of the wild animals of Crete, the wild goat or
agrimi (Capra aegagrus) alone need be mentioned; it is still found
in considerable numbers on the higher summits of Psiloriti and
the White Mountains. The same species is found in the Caucasus
and Mount Taurus, and is distinct from the ibex or bouquetin of
the Alps. Crete, like several other large islands, enjoys immunity
from dangerous serpents — a privilege ascribed by popular belief
to the intercession of Titus, the companion of St Paul, who accord-
ing to tradition was the first bishop of the island, and became in
consequence its patron saint. Wolves also are not found in the
island, though common in Greece and Asia Minor. The native
breed of mules is remarkably fine.

Population.— The population of Crete under the Venetians was
estimated at about 250,000. After the Turkish conquest it
greatly diminished, but afterwards gradually rose, till it was
supposed to have attained to about 260,000, of whom about half
were Mahommedans, at the time of the outbreak of the Greek
revolution in 1821. The ravages of the war from 1821 to 1830,
and the emigration that followed, caused a great diminution, and
the population was estimated by Pashley in 1836 at only about
130,000. In the next generation it again materially increased;
it was calculated by Spratt in 1865 as amounting to 210,000.
According to the census taken in 1881, the complete publication
of which was interdicted by the Turkish authorities, the popula-
tion of the island was 279,165, or 35-78 to the square kilometre.
Of this total, 141,602 were males, 137,563 females; 33,173 were
literate, 242,114 illiterate; 205,010 were orthodox Christians,
73,234 Moslems, and 921 of other religious persuasions. The
Moslem element predominated in the principal towns, of which
the population was— Candia, 21,368; Canea, 13,812; Retimo,
9274. According to the census taken in June 1900, the popula-
tion of the island was 301,273, the Christians having increased
to 267,266, while the Moslems had diminished to 33,281. The
Moslems, as well as the Christians, are of Greek origin and speak
Greek.

Towns. — The three principal towns are on the northern coast
and possess small harbours suitable for vessels of light draught.
Candia, the former capital and the see of the archbishop of Crete
(pop. in 1900, 22,501), is officially styled Herakleion; it is
surrounded by remarkable Venetian fortifications and possesses
a museum with a valuable collection of objects found at Cnossus,
Phaestus, the Idaean cave and elsewhere. It has been occupied
since 1897 by British troops. Canea (Xavia), the seat of govern-
ment since 1840 (pop. 20,972), is built in the Italian style; its

42 o

CRETE

walls and interesting galley-slips recall the Venetian period.
The residence of the high commissioner and the consulates of
the powers are in the suburb of Halepa. Retimo (Pedv/xvos) is,
like Canea, the see of a bishop (pop. 9311). The other towns,
Hierapetra, Sitia, Kisamos, Selino and Sphakia, are unimportant.

Production and Industries. — Owing to the volcanic nature of
its soil, Crete is probably rich in minerals. Recent experiments
lead to the conclusion that iron, lead, manganese, lignite and
sulphur exist in considerable abundance. Copper and zinc have
also been found. A large number of applications for mining con-
cessions have been received since the establishment of the autonomous
government. The principal wealth of the island is derived from
its olive groves; notwithstanding the destruction of many thou-
sands of trees during each successive insurrection, the production
is apparently undiminished, and will probably increase very con-
siderably owing to the planting of young trees and the improved
methods of cultivation which the Government is endeavouring to
promote. The orange and lemon groves have also suffered con-
siderably, but new varieties of the orange tree are now being intro-
duced, and an impulse will be given to the export trade in this fruit
by the removal of the restriction on its importation into Greece.
Agriculture is still in a primitive condition ; notwithstanding the
fertility of the arable land the supply of cereals is far below the
requirements of the population. A great portion of the central plain
of Monofatsi, the principal grain-producing district, is lying fallow
owing to the exodus of the Moslem peasantry. The cultivation of
silk cocoons, formerly a nourishing industry, has greatly declined in
recent years, but efforts are now being made to revive it. There
are few manufactures. Soap is produced at fifteen factories in the
principal towns, and there are two distilleries of cognac at Candia.

Commerce. — The expansion of Cretan commerce has been retarded
by many drawbacks, such as the unsatisfactory condition of the
harbours, the want of direct steamship lines to England and other
countries, and the deficiency of internal communications. The total
value of imports in the four years 1901-1904 was £1,756,888, of
exports £1,386,777; excess of imports over exports, £370,111.
Exports in 1904 were valued at £419,642, the principal items being
agricultural products (oranges, lemons, carobs, almonds, grapes,
valonia, &c), value £153,858, olives and products of olives (oil, soap,
&c), £134,788, and wines and liquors, £48,544. The countries which
accept the largest share of Cretan produce are Turkey, England,
Egypt, Austria and Russia. Imports in 1904 were valued at
£549,665, including agricultural products (mainly flour and corn),
value £162,535, and textiles, £129,349. Cereals are imported from
the Black Sea and Danube ports, ready-made clothing from Austria
and Germany, articles of luxury from Austria and France, and
cotton textiles from England. Imports are charged 8%, exports
I % ad valorem duty. According to a law published in 1899, Turkish
merchandise became subjected to the same rates as that of foreign
nations.

Constitution and Government. — During the past half-century
the affairs of Crete have repeatedly occupied the attention of
Europe. Owing to the existence of a strong Mussulman minority
among its inhabitants, the warlike character of the natives, and
the mountainous configuration of the country, which enabled a
portion of the Christian population to maintain itself in a state
of partial independence, the island has constantly been the scene
of prolonged and sanguinary struggles in which the numerical
superiority of the Christians was counterbalanced by the aid
rendered to the Moslems by the Ottoman troops. This unhappy
state of affairs was aggravated and perpetuated by the intrigues
set on foot at Constantinople against successive governors of the
island, the conflicts between the Palace and the Porte, the
duplicity of the Turkish authorities, the dissensions of the
representatives of the great powers, the machinations of Greek
agitators, the rivalry of Cretan politicians, and prolonged financial
mismanagement. A long series of insurrections — those of 182 1,
1833, 1841, 1858, 1866-1868, 1878, 1889 and 1896 may be
especially mentioned — culminated in the general rebellion of
1897, which led to the interference of Greece, the intervention of
the great powers, the expulsion of the Turkish authorities, and
the establishment of an autonomous Cretan government under
the suzerainty of the sultan. According to the autonomous
constitution of 1899 the supreme power was vested in Prince
George of Greece, acting as high commissioner of the protecting
powers. The authority thus conferred was confided exclusively
to the prince, and was declared liable to modification by law in the
case of his successor. The modified constitution of February 1 907
curtailed the large exceptional legislative and administrative
powers then accorded. The high commissioner is irresponsible,

but his decrees, except in certain specified cases, must be counter-
signed by a member of his council. He convokes, prorogues and
dissolves the chamber, sanctions laws, exercises the right of
pardon in case of political offences, represents the island in its
foreign relations and is chief of its military forces. The chamber
(j3ov\rf) , which is elected in the proportion of one deputy to every
5000 inhabitants, meets annually for a session of two months.
New elections are held every two years. The chamber exercises
a complete financial control, and no taxes can be imposed without
its consent. The high commissioner is aided in the administra-
tion by a cabinet of three members, styled " councillors "
(o-fyt/fouXoi), who superintend the departments of justice,
finance, education, public security and the interior. The
councillors, who are nominated and dismissed by the high com-
missioner, are responsible to the chamber, which may impeach
them before a special tribunal for any illegal act or neglect of duty.
In general the Cretan constitution is characterized by a con-
servative spirit, and contrasts with the ultra-democratic systems
established in Greece and the Balkan States. A further point of
difference is the more liberal payment of public functionaries in
Crete. For administrative purposes the departmental divisions
existing under the Turkish government have been retained.
There are 5 nomoi or prefectures (formerly sanjaks) each under a
prefect (vonapxos), and 23 eparchies (formerly kazas) each under
a sub-prefect (eTapxos). All these functionaries are nominated
by the high commissioner. The prefects are assisted by depart-
mental councils. The system of municipal and communal
government remains practically unchanged. The island is
divided into 86 communes, each with a mayor, an assistant-
mayor, and a communal council elected by the people. The
councils assess within certain limits the communal taxes,
maintain roads, bridges, &c, and generally superintend local
affairs. Public order is maintained by a force of gendarmerie
(xo)po4>vKanrf) organized and at first commanded by Italian
officers, who were replaced by Greek officers La December
1906. The constitution authorizes the formation of a militia
(iro\i.TO<t>v\aicri) to be enrolled by conscription, but in existing
circumstances the embodiment of this force seems unnecessary.

Justice. — The administration of justice is on the French model.
A supreme court of appeal, which also discharges the functions of
a court of cassation, sits at Canea. There are two assize courts at
Canea and Candia respectively with jurisdiction in regard to
serious offences (icaKovpyripaTa). Minor offences (1rX1jnij.eKr1ij.aTa)
and civil causes are tried by courts of first instance in each of the
five departments. There are 26 justices of peace, to whose
decision are referred slight contraventions of the law {xralanaTa)
and civil causes in which the amount claimed is below 600 francs.
These functionaries also hold monthly sessions in the various
communes. The judges are chosen without regard to religious
belief, and precautions have been taken to render them
independent of political parties. They are appointed, promoted,
transferred or removed by order of the council of justice, a body
composed of the five highest judicial dignitaries, sitting at Canea.
An order for the removal of a judge must be based upon a con-
viction for some specified offence before a court of law. The
jury system has not been introduced. The Greek penal code
has been adopted with some modifications. The Ottoman civil
code is maintained for the present, but it is proposed to establish
a code recently drawn up by Greek jurists which is mainly based
on Italian and Saxon law. The Mussulman cadis retain their
jurisdiction in regard to religious affairs, marriage, divorce,
the wardship of minors and inheritance.

Religion and Education. — The vast majority of the Christian
population belongs to the Orthodox (Greek) Church, which is
governed by a synod of seven bishops under the presidency of
the metropolitan of Candia. The Cretan Church is not, strictly
speaking, autocephalous, being dependent on the patriarchate
of Constantinople. There were in 1907 3500 Greek churches
in the island with 53 monasteries and 3 nunneries; 55 mosques,
4 Roman Catholic churches and 4 synagogues. Education 's
nominally compulsory. In 1907 there were 547 primary schools
(527 Christian and 20 Mahommedan), and 31 secondary schools

CRETE

421

(all Christian). About £20,000 is granted annually by the state
for the purposes of education.

Finance. — Owing to the havoc wrought during repeated insur-
rections, the impoverishment of the peasants, the desolation of the
districts formerly inhabited by the Moslem agricultural population,
and the drain of gold resulting from the sale of Moslem lands and
emigration of the former proprietors, together with other causes,
the financial situation has been unsatisfactory. Notwithstanding
the advance of £160,000 made by the four protecting powers after
the institution of autonomous government and the profits (£61,937)
derived from the issue of a new currency in 1900, there was at the
beginning of 1906 an accumulated deficit of £23,470, which represents
the floating debt. In addition to the above-mentioned debt to the
powers, the state contracted a loan of £60,000 in 1901 to acquire
the rights and privileges of the Ottoman Debt, to which the salt
monopoly has been conceded for 20 years. In the budgets for 1905
and 1906 considerable economies were effected by the curtailment
of salaries, the abolition of various posts, and the reduction of the
estimates for education and public works. The estimated revenue
and expenditure for 1906 were as follows: —

Revenue. Expenditure.

Drachmae (gold). Drachmae (gold).

Direct taxes . 1,494,000 High Commissioner . 200,000

Indirect taxes . 1,715,000 Financial adminis-
tration. . . . 694,670

Stamp dues . . 351,700 Interior (including

gendarmerie) . . 1,678,566

Other sources . 780,967 Education and Justice 1,453,500

4,341,667

4,026,736

The salary of the high commissioner was reduced in 1907 to 100,000
drachmae.

Improved communications are much needed for the transport of
agricultural produce, but the state of the treasury does not admit of
more than a nominal expenditure on road-making and other public
works. On these the average yearly expenditure between 1898 and
1905 was £13,404. The prosperity of the island depends on the
development of agriculture, the acquirement of industrious habits
by the people, and the abandonment of political agitation. The
Cretans were in 1906 more lightly taxed than any other people in
Europe. The tithe had been replaced by an export tax on exported
agricultural produce levied at the custom-houses, and the smaller
peasant proprietors and shepherds of the mountainous districts
were practically exempt from any contribution to the state. The
communal tax did not exceed on the average two francs annu-
ally for each family. The poorer communes are aided by a state
subvention. (J. D. B.)

Archaeology.

The recent exploration and excavation of early sites
in Crete have entirely revolutionized our knowledge of its
_ rl remote past, and afforded the most astonishing

Middle evidence of the existence of a highly advanced
and Late civilization going far back behind the historic period.
"*'"° an " Great " Minoan " palaces have been brought to
light at Cnossus and Phaestus, together with a minor
but highly interesting royal abode at Hagia Triada near
Phaestus. " Minoan " towns, some of considerable extent,
have been discovered at Cnossus itself, at Gournia, Palaikastro,
and at Zakro. The cave sanctuary of the Dictaean Zeus
has been explored, and throughout the whole length and
breadth of the island a mass of early materials has now
been collected. The comparative evidence afforded by the dis-
covery of Egyptian relics shows that the Great Age of the Cretan
palaces covers the close of the third and the first half of the
second millennium before our era. But the contents of early tombs
and dwellings and indications supplied by such objects as stone
vases and seal-stones show that the Cretans had already attained
to a considerable degree of culture, and had opened out com-
munication with the Nile valley in the time of the earliest
Egyptian dynasties. This more primitive phase of the indigenous
culture, of which several distinct stages are traceable, is known
as the Early Minoan, and roughly corresponds with the first
half of the third millennium B.C. The succeeding period, to
which the first palaces are due and to which the name of
Middle Minoan is appropriately given, roughly coincides with the
Middle Empire of Egypt. An extraordinary perfection was at
this time attained in many branches of art, notably in the painted
pottery, often with polychrome decoration, of a class known as
" Kamares " from its first discovery in a cave of that name on

Mount Ida. Imported specimens of this ware were found by
Flinders Petrie among Xllth Dynasty remains at Kahun.
The beginnings of a school of wall painting also go back to the
Middle Minoan period, and metal technique and such arts as
gem engraving show great advance. By the close of this period
a manufactory of fine faience was attached to the palace of
Cnossus. The succeeding Late Minoan period, best illustrated
by the later palace at Cnossus and that at Hagia Triada, corre-
sponds in Egypt with the Hyksos period and the earlier part of
the New Empire. In the first phase of this the Minoan civiliza-
tion attains its acme, and the succeeding style already shows
much that may be described as rococo. The later phase, which
follows on the destruction of the Cnossian palace, and corresponds
with the diffused Mycenaean style of mainland Greece and else-
where, is already partly decadent. Late Minoan art in its finest
aspect is best illustrated by the animated ivory figures, wall
paintings, and gesso duro reliefs at Cnossus, by the painted stucco
designs at Hagia Triada, and the steatite vases found on the same
site with zones in reliefs exhibiting life-like scenes of warriors,
toreadors, gladiators, wrestlers and pugilists, and of a festal
throng perhaps representing a kind of " harvest home." Of
the more conventional side of Late Minoan life a graphic illustra-
tion is supplied by the remains of miniature wall paintings found
in the palace of Cnossus, showing groups of court ladies in
curiously modern costumes, seated on the terraces and balustrades
of a sanctuary. A grand " palace style " of vase painting was
at the same time evolved, in harmony with the general decoration
of the royal halls.

It had been held till lately that the great civilization of pre-
historic Greece, as first revealed to us by Schliemann's discoveries
at Mycenae, was not possessed of the art of writing.
In 1893, however, Arthur Evans observed some signs on script
seal-stones from Crete which led him to believe that a
hieroglyphic system of writing had existed in Minoan times.
Explorations carried out by him in Crete from 1894 onwards, for
the purpose of investigating the prehistoric civilization of the
island, fully corroborated this belief, and showed that a linear
as well as a semi-pictorial form of writing was diffused in the
island at a very early period (" Cretan Pictographs and Prae-
Phoenician Script," J own. of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pt. 11).
In 1895 he obtained a libation- table from the Dictaean cave with
a linear dedication in the prehistoric writing (" Further Dis-
coveries," &c, J.H.S. xvii.). Finally in 1900 all scepticism in
the learned world was set at rest by his discovery in the palace of
Cnossus of whole archives consisting of clay tablets inscribed both
in the pictographic (hieroglyphic) and linear forms of the Minoan
script (Evans, " Palace of Knossos," Reports of Excavation,
igoo-igos; Scripta Minoa, vol. i., 1909). Supplementary
finds of inscribed tablets have since been found at Hagia Triada
(F. Halbherr, Rapporto, &c., Monumenti antichi, 1903) and
elsewhere (Palaikastro, Zakro and Gournia). It thus appears
that a highly developed system of writing existed in Minoan
Crete some two thousand years earlier than the first introduction
under Phoenician influence of Greek letters. In this, as in so
many other respects, the old Cretan tradition receives striking
confirmation. According to the Cretan version preserved by
Diodorus (v. 74), the Phoenicians did not invent letters but
simply altered their forms.

There is evidence that the use in Crete of both linear and
pictorial signs existed in the Early Minoan period, contemporary
with the first Egyptian dynasties. It is, however, Earlier
during the Middle Minoan age, the centre point of which picto-
corresponds with the Xllth Egyptian dynasty, accord- f££w /c
ing to the Sothic system of dating, c. 2000-1850 B.C.,
that a systematized pictographic or hieroglyphic script makes
its appearance which is common both to signets and clay tablets.
During the Third Middle Minoan period, the lower limits of
which approach 1600 B.C., this pictographic script finally gives
way to a still more developed linear system — which is itself
divided into an earlier and a later class. The earlier class (A)
is already found in the temple repositories of Cnossus belong-
ing to the age immediately preceding the great remodelling of the

4-22

CRETE

palace, and this class is specially well represented in the
tablets of Hagia Triada (M.M. iii. and L.M. i.). The later class
(B) of the linear script is that used on the great bulk of the
clay tablets of the Cnossian palace, amounting in number to
nearly 2000.

These clay archives are almost exclusively inventories and
business documents. Their general purport is shown in many
cases by pictorial figures relating to various objects which appear
on them — such as chariots and horses, ingots and metal vases,
arms and implements, stores of corn, &c, flocks and herds. Many
showing human figures apparently contain lists of personal names.
A decimal system of numeration was used, with numbers going
up to 10,000. But the script itself is as yet undeciphered, though
it is clear that certain words have changing suffixes, and that
there were many compound words. The script also recurs on
walls in the shape of graffiti, and on vases, sometimes ink- written;
and from the number of seals originally attached to perishable
documents it is probable that parchment or some similar material
was also used. In the easternmost district of Crete, where the
aboriginal " Eteocretan " element survived to historic times
(Praesus, Palaikastro) , later inscriptions have been discovered
belonging to the 5th and succeeding centuries B.C., written in
Greek letters but in the indigenous language (Comparetti, Mon.
Ant. iii. 451 sqq.; R. S. Conway, British School Annual, viii.
1 25 sqq. and ib. xl.). In 1908 a remarkable discovery was made
by the Italian Mission at Phaestus of a clay disk with imprinted
hieroglyphic characters belonging to a non-Cretan system and
probably from W. Anatolia.

The remains of several shrines within the building, and the
religious element perceptible in the frescoes, show that a con-
siderable part of the Palace of Cnossus was devoted
C /./H/ ,Cter t0 P ur P oses °f cu ^- ft * s c l ear tna t the rulers, as so
religion. commonly in ancient states, fulfilled priestly as well as
royal functions. The evidence supplied by this and
other Cretan sites shows that the principal Minoan divinity was a
kind of Magna Mater, a Great Mother or nature goddess, with
whom was associated a male satellite. The cult in fact corre-
sponds in its main outlines with the early religious conceptions of
Syria and a large part of Anatolia — a correspondence probably
explained by a considerable amount of ethnic affinity existing
between a large section of the primitive Cretan population and
that of southern Asia Minor. The Minoan goddess is sometimes
seen in her chthonic form with serpents, sometimes in a more
celestial aspect with doves, at times with lions. One part of her
religious being survives in that of the later Rhea, another in that
of Aphrodite, one of whose epithets, Ariadne (=the exceeding
holy), takes us back to the earliest Cnossian tradition. Under her
native name, Britomartis ( = the sweet maiden) or Dictynna, she
approaches Artemis and Leto, again associated with an infant
god, and this Cretan virgin goddess was worshipped in Aegina
under the name of Aphaea. It is noteworthy that whereas, in
Greece proper, Zeus attains a supreme position, the old superi-
ority of the Mother Goddess is still visible in the Cretan traditions
of Rhea and Dictynna and the infant Zeus.

Although images of the divinities were certainly known, the
principal objects of cult in the Minoan age were of the aniconic
class; in many cases these were natural objects, such as rocks and
mountain peaks, with their cave sanctuaries, like those of Ida
or of Dicte. Trees and curiously shaped stones were also
worshipped, and artificial pillars of wood or stone. These latter,
as in the well-known case of the Lion's Gate at Mycenae, often
appear with guardian animals as their supporters. The essential
feature of this. cult is the bringing down of the celestial spirit by
proper incantations and ritual into these fetish objects, the dove
perched on a column sometimes indicating its descent. It is a
primitive cult similar to that of Early Canaan, illustrated by the
pillow stone set up by Jacob, which was literally " Bethel " or the
" House of God." The story of the baetylus, or stone swallowed
by Saturn under the belief that it was his son, the Cretan Zeus,
seems to cover the same idea and has been derived from the same
Semitic word.

A special form of this " baetylic " cult in Minoan Crete was the

representation of the two principal divinities in their fetish form
by double axes. Shrines of the Double Axes have been found in
the palace of Cnossus itself, at Hagia Triada, and in a small
palace at Gournia, and many specimens of the sacred emblem
occurred in the Cave Sanctuary of Dicte, the mythical birthplace
of the Cretan Zeus. Complete scenes of worship in which libations
are poured before the Sacred Axes are, moreover, given on a fine
painted sarcophagus found at Hagia Triada.

The same cult survived to later times in Caria in the case of
Zeus Labrandeus, whose name is derived from labrys, the native
name for the double axe, and it had already been
suggested on philological grounds that the Cretan *I
" labyrinthos " was formed from a kindred form of Miaotaur.
the same word. The discovery that the great Minoan
foundation at Cnossus was at once a palace and a sanctuary of
the Double Axe and its associated divinities has now supplied a
striking and it may well be thought an overwhelming confirma-
tion of this view. We can hardly any longer hesitate to recognize
in this vast building, with its winding corridors and subterranean
ducts, the Labyrinth of later tradition; and as a matter of fact a
maze pattern recalling the conventional representation of the
Labyrinth in Greek art actually formed the decoration of one of
the corridors of the palace. It is difficult, moreover, not to
connect the repeated wall-paintings and reliefs of the palace
illustrating the cruel bull sports of the Minoan arena, in which
girls as well as youths took part, with the legend of the Minotaur,
or bull of Minos, for whose grisly meals Athens was forced to pay
annual tribute of her sons and daughters. It appears certain
from the associations in which they are found at Cnossus, that
these Minoan bull sports formed part of a religious ceremony.
Actual figures of a monster with a bull's head and man's body
occurred on seals of Minoan fabric found on this and other
Cretan sites.

It is abundantly evident that whatever mythic element may
have been interwoven with the old traditions of the spot, they
have a solid substratum of reality. With such remains Hlstor j c
before us it is no longer sufficient to relegate Minos to su b-
the regions of sun-myths. His legendary presentation stratum of
as the " Friend of God," like Abraham, to whom as to Cretan
Moses the law was revealed on the holy mountain, calls m y tns -
up indeed just such a priest-king of antiquity as the palace-sanctu-
ary of Cnossus itself presupposes. It seems possible even that
the ancient tradition which recorded an earlier or later king of the
name of Minos may, as suggested above, cover a dynastic title.
The earlier and later palaces at Cnossus and Phaestus, and the
interrupted phases of each, seem to point to a succession of
dynasties, to which, as to its civilization as a whole, it is certainly
convenient to apply the name " Minoan." It is interesting, as
bringing out the personal element in the traditional royal seat,
that an inscribed sealing belonging to the earliest period of the
later palace of Cnossus bears on it the impression of two official
signets with portrait heads of a man and of a boy, recalling the
" associations " on the coinage of imperial Rome. It is clear that
the later traditions in many respects accurately summed up the
performances of the " Minoan " dynast who carried out the great
buildings now brought to light. The palace, with its wonderful
works of art, executed for Minos by the craftsman Daedalus,
has ceased to belong to the realms of fancy. The extraordinary
architectural skill, the sanitary and hydraulic science revealed in
details of the building, bring us at the same time face to face
with the power of mechanical invention with which Daedalus
was credited. The elaborate method and bureaucratic control
visible in the clay documents of the palace point to a highly
developed legal organization. The powerful fleet and maritime
empire which Minos was said to have established will no doubt
receive fuller illustration when the sea-town of Cnossus comes to
be explored. The appearance of ships on some of the most
important seal-impressions is not needed, however, to show how
widely Minoan influence made itself felt in the neighbouring
Mediterranean regions.

The Nilotic influence visible in the vases, seals and other
fabrics of the Early Minoan age, seems to imply a maritime

CRETE

423

land of
Greece.

activity on the part of the islanders going back to the days of the
first Egyptian dynasties. In a deposit at Kahun, belonging to
Early *- ne Xllth Dynasty, c. 2000 B.C., were already found

relations imported polychrome vases of " Middle Minoan "
wft* fabric. In the same way the important part played by

Egypt. Cretan enterprise in the days of the New Egyptian
empire is illustrated by repeated finds of Late Minoan pottery
on Egyptian sites. A series of monuments, moreover, belonging
to the early part of the XVIIIth Dynasty show the representa-
The Kefts tives of the Kefts or peoples of " The Ring " and of the
and " Lands to the West " in the fashionable costume of

Phitis- the Cnossian court, bearing precious vessels and other
s " objects of typical Minoan forms. Farther to the east

the recent excavations on the old Philistine sites like Gezer have
brought to light swords and vases of Cretan manufacture in the
later palace style. The principal Philistine tribe is indeed known
in the biblical records as the Cherethims or Cretans, and the
Minoan name and the cult of the Cretan Zeus were preserved at
Gaza to the latest classical days. Similar evidence
relations °^ Minoan contact, and indeed of wholesale colonization
with from the Aegean side, recurs in Cyprus. The culture of

Cyprus the more northerly Aegean islands, best revealed to us
n"a ky the excavations of the British School at Phylakopi

in Melos, also attest a growing influence from the
Cretan side, which, about the time of the later palace at
Cnossus, becomes finally predominant.

Turning to the mainland of Greece we see that the astonishing
remains of a highly developed prehistoric civilization, which
Minoan Schliemann first brought to light in 1876 at Mycenae,
influence and which from those discoveries received the general
on main- name of " Mycenaean," in the main represent a trans-
marine offshoot from the Minoan stock. The earlier
remains both at Mycenae and Tiryns, still imperfectly
investigated, show that this Cretan influence goes back to the
Middle Minoan age, with its characteristic style of polychrome
vase decoration. The contents of the royal tombs, on the other
hand, reveal a wholesale correspondence with the fabrics of the
first, and, to a less degree, the second Late Minoan age, as
illustrated by the relics belonging to the Middle Period of the later
palace at Cnossus and by those of the royal villa at Hagia Triada.
The chronological centre of the great beehive tombs seems to
be slightly lower. The ceiling of that of Orchomenos, and the
painted vases and gold cups from the Vaphio tomb by Sparta,
with their marvellous reliefs showing scenes of bull-hunting,
represent the late palace style at Cnossus in its final development.

The leading characteristics of this mainland civilization are
thus indistinguishable from the Minoan. The funeral rites are
similar, and the religious representations show an identical form
of worship. At the same time the local traditions and conditions
differentiate the continental from the insular branch. In Crete,
in the later period, when the rulers could trust to the " wooden
walls " of the Minoan navy, there is no parallel for the massive
fortifications that we see at Tiryns or Mycenae. The colder winter
climate of mainland Greece dictated the use of fixed hearths,
whereas in the Cretan palaces these seem to have been of a port-
able kind, and the different usage in this respect again reacted
on the respective forms of the principal hall or " Megaron."

Minoan culture under its mainland aspect left its traces on the
Acropolis at Athens, — a corroboration of the tradition which
Minoan ma de the Athenians send their tribute children to
Influences Minos.' Similar traces extend through a large part of
>pN. northern Greece from Cephallenia and Leucadia to

Thessaly, and are specially well marked at Iolcus (near
mod. Volo), the legendary embarking place of the Argonauts.
This circumstance deserves attention owing to the special con-
nexion traditionally existing between the Minyans of Iolcus and
those of Orchomenus, the point of all others on this side where
the early Cretan influence seems most to have taken root. The
Minoan remains at Orchomenus which are traceable to the latest
period go far to substantiate the philological comparison between
the name of Minyas, the traditional ancestor of this ancient race,
and that of Minos.

Still farther to the north-west a distinct Minoan influence is
perceptible in the old Illyrian lands east of the Adriatic, and its
traces reappear in the neighbourhood of Venice. It is Adriatic
well marked throughout southern Italy from Taranto and
to Naples. It was with Sicily, however, that the later Italian
history of Minos and his great craftsman Daedalus was extens,on -
in a special way connected by ancient tradition. Here, as in
Crete, Daedalus executed great works like the temple of Eryx,
and it was on Sicilian soil that Minos, engaged in a western
campaign, was said to have met with a violent death at the
hands of the native king Kokalos (Cocalus) and his daughters.
His name is preserved in the Sicilian Minoa, and his tomb was
pointed out in the neighbourhood of Agrigentum, with a shrine
above dedicated to his native Aphrodite, the lady of the dove;
and in this connexion it must be observed that the cult of Eryx
perpetuates to much later times the characteristic features of
the worship of the Cretan Nature goddess, as now revealed
to us in the palace of Cnossus and elsewhere. These ancient
indications of a Minoan connexion with Sicily have now received
interesting confirmation in the numerous discoveries, principally
due to the recent excavations of P. Orsi, of arms and painted vases
of Late Minoan fabric in Bronze Age tombs of the provinces of
Syracuse and Girgenti (Agrigentum) belonging to the late Bronze
Age. Some of these objects, such as certain forms of swords and
vases, seem to be of local fabric, but derived from originals going
back to the beginning of the Late Minoan age.

The abiding tradition of the Cretan aborigines, as preserved
by Herodotus (vii. 171), ascribes the eventual settlement of the
Greeks in Crete to a widespread desolation that had Minoan
fallen on the central regions. It is certain that by crisis:
the beginning of the 14th century B.C., when the signs c - ,400
of already decadent Minoan art are perceptible in the
imported pottery found in the palace of Akhenaton at Tell el-
Amarna, some heavy blows had fallen on the island power.
Shortly before this date the palaces both of Cnossus and Phaestus
had undergone a great destruction, and though during the ensu-
ing period both these royal residences were partially reoccupied
it was for the most part at any rate by poorer denizens, and their
great days as palaces were over for ever. Elsewhere at Cnossus,
in the smaller palace to the west, the royal villa and the town
houses, we find the evidence of a similar catastrophe followed
by an imperfect recovery, and the phenomenon meets us again
at Palaikastro and other early settlements in the east of Crete.
At the same time, to whatever cause this serious setback of
Minoan civilization was owing, it would be very unsafe to infer
as yet any large displacement of the original inhabitants by the
invading swarms from the mainland or elsewhere. The evidence
of a partial restoration of the domestic quarter of the palace of
Cnossus tends to show a certain measure of dynastic continuity.
There is evidence, moreover, that the script and with it the
indigenous language did not die out during this period, and that
therefore the days of Hellenic settlement at Cnossus were not
yet. The recent exploration of a cemetery belonging to the
close of the great palace period, and in a greater degree to the
age succeeding the catastrophe, has now conclusively shown
that there was no real break in the continuity of Minoan culture.
This third Late Minoan period — the beginning of which may be
fixed about 1400 — is an age of stagnation and decline, but the
point of departure continued to be the models supplied by the
age that had preceded it. Art was still by no means extinct, and
its forms and decorative elements are simply later derivatives
of the great palace style. Not only the native form of writing,
but the household arrangements, sepulchral usages, and religious
rites remain substantially the same. The third Late Minoan age
corresponds generally with the Late Mycenaean stage in the
Aegean world (see Aegean Civilization). It is an age indeed
in which the culture as a whole, though following a lower level,
attains the greatest amount of uniformity. From Sicily and even
the Spanish coast to the Troad, southern Asia Minor, Cyprus and
Palestine, — from the Nile valley to the mouth of the Po, very
similar forms were now diffused. Here and there, as in Cyprus,
we watch the development of some local schools. How far Crete

424

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itself continued to preserve the hegemony which may reasonably
be ascribed to it at an earlier age must remain doubtful. It is
certain that towards the close of this third and concluding
Late Minoan period in the island certain mainland types of swords
and safety-pins make their appearance, which are symptomatic
of the great invasion from that side that was now impending or
had already begun.

Principal Minoan Sites.
It will be convenient here to give a general view of the more
important Minoan remains recently excavated on various Cretan
sites.

Cnossus. — The palace of Cnossus is on the hill of Kephala about
4 m. inland from Candia. As a scene of human settlement this site
is of immense antiquity. The successive " Minoan " strata, which
go well back into the fourth millennium B.C., reach down to a depth
of about 17 ft. But below this again is a human deposit, from
20 to 26 ft. in thickness, representing a long and gradual course of
Neolithic or Later Stone- Age development. Assuming that the lower
strata were formed at approximately the same rate as the upper,
we have an antiquity of from 12,000 to 14,000 years indicated for the
first Neolithic settlement on this spot. The hill itself, like a Tell of
Babylonia, is mainly formed of the debris of human settlements.
The palace was approached from the west by a paved Minoan Way
communicating with a considerable building on the opposite hill.
This road was flanked by magazines, some belonging to the royal
armoury, and abutted on a paved area with stepped seats on two
sides (theatral area). The palace itself approximately formed a
square with a large paved court in the centre. It had a N.S. orienta-
tion. The principal entrance was to the north, but what appears to
have been the royal entrance opened on a paved court on the west
side. This entrance communicated with a corridor showing frescoes
of a processional character. The west side of the palace contained
a series of 18 magazines with great store jars and cists and large
hoards of clay documents. A remarkable feature of this quarter is
a small council chamber with a gypsum throne of curiously Gothic
aspect and lower stone benches round. The walls of the throne room
show frescoes with sacred griffins confronting each other in a Nile
landscape, and a small bath chamber — perhaps of ritual use — is
attached. This quarter of the palace shows the double axe sign
constantly repeated on its walls and pillars, and remains of miniature
wall-paintings showing pillar shrines, in some cases with double axes
stuck into the wooden columns. Here too were found the repositories
of an early shrine containing exquisite faience figures and reliefs,
including a snake goddess — another aspect of the native divinity
— -and her votaries. The central object of cult in this shrine was
apparently a marble cross. Near the north-west angle of the palace
was a larger bath chamber, and by the N. entrance were remains of
great reliefs of bull-hunting scenes in painted gesso duro. South of
the central court were found parts of a relief in the same material,
showing a personage with a fleur-de-lis crown and collar. The east
wing of the palace was the really residential part. Here was what
seems to have been the basement of a very large hall or " Megaron,"
approached directly from the central court, and near this were found
further reliefs, fresco representations of scenes of the bull-ring with
female as well as male toreadors, and remains of a magnificent
gaming-board of gold-plated ivory with intarsia work of crystal
plaques set on silver plates and blue enamel {cyanus). The true
domestic quarter lay to the south of the great hall, and was approached
from the central court by a descending staircase, of which three
flights and traces of a fourth are preserved. This gives access to
a whole series of halls and private rooms (halls " of the Colonnades,"
" of the Double Axes," " Queen's Megaron" with bath-room attached
and remains of the fish fresco, " Treasury " with ivory figures and
other objects of art), together with extensive remains of an upper
storey. The drainage system here, including a water-closet, is of the
most complete and modern kind. Near this domestic quarter was
found a small shrine of the Double Axes, with cult objects^ and
offertory vessels in their places. The traces of an earlier " Middle
Minoan " palace beneath the later floor-levels are most visible on
the east side, with splendid ceramic remains. Here also are early
magazines with huge store jars. At the foot of the slope on this side,
forming the eastern boundary of the palace, are massive supporting
walls and a bastion with descending flights of steps, and a water-
channel devised with extraordinary hydraulic science (Evans,
" Palace of Knossos," " Reports of Excavations 1900-1905," in
Annual of British School at Athens, vi. sqq.; Journ. R.I.B.A.
(1902), pt. iv. For the palace pottery see D. Mackenzie, Journ. of
Hellenic Studies, xxiii.). The palace site occupies nearly six acres.
To the N.E. of it came to light a " royal villa " with staircase, and a
basilica-like hall (Evans, B.S. Annual, ix. 130 seq.). To the N.W.
was a dependency containing an important hoard of bronze vessels
(ib. p. 112 sqq.). The building on the hill to the W. approached
by the Minoan paved way has the appearance of a smaller palace
{B.S. Annual, xii., 1906). Many remains of private houses belonging
to the prehistoric town have also come to light (Hogarth, B.S. A. vi.
^1900], p. 70 sqq.). A little N. of the town, at a spot called Zafer

Papoura, an extensive Late Minoan cemetery was excavated in
1904 (Evans, The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossus, 1906), and on a height
about 2 m. N. of this, a royal tomb consisting of a square chamber,
which originally had a pointed vault of " Cyclopaean " structure
approached by a forehall or rock-cut passage. This monumental
work seems to date from the close of the Middle Minoan age, but has
been re-used for interments at successive periods (Evans, Archaeo-
logia, 1906, p. 136 sqq.). It is possibly the traditional tomb of
Idomeneus. (For later discoveries see further Cnossus.)

Phaestus. — The acropolis of this historic city looks on the Libyan
Sea and commands the extensive plain of Messara. On the eastern
hill of the acropolis, excavations initiated by F. Halbherr on behalf
of the Italian Archaeological Mission and subsequently carried out
by L. Pernier have brought to light another Minoan palace, much
resembling on a somewhat smaller scale that of Cnossus. The plan
here too was roughly quadrangular with a central court, but owing
to the erosion of the hillside a good deal of the eastern quarter has
disappeared. The Phaestian palace belongs to two distinct periods,
and the earlier or " Middle Minoan " part is better preserved than
at Cnossus. The west court and entrance belonging to the earlier
building show many analogies with those of Cnossus, and the court
was commanded to the north by tiers of stone benches like those of
the " theatral area " at Cnossus on a larger scale. Magazines with
fine painted store jars came to light beneath the floor of the later
" propylaeum." The most imposing block of the later building is
formed by a group of structures rising from the terrace formed by
the old west wall. A fine paved corridor running east from this gives
access to a line of the later magazines, and through a columnar hall
to the central court beyond, while to the left of this a broad and
stately flight of steps leads up to a kind of entrance hall on an upper
terrace. North of the central court is a domestic quarter presenting
analogies with that of Cnossus, but throughout the later building
there was a great dearth of the frescoes and other remains such as
invest the Cnossian palace with so much interest. There are also
few remaining traces here of upper storeys. It is evident that in this
case also the palace was overtaken by a great catastrophe, followed
by a partial reoccupation towards the close of the Late Minoan age
(L. Pernier, Scavi delta missione italiana a Phaestos; Monumenti
antichi, xii. and xiv.).

About a kilometre distant from the palace of Phaestus near
the village of Kalyvia a Late Minoan cemetery was brought to light
in 1901, belonging to the same period as that of Cnossus (Savignoni,
Necropoli di Phaestos, 1905).

Hagia Triada. — On a low hill crowned by a small church of the
above name, about 3 m. nearer the Libyan Sea than Phaestus, a
small palace or royal villa was discovered by Halbherr and excavated'
by the Italian Mission. In its structure and general arrangements
it bears a general resemblance to the palace of Fhaestus and Cnossus
on a smaller scale. The buildings themselves, with the usual halls,
bath-rooms and magazines, together with a shrine of the Mother
Goddess, occupy two sides of a rectangle, enclosing a court at a
higher level approached by flights of stairs. Repositories also came
to light containing treasure in the shape of bronze ingots. In con-
trast to the palace of Phaestus, the contents of the royal villa proved
exceptionally rich, and derive a special interest from the fact that
the catastrophe which overwhelmed the building belongs to a
somewhat earlier part of the Late Minoan age than that which
overwhelmed Cnossus and Phaestus. Clay tablets were here found
belonging to the earlier type of the linear script (Class A), together
with a great number of clay sealings with religious and other devices
and incised countermarks. Both the signet types and the other
objects of art here discovered display the fresh naturalism that
characterizes in a special way the first Late Minoan period. A
remarkable wall-painting depicts a cat creeping over ivy-covered
rocks and about to spring on a pheasant. The steatite vases with
reliefs are of great importance. One of these shows a ritual pro-
cession, apparently of reapers singing and dancing to the sound of
a sistrum. On another a Minoan warrior prince appears before his
retainers. A tall funnel-shaped vase of this class, of which a con-
siderable part has been preserved, is divided into zones showing
bull-hunting scenes, wrestlers and pugilists in gladiatorial costume,
the whole executed in a most masterly manner. The small palace
was reconstructed at a later period, and at a somewhat higher level.
To a period contemporary with the concluding age of the Cnossian
palace must be referred a remarkable sarcophagus belonging to a
neighbouring cemetery. The chest is of limestone coated with stucco,
adorned with life-like paintings of offertory scenes in connexion with
the sacred Double Axes of Minoan cult. There ha\e also come to
light remains of a great domed mortuary chamber of primitive con-
struction containing relics of the Early Minoan period (Halbherr,
Monumenti Antichi, xiii. (1903), p. 6 sqq., and Mem one del
instituto lombardo, 1905; Paribeni, Lavori eseguiti delta missione
italiana nel Palazzo e nella necropoli di Haghia Triada; Rendiconti,
&c, xi. and xii. ; Savignoni, // Vaso di Haghia Triada).

Palaikastro. — Near this village, lying on the easternmost coast of
Crete, the British School at Athens has excavated a section of a
considerable Minoan town. The buildings here show a stratification
analogous to that of the palace of Cnossus. The town was traversed
by a well-paved street with a stone sewer, and contained several
important private houses and a larger one which seems to have been

CRETE

Plate I.

Fig. i.-PALACE OF CNOSSL'S. GENERAL VIEW OF THE SITE FROM THE EAST.

Fig. 3.— VIEW OK PART OF GRAND STAIRCASE AND HALL OF COLONNADES
(WOODEN COLUMNS RESTORED) (CNOSSUSJ.
(By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.)

CRETE

Fig. 4— GYPSUM THRONE (FRESCO PAINTING VISIBLE Fig. 5.— BASE OF WEST WALL NEAR ROYAL

ON WALL) (CNOSSUS). ENTRANCE (CNOSSUS).

(By permission of Dr A. J. Evans.)

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425

a small palace. Among the more interesting relics found were ivory
figures of Egyptian or strongly Egyptianizing fabric. On an ad-
jacent hill were the remains of what seems to have been in later times
a temple of the Dictaean Zeus, and from the occurrence of rich
deposits of Minoan vases and sacrificial remains at a lower level, the
religious tradition represented by the later temple seems to go back
to prehistoric times. On the neighbouring height of Petsofa, by a
rock-shelter, remains of another interesting shrine were brought to
light dating from the Middle Minoan period, and containing interest-
ing votive offerings of terra-cotta, many of them apparently relating
to cures or to the warding off of diseases (R. C. Bosanquet, British
School Annual, viii. 286 sqq., ix. 274 sqq.; R. M. Dawkins, ibid.
ix. 290 sqq., x.; J. L. Myres, ibid. ix. 356 sqq.).

Gournia. — Near this hamlet on the coast of the Gulf of Mirabello in
east Crete.the American archaeologist MissHarriet Boyd has excavated
a great part of another Minoan town. It covers the sides of a long
hill, its main avenue being a winding roadway leading to a small
palace. It contained a shrine of the Cretan snake goddess, and was
rich in minor relics, chiefly in the shape of bronze implements and
pottery for household use. The bulk of the remains belong here, as
at Hagia Triada, to the beginning of the Late Minoan period, but
there are signs of reoccupation in the decadent Minoan age. The
remains supply detailed information as to the everyday life of a
Cretan country town about the middle of the second millennium B.C.
(H. Boyd, Excavations at Gournia).

Zakro. — Near the lower hamlet of that name on the S.E. coast
important remains of a settlement contemporary with that of Gournia
were explored by D. G. Hogarth, consisting of houses and pits
containing painted pottery of exceptional beauty and a great variety
of seal impressions. The deep bay in which Zakro lies is a well-known
port of call for the fishing fleets on their way to the sponge grounds
of the Libyan coast, and doubtless stood in the same stead to the
Minoan shipping (D.G.Hogarth, Annual of the British School, vii. 121
sqq., and Journ. of Hellenic Studies, xxii. 76 sqq. and 333 sqq.).

Dictaean Cave. — Near the village of Psychro on the Lassithi range,
answering to the western Dicte, opens a large cave, identified with
the legendary birthplace of the Cretan Zeus. This cavern also shared
with that of Ida the claim to have been that in which Minos, Moses-
like, received the law from Zeus. The exploration begun by the
Italian Mission under Halbherr and continued by Evans, who found
here the inscribed libation table (see above), was completed by
Hogarth in 1900. Besides the great entrance hall of the cavern,
which served as the upper shrine, were descending vaults forming a
lower sanctuary going down deep into the bowels of the earth. Great

auantities of votive figures and objects of cult, such as the fetish
ouble axes and stone tables of offering, were found both above and
below. In the lower sanctuary the natural pillars of stalagmite
had been used as objects of worship, and bronze votive objects
thrust into their crevices (Halbherr, Museo di antichiti classica, ii.
pp. 906-910; Evans, Further Discoveries, &c, p. 350 sqq., Myc. Tree
and Pillar Cult, p. 14 sqq.; Hogarth, "The Dictaean Cave,"
Annual of British School at Athens, vi. 94 sqq.).

Pseira and Mochlos. — On these two islets on the northern coast
of E. Crete, R. Seager, an American explorer, has found striking
remains of flourishing Minoan settlements. The contents of a series
of tombs at Mochlos throw an entirely new light on the civilization of
the Early Minoan age.

The above summary gives, indeed, a very imperfect idea
of the extent to which the remains of the great Minoan civiliza-
tion are spread throughout the island. The "hundred

Third La e c j t j es » ascr ibed to Crete by Homer are in a fair way
minoan . . , ,. ^ J

period. of becoming an ascertained reality. The great days

of Crete lie thus beyond the historic period. The
period of decline referred to above (Late Minoan III.), which
begins about the beginning of the 14th century before our era,
must, from the abundance of its remains, have been of consider-
able duration. As to the character of the invading elements that
hastened its close, and the date of their incursions, contemporary
Egyptian monuments afford the best clue. The Keftiu who
represented Minoan culture in Egypt in the concluding period
of the Cnossian palace (Late Minoan II.) cease to appear on
Egyptian monuments towards the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty
(c. 1350 B.C.), and their place is taken by the "Peoples of the
Sea." The Achaeans, under the name Akaiusha, already appear
among the piratical invaders of Egypt in the time of Rameses
III. (c. 1200 B.C.) of the XXth Dynasty (see H. R. Hall,
" Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea," Annual of British School
at Athens, viii. 157 sqq.).

Greek About the same time the evidences of imports of

settle- Late Minoan or " Mycenaean " fabrics in Egypt
menu la definitely cease. In the Odyssey we already find the

Achaeans together with Dorians settled in central
Crete. In the extreme east and west of the island the aboriginal

" Eteocretan " element, however, as represented respectively
by the Praesiansor Cydonians, still held its own, and inscriptions
written in Greek characters show that the old language survived
to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.

The mainland invasions which produced these great ethnic
changes in Crete are marked archaeologically by signs of wide-
spread destruction and by a considerable break in
the continuity of the insular civilization. New burial a „, g#
customs, notably the rite of cremation in place of the
older corpse-burial, are introduced, and in many cases the earlier
tombs were pillaged and re-used by new comers. The use of
iron for arms and implements now finally triumphed over
bronze. Northern forms of swords and safety-pins are now
found in general use. A new geometrical style of decoration
like that of contemporary Greece largely supplants the Minoan
models. The civic foundations which belong to this period,
and which include the greater part of the massive ruins of
Goulas and Anavlachos in the province of Mirabello and of
Hyrtakina in the west, affect more or less precipitous sites and
show a greater tendency to fortification. The old system of
writing now dies out, and it is not till some three centuries
later that the new alphabetic forms are introduced from a
Semitic source. The whole course of the older Cretan civilization
is awhile interrupted, and is separated from the new by the true
dark ages of Greece.

It is nevertheless certain that some of the old traditions were
preserved by the remnants of the old population now reduced
to a subject condition, and that these finally leavened the whole
lump, so that once more — this time under a Hellenic guise —
Crete was enabled to anticipate mainland Greece in nascent
civilization. Already in 1883 A. Milchhofer {Anfange der
Kunst) had called attention to certain remarkable examples
of archaic Greek bronze-work, and the subsequent discovery
of the votive bronzes in the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida, and
notably the shields with their fine embossed designs, shows that
by the 8th century B.C. Cretan technique in metal not only held
its own beside imported Cypro-Phoenician work, but was dis-
tinctly ahead of that of the rest of Greece (Halbherr, Bronzi
del antro di Zeus Ideo). The recent excavations by the British
School on the site of the Dictaean temple at Palaikastro bear
out this conclusion, and an archaic marble head of Apollo found
at Eleutherna shows that classical tradition was not at fault in
recording the existence of a very early school of Greek sculpture
in the island, illustrated by the names of Dipoenos and Scyllis.

The Dorian dynasts in Crete seem in some sort to have claimed
descent from Minos, and the Dorian legislators sought their
sanction in the laws which Minos was said to have received
from the hands of the Cretan Zeus. The great monument
of Gortyna discovered by Halbherr and Fabricius (Momtmenti
antichi, iii.) is the most important monument of early law
hitherto brought to light in any part of the Greek world.

Among other Greek remains in the island may be mentioned,
besides the great inscription, the archaic temple of the Pythian
Apollo at Gortyna, a plain square building with a
pronaos added in later times, excavated by Halbherr, remains.
1885 and 1887 (Mon. Ant. iii. 2 seqq.), the Hellenic
bridge and the vast rock-cut reservoirs of Eleutherna, the city
walls of Itanos, Aptera and Polyrrhenia, and at Phalasarna, the
rock-cut throne of a divinity, the port, and the remains of a
temple. The most interesting record, however, that has been
preserved of later Hellenic civilization in the island is the
coinage of the Cretan cities (J. N. Svoronos, Numismatique de
la Crete ancienne; W. Wroth, B. M. Coin Catalogue, Crete, &c:
P. Gardner, The Types of Greek Coins), which during the good
period display a peculiarly picturesque artistic style distinct
from that of the rest of the Greek world, and sometimes indicative
of a revival of Minoan types. But in every case these artistic
efforts were followed at short intervals by gross relapses into
barbarism which reflect the anarchy of the political conditions.

Under the Pax Rotnana the Cretan cities again enjoyed a
large measure of prosperity, illustrated by numerous edifices
still existing at the time of the Venetian occupation. A good

426

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account of these is preserved in a-MS. description of the island
drawn up under the Venetians about 1538, and existing in the

library of St Mark (published by Falkener, Museum
remains °f Classical Antiquities, ii. pp. 263-303). Very little

of" all this, however, has escaped the Turkish conquest
and the ravages caused by the incessant insurrections of the last
two centuries. The ruin-field of Gortyna still evokes something
of the importance that it possessed in Imperial days, and at
Lebena on the south coast are remains of a temple of Aesculapius
and its dependencies which stood in connexion with this city.
At Cnossus, save some blocks of the amphitheatre, the Roman
monuments visible in Venetian times have almost wholly
disappeared. Among the early Christian remains of the island
far and away the most important is the church of St Titus at
Gortyna, which perhaps dates from the Constantinian age.

Literature. — See the authorities already quoted, for further
details. Previous to the extensive excavations referred to above,
Crete had been carefully examined and explored by Tournefort,
Pococke, Olivier and other travellers, e.g. Pashley {Travels in Crete,
2 vols., London, 1837) and Captain Spratt (Travels and Researches
in Crete, 2 vols., London, 1865). A survey sufficiently accurate as
regards the maritime parts was also executed, under the orders of
the British admiralty, by Captain Graves and Captain (afterwards
Admiral) Spratt. Most that can be gathered from ancient authors
concerning the mythology and early history of the island is brought
together by Meursius (Creta, &c, in the 3rd vol. of his works) and
Hoeck (Kreta, 3 vols., Gottingen, 1823-1829), but the latter work
was published before the researches which have thrown so much
light on the topography and antiquities of the island. Much new
material, especially as to the western provinces of Crete, has been
recently collected by members of the Italian Archaeological Mission
(Monumenti Antichi, vol. vi. 154 seqq., ix. 286, 1899; xi. 286 seqq.).

(A. J. E.)

History.

Ancient. — Lying midway between three continents, Crete
was from the earliest period a natural stepping-stone for the
passage of early culture from Egypt and the East to mainland
Greece. On all this the recent archaeological discoveries (see
the section on Archaeology) have thrown great light, but the
earliest written history of Crete, like that of most parts of
continental Greece, is mixed up with mythology and fable to
so great an extent as to render it difficult to arrive at any clear
conclusions concerning it. The Cretans themselves claimed
for their island to be the birthplace of Zeus, as well as the parent
of all the other divinities usually worshipped in Greece as the
Olympian deities. But passing from this region of pure mythology
to the semi-mythic or heroic age, we find almost all the early
legends and traditions of the island grouped around the name
of Minos. According to the received tradition, Minos was a
king of Cnossus in Crete; he was a son of Zeus, and enjoyed
through life the privilege of habitual intercourse with his divine
father. It was from this source that he derived the wisdom
which enabled him to give to the Cretans the excellent system
of laws and governments that earned for him the reputation
of being the greatest legislator of antiquity. At the same time
he was reported to have been the first monarch who established
a naval power, and acquired what was termed by the Greeks
the Thalassocracy, or dominion of the sea.

This last tradition, which was received as an undoubted fact
both by Thucydides and Aristotle, has during the last few years
received striking confirmation. The remarkable remains recently
brought to light on Cretan soil tend to show that already some
2000 years before the Dorian conquest the island was exercising a
dominant influence in the Aegean world. The great palaces now
excavated at Cnossus and Phaestus, as well as the royal villa
of Hagia Triada, exhibit the successive phases of a brilliant primi-
tive civilization which had already attained mature development
by the date of the Xllth Egyptian dynasty. To this civilization
as a whole it is convenient to give the name "Minoan," and
the name of Minos itself may be reasonably thought to cover
a dynastic even more than a personal significance in much the
same way as such historic terms as "Pharaoh" or "Caesar."

The archaeological evidence outside Crete points to the actual
existence of Minoan plantations as far afield on one side as
Sicily and on the other as the coast of Canaan. The historic

tradition which identifies with the Cretans the principal element
of the Philistine confederation, and places the tomb of Minos
himself in western Sicily, thus receives remarkable confirmation.
Industrial relations with Egypt are also marked by the occurrence
of a series of finds of pottery and other objects of Minoan fabric
among the remains of the XVIIIth, Xllth and even earlier
dynasties, while the same seafaring enterprise brought Egyptian
fabrics to Crete from the times of the first Pharaohs. Even in the
Homeric poems, which belong to an age when the great Minoan
civilization was already decadent, the Cretans appear as the only
Greek people who attempted to compete with the Phoenicians
as bold and adventurous navigators. In the Homeric age the
population of Crete was of a very mixed character, and we are
told in the Odyssey (xix. 175) that besides the Eteocretes, who,
as their name imports, must have been the original inhabitants,
the island contained Achaeans, Pelasgians and Dorians. Subse-
quently the Dorian element became greatly strengthened by
fresh immigrations from the Peloponnesus, and during the
historical period all the principal cities of the island were either
Dorian colonies, or had adopted the Dorian dialect and
institutions. It is certain that at a very early period the Cretan
cities were celebrated for their laws and system of government,
and the most extensive monument of early Greek law is the
great Gortyna inscription, discovered in 1884. The origin of the
Cretan laws was of course attributed to Minos, but they
had much in common with those of the other Dorian states, as
well as with those of Lycurgus at Sparta, which were, indeed,
according to one tradition, copied in great measure from those
already existing in Crete. 1

It is certain that whatever merits the Cretan laws may have
possessed for the internal regulation of the different cities, they
had the one glaring defect, that they made no provision for any
federal bond or union among them, or for the government of the
island as a whole. It was owing to the want of this that the
Cretans scarcely figure in Greek history as a people, though the
island, as observed by Aristotle, would seem from its natural
position calculated to exercise a preponderating influence over
Greek affairs. Thus they took no part either in the Persian or in
the Peloponnesian War, or in any of the subsequent civil contests
in which so many of the cities and islands of Greece were engaged.
At the same time they were so far from enjoying tranquillity on
this account that the few notices we find of them in history always
represent them as engaged in local wars among one another; and
Polybius tells us that the history of Crete was one continued
series of civil wars, which were carried on with a bitter animosity
exceeding all that was known in the rest of Greece.

In these domestic contests the three cities that generally took
the lead, and claimed to exercise a kind of hegemony or supremacy
over the whole island, were Cnossus, Gortyna and Cydonia.
But besides these three, there were many other independent
cities, which, though they generally followed the lead of one or
other of these more powerful rivals, enjoyed complete autonomy,
and were able to shift at will from one alliance to another. Among
the most important of these were — Lyttus or Lyctus, in the
interior, south-east of Cnossus; Rhaucus, between Cnossus and
Gortyna; Phaestus, in the plain of Messara, between Gortyna
and the sea; Polyrrhenia, near the north-west angle of the
island; Aptera, a few miles inland from the Bay of Suda;
Eleutherna and Axus, on the northern slopes of Mount Ida; and
Lappa, between the White Mountains and the sea. Phalasarna
on the west coast, and Chersonesus on the north, seem to have
been dependencies, and served as the ports of Polyrrhenia and
Lyttus. Elyrus stood at the foot of the White Mountains, just

1 Among the features common to the two were the syssitia, or
public tables, at which all the citizens dined in common. Indeed,
the, Cretan system, like that of Sparta, appears to have aimed at
training up the young, and controlling them, as well as the citizens
of more mature age, in all their habits and relations of life. The
supreme governing authority was vested in magistrates called Cosmi,
answering in some measure to the Spartan Ephori, but there was
nothing corresponding to the two kings at Sparta. These Cretan
institutions were much extolled by some writers of antiquity, but
receive only qualified praise from the judicious criticisms of Aristotle
{Polit. ii. 10).

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427

above the south coast. In the eastern portion of the island were
Praesus in the interior, and Itanus on the coast, facing the east,
while Hierapytna on the south coast was the only place of
importance on the side facing Africa, and on this account
rose under the Romans to be one of the principal cities of the
island. (A. J. E.)

Medieval to igth Century. — Though it was continually torn by
civil dissensions, the island maintained its independence of the
various Macedonian monarchs by whom it was surrounded; but
having incurred the enmity of Rome, first by an alliance with the
great Mithradates, and afterwards by taking active part with
their neighbours, the pirates of Cilicia, the Cretans were at length
attacked by the Roman arms, and, after a resistance protracted
for more than three years, were finally subdued by Q. Metellus,
who earned by this success the surname of Creticus (67 B.C.) . The
island was now reduced to a Roman province, and subsequently
united for administrative purposes with the district of Cyrenaica
or the Pentapolis, on the opposite coast of Africa. This arrange-
ment lasted till the time of Constantine, by whom Crete was
incorporated in the prefecture of Ulyria. It continued to form
part of the Byzantine empire till the 9th century, when it fell
into the hands of the Saracens (8 23) . It then became a formidable
nest of pirates and a great slave mart; it defied all the efforts of
the Byzantine sovereigns to recover it till the year 960, when it
was reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas. In the partition of the
Greek empire after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins
in 1 204, Crete fell to the lot of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat,
but was sold by him to the Venetians, and thus passed under the
dominion of that great republic, to which it continued subject for
more than four centuries.

Under the Venetian government Candia, a fortress originally
built by the Saracens, and called by them " Khandax," became
the seat of government, and not only rose to be the capital and
chief city of the island, but actually gave name to it, so that it
was called in the official language of Venice " the island of
Candia," a designation which from thence passed into modern
maps. The ancient name of Krete or Kriti was, however, always
retained in use among the Greeks, and is gradually resuming its
place in the usage of literary Europe. The government of Crete
by the Venetian aristocracy was, like that of their other de-
pendencies, very arbitrary and oppressive, and numerous
insurrections were the consequence. Daru, in his history of
Venice, mentions fourteen between the years 1207 and 1365, the
most important being that of 1361-1364, — a revolt not of the
natives against the rule of their Venetian masters, but of the
Venetian colonists against the republic. But with all its defects
their administration did much to promote the material prosperity
of the country, and to encourage commerce and industry; and it
is probable that the island was more prosperous than at any
subsequent time. Their Venetian masters at least secured to the
islanders external tranquillity, and it is singular that the Turks
were content to leave them in undisturbed possession of this
opulent and important island for nearly two centuries after the
fall of Constantinople. The Cretans themselves, however, were
eager for a change, and, disappointed in the hope of a Genoese
occupation, were ready, as is stated in the report of a Venetian
commissioner, to exchange the rule of the Venetians for that of
the Turks, whom they fondly expected to find more lenient, or at
any rate less energetic, masters. It was not till 1645 that the
Turks made any serious attempt to effect the conquest of the
island; but in that year they landed with an army of 50,000 men,
and speedily reduced the important city of Canea. Retimo fell the
following year, and in 1648 they laid siege to the capital city of
Candia. This was the longest siege on record, having been
protracted for more than twenty years; but in 1667 it was
pressed with renewed vigour by the Turks under the grand
vizier Ahmed Kuprili, and the city was at length compelled
to surrender (September 1669). Its fall was followed by the
submission of the whole island. Venice was allowed to retain
possession of Grabusa, Suda and Spinalonga on the north, but in
1 7 18 these three strongholds reverted to the Turks, and the
island was finally lost to Venice.

From this time Crete continued subject to Ottoman rule
without interruption till the outbreak of the Greek revolution.
After the conquest a large part of the inhabitants embraced
Mahommedanism, and thus secured to themselves the chief share
in the administration of the island. But far from this having a
favourable effect upon the condition of the population, the result
was just the contrary, and according to R. Pashley (Travels in
Crete, 1837) Crete was the worst governed province of the Turkish
empire. In 1770 an abortive attempt at revolt, the hero of
which was " Master " John, a Sphakiot chief, was repressed with
great cruelty. The regular authorities sent from Constantinople
were wholly unable to control the excesses of the janissaries, who
exercised without restraint every kind of violence and oppression.
In 1813 the ruthless severity of the governor-general, Haji
Osman, who obtained the co-operation of the Christians, broke
the power of the janissaries; but after Osman had fallen a victim
to the suspicions of the sultan, Crete again came under their
control. When in 182 1 the revolution broke out in continental
Greece, the Cretans, headed by the Sphakiots, after a massacre at
Canea at once raised the standard of insurrection. They carried
on hostilities with such success that they soon made themselves
masters of the whole of the open country, and drove the Turks
and Mussulman population to take refuge in the fortified cities.
The sultan then invoked the assistance of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
Egypt, who despatched 7000 Albanians to the island. Hostilities
continued with no decisive result till 1824, when the arrival of
further reinforcements enabled the Turkish commander to
reduce the island to submission. In 1827 the battle of Navarino
took place, and in 1830 (3rd of February) Greece was declared
independent. The allied powers (France, England and Russia)
decided, however, that Crete should not be included amongst the
islands annexed to the newly -formed kingdom of Greece; but
recognizing that some change was necessary, they obtained from
the sultan Mahmud II. its cession to Egypt, which was con-
firmed by a firman of the 20th of December 1832. This change
of masters brought some relief to the unfortunate Cretans, who
at least exchanged the licence of local misrule for the oppression
of an organized despotism; and the government of Mustafa
Pasha, an Albanian like Mehemet Ali, the ruler of the island for
a considerable period (1832-1852), was more enlightened and
intelligent than that of most Turkish governors. He encouraged
agriculture, improved the roads, introduced an Albanian police,
and put down brigandage. The period of his administration
has been called the "golden age" of Crete.

In 1840 Crete was again taken from Mehemet Ali, and replaced
under the dominion of the Turks, but fortunately Mustafa still
retained his governorship until he left for Constantinople to
become grand vizier in 1852. Four years later an insurrection
broke out, owing to the violation of the provisions of an imperial
decree (February 1856), whereby liberty of conscience and
equal rights and privileges with Mussulmans had been conferred
upon Christians. The latter refused to lay down their arms until
a firman was issued (July 1858), confirming the promised con-
cessions. These promises being again repudiated, in 1864 the
inhabitants held an assembly and a petition was drawn up for
presentation at Constantinople by the governor. The sultan's
reply was couched in the vaguest terms, and the Cretans were
ordered to render unquestioning obedience to the authorities.
After a period of great distress and cruel oppression, in 1866,
on the demand for reforms being again refused, a general insurrec-
tion took place, which was only put down by great exertions
on the part of the Porte. It was followed by the concession of
additional privileges to the Christians of the island and of a kind
of constitutional government and other reforms embodied in
what is known as the "Organic Statute" of 1868. (J. H. F.)

Modern Constitutional. — Cretan constitutional history may be
said to date from 1868, when, after the suppression of an insurrec-
tion which had extended over three years, the Turkish govern-
ment consented to grant a certain measure of autonomy to the
island. The privileges now accorded were embodied in what is
known as the Organic Statute, an instrument which eventually
obtained a somewhat wider importance, being proposed by

428

CRETE

Article XXIII. of the Berlin Treaty as a basis of reforms to be
introduced in other parts of the Ottoman empire. Various
privileges already acquired by the Christian population were
confirmed; a general council, or representative body, was
brought into existence, composed of deputies from every district
in the island; mixed tribunals were introduced, together with
a highly elaborate administrative system, under which all the
more important functionaries, Christian and Mussulman, were
provided with an assessor of the opposite creed. The new
constitution, however, preved costly and unworkable, and failed
to satisfy either section of the population. The Christians were
ready for another outbreak, when, in 1878, the Greek government,
finding Hellenic aspirations ignored by the treaty of San Stefano,
gave the signal for agitation in the island. During the insurrec-
tion which followed, the usual barbarities were committed on both
sides; the Christians betook themselves to the mountains, and
the Mussulman peasants crowded into the fortified towns.
Eventually the Cretan chiefs invoked the mediation of England,
which Turkey, exhausted by her struggle with Russia, was

ready to accept, and the convention known as the
tialepa. Pact of Halepa was drawn up in 1878 under the auspices

of Mr Sandwith, the British consul, and Adossides
Pasha, both of whom enjoyed the confidence of the Cretan
population. The privileges conferred by the Organic Statute
were confirmed; the cumbersome and extravagant judicial and
administrative systems were maintained; the judges were
declared independent of the executive, and an Assembly com-
posed of forty-nine Christian and thirty-one Mussulman deputies
took the place of the former general council. A parliamentary
regime was thus inaugurated, and party warfare for a time took
the place of the old religious antagonism, the Moslems attaching
themselves to one or other of the political factions which now
made their appearance among the Christians. The material
interests of the island were neglected in the scramble for place and
power; the finances fell into disorder, and the party which came
off worst in the struggle systematically intrigued against the
governor-general of the day and conspired with his enemies at
Constantinople. A crisis came about in 1889, when the " Con-
servative " leaders, finding themselves in a minority in the
chamber, took up arms and withdrew to the mountains. Though
the outbreak was unconnected with the religious feud, the latent
fanaticism of both creeds was soon aroused, and the island once
more became a scene of pillage and devastation. Unlike the two
preceding movements, the insurrection of 1889 resulted unfavour-
ably for the Christians. The Porte, having induced the Greek
government to persuade the insurgents not to oppose the occupa-
tion of several strategic posts, despatched a military governor
to the island, proclaimed martial law, and issued a firman
abrogating many important provisions of the Halepa Pact.
The mode of election to the assembly was altered, the number
of its members reduced, and the customs revenue, which had
hitherto been shared with the island, was appropriated by the
Turkish treasury. The firman was undoubtedly illegal, as it
violated a convention possessing a quasi-international sanction,
but the Christians were unable to resist, and the powers abstained
from intervention. The elections held under the new system
proved a failure, the Christians refusing to go to the polls, and
for the next five years Crete was governed absolutely by a succes-
sion of Mahommedan Valis. The situation went from bad to
worse, the deficit in the budget increased, the gendarmery, which
received no pay, became insubordinate, and crime multiplied.
In 1894 the Porte, at the instance of the powers, nominated a
Christian, Karatheodory Pasha, to the governorship, and the
Christians, mollified by the concession, agreed to take part in
the assembly which soon afterwards was convoked; no steps,
however, were taken to remedy the financial situation, which
became the immediate cause of the disorders that followed. The
refusal of the Porte to refund considerable sums which had been
illegally diverted from the Cretan treasury or even to sanction
a loan to meet immediate requirements caused no little exaspera-
tion in the island, which was increased by the recall of Kara-
theodory (March 1895). Before that event an Epitrope, or

" Committee of Reform," had appeared in the mountains — the
harbinger of the prolonged struggle which ended in the emanci-
pation of Crete. The Epitrope was at first nothing
more than a handful of discontented politicians who had ^ ,sur ™ c "
failed to find places in the administration, but some 1896-97.
slight reverses which it succeeded in inflicting on the
Turkish troops brought thousands of armed Christians to its
side, and in April 1896 it found itself strong enough to invest
the important garrison town of Vamos. The Moslem peasantry
now flocked to the fortified towns and civil war began. Serious
disturbances broke out at Canea on the 24th of May, and were
only quelled by the arrival of foreign warships. The foreign
consuls intervened in the hope of bringing about a peaceful
settlement, but the Sultan resolved on the employment of force,
and an expedition despatched to Vamos effected the relief of that
town with a loss of 200 men. The advance of a Turkish detach-
ment through the western districts, where other garrisons were
besieged, was marked by pillage and devastation, and 5000
Christian peasants took refuge on the desolate promontory of
Spada, where they suffered extreme privations. These events,
which produced much excitement in Greece, quickened the
energies of the powers. An international blockade of the island
was proposed by Austria but rejected by England. The
ambassadors at Constantinople urged peaceful counsels on the
Porte, and the Sultan, alarmed at this juncture by an Armenian
outbreak, began to display a conciliatory disposition. The Pact
of Halepa was restored, the troops were withdrawn from the
interior, financial aid was promised to the island, a Christian
governorrgeneral was appointed, the assembly was summoned,
and an imperial commissioner was despatched to negotiate an
arrangement. The Christian leaders prepared a moderate
scheme of reforms, based on the Halepa Pact, which, with a
few exceptions, were approved by the powers and eventually
sanctioned by the sultan.

On the 4th of September 1896 the assembly formally accepted
the new constitution and declared its gratitude to the powers
for their intervention. The Moslem leaders acquiesced in the
arrangement, which the powers undertook to guarantee, and,
notwithstanding some symptoms of discontent at Candia,
there was every reason to hope that the island was now entering
upon a period of tranquillity. It soon became evident, however,
that the Porte was endeavouring to obstruct the execution of the
new reforms. Several months passed without any step being
taken towards this realization; difficulties were raised with
regard to the composition of the international commissions
charged with the reorganization of the gendarmery and judicial
system ; intrigues were set on foot against the Christian governor-
general; and the presence of a special imperial commissioner,
who had no place under the constitution, proved so injurious
to the restoration of tranquillity that the powers demanded his
immediate recall. The indignation of the Christians increased,
a state of insecurity prevailed, and the Moslem peasants refused
to return to their homes. A new factor now became apparent
in Cretan politics. Since the outbreak in May 1896 the Greek
government had loyally co-operated with the powers in their
efforts for the pacification of the island, but towards the close of
the year a secret society known as the Ethnike Hetaeria began to
arrogate to itself the direction of Greek foreign policy. The aim
of the society was a war with Turkey with a view to the acquisi-
tion of Macedonia, and it found a ready instrument for its
designs in the growing discontent of the Cretan Christians.
Emissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consign-
ments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the
island was practically in a state of insurrection. On
the 21st of January the Greek fleet was mobilized. ?™ e £
Affairs were brought to a climax by a series of conflicts vention.
which took place at Canea on the 4th of February;
the Turkish troops fired on the Christians, a conflagration broke
out in the town, and many thousands of Christians took refuge
on the foreign warships in the bay. The Greek government now
despatched an ironclad and a cruiser to Canea, which were
followed a few days later by a torpedo flotilla commanded by

CRETE

429

Prince George. The prince soon retired to Melos, but on the night
of the 14th of February a Greek expeditionary force under
Colonel Vassos landed at Kolymbari, near Canea, and its com-
mander issued a proclamation announcing the occupation of the
island in the name of King George. On the same day Georgi
Pasha, the Christian governor-general, took refuge on board a
Russian ironclad, and, on the next, naval detachments from
the warships of the powers occupied Canea. This step paralysed
the movements of Colonel Vassos, who after a few slight engage-
ments with the Turks remained practically inactive in the interior.
The insurgents, however, continued to threaten the town, and
their position was bombarded by the international fleet (21st
February). The intervention of Greece caused immense excite-
ment among the Christian population, and terrible massacres of
Moslem peasants took place in the eastern and western districts.
The forces of the powers shortly afterwards occupied Candia
and the other maritime towns, while the international fleet
blockaded the Cretan coast. These measures were followed by

the presentation of collective notes to the Greek and
D o7the" Turkish governments (2nd March), announcing the
powers. decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case

in present circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2)
in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application of the
reforms Crete should now be endowed with an effective auto-
nomous administration, intended to secure to it a separate
government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet from the
island, while the Turkish troops were to be concentrated in the
fortresses and eventually withdrawn. The cabinet of Athens,
however, declined to recall the expeditionary force, which
remained in the interior till the 9th of May, when, after the Greek
reverses in Thessaly and Epirus, an order was given for its return.
Meantime Cretan autonomy had been proclaimed (20th March).
After the departure of the Greek troops the Cretan leaders, who
had hitherto demanded annexation to Greece, readily acquiesced
in the decision of the powers, and the insurgent Assembly, under
its president Dr Sphakianakis, a man of good sense and modera-
tion, co-operated with the international commanders in the
maintenance of order. The pacification of the island, however,
was delayed by the presence of the Turkish troops and the in-
ability of the powers to agree in the choice of a new governor-
general. The prospect of a final settlement was improved by the
withdrawal of Germany and Austria, which had favoured Turkish
pretensions, from the European concert (April 1898); the re-
maining powers divided the island into four departments, which
they severally undertook to administer. An attack made by the
Moslems of Candia on the British garrison of that town, with
the connivance of the Turkish authorities, brought home to the
powers the necessity of removing the Ottoman troops, and the
last Turkish soldiers quitted the island on the 14th of November
1898.

On the 26th of that month the nomination of Prince George
of Greece as high commissioner of the powers in Crete for a
Prince period of three years (renewed in 1901) was formally
George's announced, and on the 21st of December the prince

landed at Suda and made his public entry into Canea

amid enthusiastic demonstrations. For some time
after his arrival complete tranquillity prevailed in the island,
but the Moslem population, reduced to great distress by the
prolonged insurrection, emigrated in large numbers. On the
27th of April 1899 a new autonomous constitution was voted
by a constituent assembly, and in the following June the local
administration was handed over to Cretan officials by the inter-
national authorities. The extensive powers conferred by the
constitution upon Prince George were increased by subsequent
enactments. In 1901 M. Venezelo, who had played a noteworthy
part in the last insurrection, was dismissed from the post of
councillor by the prince, and soon afterwards became leader of a
strong opposition party, which denounced the arbitrary methods
of the government. During the next four years party spirit ran
high; in the spring of 1904 a deputation of chiefs and politicians
addressed a protest to the prince, and early in the following

adminis-
tration.

year a band of armed malcontents under M. Venezelo raised the
standard of revolt at Theriso in the White Mountains. The
insurgents, who received moral support from Dr Sphakianakis,
proclaimed the union of the island with Greece (March 1905),
and their example was speedily followed by the assembly at
Canea. The powers, however, reiterated their decision to main-
tain the status quo, and increased their military and naval
forces; the Greek flag was hauled down at Canea and Candia,
and some desultory engagements with the insurgents took place,
the international troops co-operating with the native gendarmerie.
In the autumn M. Venezelo and his followers, having obtained
an amnesty, laid down their arms. A commission appointed
by the powers to report on the administrative and financial
situation drew up a series of recommendations in January 1906,
and a constituent assembly for the revision of the constitution
met at Canea in the following June. On the 25th of July the
powers announced a series of reforms, including the reorganiza-
tion of the gendarmerie and militia under Greek officers, as a
preliminary to the eventual withdrawal of the international
troops, and the extension to Crete of the system of financial
control established in Greece. On the 14th of September, under
an agreement dated the 14th of August, they invited King
George of Greece, in the event of the high commissionership
becoming vacant, to propose a candidate for that post, to be
nominated by the powers for a period of five years, and on the
25th of September Prince George left the island. He had done
much for the welfare of Crete, but his participation in party
struggles and his attitude towards the representatives of the
powers had rendered his position untenable. His successor,
M. Alexander Zaimis, a former prime minister of Greece, arrived
in Crete on the 1st of October. (J. D. B.)

On the 22nd of February 1907 M. Zaimis, as high commissioner,
took the oath to the new constitution elaborated after much
debate by the Cretan national assembly. His position was one
of singular difficulty. Apart from the rivalry of the factions
within the Assembly, there was the question of the Mussulman
minority, dwindling it is true, 1 but still a force to be reckoned
with. The high commissioner, true to his reputation as a prudent
statesman and astute politician, showed great skill in dealing
with the situation. From the first he had taken up an attitude
of great reserve, appearing little in public and careful not to
identify himself with any faction. In such matters as appoint-
ments to the judicial bench, indeed, his studied impartiality
offended both parties; but on the whole his administration was
a marked success, and the cessation of the chronic state of dis-
turbance in the island justified the powers in preparing for the
withdrawal of their troops. In spite of the admission of their
co-religionists to high office in the government, the Mussulmans,
it is true, still complained of continuous ill-treatment having
for its object their expatriation; but these complaints were
declared by Sir Edward Grey, in answer to a question in parlia-
ment, to be exaggerated. The protecting powers had fixed the
conditions preliminary to evacuation — (1) the organization of a
native gendarmerie, (2) the maintenance of the tranquillity
of the island, (3) the complete security of the Mussulman popula-
tion. On the 20th of March 1908 M. Zaimis called the attention
of the powers to the fact that these conditions had been fulfilled,
and on the nth of May the powers announced to the high
commissioner their intention of beginning the evacuation at once
and completing it within a year. The first withdrawal of the
troops (July 27), hailed with enthusiasm by the Cretan Christians,
led to rioting by the Mussulmans, who believed themselves
abandoned to their fate.

Meanwhile M. Zaimis had made a further advance towards the
annexation of the island to Greece by a visit to Athens, where
he arranged for a loan with the Greek National Bank and engaged
Greek officers for the new gendarmerie. The issue was pre-
cipitated by the news of the revolution in Turkey. On the 1 2th

1 The Mussulman population, 88,000 in 1895, had sunk to 40,000
in 1907, and the emigration was still continuing. The loss to the
country in wealth exported and land going out of cultivation has
been very serious.

43°

CRETINISM

of October the Cretan Assembly once more voted the union with
Greece, and in the absence of M. Zaimis — who had gone for a
holiday to Santa Maura — elected a committee of six to govern
the island in the name of the king of Greece.

Against this the Mussulman deputies protested, in a memor-
andum addressed to the British secretary of state for foreign
affairs. His reply, while stating that his government would
safeguard the interests of the Mussulmans, left open the question
of the attitude of the powers, complicated now by sympathy
with reformed Turkey. The efforts of diplomacy were directed
to allaying the resentment of the "Young Turks" on the one
hand and the ardour of the Greek unionists on the other; and
meanwhile the Cretan administration was carried on peaceably
in the name of King George. At last (July 13, 1909) the powers
announced to the Porte, in answer to a formal remonstrance,
their decision to withdraw their remaining troops from Crete
by July 26 and to station four war-ships off the island to protect
the Moslems and to safeguard "the supreme rights" of the
Ottoman Empire. This arrangement, which was duly carried
out, was avowedly " provisional " and satisfied neither party,
leading in Greece especially to the military and constitutional
crises of 1909 and 1910. (W. A. P.)

Authorities. — Pashley, Travels in Crete (2 vols., Cambridge and
London, 1837); Spratt, Travels and Researches in Crete (2 vols.,
London, 1867) ; Raulin, Description physique del'ilede Crete (3 vols,
and Atlas, Paris, 18C9); W. J. Stillman, The Cretan Insurrection of
1866-68 (New York, 1874); Edwardes, Letters from Crete (London,
1887) ; Stavrakis, XrancrTiKri rod tt\ij0v<thov tt)s Kpiirijs (Athens, 1890) ;
J. H. Freese, A Short Popular History of Crete (London, 1897);
Bickford-Smith, Cretan Sketches (London, 1897) ; Laroche, La Crete
ancienne et moderne (Paris, 1898); Victor Berard, Les Affaires de
Crete (Paris, 1898) ; Monumenti Veneti dell' isola de Creta (published
by the Venetian Institute), vol. i. (1906), vol. ii. (1908). See also
Mrs Walker, Eastern Life and Scenery (London, 1886), and Old Tracks,
and New Landmarks (London, 1897) '• H. F. Tozer, The Islands of
the Aegean (Oxford, 1890) ; J. D. Bourchier, " The Stronghold of the
Sphakiotes," Fortnightly Review (August 1890) ; E. J. Dillon, " Crete
and the Cretans," Fortnightly Review (May 1897).

CRETINISM, the term given to a chronic disease, either
sporadic or endemic, arising in early childhood, and due to'
absence or deficiency of the normal secretion of the thyroid
gland. It is characterized by imperfect development both of
mind and body. The thyroid gland is either congenitally absent,
imperfectly developed, or there is definite goitre. The origin
of the word is doubtful. Its southern French form Chrestiaa
suggested to Michel a derivation from cresta (crite), the goose foot
of red cloth worn by the Cagots of the Pyrenees. The Cagots,
however, were not cretins. The word is usually explained as
derived from chretien (Christian) in the sense of "innocent."
But Christianus (which appears in the Lombard cristanei;
compare the Savoyard innocents and gens du bon dieu) is probably
a translation of the older cretin, and the latter is probably
connected with creta {crate) — a sallow or yellow-earthy complexion
being a common mark of cretinism.

The endemic form of cretinism prevails in certain districts,
as in the valleys of central Switzerland, Tirol and the Pyrenees.
In the United Kingdom cretins have been found in England at
Oldham, Sholver Moor, Crompton, Duffield, Cromford (near
Matlock), and other points in Derbyshire; endemic goitre has
been seen near Nottingham, Chesterfield, Pontefract, Ripon, and
the mountainous parts of Staffordshire and Yorkshire, the east
of Cumberland, certain parts of Worcester, Warwick, Cheshire,
Monmouth, and Leicester, near Horsham in Hampshire, near
Haslemere in Surrey, and near Beaconsfield in Buckingham.
There are cretins at Chiselborough in Somerset. In Scotland
cretins and cases of goitre have been seen in Perthshire, on the
east coast of Fife, in Roxburgh, the upper portions of Peebles
and Selkirk, near Lanark and Dumfries, in the east of Ayrshire,
in the west of Berwick, the east of Wigtown, and in Kirkcudbright.
The disease is not confined to Europe, but occurs in North and
South America, Australia, Africa and Asia. Wherever endemic
goitre is present, endemic cretinism is present also, and it has
been constantly observed that when a new family moves into a
goitrous district, goitre appears in the first generation, cretinism
in the second. The causation of goitre has now been shown to

be due to drinking certain waters, though the particular impurity
in the water which gives rise to this condition has not been
determined (see Goitre). The causation of the sporadic form
of cretinism is, however, obscure.

Cretinism usually remains unrecognized until the child reaches
some eighteen months or two years, when its lack of mental
development and uncouth bodily form begin to attract attention.
Occasionally the child appears to be normal in infancy, but the
cretinoid condition develops later, any time up to puberty. The
essential point in the morbid anatomy of these cases is the absence
or abnormal condition of the thyroid gland (see Metabolic
Diseases). It may be congenitally absent, atrophied, or the
seat of a goitre, though this last condition is very rare in cases
of sporadic cretinism. The skeleton shows arrested growth,
most marked in the case of the long bones. The skull in the
endemic form of cretinism is usually brachycephalic, but in
the sporadic cases it is more commonly dolichocephalic. The
pathology of cretinism and its allied condition myxoedcma (<?.».)
has now been conclusively worked out, and its essential cause
has been shown to be loss of function of the thyroid gland.

The condition has existed and been described in far back
ages, but mingled with so many other entirely different de-
formities and degenerations that it is now often almost impossible
to classify them satisfactorily. The following is a vivid picture
by Beaupre (Dissertation sur les cretins, translated in Blackie
on Cretinism, Edin., 1855):—

" I see a head of unusual form and size, a squat and bloated
figure, a stupid look, bleared hollow and heavy eyes, thick projecting
eyelids, and a flat nose. His face is of a leaden hue, his skin dirty,
flabby, covered with tetters, and his thick tongue hangs down over
his moist livid lips. His mouth, always open and full of saliva,
shows teeth going to decay. His chest is narrow, his back curved,
his breath asthmatic, his limbs short, misshapen, without power.
The knees are thick and inclined inward, the feet flat. The large
head drops listlessly on the breast; the abdomen is like a bag."

When fully grown the height rarely exceeds 4 ft., and is often
less than 3 ft. The skin feels doughy from thickening of the sub-
cutaneous tissues, and it hangs in folds over the abdomen and
the bends of the joints. Very frequently there is an umbilical
hernia. The hair has a far greater resemblance to horse-hair
than to that of a human being, and is usually absent on the body
of an adult cretin. The temperature is subnormal, and the
exposed parts tend to become blue in cold weather. The blood
is usually deficient in haemoglobin, which is often only 40-50 %
of the normal. The mental capacity varies within narrow limits;
an intelligent adult cretin may reach the intellectual development
of a child 3-4 years of age, though more often the standard
attained is even below this. The child cretin learns neither
t.o walk nor talk at the usual time. Often it is unable even to
sit without support. Some years later a certain power of move-
ment is acquired, but the gait is waddling and clumsy. Speech
is long delayed, or in bad cases may be almost entirely lacking.
The voice is usually harsh and unpleasant. Of the senses smell
and taste are but slightly developed, more or less deafness is
generally present, and only the sight is fairly normal. In the
adult the genital organs remain undeveloped. If the cretin
is untreated he rarely has a long life, thirty years being an
exceptional age. Death results from some intercurrent disease.

Cretinism has to be distinguished from the state of a Mongolian
idiot, in whom there is no thickening of the subcutaneous tissues,
and much greater alertness of mind; from achondroplasia, in
which condition there is usually no mental impairment; and
from infantilism, which covers a group of symptoms whose only
common point is that the primary and secondary sexual
characteristics fail to appear at the proper time.

Before 1891 there was no treatment for this disease. The
patients lived in hopeless imbecility until their death. But in
that year Dr George Murray published his discovery of the
effect of hypodermic injections of thyroid gland extract in
cases of myxoedema. In the following year Drs Hector Mac-
kenzie, E. L. Fox of Plymouth, and Howitz of Copenhagen,
each working independently, showed the equally potent effect
of, the gland administered by the mouth. The remedy was soo?

CRETONNE— CREUZER

431

after applied to cretinism and its effects were found to be even
more wonderful. It has to be used, however, with the greatest
care and discrimination, since personal idiosyncrasy seems to
be a very variable factor. Even small doses, if beyond the
patient's power, may produce fever, excitement, headache,
insomnia and vomiting. The administration must be persisted
in throughout life, otherwise myxoedematous symptoms appear.
The first most apparent results are those of growth, and this
may supervene even in patients up to 25-30 years of age. Once
started, 4 to 6 in. may be gained in stature in the first year's
treatment, though this is usually in inverse ratio to the age of
the patient, and also diminishes in later stages of treatment.
In young adolescents it may be so rapid that the patient has to
be kept lying down to prevent permanent bending of the long
bones of the leg, softened by their rapid growth. A very typical
case under Dr Hector Mackenzie, showing what can be expected
from early treatment, is that of a cretin aged n years in 1893,
when thyroid treatment was started. He grew very rapidly
and became a normal child, passed through school, and in 1908
was at one of the universities.

Bibliography. — Sardinian Commission, " Relazione della com-
missione di Sardegna per studiare il cretinismo " (Torino, 1848);
C. Hilton Fagge, " On Sporadic Cretinism occurring in England,"
Med. Chir. Trans. (London, 1870); Vincenzo Allara, " Sulla causa
del cretinesimo," studio (Milano, 1892) ; Victor Horsley, " Remarks
on the Function of the Thyroid Gland," Brit. Med. Journ. (1892);
" The Treatment of Myxoedema and Cretinism, being a Review of
the Treatment of those Diseases by Thyroid Gland," Journ. Merit. Sc.
(London, 1893); W. Osier, " On Sporadic Cretinism in America,"
Am. Journ. of Med. Sc. (1893) ; C. A. Ewald, Die Erkrankungen der
Schilddruse, Myxodeme und Cretinismus (Wien, 1896); G. R.
Murray, Diseases of the Thyroid Gland, part i. (1900) ; R. Virchow,
" Uber Cretinismus," Wiirzburger Vcrhand. ; Hector Mackenzie,
" Organotherapy," Textbook of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (1901) ;
Weygandt, Der heutige Stand der Lehre vom Kretinismus (Halle,
1903) ; Hector Mackenzie, " Cretinism," Allbutt& Rolleston's System
of Medicine, part iv. (1908).

CRETONNE, originally a strong, white fabric with a hempen
warp and linen weft. The word is said to be derived from Creton,
a village in Normandy where the manufacture of linen was
carried on. It is now applied to a strong, printed cotton cloth,
stouter than chintz but used for very much the same purposes. It
is usually unglazed and may be printed on both sides and even
with different patterns. Frequently the cretonne has a woven
fancy pattern of some kind which is modified by the printed
design. It is sometimes made with a weft of cotton waste.

CREUSE, a department of central France, comprising the
greater portion of the old province of Marche, together with
portions of Berry, Bourbonnais, Auvergne, Limousin and
Poitou. Area, 2164 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 274,094. It lies on the
north-western border of the central plateau and is bounded N.
by the departments of Indre and Cher, E. by Allier and Puy-de-
Dome, S. by Correze and W. by Haute- Vienne. The surface is
hilly, with a general inclination north-westward in the direction
of the valley of the Creuse, sloping from the mountains of
Auvergne and Limousin, branches of which project into the
south of the department. The chief of these starts from the
Plateau de Gentioux, and under the name of the Mountains of
Marche extends along the left bank of the Creuse. The highest
point is in the forest of Chateauvert (3050 ft.) in the extreme
south-east of the department. Rivers, streams and lakes are
numerous, but none are navigable; the principal is the Creuse,
which rises on the north side of the mass of Mount Odouze on
the border of the department of Correze, and passes through
the department, dividing it into two nearly equal portions,
receiving the Petite Creuse from the right, and afterwards
flowing on to join the Vienne. The valleys of the head-streams
of the Cher and of its tributary the Tardes, which near Evaux
passes under a fine viaduct 300 ft. in height, occupy the eastern
side; those of the heads of the Vienne and its tributary the
Thaurion, and of the Gartempe joining the Creuse, are in the
west of the department. The climate is in general cold, moist
and variable; the rigorous winter covers the higher cantons
with snow; rain is abundant in spring, and storms are frequent
in summer, but the autumn is fine. Except in the valleys the

soil is poor and infertile, and agriculture is also handicapped by
the dearness of labour, due to the annual emigration of from
15,000 to 20,000 of the inhabitants to other parts of France,
where they serve as stonemasons, &c. The produce of cereals,
chiefly rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat, is not sufficient for home
consumption. The chestnut abounds in the north and west;
hemp and potatoes are also grown. Cattle-rearing and sheep-
breeding are the chief industries of the department, which
supplies Poitou and Vendee with draught oxen. Coal is mined
to some extent, chiefly in the basin of Ahun. There are thermal
springs at Evaux in the east of the department, where remains
of Roman baths are preserved. The chief industrial establish-
ments are the manufactories of carpets and hangings and
the dyeworks of Aubusson and Felletin. Saw-mills and the
manufacture of wooden shoes and hats have some importance.
Exports include carpets, coal, live-stock and hats; imports
comprise raw materials for the manufactures and food-supplies.
The department is served by the Orleans railway company,
whose line from Montlucon to Perigueux traverses it from east
to west. It is divided into the four arrondissements of Gueret,
the capital Aubusson, Bourganeuf, and Boussac, and further
into 25 cantons and 266 communes. With Haute- Vienne,
Creuse forms the diocese of Limoges, where also is its court of
appeal. It forms part of the academie (educational division)
of Clermont and of the region of the XII. army corps. The
principal towns are Gueret and Aubusson. La Souterraine,
Chambon-sur-Voueize and Benevent-l'Abbaye possess fine
churches of the 12th century. At Moutier-d'Ahun there is a
church, which has survived from a Benedictine abbey. The
nave of the 15th century with a fine portal, and the choir with
its carved stalls of the 17 th century, are of considerable interest.
The small industrial town of Bourganeuf has remains of a priory,
including a tower (15th century) in which Zizim, brother of the
sultan Bajazet II. , is said to have been imprisoned.

CREUTZ, GUSTAF FILIP, Count (1729-1785), Swedish poet,
was born in Finland in 1729. After concluding his studies in
Abo he received a post in the court of chancery at Stockholm
in 1751. Here he met Count Gyllenborg, with whom his name
is indissolubly connected. They were closely allied with Fru
Nordenflycht, and their works were published in common;
to their own generation they seemed equal in fame, but. posterity
has given the palm of genius to Creutz. His greatest work is
contained in the 1762 volume, the idyll of Atis och Camilla;
the exquisite little pastoral entitled "Daphne" was published
at the same time, and Gyllenborg was the first to proclaim the
supremacy of his friend. In 1763 Creutz practically closed his
poetical career; he went to Spain as ambassador, and after
three years to Paris in the same capacity. In 1783 Gustavus
III. recalled him and heaped honours upon him, but he died
soon after, on the 30th of October 1785. Atis och Camilla
was long the most admired poem in the Swedish language;
it is written in a spirit of pastoral which is now to some degree
faded, but in comparison with most of the other productions
of the time it is freshness itself. Creutz introduced a melody
and grace into the Swedish tongue which it lacked before, and
he has been styled " the last artificer of the language."

See Creutz och Gyllenborgs Vitterhetsarbeten (Stockholm, 1795)-
CREUZER, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1 771-1858), German philo-
logist and archaeologist, was born on the 10th of March 1771,
at Marburg, the son of a bookbinder. Having studied at Marburg
and Jena, he for some time lived at Leipzig as a private tutor;
but in 1802 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and two
years later professor of philology and ancient history at Heidel-
berg. The latter position he held for nearly forty-five years,
with the exception of a short time spent at the university of
Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch climate.
He was one of the principal founders of the Philological Seminary
established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Academy of Inscriptions
of Paris appointed him one of its members, and from the grand-
duke of Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor. He
died on the 16th of February 1858. Creuzer's first and most
famous work was his Symbolik und Mythologie der alien Vfflker,

432

CREVASSE— CREWE

besonders der Griechen (1810-1812), in which he maintained
that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from an Eastern
source through the Pelasgians, and was the remains of the sym-
bolism of an ancient revelation. This work was vigorously
attacked by Hermann in his Briefen iiber Homer und Hesiod,
and in his letter, addressed to Creuzer, fiber das Wesen und die
Behandlung der Mythologies by J. H. Voss in his Antisymbolik;
and by Lobek in his Aglaophamos. Of Creuzer's other works
the principal are an edition of Plotinus; a partial edition of
Cicero, in preparing which he was assisted by Moser; Die
historische Kunst der Griechen (1803); Epochen der griech.
Liter alur geschichte (1802); Abriss der romischen Antiquitaten
(1824) ; Zur Geschichte altromischer Cultur am Oberrhein und
Neckar (1833); Zur Gemmenkunde (1834); Das Mithreum von
Neuenheim (1838); Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker (1839); Zur
Geschichte der classischen Philologie (1854).

See the autobiographical Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors
(Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his
death Paralipomena der Lebenskizze eines alten Professors (Frankfort,
1858); also Starck, Friederick Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang und seine
bleibende Bedeutung (Heidelberg, 1875).

CREVASSE, a French word used in two senses. (1) In French
Switzerland, and thence universally in high mountain regions, it
designates a fissure in a glacier caused by gigantic cracks in the
ice-mass, sometimes of great depth, into which climbers fre-
quently fall through a light bridge of snow which conceals the
crevasse. (2) Adopted from the French of Louisiana, it signifies
locally a wide crack or breach in the bank of a canal or river,
and particularly of the " levee " of the Mississippi.

CREVIER, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1693-1765), French
author, was born at Paris, where his father was a printer. He
studied under Rollin and held the professorship of rhetoric in
the college of Beauvais for twenty years. He completed Rollin's
Histoire romaine by the addition of six volumes (17 50-1 756);
he also published two editions of Livy, with notes; L' Histoire
des empereurs des Romains, jusqu'a Constantin (1749); Histoire
de V University de Paris, and a Rhitorique francoise, which
enjoyed much popularity.

CREVILLENTE, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Alicante, and on the Murcia- Alicante railway. Pop. (1900)
10,726. Crevillente is a picturesque old town built among the
eastern foothills of the Sierra de Crevillente. Its flat-roofed
Moorish houses are enclosed by gardens of cactus, dwarf palm,
orange and other subtropical plants, interspersed with masses
of rock. The surrounding country, though naturally sterile, is
irrigated from two adjacent springs, which differ in temperature
by no less than 25° F. The district is famous for its melons,
and also produces wine, olives, wheat and esparto grass. Local
industries include the manufacture of coarse cloth, esparto
fabrics, oil and flour.

CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3 rd Baron (1633-1721), bishop
of Durham, was a son of John Crew (1598-1679), who was created
Baron Crew of Stene in 1 661, and a grandson of Sir Thomas Crew
(1565-1634), speaker of the House of Commons. Born on the
31st of January 1633, Nathaniel was educated at Lincoln College,
Oxford, and was appointed rector of the college in 1668. He
became dean and precentor of Chichester in 1669, clerk of the
closet to Charles II. shortly afterwards, bishop of Oxford in
1671, and bishop of Durham in 1674. He owed his rapid prefer-
ment to James, then duke of York, whose favour he had gained
by conniving at the duke's leanings to the Roman Church. After
the accession of James II. Crew received the deanery of the Chapel
Royal. He served in 1686 on the revived ecclesiastical commis-
sion which suspended Compton, bishop of London, and then
shared the administration of the see of London with Sprat,
bishop of Rochester. In 1687 he was a member of another
ecclesiastical commission, which suspended the vice-chancellor
of the university of Cambridge for refusing the degree of M.A.
to a monk who would not take the customary oath. On the de-
cline of James's power Crew dissociated himself from the court,
and made a bid for the favour of the new government by voting
for the motion that James had abdicated. He was excepted

from the general pardon of 1690, but afterwards was allowed to
retain his see. He left large estates to be devoted to charitable
ends, and his benefaction to Lincoln College and to Oxford
University is commemorated in the annual Crewian oration.
In 1697 Crew succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Baron Crew,
He died on the 18th of September 1721, when the barony became
extinct.

CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian
origin, cf. O. Icel. kru, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as
a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century
in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accroitre,
to grow, increase), a band or body of men associated for a
definite purpose, a gang who jointly carry out a particular piece
of work, and especially those who man a ship, exclusive of the
captain, and sometimes also of the officers.

CREWE, ROBERT OFFLEY ASHBURTON CREWE-MILNES,
ist Earl of (1858- ), English statesman and writer, was
born on the 12th of January 1858, being the son of Lord Houghton
(q.v.), and was educated at Harrow and Trinity, Cambridge.
In 1880 he married Sibyl Marcia Graham, who died in 1887,
leaving him with two daughters. He inherited his father's
literary tastes, and published Stray Verses in 1890, besides other
miscellaneous literary work. A Liberal in politics, he became
private secretary to Lord Granville when secretary of state for
foreign affairs (1883-1884), and in 1886 was made a lord-in-
waiting. In the Liberal administration of 1892-1895 he was
lord-lieutenant for Ireland, having Mr John Morley as chief
secretary. In 1895 he was created ist earl of Crewe, his maternal
grandfather, the 2nd Baron Crewe, having left him his heir.
In 1899 he married Lady Margaret Primrose, daughter of the
5th earl of Rosebery. In 1905 he became lord president of the
council in the Liberal government; and in 1908, in Mr Asquith's
cabinet, he became secretary of state for the colonies and Liberal
leader in the House of Lords.

CREWE, a municipal borough in the Crewe parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 158 m. N.W. of London, on the
main line of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901)
42,074. The town was built on an estate called Oak Farm in
the parish of Monk's Coppenhall, and takes its name from the
original stations having been placed in the township of Crewe, in
which the seat of Lord Crewe is situated. It is a railway junction
where lines converge from London, Manchester, North Wales
and Holyhead, North Stafford and Hereford. It is inhabited
principally by persons in the employment of the London &
North- Western railway company, and was practically created
by that corporation, at a point where in 1841 only a farmhouse
stood in open country. Crewe is not only one of the busiest
railway stations in the world, but is the locomotive metropolis of
the London & North- Western company, which has centred here
enormous workshops for the manufacture of the material and
plant used in railways. In 1901 the 4000th locomotive was turned
out of the works. A series of subterranean ways extending many
miles have been constructed to enable merchandise traffic to pass
through without interfering with passenger trains on the surface
railways. The company possesses one of the finest electric
stations in the world, and electrical apparatus for the working of
train signals is in operation. The station is fitted with an
extensive suite of offices for the interchange of postal traffic,
the chief mails to and from Ireland and Scotland being stopped
here and arranged for various distributing centres. Its enormous
railway facilities and its geographical situation as the junction
of the great trunk lines running north and south, tapping also
the Staffordshire potteries on the one side and the great mineral
districts of Wales on the other, constitute Crewe station one of
the most important links of railway and postal communication
in the kingdom. The railway company built its principal schools,
provided it with a mechanics' institute, containing library,
science and art classes, reading rooms, assembly rooms, &c.
Victoria Park, also the gift of the company, was opened in 1888.
The municipal corporation built the technical school and school
of art. The borough incorporated in 1877, is under a mayor,
7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2185 acres.

CREWKERNE— CRIBBAGE

433

CREWKERNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, 132 m. W.S.W. of London
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901^ 4226. It is pleasantly situated in a wooded hollow,
in the upper valley of the river Parret. The church of St
Bartholomew, one of the finest in the county, is in the Perpen-
dicular style characteristic of the district. The ornamentation
throughout is beautiful, and the west front especially notable.
The grammar school dates from 1499, but occupies modern build-
ings. Sail-cloth, horsehair, cloth and webbing are manufactured.

CRIB (a word common to some Teutonic languages, cf.
Dutch krib and Ger. Krippe; it has a common origin with
the 0. Eng. " cratch," a manger or crib, cf. Fr. creche),
a manger or framework receptacle for holding fodder for cattle
and horses, and so, from early times in English, particularly the
manger in which Jesus was laid. It is thus used of a " cradle,"
from which in form it should be distinguished as being a small
bed with high closed-in sides. The word has many transferred
meanings, as a rough, small hut or dwelling, from which comes
the slang use of " crib " as a berth or situation, or, as a burglar's
term for a house to be broken into; also, technically, in engineer-
ing for a timber framework for masonry constructed with a
caisson in laying foundations below water, or in mining for a
timber lining to a shaft. " Crib-biting " is a vicious habit in
horses, probably due in the first instance to indigestion; the
horse seizes the manger or other object in its teeth, and draws
in the breath, known as " wind-sucking "; the habit may be
checked by the use of a throat-strap. The slang meaning of the
verb " crib," to steal, especially used of petty thefts, is probably
derived from an obsolete use of the substantive for a small
wicker basket; this meaning occurs in the expression " time-
cribbing," used of an illicit increase of the hours of labour in
a factory or workshop, especially by the running of machinery
each day slightly beyond the time of ceasing work. " Crib "
and " cribbing " in this sense are also applied to any unacknow-
ledged appropriation or plagiarism from an author, and particu-
larly to the secret copying by a schoolboy of another's work or
from a book, and also to the secret use of a translation and to
such translation itself. " Crib," in the game of cribbage, of
which it is a shortened form, is the term for the cards thrown
away by each player and scored by the dealer.

CRIBBAGE, a game of cards. A very similar game called
" Noddy " was formerly played, the game being fifteen or twenty-
one up, marked with counters, occasionally by means of a noddy
board. Cribbage seems to be an improved form of Noddy.
According to John Aubrey {Brief Lives) it was invented by Sir
John Suckling (1609-1642).

A complete pack of fifty-two cards is required, and a cribbage
board for scoring, drilled with sixty holes for each player and
one hole (called " the game hole ") at each end, the players usually
scoring from opposite ends. Each player has two scoring pegs.
The game is marked by inserting the pegs in the holes, one after
the other, as the player makes a fresh score, commencing with the
outer row at the game-hole end and going up the board. When
the thirtieth hole is reached the player comes down the board,
using the inner row of holes, until he places his foremost peg in the
game-hole. If the losing player fails to obtain half the holes,
his adversary wins a "lurch," or double game.

The game may be played by two players, five or six cards
being dealt to each, and each putting out two for what is called
" crib "; or by three players (with a triangular scoring board),
five cards being dealt to each, each putting out one for crib,
and a card from the top of the pack being dealt to complete the
crib; or by four players (two being partners against the other
two, sitting and playing as at whist, and one partner scoring for
both), five cards being dealt to each, and each putting out one card
for crib.

Two-handed five-card cribbage was formerly considered the
most scientific game, but this verdict has now been reversed in
favour of the six-card game. In six-card cribbage both hands
and crib contain four cards, and 121 holes are scored.

The players cut for deal, the lowest dealing. If more than one

game is played, the winner of the last game deals. The cards
rank from king (highest) to the ace (lowest) . At the two-handed
five-card game, the non-dealer scores three holes (called " three
for last ") at any time during the game, but usually while the
dealer is dealing the first hand. This is not part of the six-card
game, which we take as our example.

The dealer deals six cards to each, singly. The undealt cards
are placed face downwards on the table. The players then
look at their hands and " lay out," each putting two cards face
downwards on the table, on the side of the board nearest to the
dealer, for the " crib." A player must not take back into his hand
a card he has laid out if the cards have been covered, nor must
the crib be touched during the play of his hand.

After laying out, the non-dealer (when more than two play,
the player to the dealer's left) cuts the pack, and the dealer turns
up the top card of the lower packet, called the "start," or "turn-
up." If this is a knave, the dealer marks two " for his heels."
This score is forfeited if not marked before the dealer plays a
card.

The non-dealer plays first by laying face upwards on the table
on his side of the board any card from his hand; the dealer then
does the same, and so on alternately. When more than two play,
the player to the leader's left plays the second card, and so on.
As soon as the first card is laid down the player calls out the
number of pips on it; if a picture card, ten. When the second
card is laid down, the player calls out the sum of the pips on the
two cards played, and so on until all the cards are played, or
until neither player can play without passing the number thirty-
one. If one player has a card or cards that will come in and the
other has not, he is at liberty to play them; at the six-card game
he must play as long as they can come in, and he can score
runs or make pairs, &c, with them. If one player's cards are
exhausted, the adversary plays out his own, and can score with
them. When more than two play, the player next in rotation
is bound to play, and so on until no one can come in. At the two-
handed five-card game, when neither can come in the play stops;
at the other gamesthe cards are played turned down, and the
remainder of the cards are played in rotation, and so on until
all are played out.

The object of the play is to make pairs, fifteens, sequences,
and the " go," and to prevent the adversary from scoring.

Pairs. — If a card is put down of the same denomination as the one
last played, the player pairing scores two holes. If a third card of
the same denomination is next played, a " pair royal " (abbreviated
to " prial ") is made, and the maker scores six holes. If a fourth
card of the same denomination is next played, twelve holes are scored
for the " double pair royal." Kings pair only with kings, queens
with queens, and so with knaves and tens, notwithstanding that they
all count ten in play.

Fifteens. — If either player during the play reaches fifteen exactly,
by reckoning the values of all the played cards, he marks two.

Sequences. — If during the play of the hand three or more cards are
consecutively played which make an ascending or descending
sequence, the maker of the sequence marks one hole for each card
forming the sequence or run. King, queen, knave and ten reckon
in sequence in this order, notwithstanding that they are all tenth
cards in play; the other cards according to the number of their
pips. The ace is not in sequence with king, queen. If one player
obtains a run of three, his adversary can put down a card in sequence
and mark four, and so on. And, if there is a break in the sequence,
and the break is filled 'p during the play, without the intervention
of a card not in sequence, the player of the card that fills the break
scores a run. Thus the cards are played in this order: A-4, B-3,
A-2, B-ace, A gets a run of three, B a run of four. Had B's last
card been a five, he would similarly have scored a run of four, as
there is no break. Had B's last card been a four, he would have
scored a run of three. The cards need not be played in order. Thus
the cards being played in this order, A-4, B-2, A-5, B-3, A-6, A-4,
B-2, A-5, B-3, A-5, B-6, B takes a run of four for the fourth card
played, but there is no run for any one else, as the second five inter-
venes. Again, if the cards at six-card cribbage are thus played, A-4,
B-2, A-3, B-ace, A-5, B-2, A-4. B-ace, A takes a run of three, B a
run of four, A a run of five. B then playing the deuce has no run,
as the deuce previously played intervenes.

The " go," end hole or last card is scored by the player who
approaches most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles
to a score of one. If thirty -one is reached exactly, it is a go of two
instead of one. After a go no card already played can be counted
for pairs or sequences.

434

CRICCIETH— CRICHTON

Compound Scores. — More than one of the above scores can be made
at the same time. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will
come in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a
sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.

When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud.
The non-dealer has first show and scores and marks first ; the dealer
afterwards counts, scores and marks what he has in hand, and then
takes what is in crib. In counting both hands and crib the " start "
is included, so that five cards are involved.

The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are
fifteen, pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes and " his nob."

Fifteens. — All the combinations of cards that, taken together,
make fifteen exactly, count two. For example, a ten (King, Queen,
Knave or Ten) card and a five reckon two, called as " fifteen two."
Another five in the hand or turned up would again combine with the
ten card, and entitle to another fifteen (" fifteen four ") ; if the other
cards were a two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted
(" fifteen six," " fifteen eight ") — one for the combination of the
three and two with the ten card, and one for the combination of the
two fives with the three and two. Similarly two ten cards and two
fives reckon eight; a nine and three threes count six; and so on for
other cards.

Pairs. — Pairs are reckoned as in play.

Sequences. — Three or more cards in sequence count one for each
card. If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the
same denomination, the sequence reckons again. For example, 3, 4, 5
and a 3 turned up reckon two sequences of three ; with another 3
there would be three sequences of three, and so on.

Flushes. — If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is
reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one
is reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned unless the
start is of the same suit as the cards in crib.

His Nob. — If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up for the
start he counts one " for his nob."

A dialogue will illustrate the technical conversation of the game,
in a game at six-card cribbage. The cards for crib having been dis-
carded, A holds knave of hearts, a four and a pair of twos: B holds
a pair of nines, a six and a four. Two of hearts is turned up by B.
The hand might be played thus. A lays down a two and says
" Two " : B plays a nine and says " Eleven " : A follows with a
four, saying " Fifteen two "; pegging two holes at once: B plays
his four and says " Nineteen; two for a pair," and pegs: A putting
on his knave, " Twenty-nine ": B says " Go." A lays down his
two, his last card, and says " Thirty-one; good for two." B plays
his nine and six, saying " Fifteen two, and one for my last — three."
The points are marked as they are made. A then counts his hand
aloud. " Six for a pair-royal " or " Three twos— good for six,"
and " One for his nob — seven," and throws down his hand for B's
inspection. B, " Fifteen two, fifteen four, fifteen six, fifteen eight,
and a pair are ten." B then looks at his crib and counts it. It
contains, say, king, eight, three, ace and the "start " is also reckoned.
B counts " Fifteen two and a run of three — five."

After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are
shuffled and dealt again, and so on alternately until the game is won.

The highest possible score in hand is 29 — three fives and a knave,
with a five, of the same suit as the knave, turned up.

CRICCIETH, a watering-place and contributory parliamentary-
borough of Carnarvonshire, Wales, on Cardigan Bay, served by
the Cambrian railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1406. It is
interesting for its high antiquity and the ruined castle, a fortress
on an eminence where a neck of land ends, projecting into the sea.
Portions of two towers are on the very verge of the rock. A double
fosse and vallum, with the outer and inner court lines, can
be traced. Apparently British, the castle was repaired later,
probably in the time of Edward I. Across the bay is seen
Harlech castle, backed by the Merionethshire hills. An old
county-family mansion near Criccieth is Gwynf ryn (happy hill) ,
the seat of the Nanneys, situated near the stream Dwyfawr and
within some 7 m. of Pwllheli. Not far is a tumulus, Tomen
fawr. At a distance of 5 m. is Tremadoc (which owes its name,
Town of Madocks — as does Portmadoc.— to Mr W. Madocks,
of Morfa Lodge, who made the embankment here). Criccieth
has become a favourite watering-place, as well as a centre of
excursions. The neighbourhood is agreeable, and the Cardigan
Bay shore is shelving and suitable for safe bathing. Cantref y
Gwaelod (the hundred of the bottom) is the Welsh literary
name of this bay, on the shores of which geological depression
has certainly taken place. Mythical history relates how
Seithennin's drunkenness inundated the land now covered by the
bay, and how King Arthur's ship was wrecked upon Meisdiroedd
Enlli near Bardsey. The Mabinogion tell how Harlech was a
port. Similarly, in Carnarvon Bay, about 2 m. seaward, at

low water, are visible the ruins of Caerarianrhod (fortified town
of the silver wheel), a submerged town — due to another geological
depression.

CRICHTON, JAMES (1560-? 1582), commonly called the
" Admirable Crichton," was the son of Robert Crichton, lord
advocate of Scotland in the reign of Mary and James VI., and of
Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Stewart of Beath, through
whom he claimed royal descent. He was born probably at
Eliock in Dumfriesshire in 1560, and when ten years old was sent
to St Salvator's College, St Andrews, where he took his B.A. in
i574andhisM.A.ini575. In 1577 Crichton was undoubtedly in
Paris, but his career on the continent is difficult to follow. That
he displayed considerable classical knowledge, was a good
linguist, a ready and versatile writer of verse, and above all that
he possessed an astounding memory, seems certain, not only
from the evidence of men of his own time, but from the fact that
even Joseph Scaliger (Prima Scaligerana, p. 58, 1669) speaks of
his attainments with the highest praise. But those works of his
which have come down to us show few traces of unusual ability;
and the laudation of him as a universal genius by Sir Thomas
Urquhart and Aldus Manutius requires to be discounted.
Urquhart (in his Discovery of a most exquisite jewel) states that
while in Paris Crichton successfully held a dispute in the college of
Navarre, on any subject and in twelve languages, and that the
next day he won a tilting match at the Louvre. There is, how-
ever, no contemporary evidence for this, the only certain facts
being that for two years Crichton served in the French army, and
that in 1 579 he arrived in Genoa. The latter event is proved by a
Latin address (of no particular merit) to the Doge and Senate
entitled Oratio J. Critonii Scoti pro Moderatorum Genuensis
Reipubl. electione coram Senatu habita . . . (Genoa, 1579). The
next year Crichton was in Venice, and won the friendship of Aldus
Manutius by his Latin ode In appulsu ad urbem Venetam de
Propria statu J. Critonii Scoti Carmen adAldumManuccium . . .
(Venice, 1580). The best contemporary evidence for Crich ton's
stay in Venice is a handbill printed by the Guerra press in 1580
(and now in the British Museum) , giving a short biography and an
extravagant eulogy of his powers; he speaks ten languages, has a
command of philosophy, theology, mathematics; he improvises
Latin verses in all metres and on all subjects, has all Aristotle
and his commentators at his fingers' ends; is of most beautiful
appearance, a soldier from top to toe, &c. This work is un-
doubtedly by Manutius, as it was reprinted with his name in

1 581 as Relatione delta qualita di . . . Crettone, and again in

1582 (reprinted Venice, 1831).

In Venice Crichton met and vanquished all disputants except
Giacomo Mazzoni, was followed from place to place by crowds of
admirers, and won the affection of the humanists Lorenzo Massa
and Giovanni Donati. In March 1581 he went to Padua, where
he held two great disputations. In the first he extemporized
in succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught on Aristotelian
ignorance, and an oration in praise of ignorance. In the second,
which took place in the Church of St John and St Paul, and lasted
three days, he undertook to refute innumerable errors in Aristo-
telians, mathematicians and schoolmen, to conduct his dispute
either logically or by the secret doctrine of numbers, &c. Accord-
ing to Aldus, who attended the debate and published an account of
it in his dedication to Crichton prefixed to Cicero's " Paradoxa "
(1581), the young Scotsman was completely successful. In June
Crichton was once more in Venice, and while there wrote two
Latin odes to his friends Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati, but
after this date the details of his life are obscure. Urquhart
states that he went to Mantua, became the tutor of the young
prince of Mantua, Vincenzo di Gonzaga, and was killed by the
latter in a street quarrel in 1 582. Aldus in his edition of Cicero's
De universitate (1583), dedicated to Crichton, laments the 3rd
of July as the fatal day; and this account is apparently con-
firmed by the Mantuan state papers recently unearthed by Mr
Douglas Crichton (Proc. Soc. of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1909).
Mr Sidney Lee (Diet. Nat. Biog.) argued against this date, on the
ground that in 1584 and 1585 Crichton was alive and in Milan,
as certain works of his published in that year testified, and

CRICKET

435

regarded it as probable that he died in Mantua c. 1585/6- But
these later works seem to have been by another man of the same
name. The epithet " admirable " (admirabilis) for Crichton
first occurs in John Johnston's Heroes Scoti ( 1603) . It is probably
impossible to recover the whole truth either as to Crichton's
death or as to the extent of his attainments, which were so
quickly elevated into legendary magnitude.

Bibliography. — Sir Thomas Urquhart's Discovery of a most
excellent jewel (1652; reprinted in the Maitland Club's edition of
Urquhart's Works in 1834) is written with the express purpose of
glorifying Scotland. The panegyrics of Aldus Manutius require to
be received with some caution, since he was given to exaggerating
the merits of his friend, and uses almost the same language about a
young Pole named Stanilaus Niegosevski; see John Black's Life of
Torquato Tasso, ii. 413-451 (1810), for a criticism. The Life of
Crichton, by P. Fraser Tytler (2nd ed., 1823), contains many extracts
from earlier writers; see also " Notices of Sir Robert Crichton of
Cluny and of his son James," by John Stuart, in Proceedings Soc. of
Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. ii. pp. 103-118 (1855); and the article
by Andrew Lang, " The death of the Admirable Crichton," in the
Morning Post (London), Feb. 25, 1910. W. Harrison-Ainsworth in
his novel Crichton (new ed., 1892) reprints and translates some
documents relating to Crichton, as well as some of his poems.

CRICKET (Gryllidae), a family of saltatory Orthopterous
Insects, closely related to the Locustidae. The wings when
folded form long slender filaments, which often reach beyond the
extremity of the body, and give the appearance of a bifid tail,
while in the male they are provided with a stridulating apparatus
by which the well-known chirping sound, to which the insect
owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of the female ends in a
long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not exserted in the
mole cricket. The house cricket (Gryllus domesticus) is of a
greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses,
especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat
monotonous, chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of
the fireplace. It is particularly fond of warmth, and is thus
frequently found in bakeries, where its burrows are often sunk to
within a few inches of the oven. In the hot summer it goes out of
doors, and frequents the walls of gardens, but returns again to its
place by the hearth on the first approach of cold, where, should
the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes dormant. It is
nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search of food,
which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen.
The field cricket {Gryllus campestris) is a larger insect than the
former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a
depth of from 6 to 12 in., and in the evening the male may be
observed sitting at the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until
a female approaches, " when," says Bates, " the louder notes are
succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician
caresses with his antennae the mate he has won." The musical
apparatus in this species consists of upwards of 130 transverse
ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the wing cover,
which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure on
the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs — about 200 in
number — on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which
resemble the perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form
burrows for themselves in which they pass the winter. The
mole cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) owes its name to the striking
analogy in its habits and structure to those of the common
mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical in shape, and it burrows
by means of its front legs, which are short and greatly flattened
out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched so as
somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy
ground in which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft
from which long horizontal galleries are given off; and in making
those excavations it does immense injury to gardens and vineyards
by destroying the tender roots of plants, which form its principal
food. It also feeds upon other insects, and even upon the weak
of its own species in the absence of other food. It is exceedingly
fierce and voracious, and is usually caught by inserting a stem of
grass into its hole, which being seized, is retained till the insect is
brought to the surface. The female deposits her eggs in a neatly
constructed subterranean chamber, about the size of a hen's egg,
and sufficiently near the surface to allow of the eggs being hatched
by the heat of the sun.

CRICKET. The game of cricket may be called the national
summer pastime of the English race. The etymology of the word
itself is the subject of much dispute. The Century Dictionary
connects with O. Fr. criquet, " a stick used as a mark in the game of
bowls," and denies the connexion with A.S. crice or cryce, a staff.
A claim has also been made for cricket, meaning a stool, from the
stool at which the ball was bowled, while in the wardrobe account
of King Edward I. for the year 1300 (p. 126) is found an allusion
to a game called creag. Skeat, in his Etymological Dictionary,
states that the word is probably derived from A.S. crice (repudi-
ated by the first authority quoted), the meaning of which is a
staff, and suggests that the " et " is a diminutive suffix; the word
is of the same origin as " crutch." Finally the New English
Dictionary traces the O. Fr. criquet, defined by Littre as " jeu
d'addresse," to M. Flem. Krick, Kriike, baston a s'appuyer,
quinette, potence.

History. — In a MS. of the middle of the 13th century, in the
King's library, 14 Bv, entitled Chronique d'Angleterre, depuis
Ethelberdjusqu'a Hen. III., there is found a grotesque delineation
of two male figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is
undoubtedly the first known drawing of what was destined to
develop into the scientific cricket of modern times. The left-
hand figure is that of the batsman, who holds his weapon upright
in the right hand with the handle downwards. The right-hand
figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at once apparent by the
extension of his hands. In another portion of the same MS.,
however, there is a male figure pointing a bat towards a female
figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. In a
Bodleian Library MS., No. 264, dated the 18th of April 1344, and
entitled Romance of the Good King Alexander, fielders for the
first time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the
players are monks (not female figures, as Strutt misinterprets
their dress in his Sports and Pastimes), and on the extreme left
of the picture, the bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the
right hand with the arm nearly horizontal. The batsman comes
next with his cowl down, a little way only to the right, standing
sideways to the bowler with a long roughly-hewn and slightly-
curved bat, held upright, handle downwards in the left hand.
On the extreme right come four figures — with cowls alternately
down and up, and all having their hands raised in an attitude to
catch the ball. It has been argued that the bat was always
held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of
the same MS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and
also. holding a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement in
his left hand; but it is unsafe to assume that the accuracy of
the artist can be trusted.

The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages
certain games on account of their interfering with the practice of
archery, where the game of cricket is probably included among the
pastimes denounced as " ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut
valentes." In this instance cricket was clearly considered fit for
the lower orders only, though it is evident from the entry in
King Edward's wardrobe account, already mentioned, that in
1300 the game of creag was patronized by the nobility. Judging
from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the game
consisted of bowling, batting and fielding, though it is known
that there was an in-side and an out-side, for sometime during the
15th century the game was called " Hondyn or Hondoute," or
" Hand in and Hand out." Under this title it was interdicted
by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1477-1478), as one of those illegal games
which still continued to be so detrimental to the practice of
archery. By this statute, any one allowing the game to be played
on his premises was liable to three years' imprisonment and £20
fine, any player to two years' imprisonment and £10 fine, and
the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in and
hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the
Hon. Daines Barrington's Observations on the more Ancient Statutes
from Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27. Writing in 1766, he
comments thus on the above statute, viz. : " This is, perhaps,
the most severe law ever made against gaming, and some
of these forbidden sports seem to have been manly exercises,
particularly the handyn and handoute, which I should suppose

43^

CRICKET

to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still retained in
that game."

The word "cricket " occurs about the year 1550. In Russell's
History of Guildford it appears there was a piece of waste land in
the parish of Holy Trinity in that city, which was enclosed by
one John Parish, an innholder, some five years before Queen
Elizabeth came to the throne. In 35 Elizabeth (1593) evidence
was taken before a jury and a verdict returned, ordering the
garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed. Amongst other
witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H.M.'s coroners for
Surrey, aetat. fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for
fifty years or more, and " when he was a scholler in the free
school of Guildford, he and several of his fellowes did runne
and play there at crickett and other plaies." In the original
edition of Stow's Survey of London (1598) the word does not
occur, though he says, " The ball is used by noblemen and
gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the meaner sort in
the open fields and streets."

Some noteworthy references to the game may be cited. In
Giovanni Florio's dictionary A Worlde of Wordes most Copious
and Exact, published in Italy in 1595 and in London three years
later, squillare is defined as "to make a noise as a cricket, to
play cricket-a-wicket and be merry." Sir William Dugdale
states that in his youth Oliver Cromwell, who was born in 1599,
threw " himself into a dissolute and disorderly course," became
" famous for football, cricket, cudgelling and wrestling," and
acquired " the name of royster." In Randle Cotgrave's Diction-
ary of French and English, dated 1611, Crosse is translated
"crosier or bishop's staffe wherewith boys play at cricket," and
Crosser " to play at cricket."

Among the earliest traces of cricket at public schools is an
allusion to be found in the Life of Bishop Ken by William Lisle
Bowles (1830). Concerning the subject of this biography, who
was admitted to Winchester on the 13th of January 1650/1,
it is said " on the fifth or sixth day, our junior ... is found
for the first time attempting to wield a cricket bat." In 1688 a
"ram and bat " is charged in an Etonian's school bill, but it is
possible this may only refer to a cudgel used for ram-baiting.
In The Life of Thomas Wilson, Minister of Maidstone, published
anonymously in 1672, Wilson having been born in 1601 and
dying in or about 1653, occurs the following passage (p. 40):
" Maidstone was formerly a very profane town, in as much as I
have seen morrice-dancing, cudgel-playing, stool-ball, crickets,
and many other sports openly and publicly indulged in on the
Lord's Day." Cricket is found enumerated as one of the games
of Gargantua in The Works of Rabelais, translated in 1653 by
Sir Thomas Urchard (Urquhart), vol. i. ch. xxii. p. 97. In a
poem entitled The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence or the Arts of
Wooing and Complimenting (1658), by Edward Phillips, John
Milton's nephew, the mistress of a country bumpkin when she
goes to a fair with him says " Would my eyes had been beaten out
of my head with a cricket ball." The St Alban's Cricket Club
was founded in 1661, one of its earliest presidents being James
Cecil, 4th earl of Salisbury (1666-1694).

In 1662 John Davies of Kidwelly issued his translation of
Adam Olearius' work entitled The Voyages and Travels of the
Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstcin to the Grand Duke of
Muscovy, and the King of Persia. Begun in the year 1633 and
finished in 1639. On page 297 is a description of the exercises
indulged in by the Persian grandees in 1637, and the state-
ment is made that " They play there also at a certain game,
which the Persians call Kuitskaukan, which is a kind of Mall,
or Cricket." In the Clerkenwell parish book of 1668 the
proprietor of the Rum Inn, Smithfield, is found rated for a
cricket field.

The chaplain of H.M.S., "Assistance," Rev. Henry Teonge,
states in his diary that during a visit to Antioch on the 6th of
May 1676, several of the ship's company, accompanied by the
consul, rode out of the city early and amongst other pastimes
indulged in " krickett. " During the first half of the 1 8th century
the popularity of the game increased and is frequently mentioned
by writers of the time, such as Swift, who alludes sneeringly to

" footmen at cricket," D'Urfey, Pope, Soame Jenyns, Strype
in his edition of Stow's Survey of London, and Arbuthnot in
John Bull, iv. 4, " when he happened to meet with a football or
a match at cricket."

In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game
under the statute 9 Anne, cap. 19, the court of king's bench
holding " that it was a very manly game, not bad in itself,
but only in the ill use made of it by betting more than ten
pounds on it; but that was bad and against the law." Frederick
Louis, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal injuries caused
by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden House.
Games at this period were being played for large stakes, ground
proprietors and tavern-keepers farming and advertising matches,
the results of which were not always above suspicion. The old
Artillery Ground at Finsbury was one of the earliest sites of this
type of fixture. Here it was that the London Club — formed
about 1700 — played its matches. The president was the prince
of Wales, and many noblemen were among its supporters. It
flourished for more than half a century. One of the very earliest
full-scores kept in the modern fashion is that of the match
between Kent and All England, played on the Artillery Ground
on the 1 8th of June 1744.

Cricket, however, underwent its most material development
in the southern counties, more especially in the hop-growing
districts. It was at the large hop-fairs, notably that of Weyhill,
to which people from all the neighbouring shires congregated,
that county matches were principally arranged.

The famous Hambledon Club lasted approximately from 1750
to 1791. Its matches were played on Broad Half-Penny and
Windmill Downs, and in its zenith the club frequently contended
with success against All England. The chief players were more
or less retainers of the noblemen and other wealthy patrons of
cricket. The original society was broken up in 1791 owing to
Richard Nyren, their " general," abandoning the game, of which
in consequence " the head and right arm were gone." The
dispersion of the players over the neighbouring counties caused
a diffusion of the best spirit of the game, which gradually ex-
tended northward and westward until, at the close of the 18th
century, cricket became established as the national game, and
the custom became general to play the first game of each year on
Good Friday.

The M.C.C. (or Marylebone Cricket Club), which ranks as
the leading club devoted to the game in any part of the globe,
sprang from the old Artillery Ground Club, which played at
Finsbury until about 1780, when the members migrating to
White Conduit Fields became the White Conduit Cricket Club.
In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title, and
moved to Lord's ground, then on the site of what is now Dorset
Square; thence in 181 1 to Lord's second ground nearer what
is now the Regent's Canal; and in 1814, when the canal w?-s cut,
to what is now Lord's ground in St John's Wood. Thomas
Lord, whose family were obliged to leave their native Scotland
on account of their participation in the rebellion of 1745, was
born in Thirsk, Yorkshire, in 1757, and is first heard of as an
attendant at the White Conduit Club, London, in 1780. Soon
afterwards he selected and superintended a cricket ground for
the earl of Winchilsea and other gentlemen, which was called
after his name. He died in 1832 on a farm at West Meon,
Hampshire, of which he took the management two years before.
Lord took away the original turf of his cricket-ground at each
migration and relaid it. In 1825 the pavilion was burnt down,
invaluable early records of the game being destroyed; and in
the same year the ground would have been broken up into
building plots had not William Ward purchased Lord's interest.
Dark bought him out in 1836, selling the remainder of his lease
to the club in 1864. Meanwhile, in i860, the freehold had been
purchased at public auction by a Mr Marsden — n£ Moses — for
£7000, and he sold it to the club six years later for nearly £18,500,
a similar sum being paid in 1887 for additional ground. In 1897
the Great Central railway company conveyed a further portion
to the club, making the ground complete as it now is; the total
area is about 20 acres, including the site of various villas adjoining

CRICKET

437

the ground which are part of the property. The number of
members now considerably exceeds five thousand.

Laws.— The oldest laws of cricket extant are those drawn up by
the London Club in 1744. These were amended at the " Star
and Garter " in Pall Mall, London, in 1755, and again in 1774,
and were also revised by the M.C.C. in 1788. From this time
the latter club has been regarded as the supreme authority,
even though some local modifications have in recent years been
effected in Australia. Alterations and additions have been
frequently made, and according to the present procedure they
have to be approved by a majority of two-thirds of the members
present at the annual general meeting of the whole club; the
administration being in the hands of a president, annually
nominated by his outgoing predecessor, a treasurer and a
committee composed of sixteen members, four annually retiring,
in conjunction with a secretary and a large subordinate staff.

Implements. — Concerning the implements of the game, in the
1744 rules it was declared that the weight of the ball must be
" between five and six ounces," and it was not until 1774 that it
was decided that it " shall weigh not less than five ounces and
a half nor more than five ounces and three-quarters," as it is
to the present day. Not until 1838 however came the addition,
" it shall measure not less than nine inches nor more than nine
inches and a quarter in circumference." The materials out of
which the old balls were made are not on record. At present
a cube of cork forms the foundation, round which layers of fine
twine and thin shavings of cork are accumulated till the proper
size and shape are attained, when a covering of red leather is
sewn on with six parallel seams. Various " compositions "
have been tried as a substitute for cork and leather, but without
taking their place.

For the bat, English willow has been proverbially found the
best wood. The oldest extant bats resemble a broad and curved
hockey stick, and it has been claimed to be an evolution of the
club employed in the Irish game of " hurley." The straight
blade was adopted as soon as the bowler began to pitch the ball
up, an alteration which took place about 1750, but pictures
show slightly curved bats almost to the time of the battle of
Waterloo. The oldest were all made in one piece and were
so used until the middle of the 19th century, when handles
of ash were spliced into the blade, and the whole cane-handle
was introduced about i860. No limit was set to the length
of the bat until 1840, though the width was restricted to 4! in.
" in the widest part " by the laws of 1788, and a gauge was made
for the use of the Hambledon Club. The length of the bat is
now restricted to 38 in., 36 being more generally used, as a rule the
handle being 14 in. long and the blade 22 in. As to weight,
though there is no restriction, 2 lb 3 oz. is considered light, 2 lb
6 oz. fairly heavy; but W. Ward (1787-1849) used a bat weighing
4 lb.

At present the wicket consists of three stumps (round straight
pieces of wood) of equal thickness, standing 27 in. upright out
of the ground. On the top are two " bails," short pieces of
wood which fit into grooves made in the top of the stumps so
as not to project more than half an inch above them. But the
evolution of the wicket has been very gradual, and the history
of it is very obscure, since different types of wickets seem to
have existed simultaneously. If early pictures are to be trusted,
no wicket was required in primitive times: the striker was
either caught out, or run out, the fieldsman having to put the
ball into a hole scooped in the ground, before the batsman could
put his bat into it. A single stump, it is supposed, was sometimes
substituted for the hole to save collision between the bat and
the fieldsman's fingers. In due course, but at an unknown
date, a wicket — a " skeleton gate " — was raised over the hole;
it consisted of two stumps each 12 in. high, set 24 in. apart,
with a third laid on the top of them. John Nyren, however,
writing in 1833, and discussing some memoranda given him by
Mr W. Ward, says apropos of these dimensions, " There must
be a mistake in this account of the width of the wicket." Un-
doubtedly such wickets were all against the bowler, who must
have bowled over or through the wicket twenty times for every

occasion when he succeeded in hitting either the uprights or the
cross stump. In pictures of cricket played about 1743 we find
only two stumps and a cross stump, or bail, the wicket varying
apparently both in height and width. In a picture, the property
of H.M. the King, entitled " A Village Match in 1768," three
stumps and a bail are distinctly shown. Two stumps are shown
as used in 1779, afterwards three always with one exception.
Two prints, advertisements, representing matches played
between women on consecutive days in 181 1, show, one of them
a wicket of three stumps, the other a wicket of two. The addition
of the third stump, as is universally agreed, was due to an
incident which occurred in a match of the Hambledon Club in
1775. "It was observed at a critical point in the game, that
the ball passed three times between Mr Small's two stumps
without knocking off the bail; and then, first a third stump
was added, and seeing that the new style of balls which rise
over the bat also rise over the wicket, then but 1 ft. high,
the wicket was altered to the dimensions of 22 in. by 8, and to
its present dimensions of 27m. by 8in 1817." So writes the Rev.
J. Pycroft (1813-1895), quoting fairly closely from Nyren, who
wrote many years after the event; but Pycroft is wrong in
writing 22 by 8, which should really be 22 by 6. It is hard to
believe that the 12 by 24 wicket lasted as long as 1775, for in the
laws issued after the meeting held at the " Star and Garter,"
Pall Mall, where many " noblemen and gentlemen " attended
" finally to settle " the laws of the game, we read that the
stumps are to be 2 2 in. and the bail 6. " N.B . — It is lately settled
to use three stumps instead of two to each wicket, the bail the
same length as before." Regarding all the circumstances one
is tempted to believe that Small defended a wicket of two stumps,
22 in. high and 6 in. apart, strange as is the circumstance
that the ball should thrice in a short innings — for Small only
made 14 runs — pass through them without dislodging the bail,
even though the diameter of the ball is a trifle less than 3 in.
Allusion is also found to a wicket 12 in. by 6, but it is hard to
believe in its existence, unless it was used as a form of handicap.
It should be recorded that in advertisements of matches about
this time (1787) the fact that three stumps will be used " to
shorten the game " is especially mentioned, and that the Hamp-
shire Chronicle of the 15th of July 1797 records that " The earl
of Winchilsea has made an improvement in the game of cricket,
by having four stumps instead of three, and the wickets 2 in.
higher. The game is thus rendered shorter by easier bowling
out." In 1788, however, when the M.C.C. revised the laws,
reference is made to stumps (no number given, but probably
three) 22 in. high and a bail of 6 in. Big scoring in 1796 caused
the addition next year of 2 in. to the height and of 1 to the
breadth, making the wicket 24 in. by 7. That three stumps
were employed is shown by a print of the medallion of the
Oxfordshire County C.C. 1797, forming the frontispiece to
Taylor's Annals of Lord's (1903). In 1817 the dimensions
now in use were finally settled, three stumps 27 in. high, and a
wicket 8 in. wide. Larger wickets have occasionally been used
by way of handicap or experiment. The distance between the
wickets seems always, or at least as far back as 1 700, to have
been 22 yds. — one chain.

The Game. — Cricket is defined in the New English Dictionary as
" an open-air game played with bats, ball and wickets by two
sides of eleven players each; the batsman defends his wicket
against the ball which is bowled by a player of the opposing side,
the other players of this side being stationed about the field in
order to catch or stop the ball." The laws define that the score
shall be reckoned by runs. The side which scores the greatest
number of runs wins the match. Each side has two innings
taken alternately, except that the side which leads by 150 runs
in a three days' match or by 100 runs in a two days' match or
by 75 runs in a one day match shall have the option of requiring
the other side to " follow their innings." In England cricket
is invariably played on turf wickets, but in the Colonies matting
wickets are often employed, and sometimes matches have taken
place on sand, earth and other substances. The oldest form
of the game is probably single wicket, which consists of one

438

CRICKET

batsman defending one wicket, but this has become obsolete,
though it was very popular in the time when matches were
played for money with only one or two, or perhaps four or five,
players on a side. Matches between an unequal number of
players are still sometimes arranged, but mainly in the case of
local sides against touring teams, or " colts " playing against
eleven experienced cricketers. In any case two umpires are
always appointed, and for English first-class county cricket
these are now annually chosen beforehand by the county captains.
Two scorers are officially recognized. All the arrangements as
to scoreboards, and accommodation for players, members of the
club and general spectators, vary considerably according to
local requirements. Between six and seven acres forms the most
suitable area for a match, but the size of a cricket ground has
never been denned by law.

The wickets are pitched opposite and parallel to one another
at a distance of 22 yds.; the "bowling crease" being
marked with whitewash on the turf on a line with the stumps
8 ft. 8 in. in length, with short " return creases " at right
angles to it at each end; but the "popping crease," marked
parallel to the wicket and 4 ft. in front of it, is deemed
of unlimited length. The captains of the opposing sides toss for
choice of innings, and the winner of the toss, though occasionally,
owing to the condition of the ground or the weather prospects,
electing to put his adversaries in first, as a general rule elects for
his own side to bat first. The captain of the batting side sends
his eleven (or whatever the number of his team may be) in to
bat in any order he thinks best, and much judgment is used in
deciding what this order shall be. Two batsmen with strong
defensive powers and good nerve are usually selected to open
the innings, the most brilliant run-getters immediately following
them, and the weakest batsmen going in last. As there must
always, except in the obsolete single-wicket cricket, be two
batsmen in together, it follows that when ten of the side (in a
side of eleven) have been put out, one of the final pair must be
" not out "; that is to say, his innings is terminated without
his getting out because there is none of his side left to become
his partner. The batsman who is thus " not out " is said to
" carry his bat," a phrase that recalls a period when two bats
sufficed for the whole side, each retiring batsman leaving the
implement on the ground for the use of his successor, till at the
close of the innings the " not out " man carried it back to the
tent or pavilion. As the phrase is not also applied to the last
batsman to get out, who would of course have carried the second
bat off the ground, it was possibly at one time restricted to a
player who going in first survived through the whole innings.
It should be observed that the term " wicket " is used by
cricketers in a number of different senses. Besides being the
name given to the set of three stumps with their two bails when
pitched for a match, it is in an extended sense applied to that
portion of the ground, also called the " pitch," on which the
stumps are pitched, as when it is described as being " a fast
wicket," a " sticky wicket " and so forth. It also in several
idiomatic expressions signifies the getting out of a batsman
and even the batsman himself, as in the phrases: " Grace lost
his wicket without scoring," " Grace went in first wicket down,"
" when Grace got out England lost their best wicket," " England
beat Australia by two wickets."

The umpires are required to decide questions arising in the
course of play and to call the " overs," the " over " being a series
of successive deliveries of the ball (usually six) by the bowler
from one end of the pitch, the rest of the " out " side, or fielders,
being stationed in various positions in the field according to
well-defined principles. When an " over " has been bowled
from one end a different bowler then bowls an " over " from the
opposite end, the alternation being continued without interrup-
tion throughout the innings, and the bowlers being selected and
changed from time to time by the captain of their side at his
discretion. At the end of every over the fielders " change over "
or otherwise rearrange their places to meet the batting from
the other end. An over from which no runs are made off the
bat is called a " maiden." A " run " is made when the two

batsmen change places, each running from his own to the opposite
wicket without being " run out." The aim of the batting side
is to make as many runs as possible, while the object of the
fielding side is to get their opponents out, and to prevent their
making runs while in.

There are nine ways in which the batsman, or " striker," can
be put out. Of these the following five are the most important.
(1) The striker is " bowled " out if the bowler hits the wicket
with the ball, when bowling, and dislodges the bail; (2) he is
" caught " out if the ball after touching his bat or hand be held
by any member of the fielding side before it touches the ground;
(3) he is " stumped " out if the wicket-keeper dislodges the bail
with the ball, or with his hand holding the ball, at a moment
when the striker in playing at the ball has no part of his person
or bat in contact with the ground behind the popping crease,
i.e. when the batsman is " out of his ground "; (4) he is out
" l.b.w." (leg before wicket) if he stops with any part of his
person other than his hand, or arm below the elbow, a ball
which in the umpire's judgment pitched straight between the
wickets, and would have bowled the striker's wicket; (5) if
when the batsmen are attempting to make a run a wicket
is put down (i.e. the bail dislodged) by the ball, or by the hand
of any fieldsman holding the ball, at a moment when neither
batsman has any part of his person or bat on the ground behind
the popping crease, the nearer of the two batsmen to the wicket
so put down is " run out." The remaining four ways in which
a batsman may be dismissed are (6) hit wicket, (7) handling the
ball, (8) hitting the ball more than once " with intent to score,"
and (9) obstructing the field.

The positions of the fieldsmen are those which experience proves
to be best adapted for the purpose of saving runs and getting
the batsmen caught out. During the middle of the 19th century
these positions became almost stereotyped according to the pace
of the bowler's delivery and whether the batsmen were right
or left handed. A certain number of fielders stood on the " on "
side, i.e. the side of the wicket on which the batsman stands, and
a certain number on the opposite or " off " side, towards which
the batsman faces. " Point " almost invariably was placed
square with the striker's wicket some ten or a dozen yards
distant on the "off" side; "cover point" to the right of
' point " (as he is looking towards the batsman) and several
yards deeper; " mid on " a few yards to the right of the bowler,
and " mid off " in a corresponding position on his left, and so
forth. Good captains at all times exercised judgment in modify-
ing to some extent the arrangement of the field according to
circumstances, but in this respect much was learnt from the
Australians, who on their first visit to England in 1878 varied
the positions of the field according to the idiosyncrasies of the
batsmen and other exigencies to a degree not previously practised
in England. The perfection of wicket-keeping displayed by
the Australian, McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855), taught English
cricketers that on modern grounds the " long stop " could
be altogether dispensed with; and this position, which in
former days was considered a necessary and important one,
has since been practically abolished. In many matches at the
present day, owing to the character of modern bowling, no more
than a single fieldsman is placed on the " on " side, while the
number and positions of those " in the slips," i.e. behind the
wicket on the " off " side, are subject to no sort of rule, but vary
according to the nature of the bowling, the state of the ground,
or any other circumstances that may influence the judgment
of the captain of the fielding side. Charts such as were once
common, showing the positions of the fielders for fast, slow and
medium bowling respectively, would therefore to-day give no
true idea of the actual practice; and much of the skill of modern
captaincy is shown in placing the field.

The score is compiled by runs made by the batsman and by the
addition of " extras," the latter consisting of " byes," " leg-
byes," " wides " and " no-balls." All these are included in the
designation " runs," of which the total score is composed, though
neither " wides " nor " no-balls " involve any actual run on the
part 'of the batsmen. They are called by the umpire on his own

CRICKET

439

Batting.

initiative, in the one case if the bowler's delivery passes the
batsman beyond the reach of his bat (" wide "), and in the other
if he delivers the ball without having either foot touching the
ground behind the " bowling crease " and within the " return
crease," or if the ball be jerked or thrown instead of being bona
fide " bowled." " Wides " and " no-balls " count as one " run "
each, and all " extras " are added to the score of the side without
being credited to any individual batsman. The batsman may,
however, hit a " no-ball " and make runs off it, the runs so made
being scored to the striker's credit instead of the "no-ball"
being entered among the " extras." The batsman may be " run
out " in attempting a run off a " no-ball," but cannot be put out
off it in any other way. " Byes " are runs made off a ball which
touches neither the bat nor the person of the batsman, " leg-byes "
off a ball which, without touching the bat or hand, touches any
other part of his person. With the exception of these " extras "
the score consists entirely of runs made off the bat.

Batting is the most scientific feature of the game. Proficiency
in it, as in golf and tennis, depends in the first instance to a great
extent on the player assuming a correct attitude for
making his stroke, the position of leg, shoulder and
elbow being a matter of importance; and although a quick and
accurate eye may occasionally be sufficient by itself to make a
tolerably successful run-getter, good style can never be acquired,
and a consistently high level of achievement can seldom be
gained, by a batsman who has neglected these rudiments. Good
batting consists in a defence that is proof against all the bowler's
craft, combined with the skill to seize every opportunity for
making runs that the latter may inadvertently offer. If the
batsman's whole task consisted in keeping the ball out of his
wicket, the accomplishment of his art would be comparatively
simple; it is the necessity for doing this while at the same time he
must prevent the ball from rising off his bat into the air in the
direction of any one of eleven skilfully-placed fielders, each eager
to catch him out, that offers scope for the science of a Grace, a
MacLaren or a Trumper. In early days when the wickets were
low and the ball was trundled along the ground, the curved bats of
the old pictures were probably well adapted for hitting, defence
being neglected; but when the height of the wickets was raised,
and bowlers began to pitch the ball closer to the batsman so that
it would reach the wicket on the first bound, defence of the wicket
became more necessary and more difficult. Hence the modern
straight-bladed bat was produced, and a more scientific method of
batting became possible. Batting and bowling have in fact
developed together, a new form of attack requiring a new form of
defence. One of the first principles a young batsman has to
learn is to play with a " a straight bat " when.defending his wicket
against straight balls. This means that the whole blade of the
bat should be equally opposite to the line on which the ball is
travelling towards him, in order that the ball, to whatever height
it may bound from the ground, may meet the bat unless it
rises altogether over the batsman's hands; the tendency of the
untutored cricketer being on the contrary to hold the bat sloping
outwards from the handle to the point, as the golf-player holds his
" driver," so that the rise of the ball is apt to carry it clear of the
blade. Standing then in a correct position and playing with a
straight bat, the batsman's chief concern is to calculate accurately
the " length " of the ball as soon as he sees it leave the bowler's
hand. The " length " of the ball means the distance from the
batsman at which it pitches, and " good length " is the first
essential of the bowler's art. The distance that consitutes
" good length " is not, however, to be defined by precise measure-
ment; it depends on the condition of the ground, and on the
reach of the batsman. A " good-length ball " is one that pitches
too far from the batsman for him to reach out to meet it with the
bat at the moment it touches the ground or immediately it begins
to rise, in the manner known as " playing forward "; and at the
same time not far enough from him to enable him to wait till after
it has reached the highest point in its bound before playing it
with the bat, i.e. " playing back." When, owing to the good
length of the ball, the batsman is unable to play it in either of
these two ways, but is compelled to play at it in the middle of its

rise from the ground, he is almost certain, if he does not miss it
altogether, to send it up in the air with the danger of being caught
out. If through miscalculation the batsman plays forward to a
short-pitched ball, he will probably give a catch to the bowler or
" mid off," if he plays back to a well-pitched-up ball, he will
probably miss it and be bowled out. The bowler is therefore
continually trying to pitch balls just too short for safe forward
play, while the batsman defends his wicket by playing forward
or back as his judgment directs so long as the bowling is straight
and of approximately good length, and is ready the instant he
receives a bad-length ball, or one safely wide of the wicket, to hit it
along the ground clear of the fieldsmen so as to make as many
runs as he and his partner can accomplish before the ball is
returned to the wicket-keeper or the bowler. But even those
balls off which runs are scored are not to be hit recklessly or
without scientific method. A different stroke is brought into
requisition according to the length of the ball and its distance
wide of the wicket to the " off " or " on " as the case may be; and
the greatest batsmen are those who with an almost impregnable
defence combine the greatest variety of strokes, which as occasion
demands they can make with confidence and certainty. There
are, however, comparatively few cricketers who do not excel in
some particular strokes more than in others. One will make most
of his runs by " cuts " past " point," or by wrist strokes behind
the wicket, while others, like the famous Middlesex Etonian
C. I. Thornton, and the Australian C. J. Bonnor, depend mainly
on powerful " drives " into the deep field behind the bowler's
wicket. Some again, though proficient in all-round play, develop
exceptional skill in some one stroke which other first-class players
seldom attempt. A good illustration is the " glance stroke " off
the legs which K. S. Ranjitsinhji made with such ease and grace.
All great cricketers in fact, while observing certain general
principles, display some individuality of style, and a bowler who
is familiar with a batsman's play is often aware of some idiosyn-
crasy of which he can take advantage in his attack.

Bowling is, indeed, scarcely less scientific than batting. It is
not, however, so systematically taught to young amateurs, and
it may be partly in consequence of this neglect that Bowling.
amateur bowling is exceedingly weak in England as
compared with that of professionals. The evolution of the art
of bowling, for it has been an evolution, is an interesting chapter
in the history of cricket which can only be briefly outlined here.
The fundamental law as to the proper mode of the bowler's
delivering the ball is that the ball must be bowled, not thrown
or jerked. When bowling underhand along the ground was
superseded by " length bowling," it was found that the ball
might be caused, by jerking, to travel at a pace which on the
rough grounds was considered dangerous; hence the law against
jerking, which was administered practically by chalking the inside
of the bowler's elbow; if a chalk mark was found on his side,
the ball was not allowed as fair. The necessity of keeping the
elbow away from the side led gradually to the extension of the
arm horizontally and to round-arm bowling, the invention of
which is usually attributed to John Wills (or Willes; b. 1777)
of Kent and Sussex. Nyren, however, says " Tom Walker
(about 1790) began the system of throwing instead of bowling
now so much the fashion"; and, "The first I recollect seeing
revive this fashion was Wills, a Sussex man," the date of the
revival being 1807. Walker was no-balled. Beldham (1766-
1862) says, " The law against jerking was owing to the frightful
pace Tom Walker put on, and I believe that he afterwards
tried something more like the modern throwing-bowling. Willes
was not the inventor of that kind, or round-arm bowling. He
only revived what was forgotten or new to the young folk."
Curiously enough, Beldham also writes of the same Tom Walker
that he was " the first lobbing slow bowler " he ever saw,
and that he " did feel so ashamed of such baby bowling, but
after all he did more than even David Harris himself." Round-
arm bowling was long and vigorously opposed, especially in 1826
when three matches were arranged between England and Sussex,
the Sussex bowlers being round-arm bowlers. When England
had lost the first two matches, nine of the professionals refused

44°

CRICKET

to take part in the third, " unless the Sussex bowlers bowl fair,
that is, abstain from throwing." Five of them did play and
Sussex lost, but the new style of bowling had indicated its
existence. In 1844 the M.C.C.'s revised law reads, " The ball
must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand must not
be above the shoulder in delivery." Round- arm bowling was
thenceforth legal. In 1862 Willsher (1828-1885), the Kent
bowler, was no-balled by the umpire (Lillywhite) for raising his
hand too high, amid a scene of excitement that almost equalled
a tumult. Overhand bowling was legalized on the 10th cjf June
1864 after strenuous opposition. In early days much importance
was attached to great pace, but the success of the slow lobbing
bowling (pitched up underhand) led to its cultivation; in both
styles some of the best performers delivered the ball with a
curious high action, thrusting the ball, as it were, from close under
the arm-pit. When the advantages of bias (or twist, or break)
were first known is not closely recorded, but we read of one
Lamborn who (about 1800) could make the ball break from leg
so that " the Kent and Surrey men could not tell what to make
of that cursed twist of his." Whatever the pace of bowling,
accuracy is the essential point, or, more correctly, the power of
accurately varying pace, pitch and direction, so that the batsman
is never at peace. If the bowler is a mere machine, the batsman
soon becomes his master; but the question as to which of the
two is supreme depends very largely on the condition of the
turf, whether it be hard and true, soft and wet, hard and rough
or soft and drying: the first pair of conditions favour the bats-
men, the second pair the bowler.

The immense amount of' labour and expense devoted to the
preparation and care of cricket grounds has produced during
the past quarter of a century a perfection of smoothness in the
turf which has materially altered the character of the game. On
the rough and fiery pitches of earlier days, on which a " long
stop " was indispensable, the behaviour of the ball could not be
reckoned upon by the batsman with any degree of confidence.
The first ball of an " over " might be a " shooter," never rising
as much as an inch off the ground, the next might bound over
his head, and the third pursue some equally eccentric course.
But on the best grounds of to-day, subject to the well-understood
changes due to weather, the bound of the ball is so regular as
to be calculable with reasonable certainty by the batsman.
The result has been that in fine weather, when wickets are true
and fast, bowlers have become increasingly powerless to defeat
the batsmen. In other words the defence has been strengthened
out of proportion to the attack. Bowlers have consequently to
a great extent abandoned all attempt to bowl the wicket down,
aiming instead at effecting their purpose by bowling close to but
clear of the wicket, with the design of getting the batsman to
give catches. Many batsmen of the stubbornly defensive type,
known in cricket slang as " stonewallers," retaliated by leaving
such balls alone together, or stopping them deliberately with the
legs instead of the bat.

These tactics caused the game to become very slow; over after
over was bowled without an attempt being made to score a run
and without apparent prospect of getting a wicket. This not
only injured the popularity of the game from the spectator's
point of view, but, in conjunction with the enormous scores that
became common in dry seasons, made it so difficult to finish a
match within the three days to which first-class matches in
England are invariably limited, that nearly 70% of the total
number of fixtures in some seasons were drawn. Cricketers of
an older generation have complained that the cause of this is
partly to be found in the amount of time wasted by contemporary
cricketers. These critics see no reason why half of a summer's
day should be allowed to elapse before cricket begins, and they
comment with some scorn on the interval for tea, and the
fastidiousness with which play is frequently interrupted on
account of imperfect light or for other unimperative reasons.
Various suggestions have been made, including proposals for
enlarging the wicket, for enabling the attack to hold its own
against the increasing strength of the defence. But the M.C.C.,
the only recognized source of cricket legislation, has displayed

a cautious but wise conservatism, due to the fact that its authority
rests on no sanction more formal than that of prestige tacitly
admitted by the cricketing world; and consequently no drastic
changes have been made in the laws of the game, the only im-
portant amendments of recent years being that which now
permits a side to close its innings voluntarily under certain
conditions, and that which, in substitution for the former hard
and fast rule for the " follow on," has given an option in the
matter to the side possessing the requisite lead on the first
innings.

Early Players. — If the era of the present form of cricket can
very properly be dated from the visit of the first Australian team
to England in 1878, some enumeration must be made of a few of
the cricketers who took part in first-class matches in the earlier
portion of the 19th century. Among amateurs should be noted
the two fast bowlers, Sir F. H. Bathurst (1807-1881; E"ton,
Hampshire), and Harvey Fellowes (b. 1826; Eton); the
batsman N. Felix (1804-1876; Surrey and Kent), who was
a master of " cutting " and one of the earliest to adopt batting
gloves; the cricketing champion of his time Alfred Mynn (1807-
1861; Kent); and the keen player F. P. Miller (1828-1875;
Surrey). The three Marshams, Rev. C. D. Marsham (b. 1835),
R. H. B. Marsham (b. 1833) and G. Marsham (b. 1849), all of
Eton and Oxford, were as famous as the Studds in the 'eighties;
and R. Hankey (1832-1886; Harrow and Oxford) was a great
scorer. In the next generation one of the greatest bats of his
own or any time was R. A. H. Mitchell (1 843-1 905 ; Eton, Oxford,
Hants). A very attractive run-getter was C. F. Buller (b.
1846; Harrow, Middlesex); an all too brief career was that
of C. J. Ottaway (1850-1878; Eton, Oxford, Kent and Middle-
sex); whilst A. Lubbock (b. 1845; Eton, Kent) was a sound bat,
and D. Buchanan (1830-1900; Rugby and Cambridge) a destruc-
tive bowler, as was also A. Appleby (1843-1902; Lancashire).

Of the professionals, Fuller Pilch (1803-1870) and E. G.
Wenman (1803-1897) were great bats; T Box (1808-1876) the
most skilled wicket-keeper of his time; W. Lillywhite (1792-
1854), one of the first round-arm bowlers, renowned for the
accuracy of his pitch, and W. Clark (1798-1856) possessed
wonderful variety of pace and pitch. It was the last-named who
organized the All England Eleven, and he was not chosen to
represent the players until he had reached the age of forty-seven.
George Parr (1826-1891), the greatest leg-hitter in England, had
no professional rival until the advent of Richard Daft (1835-
1900). J. Dean (1816-1891) was the finest long-stop, Julius
Caesar (1830-1878) a hard clean hitter, as was G.Anderson (1826-
1902), and T..Lockyer (1826-1869) seems to have been the first
prominent wicket-keeper who took balls wide on the leg-side.
Of bowlers, E. Willsher (1828-1885) would seem to have been the
most difficult, W. Martingell (1818-1897) bfting a very good
medium-paced bowler, and J. Wisden (1826-1884) a very fast
bowler but short in his length. Four famous bowlers of a later
date are George Freeman (1844-1895), J. Jackson (1833-1903),
G. Tarrant (1838-1870) and G. Wootton (b. 1834). With them
must be mentioned the great batsmen, T. Hayward (1835-1876)
and R. Carpenter (1830-1901), as well as two other keen cricketers,
H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896) andT. Hearne (1826-1900).

Since the first half of the 19th century the sort of cricket to
engage public attention has very greatly changed, and the change
has become emphasized since the exchange of visits between
Australian and English teams has become an established feature
of first-class cricket. First-class cricket has become more formal,
more serious and more spectacular. The contest for the co *mty
championship has introduced an annual competition, closely
followed by the public, between standing rivals familiar with each
other's play and record; an increased importance has become
attached to " averages " and " records," and it is felt by some
that the purely sporting side of the game has been damaged by
the change. Professionalism has increased, and it is an open
secret that not a few players who appear before the public as
amateurs derive an income under some pretext or other from
the game. Cricket on the village green has in many parts of the
country almost ceased to exist, while immense crowds congregate

CRICKET

4-41

to watch county matches in the great towns; but this must no
doubt be in part attributed to the movement of population from
the country districts; and some compensation is to be found in
league cricket (see below), and, in the numerous clubs for the
employees of business firms and large shops, and for the members
of social institutes of all kinds, which play matches in the suburbs
of London and other cities. At an earlier period two great pro-
fessional organizations, " The All England," formed in 1846, and
" The United All England," toured the country, mainly for profit,
playing local sides in which " given men," generally good pro-
fessional players, figured. They did much good work in popu-
larizing the game, and an annual match between the two at
Lord's on Whit- Monday was once a great feature of the season;
but the increase of county cricket led eventually to their
disbandment.

At this period, and much later, the first-class matches of
"M.C.C. and ground" (i.e. ground-staff, or professionals attached
to the club) occupied a far greater amount of importance than is
at present the case. In recent years over 150 minor matches of
the utmost value in propagating the best interests of cricket are
annually played by the leading club. League cricket has of late
become exceedingly popular, especially in the North of England,
a number of clubs — about twelve to sixteen — combining to form
a " League " and playing home-and-home matches, each one
with each of the others in turn ; points are scored according as
each club wins, loses, or draws matches, the championship of the
" League " being thus decided.

English County Cricket— The first English inter-county
match which is recorded was played on Richmond Green in
1730 between Surrey and Middlesex; but for very many years,
though counties played counties, there was no systematic organiza-
tion, matches often being played at odds or with "given"
players, who had no county connexion with the side they repre-
sented. This was the natural outcome of the custom of playing
for stakes. It was not till 1872 that any real effort was made
to organize county cricket. In that year the M.C.C. took the
initiative by offering a cup for competition between the counties,
six of which were to be selected by the M.C.C, the matches to
be played at Lord's, but the scheme fell through owing to the
coolness of the counties' themselves. It was only in 1890 that the
counties were formally and officially classified, Notts (the county
club dating from 1859), Lancashire (1864), Surrey (1845), Kent
(1842), Middlesex (1864), Gloucestershire (1869), Yorkshire
(1S62), and Sussex (1839), being regarded as "first-class," as
indeed had been the case from the time of their existence; and
by degrees other counties were promoted to this class; Somerset
in 1893; Derbyshire, Essex, Leicestershire, Warwickshire in
1894; Hampshire in 1895; Worcestershire in 1899; North-
amptonshire in 1905.

In 1887 the County Cricket Council had been formed, working
with and not against the Marylebone Club, for the management
of county cricket, but the council dissolved itself in 1890, and
it was then arranged that the county secretaries and delegates
should meet and discuss such matters, and request the M.C.C. to
consider the result of their deliberations, and practically to act
as patron and arbitrator. In 1905 an Advisory Cricket Com-
mittee was formed " with the co-operation of the counties, with
a view to improve the procedure in dealing with important
matters arising out of the development of cricket, the effect of
which will be" (the quotation is from the annual report of M.C.C.
in 1905) " to bring the counties into closer touch with the
M.C.C." Various methods have been tried as to the assignment
of points or marks, the following being the list of champion
counties up to 1909:

1864

Surrey

1865

Notts

1866

Middlesex

1867

Yorkshire

1868

Yorkshire

1869

Notts

1870

Yorkshire

1871

Notts

1872

Surrey

Gloucestershire

[ equal

1873

Surrey

1874

Gloucestershire

1875

Notts

1876

Gloucestershire

1877

Gloucestershire

1878

Notts

1879

Lancashire J equal

1880

Notts

1881

Lancashire

1882

Lancashire J equal

1883

Yorkshire

1884

Notts

1885

Notts

1886

Notts

1887

Surrey

1888

NottTi^ 1

1889

L a r n r C e a y Shire i ^ual

1890

Surrey

1891

Surrey

1892

Surrey

1893

Yorkshire

1894

Surrey

1895

Surrey

1896

Yorkshire

1897

Lancashire

1898

Yorkshire

1899

Surrey

1900

Yorkshire

1901

Yorkshire

1902

Yorkshire

1903

Middlesex

1904

Lancashire

I9°5

Yorkshire

1906

Kent

1907

Notts

1908

Yorkshire

1909

Kent

English county cricket is now the most firmly established cricketing
institution in the world, but in its earlier stages it owed much in
different counties to enthusiastic individuals and famous The Q races
cricketing families whose energies were devoted to its attd q[ ou .
encouragement and support. To Gloucestershire belongs ceS f er .
the honour of the greatest name in the history of the game. s ft/ re .
Dr W. G. Grace (q.v.) was not only the most brilliant all-
round cricketer in the world, but he remained supreme after reaching
an age when most cricketers have long abandoned the game. He
and his two famous brothers, E. M. Grace (b. 1841) and G. F. Grace
(1850-1880), rendered invaluable service to their county for many
years; and not to their county alone, for the great part they played
for a generation in first-class cricket did much to increase the growing
popularity of the county fixtures. A separate article is devoted to
Dr W. G. Grace, whose name as the champion of the game will
always be associated with its history. And of Dr E. M. Grace it
may be mentioned that, besides being the most daring field at
" point " ever seen, he altogether took 11,092 wickets and scored
75,625 runs. In more recent years some excellent cricketers
have been associated with Gloucestershire, such as F. Townsend,
and the professional Board ; but foremost stands G. L. Jessop,
a somewhat " unorthodox " batsman famous for his powers of
hitting.

What W. G. Grace did for Gloucestershire, Lord Harris (b. 1851)
did for Kent, and his services are not to be estimated by his perform-
ances in the field alone, great as they were. His influence Kent.
was always exerted to impart a spirit of sportsmanship
and honourable distinction to the national game. Kent had been a
home of cricket since the first half of the 18th century, but it was
Lord Harris more than any other individual who made it a first-class
county, celebrated for the number of distinguished amateurs who
have taken part in its matches. /The Hon. Ivo Bligh, afterwards
Lord Darnley (b. 1859), and F. Marchant (b. 1864), both Etonians
like Lord Harris himself; the two Harrovians, W. H. Patterson
(b. 1859) and M. C. Kemp (b. 1862), and the Wykehamist J. R.
Mason (b. 1874) are names that show the place taken by public
school men in the annals of Kent cricket, while the family of Hearnes
supplied the county with some famous professionals. Amateur
batsmen like W. Rashleigh, C. J. Burnup, E. W. Dillon and A. P.
Day have been prominent in the Kent eleven; and in Fielder and
Blythe they have had two first-class professional bowlers. The
" Kent nursery " at Tonbridge has proved a valuable institution for
training young professional players, and contributed not a little to
the rising reputation of Kent, which justified itself when the county
won the championship in 1906, largely owing to the admirable
batting of the amateur K. L. Hutchings.

Middlesex and Lancashire, not less than Kent, have been indebted
to the great public schools, and especially to Harrow, which provided
both counties with famous captains who directed their Middlesex
fortunes for an uninterrupted period of over twenty years. ^ Lan-
I. D. Walker, the most celebrated of seven cricketing cas j J [ re ,
brothers, all Harrovians, who founded the Middlesex
County Club, handed on the captaincy, after a personal record of
astonishing brilliancy, to a younger Harrow and Oxford cricketer,
A. J. Webbe, who was one of the finest leg-hitters and one of the
safest out-fielders of his day, and a captain of consummate judgment
and knowledge of the game. A. N. Hornby, a contemporary at
Harrow of I. D. Walker, was for many years the soul of Lancashire
cricket, and was succeeded in the captaincy of the county by the
still more famous Harrovian, A. C. MacLaren, one of the greatest
batsmen in the history of cricket, whose record for England in test
matches against Australia was almost unrivalled. In 1895, when he
headed the batting averages, MacLaren made the highest individual
score in a first-class match, viz. 424 against Somersetshire. Middlesex
has also the distinction of having produced the two greatest amateur
wicket-keepers in the history of English cricket, namely, the Hon.
Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857) and Gregor MacGregor, both of whom,
after playing for Cambridge University, gave their services to the
Metropolitan county; while Lancashire can boast of the greatest
professional wicket-keeper in Richard Pilling (1855-1891), whose
reputation has not been eclipsed by that of the most proficient of
more recent years. Another famous Cambridge University cricketer,
a contemporary of Lyttelton, who was invaluable to Lancashire for

442

CRICKET

some years when he was one of the very finest all-round cricketers
in the country, was A. G. Steel (b. 1858), equally brilliant as a bats-
man and as a slow bowler; and other names memorable in Lanca-
shire cricket were R. G. Barlow (b. 1859), whose stubborn batting
was a striking contrast to the rapid run-getting of Hornby and the
perfect style of Steel; John Briggs (1862-1902), whose slow left-
hand bowling placed him at the head of the bowling averages in
1890; John Grassland (1853-1903) and A. Mold (b. 1865), both of
whom were destructive fast bowlers; J. T. Tyldesley and R. H.
Spooner, both among the most brilliant batsmen of a later genera-
tion ; and W. Brearley, the amateur fast bowler.

Middlesex, like Kent, has been better served by amateurs than
professionals. Indeed, with the notable exceptions of J. T. Hearne,
who headed the bowling averages in 1891, 1896 and 1898, and of the
imported Australian A. E. Trott, few professionals of high merit are
conspicuously associated with the history of the county cricket.
Trott, in 1899 and again in 1900, performed the previously unprece-
dented feat of taking over two hundred wickets and scoring over
one thousand runs in the same season. And in his " benefit match "
in May 1907 at Lord's he achieved the " hat trick " twice in one
innings, taking first four and then three wickets with successive
balls. But if there has been a dearth of professionals in Middlesex
cricket, the county has produced an abundance of celebrated
amateurs. In addition to the Walkers and A. J. Webbe, the metro-
politan county was the home of the celebrated hitter, C. I. Thornton,
and of the Studd family, who learnt their cricket at Eton and
Cambridge University. C. T. Studd, one of the most polished
batsmen who ever played cricket, was at the same time an excellent
medium-paced bowler, and his brother G. B. Studd is remembered
especially for his fielding, though like his elder brother, J. E. K.
Studd, he was an all-round cricketer of the greatest value to a
county team. Sir T. C. O'Brien, who made his reputation by a fine
innings for Oxford University against the Australian team of 1882,
sustained it in the following years by many brilliant performances
for Middlesex. A. E. Stoddart for several years was the best run-
getter in the Middlesex eleven; and W. J. Ford and his younger
brother, F. G. J. Ford, were conspicuous among many prominent
Middlesex batsmen. In more recent times the Oxonian P. F. Warner
(b. 1873), both as captain and as batsman, did splendid work; and
B. J. T. Bosanquet, besides assisting powerfully with the bat,
became famous for inaugurating a new style of curly bowling
(" googlies ") of a very effective type.

A glance at the table given above shows the high place occupied
by Surrey in the past. Surrey county cricket can be traced as far
back as 1730. Pycroft observes that " the name of Surrey
Surrey. ag Qne un ;j- ec j CO unty club is quite lost in the annals of
cricket from 1817 to 1845." But before that date two of the most
celebrated cricketers, William Lilly white and Fuller Pilch, had
occasionally played for the county, and so also had James Broad-
bridge (1796-1843) and W. Lambert (1779-1851). Kennington Oval
became the Surrey county ground in 1845, the property being leased
from the duchy of Cornwall ; and in the years immediately following
the county team included H. H. Stephenson (1833-1896), Caffyn
(b. 1828), N. Felix, and Lockyer (1826-1869) ; among a later genera-
tion appeared such well-remembered names as Jupp, Southerton,
Pooley and R. Humphrey. After being champion county in 1873,
Surrey did not again attain the same position for fourteen years,
but for the next ten years maintained an almost uninterrupted
supremacy. The greatest credit was due to the energetic direction
of J. Shuter (b. 1855), who kept together a remarkable combination
of cricketers, such as W. W. Read (1855-1906), Maurice Read (b.
1859), George Lohmann (1865-1901), and Robert Abel (b. 1859),
all of whom were among the greatest players of their period. Loh-
mann in 1 885-1 890 would alone have made any side famous; and
in the same years when he was heading the bowling averages and
proving himself the most deadly bowler in the country, W. W. Read
was performing prodigies of batting. No sooner did the latter begin
to decline in power than Abel took his place at the head of the
batting averages, scoring with astonishing consistency in 1897-1900.
In 1899 he made 357 not out in an innings against Somersetshire,
and in 1901 his aggregate of 3309 was the largest then compiled.
The Oxonian K. J. Key was another famous batsman whose services
as captain were also exceedingly valuable to the county. An almost
inexhaustible supply of professionals of the very highest class has
been at Surrey's service. W. Lockwood (b. 1868) became almost as
deadly a bowler as Lohmann, and Tom Richardson (b. 1870) was the
terror of all Surrey's opponents for several seasons after 1893.
Richardson took in all no less than 1340 wickets at the cost of 20,000
runs. Tom Hay ward (b. 1867), nephew of the renowned Cambridge

Erofessional of the same name, succeeded Abel as the leading Surrey
atsman, his play in the test matches of 1899, when he averaged 65,
being superb. During the following years his reputation was fully
maintained, and in 1906 he had a particularly successful season.
Key was followed in the captaincy by D. L. A. Jephson, but the
county did not in the opening years of the 20th century maintain
the high place it occupied during the last quarter of the 19th. It
possessed some excellent professionals, however, in Hayes, Hobbs
and Lees, and the season of 1906, under the captaincy of Lord
Dalmeny, showed a revival, a new fast bowler being found in N. A.
Knox, and a fine batsman and bowler in J. N. Crawford.

Several of the celebrated cricketers of early times already men
tioned as having played for the Surrey club were more closely
associated with the adjoining county of Sussex, whose
records go back as far as 1734, in which year a match was ussex.

played against Kent, the chief promoters of which were the duke
of Richmond and Sir William Gage. One of the earliest famous
cricketers, Richard Newland (d. 1791), was a Sussex man ; and James
Broadbridge, W. Lambert, Tom Box, and the great Lillywhite
family were all members of the Sussex county team. Lambert, in
a match against Epsom, played at Lord's in 1817, made a " century "
(one hundred runs) in each innings, a feat not repeated in first-class
cricket for fifty years; and the occasion was the first when the
aggregate of a thousand runs was scored in a match. Broadbridge
played for Sussex in five reigns, while Box (1808-1876) kept wicket
for the county for twenty-four years without missing a match.
Notwithstanding this distinguished history, Sussex never attained
the highest place in the county rivalry, and for a number of years
towards the end of the 19th century the left-handed batting of F. M.
Lucas (1860-1887) alone saved the county from complete insignific-
ance. A revival came when W. L. Murdoch (b. 1855), of Australian
celebrity, qualified for Sussex; and at a still later date the fortunes
of the county were raised by the inclusion in its eleven of Kumar
Shri Ranjitsinhji, afterwards H.H. the Jam of Nawanagar (b. 1872),
the Indian prince, who had played for Cambridge University.
Ranjitsinhji's dexterity, grace and style were unrivalled. He
scored 2780 runs in 1896, averaging 57, while in county matches in
1899 his aggregate was 2555, with an average of 75. Even this
performance was beaten in 1900 when he scored a total of 2563 runs,
giving an average for the season of 83. In all matches his aggregates
were 3159 in 1899, and 3065 in 1900. Not less remarkable was the
cricket of C. B. Fry (b. 1872), who came from Oxford University to
become a mainstay of Sussex cricket, and who in 1901 performed
the unparalleled feat of scoring in successive innings 106, 209, 149,
105, 140 and 105, his aggregate for the season being 3147 with an
average of 78. In 1905 his average for Sussex was 86, but in the
following year an accident kept him out of the cricket field throughout
the season ; and in 1909 he transferred his services to Hampshire.

If Kent and Middlesex may be described as the counties of
amateurs, Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire should be called the
counties of famous professionals. Between 1864 and „

1 889 Nottinghamshire was champion county twelve times Notts.

and the county eleven was as a rule composed almost entirely of
professional players, among whom have been many of the greatest
names in the history of the game. Richard Daft (1835-1900), after
playing as an amateur, became a professional in preference to
abandoning the game, scorning to resort to any of the pretexts by
which cricketers have been known to accept payment for their
services while continuing to cling to the status of the amateur.
William Oscroft (1843-1905) was one of Nottinghamshire's early
batting heroes, and in Alfred Shaw (b. 1842) and F. Morley (1850-
1884) the county possessed an invaluable pair of bowlers. William
Gunn (b. 1858), besides being a magnificent fielder " in the country,"
was an exceptionally able batsman; but his performances did not
equal those of his greater contemporary, Arthur Shrewsbury, who in
six years between 1885 and 1892 headed the English batting averages.
Shrewsbury's perfect style combined with inexhaustible patience
placed him in the front rank of the " classical " batsmen of English
cricket. Of the batsmen nicknamed " stonewallers," who at one time
endangered the popularity of first-class cricket, was W. Scotton
( 1 856-1 893); and among the other numerous professionals whose
cricket contributed to the renown of Nottinghamshire were Barnes
(1852-1899), at times a most formidable bat; Flowers (b. 1856),
always useful both with the bat and the ball; W. Attewell (b. 1861),
a remarkably steady bowler who bowled an abnormal number of
maiden overs; Mordecai Sherwin (b. 1851), an excellent successor
to T. Plumb (b. 1833) and F. Wild (1847-1893) as wicket-keeper
for the county; and among more recent players, J. Iremonger (b.
1877) and John Gunn, both of whom proved themselves cricketers
worthy of the Notts traditions. J. A. Dixon (b. 1861), one of the
few amateurs of the Nottinghamshire records, was for some time
captain of the county team ; and he was succeeded by A. 0. Jones
(b. 1873), a dashing batsman, who in 1899 was partner with Shrews-
bury when the pair scored 391 for the first wicket in a match against
Gloucestershire.

The history of Yorkshire cricket is modern in comparison with
that of Surrey, Sussex or Kent. The county club only dates from
1 861, and for some years the team was composed entirely v
of professionals. But though Yorkshire attained the Yorkshlre -
championship three times during the first ten years of the county
club's existence, thirteen years elapsed after 1870 before it again
occupied the place of honour. In the ten years 1896-1906 Yorkshire
was no less than six times at the head of the list, this position of
supremacy being in no small measure due to the captaincy of Lord
Hawke (b. i860), who played continuously for the county from his
university days for more than twenty years, and whose influence on
Yorkshire cricket was unique. But before his time Yorkshire had
already produced some notable cricketers, such as George Ulyett
(1857-1898), who headed the batting averages in 1878, and who
was also a fine fast bowler; Louis Hall (b. 1852), a patient bat;
and another excellent scorer, Ephraim Lockwood (b.t845). William

CRICKET

443

Bates (1855-1900), too, was effective both as batsman and bowler;
and Tom Emmett (1841-1904), long proverbial for bowling " a
wide and a wicket," was deservedly popular. To the earlier period
belonged two fast bowlers, George Freeman (1844-1895) and Allan
Hill (b. 1845), and the eminent wicket-keeper Pincher (1841-1903),
who was succeeded by J. Hunter (1857-1891), and later by his
brother Daniel Hunter (b. 1862). The full effect of Lord Hawke's
energetic captaincy was seen in 1900, when Yorkshire played through
a programme of twenty-eight fixtures without sustaining a defeat;
and the county's record was but little inferior in both the following
years and again in 1905, in each of which years it retained the
championship. It was during this period that as notable a group of
cricketers wore the Yorkshire colours as ever appeared in county
matches. Edmund Peate (1856-1900), one of the finest bowlers
in his day, did not survive to take part in the later triumphs of his
county; but the period beginning in 1890 saw J. T. Brown, J. Tunni-
cliffe, R. Peel, W. Rhodes, George Hirst and the Hon. F. S. Jackson
in the field. The two first named became famous for their first
wicket partnerships. In 1896 in a match against Middlesex at Lord's
these two batsmen scored 1 39 before being separated in the first
innings, and in the second knocked off the 147 required to'win the
match. In the following year they made 378 for the first wicket
against Surrey, and during their careers they scored over a hundred
for the first wicket on no less than fifteen occasions, the greatest feat
of all being in 1898, when they beat the world's record by staying
together till 554 runs had been compiled. Peel was for many years
an untiring bowler, and Yorkshire was fortunate in discovering a
successor of even superior skill in Wilfrid Rhodes, who in 1900 took
over 200 wickets at a cost of 12 runs each in county matches alone,
and was also an excellent bat. Hirst and Jackson were the two
finest all-round cricketers in England about 1905. The Hon. F. S.
Jackson (b. 1870), like his fellow-Harrovian A. C. MacLaren, had a
wonderful record in test matches against Australia ; he captained the
England eleven in 1905, and his wonderful nerve enabled him to
extricate his side when in a difficulty, and to render his best service
at an emergency. Hirst (b. 1871) in 1904 and in 1905 scored over
2000 runs and took more than 100 wickets; and in 1906 he surpassed
all previous records by scoring over 2000 runs and taking over 200
wickets during the season. A concourse of 78,000 people watched
his " benefit " match (Yorkshire against Lancashire) in August 1904.
Besides cricketers like these, such fine players were included in the
team as Wainwright (b. 1865), Haigh (b. 1871), Denton (b. 1874),
and E. Smith (b. 1869); with such material the Yorkshire eleven
had no " tail," and was able to win the championship six times in
a decade.

Somersetshire hardly fulfilled the promise held out by the success
achieved in the closing decade of the 19th century; this had been
Somerset- ' ar gely owing to the captaincy and brilliant batting of
shire. H. T. Hewett (b. 1864), who in partnership with L. C. H.

Palairet (b. 1870), famous for his polished style, scored
346 for the first wicket in a match against Yorkshire in 1892. Hewett
was succeeded in the command of the county eleven by the Cambridge
fast bowler, S. M. J. Woods (b. 1868); and among other members
of the eleven the most valuable was L. C. Braund (b. 1876), a pro-
fessional who excelled as an all-round cricketer.

The counties above referred to are those which have figured most
prominently in the history of county cricket. Individual players of
Minor tne highest excellence are, however, to be found from time
counties, to time in all parts of the country. Warwickshire, for
example, can boast of having had in A. A. Lilley (b. 1867)
the best wicket-keeper of his day, who represented England
against Australia in the test matches; while Worcestershire pro-
duced one of the best all-round professionals in the country for a
number of years in Arnold (b. 1877), and a batsman of extreme
brilliancy in R. E. Foster, a member of a cricketing family to whom
belongs the credit of raising Worcestershire into a cricketing county
of the first class. Derbyshire, similarly, can claim some well-known
cricket names, the bowler W. Mycroft (1841-1894), W. Chatterton
(b. 1863), and W. Storer (b. 1868), a first-class wicket-keeper. Essex
possesses at Leyton one of the best county grounds in the country,
and the club was helped over financial difficulties by the munificent
support of an old Uppingham and Cambridge cricketer, C. E. Green.
It has produced a fair number of excellent players, notably the bats-
men P. Perrin, C. MacGahey, and the fast bowler C. J. Kortright;
and A. P. Lucas, afterwards a member of the county club, was a
famous cricketer who played for England in 1880 in the first Australian
test match. Hampshire had a fine batsman in Captain E. G. Wyn-
yard, and its annals are conspicuous for the phenomenal scores made
during the single season of 1899 by Major R. M. Poore; these two
put together 411 against Somersetshire in that year before being
separated. Among the later Hants professionals, Llewellyn was most
prominent.

The distribution of cricketing ability in England might be the
subject of some interesting speculation. In the first forty years
of the annual competition for the championship six counties alone
gained the coveted distinction, and three of these, Surrey, Notts and
Yorkshire, won it thirty-four times between them. Why, it may be
asked, is it that one county excels in the game while another has no
place whatever in the history of cricket? How comes it that great
names recur continually in the annals of Surrey and Yorkshire, for

example, while those of Berkshire and Lincolnshire are entirely
barren? No doubt proximity to great centres of population favours
the cultivation of the game, but in this respect Kent and Sussex are
no better situated than Hertfordshire, nor does it account for Notting-
hamshire having so illustrious a record while Staffordshire has none
at all, nor for Somersetshire having outclassed Devon. It is strange,
moreover, that while the universities are the chief training-grounds
for amateur cricketers, neither Oxfordshire nor Cambridgeshire has
made any mark among the counties. The influence of individuals
and families, such as the Graces in Gloucestershire, the Walkers in
Middlesex, and in recent times the Fosters in Worcestershire, has
of course been of inestimable benefit to cricket in those counties;
but Buckinghamshire and Norfolk and Cheshire send their sons to
the public schools and universities no less than Lancashire or Kent.
It is difficult, therefore, to understand why county cricket should
so persistently confine itself to a small number of counties; but
such is the fact.

Cricket has never flourished vigorously in Scotland, Ireland or
Wales, a fact that may partly be accounted for by the comparative
difficulty of obtaining good grounds in those parts of the kingdom,
and by the inferiority, for the purpose of cricket, of their climate.
In the south of Scotland, and especially in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, there are clubs which keep the game alive ; and Scotland,
though it has produced no great cricketers, either amateur or pro-
fessional, has sent a few players to the English university elevens
who have found places in English county teams. In Ireland cricket
is fairly popular, especially in those parts of the island where local
sides can obtain assistance from soldiers quartered in the neighbour-
hood. One or two counties play annual matches, that between
Kildare and Cork in particular exciting keen rivalry. Trinity
College, Dublin, has turned out some excellent players; and the
Phoenix and Leinster clubs in Dublin, and the North of Ireland club
in Belfast, play a full programme of matches every season. D. N.
Trotter, who played for county Meath for many years towards the
close of the 19th century, was a batsman who would have found a
place in any English county eleven; so also would William Hone,
one of several brothers all of whom were keen and skilful cricketers.
About the same period Lieutenant Dunn scored so many centuries
in Irish cricket that he was played, though without any great success,
for his native county of Surrey. More recently L. H. Gwynn (1873-
1902) batted in a style and with a success that proved him capable
of great things. Sir T. C. O'Brien, though an Irishman, belongs as a
cricketer to Middlesex; but T. C. Ross, who was chosen to play for
Gentlemen v. Players at Lord's in 1902, was a bowler who played
regularly for county Kildare.

Gentlemen v. Players. — The most important match of the year as
far as purely English cricket is concerned is the match between the
gentlemen and players (amateurs and professionals) played at Lord's.
For many years a match played between sides similarly composed
at the Oval excited equal interest, but latterly county cricket has
rather starved this particular game, though it still continues as a
popular fixture. Other matches with the same title have been played
in London on Prince's Ground (now built over), and at Brighton,
Hastings and Scarborough and elsewhere, but those games in no
way rank with the London matches.

The Lord's fixture was first established in 1806, in which year two
matches were played; it became annual in 1819, but in those days
the amateurs, being no match for their opponents, generally received
odds, while in 1832 they defended wickets 22 in. by 6, and in 1837
the professionals stood in front of wickets of four stumps, measuring
in all 36 in. by 12 in. This match was known as " The Barndoor
Match " or " Ward's Folly," and the professionals won by an innings
and 10 runs. Odds were not given after 1838, the gentlemen having
then won eight matches and lost thirteen. From 1839 to 1866 the
gentlemen only won 7 matches as compared with 21 losses. In 1867
the tide turned, for the brothers Grace, especially Dr W. G. Grace,
became a power in the cricket-field, and from 1867 to 1884 the
gentlemen, winning fifteen matches, only lost One. From 1885 the
balance swung round, and by 1903 the professionals had won eleven
matches and lost but four. The gentlemen won on nine successive
occasions between 1874 and 1884, a draw intervening; while begin-
ning with 1854 the professionals won eleven matches " off the reel."
The professionals won in i860 by an innings and no less than 181
runs; in 1900 they only won by two wickets, but to do so had to
make, and did make, 501 runs in the last innings of the match. In
1903 the gentlemen, heavily in arrears after each side had played an
innings, actually scored 500 in their second innings with only two
men out. In 1904 the gentlemen won by two wickets after being
156 runs behind on the first innings, thanks to fine play by K. S.
Ranjitsinhji and A. O. Jones. J. H. King had scored a century in
each innings, a feat previously only performed by R. E. Foster in
1900. C. B. Fry's 232 not out in 1903 was the largest innings scored
in the match. Dr W. G. Grace, who is credited with eight centuries,
is the only cricketer who exceeded the hundred more than twice at
Lord's in the fixture, 164 by J. T. Brown being the highest innings
by a professional. There were seven instances before 1864 of two
bowlers being unchanged in the match, and the Hon. F. S. Jackson
and S. M.J. Woods repeated this in 1894. The Oval match was first
played in 1857. The amateurs effected their first win in 1866, and
though several games were drawn the professionals did not win again

444

CRICKET

till 1880. As at Lord's, it was the era of Grace, but from this point
the amateurs could only win two matches, and by the narrowest of
margins, till 1903, this making their sum of victories up to then
thirteen, as opposed to twenty-three. In 1879 the gentlemen won
in one innings by 126 runs, the heaviest beating that one side had
inflicted on the other. The highest individual score was Robert
Abel's 247, and the next Dr W. G. Grace's 215. Hayward scored
203 in 1904; A. G. Steel and A. H. Evans bowled unchanged in

l8 79- . . . ,

School and Club Cricket. — Cricket is the standing summer game
at every English private and public school, where it is taught as
carefully and systematically as either classics or mathematics. There
are also numbers of amateur clubs which possess no grounds of their
own and are connected with no particular locality, but which are in
fact mere associations of cricketers who play matches against the
universities, schools or local teams, or against each other. Of these
the best known, perhaps, is I Zingari (The Wanderers), popularly
known as I.Z., whose well-known colours, red, yellow and black
stripes, are prized rather as a social than as a cricketing distinction.
This club was founded in 1845 by Lorraine Baldwin and Sir Spencer
Ponsonby-Fane. The first rule of the club humorously declares that
" the entrance fee shall be nothing, and the annual subscription
shall not exceed the entrance fee." It is a rule of the club that no
member shall play on the opposing side. I.Z. has long been con-
nected with the social festivities forming a feature of the " Canter-
bury Week," a cricket festival held at Canterbury during the first
week in August, of the Scarborough week, and of the Dublin horse-
show. Dr W. G. Grace, who almost invariably appeared in the
cricket field wearing the red and yellow stripes of the M.C.C., and
some other notable amateurs, never belonged to I.Z. or any similar
club ; but Dr Grace was instrumental in the formation of the London
county club, whose ground was at the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
Other amateur clubs, similar to I Zingari, are the Free Foresters,
Incogniti, Etceteras, and in Ireland Na Shuler; while the Eton
Ramblers, Harrow Wanderers, Old Wykehamists, and others are
clubs whose membership is restricted to " old boys."

The Oxford and Cambridge universities match was first played in
1827, but was not an annual fixture till 1838. Five matches, those
of 1829, 1843, 1846, 1848 and 1850, were played at Oxford, the rest
at Lord's. The " 'Varsity match," and that between the two great

Eublic schools, Eton and Harrow, are great " society " events at
ord's every summer. Up to 1909 Eton won thirty times, and
Harrow on thirty- five occasions. D. C. Boles by scoring 183 in
1904 set up a new record for this match, beating the 152 obtained
in 1841 by Emilius Bayley (afterwards the Rev. Sir John Robert
Laurie) ; and in 1907 the Harrow captain, M. C. Bird, established a
further record by scoring over a hundred runs in each innings. Of
the contests between Oxford and Cambridge, the latter (up to 1909)
had lost thirty-one and won thirty-five. Oxford's 503 in 1900 and
Cambridge's 392 in the same match furnished the highest aggregates.
The largest individual innings was 172 not out by J. F. Marsh in
1904; but as a feat of batting it was intrinsically inferior to the 171
by R. E. Foster in 1900. Of the thirty centuries scored up to 1909,
Oxford was credited with sixteen. Eustace Crawley (b. 1868) made
a hundred both in the Eton v. Harrow and Oxford v. Cambridge
matches. In the match of 1870 F. C. Cobden (b. 1849) took the last
three Oxford wickets with consecutive balls, winning the match for
Cambridge by 2 runs.

Australian Cricket. — Naturally popular in a British colony,
cricket made but little progress in Australia before the arrival of an
English professional eleven in 1861-1862, which carried all before it.
Subsequent visits, and the coaching of imported professionals, so
promoted the game that in 1878 a representative eleven of Aus-
tralians visited England. The visits were repeated biennially till
1890, and then triennially. The visits of the Australian teams to
England aroused unparalleled interest and acted as an immense
incentive to the game. A great sensation was caused when the first
team, captained by D. W. Gregory, on the 27th of May 1878, defeated
a powerful M.C.C. eleven in a single day, disposing of them for 33
and 19, the fast bowler F. R. Spofforth (b. 1853) taking 6 wickets
for 4 runs, and H. F. Boyle (b. 1847) 5 for 3. Their prowess was well
maintained when in September 1880 Australia for the first time met
the whole strength of England, such matches between representatives
of Australia and England being known as " test matches," a term
that was applied later to matches between England and South
Africans also. Although in 1880 the old country won by 5 wickets,
the honours were fairly divided, especially as Spofforth could not
play. Dr W. G. Grace with a score of 152 headed the total of 420,
but even finer was the Australian captain W. L. Murdoch's imperturb-
able display, when he carried his bat for 153. From 1882 onwards
the Colonials, with two exceptions, at Blackpool and Skegness, only
played eleven-a-side matches. Such bowlers as Spofforth, Boyle,
G. E. Palmer (b. 1861), T. W. Garrett (b. 1858), and G. Giffen (1859)
became household names. Nor was the batting less admirable,
for Murdoch was supported by H. H. Massie (b. 1854), P. S.
McDonnell (1860-1896), A. C. Bannerman (b. 1859), T. Horan
(b. 1855), C. J. Bonnor (b. 1855), and S. P. Jones (b. 1861), whilst
the wicket-keeper was McCarthy Blackham (b. 1855). This visiting
side in 1882 was the greatest team of all; 23 matches were won,
only 4 lost, and England was defeated at the Oval by ' runs. In

1884 English cricket had improved, and the visiting record was
hardly so good. The match against England at the Oval will not
soon be forgotten. The Colonials scored 551 (Murdoch2ii, McDonnell
103, Scott 102), and England responded with 346, Scotton and
W. W. Read adding 151 for the ninth wicket.

The team of H. J. H. Scott (b. 1858) in 1886 proved less successful,
for all three test matches were lost, and eight defeats had to be set
against nine victories, but Giffen covered himself with distinction.
This was the first tour under the auspices of the Melbourne Club.
McDonnell's team in 1888 marked the appearance of the bowlers
C. T. B. Turner (b. 1862) and J. J. Ferris (1 867-1900). The former
took 314 wickets for 11 runs each, and the latter 220 for 14 apiece.
To ail appearance they redeemed a poor tour, 19 matches being
won and 14 lost. The 1890 tour, though Murdoch reappeared as
captain, proved disappointing, both the test matches being lost and
defeats for the first time exceeding victories, though the two bowlers
again performed marvellously well. After an interval of three years,
M. Blackham captained the seventh team, which was moderately
fortunate. H. Graham (b. 1870) and S. E. Gregory (b. 1870) batted
admirably, and the 149 of J. J. Lyons (b. 1863) in the match against
M.C.C. was an extraordinary display of punishing cricket. In
1896, though they did not win the rubber of test matches, the
colonials were most successful, 19 matches being victories and only
6 lost. S. E. Gregory, J. Darling (b. 1870), F. A. Iredale (b. 1867),
G. Giffen, C. Hill (b. 1877), and G. H. S. Trott (1866-1905) were
the best bats, and the last-named made an admirable captain.
H. Trumble (1867) kept an excellent length, and E. Jones (1869) was
deadly with his fast bowling.

The Australian representatives in 1899 demonstrated that they
were the best since 1882, 16 successes and only 3 defeats (v. Essex,
Surrey and Kent) being emphasized by a victory over England at
Lord's by 10 wickets, the only one of the five test matches brought to
a conclusion. M. A. Noble (b. i873)and Victor Trumper (b. 1 877) , both
newcomers, batted superbly. The latter, v. Sussex, made 300, the
largest individual score hitherto made by an Australian in England,
the previous best having been 286 by Murdoch in the corresponding
match in 1882. H. Trumble scored 1183 runs and took 142 wickets
for 18 runs apiece, and Darling not only made a judicious captain,
but scored the biggest aggregate, 1941, up to then obtained by any
batsman touring with a colonial eleven in England. On the home side,
Hayward did sound service with the bat, and his stand with F. S.
Jackson in the fifth test match yielded 185 runs for the first wicket.

In 1902 another fine Australian eleven, captained by Darling,
won 23 and lost only 2 matches. They won the rubber of test
matches at Manchester by 3 runs, but lost the final at the Oval by
one wicket after an even more remarkable struggle, G. L. Jessop
having scored 104 in an hour and a quarter. The other defeat
was by Yorkshire by 5 wickets, when they were dismissed for 23
by Hirst and Jackson. The rest of the tour was characterized
by brilliant batting. The performance of Trumper in making 2570
runs (with an average of 48) surpassed anything previously seen;
R. A. Duff (b. 1878) also proved a brilliant run-getter. W. W.
Armstrong (b. 1879) was useful in all departments, and J. V. Saunders
(b. 1876) proved a successful left-handed bowler.

In 1905 there was a marked falling-off, as England won two and
drew the other three test matches; but only one other defeat, by
Essex by 19 runs, had to be set against 16 Australian victories. The
persistent bowling off the wicket by Armstrong, and the inability
to finish games within three days, were the chief drawbacks. Arm-
strong eclipsed all previous colonial records in England by heading
both tables of averages, scoring 2002 (average 48) and taking 130
wickets at a cost of 17 runs each. He also compiled the largest
individual score (303 not out v. Somerset) ever made on an Australian
tour. M. A. Noble also exceeded 2000 runs. For a long time the
fast bowler, A. Cotter (b. 1882, N.S.W.), failed, but eventually
" came off," just as F. Laver (b. 1869), who had taken many wickets
in the earlier part of the tour, was becoming less formidable. Duff
saved the colonials by a great innings in the fifth test match;
Trumper was less certain than formerly, and Clement Hill more
reckless; whilst J. J. Kelly (b. 1867) on his fifth tour was better
than ever before with the gloves.

The Australians who visited England under the leadership of
M. A. Noble in 1909 were generally held to be a weaker team than
most of their predecessors, but they greatly improved as the season
advanced, proving that the side included several cricketers of the
highest merit, and as a captain Noble has seldom been surpassed in
consummate generalship. Their record of thirteen wins to four
defeats offered little evidence of inferiority, while the large number
of twenty-one drawn matches was accounted for by the cold wet
weather that largely prevailed throughout the summer. Two out of
the five test matches were unfinished, and Australia won the rubber
by two matches to one. In all the test matches England was under
the command of A. C. MacLaren, but the great Harrovian was no
longer the batsman he had been some years earlier; Jackson had
abandoned first-class cricket ; Hirst and Hayward were becoming
veterans; and, speaking generally, the English batting was decidedly
inferior, and it collapsed feebly in three of the test matches.
England's failure, for which poor fielding and missed catches were
also responsible, was the more disappointing since they began well
by winning the first test match at Birmingham by ten wickets.

CRICKET

445

C. B. Fry and Hobbs knocking off the 105 runs required to win in the
second innings without the loss of a wicket. In the third test match,
at Leeds, England was deprived of the services of Hayward and
Blythe through illness, and an accident to Jessop during the match
compelled the side to play a man short. It was in bowling that the
Australians were thought to be least strong; but Laver's analysis
in the Manchester test match, when he took 8 wickets for 31 runs in
England's first innings, was the most notable feature of the match ;
and although his record at the head of the bowling averages for the
tour, 70 wickets at an average cost of 14-9 runs, had frequently been
beaten in earlier Australian tours in England, it proved him a worthy
successor of Spofforth, Boyle and Turner. Armstrong, although he
did not equal his record of 1905, again scored over 1000 runs and took
over 100 wickets, his exact figures being 1439 runs and 120 wickets.
The most remarkable Australian batting was that of two young
left-handed players who on this occasion visited England for the
first time, W. Bardsley (b. 1884) and Vernon Ransford (b. 1885), the
latter of whom headed the averages both for test matches (58-8)
and for the whole tour (45-5), his principal achievement being an
innings of 143 not out in the test match at Lord's. Bardsley, who
was second in the test matches averages (39-6), fell into the third
place slightly below Armstrong in the averages for the tour; but he
alone scored over 200 in an innings, which he accomplished twice,
and over 2000 in aggregate for the tour, and he established a test
match " record " by scoring 136 and 130 in the match at the Oval.
Of the twenty-two " centuries " scored by Australians during the
season Bardsley and Ransford each made six. Trumper and Noble
each scored over a thousand runs, and Macartney was an invaluable
member of the side both in batting and bowling. As a wicket-
keeper Carter worthily filled the place of Kelly, and the fielding of
the Colonials fully maintained the brilliant Australian standard of
former years.

The following " records " of Australian cricket in England up to
1909 are of interest: — Highest total by an Australian team: 843
v. Past and Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893.
Highest total against an Australian team: 576 by England at the
Oval in 1899. Lowest total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in
1896. Lowest total against an Australian team : 17 by Gloucester-
shire in 1896. Highest individual Australian score in one innings:
303 not out by W. W. Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest
individual Australian aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in
1902. Two centuries in a match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v.
Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and 130 v. England in 1909 (test
match record).

The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting
and bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.

Batting.

Year.

Inn.

Not
out.

Runs.

Most.

Aver.

1878

C. Bannerman, N.S.W. .

31

1

723

133

24-10

1880

W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. .

19

1

465

*i53

25-80

1882

W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. .

61

5

1711

♦286

30-50

1884

W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. .

50

5

1378

211

30-60

1886

G. Giffen, S.A. . .

63

9

1453

119

26-90

1888

P. M'Donnell, V.

62

1

1393

i°5

22-50

1890

W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. .

64

2

1459

*I58

23-33

1893

H. Graham, V. . .

55

3

1492

219

28-36

1896

S. E. Gregory, N.S.W. .

48

2

1464

154

3I-38

1899

J. Darling, S.A. . .

56

9

1941

Ib 7

41-29

1902

V. T. Trumper, N.S.W. .

53

2570

128

48-49

1905

W. W. Armstrong, V. . .

48

7

2002

*3°3

48-82

1909

V. S. Ransford . .

43

4

1778

190

45-58

* Not out.
Bowling.

Year.

O.

M.

R.

W.

Aver.

1878

T. W. Garrett, N.S.W.

296-2

144

394

38

10-30

1880

F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.

240-8

82

396

46

8-60

1882

H. F. Boyle, V.. .

1200-14

525

1680

144

n-6o

1884

F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.

1544-32

649

2642

216

12-20

1886

G. Giffen, S.A. . .

1693-26

722

2711

159

17-05

1888

C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.

2589-3

1222

3492

314

II- 3 8

1890

C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.

1651-1

724

2725

215

12-45

1893

C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.

1 148

450

2202

160

13-12

1896

T. R. M'Kibbin, N.S.W.

647-1

198

1441

101

14-27

1899

H. Trumble, V. .

1249-1

43i

2618

142

18-43

1902

H. Trumble, V. .

948

305

1998

I40

14-27

1905

W. W. Armstrong, V. .

1027

308

2288

1.30

17-60

1909

F. Laver ...

495-5

161

1048

70

14-97

The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862,
and was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891)
took out the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur.
In 1873 the Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an

eleven, and three years later James Lillywhite conuuoted a team of
professionals. On this tour for the first time colonials contended on
equal terms, one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the
other lost by 45 runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a
team of amateurs assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and
losing 3 eleven-a-side encounters, Emmett's 137 wickets averaging
8 runs each. Shaw, Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized
the expedition of 1881, when Australia won the second test match
by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in
1882 took a fine team, which was crippled owing to an injury sus-
tained by the bowler F. Morley. Four victories could be set against
three defeats; Australia winning the only test match, owing to the
batting of Blackham. Shaw's second tour in 1884 showed Barnes
heading both batting and bowling averages, while six victories
counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour Shrewsbury became
captain, but the English for the first time encountered the bowling
of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for 113 runs in two matches.
Australia was twice defeated, the English captain batting in fine
form. On this tour was played the Smokers v. Non-Smokers, when
the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236, W. Bruce 131,
Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle, Lohmann, Palmer
and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams in Australia,
one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under Shrews-
bury and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being
headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with
58. The ill-success of Lord Sheffield's team in two out of three test
matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G.
Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support
from Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann
all possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart's first team (in
1894) achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first
test match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by
10 runs, Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51,
scoring 173 in the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who
made 228 i>. Victoria), Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The
last tour conducted by Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of
the five test matches being lost, and some friction being caused by
various incidents. K. S. Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made
175 in a test match and 189 v. South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren,
who scored five hundreds and averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward
also doing good work; but the bowling broke down. Weakness
in bowling was the cause of the ill -success of A. C. MacLaren's
side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by an innings and 124 runs
at Sydney, the other four test matches were all lost. MacLaren
himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward and Tyldesley.
Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in 1903
officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in
every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three
test matches were won and two lost, while two new records were
set up, one by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other
by R. E. Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled
287. Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen;
Rhodes and Braund both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase
about " bringing back the ashes " became almost proverbial; its
origin is to be found in the Sporting Times in 1882 after Australia
had defeated England at the Oval.

New Zealand. — Although cricket has not attained a degree of
perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it
is keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in
1902-1903 which won all the eighteen matches arranged.

Cricket in India. — Not only the English who live in India, but
the natives also — Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike — play
cricket. A Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.

South Africa. — South African cricketers visiting England are
handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets
used in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer
War in 1901 won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with
Worcestershire, and showing marked improvement on the team which
had visited England in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a
fine wicket-keeper, J. H. Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round crirketer,
J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872)
clever with the ball. In 1904 more decided success was achieved,
for on a more ambitious programme ten victories could be set against
two defeats by Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex.
The most important success was a victory by 189 runs over a
powerful England eleven at Lord's, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875)
scored 102 and 26, and took 8 wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjit-
sinhji twice. Kotze and Sinclair again bore the brunt of the attack.
Of the English teams visiting South Africa, that taken by Lord
Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such important opposition as the
one he led in 1900, yet the side came back undefeated, having won
all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F. Mitchell, with Tyldesley,
were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and Cuttell bowling finely.
In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a side under P. F. Warner,
but it lost four out of the five test matches, F. L. Fane and J. N.
Crawford being the most successful of the Englishmen, and G. C. White
(1882) and A. D. Nourse proving themselves great colonial batsmen.
In 1907 a representative South African team came to England, and
their improved status in the cricketing world was shown by the
arrangement of test matches. In the winter of 1909-1910 an English

44 6

CRICKET

team under Mr Leveson Gower went to South Africa, and played
test matches.

West Indies. — West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900,
winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A.
Olivierre (b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The
brunt of the bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878).
In 1897 teams under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both
visited West Indies, Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations.
R. S. Lucas (b. 1867) had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A
much weaker combination in 1902 suffered five defeats but won
13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E. R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M.
Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief performers. In 1906 another West
Indian side visited England,, but were not particularly successful.

America. — In the United States cricket has always had to contend
with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival at-
tractions of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity,
Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.

The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play
annually for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the
Associated Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood
of New York matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District
Cricket League and the New York Cricket Association; similar
organizations are the Northwestern, the California and the Massa-
chusetts associations, while the Intercollegiate Cricket League
consists of college teams representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and
Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b. 1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849)
may almost claim to be the fathers of cricket in the United States ;
while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did much for the game in Canada.
Other eminent names in American cricket are A. M. Wood; H.
Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three centuries in
one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of Pennsylvania, a
very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made 344 not out
for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved most effective
during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894 W.
Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss
of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not out.
A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United
States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in
which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the
course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average
cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the
side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester
(b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be
cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen
(b. 1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not,
however, include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen
in America. The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908,
when they won 7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour
King surpassed his former English record by taking 115 wickets, and
Wood, who played one fine innings of 132, was the most successful
of the American batsmen.

Other Countries. — The English residents of Portugal support
the game, but were no match for a moderate English team that
visited them in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem,
cricket is played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch
elevens have visited England, and English elevens have crossed to
Holland, the most important visit being that of the gentlemen of
the M.C.C in 1902, the Englishmen winning all the matches.

Professionalism. — The remuneration of the first-class English
professionals is £6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid ;
a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from £2, 10s. to £3, 10s.
a week when not away playing matches. A professional player
generally receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the
amount being sometimes a fixed sum of £1 for every fifty runs, more
frequently a sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation
of the captain. Some counties give their men winter pay, others try
to provide them with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get
cricket in other countries during the English winter. For inter-
national matches professional players and " reserves " receive
£20 each, though before 1896 the fee was only £10; players (and
reserves) in Gentlemen v. Players at Lord's are paid £10. A good
county professional generally receives a " benefit " after about ten
years' service; but the amount of the proceeds varies capriciously
with the weather, the duration of the match, and the attendance.
In the populous northern counties of England benefits are far more
lucrative than in the south, but £800 to £1000 may be regarded
as a good average' result. County clubs generally exercise some
control over the sums received. Umpires are paid £6 a match; in
minor games they receive about £1 a day.

Records. — Records other than those already cited may be added for
reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in
1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy's match,
being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566
for Break o' Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being
911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886.
In first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is
A. C. MacLaren's 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in
1895. Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March
1898, this being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C.
and Ground made 735 v. Wiltshire ir 1888, the highest total at Lord's.

In the match between A. E. Stoddart's team and New South Wales
at Sydney in 1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled
in first-class cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class
match is 918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. York-
shire scored 887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The
lowest total in a, first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v.
Gloucestershire in June 1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by
S. Colman and P. Coles at Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partner-
ship on record is 623 by Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh
in 1895. The best stand that has been made for the last wicket in
a first-class match is 230 runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls
and Roche playing for Middlesex v. Kent at Lord's in 1899.

The " averages " of individual players for batting and bowling
annually excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that
some players may think too much of their averages and too little of
the sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages
during a scries of years would be misleading, owing to improvements
in grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number
of innings.

The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to
the end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of
historic cricketers ; it will serve to supplement some details already
given above about them and others.

Batting.

Innings.

Not Out.

Runs.

Most.

Aver.

K. S. Ranjitsinhji .

448

57

22,277

285

56-3

C. B. Fry ...

481

29

22,865

244

50-4

T. Hayward .

667

61

25,225

315

41-3

J. T. Tyldesley .

491

38

18,683

250

41-1

Dr W. G. Grace

1463

103

54.073

344

39-i

A. Shrewsbury .

784

88

25,819

267

37-6

R. Abel ....

964

69

32,810

357

36-5

A. C. MacLaren .

526

37

17,364

424

35-2

G. H. Hirst . . .

626

92

18,615

34i

34-4

Hon. F. S. Jackson .

490

35

15,498

160

34-2

W. Gunn

821

66

25,286

273

33-3

W. W. Read . . .

739

. 53

22,919

328

33-2

A. E. Stoddart . .

513

16

16,081

221

32-2

Bowling.

Overs.

Maid.

Runs.

Wkts.

Aver.

A. Shaw ....

22,830

12,803

21,887

1916

n-8

F. R. Spofforth . .

5,342

2,168

8,773

682

12-5

C. T. B. Turner

5,388

2,396

8,419

649

12-6

T. Emmett .

14,672

6,870

20,811

1523

I3-I

G. Lohmann

15,196

6,508

23,958

1734

I3-I

F. Morley

12,610

6,239

15,938

1213

I3-I

E. Peate ....

11,669

5,593

14,299

1061

13-5

W. Rhodes . . .

11,014

3,476

23,336

1564

141

W. Attewell . . .

22,461

11,408

28,671

1874

15-5

J. Briggs ....

20,300

8,275

34,4U

2161

15-2

R. Peel ....

18,255

7,856

27,795

1733

16-6

S. Haigh . . .

7,749

2,279

18,516

1 102

16-8

J. T. Hearne

19,895

7,395

40,532

2350

17-5

W. H. Lockwood

8,733

2,241

22,981

1273

18-6

T. Richardson (1904)

14,474

3,835

38,126

2081

18-6

Dr W. G. Grace (1904)

28,502

10,892

50,441

2730

18-1

G. H. Hirst .

11,586

3,525

27,028

1377

19-8

Bibliography. — The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-
known annuals : — H. Bentley's Scores from 1786 to 1S22 (published
in 1823) ; John Nyren's Young Cricketer's Tutor (1833) ; N. Wano-
strocht's Felix on the Bat (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lilly-
white's Cricket Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840 (1862) ; Rev. J.
Pycroft's Cricket Field (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box's
Theory and Practice of Cricket (1868) ; F. Gale's Echoes from Old
Cricket Fields (1871, new ed. 1896); Marylebone Cricket Club
Scores and Biographies (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite's
Scores and Biographies; C. Box's English Game of Cricket (1877);
History of a Hundred Centuries, by W. G. Grace (1895) ; History
of the Middlesex County Cricket Club, by W. J. Ford (1900) ; History
of the Cambridge University Cricket Club, by W. J. Ford (1902);
History of Yorkshire County Cricket, by R. S. Holmes (1904) ;
History of Kent County Cricket, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); Annals
of Lord's, by A. D. Taylor (1903) ; Curiosities of Cricket, by F. S.
Ashley Cooper (1901) ; " Cricket," by Lord Hawke, in English Sport,
by A. E. T. Watson (1903) ; Cricket, edited by H. G. Hutchinson
(1903) ; Cricket Form at a Glance, by Home Gordon (1903) ; Cricket
(Badminton Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904) ;
Old English Cricketers, by Old Ebor (1900) ; Cricket in Many Climes,
by P. F. Warner (1903) ; How We Recovered the Ashes,by P.F.Warner
(1904) ; England v. Australia, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877
to 1904) (1904) ; The Jubilee Book of Cricket, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji
(1897)-

CRICKHOWELL— CRIME

447

CRICKHOWELL, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales,
14 m. E. of Brecon, beautifully situated on the left bank of the
Usk, which divides it from Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The
nearest railway stations are Govilon (5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.)
on the London & North-Western railway, but a mail and
passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and
Brecon passes through the town. It is also served by the
Brecon & Newport Canal, which passes through Llangattock
about a mile distant. Agriculture is almost the sole industry
of the district. The town derives its name from a British fortress,
Crug Hywel, commonly called Table Mountain, about 2 m.
N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of which only a tower
remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of the
country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a
borough by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having
possessed any municipal institutions. The church is in transi-
tional Decorated style.

CRICKLADE, a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the
Midland & South-Western Junction railway. Pop. (1901)
1517. It is pleasantly situated in the plain which borders the
south bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames & Severn
Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly Per-
pendicular, with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in
its churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early
English tower, Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch.
There is some agricultural trade.

Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek
philosophers before the Roman conquest, and the name is given
as " Greeklade " in Drayton's Polyolbion. It owed its importance
in Saxon times to its position at the passage of the Thames.
During the revolt of /Ethelwald the ^Etheling in 905 he and
his army " harried all the Mercian's land until they came to
Cricklade and there they went over the Thames " (Anglo-Sax.
Chron. sub anno), and in 1016 Canute came with his army over
the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade {ibid.). There was a mint at
Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I.,
and William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of
Stephen. In the reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to
St John the Baptist was founded at Cricklade, and placed under
the government of a warden or prior. Cricklade was a borough
by prescription at least as early as the Domesday Survey, and
returned two members to parliament from 1295 until dis-
franchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough
was never incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption
from toll and passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry
III. and confirmed by successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin
de Insula obtained a grant of a Thursday market, and an annual
three days' fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. The market
was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was much frequented
by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now inconsiderable. During
the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the dowry of the
queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship was
acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter
Hungerford granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and
chapter of Salisbury cathedral to aid towards the repair of their
belfry.

CRIEFF, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of
Strathearn, 17! m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway.
Pop. (1901) 5208. Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on
the left bank of the Earn, here crossed by a bridge, it practically
consists of a main street, with narrower streets branching off
at right angles. Its climate is the healthiest in mid-Scotland,
the air being pure and dry. Its charter is said to date from 1218,
and it was the seat of the courts of the earls of Strathearn till
1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A Runic
sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old
town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for
which Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770.
It was probably in connexion with this market that the " kind
gallows of Crieff " acquired their notoriety, for they were mostly
used for the execution of Highland cattle-stealers. The principal

buildings are the town hall, tolbooth, public library, assembly
rooms, mechanics' institute, Morison's academy (founded in
1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment
built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered
by the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist
of manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and
leather. Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for
its gardens. They cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in
terraces, and illustrate Italian, Dutch and French styles. They
were planned by the 2nd earl of Perth (d. 1662), and take rank
with the most magnificent in the United Kingdom. The keep
of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the original building
was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by Cromwell.
The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction
of the Jacobite rebellion.

CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation), the general term for offences
against the Criminal Law {q.v.). Crime has been defined as
" a failure or refusal to live up to the standard of conduct
deemed binding by the rest of the community." Sir James
Stephen describes it as " some act or omission in respect of
which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is
in default whether by acting or omitting to act." Such action
or neglect of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It
is a wrong or tort, to be prevented and corrected by the strong
arm of the law.

Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under
different circumstances of place and custom, that which at one
time is denounced as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious
act. It was once an imperative duty for the family to avenge
the death of a kinsman, and the blood feud had a sanction that
made killing no murder. Again, among primitive tribes to make
away with parents at an advanced age or suffering from an
incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was sometimes
encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval;
religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy,
heresy, sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter
to accepted dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when
people gathered into communities and the rights of property
and of personal security were understood and established. The
law of the strongest might still interfere with individual owner-
ship; the weakest went to the wall; authority, whether exercised
by one master or by the combined government of the many,
was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As civilization
spread and the bulk of the population settled into orderliness,
society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection, would
not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all law-
breakers decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy.
Then began that constant warfare between criminals and the
forces of law and order which has been continuously waged
through the centuries with varying degrees of bitterness.

The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty.
Extreme penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent,
and the principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law.
The harshness of ancient codes makes a more humane age
shudder. It was the custom to hang or decapitate, or otherwise
take life in some more or less barbarous fashion, on the smallest
excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous torture. It was
performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to
death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dis-
memberment and flaying or boiling alive. These were the
aggravations of the original idea of riddance, of checking crime
by the absolute removal of the offender. Only slowly and
gradually milder methods came into force. Revenge and
retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a larger
mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity
to mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period
from the sphere of his baneful activity was something; to subject
him to more or less irksome processes, to solitary confinement
upon short diet, deprived of all the solaces of life, with severe
labour, were sharp lessons limited in effect to those actually
subjected to them, but too remote to deter the outside crowd
of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the administrator

44 8

CRIME

is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to reform the
criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed
characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved
in this direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more
and more steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in
principle that to eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off
recruits from the permanent army of crime the work must be
undertaken when the subject is of an age susceptible of
reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more
enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becom-
ing more and more largely accepted in practice among civilized
nations.

It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally
present in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favour-
able to its growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their
earliest years. They exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment,
mendacity; they are often intensely selfish, are strongly acquisi-
tive, greedy of gain, ready to steal and secrete things at the first
opportunity. Happily the fatal consequences that would other-
wise be inevitable are checked by the gradual growth of inhibitory
processes, such as prudence, reflection, a sense of moral duty, and
in many cases the absence of temptation. From this Dr
Nicholson deduces that " in proportion as this development is
prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or
by lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of
the individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual
crime." In the lowest strata of society this risk is largely
increased from the conditions of life. The growth of criminals
is greatly stimulated where people are badly fed, morally and
physically unhealthy, infected with any forms of disease and
vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is too often the
evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of criminals
are constantly impelled to follow in their parents' footsteps by
the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness.
The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds
congenial soil in which to take root and flourish.

Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines
and has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result
of marked propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and
lust. Malicious crimes may be amplified into offences against
the person originating in hatred, resentment, violent temper,
and rising from mere assaults into manslaughter and murder.
Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the whole range of
thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all sorts;
obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies;
house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust
embrace the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of
ungovernable passion and criminal depravity. The proportions
in which these three categories are manifested have been
worked out in England and Wales to give the following figures.
The percentage in any 100,000 of the population is: —

Crimes of malice 15%

Crimes of greed 75 %

Crimes of lust 10%

The members of these categories do not form distinct classes;
their crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime
in many is progressive and passes through all the stages from
minor offences to the worst crimes. Murder — the culminating
point of malice — is constantly preceded by petty larceny; theft
by forcible entry; and robbery is associated with violence and
armed resistance to capture. Criminality rising into its highest
development shows itself under many forms. It is instinctive,
passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the outcome
of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense.
The causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive
is idleness, leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily
acquired without the labour of continuous effort. To deprive
the more industrious or more happily placed of their hard-won
earnings or possessions, inspires the bulk of modern serious
crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar feature in modern
crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out. The
greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies

are planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole
is worked by wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.

Other features of modern crime are especially interesting.
It is extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years
commit murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met
with as professional thieves. Again, the comparative propor-
tions of crime in the two sexes may be considered. Everywhere
women are less criminal than men. Naturally they have fewer
facilities for committing crimes of violence, although they have
offences peculiar to their sex, such as infanticide, and are more
frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70 % against 30 %.
Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm fix the
percentage of female criminals at 3 % in Japan, the East gener-
ally, South America and some parts of North America. In
some states of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20 %;
in Europe generally it varies between 10 % and 21%. In France
the proportion of accused women is fifteen to eighty-five men.
In Great Britain it is now one in four, but has been less. The total
sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and imprisonment
was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up
by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is
that one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already
been convicted from eleven to twenty times. It has been well
said from the above proportions that women are less criminal
according to the figures, because when a woman wants a crime
committed she can generally find a man to do it for her.

It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react
upon the criminality of the country; whether, in other words,
severity of treatment deters, while milder methods encourage the
wrongdoers to despise the penalties imposed by the law.
Evidence for and against the verdict may be drawn from the
whole civilized world. In England, as judged by the increase
or decrease of the prison population, it might be supposed that
the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing crime.
Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers
because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable
increase in the number of crimes and proportionately of those
imprisoned. The figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in
criminality for that year as compared with the years immediately
preceding. The proportion of indictable offences had increased
in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494 in 1899, or m the proportion
of 171-01 per 100,000 of the population as against 158-97, a very
marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless the figures for
1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on eight
occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were
available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the
quinquennial period i860- 1864 the annual average was 280 per
100,000 as compared with 171-01 for 1906 and 175 for the quin-
quennial period 1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and
while offences against property have increased, those against the
person have constantly fallen. Quite half the whole number
of crimes were committed by old offenders (see Recidivism) .

Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other
countries, but some authentic figures may be quoted for France,
where the number of thefts increased while offences against the
person diminished. In Belgium there has been a satisfactory
decrease in recent years. In Prussia the prison population has
on the whole increased, but there has been a slight diminution
in more serious crime. Some very noticeable figures are forth-
coming from the United States, and comparison is possible of
the relative amount of' crime in the two countries, America and
England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is
much to be regretted. On the general question serious crime
in the ten years between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while
petty crime was very considerably less during the period.
Charges for homicide have heen much more numerous. There
were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9-1 to 100,000 of the population;
but in 1890 these offences rose to"735i, or a ratio of 11-7. Com-
paring America with England, it has been calculated in round
numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general popula-
tion was in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England
1 to every 1764 persons. As regards the more serious crimes

CRIMEA

449

the number in English convict prisons was as i to 10,000, and
in the American state prisons (the corresponding institutions)
the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the lesser prisons, i.e. the
English local prisons and the American city or county gaols,
the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1
to 2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that
much of the crime in America is attributable to the preponderance
of foreign immigrants, but the ratio of native born prisoners is
that of 1237 to the million, of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the
million.

Authorities. — A. MacDonald, Criminology (New York, 1893) ;
A. Drahms, The Criminal (New York, 1900) ; E. Ferri, La Sociologie
criminelle, trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905) ; all these contain extensive
bibliographies. See also under Criminoi.ogy. (A. G.)

CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the
Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim), a peninsula on the
north side of the Black Sea, forming part of the Russian govern-
ment of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected
by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m. across) . It is rudely rhomboid
in shape, the angles being directed towards the cardinal points,
and measures 200 m. between 44 23' and 46 10' N., and no m.
between 32° 30' and 36 40' E. Its area is 9700 sq. m.

Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east,
where is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated
from the Sea of Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are
broken by several bays and harbours — on the west side of the
Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of Karkinit; on the south-west
by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores of which the allies
landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria, Sevastopol and
Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the
Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or
Feodosiya (Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south
side of the same. The south-east coast is flanked at a distance
of 5 to 8 m. from the sea by a parallel range of mountains, the
Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow mountains, and these are backed,
inland, by secondary parallel ranges; but 75% of the remaining
area consists of high arid prairie lands, a southward continuation
of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently north-westwards from
the foot of the Yaila-dagh: The main range of these mountains
shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of
the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at
the south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc.
Parthenium), supposed to have been crowned by the temple
of Artemis in which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On
the higher parts of this range are numerous flat mountain pastures
(Turk, yailas), which, except for their scantier vegetation, are
analogous to the almen of the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by
various passes (bogaz) , of which only six are available as carriage
roads. The most conspicuous summits in this range are the
Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh (5060 ft.),
Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The second
parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft.,
likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle
slope towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands
of small caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and
several rivers pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley,
10 to 12 m. wide, separates this range from the main range,
while another valley 2 to 3 m. across separates it from the third
parallel range, which reaches altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft.
Evidences of a fourth and still lower ridge can be traced towards
the south-west.

A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable,
leap down the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring,
e.g. the Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea,
and the Salghir, with its affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash
lagoon.

In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differ-
ences between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral,
with the slopes of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former,
although grasses and Liliaceae grow on them in great variety
and luxuriance in the early spring, become completely parched
up by July and August, while the air is then filled with clouds

vii. 15

of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms, hail-
storms and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this
region produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports
numbers of cattle, sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are,
however, impregnated with salt, or studded with saline lakes;
there nothing grows except the usual species of Artemisia and
Salsola. As a rule water can only be obtained from wells sunk
200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now being bored
in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered
numerous kurgans or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians.
The picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-
dagh is of an altogether different character. Here the narrow
strip of coast and the slopes of the mountains are smothered
with greenery. This Russian Riviera stretches all along the
south-east coast from Cape Sarych (extreme S.) to Feodosiya
(Theodosia), and is studded with summer sea-bathing resorts — ■
Alupka, Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia. Numerous
Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian
imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of
ancient Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling
to the acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel
and other nuts, the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs,
olives and pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco
plantations, and gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while
the higher slopes of the mountains are thickly clothed with
forests of oak, beech, elm, pines, firs and other Coniferae. Here
have become acclimatized, and grow in the open air, such plants
as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias, myrtles, camellias,
mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover over
19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3! million gallons annually)
enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in
abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are
covered with snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them,
and ice, too, is rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of
summer is moderated by breezes off the sea, and the nights
are cool and serene; the winters are mild and healthy. Fever
and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts for a few weeks in
autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April and May,
but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between
the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following
data: annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop,
48 Fahr.; at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50 ; at
Yalta, on the south-east coast, 56-5°; the respective January
means being 20 , 31 and 39-5°, and the July means 74 , 70
and 75-5°. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the
annual average on the steppes being 13-8 in., at Simferopol 17-5,
and at Yalta 18 in. It varies greatly, however, from year to
year; thus at Simferopol it ranges between the extremes of
7-5 and 26-4 in.

Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned,
are salt, porphyry and limestone, 'and ironstone has recently
been brought to light at Kerch. Fish abound all round the
coast, such as red and grey mullet, herring, mackerel, turbot,
soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, pilchard, a species of
pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon. Manufacturing
industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills, ironworks;
jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The
Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially
in the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming
from Kharkov, crosses the peninsula from north to south,
terminating at Sevastopol and sending off branch lines to
Theodosia and Kerch.

The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are
racially modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic
elements. The remainder of the population is made up of
Russians, Germans, Karaite Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians.
The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom only 150,000 lived in
the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of note, in
addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and Bakhchi-
sarai, the old Tatar capital.

History. — The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any
authentic traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled

*.a

45°

CRIMEAN WAR

by the Scythians during the 7th century B.C. A remnant, who
took refuge in the mountains, became known subsequently as
the Tauri. In that same century Greek colonists began to settle
on the coasts, e.g. Dorians from Heraclea at Chersonesus, and
Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum (also
called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 B.C.) the archon
or ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus,
a state which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying
that city with wheat and other commodities. The last of these
kings, Paerisades V., being hard pressed by the Scythians, put
himself under the protection of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus,
in 114 B.C. After the death of this latter sovereign his son
Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered to the Romans
in their war against his father, was (63 B.C.) invested by Pompey
with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 B.C. it was once more
restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a
tributary state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries
the Crimea was overrun or occupied successively by the Goths
(a.d. 250), the Huns (376), the Khazars (8th century), the
Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050), and the Mongols
(1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or seized
the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on
the Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria,
Cembalo (Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia),
flourishing trading towns, which existed down to the conquest
of the peninsula by the Ottoman Turks in 1475- Meanwhile
the Tatars had got a firm footing in the northern and central
parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th century, and after
the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they founded
an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan,
who is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned
first at Solkhat (Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th
century at Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary
princes of the Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been
defeated by Suvarov they became dependent upon Russia, and
finally in 1783 the whole of the Crimea was annexed to the
Russian empire. Since that date the only important phase of its
history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56, which is treated
of under a separate article. At various times, e.g. after the
acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and
in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in
large numbers to the Ottoman empire.

See Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien (3 vols., St Petersburg,
1854); C. Bossoll, The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea (52 large
drawings, London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, Notices hist, et topogr.
concernant les colonies italiennes en Gazarie (St Petersburg, 1866);
J. B. Telfer, The Crimea and Transcaucasia (2 vols., London, 2nd ed.,
1877); F. Remy, Die Krim in ethnographischer , landschaftlicher und
hygienischer Bcziehung (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-
Purgstall, Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft
(Vienna, 1856); M. G. Canale, Delia Crimea e dei suoi dominatori
dalle sue origini fino al trattato di Parigi (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-
1856) ; and Sir Evelyn Wood, The Crimea in 1854 and 18(14 (London,
1895). (See also Bosporus Cimmerius.) (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

CRIMEAN WAR. The war of 1853-56, usually known by
this name, arose from causes the discussion of which will be
found under the heading Turkey: History. When Turkey,
after a period of irregular fighting, declared war on Russia in
October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently assisted
by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this intervention
was represented merely by the presence of an allied squadron
in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great
Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at
Sinope (30th November) soon impelled these powers to more
active measures. On the 27th of January 1854 they declared
war on the tsar, and prepared to carry their armaments to the
Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war, the Turks had
hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The
Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed
the Pruth with two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun
Moldavia and Wallachia without difficulty. Omar Pasha,
however, disposing of superior forces, was able to check any
further advance. During October, November and December
the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at Oltenitza

(Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later
Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati)
before reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained
was for the time being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months
later, the Russians, now under command of the veteran Prince
Paskievich, took the offensive in great force. Crossing the
Danube near its mouth at^Galatz and Braila, they advanced
through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of Silistria,
which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect all
the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported
by the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented
a close investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive
encounter, and the stormers stood ready in the trenches before
Silistria, when the siege was suddenly raised. The decision had
passed into other hands. The tsar had learned that the Austrian
army of observation in Transylvania, 50,000 strong under
Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the wishes of the
" Four Powers." The Russian offensive was at an end, the

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army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last
man recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once
occupied by Hess.

The Invasion of the Crimea.— -The primary object of the war
had thus easily been obtained. But Great Britain and France
were by no means content with a triumph that left untouched
the vast resources of an enemy who was certain to employ them
at the next opportunity. The two nations felt that Sevastopol,
the home of the Black Sea fleet, the port whence Admiral
Nachimov had sailed for Sinope, must be crippled for some years
at least, and as early as June 29th Lord Raglan and Marshal
Saint Arnaud, the allied commanders of England and France,
had received instructions to " concert measures for the siege
of Sevastopol." Dynastic considerations reinforced the argu-
ments of policy and popular opinion in the case of France; in
Great Britain soldier and civilian alike saw the menace of a
Russian Mediterranean fleet in the unfinished forts and busy
dockyards. The popular strategy for once coincided with the
views of the responsible leaders. Yet there is no sign that
either the commanders on the spot or their governments realized
the magnitude of the undertaking. Few but the most urgently
necessary preparations were made, and cholera, breaking out
virulently amongst the French at this time, reduced the army

CRIMEAN WAR

45*

at Varna, and even the fleet at sea, to impotence. The troops
were so weakened that, even in September, the five-mile march
from camp to transport exhausted most of the men. Heavy
weather still further delayed the start, and it was not until
the 7th of September that the expedition began to cross the
Black Sea. One hundred and fifty war-vessels and transports
conveyed the army, which, guarded on all sides by the fighting
fleet, crossed without incident and drew up on the Crimean coast
on September 13th. Tactical considerations prevailed in the
choice of place. The landlocked harbours south of Sevastopol
were for the time being neglected, and a spot known as Old
Fort preferred, because the long beach, the heavy metal of the
ships' broadsides, and a line of lagoons covering the front
offered singularly favourable conditions for the delicate operation
of disembarkation. Still, on this side of Sevastopol there was
no good harbour, and it is quite open t<5 question whether in
this case the strategic necessities of the situation were not
neglected in favour of purely tactical and temporary advantages.
As a matter of fact no opposition was offered to the landing,
but the weather prevented the disembarkation being completed
until the 18th. St Arnaud and Raglan had at this time under
their 1 orders 51,000 British, French and Turkish infantry, 1000
British cavalry, and 128 guns, and on the 19th this force (less
some detachments) began the southward march in order of
battle, the British (who alone had their cavalry present) on the
exposed left flank, the French next the sea, the fleet moving
in the same direction parallel to the troops.

The Alma. — Old Fort was beyond the reach of Menshikov,
the Russian commander, but, as the fortress communicated with
the interior of Russia via Kerch and Simferopol, it was to be
expected that he would either accept battle on the Sevastopol
road, or cover Simferopol by a flank attack on Lord Raglan.
Both these contingencies were provided for by the order of
march, and in due course it was ascertained that the Russians
adopted the former alternative, and barred the Sevastopol road
on the heights of the river Alma. Menaced by the guns of the
fleet, Menshikov had wheeled back his left, and at the same time
he strengthened his right in order to cover the Simferopol road.
From this it followed naturally that the brunt of the attack fell
upon the British divisions, whilst the French, nearer the sea,
struck to some extent dans le vide. The two commanders, after
a reconnaissance, decided upon their plan. The French divisions
in echelon from the right were to cross the river and force Men-
shikov inwards, whilst the British were to move straight to their
front against the strongest part of the Russian line. Substantially
this plan was carried out on the 20th of September. Owing to
want of men (he had but 36,400 against over 50,000) Menshikov
was unable to hold his left wing very strongly, and the French
were scarcely checked save by physical obstacles; but opposite
the British force the ground sloped glacis-wise up to the Russian
line, and nothing but their iron discipline, the best heritage of
the Peninsular War, brought them victorious to the crest of
Kurghane hill. The Russians had no option but to retreat,
which they did without molestation. The allies lost about 3000
men, mostly British (though Prince Napoleon's men also suffered
heavily); the Russians reported 5709 casualties.

The March on Sevastopol. — On the 23rd of September the
advance was resumed, and by the 25 th Sevastopol was in full
view of the allied outposts. It was now that the necessary
consequences of the choice of Old Fort as the landing-place
presented themselves as a problem for instant solution. What-
ever chance there had been of assaulting the north side of
Sevastopol was now gone. Menshikov had sacrificed some ships
in order to seal up the harbour mouth, and naval co-operation
in attack was now impossible, while the other Russian ships
could in safety aid the defenders with their heavy guns. A
siege, based on the beach of Old Fort or the open roads of
Kacha, was out of the question, as was re-embarkation for a
fresh landing. There remained only a flank march by Mackenzie's
farm and the river Chernaya. Once established on the south
side, the allies could use the excellent harbours of Kamiesh
and Balaklava ; this could almost certainly be effected without

fighting, while in besieging Sevastopol itself and not merely
the north side, the allies would be striking at the heart. But
a flank march is almost always in itself a hazardous undertaking,
and in this case the invaders were required further to abandon
their line of retreat on Old Fort. In point of fact, the army,
covered by a division opposite the Russian works, successfully
accomplished the task. At the same moment Menshikov, after
providing for the defence of Sevastopol, had marched out with
a field army towards Bakhchiserai, and on the 25th of September
each army, without knowing it, actually crossed the other's
front. On arrival at Balaklava the allies regained contact with
the fleet, and the detachment left on the north side, its mission
being at an end, followed the same route and rejoined the main
body. The French now took possession of Kamiesh, the British
of Balaklava.

Beginning of the Siege. — Thus secured, the allies closed upon
the south side of the fortress. A siege corps was formed, and the
British army and General Bosquet's French corps covered its
operations against interruption from the Russian field army.
The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya,
was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian
war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts
on the south side and by the works which had defied the allies on

■^ Russian Works

1. Whit* Works j. The Redan
t. Ualakaff 6. Flagstaff

j. Uamelon 7. Central Bastlo

e.Uttle Hedaa
<• at

SEVASTOPOL
1854-1856

English Mile!
•A • ?

the north. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb
the trace of the works had been laid down for years. The
Malakoff, a great tower of stone, covered the suburb, flanked
on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town
was covered by a line of works marked by the Flagstaff and
central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner
harbour. Lieut.-Col. Todleben, the Russian chief engineer,
had very early begun work on these sites, and daily re-creating,
rearming and improving the fortifications, finally connected
them by a continuous enceinte. Yet Sevastopol was not, early
in October 1854, the towering fortress it afterwards became,
and Todleben himself maintained that, had the allies immediately
assaulted, they would have succeeded in taking the place.
There were, however, many reasons against so decided a course,
and it was not until the 17th of October that the first attack
took place. All that day a tremendous artillery duel raged.
The French siege corps lost heavily and its guns were overpowered.
The fleet engaged the harbour batteries close inshore, and
suffered a loss of 500 men, besides severe damage to the ships.
On the other hand the British siege batteries silenced the Malakoff
and its annexes, and, if failure had not occurred at the other
points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was,
Todleben, by daybreak, had repaired and improved the damaged
works. Meanwhile General Canrobert had succeeded St Arnaud
(who died on the 29th of September) in the joint leadership of

452

CRIMEAN WAR

the allies. It was not long before Menshikov and the now
augmented field army from Bakhchiserai appeared on the
Chernaya and moved towards the Balaklava lines and the British
base.

Balaklava.— A long line of works on the upland secured the
siege corps from interference, and the Balaklava lines themselves
were strong, but the low Vorontsov ridge between the two was
weakly held, and here the Russian commander hoped to sever
the line of communications. On the 25th of October .Liprandi's
corps carried its slight redoubts at the first rush. But the British
cavalry stationed at the foot of the upland was situated on their
flank, and as the Russian cavalry moved towards Kadikoi, the
" Heavy Brigade " under General Scarlett charged home with
such effect that Menshikov's troopers only rallied behind their
field batteries near Traktir bridge. At the same time some of the
Russian squadrons, coming upon the British 93rd regiment
outside the Balaklava lines, were completely broken by the steady
volleys of the " thin red line." The " Light Brigade " of British
cavalry, farther north, had hitherto remained inactive, even
when the Russians, broken by the " Heavies," fled across their
front. The cavalry commander, Lord Lucan, now received
orders to prevent the withdrawal of the guns taken by Liprandi.
The aide-de-camp who carried the order was killed by the first
shell, and the whole question of responsibility for what followed
is wrapped in obscurity. Lord Cardigan led the Light Brigade
straight at the Russian field batteries, behind which the enemy's
squadrons had re-formed. From the guns in front, on the
Fedukhin heights, and on the captured ridge to their right,
the advancing squadrons at once met a deadly converging fire,
but the gallant troopers nevertheless reached the guns and cut
down the artillerymen. Small parties even charged the cavalry
behind, and at least two unbroken squadrons struck out right and
left with success, but the combat could only end in one way.
The 4th Chasseurs d'Afrique relieved the British left by a dashing
charge. The " Heavies " made as if to advance, but came under
such a storm of fire that they were withdrawn. By twos and
threes the gallant survivors of the " Light Brigade " made their
way back. Two-thirds of its numbers were left on the field, and
the day closed with the Russians still in possession of the
Vorontsov ridge.

Inkerman. — If the heights lost in this action were not absolutely
essential to the safety of the allies, the point selected for the
next attempt at relief was of vital importance. The junction
of the covering army and the siege corps near Inkerman was the
scene of a slight action on the day following Balaklava, and
the battle of Inkerman followed on the 5th of November. By
that time the French had made good the losses of the 17 th of
October, their approaches were closing upon Flagstaff bastion,
and the British batteries daily maintained their superiority
over the Malakoff. On the 5th there was to have been a meeting
of generals to fix the details of an assault, but at dawn the
Russian army, now heavily reinforced from Odessa, was attacking
with the utmost fury the British divisions guarding the angle
between Bosquet and the siege corps. The battle of Inkerman
defies description; every regiment, every group of men bore its
own separate part in the confused and doubtful struggle, save
when leaders on either side obtained a momentary control over
its course by means of reserves which, carrying all before them
with their original impetus, soon served but to swell the melee.
It was a " soldiers' battle " pure and simple. After many
hours of the most desperate fighting the arrival of Bosquet
(hitherto contained by a force on the Balaklava ground) con-
firmed a success won by supreme tenacity against overwhelming
odds, and Menshikov sullenly drew off his men, leaving over
12,000 on the field. The allies had lost about 3300 men, of
whom more than two-thirds belonged to the small British force
on which the strain of the battle fell heaviest. Their losses
included several generals who could ill be spared, but they had
held their ground, which was all that was required of them, with
almost unrivalled tenacity. Lord Raglan was promoted to be
field marshal after the battle.

The Winter of 1854-1855. — It was now obvious that the army

must winter in the Crimea, and preparations in view of this
were begun betimes. But on the night of November 14th a
violent storm arose which wrecked nearly thirty vessels with
their precious cargoes of treasure, medical comforts, forage,
clothing and other necessaries. After so grave a calamity it
was to be expected that the troops would be called upon to
undergo great hardships. But the direct cause of sufferings
that have become a byword for the utmost depths of misery
was the loss of twenty days' forage in the great storm. Of food
and clothing enough was in store to tide over temporary diffi-
culties, but the only paved road from Balaklava to the British
camps was now in Russian hands, and the few starving transport
animals were utterly inadequate for the work of drawing wagons
over the miry plain; things went from bad to worse with Raglan's
troops, until from the outposts before the Redan to the hospitals
at Scutari a state of the utmost misery prevailed, relieved only
by the example of devotion and self-sacrifice set by officers and
men. The British hospital returns showed eight thousand sick
at the end of November. Even the French, whose base of
Kamiesh had escaped the storm, were not unhurt by the severity
of the winter, but Napoleon III. sent freely all the men his
general asked, while the Russians in Sevastopol, who had made
long painful marches from the interior, were the survivors of
the fittest. Canrobert took over the lines before the Malakoff
to relieve the British. He had at the end of January 1855
78,000 men for duty; Raglan could barely muster 12,000. But,
with the advent of spring, paved roads and a railway were
promptly taken in hand, and during the remainder of the war
the British troops were so well cared for that their death-rate
was lower than at home, while the hospitals in rear, thanks to
the energy and devotion of Florence Nightingale and her nurses,
became models of good management.

Course of the Siege. — Meanwhile the siege works were making
but slow progress, and the fortress grew day by day under the
skilful direction of Todleben. Rifle-pits pushed out in front of
the defenders' lines were connected so as to form a veritable
envelope. Beyond the left wing a new line, the " White Works,"
sprang up in a single night, and the hill of the Mamelon was
suddenly crowned with a lunette to cover the still defiant
Malakoff. But the absence of bomb-proof cover exposed the
huge working parties necessary for these defences to an almost
incessant feu d'enfer, by which the Russians every week suffered
the losses of a pitched battle. Meanwhile the field army was
idle, Menshikov had been replaced by Prince Michael Gorchakov,
Liprandi's corps had withdrawn from the Vorontsov ridge, and
Omar Pasha, with a detachment of the troops he had led at
Oltenitza and Cetatea, repulsed a Russian attack on Eupatoria
(Feb. 17th). The besiegers steadily approached the White
Works, Mamelon, Redan and Flagstaff bastion, and as spring
arrived the logistic and material advantages of the allies returned.
On Easter Sunday (April 8th, 1855) another terrific bombardment
began, which lasted almost uninterruptedly for ten days. The
White Works and the Mamelon were practically destroyed,
and the Russians, drawn up in momentary expectation of
assault, lost between six and seven thousand men.

But the bombardment ceased, and assault did not follow.
For, at the allied headquarters and at Paris, grave differences
of opinion on the conduct of the war had developed. Napoleon
III. wished active operations to be undertaken against the
Simferopol field army, whereas the leaders on the spot, while
admitting the theoretical soundness of the French emperor's
views, considered that they were wholly beyond the means of
the two armies. The discussions culminated in Canrobert's
resignation of the chief command, though he would not leave
the army, and took a subordinate post, which he filled with great
distinction to the end of the war. His successor, General
Pelissier, was a soldier trained in the hard school of Algerian
warfare, and endowed, as was soon evident, with the most
inflexible resolution of character. He did not hesitate to take up
and maintain a position of decided opposition to his sovereign's
views; and the capture of Kerch (24th May 1855), carried out
by a joint expedition, was the first earnest of new vigour in the

CRIMEAN WAR

453

operations. This success served all the purposes of a complete
investment of Sevastopol, the want of which had greatly troubled
the allied generals. The line of communication and supply
between Sevastopol and the interior was cut, vast stores intended
for the fortress were destroyed, and the sea of Azov was cleared
of shipping. On the 25 th Canrobert established himself on the
Fedukhin heights, his right continued along the Chernaya by
General la Marmora's newly arrived Sardinians, 15,000 strong,
while masses of Turks occupied the Vorontsov ridge and the
old Balaklava battlefield.

As June approached, Raglan and Pelissier, who, unlike most
allied commanders, were in complete accord and sympathy,
initiated very vigorous methods of attack. They decided that
the works west of Flagstaff could be comparatively neglected,
and the full weight of the bombardment once more fell upon
the Mamelon and the Malakoff. Once more these works were
reduced to ruins, but the rest of the defences still held out.

The Assault of the Redan. — On the 7 th of June 1855 the French
stormed the Mamelon and the White Works, the British captured
and maintained some quarries close to the Redan, and next
morning the whole of Todleben's envelope had become a siege-
parallel. The losses were, as usual, heavy, 8500 to the Russians,
6883 to the allies. This was merely a preliminary to the great
assault fixed for the 18th, the fortieth anniversary of Waterloo.
But meanwhile Pelissier's temper and Raglan's health had been
strained to breaking-point by continued dissensions with Paris
and London. The telegraph, a new strategic factor, daily
tormented the unfortunate commanders with the latest ideas
of the Paris strategists, and on the fateful day the two armies
rushed on to failure. The French attack on the Malakoff
dwindled away into a meaningless fire-fight: the British,
attacking the Redan in face of a cross-fire of one hundred heavy
guns, at first succeeded in entering the work, but in the end
sustained a bloody and disastrous repulse. Of the six generals
who led the two attacks, four were killed and one wounded, and
on the 17 th and 18th the losses to the Russians were 5400, to the
allies 4000. But the defenders' resources were almost at an end,
and the bombardment reopened at once with increased fury.
On the 20th Todleben was wounded, and soon afterwards
Nakhimov, the victor of Sinope, found a grave by the side of
three other admirals who had fallen in the defence. Pelissier
resolutely clung to his plans, in spite of the failure of the 18th,
against ever-increasing opposition at home. Raglan, worn out
by his troubles and heartbroken at the Redan failure, died on
the 28th, mourned by none more deeply than by his stern
colleague.

The Storming of the Malakoff. — During July the Russians lost
on an average 250 men a day, and at last it was decided that
Gorchakov and the field army must make another attack at the
Chernaya — the first since Inkerman. On the 16th of August
the corps of Generals Liprandi and Read furiously attacked the
37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir
Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination,
but the result was never for one moment doubtful. At the end
of the day the Russians drew off baffled, leaving 260 officers and
8000 men on the field. The allies only lost 1700. With this
defeat vanished the last chance of saving Sevastopol. On the
same day (Aug. 16th) the bombardment once more reduced the
Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with
absolute confidence in the result that Pelissier planned the final
assault. On the 8th of September 1855 at noon, the whole of
Bosquet's corps suddenly swarmed up to the Malakoff. The
fighting was of the most desperate kind. Every casemate, every
traverse, was taken and retaken time after time, but the French
maintained the prize, and though the British attack on the
Redan once more failed, the Russians crowded in that work
became at once the helpless target of the siege guns. Even on
the far left, opposite Flagstaff and Central bastions, there was
severe hand-to-hand fighting, and throughout the day the bom-
bardment mowed down the Russian masses along the whole line.
The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege. All night the
Russians were filing over the bridges to the north side, and on

the 9th the victors took possession of the empty and burning
prize. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy, to
the allies over 10,000 men, to the Russians 13,000. No less than
nineteen generals had fallen on that day. But the crisis was
surmounted. With the capture of Sevastopol the war loses its
absorbing interest. No serious operations were undertaken
against Gorchakov, who with the field army and the remnant of
the garrison held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. But Kinburn
was attacked by sea, and from the naval point of view the attack
is interesting as being the first instance of the employment of
ironclads. An armistice was agreed upon on the 26th of February
and the definitive peace of Paris was signed on the 30th of March
1856.

Decisive Importance of the Victory. — The importance of the
siege of Sevastopol, from the strategical point of view, lies
beneath the surface. It may well be asked, why did the fall of a
place, at first almost unfortified, bring the master of the Russian
empire to his knees? At first sight Russia would seem to be
almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however
crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed the capture
of Sevastopol in October 1854 would have been far from decisive
of the war, but once the tsar had decided to defend to the last
this arsenal, the necessity for which he was in the best position
to appreciate, the factor of unlimited resources operated in the
allies' favour. The sea brought to the invaders whatever they
needed, whilst the desert tracks of southern Russia were marked
at every step with the corpses of men and horses who had fallen
on the way to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifica-
tions, which, daily crushed by the fire of a thousand guns, had
to be re-created every night, made huge and therefore unprotected
working parties necessary, and the losses were correspondingly
heavy. The double cause of loss completely exhausted even
Russia's resources, and, when large bodies of militia appeared
in line of battle at Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end
was at hand. The novels of Tolstoy give a graphic picture of the
war from the Russian point of view; the miseries of the desert
march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the
almost daily ordeal of manning the lines under shell-fire to meet an
assault that might or might not come; and no student of the
siege can leave it without feeling the profoundest respect for the
courage, discipline and stubborn loyalty of the defenders.

Minor Operations. — A few words may be added on the minor
operations of the war. The Asiatic frontier was the scene of
severe fighting between the Turks and the Russians. Hindered
at first by Shamyl and his Caucasian mountaineers, the Russians
stood on the defensive during 1853, but next year they took the
offensive, and, while their coast column won an action on the 16th
of June at the river Churuk, another force from Erivan gained an
important success on the Araxes and took Bayazid, and General
Bebutov completely defeated a Turkish column from Kars at
Kuruk Dere (July 31st, 1854). Next year Count Muraviev
completely isolated the garrison of Kars, which made a magnifi-
cent defence, inspired by Fenwick Williams Pasha and other
British officers. In one assault alone 7000 Russians were killed
and wounded, and it was not until the 26th of November 1855
that the fortress was forced to surrender. The naval operations
in the Baltic furnish many interesting examples for the study
of naval war. The allied fleet in 1854, after a first repulse,
succeeded in landing a French force under Baraguay d'Hilliers
before Bomarsund, and the place fell after an eight days' siege.
In 1855 seventy allied warships appeared before Kronstadt,
which defied them. Reinforced they attacked Sveaborg, but
after two days' fighting had to draw off baffled.

The numbers engaged in the Crimean War and the cost in men
and money is stated in round numbers below. In May 1855 the
Crimean theatre of war occupied 174,500 allies (of whom 32,000
were British) and 170,000 Russians. The losses in battle were:
allies 70,000 men, Russians 128,700; and the total losses, from
all causes and in all theatres of the war: allies 252,600 (including
45,000 English), Russians 256,000 men (Berndt, Die Zahl im
Kriege, p. 3 5) . In the siege of Sevastopol the Russians are stated
by Berndt to have lost 102,670 men dead, wounded and missing.

454

CRIMINAL LAW

Mulhall (Diet, of Statistics, 1903 ed., pp. 586-587) gives much
greater losses to each of the four powers principally engaged.
The cost of the war in money is stated by Mulhall to have been
£69,000,000 to Great Britain, £93,000,000 to France, £142,000,000
to Russia.

Authorities. — Of the many works on the Crimean War those of
the greatest value are the following. English : the official work on
the Siege of Sebastopol; A. VV. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea
(London, 1863 ; " Student's edition " by Sir G. S. Clarke) ; Sir E. B.
Hamley, The War in the Crimea (London, 1891) ; (Sir) W. H. Russell,
The War in the Crimea (London, 1855-1856); Sir Evelyn Wood,
The Crimea in 1854 and in 1894 (London, 1895); Sir D. Lysons,
The Crimean War from First to Last (London, 1895) ; Col. A. Lake,
The Defence of Kars (London, 1857). French: Official, Guerre de
VOrient, Hist, de I'artillerie (Paris, 1859); (Marshal Niel), Siege de
Sebastopol (official account of engineer operations, Paris, 1858), and
Atlas historique et topographique de la guerre de Crimee (see also the
map of Russia by the French staff, sheets 56 and 57) ; Baron C. de
Bazancourt, L' Expedition de Crimee (Paris, 1856) ; C. Rousset,
Histoire de la guerre de Crimee (Paris, 1877). Russian: the work of
Todleben, Die Vertheidigung von Sebastopol (St Petersburg, 1864) ;
Defense de Sebastopol (St Petersburg, 1863); Anitschkoff, Feldzug in
der Krim (German trans., Berlin, 1857); Bogdanovitch, Der Orient-
krieg (St Petersburg, 1876); Petroff, Der Donaufeldzug Russlands
gegen Tiirkei (German trans., Berlin, 1891). Of German works the
most useful are : Kunz, Die Schlachten und Treffen des Krimkrieges
(Berlin, 1889); Der Feldzug in der Krim; Sammlung der Berichte
beider Parteien (Leipzig, 1855-1856). (C. F. A.)

CRIMINAL LAW. By criminal, or penal, law is now understood
the law as to the definition, trial and punishment of crimes,
i.e. of acts or omissions forbidden by law which affect injuriously
public rights, or constitute a breach of duties due to the whole
community. The sovereign is taken to be the person injured by
the crime, as he represents the whole community, and prosecu-
tions are in his name. Criminal law includes the rules as to the
prevention, the investigation, prosecution and punishment of
crime (q.v.). It lays down what constitutes a criminal offence,
what proof is necessary to establish the fact of a criminal offence
and the culpability of the offender, what excuse or justification
for the act or omission can be legally admitted, what procedure
should be followed in a criminal court, what degrees and kinds
of punishment should be imposed for the various offences which
come up for trial. Finally, it regulates the constitution of the
tribunals established for the trial of offences according to the
gravity of the infraction of law, and deals with the organization
of the police and the proper management of prisons, and the
maintenance of prison discipline. (See Evidence; Prison;
Police.)

Many acts or omissions, which are technically criminal and
classified as offences and punished by fine or imprisonment,
cannot be said to have a strictly criminal character, since they
do not fall within the popular conception of crime. To this class
belong such matters as stopping up a highway under claim of
right, or failing to repair it, or allowing a chimney to emit
black smoke in excessive quantities, or to catch fire from being
unswept, or breach of building by-laws, or driving a motor car
on a highway at a speed in excess of the legal limit. Such breaches
of law are under the French law described as contraventions.
In England most of them are described as petty misdemeanours
or offences punishable on summary conviction, or less happily
as " summary offences," and some writers speak of them as
mala prohibita as distinguished from mala in se, i.e. as not in-
volving any breach of ordinary morality other than a breach of
positive regulations. Continental jurists at times speak of
crimes de droit commun (i.e. offences common to all systems
of law as distinguished from offences which are crimes only by a
particular municipal law) . To this class of crimes de droit commun
belong most of the offences included in extradition treaties.

Criminal and civil law overlap, and many acts or omissions
are not only " wrongs " for which the person injured is entitled
to recover compensation for his own personal injury or damage,
but also " offences " for which the offender may be prosecuted
and punished in the interest of the state. In non-English
European systems care is taken to prevent civil remedies from
being extinguished by punishment: it is quite usual for the
civil and criminal remedies to be pursued concurrently, the

individual appearing as partie civile and receiving an award of
compensation by the judgment which determines the punishment
to be inflicted for the offence against the state. Under English
law it is now exceptional to allow civil and criminal remedies
to be pursued concurrently or in the same proceeding, or to
award compensation to the injured party in criminal proceedings,
and he is usually left to seek his remedy by action. Among the
exceptions are the restitution of stolen goods on conviction
of the thief if the prosecution has been at the instance or with
the aid of the owner of the goods (Larceny Act 1861, § 100),
and the award of compensation to persons who have suffered
injury to property by felony (Forfeiture Act 1870).

As Sir Henry Maine says (Ancient Law, ed. 1906, p. 381), " All
civilized systems of law agree in drawing a distinction between
offences against the state or community (crimes or Develop-
crimina) and offences against the individual (wrongs, mentot
torts or delicto) ." But the process of historical develop- modem
ment by which this distinction has been ultimately « rim/na/
established has given great occasion for study of
early laws and institutions by eminent men, whose researches
have disclosed the extremely gradual evolution of the modern
notion of criminal law enforced by the state from the primitive
conceptions and customs of barbarous or semi-civilized com-
munities. Of the oldest codes or digests of customs which
are available to the student it has been said the more archaic
a code the fuller and minuter is its penal legislation: but this
penal legislation is not true criminal law; it is the law, not of
crimes, but of wrongs. The intervention of the community
or tribe is in the first instance to persuade or compel the wronged
person or his family or tribe to abandon private vengeance or a
blood feud and to accept compensation for the wrong collectively
or individually sustained; and in the tariffs of compensation
preserved in early laws the importance of the injured person
was the measure of the compensation or vengeance which he
was recognized to be entitled to exact, and the scales of punish-
ment or compensation are fixed from this point of view.

The laws of Khammurabi (2285-2242), the oldest extant code,
contain definite schemes and scales of offences and punishments,
and indicate the existence of tribunals to try the Babylon.
offences and to award the appropriate remedy. The
punishments are very severe. It is not distinctly indicated
whether the proceedings were at the instance of the state or
the person wronged, but compensation and penalty could be
awarded in the same proceeding, and the provisions as to the
lex talionis and scale of compensation for injuries tend to show
that the procedure was on private complaint and not on behalf
of the state (see further Babylonian Law).

Of the early criminal laws of Greece only fragments survive,
e.g. those of Solon and Draco. In Athens in early times crime
was dealt with in the Areopagus from the point of view areece.
of religion and by the archons from the point of view of
compensation: and it was only when the state interests were
directly affected that proceedings by way of ilo-ayyiKla or
impeachment were taken. In classical times crimes fell to be
tried by panels of jurors or judges drawn from the assembly and
described as Stxacrr^pia.

The earliest materials for ascertaining the criminal law of
Rome are to be found in the Twelve Tables, Table VIII. The
criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in books 47
and 48 of the Digest. The classification of crimes
therein is capricious and anomalous. " In the early Roman
law the idea of legislative power was so fully grasped and that
of judicial power so little understood that the criminal juris-
diction arose in the form of a legislative enactment applicable
to particular cases." Crimes were classified according to the
mode of prosecution into:

1. Publica judicia, dealing with crimes specifically forbidden
by definite laws, which took the place of the standing com-
missions (quaestiones perpetuae) of the time of the republic.
In the earlier stages of Roman law the state only interfered to
punish offences which gravely affected it, and did so by privilegia,
which correspond to impeachment or Bill of Pains and Penalties.

Rome.

CRIMINAL LAW

455

Celtic law.

2. Extraordinaria crimina, crimes for which no special pro-
cedure or punishment was provided: the punishment being,
within limits, left to the discretion of the judge and the
prosecution to the injured party.

3. Privata delicta, offences for which a special form of action
was open to the injured party, e.g. actio furti.

The multiplicity of tribunals under the republic was replaced
under the empire by a complete organization of the judiciary
throughout the districts (dioceses) under the supervision of the
emperor in his privy council (see Maine, Ancient Law, ed. 1906,
p. 393). Public prosecution under the empire began by arrest of
the accused, who was taken before an eirenarcha, who examined
him (by torture in the case of a slave or parricide) and sent him
on for trial before the praeses of the diocese (Siouojoxs). Private
prosecution followed, a procedure closely resembling that of
civil actions, beginning with citatio (summons), followed by
libellus or accusation, and appointment of a day for hearing.
The right of either party to call witnesses was very imperfectly
established.

The early laws of the Celtic races are preserved as to Wales
in the laws of Hywel Dda, and as to Ireland in the Book of
Aicill and other Brehon law tracts, which are pro-
fessional collections of precedents and formulae made
by the hereditary law caste (Brehons), whose business it was
" to pass sentence from precedents and commentaries." (See
Brehon Laws.) The development of Celtic law was arrested
by the Saxon and Anglo-Norman conquest: but the materials
preserved indicate an origin common with that of Germanic law.

The special characteristics of Irish criminal law, if it can be
so called, were: —

1. The law was customary and theoretically unchangeable,
and no legislative or judicial authority existed to alter or
enforce it.

2. All crimes were treated as wrongs, for which compensation
was made by assessment of damages by a consensual tribunal
whose power to make awards depended on submission of the
parties and the ultimate sanction of public opinion or custom.
A customary tariff for compensation existed for all offences
from wilful murder downwards. No crime was unamendable.
The Irish law recognized a body price or compensation (S. bot)
and an honour price or eric (S. wer), for which the family or tribe
of the offender was collectively liable; but there is no clearly
ascertained equivalent to the Saxon wite, or fine to the chief.

The laws of the Germanic tribes, so far as preserved in the
Germania of Tacitus, and in the compilations of customs known
as the Salic and Ripuarian laws, the Leges Barbarorum,
the Dooms of ^Ethelberht and the collections of

Germanic
law.

Anglo-Saxon law and custom (to be found in Thorpe's
Ancient Laws and Institutes of England), do not indicate any
adequate or definite division between crimes and causes of civil
action, but, like the laws of Babylon, recognize the system and
contain the tariffs of compensation for wrongs. The idea of
the compensation was originally to put an end (finis) to blood
feuds and private war or vengeance.

These laws formed the foundation of the criminal law of
Germany, including the Netherlands, of England and of Scandi-
navia. But in each country the development of criminal law
has been affected by influences other than Germanic, mainly
consisting in an infusion more or less great of ideas derived from
Roman law. In England under Alfred some part of the Levitical
law (Exod. xxi. 12-15) was incorporated, just as in 1567 the
criminal law as to incest in Scotland was taken bodily from
Leviticus xviii.

The stage which the development of criminal law had reached

in England by the reign of Edward the Confessor is thus described

by Pollock and Maitland (Hist. Eng. Law, ii. 447):

Anglo- 11 Q n j-jjg eve f tne N orman Conquest what we may call

law. the criminal law of England (but it was also the law

of torts or civil wrongs) contained four elements which
deserve attention: Its past history had in the main consisted
of the varying relations between them. We have to speak of
outlawry, of the blood feud (faidus), of the tariffs of wer and wite

(fredus or friede), and bot, of punishment in life and limb. As
regards the malefactor the community may assume one of four
attitudes: it may make war on him; it may have him exposed
to the vengeance of those whom he has wronged; it may suffer
him to make atonement; it may inflict on him a determinate
punishment, death, mutilation or the like." The wite or sum
paid to the king or lord is now thought to have been originally
not a penalty but a fee for time and trouble taken in hearing and
determining a controversy. But at an early stage fines for
breach of peace were imposed. An evil result from the public
point of view followed from the system of atoning for crime by
pecuniary mulct. " Criminal jurisdiction became a source of
revenue." So early as Canute's time certain crimes were pleas of
the crown; but grants of criminal jurisdiction, with the attendant
forfeitures, were freely made to prelates, towns and lords of
manors, and some traces of this jurisdiction still survive (e.g.
the criminal jurisdiction of the justices of the soke (soc) of
Peterborough, and the rights of some boroughs, e.g. Nottingham,
to forfeitures). Outlawry soon ceased to be a mode of punish-
ment, and became, as it still is, a process to compel submission to
justice (Crown Office Rules, 1906, rules 88-110). Certain crimes,
such as murder, rape, arson and burglary, became unamendable
or bootless, i.e. placed the offender's life, limb, lands and goods
at the king's mercy. These crimes came to be generally described
by the name felony (q.v.). Other crimes became punishable by
fines which took the place of wites. These were styled trespasses
and correspond to what is now called misdemeanour (q.v.).

Minor acts of violence, dishonesty or nuisance, were dealt with
in seigniorial and borough courts by presentment of the jurors
of courts baron and courts, leet, and punished by fine
or in some cases by pillory, tumbril or stocks. Grave f f g °~
acts were dealt with by the sheriff as breaches of the period.
peace. He sat with the freeholders in the county
court, wjiich sat twice a year, or in the hundred court, which sat
every four weeks. So far as this involved dealing with pleas
of the crown the sheriff's jurisdiction was abolished and was
ultimately replaced by that of the justices or conservators of
the peace. The sheriff then ceased to be a judge in criminal cases,
but remained and still is in law responsible for the peace of his
county, and is the officer for the execution of the law. The royal
control over crime was effectually established by the itinerant
justices sent regularly throughout the realm, who not only dealt
with the ordinary proprietary and fiscal rights of the crown
but also with the graver crimes (treason and felony), and ulti-
mately were commissioned to deal with the less grave offences
now classed as indictable misdemeanours. The change resulted
from the strengthening of royal authority throughout England,
which enabled the crown gradually to enlarge the pleas of the
crown and to weaken and finally to supersede the criminal
jurisdiction, notably of the sheriff, but also of prelates and lords
in ecclesiastical and other manors and franchises. " In the early
English laws and constitution there existed a national sovereignty
and original criminal jurisdiction, but the ideas of legislative
power and crime were very slowly developed." During the 12th
century the criminal law was affected by the influence of the
church, which introduced into it elements from the Canon and
Mosaic laws, and also by the memory of the Roman empire and
the renewed study of the Roman law, which enabled lawyers
to draw a clearer distinction than had before been recognized
between the criminal (dolus) and civil (culpa) aspect of wrongful
acts. The Statute of Treasons (1351) is to a large extent an
admixture of Roman with feudal law; and to the same source
is probably due the more careful analysis of the mental elements
necessary to create criminal responsibility, summed up in
the somewhat misleading expression nemo reus est nisi mens
sit rea.

In the 14th century justices of the peace and quarter sessions
were established to deal with offences not sufficiently important
for the king's judges, and from that time the course of criminal
justice in England has run substantially on the same lines, with
the single and temporary interruption caused by the court of
star chamber.

45&

CRIMINAL LAW

Classifica-
tion of
crimes.

The penal laws of modern states classify crimes somewhat
differently, but in the main on the same general principles,
dividing them into: —

i. Offences against the external and internal
order and security of the state.

2. Offences against the administration of police and
against public authority.

3. Acts injurious to the public in general.

4. Offences against the person (life, health, liberty and
reputation), and conjugal and parental rights and duties.

5. Offences relating to property and contracts (including
theft, fraud, forgery and malicious damage).

The terminology by which crimes are described by reference
to their comparative gravity varies considerably. In many
continental codes distinctions are drawn between crimes (Ger.
Verbrechen; Norse vorbrydelser; Span. crimenes; Ital.
reato), delicts (Ger. Vergehen; Ital. delilti; Span, delitos), and
contraventions (Ital. contravenzioni; Span, faltas).

The classification adopted by English law is peculiar to itself,
" treason," " felony " and " misdemeanour," with a tentative
fourth class described as " summary offences." The particular
distinctions between these three classes are dealt with under the
titles Treason; Felony; Misdemeanour, &c. Here it is
enough to say that the distinction is a result of history and is
marked for abolition and reclassification. Treason and most
felonies and some misdemeanours would under foreign codes
fall under the head of crime. Misdemeanour, roughly but not
exactly, corresponds to the French dtiit, and summary offence
to contravention.

Elements I n au systems of criminal law it is found necessary
ol criminal to determine the criterion of criminal responsibility,
responsi- the mental elements of crime, the degrees of crimin-
bility. a lity and the point at which the line is to be drawn

between intention and commission.

The full definition of every crime contains expressly or by
implication a proposition as to a state of mind, and in all systems
of criminal law, competent age, sanity and some degree of
freedom from coercion, are assumed to be essential to criminality;
and it is also generally recognized that an act does not fall within
the sanction of the criminal law if done by pure accident or in an
honest and reasonable belief in circumstances which if true
would make it innocent; e.g. when a married person marries
again in the honest and reasonable but mistaken belief that the
former spouse is dead. Honest and reasonable mistake of fact
stands on the same footing as absence of the reasoning faculty,
as in infants, or perversion of that faculty, as in lunatics.

Besides the elements essential to constitute crime generally,
particular mental elements, which may differ widely, are involved
in the definition of particular crimes; and in the case of statutory
offences adequately and carefully defined, the mental elements
necessary to constitute the crime may be limited by the definition
so as to make the prohibition of the law against a particular act
absolute for all persons who are not infants or lunatics. As a
general rule of English law, it is enough to prove that the acts
alleged to constitute a crime were done by the accused, and to
leave him to rebut the presumption that he intended the natural
consequences of the acts by showing facts justifying or excusing
him or otherwise making him not liable. Children are con-
clusively presumed to be incapable of crime up to seven years of
age; and from seven to fourteen the presumption is against the
capacity, but is not absolute.

Under the common law, insanity was an absolute answer to
an accusation of crime. Since 1883, where insanity is proved
to have existed at the date of the commission of the incriminated
acts, the accused is found guilty of the acts but insane when he
did them, and is relegated to a criminal lunatic asylum. There
was also at common law a presumption that a married woman
committing certain crimes in the presence of her husband did
so under his coercion. But under modern decisions and practice
the presumption has become feeble almost to inanition (R. v.
Mary Baines, 1900, 69 L.J. Q.B. 681). Distinctions are also
drawn between degrees of guilt or complicity.

English criminal law punishes attempts to commit crime if
the attempt passes from the stage of resolution or intention
to the stage of action, when the completion of the full offence
is frustrated by something other than the will of the accused.
Except in the case of attempt to commit murder, which is
a felony, attempts to commit a crime are punished as mis-
demeanours. It also punishes the solicitation or incitement of
others to commit crime, as a separate offence if the incitement
fails, as the offence of being accessory before the fact or abettor
if the offence is committed as a result of the incitement; and
it punishes persons who, after a more serious crime — felony —
has been committed, do any act to shield the offender from
justice. In the case of the crimes described as felonies the law
distinguishes between principals in the first or second degree
and accessories before or after the fact. In the case of mis-
demeanours the same punishment is incurred by the principal
offenders, and by persons who are present aiding and abetting the
commission of the offence, or who, though not present, counselled
or procured the commission of the offence (see Accessory). Be-
sides these degrees of crime there is one almost peculiar to English
law known as conspiracy, i.e. an agreement to commit crime or to
do illegal acts (including interference with the due course of
justice), which is punishable even if the conspiracy does not get
beyond the stage of agreement. The exact nature of this form
of crime and the propriety of abolishing it or limiting its scope
have been the subject of much controversy, especially with
reference to combinations by trade unions.

The English law does not, but most European laws do, allow
the jury to reduce the penalty of an offence by finding in their
verdict that the commission of the offence was attended by
extenuating circumstances; but when the jury recommend
to mercy a person whom they find guilty the judge may give
effect to the recommendation or report it to the Home Office.

In systems of criminal law derived from England the forms of
crime or degrees of complicity above stated reappear with or
without modification, but as to conspiracy with a good deal of
alteration. In the Indian penal code, for instance, conspiracy
is limited to cases of treason (§ 121 A), and when it goes beyond
agreement in the case of other offences it is merely a form of
abetment or participation (§ 107).

The criminal law of England ' is not codified, but is composed
of a large number of enactments resting on a basis of common
law. A very large part is reduced to writing in Deflnl-
statutes. The unwritten portion of the law includes tioasof
(1) principles relating to the excuse or justification of partlculat
acts or omissions which are prima facie criminal, (2) crimes.
the definitions of many offences, e.g. murder, assault, theft,
forgery, perjury, libel, riot, (3) parts of the law relating to
procedure. The law is very rich in principles and rules embodied
in judicial decisions and is extremely detailed and explicit,
leaving to the judges very little latitude of interpretation or
expression. So far as the legislature is concerned there is an
absence of systematic arrangement. The definitions of particular
crimes are still to be sought in the common law and the decisions
of the judges. The Consolidation Acts of 1861 for the most part
leave definitions as they stood, e.g. the Larceny Act 1861 does
not define the crime of 'larceny. The consequence is that exact
definitions are very difficult to frame, and the technical view of
a crime sometimes includes more, sometimes less, than it ought.
Thus the crime of murder, as settled by the existing law, would
include offences of such very different moral gravity as killing

1 " It is founded," said Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, writing in 1863,
" on a set of loose definitions and descriptions of crimes, the most
important of which are as old as Bracton. Upon this foundation
there was built, principally in the course of the 18th century, an
entire and irregular superstructure of acts of parliament, the enact-
ments of which were for the most part intended to supply the
deficiencies of the original system. These acts have been re-enacted
twice over in the present generation — once between 1826 and 1832
and once in 1861; besides which they were all amended in 1837.
Finally, every part of the whole system has been made the subject
of judicial comments and constructions occasioned by particular
cases, the great mass of which have arisen within the last fifty years."
(View of the Criminal Law of England, by J. Fitzjames Stephen.)

CRIMINAL LAW

457

a man deliberately for the sake of robbing him, and killing a man
accidentally in an attempt to rob him. On the other hand,
offences which ought to have been criminal were constantly
declared by the judges not to fall within the definition of the
particular crimes alleged, and the legislature has constantly
had to fill up the lacunae in the law as interpreted by the judges.

The jurisdiction to deal with crime is primarily territorial,
and can be exercised only as to acts done within the territory
or territorial waters, or on the ships of the law-giver.
diction. Extra territorium jus dicenti impune non paretur. No
state will enforce the penal laws of another nor permit
the officer of another state to execute its laws outside its own
territory. But international law recognizes the competence of
a state to make its criminal law binding on its own subjects
wherever they are, and perhaps even to punish foreigners who
outside its territory do acts which menace its internal or external
security, e.g. by dynamite plots or falsification of coin. Apart
from extradition arrangements the national law cannot reach
such persons, be they citizens or aliens, until they come within
the territory of the state whose law has been broken.

The codes of France, Germany and Italy make the penal law
national or personal and not territorial. In some British colonies
whose legislatures have a derived and limited legislative
authority, indirect methods have been taken to deal within
the colony with persons who commit offences outside its
territory.

Throughout the development of the English criminal law it
showed and retains one particular characteristic that crime
was treated as local, which means not merely that the common
law of England was limited to English soil, but that an offence
on English soil could be " inquired of, dealt with, tried, deter-
mined and punished " only in the particular territorial division
of England in which it was committed, which was and is known
as the venue (q.v.). Each township was responsible for crimes
within its boundaries, a responsibility made effective by the
" view of frankpledge," now obsolete, and the guilt or innocence
of every man had to be determined by his neighbours. This
rule excluded from trial by the courts of common law, treasons,
&c. committed by Englishmen abroad and piracy; and it was
not till Henry VIII. 's reign (1536, 1544) that the common-law
mode of trial was extended to these offences. The legislature
has altered the common law as to numerous offences, but on no
settled plan, and except for a bill introduced about 1888, at the
instance of the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, no attempt has been
made to make the English criminal law apply generally to
subjects when outside the realm; and in view of the complicated
nature of the British empire and the absence of a common
criminal code it has been found desirable to remain content
with extradition in the case of crimes abroad, and with the
provisions of the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 in the case of
criminals who flee from one part to another of the empire.

The localization in England of crime, and the procedure for
punishing it, differ largely from the view taken in France and
most European countries. The French theory is that a French-
man owes allegiance to the French state, and commits a breach
of that allegiance whenever he commits a crime against French
law, even although he is not at the time within French territory.
In modern days this theory has been extended so as to allow
French and German courts to punish their subjects for crimes
committed in foreign countries, and by reason of this power
certain countries refuse to extradite their subjects who have
committed crimes in other states.

The principle of the French law, though not expressly re-
cognized in England, must be invoked to justify two departures
from the English principle — (1) as regards offences
on the on tne m S n seas, and (2) as regards certain offences
high seas, committed outside the United Kingdom. In early
days offences committed by Englishmen on the high
seas were punished by the lord high admiral, and he encroached
so much on the ordinary courts as to render it necessary to pass
an act in Richard II. 's reign (15 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 3) to restrain
him.

In the time of Henry VIII. (1536, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15) an act
was passed stating that, as the admiral tried persons according
to the course of civil law, they could not be convicted unless
either they confessed or they or the witnesses were submitted
to torture, and that therefore it was expedient to try the offences
according to the course of the common law. Under that act
a special commission of oyer and terminer was issued to try these
offences at the Old Bailey, and English law was satisfied by per-
mitting the indictment to state that the offence was committed
on board a ship on the high seas, to wit in the county of Middlesex.
Since 1861 these special commissions have been rendered un-
necessary by the provision (contained in each of the Criminal Law
Consolidation Acts of that year) that all offences committed on
the high seas may be tried as if they had been committed in
England. As regards offences on land, it was found necessary
as early as the reign of Henry VIII. (1 544) to provide for the trial
in England of treasons and murders committed on land outside
England. This was largely due to the constant presence in
France of the king and many of his nobles and knights, f fences
but the aid of this statute had to be invoked in 1903 commuted*
in the case of Lynch, tried for treason in South Africa, on land
Tlje latest legislation on the subject was in 1861 outsUe
(Offences against the Person Act, § 9), and any murder ng,an
or manslaughter committed on land out of the United Kingdom,
whether within the king's dominions or without, and whether
the person killed were a subject of His Majesty or>not, may be
dealt with in all respects as if it were committed in England.
The jurisdiction has been extended to a few other cases such as
slave trade, bigamy, perjury, committed with reference to
proceedings in an English court, and offences connected with
explosives. But these offences must be committed on land and
not on board a foreign ship, because if a man takes service on
board a foreign ship he is treated for the time as being a member
of the foreign state to which that ship belongs. The principle
has been also extended to misdemeanours (but not to
felonies) committed by public officers out of Great meanours
Britain, whether within or without the British commuted
dominions. Thus a governor or an inferior officer of a °y P" bllc
colony, if appointed by the British government, may be colonies 1 ''
prosecutedforanymisdemeanourcommitted by him by
virtue of his office in the colony; and cases have occurred where
governors have been so prosecuted, such as that of General
Picton at the beginning of the 19th century, and of Governor
Eyre of Jamaica in 1865, and the attempt to prosecute Governor
MacCallum of Natal in 1906. As a corollary to the system of
" capitulations " applied to certain non-Christian states in Asia
and Africa, it has been necessary to take powers for punishing
under English law offences by British subjects in those states,
which would otherwise go unpunished either by the law of the
land where the offence was committed or by the law of the state
to which the offender belonged (Jenkyns, Foreign Jurisdiction
of the Crown) .

An essential part of the criminal law is the punishment or
sanction by which the state seeks to prevent or avenge offences.
See also under Criminology. Here it is enough
to say that during the 19th century great changes Punish-
have been made throughout the world in the modes ment.
of punishing crime.

In England until early in the 19th century, punishments for
crime were ferocious. The severity of the law was tempered
by the rule as to benefit of clergy and by the rigid adherence of
the judges {in favorem vitae) to the rules of correct pleading and
proof, whereby the slightest error on the part of the prosecution
led to an acquittal. Bentham pointed out that certainty of
punishment was more effective than severity, that severe
punishments induced juries to acquit criminals, and that thus
the certainty of punishment was diminished. But his arguments
and the eloquence of Sir Samuel Romilly produced no effect
until after the reform of parliament in 1832, shortly after which
statutes were passed abolishing the death sentence for all felonies
where benefit of clergy existed. The severity of capital sentences
had already been modified by the pardoning power of the crown,

45 8

CRIMINAL LAW

which pardoned convicts under sentence of death on their
consenting to be transported to convict settlements in the colonies.
(See Deportation.) For some years this was only done by the
consent of the convict, who agreed to be transported if his death
sentence was remitted, but in 1824, when a convict refused to
give this consent, parliament authorized the crown to substitute
transportation for a death sentence, and the same course was
adopted in Ireland in 1851 when some treason-felony prisoners
refused commutation of their sentence to transportation.

The punishments now in use under the English law for indict-
able offences are: —

1. Death, inflicted by hanging, with a provision that other
modes of execution may be authorized by royal warrant in cases
of high treason.

2. Penal servitude, which in 1853 was substituted for trans-
portation to penal settlements outside the United Kingdom.
The minimum term of penal servitude is three years (Penal
Servitude Act 1891), and the sentence is carried out in a convict
prison, in the United Kingdom, but there is still power to send
the convicts out of the United Kingdom.

3. Imprisonment in a local prison, which must be without hard
labour unless a statute specially authorizes a sentence of hard
labour. At common law there is no limit to a term of imprison-
ment for misdemeanour; but for many offences (both felonies
and misdemeanours) the term is limited by statute to two years,
and in practice this limit is not exceeded for any offence. The
treatment of prisoners is regulated by the prison acts and rules.

4. Police supervision, on conviction or indictment of felony
and certain misdemeanours after a previous conviction of such
offences. Prevention of Crimes Act, c. 112, §§ 8, 20.

5. Pecuniary fine, a punishment appropriate only to mis-
demeanours and never imposed for a felony except under
statutory authority, e.g. manslaughter (Offences against the
Person Act, § 5). The amount of the fine is in the discretion of
the judge, subject to the directions of Magna Carta and the
Bill of Rights and of any statute limiting the maximum for a
particular offence.

6. Whipping was a common law punishment for misdemean-
ants of either sex. Under the present law the whipping of females
is prohibited, and the punishment is not inflicted on males except
under statutory authority, which is given in the case of certain
assaults on the sovereign, of certain forms of robbery with
violence or assaults with intent to commit felony (Garrotters
Act 1863), of incorrigible rogues, larceny and malicious damage,
and certain other offences by youthful offenders.

7. Recognizances (caution) to keep peace and be of good
behaviour, i.e. a bond with or without sureties creating a debt
to the crown not enforceable unless the conditions as to conduct
therein made are broken. This bond may be taken from any
misdemeanant, and, under statutory authority, from persons
convicted of any felony (except murder) falling within the
Criminal Law Consolidation Acts of 186 1.

8. In the case of any offence which is not capital the court,
if it is a first offence or if any other grounds for mercy appear,
may simply bind the offender over to come up for judgment
when required, intimating to him that if his conduct is good no
further steps will be taken to punish him.

Except in the case of the death penalty, the court of trial
has a discretion as to the quantum of a particular punishment,
no minimum being fixed. In the case of offences punishable
on summary conviction the maximum punishment is always
fixed by statute. It consists of imprisonment with or without
hard labour, or a fine of a limited amount, or both. The imprison-
ment in very few cases may exceed six months. If the maximum
exceeds three months the accused must be informed that he has a
right, if he so elects, to be tried by a jury.

Where power is given to deal summarily with offences which
under ordinary circumstances would be tried on indictment,
the punishments are as follows (Summary Jurisdiction Act

1870):—

(a) In the case of adults pleading guilty, imprisonment not
exceeding six months without the option of a fine.

(b) In the case of adults (consenting to be summarily tried),
where the offence affects property not worth over forty shillings,
imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding £20.

(c) In the case of young persons, between twelve and sixteen
years, imprisonment not over three months, or fine not exceeding
£10.

(d) In the case of children under twelve, imprisonment not
over one month, or fine not exceeding forty shillings.

If the offence is trifling, the accused may be discharged
without punishment, and under the First Offenders Act (1887)
the justices have a discretionary power to forgo punishment.
The justices have also the power, under the Prevention of Crime
Act 1908, in lieu of passing a sentence of penal servitude or
imprisonment, to commit persons between the ages of sixteen and
twenty-one to a Borstal institution, for a period of detention
ranging from one to three years (see Juvenile Offenders)!

In the criminal law of Europe the scale of punishments is
on similar lines in most states, and is more elaborate than that
of England, and less is left to the discretion of the court of trial.
The following examples will indicate the kind of punishments
awarded under the French penal code. Punishments are
classified as (1) ajflictives et infamantes, including death, travaux
forces a perpetuite ou a temps, deportation, detention, reclusion;
(2) infamantes, viz. banishment and civil degradation; (3)
peines en matiere correctionnelle, viz. imprisonment in a house
of correction (six days to five years), interdiction from certain
civic rights, and fine. The punishments in no case have any
effect to extinguish the civil claims of individuals who have
suffered by the offence (arts. 6 and 55). Special provisions are
made for rScidivistes, police supervision and first offenders (Lot
Birenger).

In the German code of 1872 the legal punishments are: (1)
death; (2) penal servitude for life or for a term not exceeding
fifteen years nor less than one year; (3) imprisonment with
labour for a term not exceeding five years nor less than one day;
(4) confinement in a fortress (terms same as for penal servitude
but involving only withdrawal of freedom and supervision) ; (5)
arrest for not more than six weeks nor less than one day; (6)
fine (not less than three marks in the case of crimes or delicts
nor one mark in case of petty offences). Sentence of imprison-
ment is in certain cases followed by liability to be placed under
police supervision for a term after release. In the case of a
sentence of death or of penal servitude, the court may order
forfeiture of civil privileges, and a condemnation to penal
servitude permanently disqualifies for service in the army and
public office (Code pt. 1, chap. 1, arts. 13-40).

Under the Italian code of 1889 (arts. 11-30) the punishments
are (1) ergastolo (for life); (2) reclusione (from three days to
twenty-four years), which involves hard labour and cellular
confinement; (3) detenzione (like term), which involves labour
and at night separate confinement; (4) confino (one month to
three years), a form of banishment from the commune of origin
or residence of the offender; (5a) fine (multa), from ten to ten
thousand lire; (56) amende, from one to two thousand lire; (6)
arrest (one day to two years) ; (7) interdiction from public
office; (8) suspension from professional calling. Punishments
(S*)i (6) and (8) are applied only to contraventions, the others
to crimes (delitti).

The Spanish law (Codigo Penal, title 3, chaps. 2 and 3) contains
a general scale of punishments classified as afflictive, correctional,
light and accessory. The first class begins with death and runs
down through many forms of imprisonment to disqualification
(inhabilitacion) . The second includes forms of imprisonment,
(presidio and prision), and arrest, public censure and suspension
from the exercise of certain offices or callings. The slight
punishments are minor arrest and private censure. Offenders
in any of the three classes may also be fined or put under recog-
nizance (caucidn). The accessory punishments include payment
of costs, degradation, civil interdiction.

In England indictable offences (i.e. offences which must be
tried by a judge and jury) are thus dealt with: —

1. Courts of assize (sitting under old commissions known as

CRIMINAL LAW

459

commissions of assize, oyer and terminer, and general gaol
delivery) are held twice or oftener in every year in each county
Tribunals an( ^ a ^ s0 * n some large cities and boroughs. They are
the lineal successors of the justices in eyre 1 of the
middle ages; but they are now integral parts of the High Court
of Justice. These courts can try any indictable offence presented
by a grand jury for the district in which they sit.

2. For the counties of London and Middlesex and certain
adjoining districts, a special court of assize known as the central
criminal court sits monthly.

3. In all counties and many boroughs the justices of the
peace sit quarterly or oftener under the commission of the peace
to try the minor indictable offences. (See Quarter Sessions,
Court of.)

4. The High Court of Justice in the king's bench division
tries a few special offences in its original jurisdiction, and where
justice requires may transfer indictments from other courts
for trial before itself.

5. The court of criminal appeal has been instituted by the
Criminal Appeal Act 1907; to it all persons convicted on
indictment have a right of appeal. (See Appeal.)

The substantive law as to crime applies in England to all
persons except the reigning sovereign, and criminal procedure
is the same for all subjects alike, except in the case of peers or
peeresses charged with felony, who have the right of trial by
their peers in the House of Lords if it be sitting, or in the court
of the lord high steward.

There are in England no courts of a special character, such
as exist in some foreign countries, for the determination of
disputes between the governing classes themselves
tribunals. or w * tn tne governed classes, whether of a civil or
criminal character. There are a few exceptional
courts with criminal jurisdiction. The court of chivalry, which
used to punish offences committed within military lines outside
the kingdom, is obsolete. Special tribunals exist for trying
naval or military offences committed by members of the navy
and army, but those members are not exempt from being tried
by the ordinary tribunals for offences against the ordinary law,
as though they were civilians. The naval courts can be held
only on board a ship, and can as a general rule try only persons
entered on the books of a king's ship. The military courts can
only try persons who are actually members of the army at the
time, and their authority is annually renewed by parliament,
in consequence of the jealousy still felt against the trial of any
man except by the ordinary courts of law. Military and naval
courts can try in any part of the world, and whenever the forces are
in active service can try followers of the camp as if they were
actual members of the forces. (See Military Law; Martial
Law.)

The ecclesiastical courts, which were formerly very powerful
in England, and punished persons for various offences, such as
perjury, swearing, and sexual offences, have now
almost fallen into disuse. Their authority over
Protestant dissenters from the established church
was taken away by statute; their authority over lay
members of the Church of England has disappeared by disuse.
Occasionally suits are instituted in them against the clergy for
offences either against morality or against doctrine or ritual.
In these cases their sentences are enforced by penalties, such as
suspension, or deprivation of benefice, or by imprisonment;
which has replaced the old punishment of excommunication.

A system of procedure, with the judicial machinery required
to work it, may be created either by the direct legislative action
of the supreme power or by custom and the action
of the courts. Both at Rome and in England it was
through usage and by the courts themselves that
the earlier system was slowly moulded: both at Rome and in
England it was direct legislation that established the later
system. (See Bryce, Studies in History and Jurisprudence, 1901 ,

ii. 334-)
The characteristics of English criminal procedure which most
1 i.e. Itinerant justices. From the Latin in itinere, on a journey.

Ecclesi-
astical
courts.

Pro-
cedure.

distinguish it from the procedure of other countries are as
follows: —

1. It is litigious or accusatory and not inquisitorial (Stephen,
Prel. View Cr. Law) . It is for the prosecutor to prove by evidence
the commission of the alleged offence. No power exists to
interrogate the accused unless he consents to be sworn as a
witness in his own defence, which since 1898 he may do. The
right to cross-examine him even when he is so sworn is limited
by law, with the object of excluding inquiry into his past
character or into past offences not relevant to the particular
charge on which he is being tried.

2. The forms of criminal pleading still in use are in substance
framed on the lines of the old system of pleading at common
law in civil cases, which was swept away by the judicature acts.
Criminal pleadings have, however, one peculiarity. Indictments,
being in form the presentment of a grand jury, could not be
amended until provision for that purpose was made in 1851.
(See Indictment.)

3. Criminal prosecutions are ordinarily undertaken by the
individuals who have suffered by a crime. There is not in
England, as in Scotland and all European countries, a public
department concerned to deal with all prosecutions for crime.
The result is that the prosecution of most ordinary crime is left
to individual enterprise or the action of the local police force or
the justices' clerk.

The attorney-general has always represented the crown in
criminal matters, and in state prosecutions appears in person
on behalf of the crown, and when he so appears has certain
privileges as respects the reply to the prisoner's defence and
the mode of trial. In the Prosecution of Offences Acts of 1879,
1884 and 1908 there is to be found the nucleus of a system of
public prosecution such as obtains in other countries in case of
crime. Under these acts the director of public prosecutions (up
to 1908 an office conjoint with that of solicitor to the Treasury)
acts under the attorney-general, but unless specially directed he
only undertakes a limited number of prosecutions, e.g. for murder,
coining and serious crimes affecting the government.

4. Where an indictable offence is supposed to have been
committed the accused is arrested, with or without the warrant
of a justice, according to the nature of the offence, or is sum-
moned by a justice before him. On his appearance a preliminary
inquiry is held for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is
a prima facie case against him. The procedure is regulated by
the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and is entirely different from
the procedure for summary offences. It may be, though usually
it is not, held in private; it is an inquiry and not a trial; the
justices have to consider not whether the man is guilty, but
whether there is such a prima facie case against him that he
ought to be tried. If they think that there is, they commit him
to prison to wait his trial, or require him to give security, with
or without sureties, to the amount named by them, for appearing
to take his trial. If they think the charge unsubstantial they
discharge the accused at once. The prosecutor in cases of felony
may if he likes go before the grand jury whether the case has
or has not been the subject of a preliminary inquiry, but in the
case of many misdemeanours it is obligatory first to have a
preliminary inquiry, as a protection against vexatious indict-
ments.

Whether there has or has not been a preliminary inquiry
before a magistrate, no person can be tried for any of the graver
crimes, treason or felony, except upon indictment
found by a grand jury of the county or place where M^f™"
the offence is said to have been committed or is by
statute made cognizable. In olden days, and even now in theory,
the grand jury inquire of their own knowledge, by the oath of
good and lawful men of the neighbourhood, into the crime of
the county, but in practice the charges against the accused
persons are always first submitted to the proper officer of the
court. The grand jurors are instructed as to their inquisition
by a charge from the judge, as regards the indictments concern-
ing which they are called upon to enquire whether there is a
prima facie case to send them for trial to the petty jury. The

460

CRIMINAL LAW

grand jury must consist of not less than twelve, nor more than
twenty-three, good and lawful men of the county. But any
person who prefers an indictment is entitled to have it presented
to the grand jury. Officers of the court lay the indictments before
the grand jury. The charges are then called bills, and if the
grand jury considers that there is no prima facie case the foreman
endorses the bill with the words " no true bill," and it is then
presented to the judge. The jury are then said to have ignored
the bill, and if the person charged is in custody he is released,
but is liable to be indicted again on better evidence.

As a means of constitutional protection in times of monarchical
aggression this practice had no doubt a great value, but in the
present day, when few offenders are tried without a preliminary
inquiry by justices, the functions of a grand jury are of secondary
importance, and the jurors' time is perhaps needlessly occupied.
The institution of the grand jury prevented the crown in the
days of its great power from removing a person whom it wished
to get rid of from among his neighbours, and placing him on trial
in a strange place where the influence of the crown was greater.
This is still true to a certain extent, as great injustice may be
caused to a man by removing him from his neighbours and
trying him at a distance from his friends, and from the witnesses
whom he might call for his defence. In Ireland, for instance,
the greatest injustice might be done by removing an Orangeman
from Belfast and trying him in a Roman Catholic county or
vice versa. But it has its evils where the area from which the
jurors are drawn is small, such as a town of a few thousand
inhabitants. In that case a man charged, say, with fraud, may
be protected by his friends from being properly punished for
that fratid. But where justice requires, an order may be made
for the trial of the offence in another county or at the central
criminal court.

In many colonies the Scottish system has been adopted,
by which the ordinary form of accusation is by indictment
framed by the public prosecutor, and a grand jury is only im-
pannelled in cases where an individual claims to prosecute an
offence as to which the public officials decline to proceed. In
England criminal informations by the attorney-general, or by
leave of the court without the intervention of a grand jury, are
permitted in cases of misdemeanour, but are now rarely pre-
ferred.

If a coroner's jury, on inquiring into any sudden death, finds
that murder or manslaughter has been committed, that finding
has the same effect as an indictment by a grand jury,
courts" S an d *-^ e man cnar g e d ma y be tried by the petty jury
accordingly. The law and procedure of the coroner's
courts are now regulated by the Coroners Act 1887. When
there is a dead body of a person lying within the area of his
jurisdiction, and there is reasonable cause to suspect that such
person died a violent or unnatural death, or a sudden death of
which the cause is unknown, or has died in prison, the coroner
is entitled to hold an inquest, and if the verdict or inquisition
finds murder or manslaughter, it is followed by trial in the same
way as if the person accused had been indicted.

When an indictment is found by the grand jury (twelve at
least must concur) the person charged is brought before the
court, the indictment is read to him, he is asked
lurr. Y whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he pleads guilty
he is then sentenced by the court; if he pleads not
guilty, a petty jury of twelve is formed from the panel or list of
jurors who have been summoned by the sheriff to attend the
court. He is tried by these jurors in open court. The common
law method of trial of crimes by a jury of twelve, native to
English law, has been in modern times transplanted to European
countries. It was not the original form of trial, for it was pre-
ceded by wager of battle (which was not finally abolished
till 1819); and by ordeal, which was suppressed as to criminal
trials in 12 19 in consequence of the decree of the Lateran Council
(1216). The first was alio wed only on an appeal by an individual
accuser; the second was resorted to on an accusation by public
fame, which the accused was allowed to meet by submitting to the
ordeal. It was after 1210 that trial by the jury of twelve (known

as trial in pais) began to develop. At the outset the accused
used to be asked how he would be tried, and could not be directly
compelled to plead to the charge or to accept trial by a jury;
which led to the indirect pressure known as the peine forte et dure,
which fell into disuse after the Revolution and was formally
abolished in 1772. But it was not until 1827 that refusal to
plead was treated as a plea of not guilty, entailing a trial by a
jury, and some old-fashioned officials still ask the old question
"How will you be tried?" to which the old answer was "By
God and my country."

The original trial jury or inquest certainly acted on its own
knowledge or inquiries without necessarily having evidence laid
before it in court. The impartiality of the jurors was to some
extent secured by the power of challenge. The exact time when
the jury came into its present position is difficult accurately to
define. On the trial before the petty jury the procedure and the
rules of evidence differ in very few points from an ordinary civil
case. The proceedings as already stated are accusatory. The
prosecutor must begin to prove his case. Confessions (which are
the object sought by French procedure) are regarded with some
suspicion, and admissions alleged to have been made by the
accused are not admitted unless it is clear that they were not
extracted by inducements of a temporal nature held out by persons
in authority over him. During the spring assizes of 1877 a
prisoner was charged with having committed a murder twenty
years before, and the counsel for the prosecution, with the consent
of the judge, withdrew from the case because the only evidence,
besides the prisoner's own confession, was that of persons who
either had never known him personally or could not identify
him. The accused may not be interrogated by the judge or the
prosecuting counsel unless he consents to be sworn as a witness.
In this respect the contrast between a criminal trial in England
and a criminal trial in France is very striking. The interrogation
and browbeating of the prisoner by the judge, consistent as it
may be with the inquisitorial theory of their procedure, is strange
to English lawyers, accustomed to see in every criminal trial a
fair fight between the prisoner and the prosecution, and not a
contest between the judge and the prisoner. The accused may,
if he choose, be defended by counsel, and if poor may get legal
aid at the public expense if the co*urt certify for it. He is entitled
to cross-examine the witnesses for the prosecution and to call
witnesses in his defence. At the conclusion of the evidence
and speeches the judge sums up to the jury both as to the facts
and the law, and the jury by their verdict acquit or convict.
Immediate discharge follows on acquittal; sentence by the
judge on conviction.

Justices of the peace may under many statutes convict in
a summary manner (without the intervention of a jury) for
offences of minor importance. The procedure for
punishing summary offences is before two justices, tr-fals""*
or a stipendiary magistrate. This proceeding must not
be confused with the preliminary inquiry already mentioned
before justices for an indictable offence, nor with the procedure
before justices in relation to civil matters, such as the recovery
of small sums of money. The proceeding begins either by the
issue of a warrant for the arrest of the person charged, in which
case a sworn information must be filed, or by a summons directing
the person charged to appear on a certain day to answer the
complaint made by the prosecutor. The justices hear the case
in open court; the person charged can make his defence either in
person or by his solicitor or counsel, he can cross-examine
the witnesses for the prosecution, call his own wit- Procedure
nesses, and address the justices in his defence. The for
justices, after hearing the case, either acquit or convict s »'«' n ^ r y
him, and in case of conviction award the sentence.
If the sentence is a fine, and the fine is not paid, the person coh-
victed is liable to be imprisoned for the term fixed by the justices,
not exceeding a scale fixed by an act of 1879, the maximum of
which is one month. The imprisonment may be with or without
hard labour.

Of late years this summary jurisdiction of the justices has
received very large extensions, and many offences which were

CRIMINAL LAW

461

formerly prosecuted as serious offences by an indictment before
the court of assize or quarter sessions have, where the offence was
a trivial one, been made punishable, on summary proceedings
before justices, by a small fine or a short term of imprisonment.

The extension of the jurisdiction of the justices is open to the
observation that it deprives a person charged of the protection
of a jury, and also that it throws upon him, if convicted, and upon
the prosecution if there is no conviction, the cost of the proceed-
ings. The former objection is much mitigated by the enactment
made in 1879, that a person if liable on conviction to be sentenced
to imprisonment for more than three months, or to a fine exceed-
ing £100, can claim to be tried by a jury. But the objection as
to the costs remains, and the payment of costs is often a very
serious addition to the trivial fine; and it is anomalous that a
person convicted of a trifling offence should bear the cost of the
prosecution, while if he is convicted before a superior tribunal of
the most serious offence he does not pay the costs.

In English law until 1907, where a criminal case had been tried
by a jury the verdict of the jury of guilt or innocence was final
and there was no appeal on the facts. Any considerable
' defect or informality in the procedure might be the
subject of a writ of error. And if any question of law arose at
the trial, the judge might, if he chose, reserve it for the opinion
of the court for the consideration of crown cases reserved, by
whom the conviction might be either quashed or confirmed.

By the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, a new court was established,
to which any person convicted on indictment might appeal.
(See Appeal.)

The expenses of prosecution for crime in England are dealt
with in the following manner. Prosecutions for high treason
and the cognate offence known as treason-felony
os s ' are at the expense of the state, which alone undertakes
such prosecutions. In the case of all other felonies and of many
misdemeanours the expense of the prosecution falls on the local
rate. In the case of other misdemeanours the expense falls on
the prosecutor. Where an offence is summarily prosecuted the
costs are in the discretion of the court, which may order the
accused to pay them, if convicted, or the prosecutor to pay on
acquittal, or may leave the parties to pay their own expenses.
On charges of felony and a few misdemeanours the court may
order the accused person to pay the expenses of his prosecution
in relief of the local rate. In a few cases, chiefly where the
prosecution is vexatious, the court may order the prosecution
to pay the expenses of the defence. The expenses of witnesses
for the defence in any indictable offence may be paid out of the
local rate when they have been called at the preliminary inquiry;
and where the court in the case of a poor prisoner has certified
that he should have legal aid, the expenses of the defence may
be charged to the local rate. The local rate upon which the
expenses fall is usually that of the county or borough in which
the offence was committed; but sometimes is that of the place
where the offence is tried.

Between 1852 and 1888 parliament reimbursed to the local
authorities the expense imposed on the local rate. In 1888 the
proceeds of certain taxes were set aside and handed over to the
local authorities as a set-off to the expense incurred in prosecu-
tions. In one class of case, offences committed in the admiralty
jurisdiction, i.e. outside England, the treasury directly reimburses
to the local authorities the expense incurred.

Under most, if not all, European codes, the state pays for
the prosecution, subject to reimbursement by the accused, if
the court so orders.

The English system of criminal procedure is the basis of that
of most of the states which form the United States of America,
jv 01I . and, with few exceptions, of the procedure throughout

British the British empire.

criminal The French penal code and code of criminal

procedure. proce( j ure are substantially the model of all systems
of continental criminal law. They were promulgated in 18 11
by Napoleon I., and although he called in the aid of the greatest
French jurists, he guided, and occasionally even revised, their
labours. The French codes have been improved upon by later

European codes, and more especially by the Italian penal code.
All European codes have an opening chapter where the general
principles of criminal law in its practical application are enunci-
ated, such as, for instance, the rules that — (1) no person is liable
to punishment for any act not expressly declared to be an
offence; (2) no person can be punished for an act which by
virtue of a subsequent law is declared not to be an offence;
(3) whoever commits an offence within the kingdom is tried and
punished according to the criminal law of the kingdom, and by
the tribunals created' for the administration of justice, to the
exclusion of special tribunals created for temporary purposes.
This rule really lays down that no citizen can be deprived of
his own judges when he is accused of a criminal offence. (4)
A citizen, although he may have been tried in a foreign country
for an offence committed within the kingdom, can be retried
according to the law of the kingdom. (5) Extradition only
applies to foreigners, not to citizens. The preliminary chapter
is followed by the classification of offences according to the
importance of the punishments the law assigns to them. The
lowest degree of offence is denominated " contravention." It
applies mainly to the pettiest offences, or to infractions of police
regulations, and can be punished by fine or by imprisonment
under a week, or by both fine and imprisonment, limited to a
week. Next comes the " dSlit," which includes all offences
punished by imprisonment over a week and under five years.
Then, finally, we arrive at the " crime," the highest form of
offence in French criminal law. It includes all offences subject
to a more severe sentence than the punishment assigned to a
dilit. All cases are held to be crimes where death, life-imprison-
ment with or without hard labour, deportation out of the king-
dom, detention or seclusion in a fortress or other expressly
assigned place, are the punishments mentioned by the law. A
certain number of explanatory definitions follow, of which the
most important concern attempts to commit offences, and in
" crimes " they are punishable if the execution of the attempt
was only prevented by circumstances beyond the will of the
offender, whilst in " delits ." an attempt is not punishable as an
offence unless the law specially provides that it should be
punished. As regards " contraventions," attempts not carried
out are not held to be offences at all. Accomplices are generally
subject to the same punishment as the principal. Old offenders
(recidivistes) are subject to severer punishments. The usual
exceptions as regards responsibility for crime, such as madness
and extreme youth and force majeure, are to be found in all
codes. The excuse of youth extends to all offenders under the
age of sixteen, when the tribunal decides whether the offender
has acted without " discernment," and acquits where the discern-
ment, is not found, whilst one-half of the usual punishment
is inflicted where discernment is found. Foreign codes differ
from the English law in allowing the injured party to claim
damages in the criminal suit, appearing as partie civile. On
another question there is a wide divergence on the continent
of Europe from English law. According to the law of England
there is no prescription in criminal law (with a few exceptions
created by statute). An offender is always liable to punishment
whatever time may have elapsed since the committal of the
offence. On the continent of Europe the limitation of a judg-
ment and sentence for a crime is twenty years; five years for
a d&lit, and for a contravention two years. No proceedings can
be taken as regards a crime after a lapse of ten years, whilst as
regards a delit the limit is three years, and two years for a
contravention.

There are three main differences between English criminal
procedure and European criminal procedure.

1. A criminal prosecution directed on European criminal
procedure at once passes into the hands of the state as an infringe-
ment of law which must be repressed, on the ground that the
whole community bases its security on obedience to law. In
England the repression of all minor crime is left to the injured
party.

2. In England every criminal trial from beginning to end is,
and has always been, public. Preliminary inquiries into an

462

CRIMINAL LAW

indictable offence may be, but rarely if ever are, conducted
in private. On the continent of Europe, with rare exceptions,
all preliminary proceedings in a criminal charge are secret.
Outside English-speaking countries this secret investigation
continues more or less. But of the two systems, accusatory
or inquisitorial — the first meaning the right of the accused to
defend himself, the second meaning the right of the state to
examine any legal offence in private in order to ensure the safety
of society, — the accusatory is gaining ground in every country.
In English-speaking countries it is an established law that an
accused person should have the right of publicity of the pro-
ceedings and the right to defend himself by counsel and by
witnesses. In Europe the inquisitorial system is gradually being
abandoned. Perhaps the best code of criminal procedure in
Europe is that promulgated in Austria in 1873. It followed a
fundamental law of the Empire which laid down inter alia that
all legal proceedings, civil or criminal, should be oral and public,
and that the accusatory system in criminal cases should be
adopted. Germany followed this example. Italy, Holland,
Switzerland and Spain have followed Austria and Germany as
regards the preliminary investigation; Italy and Belgium have
surrounded the accused with guarantees against arbitrary
confinement before trial; Holland has conferred upon the accused
the right of seeing the adverse testimony and of being confronted
with the witnesses, and, further, has formally insisted that no
insidious questions, such as questions assuming a fact as true
which is not known to be true, should be allowed. Other
countries still remain on the old lines. But everywhere, whether
reform has actually been accomplished or not, there is a demand
for even-handed justice, and a growing conviction that the
accused should have all his rights, now that society is no longer
in danger from undiscovered criminals and unpunished crime.
Even in France, the champion of the inquisitorial system, a
change is being made. Up to 1897 secrecy was imposed invari-
ably in the preliminary investigation of crime, and was held
necessary for the discovery and punishment of the offender.
The Loi de I' instruction contradictoire, December 8, 1897,
however, was a long step towards complete justice in the treat-
ment of the accused in the preliminary inquiry. The main
reform is that the accused, after he has once appeared before
the judge and a formal charge has been made against him, is
entitled to the assistance of counsel, either chosen by himself or
assigned to him if he is poor. If he is in prison he is allowed
to communicate freely with his counsel, who is entitled to see all
the proceedings, and in every appearance before the judge his
counsel accompanies him. There are, however, certain limita-
tions. The counsel cannot address the judge without leave,
which may be refused, nor can he insist on any proceeding he
thinks necessary in his client's interest. He can only solicit.
He has no right to be present at the examination of witnesses,
who continue to be interrogated by the judge alone and not in
the presence of the accused; but he must receive twenty -four
hours' notice of every appearance of the accused, and he is
entitled to be present whenever his client, after the first formal
appearance, comes before the judge. In England, as already
pointed out, although the prosecution is in the name of the crown,
and although a public prosecutor has been appointed, still as
a rule it is conducted by the person injured as the person injured,
or by the police.

3. In England the single-judge system is universal, save in
appeal; on the continent of Europe plurality of judges is insisted
upon, save in the most trivial cases, where the punishment is
insignificant. In most countries of the continent of Europe
the whole machinery for the prevention, investigation and
punishment of crime, is conducted by what is called the parquet,
which represents society as a collective unit and not the individual
injured. The head of the whole parquet in France is the procureur-
gtn&ral, who holds equal rank with the members of the supreme
court. Under him there are procureurs-generaux attached to
each of the courts of appeal, of which in France there are twenty-
six, and under each of these subordinate procureurs there are
procureurs (prosecutors) of a lesser degree. The next stage

Ireland.

to the parquet is the juge d' instruction, who corresponds to the
English magistrate, and is the most formidable personage in the
whole system of French criminal law. He can detain and
accuse a person in prison, can send for him at any time and ask
him such questions as he pleases.

After the first examination the prisoner is entitled, in most
European countries, to the assistance of counsel, but the powers
of counsel are so limited that the juge d 'instruction has a com-
plete discretionary power regarding the investigation of the case.
The natural consequence of this procedure is that the preliminary
investigation really decides the ultimate resuit, and the final
trial becomes more or less a solemn form.

The criminal law of Ireland is to a great extent the same as
that of England, resting on the same common law and on statutes
which extend to both countries or are in almost the
same terms, and is administered by courts of assize
and quarter sessions, and by justices, as in England. In a few
instances statutes passed for England or Great Britain before
the Union have not been extended to Ireland, or statutes passed
by the Irish parliament before the Union or by the British parlia-
ment since the Union create offences not known to English law.
In Ireland the system of prosecution is nominally the same as
in England, but in practice almost all prosecutions are instituted
and conducted under the direction of the attorney-general for
Ireland, who is a member of the government of the day, and so
responsible to parliament, as in the case of the lord advocate.
In Ireland, owing to the police being a centralized force, under the
management of commissioners residing in Dublin, any prosecu-
tion which in England might be conducted by the local police,
would in Ireland be conducted under the direction of the chief
of the police in Dublin, who is necessarily in close communication
with and under the control of the attorney-general.

In Scotland hardly any crimes are constituted by statute
law, the common law being to the effect that if a judge will
direct any act to be a crime, and a jury will convict, Scotland
that act is a crime. This great elasticity of the common
law to include every sort of new crime which might arise was
in times past very dangerous to political liberty, as it greatly
enlarged the power of the crown to oppress political opponents,
but in modern days it has its convenience in facilitating the
punishment of persons committing crimes for the punishment
of which in England a new act of parliament may be necessary.
Criminal procedure in Scotland is regulated by an act of 1887
which greatly simplified indictments and proceedings. The
prosecution of crime is in the hands of public officers, procurators
fiscal, under the control of the lord advocate. Private pro-
secutions are possible, but rare. Except in the case of the law
of treason, imported from England at the Union, no grand jury
is required, and the indictments are filed by the public officer.

The criminal law of England forms the basis of the criminal

law of all British possessions abroad, with a few exceptions, e.g.

the Channel Islands (still subject to the custom of other

Normandy) and the anomalous case of Cyprus, where British

Mahommedan law is to some extent in force. As to P° sses -
T .. . ,- slons.

India, see infra.

In many British colonies the criminal law has been codified
or at the least consolidated. Criminal codes have been passed
in Canada, New Zealand (1893), Queensland (1899) and W.
Australia (1901). Many crown colonies have codes framed on
the model prepared by the late Sir R. S. Wright for Jamaica
and revised in 1901, and in British Guiana opportunity was taken
(in 1893) to abolish the remnants of Roman-Dutch criminal
law.

The criminal law of South Africa, which is based on the Roman-
Dutch law, including the Constitutio Cfiminalis Carolina (1532),
is not codified. In the Transvaal and Orange River colonies
codes of criminal procedure are in force, drawn mainly from the
common and statute law of the Cape Colony with the addition
of provisions borrowed from English and colonial legislation.

In Mauritius the criminal law is comprised in a penal code of
1838 and a procedure code of 1853, which, with the incorporated
amendments, are to be found in the Revised Laws of Mauritius

CRIMINAL LAW

463

(1903-1904), ii. 466 et seq. The penal code is based on the Code
Napoleon.

" Criminal law has everywhere grown out of custom, and has
in all civilized states been largely dealt with by direct legislation.
In most civilized states (including Japan) it has been
Uon " codified by statute, to the general satisfaction of the
people; and the conspicuous success of the Indian
penal code shows that English criminal law is susceptible of
being so treated " (Bryce, Studies, ii. 34).

The expediency, if not the necessity, of codifying the criminal
law of England has long been apparent. The writings of Bentham
drew attention to many of its substantial defects, and the efforts
of Romilly and Mackintosh ledtocertainimprovementsembodied
in what are known as Peel's Acts (1826 to 1832). In 1833, at
the instance of Lord Chancellor Brougham, a royal commission
was appointed to deal with the criminal law. The nature of
the instructions indicate the crudity of the ideas then ruling as to
codification. The commissioners were directed to digest into
one statute all enactments touching crimes and the punishment
thereof, and into another statute the provisions of the common
unwritten law touching the same. The commission was renewed
in 1836 and 1837, and in 1843 a second commission was appointed.
Numerous and voluminous reports were published, including
(1848) a bill for consolidating and amending the law as to crimes
and punishments, and (1849) a like bill for criminal procedure,
indicating that the commissioners had in the meantime learned
the distinction between substantive and adjective law. Lord
Brougham in 1848 unsuccessfully introduced the first bill, and in
the end the only fruit of the reports has been certain amendments
of procedure in 1851 and the passing of the seven Criminal
Law Consolidation Acts of 1861, which deal with the statute law
as to theft, forgery, malicious injuries to property, coinage
offences and offences against the person. The reports, however,
proved of value in the revision of Macaulay's draft of the Indian
penal code, and led to the formation of the Statute Law Com-
mittee, which has relieved the statute book of much dead matter.
On his return from India, impressed by the success of the Indian
penal code, Sir J. Stephen made a strong effort to obtain codifica-
tion. In 1878, at the instance of Lord Cairns, he prepared a
draft code (based on his well-known Digest of the Criminal Law),
which was laid before parliament and then submitted to judicial
criticism and revision. As a result of this revision a code bill
was introduced in 1880; but a dissolution intervened and no
serious effort was then made. The obstacle in the way is not
lack of reports or digests on which to frame a code, but the in-
capacity of parliament to do the work itself, and its unwillingness
to trust the work to other hands.

The Indian penal code and criminal procedure code, by their
history, their form, and the extent and diversity of the races
and peoples to which they apply, are perhaps the
most important codes in the whole world. While the
East India Company was merely a trading company holding
certain forts and trading ports in India and elsewhere, such
criminal justice as was administered under its auspices was in
the main based on the English criminal law, said to have been
introduced to some extent by the company's charter of 1661,
but reintroduced into the presidency laws by later charters of
1726, 1753 and 1774. (See Nuncomar and Impey, by Sir J.
Stephen.) From 177 1 until i860 the criminal law administered
was the Mahommedan law. When in 177 1 the East Indian
Company determined to stand forth as diwan, Warren Hastings
required the courts of the mofussil (provinces), as distinct from
those of the presidency town of Fort William, to be guided in
the administration of criminal justice by, Mahommedan law,
which under the Moguls had been used in criminal cases to the
exclusion of Hindu law. Difficulties arose in administration,
from the definition of crime, the nature of punishments, and in
matters of procedure, which were removed by regulations and
by enactments on English lines, especially in Bombay (1827);
and great delays and considerable injustice were caused by the
want of unity in judicial organization.

Between" 1834 and 1837 Macaulay with three other com-

IndJa.

missioners, Macleod, Anderson and Millet, prepared a draft
penal code for India, for which they drew not only upon English
and Indian laws and regulations but also upon Livingstone's
Louisiana code and the Code Napoleon. Little or nothing was
taken from the Mahommedan law. A revised draft of the pena)
code by Sir B. Peacock, Sir J. W. Colville and others was com-
pleted in 1856. In framing it the reports of the English criminal
law commissioners (published after Macaulay's draft code)
were considered. The draft was presented to the legislative
council in 1856, but owing to the mutiny and to objections from
missionaries, &c, its passing was delayed till the 6th of October
i860. A draft scheme of criminal procedure was prepared in
India in 1847-1848, which, after submission to a commission
in England in 1853 (Government of India Act 1853), was moulded
into a draft code which passed the India legislative council
in 1861 (Act No. XXV.) and came into force in 1862. It has
been re-enacted with amendments in 1872 (Act X.), 1882
(Act X.) and 1898 (Act V.).

The result is that in India the criminal law is the law of the
conqueror, though for many civil purposes the law of race,
religion and caste governs. Under the codes, one set of courts
has been established throughout the country, composed of
well-paid, well-educated judges, most of the higher judicial
appointments being held by Englishmen; all those who hold
subordinate judicial posts at the same time are subjected to
a combined system of appeal and revision. The arrangement
of the Indian penal code is natural as well as logical; its basis
is the law of England stripped of technicality and local peculi-
arities, whilst certain modifications are introduced to meet the
exigencies of a country such as British India. It opens with a
chapter of general explanations, and interpretations of the terms
used throughout the code. It then describes the various punish-
ments to which offenders are liable; follows with a list of the
exceptions regarding criminal responsibility under which a
person who otherwise would be liable to punishment is exempted
from the penal consequences of his act, such as offences com-
mitted by children, by accident or misfortune without any
criminal intention, offences committed by lunatics, offences
committed in the exercise of the right of private defence. It
may be worth while to add, as an innovation on English law,
that an act which results in harm so slight that no person of
ordinary sense and temper would complain of such harm is not
considered an offence under the code. Then follows a chapter
on abetment, in other words, the instigation of a person to
do a wrongful act. The next chapters deal with offences against
the public, including the state, the army and navy, public
tranquillity, public servants, contempts of the lawful authority
of public servants, perjury; offences relating to coin and
government stamps, to weights and measures; offences affect-
ing the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals;
offences relating to religion; and offences relating to the human
body, from murder down to the infliction of any hurt. The code
then passes on to offences against property; offences relating
to forgery, including trade marks, criminal breach of contracts
for service; offences relating to marriage, defamation, criminal
intimidation, insult and annoyance. Under this last head is
included an attempt to cause a person to do anything which
that person is not legally bound to do, by inducing him to
believe that he would otherwise become subject to Divine
displeasure. The last chapter deals with attempts to commit
offences punishable by the code with transportation or imprison-
ment, and the punishment is limited to one-half of the longest
term provided for the offence had it been carried out.

One peculiarity of the Penal Code which has proved eminently
successful lies in the system of illustration of the offence declared in
every section by a brief statement of some concrete case. For
instance, as illustration of the offence of an attempt to commit an
offence the following examples are given : —

I. "A. makes an attempt to steal some jewels by breaking open
a box, and finds on opening the box there is no jewel in it. He has
done an act towards the commission of theft, and therefore is guilty
under this section.
L II. " A. makes an attempt to pick the pocket of Z. by thrusting

464

CRIMINOLOGY

his hand into Z.'s pocket. A. fails in the attempt in consequence
of Z. having nothing in his pocket. A. is guilty under this section."

Passing on to the system of criminal procedure which is set
forth in detail in the Code of Criminal Procedure as amended
Indian i n 1898, it is no doubt modelled on the English system,
code of but with considerable modifications. The principal
criminal steps are — (1) arrest by the police and inquiries by
procedure. ^ p jj ce . ( 2 ) (-jj e j ssue f summons or warrant by

the magistrate; (3) the mode of procedure before the magistrate,
who may either try the accused himself or commit him to the
sessions or the High Court, according to the importance of the
case; (4) procedure before the court of session; (5) appeals,
reference and revision by the High Court.

Elaborate provision is made for the prevention of offences,
as regards security for keeping the peace and for good behaviour,
the dispersion of unlawful assemblies, the suppression of nuis-
ances, disputes as to immovable property, which in all Oriental
countries constitute one of the most frequent causes of a breach
of the peace.

Ample provision is thus made for the prevention of offences,
and the code next deals with the mode of prosecution of offences
actually committed.

As a general rule, every offence is inquired into and tried by
the court within the local limits of whose jurisdiction it was
committed. Differing from the practice of continental countries,
all offences, even attempts, may be prosecuted after any lapse of
time. As in England, there is no statutory limitation to a
criminal offence.

A simple procedure is provided for what are called summons
cases, as distinguished from warrant cases — the first being
offences for which a police officer may arrest without warrant,
the second being offences where he must have a warrant, or,
in other words, minor offences and important offences. In
summons cases no formal charge need be framed. The magistrate
tells the accused the particulars of the offence charged; if he
admits his guilt, he is convicted; if he does not, evidence is
taken, and a finding is given in accordance with the facts as
proved. When the complaint is frivolous or vexatious, the
magistrate has the power to fine the complainant. The code
gives power of criminal appeal which goes much further than
the system in England.

In cases tried by a jury, no appeal lies as to matters of fact,
but it is allowed as to matters of law; in other cases, criminal
appeal is admitted on matters of law and fact.

In addition to the system of appeal, the superior courts are
entrusted with a power of revision, which is maintained auto-
matically by the periodical transmission to the High Courts of
calendars and statements of all cases tried by the inferior courts;
and at the same time, whenever the High Court thinks fit, it
can call for the record of any trial and pass such orders as it
■deems right. All sentences of death must be confirmed by the
High Court. No appeal lies against an acquittal in anj criminal
case. This system of appeal, superintendence and revision
would be totally inapplicable to England, but it has proved
eminently successful as applied to the present social condition
of the inhabitants of India. The appeals keep the judges up to
their work, revision corrects all grave mistakes, superintendence
.is necessary as a kind of discipline over the conduct of judges,
who are not subjected, as. in England, to the criticism of
enlightened public opinion.

These Indian codes form the basis of the penal, &c, codes in
force in Ceylon (superseding there the Roman-Dutch law), the
Straits Settlements, the Sudan and the East Africa protectorates.

It has already been stated that most European states have
codified their criminal law. The earliest of continental codes
is that of Charles V., promulgated in 1532, and known
as Constitutio Criminolis Carolina. Austria made
further codes in 1768 (Constitutio Criminolis
Theresiana) and 1787 (Emperor Joseph's code). A new code
was framed in 1 803 , and amended in 1 85 2 by reference to the Code
Napoleon; and in 1906 a completely new' code existed in draft.
The Hungarian peDal code dates from 1880. The Bavarian code

Foreign
codes.

of 1768 of Maximilian, revised in 1861, and the Prussian code
of 1780, have been superseded by the German penal code
of 1872.

The most important of the continental criminal codes are those
of France, the Code Pinal (1810) and the Code d 'Instruction
Criminelle (1808) — the work of Napoleon the Great and his
advisers, which professedly incorporate much of the Roman law.

The Belgian codes (1867), and the Dutch penal code (1880),
closely follow the French model. In Spain the penal code dates
from 1870, the procedure code from 1886. The Spanish American
republics for the most part also have codes. Portugal has a
penal code (1852). In Italy the procedure code and the penal
code, perhaps the completest yet framed, are of 1890. The
Swedish code dates from 1864. The Norwegian code was passed
in May 1902, and came into force in 1905. Japan has a code
based on a study of European and American models; and
Switzerland is framing a federal criminal code.

In the United States no federal criminal code is possible; but
most states, following the lead of Louisiana, have digested their
criminal law and procedure more or less effectually into penal
codes. (W. F. C.)

CRIMINOLOGY, the name given to a new branch of social
science, devoted to the discussion of the genesis of crime (q.v.),
which has received much attention in recent years. The expres-
sion is one of modern coinage, and originated with the speculative
theories first advanced by the school of sociologists which had
the Italian savant, Professor Lombroso, at its head. He dis-
covered or was supposed to have discovered a criminal type,
the " instinctive " or " born " criminal, a creature who had
come into the world predestined te evil deeds, and who could
be surely recognized by certain stigmata, certain facial, physical,
even moral birthmarks, the possession of which, presumably
ineradicable, foredoomed him to the commission of crime. Dr
Lombroso, in his ingenious work L' Uomo delinquente, found many
attentive and appreciative, not to say bigoted followers. Large
numbers of dissentients exist, however, and the conclusions of the
Italian school have been warmly contested and on very plausiblf
grounds. If the doctrines be fully accepted the whole theory of
free-will breaks down, and we are faced with the paradox that
we have no right to punish an irresponsible being who is impelled
to crime by congenital causes, entirely beyond his control.
The " instinctive " criminal, under this reasoning, must be
classed with the lunatic whom we cannot justly, and practically
never do, punish. There are other points on which proof of the
existence of the criminal type fails absolutely. The whole
theory illustrates a modern phase of psychological doctrine,
and the subject has exercised such a potent effect on modern
thought that the claims and pretensions of the Lombroso school
must be examined and disposed of.

The alleged discovery of the " born-criminal " as a separate
and distinct genus of the human species was first published by
Dr Lombroso in 1876 as the result of long continued investigation
and examination of a number of imprisoned criminals. The
personality of this human monster was to be recognized by
certain inherent moral and physical traits, not all displayed
by the same individual but generally appearing in conjunction
and then constituting the type. These traits have been defined
as follows: — various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding
foreheads; massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without
symmetry; ears long, large and projecting (the ear ad ansa);
noses rectilinear, wrinkles strongly marked, even in the young
and in both sexes, hair abundant on the head, scanty on the cheeks
and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold, glassy, ferocious; bad repellent
faces. Much 'stress is laid upon the physiognomy, and it is said
that it is independent of nationality; two natives of the same
country do not so nearly resemble each other as two criminals of
different countries. Other peculiarities are: — great width of
the extended arms (I'envergure of the French), extraordinary
ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism;
obtuse sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although
the eyesight is superior to that of normal people. " In general,"
to quote Lombroso, " the born criminal has projecting ears, thick

CRIMMITZSCHAU— CRIMP

465

hair and thin beard, projecting frontal eminences, enormous jaws,
a square and protruding chin, large cheek bones and frequent
gesticulation." So much for the anatomical and physiological
peculiarities of the criminal. There remain the psychological
or mental characteristics, so far as they have been observed.
Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience that
never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to
be generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want
of proper precautions, both before and after an offence,which leads
so often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly
marked and shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements
rather than personal appearance.

No sooner was this new theory made public than the very
existence of the supposed type was questioned and more evidence
demanded. A French savant declared that Lombroso's portraits
were very similar to the photographs of his friends. Save for the
dirt, the recklessness, the weariness and the misery so often seen
on it.the face of the criminal does not differ from that of an honest
man's. It was pointed out that if certain traits denoted the
criminal, the converse should be seen in the honest man. A
pertinent objection was that the deductions had been made
from insufficient premises. The criminologists had worked upon
a comparatively small number of criminals, and yet made their
discoveries applicable to the whole class. The facts were collected
from too small an area and no definite conclusions could be based
upon them. Moreover, the criminologists were by no means
unanimous. They differed amongst themselves and often con-
tradicted one another as to the characteristics exhibited.

The controversy was long maintained. Many eminent
persons have been arrayed on either side. In Italy Lombroso
was supported by Colajanni, Ferri, Garofalo; in France by
J. A. Lacassagne. In Germany Lombroso has found few
followers; Dr Naecke of Hubertusburg near Leipzig, one of the
most eminent of German alienists, declined to admit there was
any special animal type. Van Hamel of Amsterdam gives only
a qualified approval. In England it stands generally condemned,
because it gives no importance to circumstance and passing
temptation, or to domestic or social environment, as affecting
the causation of crime. Dr Nicholson of Broadmoor has said that
" if the criminal is such by predestination, heredity or accidental
flaws or anomalies in brain or physical structure, he is such for
good and all; no cure is possible, all the plans and processes
for his betterment, education, moral training and disciplinary
treatment are nugatory and vain." No weight can then be
attached to evil example, or unfavourable social surroundings,
in moulding and forming character, particularly during the more
plastic periods of childhood and youth.

The pertinent question remains, has the study and development
of criminology served any useful purpose? Little perhaps can
come of it in its restricted sense, but it has taken a wider meaning
and embraces larger researches. It has inquired into the sources
and causes of crime, it has collected criminal statistics and
deduced valuable lessons from them, it has sought and obtained
guidance in the best methods of prevention, repression, and
forms of procedure. The champions of law and order have been
greatly aided by the criminologist in carrying on the continual
combat with crime, and in dealing with the most complicated
of social phenomena. The new science has, in fact, by accumulat-
ing a number of curious details, in recording the psychology,
the secret desires, the springs of the criminal's nefarious actions,
his corrigibility or the reverse, " prepared the way to his socio-
logical explanation" (Tarde). Thanks to the labours of the
criminologist we are moving steadily forward to a future im-
proved treatment of the criminal, and may thus arrive at the
increased morality and greater safety of society. Very appreci-
able advance has been made in the increased attention paid to
juvenile and adult crime, the acceptance of the theory, now
well established, that there is an especially criminal age, a period
when the moral fibre is weaker and more yielding to temptation
to crime, when happily human nature is more malleable and
susceptible to improvement and reform.

The study of criminology has, however, gone far to satisfy

us that the true genesis of crime is not to be sought in the anatomi-
cal anomalies of individuals, or in the fact that there are people
who under " any social conditions whatever and of any nation-
ality at no matter what epoch, would have undoubtedly become
murderers and thieves." On the contrary it may be safely
assumed that many such would have done no wrong if they had,
e.g., been born rich, had been free from the pressing needs that
drove them into crime, and had escaped the evil influences of
their surroundings. The criminologists have strengthened the
hands of administrators, have emphasized the paramount import-
ance of child-rescue and judicious direction of adults, have
held the balance between penal methods, advocating the moraliz-
ing effect of open-air labour as opposed to prolonged isolation,
and have insisted upon the desirability of indefinite detention
for all who have obstinately determined to wage perpetual war
against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.

Authorities. — See A. Weingart, Kriminaltaktik, ein Handbuch
fur das Untersuchen von Verbrechen (Leipzig, 1904); F. H. Wines,
Punishment and Reformation (New York, 1895) ; C. Perrier, Les
Criminels (Paris, 1905) ; G. Mace, Femmes criminelles (Paris, 1904) ;

E. Carpenter, Prisons, Police and Punishment (1905) ; R. R. Rentoul,
Proposed Sterilization of certain Mental and Physical Degenerates
(1904); R. Sommer, Kriminalpsychologie und strafrechtliche Psycho-
pathologie auf naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage (Leipzig, 1904) ;

F. Kitzinger, Die internationale kriminalistische Vereinigung (1905) ;
Reports of Committee on the best mode of giving efficiency to
Secondary Punishments (1831-1832); Reports of the House of
Commons Committee of 1853, of the royal commission of 1884, of
the departmental committee of 1895, and the annual reports of H. M.
inspectors for Great Britain and Ireland. (A. G.)

CRIMMITZSCHAU, or Krimhitschau, a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Pleisse and the main Leipzig-
Hof railway, 7 m. N.W. from Zwickau. Pop. (1900) 22,845.
The most important industries of the town are the manufacture
of buckskin, the spinning of carded yarn and vicuna-wool,
and the processes of dyeing, finishing and wool-spinning con-
nected with these. Among other manufactures are brushes,
boilers and the like, machinery, metal ware generally, the
cases and other parts of watches. The town has a modern
school (Realschule), a commercial school, and technical schools
for weaving and finishing.

CRIMP (possibly connected with " crimp," to draw together,
or fold in parallel lines, in the sense of " confine "; the primary
meaning, however, seems to be that of " agent," and the word
may be a distinct one, of which the origin is lost), an agent for
the supplying of soldiers and sailors, by kidnapping, drugging,
decoying or other illegal means. Crimps were'formerly regularly
employed in the days of impressment (q.v.). Now the term is
used, first of any one who engages to supply merchant seamen
without a. licence from the Board of Trade, and is not either the
owner, master or mate of the ship, or is not bona fide the servant,
and in the constant employment of the owner, or is not a super-
intendent (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § in); and, with a
wide application, of the extortionate lodging or boarding-house
keepers, who are generally in league with the " crimp " proper.

Sections 212 to 219 inclusive of the above act provide for the
protection of merchant seamen in the United Kingdom from
imposition. Local authorities at seaports have power to make
by-laws for the licensing and regulating of lodging-houses for
sailors, and to inflict penalties for the infringement thereof.
If this power be not exercised, the Board of Trade may do so.
Penalties are also imposed by the act for overcharging by
lodging-house keepers, for detaining of seamen's effects, and for
soliciting. Unauthorized persons are prohibited from boarding
a ship in port without leave. The Board of Trade officer at a port
may provide money for sending a seaman to his home on dis-
charge, and may forward his wages after deducting the expenses.
Facilities are also given for having wages sent home from foreign
ports at a small charge. These provisions have practically
killed " crimping" in the United Kingdom. In the ports of the
United States of America crimping was long prevalent, especially
on the Pacific coast, and its prevention was very difficult, but
state regulations as to the licensing of boarding-houses, and
the limitation of the amount of so-called " blood-money " paid

4-66

CRIMSON— CRISA

by masters of vessels to the suppliers of crews to ships denuded
by desertions, have reduced the abuse materially.

The term " to shanghai " is used of a more serious offence.
Literally meaning " to ship to Shanghai," in China, it is applied
to the drugging or rendering unconscious by violence or other
means of persons, whether sailors or not, and shipping them
to distant ports, in order fraudulently to obtain money in advance
of wages, or for the sake of the premium paid for supplying crews.

CRIMSON, the name of a strong, bright red colour tinged to
a greater or less degree with purple. It is the colour of the dye
produced from the dried bodies of the cochineal insect (Coccus
cacti). The word, in its earlier forms cremesin, crymysyn, also
cramoysin, cf. " cramoisy," the name of a red cloth, is adapted
from the Med. Lat. cremesinus for kermesinus or carmesinus,
the dye produced from the insect Kermes (Coccus ilicis), Arab.
quirmiz, which Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) connects with the
Sanskrit krimi, cognate with Lat. vermis and Eng. " worm."
From the Lat. carminus, a shortened form of carmesinus,
comes "carmine" (q.v.).

CRINAGORAS, of Mytilene, Greek epigrammatist, flourished
during the reign of Augustus (Strabo xiii. p. 617). A number
of epigrams appear under his name in the Greek Anthology.
From inscriptions discovered at Mytilene, he appears to have
been one of the ambassadors sent from that city to Rome in
45 and 26 B.C.

The epigrams have been edited by M. Rubensohn (1888).

CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. crinis, hair, and
linum, thread), a stiffening material made of horse-hair and
cotton or linen thread. Substitutes for this, such as the straw-
like material used in making hat shapes, are also known by the
same name. From the use of the material to expand ladies' skirts
the term was applied, during the third quarter of the 19th
century, when the fashion of wearing greatly expanded skirts
was at its height, to the whalebone and steel hoops employed
to support the skirts thus worn (see Costume). The term is also
used of structures resembling these articles, especially of the
framework of booms, spars and netting forming a protection
for a warship against torpedo attack.

CRINUM, a genus (nat. ord. Amaryllidaceae) of bulbous
plants with rather broad leaves and a solid leafless stem, bearing
a cluster of handsome white or red funnel-shaped regular flowers.
They are well known in cultivation, and owing to the wide
distribution of the genus different methods are adopted with
different species. Some require the hot, moist temperature of
a stove; such are C. amabile, a native of Sumatra, C. amoenum
(India), C. Baljourii (Socotra), C. giganteum (West tropical
Africa), C. Kirkii (Zanzibar), C. latifolium (India), C. zeylanicum
(tropical Asia and Africa), and others. Others thrive in a green-
house; such are C. asiaticum, a widely distributed plant on the
sea-coast of tropical Asia, C. capense and C. longiflorum, from
the Cape, and C. Macowani and C. Moorei from Natal. C.
asiaticum, C. capense and C. Macowani will also thrive in sheltered
positions in the garden.

CRIOBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a ram in the cult of Attis and
the Great Mother. It seems to have been a special ceremony
instituted after the rise, and on the analogy of the taurobolium
(q.v.), which was performed in honour of the Great Mother, for
the purpose of giving fuller recognition to Attis in the duality
which he formed with the Mother. There is no evidence of its
existence either in Asia or in Italy before the taurobolium came
into prominence (after a.d. 134). When the criobolium was
performed in conjunction with the taurobolium, the altar was
almost invariably inscribed to both the Mother and Attis, while
the inscription was to the Mother alone when the taurobolium
only was performed. The celebration of the criobolium was
widespread, and its importance such that it was sometimes
performed in place of the taurobolium (Corp. Inscr. Lat. vi.
505, 506). The details and effect of the ceremony were no doubt
similar to those of the taurobolium. (G. Sn.)

CRIPPLE CREEK, a city and the county-seat of Teller county,
almost at the geographical centre of Colorado, U.S.A., one of
the phenomenal mining camps of the West. Pop. (1900)

10,147 (1408 foreign-born); (1910) 6206. The city is served
by three railways — the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek
District (a branch of the Colorado & Southern), the Midland
Terminal (which connects at Divide, 30 m. distant by rail, with
the Colorado Midland), and the Florence & Cripple Creek.
Cripple Creek is situated on a mountain slope in a pocket amid
the ranges, about 9600 ft. above the sea at the head of the stream
after which it is named. The municipal water-supply is drawn
from Pike's Peak, 10 m. distant. The interest of the city is in
its extraordinary mines and their history. Cripple Creek's site
was frequently prospected after i860, and " colours " and gold
" float " were always found, but not until February 1891 was
the source discovered. Cripple Creek was at that time a cattle
range. In 1891 the output of gold in the district was valued
at $449, in 1892 at $583,010, and in the next three years at
$2,010,367, $2,908,702 and $6,879,137 respectively. From
1 89 1 to 1906 the total production of gold was valued at
$168,584,331; in 1905 1 the product of gold was valued at
$15,411,724, the total for the whole state being valued at
$25,023,973; in 1906 the output for the district was valued
at $14,253,245, out of $23,210,629 for the entire state. The
development of the camp into a yellow-pine town and then into
something more like a substantial city was marvellously rapid.
The first railway was completed in 1894. In the same year a
great strike — one of the most famous in American industrial
history — threatening civil war, temporarily closed the mines;
in 1896 fire almost destroyed the city; in 1903-1904 a second
strike, lasting more than a year and greater than the first,
occurred. The first strike, which was for an eight-hour day
and $3.00 wage, was won by the miners. The second, for the
recognition outright of the union organization of the miners,
secured only a reaffirmation of the former conditions. The ores
are almost exclusively gold, tellurides being the most character-
istic form, and occur in fissure veins. Outcroppings were very
rare, as the veins were covered with loose wash, and this
accounted for the late opening of the field. The field covers a
district about 8X10 m. Some peculiarities of the ores have
required the use of new methods in their treatment, and in
general the development of mining methods and machinery is
of a wonderful character. The whole surrounding country is
seamed with miles of tunnels in granite, and the hillsides are
dotted everywhere with enormous dumps. The most famous
mines have been the " Independence " (1891) and the " Port-
land " (1892). The latter had in 1904 more than 25 m. of
workings above the noo-ft. level. In 1903 the El Paso drain
was completed, to unwater the western half of the field to the
880-ft. level, greatly increasing many mine values and outputs;
in 1906 the work of drainage was again taken up, and work on
a long bore was begun in May 1907. There are smelters and
cyanide extracters in the district, but the bulk of the ore product
is shipped to other places for treatment. Among the towns
around Cripple Creek in the same mining district is Victor,
pop. (1910) 3162, incorporated in 1894, chartered as a city in
1898.

See W. Lindgren and F. L. Ransome, Geology and Gold Deposits of
the Cripple Creek District, Colorado, with maps (Washington, 1906),
being Professional Paper No. 54 of the United States Geological
Survey; and Benjamin McKie Rastall, The Labor History of the
Cripple Creek District; A Study in Industrial Evolution (Madison,
Wis., 1908), a full account of the strikes of 1894 and of 1903-1904.

CRISA, or Crissa, in ancient geography, one of the oldest
cities of Greece, situated in Phocis, on one of the spurs of
Parnassus. Its name occurs both in the Iliad and in the Homeric
Hymns, where it is described as a powerful place, with a rich
and fertile territory, reaching to the sea, and including within
its limits the sanctuary of Pytho. As the town of Delphi grew
up around the shrine, and the seaport of Cirrha arose on the
Crisean Gulf, Crisa gradually lost much of its importance. By
the ancients themselves the name of Cirrha was so often sub-
stituted for that of Crisa, that it soon became doubtful whether

1 The value of gold mined in 1899-1902 was greater, annually,
than the product of 1905 or 1906; up to 1905 the greatest annual
value was in 1900, $18,073,539.

CRISPI

467

these names indicated the same city or not. The question was
practically settled by the investigations of H. N. Ulrichs. From
its position Cirrha commanded the approach to Delphi, and its
inhabitants became obnoxious to the Greeks from the heavy
tolls which they exacted from the devotees who thronged to
the shrine. The Amphictyonic Council declared war (the first
Sacred War) against the Criseans in 595 B.C., and having taken
the town, razed it to the ground, and consecrated its territory
to the temple at Delphi. The plunder of the town was sold to
defray the expenses of the Pythian games. In 339 the people
of Amphissa began to rebuild the town of Cirrha and to cultivate
the plain. This act brought on the second Sacred War, the
conduct of which was entrusted by the Amphictyons to Philip
of Macedon, who took Amphissa (mod. Salona) in the following
year. The ruins of Crisa may be still seen where the ravine of
the Pleistus joins the plain ; its name is probably preserved by
the modern Chryso.
See J- G. Frazer's Pausanias, v. 459 (note on x. 37.5).

(E. Gr.)

CRISPI, FRANCESCO (1819-1901), Italian statesman, was
born at Ribera in Sicily on the 4th of October 1819. In 1846
he established himself as advocate at Naples. On the outbreak
of the Sicilian revolution at Palermo (January 12, 1848) he
hastened to the island and took an active part in guiding the
insurrection. Upon the restoration of the Bourbon government
(May 15, 1849) he was excluded from the amnesty and compelled
to flee to Piedmont. Here he unsuccessfully applied for a
situation as communal secretary of Verolengo, and eked out a
penurious existence by journalism. Implicated in the Mazzinian
conspiracy at Milan (February 6, 1853), he was expelled from
Piedmont, and obliged to take refuge at Malta, whence he fled
to Paris. Expelled from France, he joined Mazzini in London,
and continued to conspire for the redemption of Italy. On the
15th of June 1859 he returned to Italy after publishing a letter
repudiating the aggrandizement of Piedmont, and proclaim-
ing himself a republican and a partisan of national unity.
Twice in that year he went the round of the Sicilian cities
in disguise, and prepared the insurrectionary movement of
i860.

Upon his return to Genoa he organized, with Bertani, Bixio,
Medici and Garibaldi, the expedition of the Thousand, and
overcoming by a stratagem the hesitation of Garibaldi, secured
the departure of the expedition on the 5th of May i860. Dis-
embarking at Marsala on the nth, Crispi on the 13th, at Salemi,
drew up the proclamation whereby Garibaldi assumed the
dictatorship of Sicily, with the programme: " Italy and Victor
Emmanuel." After the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed
minister of the interior and of finance in the Sicilian provisional
government, but was shortly afterwards obliged to resign on
account of the struggle between Garibaldi and the emissaries of
Cavour with regard to the question of immediate annexation.
Appointed secretary to Garibaldi, Crispi secured the resignation
of Depretis, whom Garibaldi had appointed pro-dictator, and
would have continued his fierce opposition to Cavour at Naples,
where he had been placed by Garibaldi in the foreign office, had
not the advent of the Italian regular troops and the annexation
of the Two Sicilies to Italy brought about Garibaldi's withdrawal
to Caprera and Crispi's own resignation. Entering parliament
in 1861 as deputy of the extreme Left for Castelvetrano, Crispi
acquired the reputation of being the most aggressive and most
impetuous member of the republican party. In 1864, however,
he made at the chamber a monarchical profession of faith, in
the famous phrase afterwards repeated in his letter to Mazzini :
" The monarchy unites us; the republic would divide us."
In 1866 he refused to enter the Ricasoli cabinet; in 1867 he
worked to impede the Garibaldian invasion of the papal states,
foreseeing the French occupation of Rome and the disaster of
Mentana. By methods of the same character as those subse-
quently employed against himself by Cavallotti, he carried on
the violent agitation known as the Lobbia affair, in which sundry
conservative deputies were, on insufficient grounds, accused
of corruption. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War he

worked energetically to impede the projected alliance with
France, and to drive the Lanza cabinet to Rome. The death ol
Ratazzi in 1873 induced Crispi's friends to put forward his
candidature to the leadership of the Left; but Crispi, anxious
to reassure the crown, secured the election of Depretis. After
the advent of the Left he was elected (November 1876) president
of the chamber. During the autumn of 1877 he went to London,
Paris and Berlin on a confidential mission, establishing cordial
personal relationships with Gladstone, Granville and other
English statesmen, and with Bismarck.

In December 1877 he replaced Nicotera as minister of the
interior in the Depretis cabinet, his short term of office (70 days)
being signalized by a series of important events. On January 9,
1878, the death of Victor Emmanuel and the accession of King
Humbert enabled Crispi to secure the formal establishment of a
unitary monarchy, the new monarch taking the title of Humbert
I. of Italy instead of Humbert IV. of Savoy. The remains of
Victor Emmanuel were interred in the Pantheon instead of being
transported to the Savoy Mausoleum at Superga. On the 9th
of February, 1879, the death of Pius IX. necessitated a conclave,
the first to be held after the unification of Italy. Crispi, helped
by Mancini and Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), persuaded
the Sacred College to hold the conclave in Rome, and prorogued
the chamber lest any untoward manifestation should mar the
solemnity of the event. The statesmanlike qualities displayed
on this occasion were unavailing to avert the storm of indignation
conjured up by Crispi's opponents in connexion with a charge
of bigamy not susceptible of legal proof. Crispi was compelled
to resign office, although the judicial authorities upheld the
invalidity of his early marriage, contracted at Malta in 1853,
and ratified his subsequent union with Signora Barbagallo.
For nine years Crispi remained politically under a cloud, but in
1887 returned to office as minister of the interior in the Depretis
cabinet, succeeding to the premiership upon the death of Depretis
(July 29, 1887).

One of his first acts as premier was a visit to Bismarck, whom
he desired to consult upon the working of the Triple Alliance.
Basing his foreign policy upon the alliance, as supplemented by
the naval entente with Great Britain negotiated by his predecessor,
Count Robilant, Crispi assumed a resolute attitude towards
France, breaking off the prolonged and unfruitful negotiations
for a new Franco-Italian commercial treaty, and refusing the
French invitation to organize an Italian section at the Paris
Exhibition of 1889. At home Crispi secured the adoption of the
Sanitary and Commercial Codes, and reformed the administration
of justice. Forsaken by his Radical friends, Crispi governed with
the help of the Right until, on the 31st of January 1891, an
intemperate allusion to the sante memorie of the conservative
party led to his overthrow. In December 1893 the impotence
of the Giolitti cabinet to restore public order, then menaced by
disturbances in Sicily and in Lunigiana, gave rise to a general
demand that Crispi should return to power. Upon resuming
office he vigorously suppressed the disorders, and steadily
supported the energetic remedies adopted by Sonnino, minister
of finance, to save Italian credit, which had been severely shaken
by the bank and financial crises of 1892-1893. Crispi's uncom-
promising suppression of disorder, and his refusal to abandon
either the Triple Alliance or the Eritrean colony, or to forsake
his colleague Sonnino, caused a breach between him and the
radical leader Cavallotti. Cavallotti then began against him a
pitiless campaign of defamation. An unsuccessful attempt upon
Crispi's life by the anarchist Lega brought a momentary truce,
but Cavallotti's attacks were soon renewed more fiercely than
ever. They produced so little effect that the general election of
1895 gave Crispi a huge majority, but, a year later, the defeat
of the Italian army at Adowa in Abyssinia brought about his
resignation. The ensuing Rudini cabinet lent itself to Cavallotti's
campaign, and at the end of 1897 the judicial authorities applied
to the chamber for permission to prosecute Crispi for embezzle-
ment. A parliamentary commission, appointed to inquire into
the charges against him, discovered only that Crispi, on assuming
office in 1893, had found the secret service coffers empty, and

+68

CRISPIN— CRITICISM

had borrowed from a state bank the sum of £12,000 for secret
service, repaying it with the monthly instalments granted in
regular course by the treasury. The commission, considering
this proceeding irregular, proposed, and the chamber adopted,
a vote of censure, but refused to authorize a prosecution. Crispi
resigned his seat in parliament, but was re-elected by an over-
whelming majority in April 1898 by his Palermo constituents.
For some time he took little part in active politics, chiefly on
account of his growing blindness. A successful operation for
cataract restored his eyesight in June 1900, and notwithstand-
ing his 81 years he resumed to some extent his former political
activity. Soon afterwards, however, his health began to give
way permanently, and he died at Naples on the 12th of August
1901.

The importance of Crispi in Italian public life depended less
upon the many reforms accomplished under his administrations
than upon his intense patriotism, remarkable fibre, and capacity
for administering to his fellow-countrymen the political tonic of
which they stood in constant need. In regard to foreign politics
he greatly contributed to raise Italian prestige and to dispel
the reputation for untrustworthiness and vacillation acquired
by many of his predecessors. If in regard to France his policy
appeared to lack suavity and circumspection, it must be re-
membered that the French republic was then engaged in active
anti-Italian schemes and was working, both at the Vatican and
in the sphere of colonial politics, to create a situation that should
compel Italy to bow to French exigencies and to abandon the
Triple Alliance. Crispi was prepared to cultivate good relations
with France, but refused to yield to pressure or to submit to dicta -
tion; and in this attitude he was firmly supported by the bulk
of his fellow-countrymen. The criticism freely directed against
him was based rather upon the circumstances of his unfortunate
private life and the misdeeds of an unscrupulous entourage which
traded upon his name than upon his personal or political short-
comings.

See Scritti e discorsi politici di F. Crispi, 1847-1890 (Rome, 1890) ;
Francesco Crispi, by W. J. Stillman (London, 1899).

CRISPIN and CRISPINIAN, the patron saints of shoemakers,
whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. Their
history is largely legendary, and there exists no trace of it earlier
than the 8th century. It is said that they were brothers and
members of a noble family in Rome. They gave up their property
and travelled to Soissons (Noviodunum, Augusta Suessionum),
where they supported themselves by shoemaking and made many
converts to Christianity. The emperor Maximianus (Herculius)
condemned them to death. His prefect Rictiovarus endeavoured
to carry out the sentence, but they emerged unharmed from all
the ordeals to which he subjected them, and the weapons he used
recoiled against the executioners. Rictiovarus in disgust cast
himself into the fire, or the caldron of boiling tar, from which
they had emerged refreshed. At last Maximian had their heads
cut off (c. 287-300). Their remains were buried at Soissons,
but were afterwards removed, partly by Charlemagne to Osna- .
briick (where a festival is observed annually on the 20th of June)
and partly to the chapel of St Lawrence in Rome. The abbeys
of St Crepin-en-Chaye (the remains of which still form part of a
farmhouse on the river Aisne, N.N. W. of Soissons) , of St Crepin-
le-Petit, and St Crepin-le-Grand (the site of which is occupied
by a house belonging to the Sisters of Mercy), in or near Soissons,
commemorated the places sanctified by their imprisonment and
burial. There are also relics at Fulda, and a Kentish tradition
claims that the bodies of the martyrs were cast into the sea and
cast on shore on Romney Marsh (see Acta SS. Bolland, xi. 495;
A. Butler, Lives of the Saints, October 25th).

Especially in France, but also in England and in other parts of
Europe, the festival of St Crispin was for centuries the occasion
of solemn processions and merry-making, in which gilds of shoe-
makers took the chief part. At Troyes, where the gild of St
Crispin was reconstituted as late as 1820, an annual festival is
celebrated in the church of St Urban. In England and Scotland
the day acquired additional importance as the anniversary of
the battle of Agincourt (cf . Shakespeare, Henry V. iv. 3) ; the

symbolical processions in honour of " King Crispin " at Stirling
and Edinburgh were particularly famous. •'

For other examples see Notes and Queries, 1st series, v. 30, vi. 243;
W. S. Walsh, Curiosities of Popular Customs (London, 1898 ).

CRITIAS, Athenian orator and poet, and one of the Thirty
Tyrants. In his youth he was a pupil of Gorgias and Socrates,
but subsequently devoted himself to political intrigues. In
415 B.C. he was implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae and
imprisoned. In 411 he helped to put down the Four Hundred,
and was instrumental in procuring the recall of Alcibiades.
He was banished (probably in the democratic reaction of 407)
and fled to Thessaly, where he stirred up the Penestae (the helots
of Thessaly) against their masters, and endeavoured to establish
a democracy. Returning to Athens he was made ephor by the
oligarchical party; and he was the most cruel and unscrupulous
of the Thirty Tyrants who in 404 were appointed by the Lacedae-
monians. He was slain in battle against Thrasybulus and the
returning democrats. Critias was a man of varied talents —
poet, orator, historian and philosopher. Some fragments of his
elegies will be found in Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci. He was
also the author of several tragedies and of biographies of dis-
tinguished poets (possibly in verse) .

See Xenophon, Hellenica, ii. 3. 4. 19, Memorabilia, i. 2; Cornelius
Nepos, Thrasybulus, 2 ; R. Lallier, De Critiae tyranni vita ac
scriptis (1875) ; Nestle, Neue Jakrb. f. d. kl. Altert. (1903).

CRITICISM (from the Gr. Kplrqs, a judge, npivav, to decide,
to give an authoritative opinion), the art of judging the qualities
and values of an aesthetic object, whether in literature or the
fine arts. 1 It involves, in the first instance, the formation
and expression of a judgment on the qualities of anything, and
Matthew Arnold defined it in this general sense as " a disinterested
endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and
thought in the world." It has come, however, to possess a
secondary and specialized meaning as a published analysis
of the qualities and characteristics of a work in literature or fine
art, itself taking the form of independent literature. The sense
in which criticism is taken as implying censure, the " picking
holes " in any statement or production, is frequent, but it is
entirely unjustifiable. There is nothing in the proper scope of
criticism which presupposes blame. On the contrary, a work
of perfect beauty and fitness, in which no fault could possibly,
be found with justice, is as proper a subject for criticism to deal
with as a work of the greatest imperfection. It may be perfectly
just to state that a book or a picture is " beneath criticism,"
i.e. is so wanting in all qualities of originality and technical
excellence that time would merely be wasted in analysing it.
But it can never be properly said that a work is " above criti-
cism," although it may be " above censure," for the very com-
plexity of its merits and the fulness of its beauties tempt the
skill of the analyser and reward it.

It is necessary at the threshold of an examination of the
history of criticism to expose this laxity of speech, since nothing
is more confusing to a clear conception of this art than to suppose
that it consists in an effort to detect what is blameworthy.
Candid criticism should be neither benevolent nor adverse;
its function is to give a just judgment, without partiality or bias.
A critic (kpitikos) is one who exercises the art of criticism,
who sets himself up, or is set up, as a judge of literary and
artistic merit. The irritability of mankind, which easily forgets
and neglects praise, but cannot forgive the rankling poison of
blame, has set upon the word critic a seal which is even more
unamiable than that of criticism. It takes its most savage form
in Benjamin Disraeli's celebrated and deplorable dictum, " the
critics are the men who have failed in literature and art." It
is plain that such names as those of Aristotle, Dante, Dryden,
Joshua Reynolds, Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold are not
to be thus swept by a reckless fulmination. There have been

1 It is in this general sense that the subject is considered in this
article. The term is, however, used in more restricted senses,
generally with some word of qualification, e.g. " textual criticism "
or " higher criticism "; see the article Textual Criticism and the
article Bible for an outstanding example of both " textual " and
" higher."

CRITICISM

4 6 9

many critics who brought from failure in imaginative composition
a cavilling, jealous and ignoble temper, who have mainly
exercised their function in indulging the evil passion of envy.
But, so far as they have done this, they have proved themselves
bad critics, and neither minute care, nor a basis of learning, nor
wide experience of literature, salutary as all these must be,
can avail to make that criticism valuable which is founded on
the desire to exaggerate fault-finding and to emphasize censure
unfairly. The examination of what has been produced by other
ages of human thought is much less liable to this dangerous error
than the attempt to estimate contemporary works of art and
literature. There are few indeed whom personal passion can
blind to the merits of a picture of the 15th or a poem of the
17th century. In the higher branches of historical criticism,
prejudice of this ignoble sort is hardly possible, and therefore,
in considering criticism in its ideal forms, it is best to leave out
of consideration that invidious and fugitive species which bears
the general name of " reviewing." This pedestrian criticism,
indeed, is useful and even indispensable, but it is, by its very
nature, ephemeral, and it is liable to a multitude of drawbacks.
Even when the reviewer is, or desires to be, strictly just, it is
almost impossible for him to stand far enough back from the
object under review to see it in its proper perspective. He is
dazzled, or scandalized, by its novelty; he has formed a pre-
conceived notion of the degree to which its author should be
encouraged or depressed; he is himself, in all cases, an element
in the mental condition which he attempts to judge, and if
not positively a defendant is at least a juryman in the court over
which he ought to preside with remote impartiality.

It may be laid down as the definition of criticism in its pure
sense, that it should consist in the application, in the most com-
petent form, of the principles of literary composition. Those
principles are the general aesthetics upon which taste is founded ;
they take the character of rules of writing. From the days of
Aristotle the existence of such rules has not been doubted, but
different orders of mind in various ages have given them diverse
application, and upon this diversity the fluctuations of taste
are founded. It is now generally admitted that in past ages
critics have too often succumbed to the temptation to regulate
taste rigidly, and to lay down rules that shall match every case
with a formula. Over-legislation has been the bane of official
criticism, and originality, especially in works of creative imagina-
tion, has been condemned because it did not conform to existing
rules. Such instances of want of contemporary appreciation
as the reception given to William Blake or Keats, or even Milton,
are quoted to prove the futility of criticism. As a matter of
fact they do nothing of the kind. They merely prove the
immutable principles which underlie all judgment of artistic
products to have been misunderstood or imperfectly obeyed
during the life-times of those illustrious men. False critics have
built domes of glass, as Voltaire put it, between the heavens and
themselves, domes which genius has to shatter in pieces before
it can make itself comprehended. In critical application formulas
are often useful, but they should be held lightly; when the
formula becomes the tyrant where it should be the servant of
thought, fatal error is imminent. What is required above all
else by a critic is knowledge, tempered with good sense, and
combined with an exquisite delicacy of taste. He who possesses
these qualities may go wrong in certain instances, but his error
cannot become radical, and he is always open to correction. It
is not his business' crudely to pronounce a composition "good "
or " bad "; he must be able to show why it is " good " and
wherein it is " bad "; he must admire with independence and
blame with careful candour. He must above all be assiduous
to escape from pompous generalizations, which conceal lack of
thought under a flow of words. The finest criticism should take
every circumstance of the case into consideration, and hold it
necessary, if possible, to know the author as well as the book.
A large part of the reason why the criticism of productions of
the past is so much more fruitful than mere contemporary
reviewing, is that by remoteness from the scene of action the
critic is able to make himself familiar with all the elements of

age, place and medium which affected the writer at the moment
of his composition. In short, knowledge and even taste are not
sufficient for perfect criticism without the infusion of a still
rarer quality, breadth of sympathy.

Criticism has been one of the latest branches of literature to
reach maturity, but from very early times the instinct which
induces mankind to review what it has produced led to the
composition of imperfect but often extremely valuable bodies
of opinion. What makes these early criticisms tantalizing is
that the moral or political aspects of literature had not disengaged
themselves from the purely intellectual or aesthetic.

To pass to an historical examination of the subject, we find
that in antiquity Aristotle was regarded as the father and almost
as the founder of literary criticism. Yet before his day, three
Greek writers of eminence had examined, in more or less fulness,
the principles of composition; these were Plato, Isocrates and
Aristophanes. The comedy of The Frogs, by the latter, is the
earliest specimen we possess of hostile literary criticism, being
devoted to ridicule of the plays of Euripides. In the cases of
Plato and Isocrates, criticism takes the form mainly of an
examination of the rules of rhetoric. We reach, however, much
firmer ground when we arrive at Aristotle, whose Poetics and
Rhetoric are among the most valuable treatises which antiquity
has handed down to us. Of what existed in the literature of his
age, extremely rich in some branches, entirely empty in others,
Aristotle speaks with extraordinary authority; but Mr G.
Saintsbury has justly remarked that as his criticism of poetry
was injuriously affected by the non-existence of the novelist, so
his criticism of prose was injuriously affected by the omnipresence
of the orator. This continues true of all ancient criticism. A
work by Aristotle on the problems raised by a study of Homer
is lost, and there may have been others of a similar nature; in
the two famous treatises which remain we have nothing less
important than the foundation on which all subsequent European
criticism has been raised. It does not appear that any of the
numerous disciples of Aristotle understood his attitude to litera-
ture, nor do the later philosophical schools offer much of interest.
The Neoplatonists, however, were occupied with analysis of the
Beautiful, on which both Proclus and Plotinus expatiated;
still more purely literary were some of the treatises of Porphyry.
There seems to be no doubt that Alexandria possessed, in the
third century, a vivid school of critic-grammarians; the names
of Zenodotus, of Crates and of Aristarchus were eminent in this
connexion, but of their writings nothing substantial has survived.
They were followed by the scholiasts, and they by the mere
rhetoricians of the last Greek schools, such as Hermogenes and
Aphthonius. In the 2nd century of our era, Dio Chrysostom,
Aristides of Smyrna, and Maximus of Tyre were the main
representatives of criticism, and they were succeeded by Philo-
stratus and Libanius. The most modern of post- Christian Greek
critics, however, is unquestionably Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
who leads up to Lucian and Cassius Longinus. The last-
mentioned name calls for special notice; in " the lovely and
magnificent personality of Longinus " we find the most in-
telligent judge of literature who wrote between Aristotle and the
moderns. His book On the Sublime (nept vipovs), probably
written about a.d. 260, and first printed in 1554, is of extreme
importance, while his intuitions and the splendour of his style
combine to lift Longinus to the highest rank among the critics
of the world.

In Roman literature criticism never took a very prominent
position. In early days the rhetorical works of Cicero and the
famous A rt of Poetry of Horace exhaust the category. During the
later Augustan period the only literary critic of importance was
the elder Seneca. Passing over the valuable allusions to the art
of writing in the poets, especially in Juvenal and Martial, we
reach, in the Silver Age, Quintilian, the most accomplished
of all the Roman critics. His Institutes of Oratory has been
described as the fullest and most intelligent application of
criticism to literature which the Latin world produced, and one
which places the name of Quintilian not far below those of
Aristotle and Longinus. He was followed by Aulus Gellius.

47o

CRITIUS— CRITOLAUS

by Macrobius (whose reputation was great in the middle ages),
by Servius (the great' commentator on Virgil), and, after a long
interval, by Martianus Capella. Latin criticism sank into mere
pedantry about rhetoric and grammar. This continued throughout
the Dark Ages, until the 13th century, when rhythmical treatises,
of which the Labyrinthus of Eberhard (1212?) and the Ars
rhythmica of John of Garlandia (John Garland) are the most
famous, came into fashion. These writings testified to a growing
revival of a taste for poetry.

It is, however, in the masterly technical treatise De vulgari
eloquio, generally attributed to Dante, the first printed (in
Italian) in 1 529, that modern poetical criticism takes its first step.
The example of this admirable book was not adequately followed;
throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, criticism is mainly
indirect and accidental. Boccaccio, indeed, is the only figure
worthy of mention, between Dante and Erasmus. With the
Renaissance came a blossoming of Humanist criticism in Italy,
producing such excellent specimens as the Sylvae of Poliziano,
the Poetics (1527) of Vida, and the Poetica of Trissino, the best
of a whole crop of critical works produced, often by famous
names, between 1525 and 1 560. These were followed by sounder
scholars and acuter theorists: by Scaliger with his epoch-
making Poetices (1561); by L. Castelvetro, whose Poetica (1570)
started the modern cultivation of the Unities and asserted the
value of the Epic; by Tasso with his Discorsi (1587); and by
Francesco Patrizzi in his Poetica (1586).

In France, the earliest and for a long time the most important
specimen of literary criticism was the Defense et illustration de
la langue franqaise, published in 1549 by Joachim du Bellay.
Ronsard, also, wrote frequently and ably on the art of poetry.
The theories of the Pleiade were summed up in the Art poetique
of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, which belongs to 1574 (though not
printed until 1605).

In England, the earliest literary critic of importance was
Thomas Wilson, whose Art of Rhetoric was printed in 1553,
and the earliest student of poetry, George Gascoigne, whose
Instruction appeared in 1575. Gascoigne is the first writer
who deals intelligently with the subject of English prosody.
He was followed by Thomas Drant, Harvey, Gosson, Lodge
and Sidney, whose controversial pamphlets belong to the period
between 1575 and 1580. Among Elizabethan " arts " or " de-
fences " of English poetry are to be mentioned those of William
Webbe (1586), George Puttenham (1589), Thomas Campion
(1602), and Samuel Daniel (1603). With the tractates of Ben
Jonson, several of them lost, the criticism of the Renaissance may
be said to close.

A new era began throughout Europe when Malherbe started,
about 1600, a taste for the neo-classic or anti-romantic school
of poetry, taking up the line which had been foreshadowed by
Castelvetro. Enfin Malherbe vint, and he was supported in his
revolution by Regnier, Vaugelas, Balzac, and finally by Corneille
himself, in his famous prefatory discourses. It was Boileau,
however, who more than any other man stood out at the close of
the 17 th century as the law-giver of Parnassus. The rules of the
neo-classics were drawn together and arranged in a system by
Rene Rapin, whose authoritative treatises mainly appeared
between 1668 and ^674. It is in writings of this man, and of
the Jesuits, Le Bossu and Bouhours, that the preposterous
rigidity of the formal classic criticism is most plainly seen. The
influence of these three critics was, however, very great through-
out Europe, and we trace it in the writings of Dryden, Addison
and Rymer. In the course of the 18th century, when the neo-
classic creed was universally accepted, Pope, Blair, Karnes,
Harris, Goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were its most dis-
tinguished exponents in England, while Voltaire, Buffon (to
whom we owe the phrase " the style is the man "), Marmontel,
La Harpe and Suard were the types of academic opinion in
France.

Modern, or more properly Romantic, criticism came in when
the neo-classic tradition became bankrupt throughout Europe
at the very close of the 18th century. It has been heralded in
Germany by the writings of Lessing, and in France by those of

Diderot. Of the reconstruction of critical opinion in the 19th
century it is impossible to speak here with any fulness, it is
contained in the record of the recent literature of each European
language. It is noticeable, in England, that the predominant
place in it was occupied, in violent contrast with Disraeli's
dictum, by those who had obviously not failed in imaginative
composition, by Wordsworth, by Shelley, by Keats, by Landor,
and pre-eminently by S. T. Coleridge, who was one of the most
penetrative, original and imaginative critics who have ever lived.
In France, the importance of Sainte-Beuve is not to be ignored
or even qualified; after manifold changes of taste, he remains
as much a master as he was a precursor. He was followed by
Theophile Gautier, Saint-Marc, Girardin, Paul de Saint Victor,
and a crowd of others, down to Taine and the latest school of
individualistic critics, comparable with Matthew Arnold, Pater,
and their followers in England.

See G. Saintsbury, A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1902-1904) ;
J. E. Spingarn, A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance
(2nd ed. 1908) ; Thery, Histoire des opinions litteraires (1849) ; J. A.
Symonds, The Revival of Learning (1877) ; Matthew Arnold, Essays
in Criticism, i. (1865), ii. (1868) ; Bourgoin, Les Mattres de la critique
au XVII' siecle (1889) ; Paul Hamelius, Die Kritik in der englischen
Literatur (1897); S. H. Butcher, The Poetics of Artistotle (1898);
H. L. Havell and Andrew Lang, Longinus on the Sublime (1890).
See also the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Matthew Arnold, F. Brunetiere,
Anatole France, Walter Pater, passim. (E. G.)

CRITIUS and NESIOTES, two Greek sculptors of uncertain
school, of the time of the Persian Wars. When Xerxes carried
away to Persia the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton made
by Antenor, Critius and Nesiotes were commissioned to replace
them. By the help of coins and reliefs, two statues at Naples,
wrongly restored as gladiators, have been identified as copies of
the tyrannicides of Critius; and to them well apply the words
in which Lucian {Rhetor, praecepta, 9) describes the works of
Critius and Nesiotes, " closely knit and sinewy, and hard and
severe in outline." Critius also made a statue of the armed
runner Epicharinus.

CRITOLAUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Phaselis in
the 2nd century B.C. He lived to the age of eighty-two and died
probably before in B.C. He studied philosophy under Aristo
of Ceos and became one of the leaders of the Peripatetic school
by his eminence as an orator, a scholar and a moralist. There
has been considerable discussion as to whether he was the
immediate successor of Aristo, but the evidence is confused and
unprofitable. In general he was a loyal adherent to the Peri-
patetic succession (cf. Cicero, De fin. v. 5 " C. imitari antiquos
voluit ") , though in some respects he went beyond his predecessors.
For example, he held that pleasure is an evil (Gellius, Nodes
Atticae, ix. 5. 6), and definitely maintained that the soul consists
of aether. The end of existence was to him the general perfection
of the natural life, including the goods of the soul and the body,
and also external goods. Cicero says in the Tusculans that the
goods of the soul entirely outweighed for him the other goods
(" tantum propendere illam bonorum animi lancem ")• Further,
he defended against the Stoics the Peripatetic doctrine of the
eternity of the world and the indestructibility of the human race.
There is no observed change in the natural order of things;
mankind re-creates itself in the same manner according to the
capacity given by Nature, and the various ills to which it is
heir, though fatal to individuals, do not avail to modify the
whole. Just as it is absurd to suppose that man is merely
earth-born, so the possibility of his ultimate destruction is
inconceivable. The world, as the manifestation of eternal order,
must itself be immortal. The life of Critolaus is not recorded.
One incident alone is preserved. From Cicero {Acad. ii. 45) it
appears that he was sent with Carneades and Diogenes to Rome
in 156-155 B.C. to protest against the fine of 500 talents imposed
on Athens in punishment for the sack of Oropus. The three
ambassadors lectured on philosophy in Rome with so much
success that Cato was alarmed and had them dismissed the
city. Gellius describes his arguments as scita et teretia.

Consult the article Peripatetics, and histories of ancient philo-
sophy, e.g. Zeller.

CRITTENDEN— CROATIA-SLAVONIA

471

CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN (1787-1863), American
statesman, was born in Versailles, Kentucky, on the 10th of
September 1787. After graduating at the College of William
and Mary in 1807, he began the practice of law in his native
state. He served for three months, in 1810, as attorney-general
of Illinois Territory, but soon returned to Kentucky, and during
the War of 181 2 he was for a time on the staff of General Isaac
Shelby. In 1811-1817 he served in the state House of Repre-
sentatives, being speaker in 1815-1816, and in 1817-1819 was a
United States senator. Settling in Frankfort, he soon took high
rank as a criminal lawyer, was in the Kentucky House of Repre-
sentatives in 1825 and 1829-1832, acting as speaker in the latter
period, and from 1827 to 1829 was United States district-attorney.
He was removed by President Jackson, to whom he was radically
opposed. In 1835, as a Whig, he was again elected to the United
States Senate, and was re-elected in 1841, but resigned to enter
the cabinet of President W. H. Harrison as attorney-general,
continuing after President Tyler's accession and serving from
March until September. He was again a member of the United
States Senate from 1842 to 1848, and in 1848-1850 was governor
of Kentucky. He was an ardent and outspoken supporter of
Clay's compromise measures, and in 1850 he entered President
Fillmore's cabinet as attorney-general, serving throughout the
administration. From 1855 to 1861 he was once more a member
of the United States Senate. During these years he was perhaps
the foremost champion of Union in the South, and strenuously
opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which he declared pro-
phetically would unite the various elements of opposition in the
North, and render the breach between the sections irreparable.
Nevertheless he laboured unceasingly in the cause of com-
promise, gave his strong support to the Bell and Everett ticket
in i860, and in 1860-1861 proposed and vainly contended for
the adoption by congress of the compromise measures which bear
his name. When war became inevitable he threw himself
zealously into the Union cause, and lent his great influence to
keep Kentucky in the Union. In 1861-1863 he was a member
of the national House of Representatives, where, while advocating
the prosecution of the war, he opposed such radical measures
as the division of Virginia, the enlistment of slaves and the
Conscription Acts. He died at Frankfort, Kentucky, on the
26th of July 1863.

See the Life of J. J. Crittenden, by his daughter Mrs Chapman
Coleman (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1871).

His son, George Bibb Crittenden (1812-1880), soldier, was
born in Russellville, Kentucky, on the 20th of March 1812, and
graduated at West Point in 1832, but resigned his commission
in 1833. He re-entered the army as a captain of mounted rifles
in the Mexican War, served with distinction, and was breveted
major for bravery at Contreras and Churubusco. After the
war he remained in the army, and in 1856 attained the rank
of lieutenant-colonel. In June 1861 he resigned, and entered
the service of the Confederacy. He was commissioned major-
general and given a command in south-east Kentucky and
Tennessee, but after the defeat of his forces by General George H.
Thomas at Mill Springs (January 9, 1862), he was censured and
gave up his command. He served subsequently as a volunteer
aide on the staff of Gen. John S. Williams. From 1867 to 1871
he was state librarian of Kentucky. He died at Danville,
Kentucky, on the 27th of November 1880.

Another son, Thomas Leonidas Crittenden (1815-1893),
soldier, was also born at Russellville, Kentucky. He studied
law, and practised with his father, and in 1842 became common-
wealth's attorney. He served in the Mexican War as a lieutenant-
colonel of Kentucky volunteers, and was an aide on Gen. Zachary
Taylor's staff at the battle of Buena Vista. From 1849 to
1853 he was United States consul at Liverpool, England. Like
his father, he was a strong Union man, and in September 1861
he was commissioned by President Lincoln a brigadier-general
of volunteers. He commanded a division at Shiloh, for gallantry
in which battle he was promoted major-general in July 1862.
He was in command of a corps in the army of the Ohio under
Gen. D. C. Buell, and took part in the battles of Stone River

and Chickamauga. Subsequently he served in the Virginia
campaign of 1864. He resigned his commission in December
1864, but in July 1866 entered the regular army with the rank
of colonel of infantry, receiving the brevet of brigadier-general
in r867, served on the frontier and in several Indian wars, and
retired in 1881. He died on the 23rd of October 1893.

CRIVELLI, CARLO, Venetian painter, was born in the earlier
part of the 1 5th century. The only dates that can with certainty
be given are 1468 and 1493; these are respectively the earliest
and the latest years signed on his pictures — the former on an
altar-piece in the church of San Silvestro at Massa near Fermo,
and the latter on a picture in the Oggioni collection in Milan.
Though born in Venice, Crivelli seems to have worked chiefly
in the March of Ancona, and especially in and near Ascoli;
there are only two pictures of his proper to a Venetian building,
both of these being in the church of San Sebastiano. He is said
to have studied under Jacobello del Fiore, who was painting as
late at any rate as 1436; at that time Crivelli was probably only
a boy . The latter always signed as ' ' Carolus Crivellus Venetus ' ' ;
from 1490 he added " Miles," having been then knighted
(" Cavaliere") by Ferdinand II. of Naples. He painted in
tempera only, and is seen to most advantage in subject pictures
of moderate size. He introduced agreeable landscape back-
grounds; and was particularly partial to giving fruits and
flowers (the peach is one of his favourite fruits) as accessories,
often in pendent festoons. The National Gallery in London is
well supplied with examples of Crivelli; the " Annunciation,"
and the " Beato Ferretti " (of the same family as Pope Pius IX.)
in religious ecstasy, may be specified. Another of his principal
pictures is in San Francesco di Matelica; in Berlin is a
" Madonna and Saints " (1491) ; in the Vatican Gallery a " Dead
Christ," and in the Brera of Milan the painter's own portrait,
with other examples. Crivelli is a painter of marked individu-
ality, — hard in form, crudely definite in contour; stern, forced,
energetic, almost grotesque and repellent, in feature and expres-
sion, and yet well capable of a prim sort of prettiness; simply
vigorous in his effect of detachment and relief, and sometimes
admitting into his pictures objects actually raised in surface;
distinct and warm in colour, with an effect at once harsh and
harmonious. His pictures gain by being seen in half-light, and
at some little distance; under favouring conditions they grip
the spectator with uncommon power. Few artists seem to have
worked with more uniformity of purpose, or more forthright
command of his materials, so far as they go. It is surmised that
Carlo was of the same family as the painters Donato Crivelli
(who was working in 1459, and was also a scholar of Jacobello)
and Vittorio Crivelli. Pietro Alamanni was his pupil.

See, along with Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Berenson, Venetian
Painters of the Renaissance (1899); Morelli, Italian Painters (1892-
1893); Rushforth, Carlo Crivelli (1900). (W. M. R.)

CROATIA-SLAVONIA (Serbo-Croatian Hrvatska i Slavonija;
Hung. Horvdt-Szlavonorszdg; Ger. Kroalien und Slawonien), a
kingdom of the Hungarian monarchy; bounded on the N. by
Carniola, Styria and Hungary proper; E. by Hungary and
Servia; S. by Servia, Bosnia and Dalmatia; and W. by the
Adriatic Sea, Istria and Carniola. Until 1881 Croatia, in the
N.W. of this region, was divided from Slavonia, in the N.E., by
a section of the Austrian Military Frontier. This section is now
the county of Bjelovar, and forms part of the united kingdom
of Croatia-Slavonia. The river Kulpa, which bisects the county
of Agram, is usually regarded as the north-eastern limit of the
Balkan Peninsula; and thus the greater part of Croatia, lying
south of this river, falls within the peninsular boundary, while
the remainder, with all Slavonia, belongs to the continental
mainland. According to the official survey of 1900, the total
area of the country is 16,423 sq. m. The Croatian littoral extends
for about 90 m. from Fiume to the Dalmatian frontier. A
narrow strait, the Canale della Morlacca (or della Montagna),
separates it from Veglia, Arbe, Pago and other Istrian or Dal-
matian islands. The city and territories of Fiume, the sole
important harbour on this coast, are included in Hungary proper,
and controlled by the Budapest government. Westward from

472

CROATIA-SLAVONIA

Warasdin, and along the borders of Styria, Carniola, Istria,
Dalmatia and north-western Bosnia, the frontier is generally
mountainous and follows an irregular course. The central and
eastern region, situated between the Drave and Danube on the
north, and the Save on the south, forms one long wedge, with its
point at Semlin.

Physical Features. — Croatia-Slavonia is naturally divided
into two great sections, the highlands of the west and the low-
lands of the east.

The plateau of the Istrian Karst is prolonged in several of
the bare and desolate mountain chains between the Save and
the Adriatic, notably the Great and Little Kapella (or Kapela),
which link together the Karst and the Dinaric Alps, culminating
in Biela Lazica (5029 ft.); the Pljesevica or Plisevica Planina
(5410 ft.), overlooking the valley of the river Una ; and the
Velebit Planina, which follows the westward curve of the coast,
and rises above the sea in an abrupt wall, unbroken by any
considerable bay or inlet. As it skirts the Dalmatian border,
this range attains its greatest altitude in the adjacent peaks of
Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). Large
tracts of the Croatian highlands are well-nigh waterless, and it
is only in the more sheltered hoik ws that sufficient soil collects
for large trees to flourish. In northern Croatia and Slavonia
the mountains are far more fertile, being often densely wooded
with oaks, beeches and pines. They comprise the Uskoken
Gebirge, or Uskoks Mountains, named after the piratical Uskoks
(q.v.) of Zengg, who were deported hither after the fall of their
stronghold in 161 7; the Warasdin Mountains, with the peak
of Ivanscica (3478 ft.); the Agram Mountains, culminating in
Sljeme or Slema (3396 ft.), and including the beautiful stretches
of Alpine pasture known as the Zagorje, or " land beyond the
hills "; the Bilo Gebirge, or White Mountains, a low range of
chalk, and, farther to the south, several groups of mountains,
among which Psunj (3228 ft.), Papuk (3217 ft.) Crni Vrh (2833
ft.), and the Ravna Gora (2808 ft.) are the chief summits. All
these ranges, except the Uskoken Gebirge, constitute the central
watershed of the kingdom, between the Drave and Save. In
the east Slavonian county of Syrmia 1 the Fruska Gora or
Vrdnik Mountains rise to a height of 1768 ft. along the southern
bank of the Danube, their picturesque vineyards and pine or
oak woods contrasting strongly with the plains that surround
them.

The lowlands, in the valleys of the Drave, Danube, Save and
Kulpa, belong partly to the great Hungarian Plains, or Alfold.
Besides the sterile and monotonous steppes, valuable only as
pasture, and so sparsely populated that it is possible to travel
for many hours without encountering any sign of human life
except a primitive artesian well or a shepherd's hut, there are
wide expanses of fen-country, regularly flooded in spring and
autumn. The marshes which line the Save below Sissek are
often impassable except at Brod and Mitrovica, and the river
is constantly scooping out fresh channels in the soft soil, only to
abandon each in turn. The total area liable to yearly inundation
exceeds 200 sq. m. But along the Drave and Danube the plains
are sometimes strikingly fertile, and yield an abundance of grain,
fruit and wine.

The main rivers of Croatia-Slavonia, the Danube, Drave
and Save, are fully described under separate headings. After
reaching Croatian territory 13 m. N.W. of Warasdin, the Drave
flows along the northern frontier for 155 m., receiving the
Bednja and Karasnica on the right, and falling, near Esseg,
into the Danube, which serves as the Hungaro-Slavonian
boundary for an additional 1 16 m. The Save enters the country
16 m. W. of Agram, and, after winding for 106 m. S.E. to Jase-
novac, constitutes the southern frontier for 253 m., and meets
the Danube at Belgrade. It is joined by the Sotla, Krapina,
Lonja, Ilova, Pakra and Oljana, which drain the central water-
shed; but its only large tributaries are the Una, a Bosnian
stream, which springs in the Dinaric Alps, and skirts the Croatian
border for 40 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac ; and

1 Also written Sirmia and Sirmium; Serbo-Croatian Sriem;
Hungarian Szerem.

the Kulpa, which follows a tortuous course of 60 m. from its
headwaters north of Fiume, to its confluence with the Save at
Sissek. The Mreznica, Dobra, Glina and Korana are right-hand
tributaries of the Kulpa. In the Croatian Karst the seven
streams of the Lika unite and plunge into a rocky chasm near
Gospic, and the few small brooks of this region usually vanish
underground in a similar manner. Near Fiume, the Recina,
Rjeka or Fiumara falls into the Adriatic after a brief course.
There is no large lake in Croatia-Slavonia, but the upland pools
and waterfalls of Plitvica, near Ogulin, are celebrated for their
beauty. After a thaw or heavy rain, the subterranean rivers
flood the mountain hollows of the Karst; and a lake thus formed
by the river Gajka, near Otocac, has occasionally filled its basin
to a depth of 160 ft.

Minerals. — The mineral resources of the kingdom, though capable
of further development, are not rich. They are chiefly confined to
the mountains, where iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc, silver and
sulphur are mined in small quantities. Warm mineral springs rise
at Krapina, at Toplice near Warasdin, at Stubica near Agram, and
elsewhere.

Climate. — The climate of Croatia-Slavonia varies greatly in
different regions. In the Karst it is liable to sudden and violent
changes, and especially to the bora, a fierce N.N.E. wind, which
renders navigation perilous among the islands off the coast, and, in
winter, blocks the roads and railway-cuttings with deep snowdrifts.
The sheltered bays near Fiume enjoy an equable climate; but in all
other districts the temperature in mid-winter falls regularly below
zero, and the summer heats are excessive. Earthquakes are common
among the mountains, and the eastern lowlands are exposed to the
great winds and sandstorms which sweep down the Alfold. At
Agram, during the years 1896-1900, the mean annual temperature
was 52° F., with 34-6 in. of rain and snow; at Fiume, the figures
for the same period were 57° and 71 in.

Agriculture. — The agricultural inquiry of 1895 showed that 94.5 %
of the country consisted of arable land, gardens, vineyards, meadows,
pastures and forests; but much of this area must be set down as
mountainous and swampy pasture of poor quality. The richest land
occurs in the Zagorje and its neighbourhood, in the hills near Waras-
din and in the northern half of Syrmia. The Karst and the fens are
of least agricultural value. Indian corn heads the list of cereals,
but wheat, oats, rye and barley are also cultivated, besides hemp,
flax, tobacco and large quantities of potatoes. The extensive vine-
yards were much injured by phylloxera towards the close of the
19th century. The Slavonian plum orchards furnish dried prunes,
besides a kind of brandy largely exported under the name of sliwowitz
or shlivovitsa. Near Fiume the orange, lemon, pomegranate, fig
and olive bear well ; mulberries are planted on many estates for
silkworms ; and the heather-clad uplands of the central region
favour the keeping of bees. Large herds of swine fatten in the oak
and beech forests; and dairy-farming is a thriving industry in the
highlands between Agram and Warasdin, where, during the last
years of the 19th century, systematic attempts were made to replace
the mountain pastures by clover and sown grass. The proportion
of sheep to other live-stock is lower than in most of the South Slavonic
lands, and the scarcity of goats is also noteworthy. Horsebreeding
is a favourite pursuit in Slavonia; and between 1900 and 1902
many thousands of remounts were shipped to the British army in
South Africa. The local administration endeavours to better the
quality ot live-stock by importing purer breeds, distributing prizes,
and other measures; but the native farmers are slow to accept
improvements.

Forests. — Forests, principally of oak, pine and beech, covered
3,734,000 acres in 1895, about one-fifth being state property. Especi-
ally valuable are the Croatian oak-forests, near Agram and Sissek.
Timber is exported from Fiume and down the Danube.

Industries. — Apart from the distilleries and breweries scattered
throughout the country, the rude flour-mills which lie moored in the
rivers, and a few glass-works, saw-mills, silk-mills and tobacco
factories, the chief industrial establishments of Croatia-Slavonia
are at Agram, Fiume, Semlin, Buccari and Porto Re. Only 8-3 of
the population was, in 1900, engaged in industries other than
farming, which occupied 85-2 %. The exports mainly consist of
foodstuffs, especially grain, of live-stock, especially pigs and horses,
and of timber. The imports include textiles, iron, coal, wine and
colonial products; with machinery and other finished articles.
Goods in transit to and from Hungary figure largely in the official
returns for Fiume 2 and Semlin, which are the centres of the
foreign trade. In 1900 Croatia-Slavonia possessed 253 banking
establishments.

Communications. — The commerce of the country is furthered by
upwards of 2000 m. of carriage-roads, the most remarkable of these

2 It is impossible to exclude Fiume from any survey of Croatian
trade, although Fiume belongs politically to Hungary proper, and
is the main outlet for Hungarian emigration and maritime commerce.

CROATIA-SLAVONIA

473

being the Maria Louisa, which connects Karlstadt with Fiume, and
the Josephina, which passes inland from Zengg. Many excellent
highways were built for strategic purposes before the abolition of
the Military Frontier in 1881. The railways, which are all owned
and managed by the Hungarian state, intersect most parts of the
country except the mountains south of Ogulin, where there is,
nevertheless, a considerable traffic over the passes into Dalmatia
and Bosnia. Agram is the principal railway centre, from which
lines radiate S. W. to Fiume, W. into Austria, N.N.E. to Warasdin
and into Hungary, and S.E. into Bosnia by way of Kostajnica.
The main line eastward from Agram passes through Brod, where it
meets the Bosnian system, and on to Belgrade ; throwing out two
branch lines to Brcka and Samac in Bosnia, and several branches
on the north, which traverse the central watershed, and cross the
Hungarian frontier at Zakany, Bares, Esseg, Erdar and Peterwardein.
Above Agram the Save is used chiefly for floating rafts of timber;
east of Sissek it is navigable by small steamboats, but, despite its
great volume, the multitude of its perpetually shifting sandbanks
interferes greatly with traffic. Steamers also ply on the Una, the
Drave below Bares, and the Danube. The marshes of Syrmia are
partially drained by the so-called " Canal of Probus," the one large
artificial waterway in the country, said to have been cut by the
Romans in the 3rd century.

Chief Towns. — The principal towns are Agram, the capital,
with 61,002 inhabitants in 1900; Esseg, the capital of Slavonia
(24,930); Semlin (15,079) ; Mitrovica (11,518) ; Warasdin (12,930) ;
Karlstadt (7396); Brod (7310); Sissek (7047); Djakovo (6824);
Karlowitz (5643); Peterwardein (5019); Zengg (3182); and
Buccari (1870). These are described in separate articles. The
centre of the coasting trade is Novi, and other small seaports are
San Giorgio (Sveto Juraj), Porto Re (Kraljevica) and Carlopago.
Agram, Gospic (10,799), Ogulin (8699), Warasdin and Bjelovar
(6056) are respectively the capitals of the five counties which belong
to Croatia proper, — Agram (Hung. Zdgrdb), Modrus-Fiume, Lika-
Krbava, Warasdin {Varasd) and Bjelovar (Belov&r-Koros); while
the capitals of the three Slavonian counties, Virovitica (Verocze),
Pozega (Pozsega) and Syrmia (Szerem), are Esseg, Pozega (5000)
and Semlin.

Population and National Characteristics. — The population rose
from 1,892,499 in 1881 to 2,416,304 in 1900, an increase of
little less than one-third, resulting from a uniformly low death
rate, with a high marriage and birth rate, and characterized
by that preponderance of male over female children which is
common to all the South Slavonic lands. More than 75% of the
inhabitants are Croats, the bulk of the remainder being Serbs,
who predominate in eastern Slavonia. Outside Croatia-SIavonia,
the Croats occupy the greater part of Dalmatia and northern
Bosnia. There are large Croatian settlements in the south of
Hungary, and smaller colonies in Austria. The numbers of the
whole nation may be estimated at 3,500,000 or 4,000,000. The
distinction between Croats and Serbs is religious, and, to a less
extent, linguistic. Croats and Serbs together constitute a single
branch of the Slavonic race, frequently called the Serbo-Croatian
branch. The literary language of the two nations is identical,
but the Croats use the Latin alphabet, 1 while the Serbs prefer
a modified form of the Cyrillic. The two nations have also been
politically separated since the 7th century, if not for a longer
period; but this division has produced little difference of
character or physical type. Even the costume of the Croatian
peasantry, to whom brilliant colours and intricate embroideries
are always dear, proclaims their racial identity with the Serbs;
their songs, dances and musical instruments, the chief part of
their customs and folk-lore, their whole manner of life, so little
changed by its closer contact with Western civilization, may
be studied in Servia (q.v.) itself. In both countries rural society
was based on the old-fashioned household community, or zadruga,
which still survives in the territories that formed the Military
Frontier, though everywhere tending to disappear and be
replaced by individual ownership. The Croatian peasantry
are least prosperous in the riverside districts, where marsh-
fevers prevail, and especially beside the Save. Even in many
of the towns the houses are mere cabins of wood and thatch.
As in Servia, there is practically no middle class between the
peasants and the educated minority; and the commercial
element consists to a great extent of foreigners, especially
Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Jews. Numerically this

1 It is important to notice the value of the following letters and
signs, which recur frequently: — c = ls; c=ch (hard); £ = ch (soft);
i = y, orj in German ; $ = sh; z=zh, or j in French.

alien population is insignificant. The Italians are chiefly
confined to the coast; the Germans congregate at Semlin and
Warasdin; the Slovenes are settled along the north-western
frontier, where they have introduced their language, and so
greatly modified the local dialect; the gipsies wander from city
to city, as horse-dealers, metal workers or musicians; there are
numerous Moravian and Bohemian settlements; and near
Mitrovica there is a colony of Albanians. It is impossible to
give accurate statistics of the alien population; for, in the
compilation of the official figures, language is taken as a test
of nationality, an utterly untrustworthy method in a country
where every educated person speaks two or three languages.
Croatian nationalists also maintain that official figures are
systematically altered in the Hungarian interest.

Constitution and Government. — By the fundamental law of the
21st of December 1867 Austria-Hungary was divided, for pur-
poses of internal government, into Cisleithania, or the Austrian
empire, and Transleithania, or the kingdoms of Hungary and
Croatia-SIavonia. In theory the viceroy, or ban of Croatia-
SIavonia is nominated by the crown, and enjoys almost unlimited
authority over local affairs; in practice the consent of the crown
is purely formal, and the ban is appointed by the Hungarian
premier, who can dismiss him at any moment. The provincial
government is subject to the ban, and comprises three ministries
— the interior, justice, and religion and education, — for whose
working the ban is responsible to the Hungarian premier, and to
the national assembly of Croatia-SIavonia (Narodna SkupStina).
This body consists of a single chamber, composed partly of
elected deputies, partly of privileged members, whose numbers
cannot exceed half those of the deputies. There are 69 con-
stituencies, besides the 21 royal free cities which also return
deputies. Electors must belong to certain professions or pay a
small tax. The privileged members are the heads of the nobility,
with the highest ecclesiastics and officials. As a rule, they
represent the " Magyarist " section of society, which sympathizes
with Hungarian policy. The chamber deals with religion,
education, justice and certain strictly provincial affairs, but
even within this limited sphere all its important enactments
must be countersigned by the minister for Croatia-SIavonia,
a member, without portfolio, of the Hungarian cabinet. At
the polls, all votes are given orally, a system which facilitates
corruption; the officials who control the elections depend for
their livelihood on the ban, usually a Magyarist; and thus,
even apart from the privileged members, a majority favourable
to Hungary can usually be secured. The constitutional relations
between Hungary and Croatia-SIavonia are regulated by the
agreement, or nagoda, of 1868. This instrument determines the
functions of the ban; the control of common interests, such as
railways, posts, telegraphs, telephones, commerce, industry,
agriculture or forests; and the choice of delegates by the
chamber, to sit in the Hungarian parliament. See also below,
under History. ■

For administrative purposes Croatia-SIavonia is divided into 8
rural counties, already enumerated; besides the 4 urban counties,
or municipalities of Agram, Semlin, Warasdin and Esseg. incal
These are subdivided into rural and urban communes, adminls-
each with its representative council. The affairs of each tratlon.
rural county are managed by an assembly chosen for 6
years, which comprises not only elected members, but delegates
from all the cities except Agram and Esseg, with certain high
ecclesiastics and officials.

The highest judicial authority is the supreme court or Septemviral
Table, which sits at Agram, and ranks above the royal Justice.
courts of appeal, the county courts of first instance,
and the district courts or magistracies.

Fully four-fifths of the population belong to the Roman Catholic
Church, which has an archbishop at Agram and bishops at Zengg
and Djakovo. There are about 12,000 Greek Catholics, Religion.
with a bishop at Kreuz (Krizevac). The Serb congrega-
tions, who had previously been classed as Orthodox Greek, were
officially recognized as members of the Orthodox Church of Servia
after 1883. Their episcopal sees of Karlowitz and Pakrac depend
upon the metropolitanate of Belgrade; but from 1830 to 1838
Karlowitz was itself the headquarters of the Servian Church.

During the 19th century strenuous efforts to better the state of
education were made by Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) and other

474

CROATIA-SLAVONIA

reformers; but, although some success was achieved, only one-third
of the population could read and write in 1900. Foremost among the
educational institutions is the South Slavonic Academy
Educa- Q f Sciences and Arts (Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti
*""'• i Umjetnosti), founded by Strossmayer and others in

1867, as an improvement on a learned society which had existed
since 1836. The academy is the headquarters of the nationalist
propaganda. Its numerous publications, though sometimes biased
by political passion, throw much light on Serbo-Croatian history,
law, philology and kindred topics. Agram University, founded in
1874, possesses three faculties — theology, philosophy and law;
but, unlike other Hungarian universities, it lacks a faculty of medi-
cine. Its average number of students varies from 300 to 350. In
1900 there were also 19 real-gymnasia, teaching science, art and
modern languages, as well as classics and mathematics; 1400
elementary schools ; and a few special institutions, such as the naval
and military academies of Fiume, ecclesiastical seminaries and
commercial colleges. In almost every case the language of instruc-
tion is Serbo-Croatian. The development of higher education,
without a corresponding advance of technical education, has created
an intellectual class, comprising many men of letters, and several
painters, musicians and sculptors, though none of great eminence;
it also tends to produce many aspirants to official or professional
careers, who find employment difficult to obtain. The want of a
strong native middle class may partly be traced to this tendency.

History.

Medieval historians did not use the terms Croatia and Slavonia
in their present sense. The Croatia of the middle ages comprised
north-western Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, and the region now
known as Upper Croatia. The whole country between the Drave
and Save, thus including a large part of modern Croatia, was
called in Latin Slavonia, in German Windisches Land, and in
Hungarian Totorszdg, to distinguish it from the territories in
which the Croats were racially supreme (Horvdtorszdg) . At the
time of their conquest by the Romans (35 B.C.) both these
divisions were occupied by the Pannonians, who in Slavonia had
displaced an older population, the Scordisci; and both were
included in the Roman province of Pannonia Inferior, although
Slavonia had the distinctive name of Pannonia Savia (see
Pannonia). When the Roman dominions were broken up in
a.d. 395, Croatia-Slavonia remained part of the Western empire.
The Ostrogoths overran it in 489; in 535 it was annexed by
Justinian; in 568 it was conquered by the Avars. These were
in turn expelled from Croatia by the Croats, a Slavonic people
from the western Carpathians, who, according to some authorities,
had occupied the territories of the Marcomanni in Bohemia,
and been driven thence in the 6th century by the Czechs. The
main body of the Croats, whose tribal and racial names respec-
tively are perpetuated in the names of Croatia and Slavonia,
entered Croatia between 634 and 638, and were encouraged by
the emperor Heraclius to attack the Avars. Smaller bodies had
led the way southwards since 548. The Croats formed the
western division of the great migratory horde of Serbo-Croats
which colonized the lands between Bulgaria and the Adriatic.
Contemporary chroniclers called them Chrobati, Belochrobati
("White Croats"), Chrovati, Horvati, or by some similar Latin
or Byzantine variant of the Slavonic Khrvaly. The Croats
occupied most of the region now known as Croatia-Slavonia,
Dalmatia, and north-western Bosnia, displacing or absorbing
the earlier inhabitants everywhere except along the Dalmatian
littoral, where the Italian city-states usually maintained their
independence, and in certain districts of Slavonia, where, out
of a mixed population of Slavonic immigrants, Avars and
Pannonians, the Slavs, and especially the Serbo-Croats, gradually
became predominant. The Croats brought with them their
primitive tribal institutions, organized on a basis partly military,
partly patriarchal, and identical with the Zhupanates of the
Serbs (see Servia); agriculture, war and hunting were their
chief pursuits. Although they at first acknowledged no alien
sovereign, they passed gradually under Italian influence in the
extreme west, and under Byzantine influence in the south and
south-east. In 806 the northern and north-eastern districts
were added to the empire of the Franks, and thus won for the
Western Church. Frankish predominance was long commem-
orated by the name Francochorion, given by the Byzantines

to Syrmia; it is still commemorated by the name Fruska Gora,
" Mountains of the Franks," in that province.

The Croatian Kingdom: c. gio-iogi. — In 877 the Croats
were temporarily subdued by the Byzantine emperor, but after
successive insurrections which tended to centralize their loosely
knit tribal organization, and to place all power in the hands of
a military chief, they regained their independence and founded
a national kingdom about 910. It is probable that Tomislav or
Timislav, who had led their armies to victory, assumed the title
of king in that year. Some authorities, however, state that
Tomislav only bore the title of veliki zupan or "paramount chief,"
and was only one in a long line of princes which can be traced
without interruption back to 818. On this view, Drzislav
(c. 978-1000) was the first king properly so called. But Tomislav,
whatever his official style, was certainly the first of a series of
independent national rulers which lasted for nearly two centuries.
The records of this period, regarded by many Croats as the golden
age of their country, are often scanty, and its chronology is still
unsettled. Little is known of Trpimir, who preceded Drzislav,
or of Stephen I. (1035-1058), but a few of the kings gained a more
lasting fame by their success in war and diplomacy. Among
these were Kresimir I. (c. 940-946), his successor Miroslav, and
especially Kresimir II., surnamed the Great (c. 1000-1035),
who harried the Bulgarians, at that time a powerful nation, and
conquered a large part of Dalmatia, including some of the
Italian cities. Already, under his predecessors, the Croats had
built a fleet, which they used first for piracy and afterwards for
trade. Their skill in maritime affairs, exemplified first in the
9th century by the pagan corsairs of the Narenta (see Dalmatia:
History), and later by the numerous Dalmatian and Croatian
sailors who served in the navies of Venice and Austria, is remark-
able in a Slavonic people, and one which had so recently migrated
from central Europe. At the end of the 10th century they even
for a short period exacted tribute from Venice, but their power
was temporarily destroyed in 1000, when the Venetians captured
and sacked Biograd or Belgrade, the Italian Zaravecchia. This
Dalmatian port was not only the Croatian arsenal, but the seat
of the kings, who here sought to enhance their dignity by borrow-
ing the grandiose titles and elaborate procedure of the Byzantine
court. Kresimir II. and Kresimir Peter (c. 1058-1073), the hero
of many national legends and lays, restored the naval power of
the Croats. After the death of Kresimir Peter, Slavic or Slaviza
reigned until 1076, when he was succeeded by Zvonimir (Svinimir
or Zvoinimir) Demetrius. Zvonimir was crowned by the legate
of Pope Gregory VII., and appears to have been regarded as a
vassal of the papacy. Both he and Stephen II., a nephew of
Kresimir II., died in 1089.

Hungarian Supremacy: iogi-c. 1526. — Amid the strife of
rival claimants to the throne, Helena, the widow of Stephen,
appealed for aid to her brother Ladislaus I., king of Hungary.
Ladislaus took possession of the country in 109 1. He founded
the bishopric of Agram and introduced Hungarian law. His
death in 1095 was the signal for a nationalist insurrection, but
after two years the rebels were crushed by his successor Coloman.
This monarch reorganized the administration on a system which
has been maintained, with modifications in detail, by almost
all subsequent rulers. He respected the existing institutions of
the conquered territory so far as to leave its autonomy in domestic
affairs intact; but delegated his own sovereignty, and especially
the control of foreign affairs and war, to a governor known as
the ban (q.v.). This office was sometimes held by princes of
the royal house, often by Croatian nobles. Coloman also
extended his authority over Dalmatia and the islands of the
Quarnero, but the best modern. authorities reject the tradition
that in 1102 he was crowned king of Croatia, Slavonia and
Dalmatia. In 1127 Syrmia, which had been annexed to Bulgaria
from about 700 to 1018, and to the Eastern empire from 1019,
was united to Slavonia. The Hungarian government left much
liberty to the Croatian nobles, a turbulent and fanatical class,
ever ready for civil war, rebellion or a campaign against the
Bosnian heretics. Their most powerful leaders were the counts
of Zrin and Bribir (or Brebir), whose surname was Subid. This

CROATIA-SLAVONIA

475

family played an important part in local politics from the 13 th
century to 1670, when Peter Subic was its last member to hold
the office of ban. Paul Subic (d. 1312) and Mladen Subic (d. 1322)
even for a short period united Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia and part
of Dalmatia under their own rule. From 1322 to 1326 the
Croatian nobles successfully withstood the armies of Hungary
and Bosnia; from 1337 to 1340, instigated by the Vatican, they
carried on a crusade against the Bosnian Bogomils; and in the
Krajina (Turkish Croatia) hostilities were resumed at intervals
until the Turkish conquest.

The Turkish Occupation: c. 1526-1718. — Here, as elsewhere,
the Ottoman invasion was facilitated by the feuds of the Christian
sects. When King Matthias Corvinus undertook to defend
Slavonia in 1490 it was too late; Matthias lost Syrmia and died
in the same year. His successor Ladislaus of Poland (1490-1 516)
added Slavonia to the kingdoms named in the royal title, which
now included the words " King of Dalmatia and Croatia and
Slavonia" (Rex Dalmatiae et Croatiae et Slavoniae). But he
failed to repel the Turks, who in 1526 destroyed the power of
Hungary at .the battle of Mohacs. In 1527 the Croats were
compelled to swear allegiance to Ferdinand I. of Austria, who
had been elected king of Hungary. Ferdinand founded the
generalcy of Karlstadt and thus laid the foundation of the
military frontier. The provinces of Agram, Warasdin and
Kreutz, previously included in Slavonia, were added to Croatia,
to counterbalance the loss of territory in the Krajina. Through-
out the century the Turks continued to extend their conquests
until, in 1606, the emperor retained only western Croatia, with
the cities of Agram, Karlstadt, Warasdin and Zengg. During
the same period the doctrines of the Reformation had spread
among the Croats; but they were forcibly suppressed in 1607-
1610. The military occupation by the Turks left little perma-
nent impression; colonization was never attempted; and the
continuous wars by which the victors strove to secure or enlarge
their dominions north of the Save left no time for the introduction
of Moslem religion or civilization among the vanquished. Thus
in the reconquest of Croatia-Slavonia there was none of the
local opposition which afterwards hindered the Austrian occupa-
tion of Bosnia. The successes of Prince Eugene in 1697 led
two years later to the peace of Carlowitz, by which the Turks
ceded the greater part of Slavonia and Hungary to Austria;
and the remainder was surrendered in 171 8 by the treaty of
Passarowitz. Only Turkish Croatia henceforth remained part of
the Ottoman empire.

Austrian and French Supremacy: 1718- 1814. — Austrian
influence predominated throughout Croatia-Slavonia during
most of the 18th century, although Slavonia was constitutionally
regarded as belonging to Hungary. Despite Magyar protests
the misleading name " Croatia " was popularly and even in
official documents applied to the whole country, including the
purely Slavonian provinces of Virovitica, Pozega and Syrmia.
From 1767 to 1777 Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were col-
lectively named Illyria, and governed from Vienna, but each of
these divisions was subsequently declared a separate kingdom,
with a separate administration, while the military frontier
remained under military rule. In 1776 the Croatian seaboard,
which had previously been under the same administration as
the rest of the Austrian coast, was annexed to Croatia, but three
years later Fiume was declared an integral part of Hungary.
These administrative changes, and especially the brief existence
of united " Illyria," stimulated the dormant nationalism of the
Croats and their jealousy of the Magyars. In 1809 Austria
was forced to surrender to Napoleon a large part of Croatia,
with Dalmatia, Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca.
These territories received the name of the Ulyrian Provinces,
and remained under French rule until 1813. All the Croats
capable of service were enrolled under the French flag; their
country was divided for administrative purposes into Croatie
civile and Croatie militaire. In 1814 Dalmatia was incorporated
in Austria, while Istria, Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz and Gradisca
became the Ulyrian kingdom of Austria, and retained their
united government until 1849, Croatia and Slavonia were

declared appanages of the Hungarian crown — partes adnexae t
or subject provinces, according to the Magyars; regna soda,
or allied kingdoms, according to their own view. Each phrase
afterwards became the watchword of a political party: neither
is accurate. The Croats preserved their local autonomy, the
use of their language for official purposes, their elected diet and
other ancient institutions, but Hungarian control was represented
by the ban.

The National Revival. — The Croats acquiesced in their position
of inferiority until 1840, when the Magyars endeavoured to
introduce Hungarian as the official language. A nationalist
or " Illyrist " party was formed under Count Draskovic and
Bishop J. Strossmayer (q.v.) to combat Hungarian influence
and promote the union of the " Ulyrian " Slavs, i.e. the Slovenes,
Croats and Serbs. Ljudevit Gaj, the leading Croatian publicist,
strongly supported the movement. The elections of 1842 were
marked by a series of sanguinary conflicts between Illyrists
and Magyarists, but not until 1848 were the Illyrists returned to
office. One of their leaders, Baron Josef Jellachich, was appointed
ban in 1848. He strongly advocated the union of Croatia with
Carinthia, Carniola and Styria, but found his policy thwarted
as much by the apathy of the Slovenes as by the hostility of the
Magyars. A Croatian deputation was received at Innsbruck
by Ferdinand V., but before its arrival the Hungarians had
obtained a royal manifesto hostile to Illyrism. But failure only
increased the agitation among the southern Slavs; all attempts
at mediation proved unsuccessful, and on the 31st of August
the Croats claimed to have convinced the king that justice was
on their side. On the nth of September the advance-guard of
their army crossed the Drave under the command of Jellachich.
On the 29th they were driven back from Pakozd by the
Hungarians, and retired towards Vienna; they subsequently
aided the Austrian army against the Hungarian revolutionaries
(see Jellachich, Josef, and Hungary: History). The consti-
tution of 1849 proclaimed Croatia and Slavonia separated from
Hungary and united as a single Austrian crownland, to which
was annexed the Croatian littoral, including Fiume. Austrian
supremacy lasted until 1867; no ban was appointed, and owing
to the suspension of local autonomy from 1850 to i860 this
period is known as " the ten years of reaction." It was ended
by the celebrated " October Diploma " of the 20th of October
i860, which promised the restoration of constitutional liberty.
But the so-called "Constitution of February" (21st February
1 861) placed all practical power in the hands of an executive
controlled by the government at Vienna. The newly elected
diet was soon dissolved for its advocacy of a great South Slavonic
confederation under imperial rule, and no other was elected
until 1865.

From 1865 to 1867 Strossmayer and the nationalists en-
deavoured to secure the formation of a subordinate Austrian
kingdom comprising Dalmatia, Croatia-Slavonia and the
islands of the Quarnero. The Magyars had, however, resolved
to subject Croatia-Slavonia to the crown of St Stephen, and in
i867had secured control of the finances and electoral machinery
The office of ban was revived, and its holder, Baron Levin Rauch,
was an ardent Magyarist. At the elections of December 1867
a majority of Hungarian partisans was easily obtained, and
on the 29th of January the diet passed a resolution in favour
of reunion with Hungary. The whole Opposition refused to
take any part in the proceedings, as a protest against the alleged
illegality of the elections; but by the 25th of June the Croatian
commissioners and the Hungarian government had framed a
new constitution, which was ratified in September. Besides
substituting Hungarian for Austrian sovereignty, it provided
that the diet and the ban should control local affairs, subject
to the Croatian minister in the Hungarian cabinet, and that
Croatia-Slavonia should pay 55% of its revenue to Hungary for
mutual and imperial expenses, but should be represented in
the Hungarian parliament by thirty-six delegates, and should
continue to use Serbo-Croatian as the official language. Hungary
guaranteed that the 45% retained by the territorial government
should be not less than two and a half million gulden (£250,000).

47 6

CROATIA-SLAVONIA

In May 1870 Fiume was annexed to Hungary, but in 1873 the
Croats received as compensation an increase of their guaranteed
revenue to £350,000, an addition of seven to the number of their
representatives at Budapest, and a promise that the military
frontier should be incorporated in the existing civil provinces.
In 1877 a convention with Hungary regulated the control of
public estates in the military frontier, and on the 15th of July
1881 the frontier, including the district of Sichelburg claimed
by Carniola, was handed over to the local administration.

Meanwhile the events of 187 5-1878 in the Balkans, culminating
in the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, revived
the agitation for a " Great Croatia." A party separate from
the regular Opposition, and known as the "Party of the Right,"
was formed to oppose the Magyarists. Its activity resulted
in the riots of 1883, which were with difficulty quelled; in 1885
its leader, N. Starcevic, was condemned to imprisonment for
the violence of his speeches against the ban, Count Khuen-
Hedervary. In 1888 the moderate Opposition also lost its
leader, Bishop Strossmayer, who was censured by the king on
account of his famous Panslavist telegram to the Russian Church
(see Strossmayer). In 1889 the financial agreement with
Hungary was revised and the contribution of Croatia-Slavonia
to the expenses shared with Hungary or common to the whole
of the Dual Monarchy was raised by 1 %. This added
burden combined with bad harvests, a fall in the revenue and a
deficit in the budget to heighten popular discontent. Count
Khuen-Hedervary was responsible for several administrative
improvements, but the prosperity of the country declined from
year to year. The government was accused of illegal inter-
ference with the elections, with the use of the Hungarian arms
and language in official documents, and with undue harshness
in the censorship of the press. In May 1903 there were outbreaks
of rioting in Agram, Sissek and other towns, besides serious
agrarian disturbances directed against the Magyarist land-
owners; in a debate in the Reichsrath (18th May) an Austrian
deputy named Bianchini unsuccessfully attempted to induce the
imperial government to intervene. At the end of June Count
Khuen-Hedervary was made Hungarian prime minister; Count
T. Pejacevic succeeded him as ban, and restored quiet by
promising freedom of assembly and greater liberty of the press.
Since 1898 the financial agreement had only been renewed from
year to year. But the estimates for 1904 revealed another
heavy deficit; and this was only paid by Hungary on condition
that the' agreement should be renewed until the 31st of December
1913, and the contribution of 56% maintained.

The constitutional crisis of 1905 in Hungary stimulated the
nationalist agitation. A congress of Croatian and Dalmatian
deputies met at Spalato to advocate Serbo-Croatian unity, and
in 1906 the municipality of Agram endeavoured to petition the
king in favour of union with Bosnia and Herzegovina. This
propaganda was severely discouraged. Baron Rauch, appointed
ban in 1908, refused to summon the diet, in which he could not
command a single vote, and much excitement was caused in 1909
by the trial of 57 nationalist leaders for high treason. The policy
of the nationalists, who now aimed at the political union, under
the king-emperor, of all Serbo-Croats in Austria-Hungary —
upwards of 4,500,000 — was less visionary than the older Illyrism,
and less aggressively Panslavist. It no longer sought to
include Carinthia, Carniola and Styria in the proposed
" Great Croatia." It was opposed by Austria as tending to
create a new and formidable Slavonic nation within the Dual
Monarchy, and by Hungary as a menace to Magyar predominance
in Transleithania.

Language and Literature.

For the place of the Croatian dialects among Slavonic
languages generally, see Slavs. The Croatian dialects, like
the Servian, have gradually developed from the Old Slavonic,
tvhich survives in medieval liturgies and biblical or apocryphal
/vritings. The course of this development was similar in both
cases, except that the Croats, owing to their dependence on
Austria-Hungary, were not so deeply influenced as the Serbs by

Byzantine culture in the middle ages, and by Russian linguistic
forms and Russian ideas in modern times. The Orthodox Serbs,
moreover, use a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet, while
the Roman Catholic Croats use Latin characters, except in a
few liturgical books which are written in the ancient Glagolitic
script. As the literary language of both nations is now practi-
cally the same, and is, indeed, commonly known as " Serbo-
Croatian," the reader may be referred to the article Servia:
Language and Literature, for an account of its history, of its
chief literary monuments up to the 19th century and inclusive
of Dalmatian literature, and of the principal differences between
the dialects spoken in Servia and Croatia-Slavonia.

The three most important Croatian dialects are known as
the Cakavci, Cakavstina or, in Servian, Chakavski, spoken along
the Adriatic littoral; the Stokavci {Stokavstina, Shtokavski),
spoken in Servia and elsewhere in the north-west of the Balkan
Peninsula; and the Kajkavci (Kajkavstina, Kaykavski) , spoken
by the partly Slovene population of the districts of Agram,
Warasdin and Kreuz. This classification is based on the form,
varying in different localities, of the pronoun da, Ho, or kaj,
meaning^ " what."

The Cakavci literature includes most of the works of the
Dalmatian writers of the 15th and 16th centuries — the golden
age of Serbo-Croatian literature. Its history is indissolubly
interwoven with that of the Stokavci, which ultimately super-
seded it, and became the literary language of all the Serbo-
Croats, as it had long been the language of the best national
ballads and legends

Kajkavci had from about 1550 to 1830 a distinctive literature,
consisting of chronicles and histories, poems of a religious or
educational character, fables and moral tales. These writings
possess more philological interest than literary merit, and are
hardly known outside Croatia-Slavonia and the Slovene districts
of Austria.

Apart from the Kajkavci dialect, the whole body of Serbo-
Croatian literature up to the 19th century may justly be regarded
as the common heritage of Serbs and Croats. The linguistic
and literary reforms which Dossitey Obradovich and Vuk
Stefanovich Karajich carried out in Servia about the close of
this period helped to stimulate among the Croats a new interest
in their national history, their traditions, folk-songs and folk-
tales. One result of this nationalist revival was the unsuccessful
attempt made between 18 14 and 1830 to raise the Cakavci
dialect to the rank of a distinctive literary language for Croatia-
Slavonia; but the Illyrist movement of 1840 led to the adoption
of the Stokavci, which was already the vernacular of the majority
of Serbo-Croats. Ljudevit Gaj (1809-1872), though he failed
to create an artificial literary language by the fusion of the
principal dialects spoken by Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was
by his championship of Illyrism instrumental in securing the
triumph of the Stokavci. Gaj was a poet of considerable talent,
and one of the founders of Croatian journalism. Among other
writers of the first half of the 19th century may be mentioned
Ivan Mazuranic (18 13-1890), whose first poems were published
in the Danica ilirska ("Ulyrian Dawnstar"), a journal founded
and for a time edited by Gaj. In 1846 Mazuranic published his
Smrt Smail Aga Cengica ("Death of Ismail Aga Cengic"),
called by Serbo-Croats the " Epos of Hate." This remarkable
poem, written in the metre of the old Servian ballads, gives a
vivid description of life in Bosnia under Turkish rule, and of the
hereditary border feuds between Christians and Moslems. In
later life Mazuranic distinguished himself as a statesman, and
became ban of Croatia from 1873 to 1880. Other writers repre.
sentative of Croatian literature before 1867 were the lyric poet
Stanko Vraz (1810-1851) and Dragutin Rakovac (1813-1854),
the author of many patriotic songs.

With the foundation of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram,
in 1867, the study of science and history received a new impetus.
Under the presidency of Franko Racki (1825-1894) the academy,
with its journal the Rad jugoskovenske Akademije, became the
headquarters of an active group of savants, among whom may
be mentioned Vastroslav Jagic (b. 1838), sometime editor of the

CROCIDOLITE— CROCKFORD

477

Archiv fur slavische Philologie; the historians Sime Ljubid
(1822-1896) and Vjekoslav Klaic, author of several standard
works on Croatia and the Croats; the lexicographer Bogoslav
Sulek (1816-1895); the ethnographer and philologist Franko
Karelac (1811-1874). In Dalmatia, where the Ragusan journal
Slovinac has served, like the Agram Rod, as a focus of literary
activity, there have been numerous poets and prose writers,
associated, in many cases, with the Illyrist or the nationalist
propaganda. Among these may be mentioned Count Medo
Pucic (1821-1882), and the dramatist Matija Ban (1818-1903),
whose tragedy Meyrimah is considered by many the finest
dramatic poem in the Serbo-Croatian language.

Authorities. — For the topography, products, inhabitants and
modern condition of Croatia-Slavonia, see Bau und Bild Osterreichs,
by C. Diener, F. E. Suess, R. Hoernes and V. Uhlig (Leipzig, 1903) ;
Die osterreich-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild, vol. xxiv.,
edited by J. von Weilen (Vienna, 1902) ; Fiihrer durch Ungarn,
Kroatien und Slawonien, by B. Alfoldi (Vienna, 1900) ; Reisefuhrer
durch Kroatien und Slawonien, by A. Luksic (Agram, 1893); Vegeta-

tionsverhdltnisse von Kroatien, by A. Neilreich (Vienna, itv W ,
" Die Slowenen," by J. Suman, and " Die Kroaten," by F. Stare,
in vol. x. of Die Volker Osterreich- Ungarns (Vienna, 1881-1882);
Die Serbokroaten der adriatischen Kiislenlander, by A. Weisbach
(Berlin, 1884); and the map Zemljovid Hrvatske i Slavonije, by
M. Katzenschlager (Vienna, 1895). The only detailed history is one
in Serbo-Croatian, written by a succession of the highest native
authorities, and published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram,
from 1861). It is largely based on the following works: Vetera
monumenta historica Hungarian! sacram illustrantia, containing
documents from the Vatican library edited by A. Theiner (Rome,
i860) ; Vetera monumenta hisloriam Slavorum meridionalium
illustrantia, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram,
1863, &c.) ; Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae cum privi-
legiis, by J. Kukuljevic (Agram, 1861-1862); Monumenta historica
Slavorum meridionalium, by V. Makushev, in Latin and Italian,
with notes in Slavonic (Belgrade, 1885); De regno Dalmatiae et
Croatiae, by G. Lucio (Amsterdam, 1666; see Dalmatia, under
bibliography) ;_ Regno degli Slavi, by M. Orbini (Pesaro, 1601);
and, for ecclesiastical history, Illyricum sacrum, by D. Farlatus and
others (Venice, 1751-1819). See also Hrvatska i Hrvati, by V. Klaic
(Agram, 1890, &c.) ; and Slawonien vom 10. bis zum 13. Jahrhundert,
translated from the Serbo-Croatian of Klaic by J. von Voinicic
(Agram, 1882). (K. G. J.)

CROCIDOLITE, a mineral described in 1815 by M. H. Klaproth
under the name Blaueisenstein (blue ironstone), and in 1831
by J. F. Hausmann, who gave it its present name on account of
its nap-like appearance (Gr. upoKvs, nap of cloth). It is a blue
fibrous mineral belonging to the amphibole group and closely
related to riebeckite; chemically it is an iron sodium silicate.
Its resemblance to asbestos has gained for it the name Cape
Asbestos, the chief occurrence being in Cape Colony. The
mineral suffers alteration by removal of alkali and peroxidation
of the ferrous iron, and further by deposition of silica between
the fibres, or by their replacement by silica; a hard siliceous
mineral is thus formed which when polished shows, in con-
sequence of its fibrous structure, a beautiful chatoyance or silky
lustre. This is the ornamental stone which is known when blue
as " hawk's-eye," and when of rich golden brown colour as
" tiger-eye." The latter, which represents the final alteration
of the crocidolite, has become very fashionable as " South
African cat's eye," and is often termed " crocidolite," though
practically only a mixture of quartz with brown oxide of iron.
The following are analyses by A. Renard and C. Klement of the
unaltered crocidolite and of the blue and brown products of
alteration: —

■

Crocidolite.

Hawk's-eye.

Tiger-eye.

Ferric oxide
Alumina ....
Ferrous oxide .
Magnesia ....

Lime

Soda

Water

Total . .

51-89
19-22

17-53
2-43
0-40
7-71
0-15
2-36

93-45
2-41
0-23
i-43

0-22
0-13

0-82

93-05
4.94

066

0-26
0-44

0-76

101-69

98-69

IOO-II

Another alteration product of the crocidolite, consisting of
silica and ferric hydrate, has been called griqualandite. Croci-
dolite and the minerals resulting from its alteration occur in
seams, associated with magnetite and other iron-ores, in the
jasper-slates of the Asbestos Mountains in Griqualand West,
Cape Colony. It is known also from a few other localities, but
only in subordinate quantity. (See Cat's-Eye.)

CROCKET (Ital. uncinetti, Fr. crochet, crosse, Ger. Hdklein,
Knollen), in architecture, an ornament running up the sides of
gablets, hood-moulds, pinnacles, spires; generally a winding:
stem like a creeping plant, with flowers or leaves projecting at
intervals, and terminating in a nnial.

CROCKETT, DAVID (1786-1836), American frontiersman,
was born in Greene county, Tennessee, on the 17th of August
1786. His education was obtained chiefly in the rough school
of experience in the Tennessee backwoods, where he acquired
a wide reputation as a hunter, trapper and marksman. In 1813-
1814 he served in the Creek War under Andrew Jackson, and
subsequently became a colonel in the Tennessee militia. In
1821-1824 he was a member of the state legislature, having won
his election not by political speeches but by telling stories. In
1827 he was elected to the national House of Representatives as
a Jackson Democrat, and was re-elected in 1829. At Washington
his shrewdness, eccentric manners and peculiar wit made him
a conspicuous figure, but he was too independent to be a sup-
porter of all Jackson's measures, and his opposition to the
president's Indian policy led to administration influences being
turned against him with the result that he was defeated for
re-election in 1831. He was again elected in 1853, but in 1835
lost his seat a second time, being then a vigorous opponent
of many distinctively Jacksonian measures. Discouraged and
disgusted, he left his native state, and emigrated to Texas, then
engaged in its struggle for independence. There he lost his life
as one of the defenders of the Alamo at San Antonio on the 6th
of March 1836.

A so-called " autobiography," which he very probably dictated
or at least authorized, was published in Philadelphia in 1834; a
work purporting to be a continuation of this autobiography and
entitled Colonel Crockett's Exploits and Adventures in Texas (Phil-
adelphia, 1836) is undoubtedly spurious. These two works were
subsequently combined in a single volume, of which there have been
several editions. Numerous popular biographies have been written,
the best by E. S. Ellis (Philadelphia, 1884).

CROCKETT, SAMUEL RUTHERFORD (i860- ), Scottish
novelist, was born at Duchrae, Galloway, on the 24th of
September i860, the son of a Galloway farmer. He was brought
up on a Galloway farm, and graduated from Edinburgh University
in 1879. After some years of travel he became in 1886 minister
of Penicuik, but eventually abandoned the Free Church ministry
for novel-writing. The success of Mr J. M. Barrie had created
a demand for stories in the Scottish dialect when Mr Crockett
published his successful story of The Stickit Minister in 1893.
It was followed by a rapidly produced series of popular novels
dealing often with the past history of Scotland, or with his native
Galloway. Such are The Raiders, The Lilac Sun-bonnet and
Mai Sir Uchtred in 1894; The Men of the Moss Hags in 1895;
Cleg Kelly and The Grey Man in 1896; The Surprising Adven-
tures of Sir Toady Lion (1897); The Red Axe (1898); Kit
Kennedy (1899) ; Joan of the Sword Hand and Little Anna Mark
in 1900; Flower 0' the Corn (1902); Red Cap Tales (1904), &c.

CROCKFORD, WILLIAM (1775-1844), proprietor of Crock-
ford's Club, was born in London in 1775, the son of a fishmonger,
and for some time himself carried on that business. After
winning a large sum of money — according to one story £100,000
— either at cards or by running a gambling establishment, he
built, in 1827, a luxurious gambling house at 50 St James's
Street, which, to ensure exclusiveness, he organized as a club.
Crockford's quickly became the rage; every English social
celebrity and every distinguished foreigner visiting London
hastened to become a member. Even the duke of Wellington
joined, though, it is averred, only in order to be able to blackball
his son, Lord Douro, should he seek election. Hazard was the
favourite game, and very large sums changed hands. Crockford

47 8

CROCODILE

retired in 1840, when, in the expressive language of Captain R. H.
Gronow, he had "won the whole of the ready money of the
then existing generation." He took, indeed, about £1,200,000
out of the club, but subsequently lost most of it in unlucky
speculations. Crockford died on the 24th of May 1844.

See John Timbs, Club Life of London (London, 1866); Gronow,
Celebrities of London and Paris, 3rd series (London, 1865).

CROCODILE, a name for certain reptiles, taken from ancient
Gr. KopSvKos, signifying lizard and newt; with reduplication
KopKopdv\os, and by metathesis ' ultimately KpoicoSeihos. Hero-
dotus makes mention of them, and tells us that the Egyptian
name was champsa. The Arabic term is ledschun. The same
root kar leads through something like kar-kar-ta, glakarta
(glazard in Breton), to lacerta and to "lizard." Lacerta in turn
has become, in Spanish, lagarto, which, with the article, el lagarto,
is the origin of the term "alligator." This word is, however,
artificial, although now widely used; Spanish and Portuguese-
speaking people in America universally call the crocodile and the
alligator simply lagarto, which is never intended for lizard.

The Crocodilia form a separate order of reptiles with many
peculiarities. The premaxillae are short and always enclose the
nostrils. The posterior nares or choanae open far behind in the
roof of the mouth, in recent forms within the pterygoids. The
under jaws are hinged on to the quadrate bones, which extend
obliquely backwards, and are immovably wedged in between the
squamosal and the lateral occipital wings. The teeth form a
complete series in the under jaw, and in the upper jaw on the
premaxillary and maxillary bones. They are conical and deeply
implanted in separate sockets. They are often shed throughout
life, the successors lying on the inner side, and with their caps
partly fitting into the wide open roDts of the older teeth. Especi-
ally in alligators the upper teeth overlap laterally those of the
lower jaw, whilst in most crocodiles the overlapping is less
marked and the teeth mostly interlock, a feature which increases
with the slenderness of the snout. In old specimens some
of the longer, lower teeth work their tips into deep pits, and
ultimately even perforate the corresponding parts of the upper
jaw. The first and second vertebrae each have a pair of long,
movable ribs. There is a compound abdominal sternum. The
so-called pubic bones are large and movable. There are five
fingers and four toes, provided with claws, excepting the outer
digits.

The tongue is flat and thick, attached by its whole under
surface; its hinder margin is raised into a transverse fold,
which, by meeting a similar fold from the palate, can shut off the
mouth completely from the wide cavity of the throat. Dorsally
the posterior nares open into this cavity. Consequently the
beast can lie submerged in the water, with only the nostrils
exposed, and with the mouth open, and breathe without water
entering the windpipe. Within the glottis is a pair of membranous
folds which serve as vocal cords; all the Crocodilia are possessed
of a loud, bellowing voice.

The stomach is globular, rather muscular, with a pair of
tendinous centres like those of birds; its size is comparatively
small, but the digestion is so rapid and powerful that every
bone of the creature's prey is dissolved whilst still being stowed
away in the wide and long gullet. The anal opening forms a
longitudinal slit; within it, arising from its anterior corner,
is the unpaired copulatory organ. The vascular system has
attained the highest state of development of all reptiles. The
heart is practically quadrilocular, the right and left halves being
completely partitioned, except for a small communication, the
foramen Panizzae, between the right and left aortae where these
cross each other on leaving their respective ventricles. The outer
ear lies in a recess which can be closed tightly by a dorsal flap of
skin. The power of hearing is acute, and so is the sight, the
eyes being protected by upper and lower lids and by a nictitating
membrane. The skin of the whole body is scaly, with a hard,
horny, waterproof covering of the epidermis, but between these
mostly flat scales the skin is soft. The scutes or dermal portions
of the scales are more or less ossified, especially on the back,
and form the characteristic dermal armour. The skins or

" hides " of commerce consist entirely of the tanned cutis minus,
the epidermis and the horny coverings of the scutes. All the
Crocodilia possess two pairs of musk-glands in the skin; one is
situated on the inner side of the lower jaw. The opening of the
glands is slit-like and leads into a pocket, which is filled with a
smeary, strongly scented matter. The other pair lies just within
the lips of the cloacal opening.

Propagation takes place by eggs, which are oval, quite white,
with a very hard and strong shell. Their size varies from 2 to
4 in. in length, according to the size of the species and the age
of the female. She lays several dozen eggs in a carefully prepared
nest. The Nile crocodile makes a hole in white sand, which is then
filled up and smoothed over; the mother sleeps upon the nest,
and keeps watch over her eggs, and when these are near hatching
— after about twelve weeks — she removes the 18 in. or 2 ft. of
sand. Other species, especially the alligators, make a very large
nest of leaves, twigs and humus, scraping together a mound
about a yard high and two or more yards in diameter. The
eggs, in several layers, are laid near the top. The adults fre-
quently dig long subterranean passages into the banks of streams,
and, during dry seasons, they have been found deep in the
hardened mud, whence they emerge with the beginning of the
rains. They spend most of their time in the water, but are also
very fond of basking in the hot sun on the banks of rivers or in
marshes, usually with the head turned towards the water, to
which they take on the slightest alarm. They can walk perfectly
well, and they do so deliberately with the whole body raised a
little above the ground. When their pools dry up, or when in
search of new hunting-grounds, they sometimes undertake long
wanderings over land. But the water is their true element.
They swim rapidly, propelled by the powerful tail and by the
mostly webbed limbs, or they submerge themselves, with only the
tip of the nose and the eyes showing, or sometimes also the back.
They then look like floating logs; and thus they float or gently
approach their prey, which consists of anything they can over-
power. Many a large mammal coming to drink at its accustomed
place is dragged into the water by the lurking monster. Certainly
there are occasional man-eaters amongst them, and in some
countries they are much feared. As a rule, however, they are
so wary and suspicious that they are very difficult to approach,
and their haunts are so well stocked with fish and other game that
they make off and hide rather than attack a man swimming
in their waters. But if a dog is sent in there Will be a sudden yelp,
the splash from a big tail, and a widening eddy.

Crocodile stories, not all fabulous, are plentiful, and begin
with one of the oldest writings in the world, the book of Job.
"Canst thou draw leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with
a cord which thou lettest down? . . . Lay thine hand upon him,
remember the battle, do no more." This is a very interesting
passage, since it can apply only to a large-sized crocodile. Now
nothing is known of the occurrence of such in Arabia, but a few
specimens of rather small size seem still to exist in Syria, in the
Wadi Zerka, an eastern tributary of the Jordan.

Crocodiles are caught in various ways,- — for instance, with
two pointed sticks, which are fastened crosswise within the bait,
an animal's entrails, to which is attached a rope. When the
creature has swallowed the spiked bait it keeps its jaws so firmly
closed that it can be dragged out of the water. A kind of plover,
Pluvianus aegyptiv.s, often sits upon basking crocodiles, and,
since the latter often rest with gaping mouth, it is possible that
these agile birds do pick the reptiles' teeth in search of parasites.
Being a very watchful bird, its cry of warning, when it flies off
on the approach of danger, is probably appreciated by the
crocodile. But the story of the ichneumon or mongoose is a
fable. Although an inveterate destroyer of eggs, this little
creature prefers those of birds and the soft-shelled eggs of lizards
to the very hard and strong-shelled eggs which are deeply buried
in the crocodile's nest.

Considering the interest which is taken in crocodiles and their
allies, on account of their size, their dangerous nature and the sporting
trophies which they yield, the following " key," based upon easily
ascertained characters of the skull, is given.

CROCOITE— CROESUS

479

I. Snout very long and slender. The mandibular symphysis
extends backwards at least to the fifteenth tooth.

(a) Nasal bones very small, and widely separated from the

premaxilla (which encloses the nostrils) by the maxillaries
which join each other for a long distance along the dorsal
mid-line. . . . Gavialis gangeticus of India, the " gharial "
or fish-eater.

(b) Nasal bones long, so as to be in contact with the premaxilla

at the hinder corner of the nostril groove. . . .Tomistoma
schlegeli of Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra.

II. Snout mostly triangular or rounded off. The mandibular
symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.

(a) The fourth mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper

jaw. Crocodiles.

1. Without a bony nasal septum between the nostrils.

. . . Crocodiles.

2. The nasal bones project through the nasal groove,

forming a bony septum. Osteolaemus frontatus s.
tetraspis of West Africa.

(b) Fourth mandibular tooth fitting into a pit in the upper jaw.

Alligators.

1. Without a bony nasal septum. . . . Caiman, Central

and South America.

2. Nasal bones dividing the nasal groove. . . . Alli-

gator, America and China.

The genus Crocodilus contains seven species. C. vulgaris or
niloticus of most of Africa, is found from the Senegal to Egypt
and to Madagascar, reaching a length of 15 ft. It has eighteen
or nineteen upper and fifteen lower teeth on each side. C.
palustris, the " mugger " or " marsh crocodile " of India and
Ceylon, extends westwards into Baluchistan, eastwards into the
Malay islands. It has nineteen upper and lower teeth on either
side. The scutes on the neck, six in number, are packed closely
together, the four biggest forming a square. The length of
12 ft. is a fair size for a large specimen. C. porosus or biporcatus
is easily recognised by the prominent longitudinal ridge which
exten'ds in front of each eye. Specimens of more than 20 ft.
in length are not uncommon, and a monster of 33 ft. is on record.
It is essentially an inhabitant of tidal waters and estuaries,
and often goes out to sea; hence its wide distribution, from
the whole coast of Bengal to southern China, to the northern
coasts of Australia and even to the Fiji islands. Australians
are in the habit of calling their crocodiles alligators. C. cala-
phractus is the common crocodile of West Africa, easily recognised
by the slender snout which resembles that of the gavial, but the
mandibular symphysis does not reach beyond the eighth tooth.
C. johnstoni of northern Australia and Queensland is allied to
the last species mentioned, with which it agrees by the slender
snout. Lastly there are two species of true crocodiles in America,
C. intermedins of the Orinoco, allied to the former, and C.
americanus or acutus of the West Indies, Mexico, Central America
to Venezuela and Ecuador; its characteristic feature is a median
ridge or swelling on the snout, which is rather slender.

The above list shdws that the usual statement that crocodiles
inhabit the Old World and alligators the New World is not
strictly true. In the Tertiary epoch alligators, crocodiles and
long-snouted gavials existed in Europe. (H. F. G.)

CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCr0 4 ,
and crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used
as a paint, being identical in composition with the artificial
product chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any import-
ance found in nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near
Ekaterinburg in the Urals in 1766; and named crocoise by
F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek Kponos, saffron, in allusion
to its colour, a name first altered to crocoisite and afterwards
to crocoite. It is found as well-developed crystals of a bright
hyacinth-red colour, which are translucent and have an ada-
mantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to light much of the
translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is orange-yellow;
hardness 25-3; specific gravity 60. In the Urals the crystals
are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other
localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are
Congonhas do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the
Philippines, and Umtali in Mashonaland. Gold is often found
associated with this mineral. Crystals far surpassing in beauty
any previously known have been found in the Adelaide Mine at

Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms, 3 or 4 in. in
length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.

Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied
minerals phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a
basic lead chromate, Ph 3 Cr 2 09, and the latter a lead and
copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb,Cu)Cr0 4 . (Pb,Cu) 3 (P04) 2 .
Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic crystals, and
was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered
(simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth)
the element chromium in crocoite. (L. J. S.)

CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae,
containing about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa,
and temperate Asia, and especially developed in the dry country
of south-eastern Europe and western and central Asia. The
plants are admirably adapted for climates in which a season
favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry season;
during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in
the form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains
of the bases of last season's leaves (known botanically as a
"corm"). At the beginning of the new season of growth, new
flower- and leaf-bearing shoots are developed from the corm at
the expense of the food-stuff stored within it. New corms are
produced at the end of the season, and by these the plant is
multiplied.

These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural
varieties of C. vernus, C. versicolor and C. aureus (Dutch crocus),
the two former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the
latter the yellow varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly
good garden soil, and is usually planted near the edges of beds
or borders in the flower garden, or in broadish patches at intervals
along the mixed borders. The corms should be planted 3 in.
below the surface, and as they become crowded they should be
taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at least
every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect
when dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure
ground.

Some of the best of the varieties are: — Purple: David Rizzio,
Sir J. Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. Striped: Albion, La
Majestueuse, Sir Walter Scott, Cloth of Silver, Mme Mina.
White: Caroline Chisholm, Mont Blanc. Yellow: Large Dutch.

The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, bu<^
those who make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to
search them out and grow them. They require the same culture
as the more familiar garden varieties; but, as some of them are
apt to suffer from excess of moisture, it is advisable to plant them
in prepared soil in a raised pit, where they are brought nearer
to the eye, and where they can be sheltered when necessary by
glazed sashes, which, however, should not be closed except
when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather in order
to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter flowering
species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of
very great beauty. The following species are recommended: —

Spring flowering: — Yellow: C. aureus, aureus var. sulphureus,
chrysanthus, Olivieri, Korolkowi, Balansae, ancyrensis, Susianus,
stellaris. Lilac: C. Imperati, Sieberi, etruscus, vernus, Toma-
sinianus, banaticus. White: C. biflorus and vars., candidus,
vernus vars. Striped: C. versicolor, reticulatus.

Autumn flowering: — Yellow: C. Scharojani. Lilac: C.
asturicus, cancellatus var., cilicicus, byzantinus (iridiflorus) ,
longiflorus, tnedius, nudiflorus, pulchellus, Salzmanni, salivus
vars. speciosus, zonatus. White: caspius, cancellatus, hadriaticus,
marathonisius.

Winter flowering: — C. hyemaeis, laevigatus, vitellinus.

CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty,
(560-546 B.C.), succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his
half-brother. He completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing
Ephesus, Miletus and other places, and extended the Lydian
empire as far as the Halys. His wealth, due to trade, was
proverbial, and he used part of it in securing alliances with the
Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own army.
Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the
most famous being that of Solon's visit to him with the lesson

480

CROFT, SIR H.— CROFT, W.

it conveyed of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch
prosperity (Hdt. i. 29 seq.; but see Solon). After the over-
throw of the Median empire (549 B.C.) Croesus found himself
confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and along with
Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition
was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt
promised troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was
defeated by the rapid movements of Cyrus and the treachery of
Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled to Persia with the gold that had
been entrusted to him, and betrayed the plans of the con-
federates. Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus marched
to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes
fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to
Sardis. Here he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by
storm. We may gather from the recently discovered poem of
Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped to escape his conqueror
by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral pyre, like
Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the hands
of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose. 1 A different version
of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus (followed
by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be
burnt alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian
reverence for fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his
pious worshipper, and the name of Solon uttered by Croesus
resulted in his deliverance. According to Ctesias, who uses
Persian sources, and says nothing of the attempt to burn Croesus,
he subsequently became attached to the court of Cyrus and
received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of
columns from the temple of Artemis now in the British Museum
have upon them a dedication by Croesus in Greek.

See R. Schubert, De Croeso et Solone fabula (1868); M. G. Radet,
La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades (1892-1893);
A. S. Murray, Journ. Hell. Studies, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the
supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see
G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War, p. 28; Grote, Hist, of Greece
(ed. 1907), p. 104. Cf. Cyrus; Lydia.

CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author,
was born at Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November
1751, son of Herbert Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He
matriculated at University College, Oxford, in March 1771,
and was subsequently entered at Lincoln's Inn. He was called
to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford with a view to prepar-
ing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the vicarage of Prittle-
well, Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years
accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary.
He was twice married, and on the day after his second wedding
day he was imprisoned at Exeter for debt. He then retired to
Hamburg, and two years later his library was sold. He had
succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the estates, of a distant
cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He returned to
England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived
near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said
to have been a daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later
he removed to Paris, where he died on the 26th of April 1816.
In some of his numerous literary enterprises he had the help of
Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the Life of Edward Young inserted
in Johnson's Limes of the Poets. In 1780 he published Love
and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters between Parties
whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less known or
less lamented. , This book, which passed through seven editions,
narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for
Martha Ray, mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by
her lover as she was leaving Co vent Garden in 1779 (see the
Case and Memoirs of the late Rev. Mr James Hackman, 1779).
Love and Madness has permanent interest because Croft inserted,
among other miscellaneous matter, information about Thomas
Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the poet's
sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without
payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition
of Chatterton's works for the benefit of his family, published
(November 1799) details of Croft's proceedings in the Monthly

1 This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about
500 B.C. in Journ. of Hell. Stud., 1898, p. 268).

Review. To this attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John
Nichols in the Gentleman's Magazine, and afterwards printed
separately as Chatterton and Love and Madness . . . (1800,).
This tract evades the main accusation, and contains much abuse
of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the
exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis's Biographia
Britannica (vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to
William Pitt on the subject of a new dictionary. He criticized
Samuel Johnson's efforts, and in 1790 he claimed to have collected
11,000 words used by excellent authorities but omitted by
Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals for a revised
edition of Johnson's Dictionary, but subscribers were lacking and
his 200 vols, of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good scholar
and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.

The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. I77S~ 1 779 were edited
from Croft's book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John
Nichols's Illustrations . . . (1828), v. 202-218.

CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged
to an old family of Herefordshire, which county he represented
in parliament in 1541. He was made governor of Haddington
in 1549, and became lord deputy of Ireland in 1551. There he
effected little beyond gaining for himself the reputation of a
conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a double-dealer.
He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign of Mary,
but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth
after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where
he was visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied
himself actively on behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though
in 1560 he was suspected, probably with good reason, of treason-
able correspondence with Mary of Guise, the Catholic regent of
Scotland; and for ten years he was out of public employment.
But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest forbearance
and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor
and controller of her household. He was one of the commis-
sioners for the trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was
sent on a diplomatic mission to arrange peace with the duke
of Parma. Croft established private relations with Parma, for
which on his return he was sent to the Tower. He was released
before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of September 1590.

Croft's eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on
the curious charge of having contrived the death of the earl
of Leicester by witchcraft, in revenge for the earl's supposed
hostility to Sir James Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir
Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who became a Roman Catholic and
wrote several controversial pieces in defence of that faith. His
son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of Hereford, after being
for some time, like his father, a member of the Roman church,
returned to the church of England about 1630, and about ten
years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a
few years a prebend's stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor,
and the deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost
during the Civil War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he
was made bishop of Hereford in 1661. Bishop Croft was the
author of many books and pamphlets, several of them against
the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled The Naked
Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church (London, 1675),
was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged
controversy. The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was
created a baronet in 1671, and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert
Croft (q.v.), the 18th century writer.

Bibliography. — See Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors,
vol. i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, State Worthies from
the Reformation to the Revolution (2 vols., London, 1766) ; John Strype,
Annals of the Reformation (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account
of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee's art. " Croft, Sir James," in
Diet, of National Biography, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see
Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John
Le Neve, Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford,
1854)-

CROFT (or Crofts), WILLIAM (1678-1727), Flnglish composer,
was born in 1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He
received his musical education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow.
He early obtained the place of organist of St Anne's, Soho,and
in 1700 was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel

CROFTER— CROKER, R.

481

Royal. In 1707 he was appointed joint-organist with Blow;
and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he became solo organist,
and also master of the children and composer of the Chapel
Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey.
In 171 2 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English
church music to a collection of the words of anthems which he
had edited under the title of Divine Harmony. In 17 13 he
obtained his degree of doctor of music in the university of Oxford.
In 1724 he published an edition of his choral music in 2 vols,
folio, under the name of Musica Sacra, or Select Anthems in
score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and eight voices, to which
is added the Burial Service, as it is occasionally performed in
Westminster A bbey. This handsome work included a portrait of
the composer and was the first of the kind executed on pewter
plates and in score. John Page, in his Harmonia Sacra, published
in 1800 in 3 vols, folio, gives seven of Croft's anthems. Of
instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two violins
and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute and bass.
He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in
the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was
erected to his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey
Wyrley Birch. Burney in his History of Music devotes several
pages of his third volume (pp. 603-612) to Dr Croft's life, and
criticisms of some of his anthems. During the earlier period of
his life Croft wrote much for the theatre, including overtures
and incidental music for Courtship d la mode (1700), The Funeral
(1702) and The Lying Lover (1703).

CROFTER, -a term used, more particularly in the Highlands
and islands of Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and
cultivates a small holding of land or " croft." This Old English
word, meaning originally an enclosed field, seems to correspond
to the Dutch kroft, a field on high ground or downs. The ultimate
origin is unknown. By the Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886,
a crofter is defined as the tenant of a holding who resides on
his holding,the annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money,
and which is situated in a crofting parish. The wholesale clear-
ances of tenants from their crofts during the 19th century,
in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of
tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the
crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have
been the subject of royal commissions and of considerable legisla-
tion, but the effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent
amending acts, has been to improve their condition markedly,
ind much of the agitation has now died out. A history of the
legislation dealing with the crofters is given in the article
Scotland.

CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), British statesman and
author, was born at Galway on the 20th of December 1780,
being the only son of John Croker,the surveyor-general of customs
and excise in Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwards
he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he was called to the
Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led him to
collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject,
which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published
anonymously Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the
State of the Irish Stage, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on
the management of the Dublin theatres. The book ran through
five editions in one year. Equally successful was the Intercepted
Letter from Canton (1805), also anonymous, a satire on Dublin
society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet on The State of
Ireland, Past and Present, in which he advocated Catholic
emancipation.

In the following year he entered parliament as member for
Downpatrick, obtaining the seat on petition, though he had
been unsuccessful at the poll. The acumen displayed in his
Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to recommend him in 1808
to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been appointed to the
command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his deputy
in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led
to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington's death.
The notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his

vii. 16

abuse of military patronage furnished him with an opportunity
for distinguishing himself. The speech which he delivered on
the 14th of March 1809, in answer to the charges of Colonel
Wardle, was regarded as the most able and ingenious defence
of the duke that was made in the debate; and Croker was
appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which he
held without interruption under various administrations for
more than twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant,
and made many improvements which have been of permanent
value in the organization of his office. Among the first acts of
his official career was the exposure of a fellow-official who had
misappropriated the public funds to the extent of £200,000.

In 1827 he became the representative of the university of
Dublin, having previously sat successively for the boroughs of
Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh.
He was a determined opponent of the Reform Bill, and vowed
that he would never sit in a reformed parliament; his parlia-
mentary career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two years
earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension
of £1500 a year. Many of his political speeches were published
in pamphlet form, and they show him to have been a vigorous
and effective, though somewhat unscrupulous and often viru-
lently personal, party debater. Croker had been an ardent
supporter of Peel, but finally broke with him when he began to
advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to have been
the first to use (Jan. 1830) the term " conservatives." He was
for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and
historical subjects to the Quarterly Review, with which he had
been associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in
which many of his articles were written did much to embitter
party feeling. It also reacted unfavourably on Croker's reputa-
tion as a worker in the department of pure literature by bringing
political animosities into literary criticism. He had no sympathy
with the younger school of poets who were in revolt against the
artificial methods of the 18th century, and he was responsible
for the famous Quarterly article on Keats. It is, nevertheless,
unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which Macaulay brought
against his magnum opus, his edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson
(1831). With all its defects the work had merits which Macaulay
was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker's researches
have been of the greatest value to subsequent editors. There
is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack
on Croker, who had more than once exposed in the House the
fallacies that lay hidden under the orator's brilliant rhetoric.
Croker made no immediate reply to Macaulay's attack, but when
the first two volumes of the History appeared he took the oppor-
tunity of pointing out the inaccuracies that abounded in the
work. Croker was occupied for several years on an annotated
edition of Pope's works. It was left unfinished at the time of his
death, but it was afterwards completed by the Rev. Whitwell
Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank,
Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857.

Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which
Disraeli drew the character of " Rigby " in Coningsby, because
he had for many years had the sole management of the estates of
the marquess of Hertford, the " Lord Monmouth " of the story;
but the comparison is a great injustice to the sterling worth of
Croker's character.

The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his Stories
for Children from the History of England (18 17), which provided the
model for Scott's Tales of a Grandfather; Letters on the Naval War
with America; A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826) ;
Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830 (1831) ; a translation
of Bassompierre s Embassy to England (1819); and several lyrical
pieces of some merit, such as the Songs of Trafalgar (1806) and The
Battles of Talavera (1809). He also edited the Suffolk Papers (1823),
Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II. (1817), the Letters of Mary
Lepel, Lady Hervey (1 821-1822), and Walpole' s Letters to Lord Hertford
(1824). His memoirs, diaries and correspondence were edited by
Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the title of The Croker Papers (3 vols.).

CROKER, RICHARD (1843- ), American politician, was
born at Blackrock, Ireland, on the 24th of November 1843.
He was taken to the United States by his parents when two
years old, and was educated in the public schools of New York

482

CROKER, T. C— CROMAGNON RACE

City, where he eventually became a member of Tammany Hall
and active in its politics. He was an alderman from 1868 to 1870,
a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and
1887, and city chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall
of John Kelly he became the leader of Tammany Hall (q.v.),
and for some time almost completely controlled the organization.
His greatest political success was his bringing about the election
of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor of greater New York in
1897, and during van Wyck's administration Croker is popularly
supposed to have dominated completely the government of the
city. After Croker's failure to " carry " the city in the pre-
sidential election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty
candidate, Edward M. Shepard, in 1901, he resigned from his
position of leadership in Tammany, and retired to a country life
in England and Ireland. In 1907 he won the Derby with his
race-horse Orby.

CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854), Irish antiquary
and humorist, was born in Cork on the 15th of January 1798.
He was apprenticed to a merchant, but in 1819, through the
interest of John Wilson Croker, who was, however, no relation
of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty. Moore was indebted
to him in the production of his Irish Melodies for " many curious
fragments of ancient poetry." In 1825 he produced his most
popular book, the Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South
of Ireland, which he followed up by the publication of his Legends
of the Lakes (1829), his Adventures of Barney Mahoney (1852),
and an edition of the Popular Songs of Ireland (1839). In 1827
he was made a member of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840
he helped to found the Camden and Percy Societies, and in 1843
the British Archaeological Association. He wrote Narratives
Illustrative of the Contests in Ireland in 1641 and 1688 (1841), for
the Camden Society, Historical Songs of Ireland, &c. (1841) , for the
Percy Society, and several other works. He was also a member
of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in London
on the 8th of August 1854.

CROLL, JAMES (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was
born of a peasant family at Little Whitefield, in the parish of
Cargill, in Perthshire, on the 2nd of January 1821. He was
regarded as an unpromising boy, but a trifling circumstance
aroused a passion for reading, and he made great progress in
self-education. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright at Collace
in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual
labour, he became successively a shop-keeper and an insurance
agent. In 1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum
in Glasgow, a humble appointment, which, however, gave him
congenial occupation. In 1857, being deeply impressed by the
metaphysics of Jonathan Edwards, he had published an anony-
mous volume entitled The Philosophy of Theism; but his
connexion with the Museum induced him to take up physical
science, and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance
that he was enabled to contribute papers to the Philosophical
Magazine and other journals. For that magazine in 1864 he
wrote his celebrated essay " On the Physical Cause of the
Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs." This led to
his receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological Survey
in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the Edinburgh
Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient
condition of the earth in his Climate and Time, in their Geological
Relations, in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are
due in a measure to cosmical causes. This theory excited warm
controversy. Croll's replies to his opponents are collected in his
Climate and Cosmology (1885). He had been compelled by
ill-health to withdraw from the public service in 1880; yet,
working under the greatest difficulties, and harassed by the
inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to produce
Stellar Evolution, discussing, among other things, the age of the
. sun, in 1889; and The Philosophical Basis of Evolution, partly
a critique of Herbert Spencer's philosophy, in 1890. He died
on the 15th of December 1890. The soundness of Croll's astro-
nomical theory regarding the glacial .period has since been
criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the Geological Magazine for
1895, and by others; and it is now generally abandoned. Never-

theless it must be admitted that his character as a scientific
worker under great discouragements was nothing less than
heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D. was conferred on him in 1876
by the university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S.
in the same year.

An A utobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life
and Work, was prepared by J. C. Irons, and published in 1896.

CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860), British divine and author,
son of a Dublin physician, was born on the 17th of August 1780.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination
was appointed to a small curacy in the north of Ireland. About
1810 he came to London, and occupied himself with literary
work. A man of restless energy, he claims attention by his
extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms for
a short-lived periodical called the New Times ; he was one of
the earliest contributors to Blackwood's Magazine; and to the
Literary Gazette he contributed poems, reviews and essays on
all kinds of subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen
Begbie. Efforts to secure an English living for Croly were
frustrated, according to the Gentleman's Magazine (Jan. 1861),
because Lord Eldon confounded him with a Roman Catholic
of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily
and weekly press his chief works were: — Paris in 1815 (1817),
a poem in imitation of Childe Harold; Catiline (1822), a
tragedy lacking in dramatic force; Salathiel: A Story of the
Past, the Present and the Future (1829), a successful romance
of the " Wandering Jew " type; The Life and Times of his late
Majesty George the Fourth (1830); Marston; or, The Soldier and
Statesman (1846), a novel of modern life; The Modern Orlando
(1846), a satire which owes something to Don Juan; and some
biographies, sermons and theological works.

Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for
preferment from the Tory leaders, to whom he had rendered
considerable services by his pen; but he eventually received,
|n 1835, the living of St Stephen's, Walbrook, London, from a
Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with whose family he was
connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon lecturer at the
Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate.
He died suddenly on the 24th of November i860, in London.

His Poetical Works (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of
his works see Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Literature
(1859).

CROMAGNON RACE, the name given by Paul Broca to a
type of mankind supposed to be represented by remains found
by Lartet, Christy and others, in France in the Cromagnon cave
at Les Eyzies, Tayac district, Dordogne. At the foot of a steep
rock near the village this small cave, nearly filled with debris,
was found by workmen in 1868. Towards the top of the loose
strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were those
of an old man, a young man and a woman, the latter's skull
bearing the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such
special characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race.
Palaeolithic man is exclusively long-headed, and the dolicho-
cephalic appearance of the crania (they had a mean cephalic index
01 73 - 34) supported the view that the " find " at Les Eyzies
was palaeolithic. It is, however, inaccurate to state that
brachycephaly appears at once with the neolithic age, dolicho-
cephaly even of a pronounced type persisting far into neolithic
times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as many anthro-
pologists believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread over
and inhabited a large portion of Europe at the close of the
Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the sub-
stratum of the present populations of western Europe.
Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon man with the tall, long-headed,
fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still survive in various parts of
Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the Cromagnon
from Siberia, " arriving in Europe simultaneously with the great
mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no
doubt following their route."

See A. H. Keane's Ethnology (1896); Mortillet, Le Prehistoriquc
(1900); Sergi, The Mediterranean Race (1901); Lord Avebury,
Prehistoric Times, p. 317 of 1900 edition.

CROMARTY, EARL OF— CROME

4»3

CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE, ist Earl of (1630-
1714), Scottish statesman, was the eldest son of Sir John
Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654), and belonged to the
same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he joined the rising
in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an exile of six years
he returned to his own country and took some part in public
affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of session
as Lord Tarbat, but having been concerned in a vain attempt to
overthrow Charles II. 's secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was
dismissed from office in 1664. A period of retirement followed
until 1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general
of Scotland; in 1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of
session for the second time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the
chief minister of Charles II. and James II. in Scotland, being
created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In 1688, however, he deserted
James and soon afterwards made his peace with William III.,
his experience being very serviceable to the new government
in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat
was again lord clerk register, and having served for a short time
as a secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of
Cromarty in 1703. He was again lord justice general from 1704
to 1 710. He warmly supported the union between England and
Scotland, writing some pamphlets in favour of this step, and he
died on the 17th of August 17 14. Cromarty was a man of much
learning, and among his numerous writings may be mentioned his
Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R. Logan
(Edinburgh, 1713).

The earl's grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (c. 1703-
1766), succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in February 1731.
In 1 745 he joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he
served with the Jacobites until April 1746 when he was taken
prisoner in Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to
death, but he obtained a conditional pardon although his peerage
was forfeited. He died on the 28th of September 1766.

This earl's eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod
(1727-1789), who shared his father's fortunes in 1745 and his fate
in 1 746. Having pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned
on condition that he gave up all his rights in the estates of the
earldom, and he left England and entered the Swedish army.
In this servicehe rose to high rank and was made Count Cromarty.
The count returned to England in 1777 and was successful in
raising, mainly among the Mackenzies, two splendid battalions
of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light
Infantry, served under him in India. In 1784 he regained the
family estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod
wrote an account of the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a
campaign in Bohemia in which he took part in 1757; both are
printed in Sir W. Fraser's Earls of Cromartie (Edinburgh, 1876).

Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth
Mackenzie (d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who also died
childless. The estates then passed to Macleod's sister, Isabel
(1725-1801), wife of George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank. In
1861 Isabel's descendant, Anne (1829-1888), wife of George,
3rd duke of Sutherland, was created countess of Cromartie with
remainder to her second son Francis (1852-1893), who became
earl of Cromartie in 1888. In 1895, two years after the death of
Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was granted by
letters patent the title of countess of Cromartie.

CROMARTY, a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross
and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is situated on
the southern shore of the mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by
S. of Invergordon on the opposite coast, with which there is
daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E. of Fortrose,
the most convenient railway station. Before the union of the
shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of Cromarty-
shire, and is one of the Wick district group" of parliamentary
burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic crom,
crooked, and bath, bay, or ard, height, meaning either the
" crooked bay," or the " bend between the heights " (the high
rocks, or Sutors, which guard the entrance to the Firth), and gave
the title to the earldom of Cromarty. The principal buildings are
the town hall and the Hugh Miller Institute. The harbour,

enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring fleet, but the
fisheries, the staple industry, have declined. The town, however,
is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house
with crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh
Miller the geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been
erected to his memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty
House, occupying the site of the old castle of the earls of Ross.
It was the birthplace of Sir Thomas Urquhart, the translator
of Rabelais.

Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was
incorporated with Ross-shire in 1889 under the designation of the
county of Ross and Cromarty. The nucleus of the county con-
sisted of the lands of Cromarty in the north of the peninsula of
the Black Isle. To this were added from time to time the various
estates scattered throughout Ross-shire — the most considerable
of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little Loch
Broom on the Atlantic coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is
situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich — which had
been acquired by the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-
17 14), afterwards Viscount Tarbat (i685)and ist earl of Cromarty
( 1 703 ) . Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one
shire, Viscount Tarbat was enabled to procure their annexation
to his sheriffdom of Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the
enlarged county amounting to nearly 370 sq. m. (See Ross and
Cromarty.)

CROMARTY FIRTH, an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the
county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. From the Moray Firth
it extends inland in a westerly and then south-westerly direction
for a distance of 19 m. Excepting at the Bay of Nigg, on the
northern shore, and Cromarty Bay, on the southern, where it is
about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.), and at Alness Bay, where it is
2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a depth varying
from 5 to 10 fathoms, forming one of the safest and most com-
modious anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other
streams it receives the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and
the principal places on its shores are Dingwall near the head,
Cromarty near the mouth, Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on
the north. The entrance is guarded by two precipitous rocks —
the one on the north 400 ft., that on the south 463 ft. high —
called the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a couple of shoe-
makers (Scotice, souter) , bending over their lasts. .There are ferries
at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall.

CROME, JOHN (1769-1821), English landscape painter,
founder and chief representative of the " Norwich School,"
often called Old Crome, to distinguish him from his son, was
born at Norwich, on the 21st of December 1769. His father
was a weaver, and could give him only the scantiest education.
His early years were spent in work of the humblest kind; and
at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this step
he appears to have been led by an inborn love of art and the
desire to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and
processes. During his apprenticeship he sometimes painted
signboards, and devoted what leisure time he had to sketching
from nature. Through the influence of a rich art-loving friend
he was enabled to exchange his occupation of house-painter for
that of drawing-master; and in this he was engaged throughout
his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch pictures
to which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About
1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose house in
London he frequently visited, and from whom he gathered
additional knowledge and help in his art. In 1805 the Norwich
Society of Artists took definite shape, its origin being traceable
a year or two further back. Crome was its president and the
largest contributor to its annual exhibitions. Among his
pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and John Bernay
(Barney) Crome (1 794-1 842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a
greater artist than any of these, was associated with him.
Crome continued to reside at Norwich, and with the exception
of his short visits to London had little or no communication
with the great artists of his own time. He first exhibited at
the Royal Academy in 1806; but in this and the following twelve
years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very

4 8 4

CROMER, LORD

few exceptions Crome's subjects are taken from the familiar
scenery of his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant
aim. " The bit of heath, the boat, and the slow water of the
flattish land, trees most of all — the single tree in elaborate study,
the group of trees, and how the growth of one affects that of
another, and the characteristics of each," — these, says Frederick
Wedmore (Studies in English Art), are the things to which he is
most constant. He" still remains, says the same critic, of many
trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the master
of the oak. His most important works are — " Mousehold Heath,
near Norwich," now in the National Gallery; " Clump of Trees,
Hautbois Common"; "Oak at Poringland "; the "Willow";
" Coast Scene near Yarmouth "; " Bruges, on the Qstend
River"; "Slate Quarries"; the "Italian Boulevards"; and
the " Fishmarket at Boulogne." He executed a good many
etchings, and the great charm of these is in the beautiful and
faithful representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited
reputation during his life, and his pictures were sold at low
prices; but since his death they have been more and more
appreciated, and have given him a high place among English
painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the 22nd of
April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his assistant in teaching,
and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects
being much admired.

A collection of " Old " Crome's etchings, entitled Norfolk Pictur-
esque Scenery, was published in 1 834, and was re-issued with a memoir
by Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched
by other hands.

CROMER, EVELYN BARING, ist Earl (1841- ), British
statesman and diplomatist, was born on the 26th of February
1841, the ninth son of Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne,
eldest daughter of Admiral Windham of Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk.
Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858, he was appointed
in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry Storks, high commissioner of the
Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during
the inquiry into the Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted
captain in 1870, he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin
Lord Northbrook, Viceroy of India, where he remained until
1876, when he became major, received the C.S.I., and was
appointed British commissioner of the Egyptian public debt
office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no unusual
signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively
untried major of artillery as the British representative on a
Financial Board composed of representatives of all the great
powers was considered a bold one. Within a very short time
it was recognized that the Englishman, though keeping himself
carefully in the background, was unmistakably the predominant
factor on the board. He was mainly responsible for the searching
report, issued in 1878, of the commission of inquiry that had
been instituted into the financial methods of the Khedive Ismail;
and when that able and unscrupulous Oriental had to submit to
an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became
the British controller-general and practical director of the Dual
Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of
Egyptian history might have been altered, but his services were
deemed more necessary in India, and under Lord Ripon he
became financial member of council in June 1880. He remained
there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on the Indian
financial system, and then, having been rewarded by the K.C.S.I.,
he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt
and a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service.

Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two,
who had gained a reputation for considerable financial ability,
combined with an abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy
of demeanour which, it was feared, would impede his success
in a position which required considerable tact and diplomacy.
It was a friendly colleague who wrote —

" The virtues of Patience are known,

But I think that, when put to the touch,
The people of Egypt will own, with a groan,
There's an Evil in Baring too much."

When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration
of the country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled with all

the vices, but also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Dis-
order in the finances, brutality towards the people, had been
combined with public tranquillity and the outer semblance of
civilization. Order, at least, reigned from the Sudan to the
Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances as had
occurred had been of Ismail's own devising and for his own
purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the
inclination nor character to be a despot. Within three years
his government had been all but overthrown, and he was only
khedive by the grace of British bayonets. Government by
bayonets was not in accord with the views of the House of
Commons, yet Ismail's government by the kourbash could not be
restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired
to establish in Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and
as there existed no single element of a constitution, they had
sent out Lord Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame
one. That gifted nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his
picturesque report, left nothing to be desired except the material
necessary to convert the flowing periods into political entities. 1
In the absence of that, the constitution was still-born, and Sir
Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not indeed a clean slate, but a
worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts of centuries to
describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile people.

From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became
Baron Cromer in 1892, G.C.B. in 189s, viscount in 1897, and
earl in 1901, is the history of Egypt, and requires the barest
mention of its salient points here. From the outset he realized
that the task he had to perform could only be effected piecemeal
and in detail, and his very first measure was one which, though
severely criticized at the time, has been justified by events, and
which in any case showed that he shirked no responsibility, and
was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the
abandonment, at least temporarily, by Egypt of its authority
in the Sudan provinces, already challenged by the mahdi. His
views were shared by the British ministry of the day and the
policy of abandonment enforced upon the Egyptian government.
At the same time it was decided that efforts should be made to
relieve the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan and this resolve
led to the mission of General C. G. Gordon (q.v.) to Khartum.
Lord Cromer subsequently told the story of Gordon's mission
at length, making clear the measure of responsibility resting upon
him as British agent. The proposal to employ Gordon came
from the British government and twice Sir Evelyn rejected the
suggestion. Finally, mistrusting his own judgment, for he did
not consider Gordon the proper person for the mission, Baring
yielded to pressure from Lord Granville. Thereafter he gave
Gordon all the support possible, and in the critical matter of
the proposed despatch of Zobeir to Khartum, Baring — after a
few days' hesitation — cordially endorsed Gordon's request. The
request was refused by the British government — and the catas-
trophe which followed at Khartum rendered inevitable.

The Sudan crisis being over, for the time, Sir Evelyn Baring
set to work to reorganize Egypt itself. This work he attacked
in detail. The very first essential was to regulate the financial
situation; and in Egypt, where the entire revenue is based on
the production of the soil, irrigation was of the first importance.
With the assistance of Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff, in the public
works department, and Sir Edgar Vincent, as financial adviser,
these two great departments were practically put in order before
he gave more than superficial attention to the rest. The ministry
of justice was the next department seriously taken in hand, with
the assistance of Sir John Scott, while the army had been re-
formed under Sir Evelyn Wood, who was succeeded by Sir
Francis (afterwards Lord) Grenfell. Education, the ministry

1 In 1892 Lord Dufferin wrote to'Lord Cromer : " These institutions
were a good deal ridiculed at the time, but as it was then uncertain
how long we were going to remain, or rather how soon the Turks
might not be reinvested with their ancient supremacy, I desired to
erect some sort of barrier, however feeble, against their intolerable
tyranny." In 1906 Lord Cromer bore public testimony to the good
results of the measures adopted on Lord Dufferin's " statesmanlike
initiative." Such results were, however, only possible in consequence
of the continuance of the British occupation.

CROMER— CROMORNE

485

of the interior, and gradually every other department, came to
be reorganized, or, more correctly speaking, formed, under Lord
Cromer's carefully persistent direction, until it may be said to-day
that the Egyptian administration can safely challenge comparison
with that of any other state. In the meantime the rule of
the mahdi and his successor, the khalifa, in the temporarily
abandoned provinces of the Sudan, had been weakened by
internal dissensions; the Italians from Massawa, the Belgians
from the Congo State, and the French from their West African
possessions, had gradually approached nearer to the valley
of the Nile; and the moment had arrived at which Egypt must
decide either to recover her position in the Sudan or allow the
Upper Nile to fall into hands hostile to Great Britain and her
position in Egypt. Lord Cromer was as quick to recognize the
moment for action and to act as he had fifteen years earlier been
prompt to recognize the necessity of abstention. In March-
September 1896 the first advance was made to Dongola under
the Sirdar, Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener; between
July 1897 and April 1898 the advance was pushed forward to
the Atbara; and on the 2nd of September 1898, the battle of
Omdurman finally crushed the power of the khalifa and restored
the Sudan to the rule of Egypt and Great Britain. In the
negotiations which resulted in the Anglo-French Declaration of
the 8th of April 1904, whereby France bound herself not to
obstruct in any manner the action of Great Britain in Egypt
and the Egyptian government acquired financial freedom, Lord
Cromer took an active part. He also successfully guarded the
interests of Egypt and Great Britain in 1906 when Turkey
attempted by encroachments in the Sinai Peninsula to obtain
a strategic position on the Suez Canal. To have effected all this
in the face of the greatest difficulties — political, national and
international — and at the same time to have raised the credit
of the country from a condition of bankruptcy to an equality
with that of the first European powers, entitles Lord Cromer
to a very high place among the greatest administrators and
statesmen that the British empire has produced. In April 1907,
in consequence of the state of his health, he resigned office,
having held the post of British agent in Egypt for twenty-four
years. In July of the same year parliament granted £50,000 out
of the public funds to Lord Cromer in recognition of his " eminent
services " in Egypt. In 1908 he published, in two volumes,
Modern Egypt, in which he gave an impartial narrative of events
in Egypt and the Sudan since 1876, and dealt with the results to
Egypt of the British occupation of the country. Lord Cromer
also took part in the political controversies at home, joining
himself to the free-trade wing of the Unionist party.

Lord Cromer married in 1876 Ethel Stanley, daughter of Sir
Rowland Stanley Errington, eleventh baronet, but was left a
widower with two sons in 1898; and in 1901 he married Lady
Katherine Thynne, daughter of the 4th marquess of Bath.

CROMER, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary
division of Norfolk, England, 139 m. N.E. by N. from London
by the Great Eastern railway; served also by the Midland and
Great Northern joint line. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3781.
Standing on cliffs of considerable elevation, the town has re-
peatedly suffered from ravages of the sea. A wall and esplanade
extend along the bottom of the cliffs, and there is a fine stretch of
sandy beach. There is also a short pier. The church of St
Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular (largely restored) with a lofty
tower. On a site of three acres stands the convalescent home of
the Norfolk and Norwich hospital. There is an excellent golf
course. The herring, cod, lobster and crab fisheries are prosecuted.
The village of Sheringham (pop. of urban district, 2359), lying to
the west, is also frequented by visitors. A so-called Roman camp,
on an elevation overlooking the sea, is actually a modern beacon.

CROMORNE, also CRUMHORNE 1 (Ger. Krummhom ; Fr.
tournebout), a wind instrument of wood in which a cylindrical

1 Crumhorne need not be regarded as a corruption of the German,
since the two words of which it is composed were both in use in
medieval England. Crumb = curved ; crumbe = hook, bend; crome =
a staff with a hook at the end of it. See Stratmann's Middle English
Dictionary (1891), and Halliwell, Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial
Words (London, 1881).

column of air is set in vibration by a reed. The lower extremity
is turned up in a half -circle, and from this peculiarity it has gained
the French name tournebout. The reed of the cromorne, like that
of the bassoon, is formed by a double tongue of cane adapted
to the small end of a conical brass tube or crook, the large end
fitting into the main bore of the instrument. It presents, how-
ever, this difference, that it is not, like that of the bassoon, in
contact with the player's lips, but is covered by a cap pierced
in the upper part with a raised slit against which the performer's
lips rest, the air being forced through the opening into the cap
and setting the reed in vibration. The reed itself is
therefore not subject to the pressure of the lips. The
compass of the instrument is in consequence limited
to the simple fundamental sounds produced by the
successive opening of the lateral holes. The length
of the cromornes is inconsiderable in proportion to
the deep sounds produced by them, which arises
from the fact that these instruments, like all tubes of
cylindrical bore provided with reeds, have the acoustic
properties of the stopped pipes of an organ. That is
to say, theoretically they require only half the length
necessary for the open pipes of an organ or for conical
tubes provided with reeds, to produce notes of the
same pitch. Moreover, when, to obtain an harmonic,
the column of air is divided, the cromorne will not
give the octave, like the oboe and bassoon, but the
twelfth, corresponding in this peculiarity with the
clarinet and all stopped pipes or bourdons. In order,
however, to obtain an harmonic on the cromorne, the
cap would have to be discarded, for a reed only
overblows to give the harmonic overtones when
pressed by the lips. With the ordinary boring of eight
lateral holes the cromorne possesses a limited com-
pass of a ninth. Sometimes, however, deeper sounds
are obtained by the addition of one or more keys.
By its construction the cromorne is one
of the oldest wind instruments; it is
evidently derived from the Gr. aulos 2
and the Roman tibia, which likewise
consisted of a simple cylindrical pipe of
which the air column was set in vibration, Bass Tournebout.
at first by a double reed, and, we have

reason to believe, later by a single reed (see Aulos and
Clarinet). The Phrygian aulos was sometimes curved (see
Tib. ii. 1. 85 Phrygio tibia curva sono; Virgil, Aen. xi. 737
curva choros indixit tibia Bacchi). 3

Notwithstanding the successive improvements that were intro-
duced in the manufacture of wind instruments, the cromorne scarcely
ever varied in the details of its construction. Such as we see it
represented in the treatise by Virdung 4 we find it again about the
epoch of its disappearance. 6 The cromornes existed as a complete
family from the 15th century, consisting, according to Virdung, of
four instruments; Praetorius 6 cites five — the deep bass, the bass,
the tenor or alto, the cantus or soprano and the high soprano, with
compass as shown. A band, or, to use the expression of Praetorius,

^m

-=|-:

^

Deep Bass.

Bass.

Tenor.

art
Soprano,

w

High Soprano.

an " accort " of cromornes comprised I deep bass, 2 bass, 3 tenor,
2 cantus, I high soprano =9.

Mersenne 7 explains the construction of the cromorne, giving careful
illustrations of the instrument with and without the cap. From him
we learn that these instruments were made in England, where they
were played in concert in sets of four, five and six. Their scheme of
construction and especially the reed and cap is very similar to that
of the chalumeau of the musette (see Bag- pipe), but its timbre is by

2 See A. Howard, " Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston,

1893).

3 See also A. A. Howard, op. cit., ' Phrygian Aulos, pp. 35-38.

4 Musica getutscht und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).

6 See Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedic (Paris, 1751-1780),
t. 5, " Lutherie," pi. ix.

6 Organographia (Wolfenbiittel, 1618).

7 L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636-1637), book v. pp. 289 and
290. Cf, " Musette," pp. 282-287 and 305.

4 86

CROMPTON— CROMWELL, HENRY

no means so pleasant. Mersenne's cromornes have ten fingerholes,
Nos. 7 and 8 being duplicates for right and left-handed players.
They were probably sometimes used, as was the case with the
hautbois de Poitou (see Bag-pipe) .without the cap, when an extended
compass, was required.

The cromornes were in very general use in Europe from the 14th
to the 17th century, and are to be found in illustrations of pageants,
as for instance in the magnificent collection of woodcuts designed by
Hans Burgmair, a pupil of Albrecht Diirer, representing the triumph
of the emperor Maximilian, 1 where a bass and a tenor Krumbhorn
player figure in the procession among countless other musicians.
In the inventory of the wardrobe, &c, belonging to Henry VIII. at
Westminster, made during the reign of Edward VI., we find eighteen
crumhornes (see British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, ff. 202b and
205). The cromornes did not always form an orchestra by them-
selves, but were also used in concert with other instruments and
notably with flutes and oboes, as in municipal bands and in the
private bands of princes. In 1685 the orchestra of the Neue Kirche
at Strassburg comprised two tournebouts or cromornes, and until
the middle of the 18th century these instruments formed part of the
court band known as " Musique de la Grande Ecurie " in the service
of the French kings. They are first mentioned in the accounts for
the year 1662, together with the tromba-marina, although the
instrument was already highly esteemed in the 16th century. In
that year five players of the cromorne were enrolled among the
musicians of the Grande Ecurie du Roi ; 2 they received a yearly
salary of 120 livres, which various supplementary allowances brought
up to about 330 livres. In 1729 one of the cromorne players sold
his appointment for 4000 francs. This was a sign of the failing
popularity of the instrument. The duties of the cromorne and
tromba-marina players consisted in playing in the great divertisse-
ments and at court functions and festivals in honour of royal marriages,
births and thanksgivings.

Cromornes have become of extreme rarity and are not to be
found in all collections. The Paris Conservatoire possesses one large
bass cromorne of the 16th century, the Kgl. Hochschule fur Musik, 3
Berlin, a set of seven, and the Ambroser Sammlung, Vienna, a
cromorne in Eb. 4 The museum of the Conservatoire Royal de
Musique at Brussels has the good fortune to possess a complete
family which is said to have belonged to the duke of Ferrara, Alphonso
II. d'Este, a prince who reigned from 1559 to 1597. The soprano
(cantus or discant) has the same compass as above, while those of
the alto, the tenor (furnished with a key) and the bass are as shown.

w

£=

gi

±=-

W

Alto.

Tenor.

Bass.

The bass (see figure), besides having two keys, is distinguished from
the others by two contrivances like small bolts, which slide in grooves
and close the two holes that give the lowest notes of the instrument.
The use of these bolts, placed at the extremity of the tournebout
and out of reach of the fingers of the instrumentalist, renders neces-
sary the assistance of a person whose sole mission is to attend to
them during the performance. E. van der Straeten 6 mentions a
key belonging to a large cromorne bearing the date 1537, of which
he gives a large drawing. A cromorne appears in a musical scene
with a trumpet in Hermann Finck's Practica Musical

The " Platerspil," of which Virdung gives a drawing, is only
a kind of cromorne. It is characterized by having, instead of a
cap to cover the reed, a spherical receiver surrounding the reed,
to which the tube for insufflation is adapted. The Platerspiel is
also frequently classified among bagpipes. In the Cantigas di Sante
Maria, 1 a MS. of the 13th century preserved in the Escorial, Madrid,
two instruments of this type are represented. One of these has two
straight, parallel pipes, slightly conical; the other is frankly conical
with wide bore turned up at the end.

1 See " Triumphzug des Kaisers Maximilian I." Beilage zum II.
Band des Jahrb. der Sammlungen des Atterhbchsten Kaiserhauses
(Vienna, 1884-1885), pi. 20. Explanatory text and part i. in Band i.
of the same publication, 1 883-1 884. A French edition with 135
plates was also published in Vienna by A. Schmidt, and in London
by J. Edwards (1796). See also Dr August Reissmann, Illustrierte
Geschichte der deutschen Musik (Leipzig, 1881), where a few of
the plates are reproduced.

2 See J. Ecorcheville, " Quelques documents sur la musique
de la grande ecurie du roi," Sammelband d. Intern. Musik. Ges.
Jahrg. ii., Heft 4 (1901, Leipzig, London, &c), pp. 630-632.

3 Oskar Fleischer, Fuhrer (Berlin, 1892), p. 29, Nos. 400 to 406.

4 For an illustration see Captain C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue
(London, 1891), pi. iv. E. and p. 99.

5 Histoire de la musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX" siecle
(Brussels, 1867-1888), vol. vii. p. 336, and description, p. 333 et seq.

6 Wittenberg, 1556; reproduced by A, Reissmann, op. cit., pp.
233 and 226.

7 Reproduced in Riano's Notes on Early Spanish Music (London,
1887), pp. 119-127.

Other instruments belonging by their most important character-
istics of cylindrical bore and double reed to the same family as the
cromorne, although the bore was somewhat differently disposed,
are the racket bassoon and the sourdine or sordelline. The latter
was introduced into the orchestra by Cavaliere in his opera Rap-
presentazione di anima e di corpo, and is described by Giudotto 8 in
his edition of the score as " Flauti overo due tibie all' antica che
noi chiamiamo sordelline," a description which tallies with what has
been said above concerning the aulos and tibia. (V. M. and K. S.)

CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827), English inventor, was
born on the 3rd of December 1753 at Firwood near Bolton-le-
Moors, Lancashire. While yet a boy he lost his father, and had
to contribute to the family resources by spinning yarn. The
defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the idea of
devising something better, and for five or six years the effort
absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned
by playing the violin at the Bolton theatre. About 1779 he
succeeded in producing a machine which span yarn suitable
for use in the manufacture of muslin, and which was known
as the muslin wheel or the Hall-in-the-Wood wheel (from the
name of the house in which he and his family resided), and later
as the spinning mule. After his marriage in 1 780 a good demand
arose for the yarn which he himself made at Hall-in-the-Wood,
but the prying to which his methods were subjected drove him,
in the absence of means to take out a patent, to the choice of
destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the
latter alternative on the promise of a number of manufacturers
to pay him for the use of the mule, but all he received was about
£60. He then resumed spinning on his own account, but with
indifferent success. In 1800 a sum of £500 was raised for his
benefit by subscription, and when in 1809 Edmund Cartwright,
the inventor of the power-loom obtained £10,000 from parlia-
ment, he determined also to apply for a grant. In 1811 he made
a tour in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Scotland
to collect evidence showing how extensively his mule was used,
and in 181 2 parliament allowed him £5000. With the aid of this
money he embarked in business, first as a bleacher and then as
a cotton merchant and spinner, but again without success. In
1824 some friends, without his knowledge, bought him an
annuity of £63. He died at Bolton on the 26th of June 1827.

CROMPTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England,
2\ m. N. of Oldham, within the parliamentary borough of
Oldham. Pop. (1901) 13,427. At Shaw, a populous village
included within it, is a station on the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway. Cotton mills and the collieries of the neighbourhood
employ the large industrial pppulation.

CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674), fourth son of Oliver
Cromwell, was born at Huntingdon on the 20th of January
1628, and served under his father during the latter part of the
Civil War. His active life, however, was mainly spent in Ireland,
whither he took some troops to assist Oliver early in 1650, and
he was one of the Irish representatives in the Little, or Nominated,
Parliament of 1653. In 1654 he was again in Ireland, and after
making certain recommendations to his father, now lord pro-
tector, with regard to the government of that country, he
became major-general of the forces in Ireland and a member
of the Irish council of state, taking up his new duties in July 1655.
Nominally Henry was subordinate to the lord-deputy, Charles
Fleetwood, but Fleetwood's departure for England in September
1655 left him for all practical purposes the ruler of Ireland. He
moderated the lord-deputy's policy of deporting the Irish, and
unlike him he paid some attention to the interests of the English
settlers; moreover, again unlike Fleetwood, he appears to have
held the scales evenly between the different Protestant sects,
and his undoubted popularity in Ireland is attested by Clarendon.
In November 1657 Henry himself was made lord-deputy; but
before this time he had refused a gift of property worth £1500 a
year, basing his refusal on the grounds of the poverty of the
country, a poverty which was not the least of his troubles.
In 1657 he advised his father not to accept the office of king,
although in 1654 he had supported a motion to this effect;

8 See Hugo Goldschmidt, " Das Orchester der italienischen Oper
im 17. Jahrh." Sammelband der Intern. Musikgesellschaft, Jahrg. ii.,
Heft 1 (Leipzig, 1900), p. 24.

CROMWELL, OLIVER

487

and after the dissolution of Cromwell's second parliament in
February 1658 he showed his anxiety that the protector should
act in a moderate and constitutional manner. After Oliver's
death Henry hailed with delight the succession of his brother
Richard to the office of protector, but although he was now
appointed lieutenant and governoi general of Ireland, it was
only with great reluctance that he remained in that country.
Having rejected proposals to assist in the restoration of Charles
II., Henry was recalled to England in June 1659 just after his
brother's fall; quietly obeying this order he resigned his office
at once. Although he lost some property at the Restoration,
he was allowed after some solicitation to keep the estate he had
bought in Ireland. His concluding years were passed at Spinney
Abbey in Cambridgeshire; he was unmolested by the govern-
ment, and he died on the 23rd of March 1674. In 1653 Henry
married Elizabeth (d. 1687), daughter of Sir Francis Russell, and
he left five sons and two daughters.

CROMWELL, OLIVER (1 599-1658), lord protector of England,
was the 5 th and only surviving son of Robert Cromwell of
Huntingdon and of Elizabeth Steward, widow of William Lynn.
His paternal grandfather was Sir Henry Cromwell of Hinchin-
brook, a leading personage in Huntingdonshire, and grandson
of Richard Williams, knighted by Henry VIII., nephew of
Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, Henry VIII. 's minister, whose
name he adopted. His mother was descended from a family
named Styward in Norfolk, which was not, however, connected
in any way, as has been often asserted, with the royal house of
Stuart. Oliver was born on the 25th of April 1599, was educated
ander Dr Thomas Beard, a fervent puritan, at the free school
at Huntingdon, and on the 23rd of April 1616 matriculated as
a fellow-commoner at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
then a hotbed of puritanism, subsequently studying law in
London. The royalist anecdotes relating to his youth, including
charges of ill-conduct, do not deserve credit, the entries in the
register of St John's, Huntingdon, noting Oliver's submission
on two occasions to church censure being forgeries; but it is
not improbable that his youth was wild and possibly dissolute. 1
According to Edmund Waller he was " very well read in the
Greek and Roman story." Burnet declares he had little Latin,
but he was able to converse with the Dutch ambassador in that
language. According to James Heath in his Flagellum, " he
was more famous for his exercises in the fields than in the schools,
being one of the chief match-makers and players at football,
cudgels, or any other boisterous game or sport." On the 22nd
of August 1620 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James
Bourchier, a city merchant of Tower Hill, and of Felstead in
Essex; and his father having died in 161 7 he settled at Hunting-
don and occupied himself in the management of his small estate.
In 1628 he was returned to parliament as member for the
borough, and on the nth of February 1629 he spoke in
support of puritan doctrine, complaining of the attempt by the
king to silence Dr Beard, who had raised his voice against the
" flat popery " inculcated by Dr Alabaster at Paul's Cross. He was
also one of the members who refused to adjourn at the king's
command till Sir John Eliot's resolutions had been passed.

During the eleven years of government without parliament
very little is recorded of Cromwell. His name is not connected
with the resistance to the levy of ship-money or to the action of
the ecclesiastical courts, but in 1630 he was one of those fined
for refusing to take up knighthood. The same year he was named
one of the justices of the peace for his borough; and on the grant
of a new charter showed great zeal in defending the rights of the
commoners, and succeeded in procuring an alteration in the
charter in their favour, exhibiting much warmth of temper
during the dispute and being committed to custody by the
privy council for angry words spoken against the mayor, for
which he afterwards apologized. He also defended the rights of
the commoners of Ely threatened by the " adventurers " who had
drained the Great Level, and he was nicknamed afterwards by
a royalist newspaper " Lord of the Fens." He was again later
the champion of the commoners of St Ives in the Long Parliament
1 Life of Sir H. Vane, by W. W. Ireland, 222.

against enclosures by the earl of Manchester, obtaining a com-
mission of the House of Commons to inquire into the case, and
drawing upon himself the severe censure of the chairman, the
future Lord Clarendon, by his " impetuous carriage " and
" insolent behaviour," and by the passionate vehemence he
imparted into the business. Bishop Williams, a kinsman of
Cromwell's, relates at this time that he was " a common spokes-
man for sectaries, and maintained their part with great stubborn-
ness "; and his earliest extant letter (in 1635) is an appeal for
subscriptions for a puritan lecturer. There appears to be no
foundation for the statement that he was stopped by an order of
council when on the point of abandoning England for America,
though there can be little doubt that the thoughts of emigra-
tion suggested themselves to his mind at this period. He viewed
the " innovations in religion " with abhorrence. According to
Clarendon he told the latter in 1641 that if the Grand Remon-
strance had not passed " he would have sold all he had the next
morning and never have seen England more." In 1631 he con-
verted his landed property into money, and John Hampden,
his cousin, a patentee of Connecticut in 1632, was on the point
of emigrating. Cromwell was perhaps arrested in his project
by his succession in 1636 to the estate of his uncle Sir Thomas
Steward, and to his office of farmer of the cathedral tithes at Ely,
whither he now removed. Meanwhile, like Bunyan and many
other puritans, Cromwell had been passing through a trying
period of mental and religious change and struggle, beginning
with deep melancholy and religious doubt and depression, and
ending with " seeing light " and with enthusiastic and convinced
faith, which remained henceforth the chief characteristic and
impulse in his career.

He represented Cambridge in the Short and Long Parliaments
of 1640, and at once showed extraordinary zeal and audacity
in his opposition to the government, taking a large _
share in business and serving on numerous and im- well's
portant committees. As the cousin of Hampden and first
St. John he was intimately associated with the leaders P"riia-
of the parliamentary party. His sphere of action, TttortsT
however, was not in parliament. He was not an
orator, and though he could express himself forcibly on occasion,
his speech was incoherent and devoid of any of the arts of
rhetoric. Clarendon notes on his first appearance in parliament
that " he seemed to have a person in no degree gracious, no
ornament of discourse, none of those talents which use to recon-
cile the affections of the standers by; yet as he grew into place
and authority his parts seemed to be renewed." He supported
stoutly the extreme party of opposition to the king, but did not
take the lead except on a few less important occasions, and was
apparently silent in the debates on the Petition of Right, the
Grand Remonstrance and the Militia. His first recorded in-
tervention in debate in the Long Parliament was on the gth of
November 1640, a few days after the meeting of the House, when
he delivered a petition from the imprisoned John Lilburne.
He was described by Sir Philip Warwick on this occasion: —
" I came into the House one morning well clad and perceived a
gentleman speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily apparelled;
for it was a plain cloth suit which seemed to have been made
by an ill country tailor; his linen was plain and not very clean;
. . . his stature was of a good size; his sword stuck close to
his side; his countenance swollen and reddish; his voice sharp
and untunable and his eloquence full of fervour ... I sincerely
profess it much lessened my reverence as to that great council
for he was very'much hearkened unto." On the 30th of December
he moved to the second reading of Strode's bill for annual parlia-
ments. His chief interest from the first, however, lay in the re-
ligious question. He belonged to the Root and Branch party,
and spoke in favour of the petition of the London citizens for the
abolition of episcopacy on the 9th of February 1641, and pressed
upon the House the Root and Branch Bill in May. On the 6th
of November he carried a motion entrusting the train-bands
south of the Trent to the command of the earl of Essex. On the
14th of January 1642, after the king's attempt to seize the five
members, he moved for a committee to put the kingdom in a

4 88

CROMWELL, OLIVER

posture of defence. He contributed £600 to the proposed Irish
campaign and £500 for raising forces in England — large sums
from his small estate — and on his own initiative in July 1642 sent
arms of the value of £100 down to Cambridge, seized the magazine
there in August, and prevented the king's commission of array
from being executed in the county, taking these important steps
on his own authority and receiving subsequently indemnity by
vote of the House of Commons. Shortly afterwards he joined
Essex with sixty horse, and was present at Edgehill, where his
troop was one of the few not routed by Rupert's charge, Cromwell
himself being mentioned among those officers who " never stirred
from their troops but fought till the last minute."

During the earlier part of the year 1643 the military position
of Charles was greatly superior to that of the parliament. Essex

was inactive near Oxford; in the west Sir Ralph
Be . gln ~ . Hopton had won a series of victories, and in the north
Civa war. Newcastle defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor,

and all Yorkshire except Hull was in his hands. It
seemed likely that the whole of the north would be laid open and
the royalists be able to march upon London and join Charles
and Hopton there. This stroke, which would most probably have
given the victory to the king, was prevented by the " Eastern
Association," a union of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire
and Hertfordshire, constituted in December 1642 and augmented
in 1643 by Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire, of which Crom-
well was the leading spirit. His zeal and energy met everywhere
with conspicuous success. In January 1643 he seized the royalist
high sheriff of Hertfordshire in the act of proclaiming the king's
commission of array at St Albans; in February he was at
Cambridge taking measures for the defence of the town; in
March suppressing royalist risings at Lowestoft and Lynn; in
April those of Huntingdon, when he also recaptured Crowland
from the king's party. In May he defeated a greatly superior
royalist force at Grantham, proceeding afterwards to Nottingham
in accordance with Essex's plan of penetrating into Yorkshire to
relieve the Fairfaxes; where, however, difficulties, arising from
jealousies between the officers, and the treachery of John Hotham,
whose arrest Cromwell was instrumental in effecting, obliged
him to retire again to the association, leaving the Fairfaxes to
be defeated at Adwalton Moor. He showed extraordinary
energy, resource and military talent in stemming the advance of
the royalists, who now followed up their victories by advancing
into the association; he defeated them at Gainsborough on the
28th of July, and managed a masterly retreat before over-
whelming numbers to Lincoln, while the victory on the nth of
October at Winceby finally secured the association, and main-
tained the wedge which prevented the junction of the royalists
in the north with the king in the south.

One great source of Cromwell's strength was the military
reforms he had initiated. At Edgehill he had observed the

inferiority of the parliamentary to the royalist horse,

w" composed as it was of soldiers of fortune and the dregs

soldiers, of the populace. " Do you think," he had said, " that

the spirits of such base, mean fellows will ever be able
to encounter gentlemen that have honour and courage and
resolution in them? You must get men of a spirit that is likely
to go as far as gentlemen will go or you will be beaten still."
The royalists were fighting for a great cause. To succeed the
parliamentary soldiers must also be inspired by some great
principle, and this was now found in religion. Cromwell chose
his own troops, both officers and privates, from the " religious
men," who fought not for pay or for adventure, but for their
faith. He declared, when answering a complaint that a certain
captain in his regiment was a better preacher than fighter, that
he who prayed best would fight best, and that he knew nothing
could " give the like courage and confidence as the knowledge
of God in Christ will." The superiority of these men — more
intelligent than the common soldiers, better disciplined, better
trained, better armed, excellent horsemen and fighting for a
great cause — not only over the other parliamentary troops but
over the royalists, was soon observed in battle. According to
Clarendon the latter, though frequently victorious in a charge,

could not rally afterwards, " whereas Cromwell's troops if they
prevailed, or though they were beaten and routed, presently
rallied again and stood in good order till they received new
orders "; and the king's military successes dwindled in pro-
portion to the gradual preponderance of Cromwell's troops in
the parliamentary army. At first these picked men only existed
in Cromwell's own troop, which, however, by frequent additions
became the nucleus of a regiment, and by the time of the New
Model included about 11,000 men.

In July 1643 Cromwell had been appointed governor of the
Isle of Ely; on the 22nd of January 1644 he became second in
command under the earl of Manchester as lieutenant-general
of the Eastern Association, and on the 16th of February 1644
a member of the Committee of Both Kingdoms with greatly
increased influence. In March he took Hillesden House in
Buckinghamshire; in May was at the siege of Lincoln, when he
repulsed Goring's attempt to relieve the town, and subsequently
took part in Manchester's campaign in the north. At Marston
Moor {q.v.) on the 2nd of July he commanded all the horse
of the Eastern Association, with some Scottish troops; and
though for a time disabled by a wound in the neck, he charged
and routed Rupert's troops opposed to him, and subsequently
went to the support of the Scots, who were hard pressed by the
enemy, and converted what appeared at one time a defeat into
a decisive victory. It was on this occasion that he earned the
nickname of " Ironsides," applied to him now by Prince Rupert,
and afterwards to his soldiers, " from the impenetrable strength
of his troops which could by no means be broken or divided."

The movements of Manchester after Marston Moor were
marked by great apathy. He was one of the moderate party
who desired an accommodation with the king, and was opposed
to Cromwell's sectaries. He remained at Lincoln, did nothing
to prevent the defeat of Essex's army in the west, and when
he at last advanced south to join Essex's and Waller's troops
his management of the army led to the failure of the attack
upon the king at Newbury on the 27th of October 1644. He
delayed supporting the infantry till too late, and was repulsed;
he allowed the royal army to march past his outposts; and a
fortnight afterwards, without any attempt to prevent it, and
greatly to Cromwell's vexation, permitted the moving of the
king's artillery and the relief of Donnington Castle by Prince
Rupert. " If you beat the king ninety-nine times," Manchester
urged at Newbury, " yet he is king still and so will his posterity
be after him; but if the king beat us once we shall all be hanged
and our posterity be made slaves." " My lord," answered
Cromwell, " if this be so, why did we take up arms at first?
This is against fighting ever hereafter. If so let us make peace,
be it ever so base." The contention brought to a crisis the
struggle between the moderate Presbyterians and the Scots on
the one side, who decided to maintain the monarchy and fought
for an accommodation and to establish Presbyterianism in
England, and on the other the republicans who would be satisfied
with nothing less than the complete overthrow of the king,
and the Independents who regarded the establishment of
Presbyterianism as an evil almost as great as that of the Church
of England. On the 25th of November Cromwell charged
Manchester with " unwillingness to have the war prosecuted
to a full victory"; which Manchester answered by accusing
Cromwell of having used expressions against the nobility, the
Scots and Presbyterianism; of desiring to fill the army of the
Eastern Association with Independents to prevent any accom-
modation; and of having vowed if he met the king in battle
he would as lief fire his pistol at him as at anybody else. The
lords and the Scots vehemently took Manchester's part; but
the Commons eventually sided with Cromwell, appointed Sir
Thomas Fairfax general of the New Model Army, and passed
two self-denying ordinances, the second of which, ordering all
members of both houses to lay down their commissions within
forty days, was accepted by the lords on the 3rd of April 1645.

Meanwhile Cromwell had been ordered on the 3rd of March
by the House to take his regiment to the assistance of Waller,
under whom he served as an admirable subordinate. " Although

CROMWELL, OLIVER

489

he was blunt," says Waller, " he did not bear himself with pride
or disdain. As an officer he was obedient and did never dispute
my orders or argue upon them." He returned on the 19th of
April, and on the 23rd was sent to Oxfordshire to prevent a
junction between Charles and Prince Rupert, in which he
succeeded after some small engagements and the storming of
Blechingdon House. His services were felt to be too valuable
to be lost, and on the 10th of May his command was prolonged
for forty days. On the 28th he was sent to Ely for the defence
of the eastern counties against the king's advance; and on the
10th of June, upon Fairfax's petition, he was named by ^he
Commons lieutenant-general, joining Fairfax on the 13th with
six hundred horse. At the decisive battle of Naseby (the 14th
of June 1645) he commanded the parliamentary right
*** wing and routed the cavalry of Sir Marmaduke Lang-

Naseby. dale, subsequently falling upon and defeating the
royalist centre, and pursuing the fugitives as far as
the outskirts of Leicester. At Langport again, on the 10th of
July 1645, hi s management of the troops was largely instru-
mental in gaining the victory. As the king had no longer a
field army, the war after Naseby resolved itself into a series of
sieges which Charles had no means of raising. Cromwell was
present at the sieges of Bridgwater, Bath, Sherborne and Bristol;
and later, in command of four regiments of foot and three of
horse, he was employed in clearing Wiltshire and Hampshire
of the royalist garrisons. He took Devizes and Laycock House,
Winchester and Basing House, and rejoined Fairfax in October
at Exeter, and accompanied him to Cornwall, where he assisted
in the defeat of Hopton's forces and in the suppression of the
royalists in the west. On the 9th of January 1646 he surprised
Lord Wentworth's brigade at Bovey Tracey, and was present
with Fairfax at the fall of Exeter on the 9th of April. He then
went to London to give an account of proceedings to the parlia-
ment, was thanked for his services and rewarded with the estate
of f he marquess of Worcester. He was present again with
Fairfax at the capitulation of Oxford on the 24th of June, which
practically terminated the Civil War, when he used his influence
in favour of granting lenient terms. He then removed with his
family from Ely to Drury Lane, London, and about a year later
to King Street, Westminster.

The war being now over, the great question of the establish-
ment of Presbyterianism or Independency had to be decided.
Cromwell, without naming himself an adherent of any denomina-
tion, fought vigorously for Independency as a policy. In 1644
he had remonstrated at the removal by Crawford of an ana-
baptist lieutenant-colonel. " The state," he said, "in choosing
men to serve it, takes no notice of their opinions. If they be
willing faithfully to serve it, that satisfies. Take heed of being
sharp . . . against those to whom you can object little but that
they square not with you in every opinion concerning matters of
religion." He had patronized Lilburne and welcomed all into
his regiment, and the Independents had spread from his troops
throughout the whole army. But while the sectarians were
in a vast majority in the army, the parliament was equally
strong in Presbyterianism and opposed to toleration. The
proposed disbandment of the army in February 1647 would have
placed the soldiers entirely in the power of the parliament; while
the negotiations of the king, first with the Scots and then with the
parliament, appeared to hazard all the fruits of victory. The
petition from the army to the parliament for arrears of pay was
suppressed and the petitioners declared enemies of the state.
In consequence the army organized a systematic opposition,
and elected representatives styled Agitators or Agents to urge
their claims.

Cromwell, though greatly disliking the policy of the Presby-
terians, yet gave little support at first to the army in resisting
parliament. In May 1647 in company with Skippon,

ar f* . Ireton and Fleetwood, he visited the army, inquired
went and . ' , , ,

the army. ln ^° an d reported on the grievances, and endeavoured

to persuade them to submit to the parliament. " If

that authority falls to nothing," he said, " nothing can follow

but confusion." The Presbyterians, however, now engaged in

a plan for restoring the king under their own control, and by the
means of a Scottish army, forced on their policy, and on the 27th
of May ordered the immediate disbandment of the army, without
any guarantee for the payment of arrears. A mutiny was the
consequence. The soldiers refused to disband, and on the 3rd of
June Cromwell, whom, it was believed, the parliament intended
to arrest, joined the army. "If he would not forthwith come
and lead them," they had told him, " they would go their own
way without him." The supremacy of the army without a
guiding hand meant anarchy, that of the Presbyterians the
outbreak of another civil war.

Possession of the king's person now became an important
consideration. On the 31st of May 1647 Cromwell had ordered
Cornet Joyce to prevent the king's removal by the parliament
or the Scots from Holmby, and Joyce by his own authority
and with the king's consent brought him to Newmarket to the
headquarters of the army. Cromwell soon restored order, and
the representative council, including privates as well as officers
chosen to negotiate with the parliament, was subordinated
to the council of war. The army with Cromwell then advanced
towards London. In a letter to the city, possibly written by
Cromwell himself, the officers repudiated any wish to alter the
civil government or upset the establishment of Presbyterianism,
but demanded religious toleration. Subsequently, in the
declaration of the 14th of June, arbitrary power either in the
parliament or in the king was denounced, and demand was made
for a representative parliament, the speedy termination of the
actual assembly, and the recognition of the right to petition.
Cromwell used his influence in restraining the more eager who
wished to march on London immediately, and in avoiding the
use of force by which nothing permanent could be effected,
urging that " whatsoever we get by treaty will be firm and dur-
able. It will be conveyed over to posterity." The army faction
gradually gathered strength in the parliament. Eleven Presby-
terian leaders impeached by the army withdrew of their own
accord on the 26th of June, and the parliament finally yielded.
Fairfax was appointed sole commander-in-chief on the 19th of
July, the soldiers levied to oppose the army were dismissed,
and the command of the city militia was again restored to the
committee approved by the army. These votes, however, were
cancelled later, on the 26th of July, under the pressure of the
royalist city mob which invaded the two Houses; but the two
speakers, with eight peers and fifty-seven members of the
Commons, themselves joined the army, which now advanced to
London, overawing all resistance, escorting the fugitive members
in triumph to Westminster on the 6th of August, and obliging
the parliament on the 20th to cancel the last votes, with the
threat of a regiment of cavalry drawn up by Cromwell in Hyde
Park.

Cromwell and the army now turned with hopes of a settlement
to Charles. On the 4th of July Cromwell had had an interview
with the king at Caversham. He was not insensible to Charles's
good qualities, was touched by the paternal affection he showed
for his children, and is said to have declared that Charles " was the
uprightest and most conscientious man of his three kingdoms."
The Heads of the Proposals, which, on Charles raising objections,
had been modified by the influence of Cromwell and Ireton,
demanded the control of the militia and the choice of ministers
by parliament for ten years, a religious toleration, and a council
of state to which much of the royal control over the army and
foreign policy would be delegated. These proposals without
doubt largely diminished the royal power, and were rejected by
Charles with the hope of maintaining his sovereign rights by
" playing a game," to use his own words, i.e. by negotiating
simultaneously with army and parliament, by inflaming their
jealousies and differences, and finally by these means securing
his restoration with his full prerogatives unimpaired. On the
9th of September Charles refused once mere the Newcastle
Propositions offered him by the parliament, and Cromwell,
together with Ireton and Vane, obtained the passing of a motion
for a new application; but the terms asked by the parliament
were higher than before and included a harsh condition — the

490

CROMWELL, OLIVER

exclusion from pardon of all the king's leading adherents, besides
the indefinite establishment of Presbyterianism and the refusal of
toleration to the Roman Catholics and members of the Church
of England.

Meanwhile the failure to come to terms with Charles and
provide a settlement appeared to threaten a general anarchy.
Cromwell's moderate counsels created distrust in his good faith
amongst the soldiers, who accused him of " prostituting the
liberties and persons of all the people at the foot of the king's
interest." The agitators demanded immediate settlement
by force by the army. The extreme republicans, anticipating
Rousseau, put forward the Agreement of the People. This was
strongly opposed by Cromwell, who declared the very considera-
tion of it had dangers, that it would bring upon the country
" utter confusion " and " make England like Switzerland."
Universal suffrage he rejected as tending " very much to
anarchy," spoke against the hasty abolition of either the
monarchy or the Lords, and refused entirely to consider the
abstract principles brought into the debate. Political problems
were not to be so resolved, but practically. With Cromwell as
with Burke the question was " whether the spirit of the people
of this nation is prepared to go along with it." The special
form of government was not the important point, but its possi-
bility and its acceptability. The great problem was to found
a stable government, an authority to keep order. If every man
should fight for the best form of government the state would
come to desolation. He reproached the soldiers for their in-
subordination against their officers, and the army for its rebellion
against the parliament. He would lay hold of anything " if
it had but the force of authority," rather than have none.
Cromwell's influence prevailed and these extreme proposals
were laid aside.

Meanwhile all hopes of an accommodation with Charles were
dispelled by his flight on the nth of November from Hampton
Court to Carisbroke Castle in the Isle of Wight, his
*/*&' object being to negotiate independently with the
king. Scots, the parliament and the army. His action,

however, in the event, diminished rather than increased
his chances of success, owing to the distrust of his intentions
which it inspired. Both the army and the parliament gave
cold replies to his offers to negotiate; and Charles, on the 27th
of December 1647, entered into the Engagement with the Scots
by which he promised the establishment of Presbyterianism for
three years, the suppression of the Independents and their sects,
together with privileges for the Scottish nobles, while the Scots
undertook to invade England and restore him to his throne.
This alliance, though the exact terms were not known to Cromwell
— " the attempt to vassalize us to a foreign nation," to use his
own words — convinced him of the uselessness of any plan for
maintaining Charles on the throne; though he still appears to
have clung to monarchy, proposing in January 1648 the trans-
ference of the crown to the prince of Wales. A week after the
signing of the treaty he supported a proposal for the king's
deposition, and the vote of No Addresses was carried. Meanwhile
the position of Charles's opponents had been considerably
strengthened by the suppression of a dangerous rebellion in
November 1647 by Cromwell's intervention, and by the return
of troops to obedience. Cromwell's difficulties, however, were
immense. His moderate and trimming attitude was understood
neither by the extreme Independents nor by the Presbyterians.
He made one attempt to reconcile the disputes between the army
and the politicians by a conference, but ended the barren dis-
cussion on the relative merits of aristocracies, monarchies and
democracies, interspersed with Bible texts, by throwing a
cushion at the speaker's head and running downstairs. On the
19th of January 1648 Cromwell was accused of high treason by
Lilburne. Plots were formed for his assassination. He was
overtaken by a dangerous illness, and on the 2nd of March civil
war in support of the king broke out.

Cromwell left London in May to suppress the royalists in Wales,
and took Pembroke Castle on the 11th of July. Meanwhile
behind his back the royalists had risen all over England, the

fleet in the Downs had declared for Charles, and the Scottish
army under Hamilton had invaded the north. Immediately
on the fall of Pembroke Cromwell set out to relieve Lambert,
who was slowly retreating before Hamilton's superior forces;
he joined him near Knaresborough on the 12th of August, and
started next day in pursuit of Hamilton in Lancashire, placing
himself at Stonyhurst near Preston, cutting off Hamilton from
the north and his allies, and defeating him in detail on the
17th, 18th and 19th at Preston and at Warrington. He then
marched north into Scotland, following the forces of Monro,
and established a new government of the Argyle faction at
Edinburgh; replying to the Independents who disapproved
of his mild treatment of the Presbyterians, that he desired
" union and right understanding between the godly people,
Scots, English, Jews, Gentiles, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and
all; ... a more glorious work in our eyes than if we had gotten
the sacking and plunder of Edinburgh . . . and made a con-
quest from the Tweed to the Orcades."

The incident of the Second Civil War and the treaty with the
Scots exasperated Cromwell against the king. On his return
to London he found the parliament again negotiating Cromwell
with Charles, and on the eve of making a treaty which supports
Charles himself had no intention of keeping and the
regarded merely as a means of regaining his power, R " noa -
and which would have thrown away in one moment
all the advantages gained during years of bloodshed and struggle.
Cromwell therefore did not hesitate to join the army in its
opposition to the parliament, and supported the Remonstrance
of the troops (20th of November 1648), which included the
demand for the king's punishment as " the grand author of all
our troubles," and justified the use of force by the army if other
means failed. The parliament, however, continued to negotiate,
and accordingly Charles was removed by the army to Hurst
Castle on the 1st of December, the troops occupied London on
the 2nd; while on the 6th and 7th Colonel Pride " purged "
the House of Commons of the Presbyterians. Cromwell was
not the originator of this act, but showed his approval of it by
taking his seat among the fifty or sixty Independent members
who remained.

The disposal of the king was now the great question to be
decided. During the next few weeks Cromwell appears to have
made once more attempts to come to terms with Charles; but
the king was inflexible in his refusal to part with the essential
powers of the monarchy, or with the Church; and at the end
of December it was resolved to bring him to trial. The exact
share which Cromwell had in this decision and its sequel is
obscure, and the later accounts of the regicides when on their
trial at the Restoration, ascribing the whole transaction to his
initiation and agency, cannot be altogether accepted. But it
is plain that, once convinced of the necessity for the king's
execution, he was the chief instrument in overcoming all scruples
among his judges, and in resisting the protests and appeals of
the Scots. To Algernon Sidney, who refused to take part in
proceedings on the plea that neither the king nor any man could
be tried by such a court, Cromwell replied, " I tell you, we will
cutoff his head with the crown upon it."

The execution of the king took place on the 30th of January
1649. This event, the turning-point in Cromwell's career, casts
a shadow, from one point of view, over the whole of The
his future statesmanship. He himself never repented execution
of the act, regarding it, on the contrary, as "one which °*
Christians in after times will mention with honour and
all tyrants in the world look at with fear," and as one directly
ordained by God. Opinions, no doubt, will always differ as to
the wisdom or authority of the policy which brought Charles
to the scaffold. On the one hand, there was no law except that
of force by which an offence could be attributed to the sovereign,
the anointed king, the source of justice. The ordinance estab-
lishing the special tribunal for the trial was passed by a remnant
of the House of Commons alone, from which all dissentients
were excluded by the army. The tribunal was composed, not
of judges- — for all unanimously refused to sit on it — but of

CROMWELL, OLIVER

491

fifty-two men drawn from among the king's enemies. The
execution was a military and not a national act, and at the last
scene on the scaffold the triumphant shouts of the soldiery could
not overwhelm the groans and sobs raised by the populace.
Whatever crimes might be charged against Charles, his past
conduct might appear to be condoned by the act of negotiating
with him. On the other hand, the execution seemed to Cromwell
the only alternative to anarchy, or to a return to despotism and
the abandonment of all they had fought for. Cromwell had
exhausted every expedient for arriving at an arrangement with
the king by which the royal authority might be preserved, and
the repeated perfidy and inexhaustible shiftiness of Charles had
proved the hopelessness of such attempts. The results produced
by the king's execution were far-reaching and permanent. It
is true that Puritan austerity and the lack of any strong central
authority after Oliver's death produced a reaction which
temporarily restored Charles's dynasty to the throne; but it is
not less true that the execution of the king, at a later time when
all over Europe absolute monarchies " by divine right" were
being established on the ruins of the ancient popular constitu-
tions, was an object lesson to all the world; and it produced a
profound effect, not only in establishing constitutional monarchy
in Great Britain after James II., with the dread of his father's
fate before him, had abdicated by flight, but in giving the
impulse to that revolt against the idea of " the divinity that doth
hedge a king " which culminated in the Revolution of 1789, and
of which the mighty effects are still evident in Europe and
beyond.

The king and the monarchy being now destroyed in England,
Cromwell had next to turn his attention to the suppression of
Cromwell royalism in Ireland and in Scotland. In Ireland
la Ormonde had succeeded in uniting the English and the

Ireland. Irish in a league against the supporters of the parlia-
ment, and only a few scattered forts held out for the
Commonwealth, while the young king was every day expected
to land and complete the conquest of the island. Accordingly
in March 1649 Cromwell was appointed lord-lieutenant and com-
mander-in-chief for its reduction. But before starting he was
called upon to suppress disorder at home. He treated the
Levellers with some severity and showed his instinctive dislike
to revolutionary proposals. " Did not that levelling principle,"
he said, " tend to the reducing of all to an equality? What was
the purport of it but to make the tenant as liberal a fortune as
the landlord, which I think if obtained would not have lasted
long." Equally characteristic was his treatment of the mutinous
army, in which he suppressed a rebellion in May. He landed at
Dublin on the 13th of August. Before his arrival the Dublin
garrison had defeated Ormonde with a loss of 5000 men, and
Cromwell's work was limited to the capture of detached fortresses.
On the 10th of September he stormed Drogheda, and by his order
the whole of its 2800 defenders were put to the sword without
quarter. Cromwell, who was as a rule especially scrupulous
in protecting non-combatants from violence, justified his severity
in this case by the cruelties perpetrated by the Irish in the
rebellion of 1641, and as being necessary on military and political
grounds in that it " would tend to prevent the effusion of blood
for the future, which were the satisfactory grounds of such actions
which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret." After
the fall of Drogheda Cromwell sent a few troops to relieve
Londonderry, and marched himself to Wexford, which he took
on the nth of October, and where similar scenes of cruelty were
repeated; every captured priest, to use Cromwell's own words,
being immediately " knocked on the head," though the story of
the three hundred women slaughtered in the market-place has
no foundation.

The surrender of Trim, Dundalk and Ross followed, but at
Waterford Cromwell met with a stubborn resistance and the
advent of winter obliged him to raise the siege. Next year
Cromwell penetrated into Munster. Cashel, Cahir and several
castles fell in February, and Kilkenny in March; Clonmel
repulsing the assault with great loss, but surrendering on the
10th of May 1650. Cromwell himself sailed a fortnight later,

leaving the reduction of the island, which was completed in
1652, to his generals. The re-settlement of the conquered and
devastated country was now organized on the Tudor and Straf-
fordian basis of colonization from England, conversion to Pro-
testantism, and establishment of law and order. Cromwell
thoroughly approved of the enormous scheme of confiscation
and colonization, causing great privations and sufferings, which
was carried out. The Roman Catholic landowners lost their
estates, all or part according to their degree of guilt, and these
were distributed among Cromwell's soldiers and the creditors
of the government; Cromwell also invited new settlers from
home and from New England, two-thirds of the whole land of
Ireland being thus transferred to new proprietors. The sup-
pression of Roman Catholicism was zealously pursued by
Cromwell; the priests were hunted down and imprisoned or
exiled to Spain or Barbados, the mass was everywhere forbidden,
and the only liberty allowed was that of conscience, the Romanist
not being obliged to attend Protestant services.

These methods, together with education, " assiduous preaching
. . . humanity, good life, equal and honest dealing with men of
different opinion," Cromwell thought, would convert the whole
island to Protestantism. The law was ably and justly ad-
ministered, and Irish trade was admitted to the same privileges
as English, enjoying the same rights in foreign and colonial trade;
and no attempt was made to subordinate the interests of the
former to the latter, which was the policy adopted both before
and after Cromwell's time, while the union of Irish and English
interests was further recognized by the Irish representation at
Westminster in the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659. These
advantages, however, scarcely benefited at all the Irish Roman
Catholics, who were excluded from political life and from the
corporate towns; and Cromwell's union meant little more than
the union of the English colony in Ireland with England. A
just administration, too, did not compensate for unjust laws
or produce contentment; the policy of conversion and coloniza-
tion was unsuccessful, the descendants of many of Cromwell's
soldiers becoming merged in the Roman Catholic Irish, and the
union with England, political and commercial, being extinguished
at the Restoration. Cromwell's land settlement — modified by the
restoration under Charles II. of about one-third of the estates
to the royalists — survived, and added to the difficulties with
which the English government was afterwards confronted in
Ireland.

Meanwhile Cromwell had hurried home to deal with the
royalists in Scotland. He urged Fairfax to attack the Scots
at once in their own country and to forestall their _.
invasion; but Fairfax refused and resigned, and battles of
Cromwell was appointed by parliament, on the 26th Dunbar
of Tune 1650, commander-in-chief of all the forces a " d
of the Commonwealth. He entered Scotland in July,
and after a campaign in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh which
proved unsuccessful in drawing out the Scots from their fortresses,
he retreated to Dunbar to await reinforcements from Berwick.
The Scots under Leslie followed him, occupied Doon Hill com-
manding the town, and seized the passes between Dunbar and
Berwick which Cromwell had omitted to secure. Cromwell was
outmanoeuvred and in a perilous situation, completely cut off
from England and from his supplies except from the sea. But
Leslie descended the hill to complete his triumph, and Cromwell
immediately observed the disadvantages of his antagonist's
new position, cramped by the hill behind and separated from
his left wing. A stubborn struggle on the next day, the 3rd of
September, gave Cromwell a decisive victory. Advancing, he
occupied Edinburgh and Leith. At first it seemed likely that his
victories and subsequent remonstrances would effect a peace
with the Scots; but by 1651 Charles II. had succeeded in forming
a new union of royalists and presbyterians, and another campaign
became inevitable. Some delay was caused in beginning opera-
tions by Cromwell's dangerous illness, during which his life was
despaired of; but in June he was confronting Leslie entrenched
in the hills near Stirling, impregnable to attack and refusing
an engagement. Cromwell determined to turn his antagonist's

492

CROMWELL, OLIVER

position. He sent 14,000 men into Fifeshire and marched to
Perth, which he captured on the 2nd of August, thus cutting off
Leslie from the north and his supplies. This movement, however,
left open the way to England, and Charles immediately marched
south, in reality thus giving Cromwell the wished-for opportunity
of crushing the royalists finally and decisively. Cromwell
followed through Yorkshire, and uniting with Lambert and
Harrison at Evesham proceeded to attack the royalists at
Worcester; where on the 3rd of September after a fierce struggle
the great victory, " the crowning mercy " which terminated the
Civil War, was obtained over Charles.

Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland by 1654. The
settlement here was made on more moderate lines than in Ireland.
The estates of only twenty-four leaders of the defeated cause
were forfeited by Cromwell, and the national church was left
untouched though deprived of all powers of interference with the
civil government, the general assembly being dissolved in 1653.
Large steps were made towards the union of the two kingdoms
by the representation of Scotland in the parliament at West-
minster; free trade between the two countries was established,
the administration of justice greatly improved, vassalage and
heritable jurisdictions abolished, and security and good order
maintained by the council of nine appointed by the Protector.
In 1658 the improved condition of Scotland was the subject of
Cromwell's special congratulation in addressing parliament.
But as in Ireland so Cromwell's policy in Scotland was unpopular
and was only upheld by the maintenance of a large army,
necessitating heavy taxation and implying the loss of the national
independence. It also vanished at the Restoration.

On the 12th of September 1651 Cromwell made his triumphal
entry into London at the conclusion of his victorious campaigns;
and parliament granted him Hampton Court as a residence
with £4000 a year. These triumphs, however, had all been
obtained by force of arms; the more difficult task now awaited
Cromwell of governing England by parliament and by law.
As Milton wrote: —

" Cromwell! our chief of men, who through a cloud
Not of war only, but detractions rude,
Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,
To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed,

. . . Peace hath her victories
No less renowned than war."

Cromwell's moderation and freedom from imperiousness were
acknowledged even by those least friendly to his principles.
Although the idol of his victorious army, and in a position
enabling him to exercise autocratic power, he laboured un-
ostentatiously for more than a year and a half as a member
of the parliament, whose authority he supported to the best of
his ability. While occupied with work on committees and in
administration he pressed forward several schemes of reform,
including a large measure of law reform prepared by a com-
mission presided over by Matthew Hale, and the settlement of
the church; but very little was accomplished by the parliament,
which seemed to be almost exclusively taken up with the
maintenance and increase of its own powers; and Cromwell's
dissatisfaction, and that of the army which increased every
day, was intensified by the knowledge that the parliament,
instead of dissolving for a new election, was seeking to perpetuate
its tenure of power. At length, in April 1653, a " bill for a new
representation " was discussed, which provided for the retention
of their seats by the existing members without re-election, so
that they would also be the sole judges of the eligibility of the
rest. This measure, which placed the whole powers of the state — ■
executive, legislative, military and judicial — in the hands of
one irresponsible and permanent chamber, " the horridest
arbitrariness that ever was exercised in the world," Cromwell
and the army determined to resist at all costs. On the 1 5th of
April they proposed that the parliament should appoint a
provisional government and dissolve itself. This compromise
was refused by the parliament, which proceeded on the 20th to
press through its last stages the " bill for a new representation."
Cromwell hastened to the House, and at the last moment, on

the bill being put to the vote, whispering to Harrison. " This is
the time; I must do it," he rose, and after alluding to the
former good services of the parliament, proceeded to Cromwell
overwhelm the members with reproaches. Striding up expels
and down the House in a passion, he made no attempt <*« L°»g
to control himself, and turning towards individuals Par,la -
as he hurled significant epithets at each, he called men
some " whoremasters," others " drunkards, corrupt, unjust,
scandalous to the profession of the Gospel." " Perhaps you
think," he exclaimed, " that this is not parliamentary language;
I confess it is not, neither are you to expect any such from me."
In reply to a complaint of his violence he cried, " Come, come,
I will put an end to your prating. You are no parliament, I
say you are no parliament. I will put an end to your sitting."
By his directions Harrison then fetched in a small band of
Cromwell's musketeers and compelled the speaker Lenthall to
vacate the chair. Looking at the mace he said, " What shall
we do with this bauble?" and ordered a soldier to take it away.
The members then trooped out, Cromwell crying after them,
"It is you that have forced me to this; for I have sought the
Lord night and day that He would rather slay me than put me
upon the doing this work." He then snatched the obnoxious
bill from the clerk, put it under his cloak, and commanding the
doors to be locked went back to Whitehall. In the afternoon
he dissolved the council in spite of John Bradshaw's re-
monstrances, who said, " Sir, we have heard what you did at
the House this morning . . . ; but you are mistaken to think
that the parliament is dissolved, for no power under heaven can
dissolve them but themselves; therefore take you notice of
that." Cromwell had no patience with formal pedantry of this
sort; and in point of strict legality " The Rump " of the Long
Parliament had little better title to authority than the officers
who expelled it from the House. After this Cromwell had
nothing left but the army with which to govern, and " henceforth
his life was a vain attempt to clothe that force in constitutional
forms, and make it seem something else so that it might become
something else." 1

By the dissolution of the Long Parliament Cromwell as
commander-in-chief was left the sole authority in the state.
He determined immediately to summon another parliament.
This was the" Little "or" Barebones Parliament," consisting of
one hundred and forty persons selected by the council of officers
from among those nominated by the congregations in each
county, which met on the 4th of July 1653. This assembly,
however, soon showed itself impracticable and incapable, and
on the 12 th of December the speaker, followed by the more
moderate members, marched to Whitehall and returned their
powers to Cromwell, while the rest were expelled by the
army.

Cromwell, who had no desire to exercise arbitrary power
and whose main object therefore was to devise some constitu-
tional limit to the authority which circumstances had placed in
his hands, now accepted the written constitution drawn up by
some of the officers, called the Instrument of Government, the
earliest example of a " fixed government " based on " funda-
mentals," or constitutional guarantees, and the only example
of it in English history. Its authors had wished Oliver to assume
the title of king, but this he repeatedly refused; and in the
instrument he was named Protector, a parliament was estab-
lished, limited in powers but whose measures were not restricted
by the Protector's veto unless they contravened the constitution,
the Protector's executive power being also limited by the council.
The Protector and the council together were given a life tenure of
office, with a large army and a settled revenue sufficient for public
needs in time of peace; while the clauses relating to religion
" are remarkable as laying down for the first time with authority
a principle of toleration," 2 though this toleration did not apply
to Roman Catholics and Anglicans. On the 16th of December
1653 Cromwell was installed in his new office, dressed as a civilian
in a plain black coat instead of in scarlet as a general, in order

1 C. H. Firth, Cromwell, p. 324.
2 John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 393.

CROMWELL, OLIVER

493

to demonstrate that military government had given place to
civil; for he approached his task in the same spirit that had
prompted his declaration to the Little Parliament of his
wish " to divest the sword of all power in the Civil ad-
ministration."

In the interval between his nomination as Protector and the
summoning of his first parliament in September 1654, Cromwell
_. was empowered together with his council to legislate by

govern- ordinances; and eighty-two were issued in all, dealing
meat of with numerous and various reforms and including
the the reorganization of the treasury, the settlement

Protector. Qf Ireland and Scot i anc i anc j tne union of the three

kingdoms, the relief of poor prisoners, and the maintenance of
the highways. These ordinances in many instances showed the
hand of the true statesman. Cromwell was essentially a con-
servative reformer; in his attempts to purge the court of
chancery of its most flagrant abuses, and to settle the ecclesiastical
affairs of the nation, he showed himself anxious to retain as
much of the existing system as could be left untouched without
doing positive evil. He was out-voted by his council on the
question of commutation of tithes, and his enlightened zeal for
reforming the " wicked and abominable " sentences of the
criminal law met with complete failure. Most of these ordinances
were subsequently confirmed by parliament, and, " on the whole,
this body of dictatorial legislation, abnormal in form as it is,
in substance was a real, wise and moderate set of reforms." 1
His ordinances for the " Reformation of Manners," the product
of the puritan spirit, had but a transitory effect. The Long
Parliament had ordered a strict observance of Sunday, punished
swearing severely, and made adultery a capital crime; Cromwell
issued further ordinances against duelling, swearing, race-
meetings and cock-fights — the last as tending to the disturbance
of the public peace and the encouragement of " dissolute
practices to the dishonour of God." Cromwell himself was
no ascetic and saw no harm in honest sport. He was exceedingly
fond of horses and hunting, leaping ditches prudently avoided
by the foreign ambassadors. Baxter describes him as full of
animal spirits, " naturally of such a vivacity, hilarity and
alacrity as another man is when he hath drunken a cup of wine
too much," and notes his " familiar rustic carriage with his
soldiers in sporting." He was fond of music and of art, and kept
statues in Hampton Court Gardens which scandalized good
puritans. He preferred that Englishmen should be free rather
than sober by compulsion. Writing to the Scottish clergy, and
rejecting their claim to suppress dissent in order to extirpate
error, he said, " Your pretended fear lest error should step in
is like the man who would keep all wine out of the country lest
men should be drunk. It will be found an unjust and unwise
jealousy to deprive a man of his natural liberty upon a sup-
position he may abuse it. When he doth abuse it, judge." It
is probable that very little of this moral legislation was enforced
in practice, though special efforts were made under the govern-
ment of the major-generals. Cromwell expected more results
from the effects of education and culture. A part of the revenue
of confiscated church lands was allotted to the maintenance of
schools, and the question of national education was seriously
taken in hand by the Commonwealth. Cromwell was especially
interested in the universities. In 1640 he had been elected
D.C.L. at Oxford, and in 1651 chancellor of the University, an
office which he held till 1657, when he was succeeded by his son
Richard. He founded a new readership in Divinity, and pre-
sented Greek MSS. to the Bodleian. He appointed visitors
for the universities and great public schools, and defended the
universities from the attacks of the extreme sectaries who
clamoured for their abolition, even Clarendon allowing that
Oxford " yielded a harvest of extraordinary good and sound
knowledge in all parts of learning." In 1657 he founded a new
university at Durham, which was suppressed at the Restoration.
He patronized learning. Mil ton and Marvell were his secretaries.
He allowed the royalists Hobbes and Cowley to return to England,
and lived in friendship with the poet Waller.

'Frederic Harrison, Oliver Cromwell, p. 214.

Cromwell's religious policy' included the maintenance of a
national church, a policy acceptable to the army but much
disliked by the Scots, who wanted the church to Crom-
control the state, not the state the church. He well's
improved the incomes of poor livings by revenues church
derived from episcopal estates and the fines of delin- po cy '
quents. An important feature of his church government was
the appointment on the 20th of March 1654 of the " Triers,"
thirty-eight clerical and lay commissioners, who decided upon
the qualifications of candidates for livings, and without whose
recommendation none could be appointed; while an ordinance
of August 1654 provided for the removal of the unfit, the latter
class including besides immoral persons those holding " popish "
or blasphemous opinions, those publicly using the English
Prayer Book, and the disaffected to the government. Religious
toleration was granted, but with the important exception that
some harsh measures were enacted against Anglicans and
Roman Catholics, to neither of whom was liberty of worship
accorded. The acts imposing fines for recusancy, repealed in
1650, were later executed with great severity. In 1655 a pro-
clamation was issued for administering the laws against the
priests and Jesuits, and some executions were carried out.
Complete toleration in fact was only extended to Protestant
nonconformists, who composed the Cromwellian established
church, and who now meted out to their antagonists the same
treatment which they themselves were later to receive under the
Clarendon Code of Charles II.

Cromwell himself, however, remained throughout a staunch
and constant upholder of religious toleration. " I had rather
that Mahommedanism were permitted amongst us," Hls
he avowed, " than that one of God's children should religious
be persecuted." Far in advance of his contemporaries toiera-
on this question, whenever his personal action is on '
disclosed it is invariably on the side of forbearance and of
moderation. It is probable, from the absence of evidence to
the contrary, that much of this severe legislation was never
executed, and it was without doubt Cromwell's restraining
hand which moderated the narrow persecuting spirit of the
executive. In practice Anglican private worship appears to have
been little interfered with; and although the recusant fines were
rigorously exacted, the same seems to have been the case with
the private celebration of the mass. Bordeaux, the French
envoy in England, wrote that, in spite of the severe laws, the
Romanists received better treatment under the Protectorate
than under any other government. Cromwell's strong personal
inclination towards toleration is clearly seen in his treatment of
the Jews and Quakers. He was unable, owing to the opposition
of the divines and of the merchants, to secure the full recognition
of the right to reside in England of the former who had for
some time lived in small numbers and traded unnoticed and
untroubled in the country; but he obtained an opinion from
two judges that there was no law which forbade their return, and
he gave them a private assurance of his protection, with leave
to celebrate their private worship and to possess a cemetery.

Cromwell's policy in this instance was not overturned at
the Restoration, and the great Jewish immigration into England
with all its important consequences may be held to date practi-
cally from these first concessions made by Cromwell. His
personal intervention also alleviated the condition of the Quakers,
much persecuted at this time. In an interview in 1654 the
sincerity and enthusiasm of George Fox had greatly moved
Cromwell and had convinced him of theirfreedom from dangerous
political schemes. He ordered Fox's liberation, and in November
1657 issued a general order directing that Quakers should be
treated with leniency, and be discharged from confinement.
Doctrines directly attacking Christianity Cromwell regarded,
indeed, as outside toleration and to be punished by the civil
power, but at the same time he mitigated the severity of the
penalty ordained by the law. In general the toleration enjoyed
under Cromwell was probably far larger than at any period
since religion became the contending ground of political parties,
and certainly greater than under his immediate successors.

494

CROMWELL, OLIVER

Lilburne and the anabaptists, and John Rogers and the Fifth
Monarchy men, were prosecuted only on account of their direct
attacks upon the government, and Cromwell in his broad-
minded and tolerant statesmanship was himself in advance of
his age and his administration. He believed in the spiritual and
unseen rather than in the outward and visible unity of
Christendom.

In foreign policy Cromwell's chief aims appear to have been
to support and extend the Protestant faith, to promote English

trade, and to prevent a Stuart restoration by foreign
po/fey!" a id — tne religious mission of England in the world,

her commercial interests, and her political independence
being indissolubly connected in his mind. The beginning of his
rule inherited a war with France and Holland; the former con-
sequent on Cromwell's failure to obtain terms for the Huguenots
or the cession of Dunkirk, and the latter — for which he was not
responsible — the result of commercial rivalry, of disputes concern-
ing the rights of neutrals, of bitter memories of Dutch misdeeds
in the East Indies, and of dynastic causes arising from the stadt-
holder, William II. of Orange, having married Mary, daughter
of Charles I. In 1651 the Dutch completed a treaty with Den-
mark to injure English trade in the Baltic; to which England
replied the same year by the Navigation Act, which suppressed
the Dutch trade with the English colonies and the Dutch fish
trade with England, and struck at the Dutch carrying trade.
War was declared in May 1652 after a fight between Blake and
Tromp off Dover, and was continued with signal victories and
defeats on both sides till 1654. The religious element, however,
which predominated in Cromwell's foreign policy inclined him
to peace, and in April of that year terms were arranged by which
England on the whole was decidedly the gainer. The Dutch
acknowledged the supremacy of the English flag in the British seas,
which Tromp had before refused; they accepted the Navigation
Act, and undertook privately to exclude the princes of Orange
from the command of their forces. The Protestant policy was
further followed up by treaties with Sweden and Denmark which
secured the passage of the Sound for English ships on the same
conditions as the Dutch, and a treaty with Portugal which liber-
ated English subjects from the Inquisition and allowed com-
merce with the Portuguese colonies. The two great Roman Catholic
powers now both bid for Cromwell's alliance. Cromwell wisely
inclined towards France, for Spain was then a greater menace
than France alike to the Protestant cause and to the 1 growth
of British trade in the western.hemisphere ; but as no concessions
could be gained from either France or Spain, the year 1654
closed without a treaty being made with either. In December
1654 Penn and Venables sailed for the West Indies with orders
to attack the Spanish colonies and the French shipping; and
for the first time since the Plantagenets an English fleet appeared
in the Mediterranean, where Blake upheld the supremacy of
the English flag, made a treaty with the dey of Algiers, destroyed
the castles and ships of the dey of Tunis at Porto Farina on the
4th of April 1655, and liberated the English prisoners captured
by the pirates.

The incident of the massacre of the Protestant Vaudois at
this time decided Cromwell's policy in favour of France. In
response to Cromwell's splendid championship of the persecuted
people — which has been well described as " one of the noblest
memories of England " — France undertook to put pressure upon
Savoy, in consequence of which the persecution ceased for a
time; but Cromwell's intervention had less practical effect than
has generally been supposed, though " never was the great
conception of a powerful state having duties along with interests
more magnanimously realized." 1 The treaty of Pinerolo with-
drew the edict ordering the persecutions, but they were soon
afterwards renewed, and in 1658 formed the subject of another
remonstrance by Cromwell to Louis XIV. in his last extant public
letter before his death. The treaty of Westminster (24th of
October 1655) dealt chiefly with commercial subjects, and con-
tained a clause promising the expulsion from France of political
exiles. Meanwhile the West Indian expedition had been defeated
1 John Morley, Oliver Cromwell, p. 483.

at Hispaniola, and war was declared by Spain, who now pro-
mised help to Charles II. for regaining his throne. Cromwell
sent powerful English fleets to watch the coast of Spain and to
prevent communications with the West Indies and America;
on the 8th of September 1656 a fleet of treasure ships was de-
stroyed off Cadiz by Stayner, and on the 20th of April 1657
Blake performed his last exploit in the destruction of the whole
Spanish fleet of sixteen treasure ships in the harbour of Santa
Cruz in Teneriffe. These naval victories were followed by a
further military alliance with France against Spain, termed
the treaty of Paris (the 23rd of March 1657) . Cromwell furnished
6000 men with a fleet to join in the attack upon Spain in Flanders,
and obtained as reward Mardyke and Dunkirk, the former being
captured and handed over on the 3rd of October 1657, and the
latter after the battle of the Dunes on the 4th of June 1658,
when Cromwell's Ironsides were once more pitted against English
royalists fighting for the Spaniards.

Such was the character of Cromwell's policy abroad. The
inspiring principle had been the defence and support of Pro-
testantism, the question with Cromwell being " whether the
Christian world should be all popery." He desired England to
be everywhere the protector of the oppressed and the upholder of
" true religion." His policy was in principle the policy of
Elizabeth, of Gustavus Adolphus, and — in the following genera-
tion — of William of Orange. He appreciated, without over-
estimating, the value of England's insular position. " You have
accounted yourselves happy," he said in January 1658, " in
being environed by a great ditch from all the world beside.
Truly you will not be able to keep your ditch nor your shipping
unless you turn your ships and shipping into troops of horse
and companies of foot, and fight to defend yourselves on terra
firma." He did not regard himself merely as the trustee of the
national resources. These were not to be employed for the
advancement of English interests alone. " God's interest in
the world," he declared, " is more extensive than all the people
of these three nations. God has brought us hither to consider
the work we may do in the world as well as at home." In 1653
he had made the astonishing proposal to the Dutch that England
and Holland should divide the habitable globe outside Europe
between them, that all states maintaining the Inquisition should
be treated as enemies by both the proposed allies, and that the
latter " should send missionaries to all peoples willing to receive
them, to inculcate the truth of Jesus Christ and the Holy Gospel."
Great writers like Milton and Harrington supported Cromwell's
view of the duty of a statesman; the poet Waller acclaimed
Cromwell as " the world's protector "; but the London trades-
men complained of the loss of their Spanish trade and regarded
Holland and not Spain as the national enemy. But Cromwell's
dream of putting himself at the head of European Protestantism
never even approached realization. War broke out between the
Protestant states of Sweden, Denmark, Holland and Branden-
burg, with whom religion was entirely subordinated to individual
aims and interests, and who were far from rising to Cromwell's
great conceptions; while the Vaudois were soon subjected to
fresh persecutions. On the other hand, Cromwell could justly
boast " there is not a nation in Europe but is very willing to ask
a good understanding with you." He raised England to a
predominant position among the Powers of Europe, and antici-
pated the triumphs of the elder Pitt. " It was hard to discover,"
wrote Clarendon, " which feared him most, France, Spain or the
Low Countries." The vigour and success with which he organized
the national resources and upheld the national honour, asserted
the British sovereignty of the seas, defended the oppressed, and
caused his name to be feared and respected in foreign courts
where that of Stuart was despised and neglected, command praise
and admiration equally from contemporaries and from modern
critics, from his friends and from his opponents. " He once more
joined us to the continent," wrote Marvell, while Dryden describes
him as teaching the British lion to roar. " Cromwell's greatness
at home," said Clarendon, " was a mere shadow of his greatness
abroad." " It is strange," wrote Pepys in 1667 under a different
regime, " how everybody nowadays reflect upon Oliver and

CROMWELL, OLIVER

495

commend him, what brave things he did, and made all the neigh-
bour princes fear him." To Cromwell more than to any other
British ruler belongs the credit of having laid the foundation of
England's maritime supremacy and of her over-sea empire.

Cromwell's colonial. policy aimed definitely at the recognition
and extension of the British empire. By March 1652 the whole

of the territory governed by the Stuarts had submitted
aadthe to the a uthority of the Commonwealth, and the Na viga-
empire. tion Act of the 9th of October 1 651, by which colonial

goods could only be imported to England in British
ships and all foreign trade to the colonies was restricted to
products of the exporting country, sought to bind the colonies
to England and to support the interests of the shipowners and
merchants, and therefore of the English maritime supremacy,
the act being, moreover, memorable as the first public measure
which treated the colonies as a whole and as an integral part of
Great Britain. The hindrance, however, to the general develop-
ment of trade which the act involved aroused at once loud
complaints, to which Cromwell turned a deaf ear, continuing
to seize Dutch ships trading in forbidden goods. In the internal
administration of the colonies Cromwell interfered very little,
maintaining specially friendly relations with the New Englanders,
and showing no jealousy of their desire for self-government.
The war with France, Holland and Spain offered opportunities of
gaining additional territory. A small expedition sent by Cromwell
in February 1654 to capture New Amsterdam (New York) from
the Dutch was abandoned on the conclusion of peace, and the
fleet turned to attack the French colonies; Major Robert Sedg-
wick taking with a handful of men the fort of St John's, Port
Royal or Annapolis, and the French fort on the river Penobscot,
the whole territory from this river to the mouth of the St Lawrence
remaining British territory till its cession in 1667. In December
1654 Cromwell despatched Penn and Venables with a fleet of
thirty-eight ships and 2500 soldiers to the West Indies, their
numbers being raised by recruits at the islands to 7000 men.
The attack on Hispaniola, however, was a disastrous failure,
and though a landing at Jamaica and the capture of the capital,
Santiago de la Vega, was effected, the expedition was almost
annihilated by disease; and Penn and Venables returned to
England, when Cromwell threw them into the Tower. Cromwell,
however, persevered, reminding Fortescue, who was left in com-
mand, that the war was one against the " Roman Babylon,"
that they were " fighting the Lord's battles "; and he sent out
reinforcements under Sedgwick, offering inducements to the
New Englanders to migrate to Jamaica. In spite of almost
insuperable difficulties the colony took root, trade began, the
fleet lay in wait for the Spanish treasure ships, the settlements
of the Spaniards were raided, and their repeated attempts to
retake the island were successfully resisted. In 1658 Colonel
Edward Doyley, the governor, gained a decisive victory over
thirty companies of Spanish foot, and sent ten of their flags to
Cromwell. The Protector, however, did not live to witness the
final triumph of his undertaking, which gave to England, as he
had wished, " the mastery of those seas," ensuring the English
colonies against Spanish attacks, and being maintained and
followed up at the Restoration.

Meanwhile, the first parliament of the Protectorate had met
in September 1654. A scheme of electoral reform had been
Pariia- carried by which members were taken from the small
meatary and corrupt boroughs and given to the large hitherto
iU f~ unrepresented towns, and which provided for thirty

representatives from Scotland and from Ireland.
Instead, however, of proceeding with the work of practical
legislation, accepting the Instrument of Government without
challenge as the basis of its authority, the parliament immedi-
ately began to discuss and find fault with the constitution
and to debate about " Fundamentals." About a hundred
members who refused to engage not to attempt to change the
form of government were excluded on the 12th of September.
The rest sat on, discussing the constitution, drawing up lists of
damnable heresies and of incontrovertible articles of faith,
producing plans for the reduction of the army and demanding

for themselves its control. Incensed by the dilatory and factious
proceedings of the House, Cromwell dismissed the parliament
on the 22nd of January 1655. Various dangerous plots against
his government and person were at this time rife. Vane, Ludlow,
Robert Overton, Harrison and Major Wildman, the head of the
Levellers, were all arrested, while the royalist rising under
Penruddock was crushed in Devonshire. Other attacks upon his
authority were met with the same resort to force. The judges
and lawyers began to question the legality of his ordinances,
and to doubt their competency to convict royalist prisoners of
treason. A merchant named Cony refused to pay customs not
imposed by parliament, his counsel declaring their levy by
ordinance to be contrary to Magna Carta, and Chief Justice
Rolle resigning in order to avoid giving judgment. Cromwell was
thus inevitably drawn farther along the path of arbitrary
government. He arrested the persons who refused to pay taxes,
and sent Cony's lawyers to the Tower. Hitherto he had been
scrupulously impartial in raising the best men to the judicial
bench, including the illustrious Matthew Hale, but he now
appointed compliant judges, and, alluding to Magna Carta in
terms impossible to transcribe for modern readers, declared that
" it should not control his actions which he knew were for the
safety of the Commonwealth." The country was now divided
into twelve districts each governed by a major-general,
to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining order, ma / OP .
stamping out disaffection and plots, and executing generals.
the laws relating to public morals. They had power
to transport royalists and those who could not produce good
characters, and supported themselves by a special tax of 10%
on the incomes of the royalist gentry. Enormous numbers of
ale-houses were closed — a proceeding which excited intense re-
sentment and was probably no slight cause of the royalist
reaction. Still more serious an encroachment upon the constitu-
tion perhaps even than the institution of the major-generals
was Cromwell's tampering with the municipal franchise by
confiscating the charters, depriving the burgesses, now hostile
to his government, of their parliamentary votes, and limiting
the franchise to the corporation; thereby corrupting the national
liberties at their very source, and introducing an evil precedent
only too readily followed by Charles II. and James II.

It was in these embarrassed and perilous circumstances that
Cromwell summoned a new parliament in the summer of 1656.
In spite of the influence and interference of the major-
generals a large number of members hostile to the ofthe"
government were returned, of whom Cromwell 's crown.
council immediately excluded nearly a hundred.
The major-generals were the object of general attack, while the
special tax on the royalists was declared unjust, and the bill
for its continuation rejected by a large majority. An attempt
at the assassination of Cromwell by Miles Sindercombe added
to the general feeling of anxiety and unrest. The military rule
excited universal hostility; there was an earnest desire for a
settled and constitutional government, and the revival of the
monarchy in the person of Cromwell appeared the only way
of obtaining it. On the 23rd of February 1657 the Remonstrance
offering Cromwell the crown was moved by Sir Christopher
Packe in the parliament and violently resisted by the officers
and the army party, one hundred officers waiting upon Cromwell
on the 27th to petition against his acceptance of it. On the 25th
of March the Remonstrance, now termed the Petition and Advice,
and including a new scheme of government, was passed by a
majority of 123 to 62 in spite of the opposition of the officers;
and on the 31st it was presented to Cromwell in the Banqueting
House at Whitehall whence Charles I. had stepped out on to
the scaffold. Cromwell replied by requesting a brief delay to ask
counsel of God and his own heart. On the 8th of May about
thirty officers presented a petition to parliament against the
revival of the monarchy, and Fleetwood, Desborough and
Lambert threatened to lay down their commissions. Accordingly
Cromwell the same day refused the crown definitely, greatly to
the astonishment both of his followers and his enemies, wbc-
considered his decision a fatal neglect of an opportunity of

49 6

CROMWELL, OLIVER

consolidating his rule and power. In particular, his acceptance
of the crown would have guaranteed his followers, under the act
of Henry VII., from liability in the future to the charge of high
treason for having given allegiance to himself as a de facto king.
Cromwell himself, however, seems to have regarded the question
of title as of secondary importance, as merely (to use his own
words) " a feather in the hat," " a shining bauble for crowds
to gaze at or kneel to." " Your father," wrote Sir Francis
Russell to Henry Cromwell, " hath of late made more wise
men fools than ever; he laughs and is merry, but they hang
down their heads and are pitifully out of countenance."

On the 25th of May the petition was presented to Cromwell
again, with the title of Protector substituted for that of King,
and he now accepted it. On the 26th of June 1657 he was once
more installed as Protector, this time, however, with regal
ceremony in contrast with the simple formalities observed on
the first occasion, the heralds proclaiming his accession in the
same manner as that of the kings. Cromwell's government
seemed now established on the firmer footing of law and national
approval, he himself obtaining the powers though not the title
of a constitutional monarch, with a permanent revenue of
£1,300,000 for the ordinary expenses of the administration, the
command of the forces, the right to nominate his successor and,
subject to the approval of parliament, the members of the council
and of the new second chamber now established, while at the
same time the freedom of parliament was guaranteed in its
elections. Difficulties, however, appeared immediately the
parliament got to work. The republicans hostile to the Pro-
tectorate, excluded before, now returned, took the places vacated
by strong supporters of Cromwell who had been removed to the
Lords, and attacked the authority of the new chamber, opened
communications with the disaffected in the city and army,
protested against unparliamentary taxation and arbitrary im-
prisonment, and demanded again the supremacy of parliament.
In consequence Cromwell summoned both Houses to his presence
on the 4th of February 1658, and having pointed out the perils
to which they were once more exposing the state, dissolved
parliament, dismissing the members with the words, " let God
be judge between me and you. "

During the period following the dissolution Cromwell's power
appeared outwardly at least to be at its height. The revolts
of royalists and sectaries against his government had been easily
suppressed, and the various attempts to assassinate him, con-
temptuously referred to by Cromwell as " little fiddling things,"
were anticipated and prevented by an excellent system of police
and spies, and by his bodyguard of 160 men. The victory at
Dunkirk increased his reputation, while Louis XIV. showed his
respect for the ruler of England by the splendid reception given
to the Protector's envoy, Lord Fauconberg, and by a com-
plimentary mission despatched to England.

The great career, the incidents of which we have been following,
was now, however, drawing to a close. Cromwell's health had
long been impaired by the hardships of campaigning. Now at
the age of 58 he was already old, and his firm, strong signature
had become feeble and trembling. The responsibilities and
anxieties of government unassisted by parliament, and the
continued struggle against the force of anarchy, weighed upon
him and exhausted his physical powers* " It has been hitherto,"
Cromwell said, " a matter of, I think, but philosophical discourse,
that a great place, a great authority, is a great burthen. I know
it is." "I can say in the presence of God, in comparison of
whom we are but like poor creeping ants upon- the earth, I
would have lived under my woodside to have kept a flock of
sheep rather than undertook such a government as this." " I
doubt not to say," declared his steward Maidston, " it drank
up his spirits, of which his natural constitution afforded a vast
stock, and brought him to his grave."

Domestic bereavements added further causes of grief and of
weakened vitality. On the 6th of February 1658 he lost his
favourite daughter, Elizabeth Claypole,. and he was much cast
down by the shock of his bereavement and of her long sufferings.
Shortly afterwards he fell ill of an intermittent fever, but seemed

to recover. On the 20th of August George Fox met him riding
at the head of his guards in the park at Hampton Court, but
declared " he looked like a dead man." The next day he again
fell ill and was removed from Hampton Court to Whitehall,
where his condition became worse. The anecdotes believed and
circulated by the royalists that Cromwell died in all the agonies
of remorse and fear are entirely false. On the 31st of August
he seemed to rally, and one who slept in his bedchamber
and who heard him praying, declared, " a public spirit
to God's cause did breathe in him to the very last." During the
next few days he grew weaker and resigned himself to death.
" I would," he said, " be willing to be further serviceable to God
and his people, but my work is done." For the first time doubts
as to his spiritual state seemed to have troubled him. " Tell
me is it possible to fall from grace ? " he asked the attendant
minister. " No, it is not possible," the latter replied. " Then,"
said Cromwell, " I am safe, for I know that I was once in grace."
He refused medicine to induce sleep, declaring " it is not my
design to drink or to sleep, but my design is to make what haste
I can to be gone." Towards the morning of the 3rd of September
he again spoke, " using divers holy expressions, implying much
inward consolation and peace," together with " some exceeding
self-debasing words, annihilating and judging himself." He
died on the afternoon of the same day, his day of triumph, the
anniversary both of Dunbar and of Worcester. His body was
privately buried in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster
Abbey, the public funeral taking place on the 23rd of November,
with great ceremony and on the same scale as that of Philip II.
of Spain, and costing the enormous sum of £60,000. At the
Restoration his body was exhumed, and on the 30th of January
1661, the anniversary of the execution of Charles I., it was
drawn on a sledge from Holborn to Tyburn, together with the
bodies of Ireton and Bradshaw, accompanied by " the universal
outcry and curses of the people." There it was hanged on a
gallows, and in the evening taken down, when the head was cut
off and set up upon Westminster Hall, where it remained till as
late as 1684, the trunk being thrown into a pit underneath the
gallows. According to various legends Cromwell's last burial
place is stated to be Westminster Abbey, Naseby Field or New-
burgh Abbey; but there appears to be no evidence to support
them, or to create any reasonable doubt that the great Protector's
dust lies now where it was buried, in the neighbourhood of the
present Connaught Square.

As a military commander Cromwell was as prompt as Gustavus,
as ardent as Conde, as exact as Turenne. These, moreover,
were soldiers from their earliest years. Conde's fame crom-
was established in his twenty-second year, Gustavus well's
was twenty-seven and Turenne thirty-three at the military
beginning of their careers as commanders-in-chief. g eoius -
Cromwell, on the other hand, was forty-three when he fought
in his first battle. In less than two years he had taken his rank
as one of the great cavalry leaders of history. His campaigns
of 1648 and 1651 placed him still higher as a great commander.
Worcester, his crowning victory, has been indicated by a German
critic as the prototype of Sedan. Yet his early military education
could have consisted at most of the perusal of the Swedish
Intelligencer and the practice of riding. It is not, therefore, strange
that Cromwell's first essays in war were characterised more by
energy than technical skill. It was some time before he realized
the spirit of cavalry tactics, of which he was later so complete a
master. At first he speaks with complacence of a mttee, and
reports that he and his men " agreed to charge " the enemy.
But before long he came to understand, as no other commander
of the age save Gustavus understood it, the value of true
" shock-action." Of Marston Moor he writes, " we never charged
but we routed them "; and thereafter his battles were decided
by the shock of closed squadrons, the fresh impulse of a second
and even a third line, and above all by the unquestioning dis-
cipline and complete control over their horses to which he
trained his men. This gave them not merely greater steadi-
ness, but, what was far more important, the power of rallying
and reforming for a second effort. The Royalist cavalry was

CROMWELL, OLIVER

497

disorganized by victory as often as "by defeat, and illustrated on
numerous fields the now discredited maxim that cavalry cannot
charge twice in one day. Cromwell shares with Frederick the
Great the credit of founding the modern cavalry spirit. As a
horsemaster he was far superior to Murat. His marches in the
eastern campaign of 1643 show a daily average at one time of
28 m. as against the 21 of Murat's cavalry in the celebrated
pursuit after Jena. And this result he achieved with men of
less than two years' service, men, too, more heavily equipped
and worse mounted than the veterans of the Grande Armee.
It has been said that his battles were decided by shock action;
the real emphasis should be laid upon the word " decided."
The swift, unhesitating charge was more than unusual in the
wars of the time, and was possible only because of the peculiar
earnestness of the men who fought the English war. The
professional soldiers of the Continent could rarely be brought
to force a decision; but the English, contending for a cause,
were imbued with the spirit of the modern " nation in arms ";
and having taken up arms wished to decide the quarrel by arms.
This feeling was not less conspicuous in the far-ranging rides,
or raids, of the Cromwellian cavalry. At one time, as in the
case of Blechingdon, they would perform strange exploits worthy
of the most daring hussars; at another their speed and tenacity
paralyses armies. Not even Sheridan's horsemen in 1864-65
did their work more effectively than did the English squadrons
in the Preston campaign. Cromwell appreciated this feeling at
its exact worth, and his pre-eminence in the Civil War was due
to this highest gift of a general, the power of feeling the pulse
of his army. Resolution, vigour and clear sight marked his
conduct as a commander-in-chief. He aimed at nothing less than
the annihilation of the enemy's forces, which Clausewitz was
the first to define, a hundred and fifty years later, as the true
objective of military operations. Not merely as exemplifying
the tactical envelopment, but also as embodying the central
idea of grand strategy, was Worcester the prototype of S6dan.
The contrast between a campaign of Cromwell's and one of
Turenne's is far more than remarkable, and the observation of
a military critic who maintains that Cromwell's art of war was
two centuries in advance of its time, finds universal acceptance.

At a time when throughout the rest of Europe armies were
manoeuvring against one another with no more than a formal
result, the English and Scots were fighting decisive battles;
and Cromwell's battles were more decisive than those of any
other leader. Until his fiery energy made itself felt, hardly any
army on either side actually suffered rout; but at Marston Moor
and Naseby'the troops of the defeated party were completely dis-
solved, while at Worcester the royalist army was annihilated.
Dunbar attested his constancy and gave proof that Cromwell
was a master of the tactics of all arms. Preston was an example
like Austerlitz of the two stages of a battle as defined by
Napoleon, the first flottante, the second fondroyante.

Cromwell's strategic manoeuvres, if less adroit than those of
Turenne or Montecucculi, were, in accordance with his own
genius and the temper of his army, directed always to forcing a
decisive battle. That he was also capable of strategy of the other
type was clear from his conduct of the Irish War. But his
chief work was of a different kind and done on a different scale.
The greatest feat of Turenne was the rescue of one province in
1674-1675; Cromwell, in 1648 and again in 1651, had two-thirds
of England and half of Scotland for his theatre of war. Turenne
levelled down his methods to suit the ends which he had in view.
The task of Cromwell was far greater. Any comparison between
the generalship of these two great commanders would therefore
be misleading, for want of a common basis. It is when he is
contrasted with other commanders, not of the age of Louis XIV.,
but of the Civil War, that Cromwell's greatness is most con-
spicuous. Whilst others busied themselves with the application
of the accepted rules of the Dutch, the German, and other formal
schools of tactical thought, Cromwell almost alone saw clearly
into the heart of the questions at issue, and evolved the strategy,
the tactics, and the training suited to the work to which he had
set his hand.

Cromwell's career as a statesman has been already traced in
its different spheres, and an endeavour has been made to show the
breadth and wisdom of his conceptions and at the Crom-
same time the cause of the immediate failure of his well's
constructive policy. Whether if Cromwell had sur- states ~ M
vived he would have succeeded in gradually establishing
legal government is a question which can never be answered.
His administration as it stands in history is undoubtedly open
to the charge that after abolishing the absolutism of the ancient
monarchy he substituted for it, not law and liberty, but a military
tyranny far more despotic than the most arbitrary administration
of Charles I. The statement of Vane and Ludlow, when they
refused to acknowledge Cromwell's government, that it was
" in substance a re-establishment of that which we all engaged
against," was true. The levy of ship money and customs by
Charles sinks into insignificance beside Cromwell's wholesale
taxation by ordinances; the inquisitional methods of the
major-generals and the unjust and exceptional taxation of
royalists outdid the scandals of the extra-legal courts of the
Stuarts; the shipment of British subjects by Cromwell as slaves
to Barbados has no parallel in the Stuart administration; while
the prying into morals, the encouragement of informers, the
attempt to make the people religious by force, were the counter-
part of the Laudian system, and Cromwell's drastic treatment
of the Irish exceeded anything dreamed of by Strafford. He
discovered that parliamentary government after all was not
the easy and plain task that Pym and Vane had imagined, and
Cromwell had in the. end no better justification of his rule than
that which Strafford had suggested to Charles I., — " parliament
refusing (to give support and co-operation in carrying on the
government) you are acquitted before God and man." The
fault was no doubt partly Cromwell's own. He had neither the
patience nor the tact for managing loquacious parliamentary
pedants. But the chief responsibility was not his but theirs.
John Morley {Oliver Cromwell, p. 297) has truly observed of the
execution of Charles I., that it was " an act of war, and was
just as defensible or just as assailable, and on the same grounds,
as the war itself." The parliamentary party took leave of
legality when they took up arms against the sovereign, and it
was therefore idle to dream of a formally legal sanction for any
of their subsequent revolutionary proceedings. An entirely
fresh start had to be made. A new foundation had to be laid
on which a new system of legality might be reared. It was for
this that Cromwell strove. If the Rump or the Little Parliament
had in a business-like spirit assumed and discharged the functions
of a constituent assembly, such a foundation might have been
provided. It was only when five years had passed since- the
death of the king without any " settlement of the nation " being
arrived at, that Cromwell at last accepted a constitution drafted
by his military officers, and attempted to impose it on the
parliament. And it was not until the parliament refused to
acknowledge the Instrument as the required starting point for
the new legality, that Cromwell in the last resort took arbitrary
power into his hands as the only method remaining for carrying
on the government. For much as he hated arbitrariness, he
hated anarchy still more. While therefore Cromwell's adminis-
tration became in practice little different from that of Strafford,
the aims and ideals of the two statesmen had nothing in common.
It is therefore profoundly true, as observed by S. R. Gardiner
(Cromwell, p. 315), that "what makes Cromwell's biography
so interesting in his perpetual effort to walk in the paths of
legality — an effort always frustrated by the necessities of the
situation. The man — it is ever so with the noblest — was greater
than his work." The nature of Cromwell's statesmanship is to
be seen rather in his struggles against the retrograde influences
and opinions of his time, in the many political reforms anticipated
though not originated or established by himself, and in his
religious, perhaps fanatical, enthusiasm, than in the outward
character of his administration, which, however, in spite of its
despotism shows itself in its inner spirit of justice, patriotism
and self-sacrifice, so immeasurably superior to that of the
Stuarts.

49 8

CROMWELL, RICHARD

Cromwell's personal character has been inevitably the subject
of unceasing controversy. According to Clarendon he was

" a brave bad man," with " all the wickedness against
character. wnicn damnation is pronounced and for which hell fire

is prepared." Yet he cannot deny that " he had some
virtues which have caused the memory of some men in all ages
to be celebrated"; and admits that "he was not a man of
blood," and that he possessed " a wonderful understanding
in the natures and humour of men," and " a great spirit, an
admirable circumspection and sagacity and a most magnanimous
resolution." According to contemporary republicans he was
a mere selfish adventurer, sacrificing the national cause " to
the idol of his own ambition." Richard Baxter thought him a
good man who fell before a great temptation. The writers of
the next century generally condemned him as a mixture of
knave, fanatic and hypocrite, and in 1839 John Forster endorsed
Landor's verdict that Cromwell lived a hypocrite and died a
traitor. These crude ideas of Cromwell's character were extin-
guished by Macaulay's irresistible logic, by the publication of
Cromwell's letters by Carlyle in 1845, which showed Cromwell
clearly to be " not a man of falsehoods, but a man of truth ";
and by Gardiner, whom, however, it is somewhat difficult to
follow when he represents Cromwell as " a typical Englishman."
In particular that conception which regarded " ambition "
as the guiding motive in his career has been dispelled by a more
intimate and accurate knowledge of his life; this shows him to
have been very little the creator of his own career, which was
largely the result of circumstances outside his control, the
influence of past events and of the actions of others, the pressure
of the national will, the natural superiority of his own genius.
" A man never mounts so high," Cromwell said to the French
ambassador in 1647, " as when he does not know where he is
going." " These issues and events," he said in 1656, " have not
been forecast, but were providences in things." His " hypocrisy "
consists principally in the Biblical language he employed,
which with Cromwell, as with many of his contemporaries,
was the most natural way of expressing his feelings, and in the
ascription of every incident to the direct intervention of God's
providence, which was really Cromwell's sincere belief and
conviction. In later times Cromwell's character and adminis-
tration have been the subject of almost too indiscriminate
eulogy, which has found tangible shape in the statue erected
to his memory at Westminster in 1899. Here Cromwell's effigy
stands in the midst of the sanctuaries of the law, the church,
and the parliament, the three foundations of the state which he
subverted, and in sight of Whitehall where he destroyed the
monarchy in blood. Yet Cromwell's monument is not altogether
misplaced in such surroundings, for in him are found the true
principles of piety, of justice, of liberty and of governance.

John Maidston, Cromwell's steward, gives the "character
of his person." " His body was compact and strong, his stature
under six foot (I believe about two inches), his head so shaped
as you might see it a storehouse and a shop both of a vast treasury
of natural parts." " His temper exceeding fiery, as I have known,
but the flame of it, . . . kept down for the most part, was soon
allayed with those moral endowments he had. He was naturally
compassionate towards objects in distress even to an effeminate
measure; though God had made him a heart wherein was left
little room for fear, . . . yet did he exceed in tenderness towards
sufferers. A larger soul I think hath seldom dwelt in a house of
clay than his was. I believe if his story were impartially trans-
mitted and the unprejudiced world well possessed with it, she
would add him to her nine worthies." By his wife Elizabeth
Bourchier, Cromwell had four sons, Robert (who died in 1639),
Oliver (who died in 1644 while serving in his father's regiment),
Richard, who succeeded him as Protector, and Henry. He also
had four daughters. Of these Bridget was the wife successively
of Ireton and Fleetwood, Elizabeth married John Claypole,
Mary was wife of Thomas Belasyse, Lord Fauconberg; and
Frances was the wife of Sir Robert Rich, and secondly of Sir
John Russell. The last male descendant of the Protector was
his great-great-grandson, Oliver Cromwell of Cheshunt, who died

in i82r. By the female line, through his children Henry,
Bridget and Frances, the Protector has had numerous
descendants, and is the ancestor of many well-known families. 1

Bibliography. — A detailed bibliography, with the chief authorities
for particular periods, will be found in the article in the Diet, of Nat.
Biography, by C. H. Firth (1888). The following works may be
mentioned: S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England (1883-1884) and of
the Great Civil War (1886), Cromwell's Place in History (1897), Oliver
Cromwell (1901), and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate
(1894-1903) ; Cromwell, by C. H. Firth (1900) ; Oliver Cromwell, by
J. Morley (1904); The Last Years of the Protectorate, 1656-1658,
2 vols., by C. H. Firth (1909); Oliver Cromwell, by Fred. Harrison
(1903) ; Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, by T. Carlyle, ed. by
S. C. Lomas, with an introd. by C. H. Firth (the best edition, rejecting
the spurious Squire papers, 1904) ; Oliver Cromwell, by F. Hoenig
(1887) ; Oliver Cromwell, the Protector, by R. F. D. Palgrave (1890) ;
Oliver Cromwell . . . and the Royalist Insurrection ... of March
1655, by the same author (1903); Oliver Cromwell, by Theodore
Roosevelt (1900) ; Oliver Cromwell, by R. Pauli (tr. 1888) ; Cromwell,
a Speech delivered at the Cromwell Tercentenary Celebration 1899, by-
Lord Rosebery (1900) ; The Two Protectors, by Sir Richard Tangye
(valuable for its illustrations, 1899) ; Life of Sir Henry Vane, by
W. W. Ireland (1905) ; Die Politik des Protectors Oliver Cromwell in
der Auffassung und Tdtigkeit . . . des Staatssekretars John Thurloe,
by Freiherr v. Bischofshausen (1899) ; Cromwell as a Soldier, by T. S.
Baldock(l899); Cromwell' s Army , by C. H. Firth (1902) ; The Diplo-
matic Relations between Cromwell and Charles X. of Sweden, by G. Jones
(1897) ; The Interregnum, by F. A. Inderwick (dealing with the legal
aspect of Cromwell's rule, 1891) ; Administration of the Royal Navy,
by M. Oppenheim (1896) ; History of the English Church during the
Civil Wars, by W. Shaw (.19°°) ; The Protestant Interest in Cromwell's
Foreign Relations, by J. N. Bowman (1900) ; Cromwell's Jewish
Intelligences (1891), Crypto- Jews under the Commonwealth (1894),
Menasseh Ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell (1901), by L. Wolf.

(P. C. Y.; C. F. A.; R. J. M.)

CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626-1712), lord protector of
England, eldest surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and of Elizabeth
Bourchier, was born on the 4th of October 1626. He served
in the parliamentary army, and in 1647 was admitted a member
of Lincoln's Inn. In 1649 he married Dorothy, daughter of
Richard Mayor, or Major, of Hursley in Hampshire. He
represented Hampshire in the parliament of 1654, and Cambridge
University in that of 1656, and in November 1655 was appointed
one of the council of trade. But he was not brought forward
by his father or prepared in any way for his future greatness,
and lived in the country occupied with field sports, till after the
institution of the second protectorate in 1657 and the recognition
of Oliver's right to name his successor. On the 18th of July he
succeeded his father as chancellor of the university of Oxford,
on the 31st of December he was made a member of the council
of state, and about the same time obtained a regiment and a
seat in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was received generally
as his father's successor, and was nominated by him as such on
his death-bed. He was proclaimed on the 3rd of September 1658,
and at first his accession was acclaimed with general favour both
at home and abroad. Dissensions, however, soon broke out
between the military faction and the civilians. Richard's
elevation, not being " general of the army as his father was,"
was distasteful to the officers, who desired the appointment of
a commander-in-chief from among themselves, a request refused
by Richard. The officers in the council, moreover, showed
jealousy of the civil members, and to settle these difficulties
and to provide money a parliament was summoned on the 27th
of January 1659, which declared Richard protector, and incurred
the hostility of the army by criticizing severely the arbitrary
military government of Oliver's last two years, and by impeaching
one of the major-generals. A council of the army accordingly
established itself in opposition to the parliament, and demanded
on the 6th of April a justification and confirmation of former
proceedings, to which the parliament replied by forbidding
meetings of the army council without the permission of the
protector, and insisting that all officers should take an oath not
to disturb the proceedings in parliament. The army now broke
into open rebellion and assembled at St James's. Richard was
completely in their power; he identified himself with their
cause, and the same night dissolved the parliament. The Long
1 Frederic Harrison, Cromwell, p. 34.

CROMWELL, THOMAS

499

Parliament (which re-assembled on the 7th of May) and the
heads of the army came to an agreement to effect his dismissal;
and in the subsequent events Richard appears to have played a
purely passive part, refusing to make any attempt to keep his
power or to forward a restoration of the monarchy. On the 25th
of May his submission was communicated to the House. He
retired into private life, heavily burdened with debts incurred
during his tenure of office and narrowly escaping arrest even
before he quitted Whitehall. In the summer of 1660 he left
England for France, where he lived in seclusion under the name
of John Clarke, subsequently removing elsewhere, either (for
the accounts differ) to Spain, to Italy, or to Geneva. He was
long regarded by the government as a dangerous person, and in
1671 a strict search was made for him but without avail. He
returned to England about 1680 and lived at Cheshunt, in the
house of Sergeant Pengelly, where he died on the 12 th of July
1712, being buried in Hursley church in Hampshire. Richard
Cromwell was treated with general contempt by his contempor-
aries, and invidiously compared with his great father. According
to Mrs Hutchinson he was " gentle and virtuous but a peasant in
his nature and became not greatness." He was nevertheless
a man of respectable abilities, of an irreproachable private
character, and a good speaker.

Bibliography. — See the article in the Diet, of Nat. Biography,
and authorities there cited ; Noble's Memoirs of the Protectoral House
of Cromwell (1787) ; Memoirs of the Protector . . . and of his Sons,
byO. Cromwell (1820); The Two Protectors , by Sir R. Tangye (1899);
Kebleland and a Short Life of Richard Cromwell, by W. T. Warren
(1900); Letters and Speeches of O. Cromwell, by T. Carlyle (1904);
Eng. Hist. Review, xiii. 93 (letters) and xviii. 79 ; Col. of State Papers,
Domestic, Lansdowne MSS. in British Museum. (P. C. Y.)

CROMWELL, THOMAS, Earl of Essex (14857-1540), born
probably not later than 1485 and possibly a year or two earlier,
was the only son of Walter Cromwell, alias Smyth, a brewer,
smith and fuller of Putney. His grandfather, John Cromwell,
seems to have belonged to the Nottinghamshire family, of whom
the most distinguished member was Ralph, Lord Cromwell
(i394?-i456), lord treasurer; and he migrated from Norwell,
Co. Notts, to Wimbledon some time before 1461. John's son,
Walter, seems to have acquired the alias Smyth from being
apprenticed to his uncle, William Smyth, " armourer," of Wimble-
don. He was of a turbulent, vicious disposition, perpetually
being fined in the manor-court for drunkenness, for evading the
assize of beer, and for turning more than his proper number of
beasts on to Putney Common. Once he was punished for a
sanguinary assault, and his connexion with Wimbledon ceased in
1514 when he " falsely and fraudulently erased the evidences and
terrures of the lord." Till that time he had flourished like the
bay-tree.

Under these circumstances the absence of Thomas Cromwell's
name from the Wimbledon manor rolls is almost a presumption
of respectability. Perhaps it would be safer to attribute it to
Cromwell's absence from the manor. He is said to have
quarrelled with his father — no great crime considering the father's
character — and fled to Italy, where he served as a soldier in the
French army at the battle of the Garigliano (Dec. 1503). He
escaped from the battle-field to Florence, where he was befriended
by the banker Frescobaldi, a debt which he appears to have
repaid with superabundant interest later on. He is next heard
of at Antwerp as a trader, and about 15 10 he was induced to
accompany a Bostonian to Rome in quest of some papal in-
dulgences for a Boston gild; Cromwell secured the boon by the
timely present of some choice sweetmeats to Julius II. In 151 2
there is some slight evidence that he was at Middelburg, and also
in London, engaged in business as a merchant and solicitor.
His marriage must have taken place about the same time,
judging from the age of his son Gregory. His wife was Elizabeth
Wykes, daughter of a well-to-do shearman of Putney, whose
business Cromwell carried on in combination with his own.

For about eight years after 151 2 we hear nothing of Cromwell.
A letter to him from Cicely, marchioness of Dorset, in which he
is seen in confidential business relations with her ladyship, is
probably earlier than 1520, and it is possible that Cromwell owed

his introduction to Wolsey to the Dorset family. On the other
hand, it is stated that his cousin, Robert Cromwell, vicar of
Battersea under the cardinal, gave Thomas the stewardship of
the archiepiscopal estate of York House. At any rate he was
advising Wolsey on legal points in 1520, and from that date he
occurs frequently not only as mentor to the cardinal, but to
noblemen and others when in difficulties, especially of a financial
character; he made large sums as a money-lender.

In 1523 Cromwell emerges into public life as a member of
parliament. The official returns for this election are lost and
it is not known for what constituency he sat, but we have a
humorous letter from Cromwell describing its proceedings, and
a remarkable speech which he wrote and perhaps delivered,
opposing the reckless war with France and indicating a sounder
policy which was pursued after Wolsey's fall. If, he said, war
was to be waged, it would be better to secure Boulogne than
advance on Paris; if the king went in person and were killed
without leaving a male heir, he hinted there would be civil war;
it would be wiser to attempt a union with Scotland, and in any
case the proposed subsidy would be a fatal drain on the resources
of the realm. Neither Henry nor Wolsey was so foolish as to
resent this criticism, and Cromwell lost nothing by it. He was
made a collector of the subsidy he had opposed — a doubtful
favour perhaps — and in 1524 was admitted at Gray's Inn; but
he now became the most confidential servant of the cardinal.
In 1525 he was Wolsey's agent in the dissolution of the smaller
monasteries which were designed to provide the endowments
for Wolsey's foundations at Oxford and Ipswich, a task which
gave Cromwell a taste and a facility for similar enterprises on
a greater scale later on. For these foundations Cromwell drew
up the necessary deeds, and he was receiver-general of cardinal's
college, constantly supervising the workmen there and at Ipswich.
His ruthless vigour and his accessibility to bribes earned him
such unpopularity that there were rumours of his projected
assassination or imprisonment. All this constituted a further
bond of sympathy between him and his master, and Cromwell
grew in Wolsey's favour until his fall. His wife had died in 1527
or 1528, and in July 1529 he made his will, in which one of the
chief beneficiaries was his nephew, Richard Williams, alias
Cromwell, the great-grandfather of the protector.

Wolsey's disgrace reduced Cromwell to such despair that
Cavendish once found him in tears and at his prayers " which
had been a strange sight in him afore." Many of the cardinal's
servants had been taken over by the king, but Cromwell had
made himself particularly obnoxious. However, he rode to
court from Esher to " make or mar," as he himself expressed
it, and offered his services to Norfolk. Possibly he had already
paved the way by the pensions and grants which he induced
Wolsey to make through him, out of the lands and revenues of
his bishoprics and abbeys, to nobles and courtiers who were
hard pressed to keep up the lavish style of Henry's court.
Cromwell could be most useful to the government in parliament,
and the government, represented by Norfolk, undertook to use
its influence in procuring him a seat, on the natural understanding
that Cromwell should do his best to further government business
in the House of Commons. This was on the 2nd of November
1529; the elections had been made, and parliament was to meet
on the morrow. A seat was, however, found or made for Crom-
well at Taunton. He signalized himself by a powerful speech
in opposition to the bill of attainder against Wolsey which had
already passed the Lords. The bill was thrown out, possibly
with Henry's connivance, though no theory has yet explained
its curious history so completely as the statement of Cavendish
and other contemporaries, that its rejection was due to the
arguments of Cromwell. Doubtless he championed his fallen
chief not so much for virtue's sake as for the impression it would
make on others. He did not feel called upon to accompany
Wolsey on his exile from the court.

Cromwell had now, according to Cardinal Pole, whose story
has been too readily accepted, been converted into an " emissary
of Satan " by the study of Machiavelli's Prince. In the one
interview which Pole had with Cromwell, the latter, so Pole

5°°

CROMWELL, THOMAS

wrote ten years later in 1539, recommended him to read a new
Italian book on politics, which Pole says he afterwards dis-
covered was Machiavelli's Prince. But this, disco very was not
made for some years: the Prince was not published until 1532,
three years after the conversation; there is evidence that
Cromwell was not acquainted with it until 1537 or 1539, and
there is nothing in the Prince bearing on the precise point under
discussion by Pole and Cromwell. On the other hand, the point
is discussed in Castiglione's // Cortegiano which had just been
published in 1528, and of which Cromwell promised to lend
Bonner a copy in 1530. The Cortegiano is the antithesis of the
Prince; and there is little doubt that Pole's account is the
offspring of an imagination heated by his own perusal of the
Prince in 1538, and by Cromwell's ruin of the Pole family at
the same time; until then he had failed to see in Cromwell
the Machiavellian " emissary of Satan."

Equally fanciful is Pole's ascription of the whole responsibility
for the Reformation to Cromwell's suggestion. It was impossible
for Pole to realize the substantial causes of that perfectly natural
development, and it was his cue to represent Henry as having
acted at the diabolic suggestion of Satan's emissary. In reality
the whole programme, the destruction of the liberties and
confiscation of the wealth of the church by parliamentary agency,
had been indicated before Cromwell had spoken to Henry. The
use of Praemunire had been applied to Wolsey; laymen had
supplanted ecclesiastics in the chief offices of state; the plan
of getting a divorce without papal intervention had been the
original idea, which Wolsey had induced the king to abandon,
and it had been revived by Cranmer's suggestion about the
universities. The root idea of the supreme authority of the king
had been asserted in Tyndale's Obedience of a Christian Man
published in 1528, which Anne Boleyn herself had brought to
Henry's notice: " this," he said, " is a book for me and all kings
to read," and Campeggio had felt compelled to warn him against
these notions, of which Pole imagines that he had never heard
until they were put into his head by Cromwell late in 1530.
In the same way Cromwell's influence over the government
from iS 2 9-i533 has been grossly exaggerated. It was not till
1 53 1 that he was admitted to the privy council nor till 1534
that he was made secretary, though he had been made master
of the Jewel-House, clerk of the Hanaper and master of the Wards
in 1532, and chancellor of the exchequer (then a minor office)
in 1533. It is not till 1533 that his name is as much as mentioned
in the correspondence of any foreign ambassador resident in
London. This obscurity has been attributed to deliberate
suppression: but no secrecy was made about Cranmer's sugges-
tion, and it was not Henry's habit to assume a responsibility
which he could devolve upon others. It is said that Cromwell's
life would not have been safe, had he been known as the author
of this policy \\ but that is not a consideration which would have
appealed to Henry, and he was just as able to protect his minister
in 1530 as he was in 1536. Cromwell, in fact, was not the author
of that policy, but he was the most efficient instrument in its
execution.

He was Henry's parliamentary agent, but even in this capacity
his power has been overrated, and he is supposed to have invented
those parliamentary complaints against the clergy, which were
transmuted into the legislation of 1 53 2 . But the complaints were
old enough; many of them had been heard in parliament nearly
twenty years before, and there is ample evidence to show that
the petition against the clergy represents the " infinite clamours "
of the Commons against the Church, which the House itself
resolved should be " put in writing and delivered to the king."
The actual drafting of the statute, as of all the Reformation Acts
between 1532 and 1539, was largely Cromwell's work; and the
success with which parliament was managed during this period
was also due to him. It was not an easy task, for the House of
Commons more than once rejected government measures, and
members were heard to threaten Henry VIII. with the fate of
Richard III.; they even complained pf Cromwell's reporting
their proceedings to the king. That was his business rather than
conveying imaginary royal orders to the House. " They be

contented," he wrote in one of these reports, " that deed and
writing shall be treason," but words were only to be misprision:
they refused to include an heir's rebellion or disobedience in
the bill " as rebellion is already treason, and disobedience is no
cause of forfeiture of inheritance." There was, of course, room
for manipulation, which Cromwell extended to parliamentary
elections; but parliamentary opinion was a force of which he
had to take account, and not a negligible quantity.

From the date of his appointment as secretary in 1534,
Cromwell's biography belongs to the history of England, but
it is necessary to define his personal attitude to the revolution
in which he was the king's most conspicuous agent. He was
included by Foxe in his Book of Martyrs to the Protestant faith:
more recent historians regard him as a sacrilegious ruffian.
Now, there were two cardinal principles in the Protestantism
of the 16th century — the supremacy of the temporal sovereign
over the church in matters of government, and the supremacy
of the Scriptures over the Church in matters of faith. There
is no room for doubt as to the sincerity of Cromwell's belief in
the first of these two articles: he paid at his own expense for
an English translation of Marsiglio of Padua's Defensor Pads,
the classic medieval advocate of that doctrine; he had a scheme
for governing England by means of administrative councils
nominated by the king to the detriment of parliament; and he
urged upon Henry the adoption of the maxim of the Roman civil
law — quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem. He wanted, in
his own words, " one body politic " and no rival to the king's
authority; and he set the divine right of kings against the
divine right of the papacy. There is more doubt about the
sincerity of Cromwell's attachment to the second article; it is
true that he set up a Bible in every parish church, and regarded
them as invaluable; and the correspondents who unbosom
themselves to him are all of a Protestant way of thinking.
But Protestantism was the greatest support of absolute
monarchy. Hence its value in Cromwell's eyes. Of religious
conviction there is in him little trace, and still less of the religious
temperament. He was a polished representative of the callous,
secular middle class of that most irreligious age. Sentiment
found no place, and feeling little, in his composition; he used
the axe with as little passion as the surgeon does the knife, and
he operated on some of the best and noblest in the land. He
saw that it was wiser to proscribe a few great opponents than to
fall on humbler prey; but he set law above justice, and law to
him was simply the will of the state.

In 1534 Cromwell was appointed master of the Rolls, and in
1535 chancellor of Cambridge University and visitor-general
of the monasteries. The policy of the Dissolution has been
theoretically denounced, but practically approved in every
civilized state, Catholic as well as Protestant. Every one has
found it necessary, sooner or later, to curtail or to destroy its
monastic foundations; only those which delayed the task longest
have generally lagged farthest behind in national progress. The
need for reform was admitted by a committee of cardinals
appointed by Paul III. in 1 535, and it had been begun by Wolsey.
Cromwell was not affected by the iniquities of the monks except
as arguments for the confiscation of their property. He had
boasted that he would make Henry VIII. the richest prince in
Christendom; and the monasteries, with their direct dependence
on the pope and their cosmopolitan organization, were obstacles
to that absolute authority of the national state which was
Cromwell's ideal. He had learnt how to visit monasteries under
Wolsey, and the visitation of 1535 was carried out with ruthless
efficiency. During the storm which followed, Henry took the
management of affairs into his own hands, but Cromwell was
rewarded in July 1536 by being knighted, created lord privy
seal, Baron Cromwell, and vicar-general and viceregent of the
king in " Spirituals."

In this last offensive capacity he sent a lay deputy to preside
in Convocation, taking precedence of the bishops and archbishops,
and issued his famous Injunctions of 1536 and 1538; a Bible
was to be provided in every church; the Paternoster, Creed and
Ten Commandments were to be recited by the incumbent in

CRONJE— GROOKES

English; he was to preach at least once a quarter, and to start
a register of births, marriages and deaths. During these years
the outlook abroad grew threatening because of the alliance,
under papal guarantee, between Charles V. and Francis I.;
and Cromwell sought to counterbalance it by a political and
theological union between England and the Lutheran princes of
Germany. The theological part of the scheme broke down in
1538 when Henry categorically refused to concede the three
reforms demanded by the Lutheran envoys. This was ominous,
and the parliament of 1539, into which Cromwell tried to intro-
duce a number of personal adherents, proved thoroughly re-
actionary. The temporal peers were unanimous in favour of
the Six Articles, the bishops were divided, and the Commons
for the most part agreed with the Lords. Cromwell, however,
succeeded in suspending the execution of the act, and was allowed
to proceed with his one independent essay in foreign policy.
The friendship between Francis and Charles was apparently
getting closer; Pole was exhorting them to a crusade against
a king who was worse than the Turk; and anxious eyes searched
the Channel in 1539 for signs of the coming Armada. Under
these circumstances Henry acquiesced in Cromwell's negotiations
/or a marriage with Anne of Cleves. Anne, of course, was not
a Lutheran, and the state religion in Cleves was at least as
Catholic as Henry's own. But her sister was married to the
elector of Saxony, and her brother had claims on Guelders,
which Charles V. refused to recognize. Guelders was to the
emperor's dominions in the Netherlands what Scotland was to
England, and had often been used by France in the same way,
and an alliance between England, Guelders, Cleves and the
Schmalkaldic League would, Cromwell thought, make Charles's
position in the Netherlands almost untenable. Anne herself
was the weak point in the argument; Henry conceived an
invincible repugnance to her from the first; he was restrained
from an immediate breach with his new allies only by fear of
Francis and Charles. In the spring of 1540 he was reassured on
that score; no attack on him from that quarter was impending;
there was a rift between the two Catholic sovereigns, and there
was no real need for Anne and her German friends.

From that moment Cromwell's fate was sealed; the Lords
loathed him as an upstart even more than they had loathed
Wolsey; he had no church to support him; Norfolk and
Gardiner detested him from pique as well as on principle, and
he had no friend in the council save Cranmer. As lay viceregent
he had given umbrage to nearly every churchman, and he had put
all his eggs in the one basket of royal favour, which had now
failed him. Cromwell did not succumb without an effort, and a
desperate struggle ensued in the council. In April the French
ambassador wrote that he was tottering to his fall; a few days
later he was created earl of Essex and lord great chamberlain,
and two of his satellites were made secretaries to the king;
he then despatched one bishop to the Tower, and threatened
to send five others to join him. At last Henry struck as suddenly
and remorselessly as a beast of prey; on the 10th of June
Norfolk accused him of treason; the whole council joined in
the attack, and Cromwell was sent to the Tower. A vast number
of crimes was laid to his charge, but not submitted for trial.
An act of attainder was passed against him without a dissentient
voice, and after contributing his mite towards the divorce of
Anne, he was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th of July,
repudiating all heresy and declaring that he died in the Catholic
faith.

In estimating Cromwell's character it must be remembered
that his father was a blackguard, and that he himself spent the
formative years of his life in a vile school of morals. A ruffian
he doubtless was, as he says, in his youth, and he was the last
man to need the tuition of Machiavelli. Nevertheless he civilized
himself to a certain extent; he was not a drunkard nor a forger
like his father; from personal immorality he seems to have been
singularly free; he was a kind master, and a stanch friend; and
he possessed all the outward graces of the Renaissance period.
He was not vindictive, and his atrocious acts were done in no
private quarrel, but in what he conceived to be the interests

5° J

of his master and the state. Where those interests were
concerned he had no heart and no conscience and no religious
faith; no man was more completely blighted by the 16th century
worship of the state.

The authorities for the early life of Cromwell are the Wimbledon
manor rolls, used by Mr John Phillips of Putney in The Antiquary
(1880), vol. ii., and the Antiquarian Mag. (1882), vol. ii. ; Pole's
Apologia, 1. 126; Bandello's Novella, xxxiv. ; Chapuys' letter to
Granvelle, 21 Nov. 1535: and Foxe's Acts and Mon. From 1522
see Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iii. -xvi. ; Cavendish's
Life of Wolsey; Hall's Chron.; Wriothesley's Chron. These and
practically all other available sources have been utilized in R. B.
Merriman's Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell (2 vols., 1902).
For Cromwell and Machiavelli see Paul van Dyke's Renascence
Portraits (1906), App. (A. F. P.)

CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS {c. 1840- ), Boer general,
was born about 1840 in the Transvaal and in 1881 took part in
the first Boer War in the rank of commandant. He commanded
in the siege of the British garrison at Potchefstroom, though he
was unable to force their surrender until after the conclusion of
the general armistice. The Boer leader was at this time accused
of withholding knowledge of this armistice from the garrison
(see Potchefstroom). He held various official positions in the
years 1881-1899, and commanded the Boer force which compelled
the surrender of the Jameson raiders at Doornkop (Jan. 2,
1896). In the war of 1899 Cronje was general commanding in
the western theatre of war, and began the siege of Kimberley.
He opposed the advance of the British division under Lord
Methuen, and fought, though without success, three general
actions at Belmont, Graspan and Modder River. At Magers-
fontein, early in December 1899, he completely repulsed a genera]
attack made upon his position, and thereby checked for two
months the northward advance of the British column. In the
campaign of February 1900, Cronje opposed Lord Roberts's
army on the Magersfontein battleground, but he was unable
to prevent the relief of Kimberley; retreating westward, he
was surrounded near Paardeberg, and, after a most obstinate
resistance, was forced to surrender with the remnant of his army
(Feb. 27, 1900). As a prisoner of war Cronje was sent to St
Helena, where he remained until released after the conclusion
of peace (see Transvaal: History),

CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832- ), English chemist and
physicist, was born in London on the 17th of June 1832, and
studied chemistry at the Royal College of Chemistry under
A. W. von Hofmann, whose assistant he became in 1851. Three
years later he was appointed an assistant in the meteorological
department of the Radcliffe observatory, Oxford, and in 1855
he obtained a chemical post at Chester. In 1861, while conduct-
ing a spectroscopic, examination of the residue left in the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid, he observed a bright green line which
had not been noticed previously, and by following up the
indication thus given he succeeded in isolating a new element,
thallium, a specimen of which was shown in public for the first
time at the exhibition of 1862. During the next eight years he
carried out a minute investigation of this metal and its properties.
While determining its atomic weight, he thought it desirable,
for the sake of accuracy, to weigh it in a vacuum, and even in
these circumstances he found that the balance behaved in an
anomalous manner, the metal appearing to be heavier when
cold than when hot. This phenomenon he explained as a
" repulsion from radiation," and he expressed his discovery in
the statement that in a vessel exhausted of air a body tends to
move away from another body hotter than itself. Utilizing this
principle he constructed the radiometer (q.v.), which he was at
first disposed to regard as a machine that directly transformed
light into motion, but which was afterwards perceived to depend
on thermal action. Thence he was led to his famous researches
on the phenomena produced by the discharge of electricity
through highly exhausted tubes (sometimes known as '' Crookes'
tubes " in consequence), and to the development of his theory
of " radiant matter " or matter in a " fourth state," which led
up to the modern electronic theory. In 1883 he began an inquiry
into the nature and constitution of the rare earths. By repeated

502

CROOKSTON— CROQUET

fractionations he was able to divide yttrium into distinct portions
which gave different spectra when exposed in a high vacuum
to the spark from an induction coil. This result he considered
to be due, not to any removal of impurities, but to an actual
splitting-up of the yttrium molecule into its constituents, and
he ventured to draw the provisional conclusion that the so-called
simple bodies are in reality compound molecules, at the same
time suggesting that all the elements have been produced by a
process of evolution from one primordial stuff or " protyle."
A later result of this method of investigation was the discovery
of a new member of the rare earths, monium or victorium, the
spectrum of which is characterized by an isolated group of lines,
only to be detected photographically, high up in the ultra-violet;
th? existence of this body was announced in his presidential
address to the British Association at Bristol in 1898. In the
same address he called attention to the conditions of the world's
food supply, urging that with the low yield at present realized
per acre the supply of wheat would within a comparatively
short time cease to be equal to the demand caused by increasing
population, and that since nitrogenous manures are essential
for an increase in the yield, the hope of averting starvation, as
regards those races for whom wheat is a staple food, depended
on the ability of the chemist to find an artificial method for
fixing the nitrogen of the air. An authority on precious stones,
and especially the diamond, he succeeded in artificially making
some minute specimens of the latter gem; and on the discovery
of radium he was one of the first to take up the study of its
properties, in particular inventing the spinthariscope, an instru-
ment in which the effects of a trace of radium salt are manifested
by the phosphorescence produced on a zinc sulphide screen.
In addition to many other researches besides those here men-
tioned, he wrote or edited various books on chemistry and
chemical technology, including Select Methods of Chemical
Analysis, which went through a number of editions; and he
also gave a certain amount of time to the investigation of psychic
phenomena, endeavouring to effect some measure of correlation
between them and ordinary physical laws. He was knighted
in 1897, and received the Royal (1875), Davy (1888), and Copley
(1904) medals of the Royal Society, besides filling the offices
of president of the Chemical Society and of the Institution
of Electrical Engineers. He married Ellen, daughter of W.
Humphrey, of Darlington, and their golden wedding was cele-
brated in 1906.

CROOKSTON, a city and the county-seat of Polk county,
Minnesota, U.S. A., on the Red Lake river in the Red River
valley, about 300 m. N.W. of Minneapolis, and about 25 m. E.
of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Pop. (1890) 3457; (1900)
53S9'> ( I 9°S. state census) 6794, 2049 being foreign-born, includ-
ing 656 from Norway (2 Norwegian weeklies are published),
613 from Canada, 292 from Sweden; (1910 U.S. census) 7559.
Crookston is served by the Great Northern and the Northern
Pacific railways. It has a Carnegie library, and the St Vincent
and Bethesda hospitals, and is the seat of a Federal Land Office
and of a state agricultural high school (with an experimental
farm). Dams on the Red Lake river provide a fine water-power,
and among the city's manufactures are lumber, leather, flour,
farm implements, wagons and bricks. The city is situated in
a fertile farming region, and is a market for grain, potatoes and
other agricultural products, and lumber. Crookston was settled
about 1872, was incorporated in 1879, received its first city
charter in 1883, arid adopted a new one in 1906. It was named
in honour of William Crooks, an early settler.

CROP (a word common in various forms, such as Germ.
Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence,
round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic
languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as croupe, whence the
English " crupper "; and in Ital. groppo, whence English
" group "), the ingluvies, or pouched expansion of a bird's
oesophagus, in which the food remains to undergo a preparatory
process of digestion before being passed into the true stomach.
From the meaning of " top " or " head," as applied to a plant,
herb or flower, comes the common use of the word for the

produce of cereals or other cultivated plants, the wheat-crop,
the cotton-crop and the like, and generally, " the crops ";
more particular expressions are the " white-crop," for such
grain crops as barley or wheat, which whiten as they grow ripe,
and " green-crop " for such as roots or potatoes which do not,
and also for those which are cut in a green state, like clover
(see Agriculture). Other uses, more or less technical, of the
word are, in leather-dressing, for the whole untrimmed hide; in
mining and geology, for the " outcrop " or appearance at the
surface of a vein or stratum and, particularly in tin mining, of
the best part of the ore produced after dressing. A " hunting-
crop " is- a short thick stock for a whip, with a small leather loop
at one end, to which a thong- may be attached. From the verb
"to crop," i.e. to take off the top of anything, comes "crop"
meaning a closely cut head of hair, found in the name " croppy "
given to the Roundheads at the time of the Great Rebellion,
to the Catholics in Ireland in 1688 by the Orangemen, probably
with reference to the priests' tonsures, and to the Irish rebels
of 1798, who cut their hair short in imitation of the French
revolutionaries.

CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS (1823-1900), American land-
scape painter, was born at Rossville, Staten Island, New York,
on the 18th of February 1823. After practising architecture for
several years, he turned his attention to painting, studying in
Italy from 1847 to 1850. In 1851 he was elected a member of
the National Academy of Design. From 1857 to 1863 he had a
studio in London, and after his return to America enjoyed a
considerable vogue, particularly as a painter of vivid autumnal
effects, along the lines of the Hudson River school. He was one
of the original members of the American Water Color Society.
He continued actively in this profession until within a few days
of his death, at Hastings-on- Hudson, New York, on the 22nd of
June 1900. He made the architectural designs for the stations of
the elevated railways in New York City.

CROQUET (from Fr. croc, a crook, or crooked stick), a lawn
game played with balls, mallets, hoops and two pegs. The game
has been evolved, according to some writers, from the paille-
maille which was played in Languedoc at least as early as the
1 3 th century. Under the name of lejeu de la crosse, or la crosserie,
a. similar game was at the same period immensely popular in
Normandy, and especially at Avranches, but the object appears
to have been to send the ball as far as possible by driving it
with the mallet (see Sports etjeux d'adresse, 1904, p. 203). Pall
Mall, a fashionable game in England in the time of the Stuarts,
was played with a ball and a mallet, and with two hoops or a
hoop and a peg, the game being won by the player who ran the
hoop or hoops and touched the peg under certain conditions
in the fewest strokes. Croquet certainly has some resemblance
to paille-maille, played with more hoops and more balls. It is
said that the game was brought to Ireland from the south of
France, and was first played on Lord Lonsdale's lawn in 1852,
under the auspices of the eldest daughter of Sir Edmund
Macnaghten. It came to England in 1856, or perhaps a few
years earlier, and soon became popular.

In 1868 the first all-comers' meeting was he'd at Moreton-in-
the-Marsh. In the same year the All England Croquet Club
was formed, the annual contest for the championship taking
place en the grounds of this club at Wimbledon. 1 But after
being for ten years or so the most popular game for the country
house and garden party, croquet was in its turn practically
ousted by lawn tennis, until, with improved implements and a
more scientific form of play, it was revived about 1894-1895.
In 1896-1897 was formed the United All England Croquet
Association, on the initiative of Mr Walter H. Peel. Under the
name of the Croquet Association, with more than 2000 members
and nearly a hundred affiliated clubs (1909), this body is the
recognized ruling authority on croquet in the British Islands.
Its headquarters are at the Roehampton Club, where the

1 This was largely the work of W. T. Whitmore-Jones (1831-1872),
generally known as W. Jones Whitmore, who subsequently formed
the short-lived National Croquet Club, and was largely responsible
for the first codification of the laws.

CROQUET

503

championship and champion cup competitions are held each
year.

The Game and its Implements. — The requisites for croquet are
a level grass lawn, six hoops, two posts or pegs, balls, mallets, and
hoop-clips to mark the progress of the players. The usual game
is played between two sides, each having two balls, the side
consisting of two players in partnership, each playing one ball,
or of one player playing both balls. The essential characteristic
of croquet is the scientific combination between two balls in
partnership against the other two. The balls are distinguished
by being coloured blue, red, black and yellow, and are played
in that order, blue and black always opposing the other two.

The ground for match play measures 35 yds. by 28 yds., and
should be carefully marked out with white lines. In each corner
a white spot is marked 1 yd. from each boundary. The hoops
are made of round iron, not less than 5 in. and not more than
\ in. in diameter, and standing 12 in. out of the ground. For
match play they are 3J or 4 in. across, inside measurement.
They are set up as in the accompanying diagram, the numbers
and arrows indicating the order and direction in which they must

28 uds.

-?»A.

<i

«lt

6\\Penultimate ',<

I it I

1 1 1 1 ■ ii

• ■ t -ri *•

j; *5\\lioaer Hoop ;•

■ » * ■ it

11 . .; 11

11 » \*. .1

!• * K .

i\ $

; |l2Back

3 E

~*Winnlng
\Peg

■ <• *» ■ $ ■ ■> '

f|4
V 1J

Fig. 1. — Diagram of croquet ground, showing setting of hoops and
pegs, and order of play in accordance with the official Laws (1909) of
the Croquet Association.

be passed. Each hoop is run twice, and each peg struck once.
The pegs may be struck from any direction.

The pegs are I2 in. in diameter and when fixed stand 18 in.
above the ground. The balls were formerly made of boxwood
(earlier still of beechwood) ; composition balls are now in general
use for tournaments. They must be 35 in. in diameter and
15 oz. to 163 oz. in weight. It will be seen that for match play
the hoops are only % or at the most f in. wider than the diameter
of the ball. The mallets may be of any size and weight, but the
head must be made of wood (metal may be used only for weight-
ing or strengthening purposes), and the ends must be parallel and
similar. Only one mallet may be used in the course of a game,
except in the case of bona fide damage.

The object of the player is to score the points of the game by
striking his ball through each of the hoops and against each of
the pegs in a fixed order; and the side wins which first succeeds
in scoring all the points with both the balls of the side. A metal
clip corresponding in colour with the player's ball is attached to
the hoop or peg which that ball has next to make in the proper
order, as a record of its progress in the game. No point is scored
by passing through a hoop or hitting a peg except in the proper
order. Thus, if a player has in any turn or turns driven his ball
successively through hoops 1, 2, and 3, his clip is attached to

hoop 4, and the next point to be made by him will be that hoop;
and so on till all the points (hoops and pegs) have been scored.
Each player starts in turn from any point in a " baulk " or area
3 ft. wide along the left-hand half of the " southern " boundary,
marked A on the diagram, of the lawn — till 1906, from a point
1 ft. in front of the middle of hoop 1. If he fails either to make
a point or to " roquet " 1 (i.e. drive his ball against) another ball
in play, his turn is at an end and the next player in order takes
his turn in like manner. If he succeeds in scoring a point, he
is entitled (as in billiards) to another stroke; he may then either
attempt to score another point, or he may roquet a ball. Having
roqueted a ball— provided he has not already roqueted the same
ball in the same turn without having scored a point in the
interval — he is entitled to two further strokes: first he must
" take croquet," i.e. he places his own ball (which from the
moment of the roquet is " dead " or " in hand ") in contact with
the roqueted ball on any side of it, and then strikes his own ball
with his mallet, being bound to move or shake both balls per-
ceptibly. If at the beginning of a turn the striker's ball is in
contact with another ball, a " roquet " is held to have been made
and " croquet " must be taken at once. After taking croquet
the striker is entitled to another stroke, with which he may
score another point, or roquet another ball not previously
roqueted in the same turn since a point was scored, or he may
play for safety. Thus, by skilful alternation of making points
and roqueting balls, a " break " may be made in which point
after point, and even all the points in the game (for the ball in
play), may be scored in a single turn, in addition to 3 or 4 points
for the partner ball. The chief skill in the game perhaps consists
in playing the stroke called " taking croquet " (but see below
on the " rush "). Expert players can drive both balls together
from one end of the ground to the other, or send one to a distance
while retaining the other, or place each with accuracy in different
directions as desired, the player obtaining position for scoring
a point or roqueting another ball according to the strategical
requirements of his position. Care has, however, to be taken in
playing the croquet-stroke that both balls are absolutely moved
or perceptibly shaken, and that neither of them be driven over
the boundary line, for in either event the player's next
stroke is forfeited and his turn brought summarily to an
end.

There are three distinct methods of holding the mallet among
good players. A comparatively small number still adhere to the
once universal " side stroke," in which the player faces more
or less at right angles to the line of aim, and strikes the ball very
much like a golfer, with his hands close together on the mallet
shaft. The majority use " front play," in which the player faces
in the direction in which he proposes to send the ball. The
essential characteristic of this stroke is that eye, hand and ball
should be in the same vertical plane, and the stroke is rather a
swing — the " pendulum stroke " — than a hit. There are two
ways of playing it. The majority of right-handed front players
swing the mallet outside the right foot, holding it with the left
hand as a pivot at the top of the shaft, while the right hand
(about 12 in. lower down) applies the necessary force, though -it
must always be borne in mind that the heavy mallet-head,
weighing from 3 to 3§ lb or even more, does the work by itself,
and the nearer the stroke is to a simple swing, like that of a
pendulum, the more likely it is to be accurate. Either the right
or the left foot may be in advance, and should be roughly
parallel to the line of aim, the player's weight being mainly on
the rear foot. Most cf the best Irish and some English players
swing the mallet between their feet, using a grip like that of the
side player or golfer, with the hands close together, and often
interlocking. It is claimed that the loss of power caused by the
hampered swing — usually compensated by an extra heavy
mallet— is more than counterbalanced by the greater accuracy
in aim. The beginner is well advised to try all these methods,
and adopt that which comes most natural to him. Skirted
players, of course, are unable to use the Irish stroke; and, as

1 The words " roquet " and " croquet " are pronounced as in
French, with the t mute.

5°4

CROQUET

one of the most meritorious features of croquet is that it is the
only out-of-door game in which men and women can compete
on terms of real equality, this has been put forward as a reason
for barring it, if it is actually an advantage.

When a croquet ground is thoroughly smooth and level, the
game gives scope for considerable skill; a great variety of strokes
may be played with the mallet, each having its own well-defined
effect on the behaviour of the balls, while a knowledge of angles
is essential. Skilful tactics are at least as necessary as skilful
execution to enable the player so to dispose the balls on the
ground while making a break that they may most effectively
assist him in scoring his points. The tactics of croquet are in
this respect similar to those of billiards, that the player tries
to make what progress he can during his own break, and to leave
the balls " safe " at the end of it; he must also keep in mind
the needs of the other ball of his side by leaving his own ball,
or the last player's ball, or both, within easy roqueting distance
or in useful positions, and that of the next player isolated.
Good judgment is really more valuable than mechanical skill.
Croquet is a game of combination, partners endeavouring to
keep together for mutual help, and to keep their opponents
apart. It is important always to leave the next player in such
a position that he will be unable to score a point or roquet a
ball; a break, however profitable, which does not end by doing
this is often fatal. Formerly this might be done by leaving the
next player's ball in such a position that either a hoop or a peg
lay between it and all the other balls (" wiring "), or so near to
a hoop or peg that there was no room for a proper stroke to be
taken in the required direction. Under rule 36 of the Laws of
Croquet for 1906, a ball left in such a position, provided it were
within a yard of the obstacle (" close-wired "), might at the
striker's option be moved one yard in any direction. This
rule left to the striker whose ball was " wired " more than a yard
from the hoop or peg (" distance-wired ") the possibility of hitting
his ball in such a way as to jump the obstacle. The jump-shot
is, however, very bad for the lawn, and in 1907 a further provision
was made by which the player whose ball is left " wired " from
all the other balls by the stroke of an opponent may lift it
and play from the " baulk " area. This practically means that
" wiring " is impossible. The most that can be done is to " close-
wire " the next player from two balls and leave him with a
difficult shot at the third. If, however, the next player's ball
has not been moved by the adversary, the adversary is entitled
to wire the balls as best he can.

The following is a specimen of elementary croquet tactics,
If a player is going up to hoop 5 (diagram 1) in the course of a
break, he should have contrived, if possible, to have a ball
waiting for him at that hoop and another at hoop 6. With the
aid of the first he runs hoop 5 and sends it on to the turning peg,
stopping his ball in taking croquet close to the ball at 6. The
corner hoops are the difficult ones, and after running hoop 6
the assisting ball is croqueted to 1 back, the peg being struck
with the aid of the ball already there, which is again struck and
driven to 2 back. If the player has been able to leave the fourth
ball in the centre of the ground (known as a centre ball), he hits
this after taking croquet, takes croquet, going off it to the ball
at 1 back, and continues the break, leaving the centre ball where
it will be useful for 3 back and 4 back. A first-class player
should, however, be able to make a break with 3 balls almost as
easily as with 4. A useful device, especially in a losing game,
is to get rid of the opponent's advanced ball if a " rover " {i.e.
one which has run all the hoops and is for the winning peg) by
croqueting it in such a way that it hits the peg and is thus out
of the game. This can be done only by a ball which is itself also
a rover. The opponent has then only one turn out of every three,
and may be rendered practically helpless by leaving him always
in a " safe " position. Inasmuch as a skilful player can cause
an opponent's ball to pass through the last two or even three
hoops in the course of his turn and then peg it out, it is considered
prudent to leave unrun the last three hoops until the partner's
ball is well advanced. There is a perennial agitation in the
croquet world for a law prohibiting the player from pegging out

his opponent's ball. Many good players also think it desirable,
that the four-ball break should be restricted or wholly forbidden,
e.g. by barring the dead ball.

To " rush " a ball is to roquet it hard so that it proceeds for a
considerable distance in a desired direction. This stroke requires
absolute accuracy and often considerable force, which must
be applied in such a way as to drive the player's ball evenly;
otherwise it is very liable, especially if the ground be not perfectly
smooth, to jump the object ball. The rush stroke is absolutely
essential to good play, as it enables croquet to be taken {e.g.)
close to the required hoop, whereas to croquet into position
frcm a great distance and also provide a ball for use after run-
ning the hoop is extremely difficult, often impossible. To "rush "
successfully, the striker's ball must lie near the object ball,
preferably, though not necessarily, in the line of the rush.
By means of the rush it is possible to accomplish the complete
round with the assistance of one ball only. To " cut " a ball
is to hit it on the edge and cause it to move at some desired angle.
" Rolling croquet " is made either by hitting near the top of
the player's ball which gives it " follow," or by making the mallet
so hit the ball as to keep up a sustained pressure. The first
impact must, however, result in a distinctly audible single tap;
if a prolonged rattle or a second tap is heard the stroke is foul.
The passing stroke is merely an extension of this. Here the
player's ball proceeds a greater distance than the croqueted
ball, but in somewhat the same direction. The " stop stroke " is
made by a short, sharp tap, the mallet being withdrawn immedi-
ately after contact; the player's ball only rolls a short distance,
the other going much farther. The " jump stroke " is made by
striking downwards on to the ball, which can thus be made to
jump over another ball, or even a hoop. ■ " Peeling " (a term
derived from Walter H. Peel, a famous advocate of the policy)
is the term applied to the device of putting a partner's or an
opponent's ball through the hoops with a view to ultimately
pegging it out.

The laws of croquet, and even the arrangement of the hoops,
have not attained complete uniformity wherever the game is
played. Croquet grounds are not always of full size, and some
degree of elasticity in the rules is perhaps necessary to meet
local conditions. The laws by which matches for, the champion-
ship and all tournaments are governed are issued annually by
the Croquet Association; and though from time to time trifling
amendments may be made, they have probably reached
permanence in essentials.

See The Encyclopaedia of Sport; The Complete Croquet Player
(London, 1896) ; the latest Laws of Croquet, published annually by
the Croquet Association, and its official organ The Croquet Gazette.
For the principles of the game and its history in England, see C. D.
Locock, Modern Croquet Tactics (London, 1907) ; A. Lillie, Croquet
up to Date (London, 1900).

Croquet in the United States : Roque. — Croquet was brought
to America from England soon after its introduction into that
country, and enjoyed a wide popularity as a game for boys
and girls before the Civil War (see Miss Alcott's Little Women,
cap. 12). American croquet is quite distinct from the modern
English game. It is played on a lawn 60 ft. by 30, and preserves
the old-fashioned English arrangement of ten hoops, including
a central " cage " of two hoops. The balls, coloured red, white,
blue and black, are 3} in. in diameter, and the hoops are from
3-| to 4 in. wide, according to the skill of the players. This game,
however, is not taken seriously in the United States; the
Official Croquet Guide of Mr Charles Jacobus emphasizes " the
ease with which the game can be established," since almost every
country home has a grass plot, and " no elaboration is needed."
The scientific game of croquet in the United States is known as
" roque." Under this title a still greater departure from the
English game has been elaborated on quite independent lines
from those of the English Croquet Association since 1882, in
which year the National Roque Association was formed. Roque
also suffered from the popularity of lawn tennis, but since 1897
it has developed almost as fast as croquet in England. A great
national championship tournament is held in Norwich, Conn.,

CRORE— CROSS

505

-which is fully as scientific as
numerous devotees, especially

every August, and the game-
modern English croquet — has
in New England.

Roque is played, not on grass, but on a prepared surface
something like a cinder tennis-court. The standard ground,
as adopted by the National Association in 1903, is hexagonal
in shape, with ten arches (hoops) and two stakes (pegs) as
shown in diagram 2. The length is 60 ft., width 30, and the
" corner pieces " are 6 ft. long. An essential feature of the
ground is that it is surrounded by a raised wooden border, often
lined with india-rubber to facilitate the rebound of the ball,
and it is permissible to play a " carom " (or rebounding shot)
off this border; a skilful player can often thus hit a ball which
is wired to a direct shot. A boundary line is marked 28 in.
inside the border, on which a ball coming to rest outside it must
be replaced. The hoops are run in the order marked on the
diagram, so that the game consists of 36 points. Red and white
are always partners against blue and black, and the essential
features and tactics of the game are, mutatis mutandis, the same
as in modern English croquet — i.e. the skilful player goes always
for a break and utilizes one or both of the opponent's balls in
making it. The balls are 31 in. in diameter, of hard rubber or
composition, and the arches are 3! or 35 in. wide for first- and

Fig. 2. — Diagram of roque ground, showing setting of arches and stakes
and order of play, in accordance, with the official laws (1906) of the National
Roque Association.

second-class players respectively; they are made of steel \ in.
in diameter and stand about 8 in. out of the ground. The stakes
are 1 in. in diameter and only i\ in. above the ground. The
mallets are much shorter than those commonly employed in
England, the majority of players using only one hand, though
the two-handed " pendulum stroke," played between the legs,
finds an increasingly large number of adherents, on account of
the greater accuracy which it gives. The " jump shot " is a
necessary part of the player's equipment, as dead wiring is
allowed; it is supplemented by the carom off the border or
off a stake or arch, and roque players justly claim that their
game is more like billiards than any other out-of-door
game.

The game of roque is opened by scoring (stringing) for lead
from an imaginary line through the middle wicket (cage), the
player whose ball rests nearest the southern boundary line
having the choice of lead and balls. The balls are then placed
on the four corner spots marked A in diagram, partner balls
being diagonally opposite one another, and the starting ball
having the choice of either of the upper corners. The leader,
say red, usually begins by shooting at white; if he misses, a
carom off the border will leave him somewhere near his partner,
blue. White then shoots at red or blue, with probably a similar
result. Blue is then " in," with a certain roquet and the choice
of laying for red or going for an immediate break himself. The
general strategy of the game corresponds to that of croquet,
the most important differences being that " pegging out " is
not allowed, and that on the small ground with its ten arches
and two stakes the three-ball break is usually adopted,

the next player or "danger ball" being wired at the earliest
opportunity.

See Spalding's Official Roque Guide, edited by Mr Charles Jacobus
(New York, 1906).

CRORE (Hindustani karor) , an Anglo-Indian term for a hundred
lakhs or ten million. It is in common use for statistics of trade
and especially coinage. In the days when the rupee was worth its
face value of 2s. a crore of rupees was exactly worth a million
sterling, but now that the rupee is fixed at 15 to the £1, a crore
is only worth £666,666.

CROSBY, HOWARD (1826-1891), American preacher and
teacher, great-grandson of Judge Joseph Crosby of Massa-
chusetts and of Gen. William Floyd of New York, a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, was born in New York City
on the 27th of February 1826. He graduated in 1844 from
the University of the City of New York (now New York Univer-
sity); became professor of Greek there in 1851, and in 1859
became professor of Greek in Rutgers College, New Brunswick,
New Jersey, where two years later he was ordained pastor of
the first Presbyterian church. From 1870 to 1881 he was
chancellor of the University of the City of New York; from
1872 to 1 88 1 was one of the American revisers of the
English version of the New Testament; and in 1873 was
moderator of the general assembly of the Presbyterian
Church. He took a prominent part in politics, urged
excise reform, opposed " total abstinence," was one of the
founders and was the first president of the New York
Society for the Prevention of Crime, and pleaded for
better management of Indian affairs and for inter-
national copyright. Among his publications are The
Lands of the Moslem (1851), Bible Companion (1870),
Jesus: His Life and Works (1871), True Temperance
Reform (1879), True Humanity of Christ (188.0), and
commentaries on the book of Joshua (1875), Nehemiah
(i877)and the New Testament (1885).

His son, Ernest Howard Crosby (1856-1907), was a
social reformer, and was born in New York City on the
4th of November 1856. He graduated at the University
of the City of New York in 1876 and at Columbia
Law School in 1878; served in the New York Assembly
in 1887-1889, securing the passage of a high-licence bill;
in 1889-1894 was a judge of the Mixed Tribunal at Alex-
andria, Egypt, resigning upon coming under the influence
of Tolstoy; and died in New York City on the 3rd of January
1907. He was the first president (1894) of the Social Reform
Club of New York City, and was president in 1900-1905 of the
New York Anti-Imperialist League; was a leader in settlement
work and in opposition to child labour, and was a disciple of
Tolstoy as to universal peace and non-resistance, and of Henry
George in his belief in the " single tax " principle. His writings,
many of which are in the manner of Walt Whitman, comprise
Plain Talk in Psalm and Parable (1899), Swords and Plough-
shares (1902), and Broadcast (1905), all in verse; an anti-
military novel, Captain Jinks, Hero (1902); and essays on
Tolstoy (1904 and 1905) and on Garrison (1905).

CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION (Lat. crux, crucis 1 ). The meaning
ordinarily attached to the word " cross " is that of a figure
composed of two or more lines which intersect, or touch each
other transversely. Thus, two pieces of wood, or other material,
so placed in juxtaposition to one another, are understood to
form a cross. It should be noted, however, that Lipsius and
other writers speak of the single upright stake to which criminals
were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the name of crux
simplex has been applied. The usual conception, however, of a
cross is that of a compound figure.

Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient
times. It is known to have been used by nations such as
those of Assyria, Egypt, Persia, by the Greeks, Carthaginians,

1 Derivatives of the Latin crux appear in many forms in European
languages, cf. Ger. Kreuz, Fr. croix, It. croce, &c. ; the English form
seems Norse in origin (O.N. Krosse, mod. Kors). The O.E. name
was rod, rood (q.v.).

506

CROSS

Macedonians, and from very early times by the Romans. It has
been thought, too, that crucifixion was also used by the Jews
themselves, and that there is an allusion to it (Deut. xxi. 22,
23) as a punishment to be inflicted.

Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment
of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first of all
usually stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where
he was so cruelly scourged with an implement, formed of strips
of leather having pieces of iron, or some other hard material,
at their ends, that not merely was the flesh often stripped from
the bones, but even the entrails partly protruded, and the
anatomy of the body was disclosed. In this pitiable state he
was reclothed, and, if able to do so, was made to drag the stake
to the place of execution, where he was either fastened to it,
or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, where a
single stake was employed, we have the crux simplex of Lipsius.
The other method is that with which we are more familiar, and
which is described in the New Testament account of the cruci-
fixion of Jesus Christ. In such a case, after the scourging at the
stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two
transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was
then fastened to it by iron nails driven through the outstretched
arms and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the
cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position.
In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder,
and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness,
or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have
suffered, had much to do in deciding this. It is not quite clear
which of these two plans was followed in the case of the cruci-
fixion of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that He
was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted
into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed
to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion
which depict Him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross.
Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious
desire, on the part of their authors, to emphasize the voluntary
offering of Himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as
being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may
be noted, however, that among the " Emblems of the Passion,"
as they are called, and which were very favourite devices in
the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in con-
junction with the crown of thorns, nails, spear, &c.

From its simplicity of form, the cross has been used both
as a religious symbol and as an ornament, from the dawn of
man's civilization. Various objects, dating from periods long
anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with
crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old
• world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded number-
less examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later
Stone Age to Christian times, have been found in nearly every
part of Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in
pre-Christian times, and among non-
Christian peoples, may probably be
regarded as almost universal, and in
very many cases it was connected
with some form of nature worship.
Two of the forms of the pre-Christian
cross which are perhaps most fre-
quently met with are the tau cross, so named from its resem-
blance to the Greek capital letter J, and the svastika or fylfot 1 IJ-j ,
also called " Gammadion " owing to its form being that of four
Greek capital letters gamma f placed together. The tau cross

1 The acceptance of this word as the English equivalent for this
peculiar form of the cross rests only, according to the New English
Dictionary, on a MS. of about 1500 in the Lansdowne collection,
which gives details for the erection of a memorial stained-glass
window, "... the fylfot in the nedermost pane under ther I
knele_. . . "; in the sketch given with the instructions a cross
occupies the space indicated. It is a question, therefore, whether
" fylfot " is a name for any device suitable to" fill the foot " of any
design, or the name peculiar to this particular form of cross. The
word is not, as was formerly accepted, a corruption of the O. Eng.
feowerfete, four-footed.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

is a common Egyptian device, and is indeed often called the
Egyptian cross. The svastika has a very wide range of dis-
tribution, and is found on all kinds of objects. It was used as
a religious emblem in India and China at least ten centuries
before the Christian era, and is met with on Buddhist coins
and inscriptions from various parts of India. A fine sepulchral
urn found at Shropham in Norfolk, and now in the British
Museum, has three bands of cruciform ornaments round it.
The two uppermost of these are plain circles, each of which
contains a plain cross; the lowest band is formed of a series of
squares, in each of which is a svastika. In the Vatican Museum
there is an Etruscan fibula of gold which is marked with the
svastika, but it is a device of such common occurrence on objects
of pre-Christian origin, that it is hardly necessary to specify
individual instances. The cross, as a device in different forms,
and often enclosed in a circle, is of frequent occurrence on coins
and medals of pre-Christian date in France and elsewhere.
Indeed, objects marked with pre-Christian crosses are to be seen
in every important museum.

The death of Christ on a cross necessarily conferred a new
significance on the figure, which had hitherto been associated
with a conception of religion not merely non-Christian, but in
its essence often directly opposed to it. The Christians of early
times were wont to trace, in things around them, hidden pro-
phetical allusions to the truth of their faith, and such a testimony
they seem to have readily recognized in the use of the cross as
a religious emblem by those whose employment of it betokened
a belief most repugnant to their own. The adoption by them of
such forms, for example, as the tau cross and the svastika or
fylfot was no doubt influenced by the idea of the occult Christian
significance which they thought they recognized in those forms,
and which they could use with a special meaning among them-
selves, without at the same time arousing the ill-feeling or
shocking the sentiment of those among whom they lived.

It was not till the time of Constantine that the cross was
publicly used as the symbol of the Christian religion. Till then
its employment had been restricted, and private among the
Christians themselves. Under Constantine it became the
acknowledged symbol of Christianity, in the same way in which,
long afterwards, the crescent was adopted as the symbol of
the Mahommedan religion. Constantine's action was no doubt
influenced by the vision which he believed he saw of the cross in
the sky with the accompanying words a> tovtciJ v'iko., as well as
by the story of the discovery of the true cross by his mother
St Helena in the year 326. The legend is that, when visiting
the holy places in Palestine, St Helena was guided to the site
of the crucifixion by an aged Jew who had inherited traditional
knowledge as to its position. After the ground had been dug
to a considerable depth, three crosses were found, as well as
the superscription placed over the Saviour's head on the cross, and
the nails with which he had been crucified. The cross of the
Lord was distinguished from the other two by the working
of a miracle on a crippled woman who was stretched upon it.
This finding, or " invention," of the holy cross by St Helena is
commemorated by a festival on the 3rd of May, called the
" Invention of the Holy Cross. " The legend was widely accepted
as true, and is related by writers such as St Ambrose, Rufinus,
Sulpicius Severus and others, but it is discounted by the
existence of an older legend, according to which the true cross
was found in the reign of Tiberius, and while St James the
Great was bishop of Jerusalem, by Protonice, the wife of Claudius.

In recent times an attempt has been made to reconcile the
two accounts, by attributing to St Helena the rediscovery of
the true cross, originally found by Protonice, and which had
been buried again on the spot. A change was made in 1895
in the Diario Romano, when the word Rilrovamento was sub-
stituted for that of Invenzione, in the name of the festival of the
3rd of May. After St Helena's discovery a church was built
upon the site, and in it she placed the greater portion of the
cross. The remaining portion she conveyed to Byzantium,
and thence Constantine sent a piece to Rome, where it is said to
be still preserved in the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme,

CROSS

507

which was built to receive so precious a relic. It is exposed for
the veneration of the faithful on Good Friday, 3rd of May, and
the third Sunday in Lent, each year.

Another festival of the holy cross is kept on the 14th of
September, and is known as the " Exaltation of the Holy Cross."
It seems to have originated with the dedication, in the year 335,
of the churches built on the sites of the crucifixion and the holy
sepulchre. The observance of this festival passed from Jerusalem
to Constantinople, and thence to Rome, where it appears to
have been introduced in the 7th century. By some it is thought
that the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross had its origin in
Constantine's vision of the cross in the sky in the year 317, but
whether it originated then, or, as is more generally supposed,
at the dedication of the churches at Jerusalem, there is no
doubt that it was afterwards kept with much greater solemnity
in consequence of the recovery of the portion of the cross St
Helena had left at Jerusalem, which had been taken away in the
Persian victory, and was restored to Jerusalem by Heraclitus
in 627. Pope Clement VIII. (1592-1604) raised the festival
of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross to the dignity, liturgically
known as that of a Greater Double.

Before leaving the story of St Helena and the cross, it
may be convenient to allude briefly to the superscription placed
over the Saviour's head, and the nails, which it is said that she
found with the cross. The earlier tradition as to the super-
scription is obscure, but it would seem that it ought to ,be con-
sidered part of the relic which Constantine sent to Rome. By
some means it was entirely lost sight of until the year 1492,
when it is said that it was accidentally found in a vault in the
church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme at Rome. Pope Alexander
III. published a bull certifying to the truth of this re-discovery
of the relic, and authenticated its character.

As regards the nails, a question has arisen whether there were
three or four. In the earliest pictures of the Crucifixion the feet
are shown as separately nailed to the cross, but at a later period
they are crossed, and a single nail fixes them. In the former
case there would be four nails, and in the latter only three.
Four is the number generally accepted, and it is said that one
was cast by St Helena into the sea, during a storm, in order
to subdue the waves, another is said (but the legend cannot be
traced far back) to have been beaten out into the iron circlet
of the crown of Lombardy, while the remaining two are
reputed to be preserved among the relics at Milan and Trier
respectively.

The employment of the cross as the Christian symbol has
been so manifold in its variety and application, and the different
forms to which the figure has been adapted and elaborated are
so complex, that it is only possible to deal with the outline of
the subject.

We learn from Tertullian and other early Christian writers
of the constant use which the Christians of those days made oi
the sign of the cross. Tertullian (De Cor. Mil. cap. iii.) says:
" At each journey and progress, at each coming in and going out,
at the putting on of shoes, at the bath, at meals, at the kindling
of lights, at bedtime, at sitting down, whatsoever occupation
engages us, we mark the brow with the sign of the cross." With
so frequent an employment of the sign of the cross in their
domestic life, it would be strange if we did not find that it was
very frequently used in the public worship of the church. The
earliest liturgical forms are comparatively late, and are without
rubrics, but the allusions by different writers in early times
to the ceremonial use of the sign of the cross in the public services
are so numerous, and so much importance was attached to it,
that we are left in no manner of doubt on the point. St
Augustine, indeed, speaks of the sacraments as not duly
ministered if the use of the sign of the cross were absent from
their ministration (Horn, cxviii. in S. Joan.). Of the later
liturgical use of the sign of the cross there is little need to speak,
as a reference to the service books of the Greek and Latin
churches will plainly indicate the frequency of, and the import-
ance attached to, its employment. Its "occasional use is retained
by the Lutherans, and in the Church of England it is authori-

Fig. 5-

Fig. 6.

tatively used at baptism, and at the " sacring " or anointing of
the sovereign at the coronation.

Passing from the sign to the material figures of the cross,
a very usual classification distinguishes three main forms:
(1) the crux immissa, or capitata "f (fig. 3) known also as the
Latin cross, or if each limb is of the same length, + (fig. 4) as
the Greek cross; (2) the crux decussata, formed like the letter X,
and (3) the crux commissa or tau cross,
already mentioned. It was on a crux immissa
that Christ is believed to have been crucified.
The crux decussata is known as St Andrew's
cross, from the traditioa that St Andrew was _, _

put to death on a cross of that form. The 3 " 4 '

crux commissa is often called St Anthony's cross, probably
only because it resembles the crutch with which the great hermit
is generally depicted.

The cross in one form or other appears, appropriately, on the
flags and ensigns of many Christian countries. The English
cross of St George is a plain red cross on a white ground, the
Scottish cross of St Andrew is a plain diagonal white cross on a
blue ground, and the Irish cross of St Patrick is a plain diagonal
red cross on a white ground. These three crosses are combined
in the Union Jack (see Flag).

The cross has also been adopted by many orders of knighthood.
Perhaps the best known of these is the cross of the knights of
Malta. It is a white cross of eight points on a black ground
(fig. 5) and is the proper Maltese cross,
a name which is often wrongly applied
to the cross patie (fig. 6). The knights
of the Garter use the cross of St
George, as do those of the order of St
Michael and St George, the knights of
the Thistle use St Andrew's cross, and
those of St Patrick the cross of St
Patrick charged with a shamrock leaf. The cross of the Danish
order of the Dannebrog (fig. 7) affords a good example of this use
of the cross. It is in form a white cross patee, superimposed
upon a red one of the same form, and is surmounted by the
royal cipher and crown, and has upon its surface the royal
cipher repeated, and the legend, or motto, " Gud og Kongen "
= " God and the King." (For crosses of monastic orders see
Costume.) ■ -

Akin to the crosses of knightly orders are those which figure
as charges on coats of arms. The science of heraldry evolved a
wonderful variety of cross-forms during the period it held sway
in the middle ages. The different forms of cross used in heraldry
are, in fact, so numerous that it is only the larger works on that
subject which attempt to record them all.
For such crosses see Heraldry.

In the middle ages the cross form, in
one way or another, was predominant
everywhere, and was introduced whenever
opportunity offered itself for doing so. The
larger churches were planned on its outline,
so that the ridge line of their roofs pro-
claimed it far and wide. This was more
particularly followed in the north of Europe,
but when it was first introduced is not
quite certain. All the ancient cathedral
churches of England and Wales are cruci-
form in plan, except Llandaff.

The artistic skill and ingenuity of the
medieval designer has produced cross
designs of endless variety, and of singular G 'X' c ^° ssoft " e
elegance and beauty. Some of the most
beautiful of these designs are the gable crosses of the old
churches. Fig. 8 shows the west gable cross of Washburn
church, Worcestershire; fig. 9 that of the nave of Castle Acre
church, Norfolk; and fig. 10 the east gable cross of Hethersett
church in that county. They may be taken as good examples
of a type of cross which is often of great beauty, but it is ovei-
looked, owing to its bad position for observation.

5 o8

CROSS

Other architectural crosses, of great beauty of design, are
those which occur on the grave slabs of the middle ages.
Instances of a plainer type occur in Saxon times, but it was not
till after the nth century that they were fashioned after the
intricate and beautiful designs with which our ancient churches
are, as a rule, so plentifully supplied. Sometimes these crosses
are incised in the slab, and almost as often they are executed
in low relief. The long shaft of the cross is most commonly plain,
but there are a very large number of instances in which this
is not so, and in which branches, with leaf designs, are thrown

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

out at intervals the entire length of the shaft. In some cases
the shaft rises from a series of steps at its base, and in such a case
the name of a Calvary cross is applied to it. Fig. 1 1 , from Strad-
sett church, Norfolk, and fig. 12 from Bosbury church, Hereford-
shire, are good examples of the designs at the head of sepulchral
crosses. Often, by the side of the cross, an emblem or symbol
is placed, denoting the calling in life of the person commemorated.
Thus a sword is placed to indicate a knight or soldier, a chalice
for a priest, and so forth; but it would be travelling beyond the
scope of this article to enter into a discussion as to such symbols.
Of upright standing crosses, the Irish and Iona types are well
known, and their great artistic beauty and elaboration and
excellence of sculpture are universally recognized. These crosses
are sometimes spoken of as " Runic Crosses " ; and the inter-
lacing knotwork design with which many of them are ornamented

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

is also at times spoken of as " Runic." This is an erroneous
application of the word, and has arisen from the fact that some
of these crosses bear inscriptions in Runic characters. Standing
crosses, of different kinds, were commonly set up in every
suitable place during the middle ages, as the mutilated bases and
shafts still remaining readily testify. Such crosses were erected
in the centre of the market place, in the churchyard, on the village
green, or as boundary stones, or marks to guide the traveller.
Some, like the Black Friars cross at Hereford, were preaching
stations, others, like the beautiful Eleanor crosses at North-
ampton, Geddington and Waltham, were commemorative
ip character. Of these latter crosses, which marked the places

where the funeral procession of Queen Eleanor halted, there
were originally ten or more, erected between 1241 and 1294.
They were placed at Lincoln, Northampton, Stony Stratford,
Woburn, Dunstable, St Albans, Waltham and London (Cheapside
and Charing Cross). The cross at Geddington differs in outline
from those at Northampton and Waltham, and it is not recorded
on the roll of accounts for the nine others, all of which are men-
tioned, but there is no real doubt that it commemorates the
resting of the coffin of the queen in Geddington church on its
way from Harby. These crosses, like the Black Friars cross
at Hereford, are elaborate architectural erections, and very
similar to them in this respect are the beautiful market crosses
at Winchester, Chichester, Salisbury, Devizes, Shepton Mallet,
Leighton Buzzard, &c. Of churchyard crosses, as distinguished
from memorial crosses in churchyards, one only is believed to
have escaped in a perfect condition the ravages of time, and the
fanaticism of the past. It stands in the churchyard of Somerby,
in Lincolnshire (Tennyson's birthplace), and is a tall shaft
surmounted by a pedimented tabernacle, on one side of which
is the crucifixion, and on the other the figure of the Virgin and
Child. Churchyard crosses may have been used as occasional
preaching stations, for reading the Gospel in the Palm Sunday
procession, and generally for public proclamations, made usually
at the conclusion of the chief Sunday morning service, much
in the same way that market crosses were used on market days
as places for proclamations in the towns.

Of the ecclesiastical use of the sign of the cross mention has
already been made, and it is desirable to mention briefly one
or two instances of the ecclesiastical use of the cross itself. From
a fairly early period it has been the prerogative of an archbishop
or metropolitan, to have a cross borne before him within the
limits of his province. The question urged between the arch-
bishops of Canterbury and York about the carrying of their
crosses before tnem, in each other's province, was a fruitful
source of controversy in the middle ages. The archiepiscopal
cross must not be confused with the crozier or pastoral staff
The latter, which is formed with a crook at the end, is quite
distinct, and is used by archbishops and bishops alike, who bear
it with the left hand in processions, and when blessing the people.
The archiepiscopal cross, on the contrary, is always borne before
the archbishop, or during the vacancy of the archiepiscopal see
before the guardian of the spiritualities se.de vacante. The
bishop of Dol in Brittany, of ordinary diocesan bishops, alone
possessed the privilege of having a cross borne before him in
his diocese. Good illustrations of the archiepiscopal cross occur
on the monumental brasses of Archbishop Waldeby, of York
(1397), at Westminster Abbey, and of Archbishop Cranley,
of Dublin (1417) in New College chapel, Oxford.

The custom of carrying a cross at the head of an ecclesiastical
procession can be traced back to the end of the 4th century.
The cross was originally taken from the altar, and raised on a
pole, and so borne before the procession. Afterwards a separate
cross was provided for processions, but in poor churches, where
this was not the case, the altar cross continued to be used till quite
a late period. A direction to this effect occurs as late as 1829,
in the Rituel published for the diocese of La Rochelle in that year.
In England altar crosses were not very usual in the middle ages.

As a personal ornament the cross came into common use, and
was usually worn suspended by a chain fiom the neck. A cross
of this kind, of very great interest and beauty, was found about
1690, on the breast of Queen Dagmar, the wife of Waldemar II.,
king of Denmark (d. 12 13). It is of Byzantine design and
workmanship, and is of enamelled gold (fig. 13 shows both sides
of it) ; on one side is the Crucifixion, and on the other side the
half figure of our Lord in the centre, with the Virgin and St John
the Evangelist on either side, and St Chrysostom and St Basil
above and below. From the way in which such crosses were
worn, hanging over the chest, they are called pectoral crosses.
At the present day a pectoral cross forms part of the recognized
insignia of a Roman Catholic bishop, and is worn by him over
his robes, but this official use of the pectoral cross is not ancient,
and no instance is known of it in England before the Reformation.

CROSSBILL— CROSSEN

509

The custom appears to have taken rise in the 16th century on the
continent. It was not unusual to wear cruciform reliquaries,
as objects of personal adornment, and such a reliquary was
found on the body of St Cuthbert, when his tomb was opened in
1827, but it was placed under, and not over his episcopal vest-
ments, and formed no part of his bishop's attire. The custom

Fig. 13. — Dagmar Cross.

or wearing a pectoral cross over ecclesiastical robes has, curiously
enough, been copied from the comparatively modern Roman
Catholic usage by the Lutheran bishops and superintendents
in Scandinavia and Prussia; and in Sweden the cross is now
delivered to the new bishop, on his installation in office, by the
archbishop of Upsala, together with the mitre and crozier.
Within the last generation the use of a pectoral cross, worn over
their robes as part of the insignia of the episcopal office, has been
adopted by some bishops of the Church of England, but it has no
ancient sanction or authority.

Authorities.— Mortillet, Le Signe de la croix avant le Christianisme
(Paris, 1866); Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church;
Lipsius, De Cruce Christi; Lady Eastlake, History of our Lord, vol.
ii. ; Cutts, Manual of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses; (Anon.) Hand-
book to Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome, part ii. (London, 1897);
Veldeuer, History of the Holy Cross (reprint, 1863). (T. M. F.)

CROSSBILL (Fr. Bec-croise, Ger. Kremschnabel) , the name
given to a genus of birds, belonging to the family Fringillidae,
or finches, from the unique peculiarity they possess among the
whole class of having the horny sheaths of the bill crossing one
another obliquely, 1 whence the appellation Loxia (Xo£6s,
obliquus), conferred by Gesner on the group and continued by
Linnaeus. At first sight this singular structure appears so like
a deformity that writers have not been wanting to account it
such, 2 ignorant of its being a piece of mechanism most beautifully
adapted to the habits of the bird, enabling it to extract with the
greatest ease, from fir-cones or fleshy fruits, the seeds which
form its usual and almost invariable food. Its mode of using
this unique instrument seems to have been first described by
Townson {Tracts on Nat. Hist., p. 116, London, J 799), but only
partially, and it was Yarrell who, in 1829 (Zool. Journ., iv.
pp. 457-465, pi. xiv. figs. 1-7), explained fully the means whereby
the jaws and the muscles which direct their movements become
so effective in riving asunder cones or apples, while at the proper
moment the scoop-like tongue is instantaneously thrust out and
withdrawn, conveying the hitherto protected seed to the bird's
mouth. The articulation of the mandible to the quadrate-bone
is such as to 'allow of a very considerable amount of lateral play,
and, by a particular arrangement of the muscles which move
the former, it comes to pass that so soon as the bird opens its
mouth the point of the mandible is brought immediately opposite
to that of the maxilla (which itself is movable vertically),
instead of crossing or overlapping it — the usual position when
the mouth is closed. The two points thus meeting, the bill is

1 This peculiarity is found as an accidental malformation in the
crows (Corvidae) and other groups; it is comparable to the mon-
strosities seen in rabbits and other members of the order Glires, in
which the incisor teeth grow to an inordinate length.
_ 2 A medieval legend ascribes the conformation of bill and colora-
tion of plumage to a divine recognition of the bird's pity, bestowed
on Christ at the crucifixion.

inserted between the scales or into the pome, but on opening
the mouth still more widely, the lateral motion of the mandible
is once more brought to bear with great force to wrench aside
the portion of the fruit attacked, and then the action of the tongue
completes the operation, which is so rapidly performed as to
defy scrutiny, except on very close inspection. Fortunately
the birds soon become tame in confinement, and a little patience
will enable an attentive observer to satisfy himself as to the
process, the result of which at first seems almost as unaccountable
as that of a clever conjuring trick.

The common crossbill of the Palaearctic region (Loxia curvi-
rostra) is about the size of a skylark, but more stoutly built.
The young (which on leaving the nest have not the tips of the bill
crossed) are of a dull olive colour with indistinct dark stripes
on the lower parts, and the quills of the wings and tail dusky.
After the first moult the difference between the sexes is shown
by the hens inclining to yellowish-green, while the cocks become
diversified by orange-yellow and red, their plumage finally
deepening into a rich crimson-red, varied in places by a flame-
colour. Their glowing hues, are, however, speedily lost by
examples which may be kept in confinement, and are replaced by
a dull orange, or in some cases by a bright golden-yellow, and
specimens have, though rarely, occurred in a wild state exhibiting
the same tints. The cause of these changes is at present obscure,
if not unknown, and it must be admitted that their sequence
has been disputed by some excellent authorities, but the balance
of evidence is certainly in favour of the above statement. De-
pending mainly for food on the seeds of conifers, the movements
of crossbills are irregular beyond those of most birds, and they
would seem to rove in any direction and at any season in quest
of their staple sustenance. But the pips of apples are also a
favourite dainty, and it is recorded by the old chronicler Matthew
Paris (Hist. Angl. MS. fol. 252), that in 1251 the orchards of
England were ravaged by birds, " pomorum grana, & non aliud
de eisdem pomis comedentes," which, from his description,
" Habebant autem partes rostri cancellatas, per quas poma
quasi forcipi vel cultello dividebant," could be none other but
crossbills. Notice of a like visitation in 1593 is recorded, but
of late it has become evident that not a year passes without
crossbills being observed in some part or other of England, while
in certain localities in Scotland they seem to breed annually.
The nest is rather rudely constructed, and the eggs, generally
four in number, resemble those of the greenfinch, but are larger
in size. This species ranges throughout the continent of Europe, 3
and occurs in the islands of the Mediterranean and in the fir-
woods of the Atlas. In Asia it would seem to extend to Kam-
tschatka and Japan, keeping mainly to the forest-tracts.

Three other forms of the genus also inhabit the Old World —
two of them so closely resembling the common bird that their
specific validity has been often questioned. The first of these,
of large stature, the parrot-crossbill (L. pityopsittacus), comes
occasionally to Great Britain, presumably from Scandinavia,
where it is known to breed. The second (L. himalayana) , which
is a good deal smaller, is only known from the Himalaya Moun-
tains. The third, the two-barred crossbill (L. tacnioptera), is
very distinct, and its proper home seems to be the most northern
forests of the Russian empire, but it has occasionally occurred
in western Europe and even in England.

The New World has two birds of the genus. The first (L.
americana), representing the common British species, but with
a smaller bill, and the males easily recognizable by their more
scarlet plumage, ranges from the northern limit of coniferous
trees to the highlands of Mexico, or even farther. The other
(L. leucoptera) is the equivalent of the two-barred crossbill, but
smaller. It has twice occurred in England. (A. N.)

CROSSEN, or Krossen, a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Prussia, on the Oder, here crossed by a bridge, at the influx
of the Bober, 31 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail. Pop.
(1900) 7369. Of the churches in the town three are Protestant.

8 Dr Malmgren found a small flock on Bear Island (lat. 74I N.),
but to this barren spot they must have been driven by stress of
weather.

5i°

CROSSING— CROTONA

and one Roman Catholic. Besides the modern school (Real-
progymnasium), there are a technical school for viniculture
and fruit-growing and a dairy school. There are manu-
factories of copper and brass ware, cloth, &c, while in the
surrounding country the chief industries are fruit and grape
growing. There is a brisk shipping trade, mainly in wine, fruit
and fish. Crossen was founded in 1005 and was important during
the middle ages as a point of passage across the Oder. It attained
civic rights in 1232, was for a time.the capital of a Silesian duchy,
which, on the death of Barbara of Brandenburg, widow of the
last duke, passed to Brandenburg (1482). In May 1886 the town
was devastated by a whirlwind.

CROSSING, in architecture, the term given to the intersection
of the nave and transept, frequently surmounted by a tower or
by a dome on pendentives.

CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM (1826-1893), English geologist
and Unitarian minister, was born at Lewes in Sussex, on the
7th of December 1826. After being trained for the ministry at
Manchester New College (1 843-1 848), he became pastor of
Friargate chapel, Derby, until 1852, when he accepted charge
of a Unitarian congregation in Glasgow. In 1869 he removed
to Birmingham, where until the close of his life he was pastor
of the Church of the Messiah. While in Glasgow his interest
was awakened in geology by the perusal of A. C. Ramsay's
Geology of the Isle of Arran, and from 1855 onwards he devoted
his leisure to the pursuit of this science. He became an authority
on glacial geology, and wrote much, especially in conjunction
with David Robertson, on the post-tertiary fossiliferous beds
of Scotland {Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow). He also prepared for
the British Association a valuable series of Reports (1873-1892)
on the erratic Blocks of England, Wales and Ireland. In con-
junction with David Robertson and G. S. Brady he wrote the
Monograph of the Post Tertiary Entomostraca of Scotland, &c.
for the Palaeontographical Society (1874); and he edited H.
Carvill Lewis' Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology of Great
Britain and Ireland, issued posthumously (1894). He died at
Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 1st of October 1893.

See H. W. Crosskey: his Life and Work, by R. A. Armstrong (with
chapter on his geological work by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1895).

CROSS RIVER, a river of West Africa, over 500 m. long.
It rises in 6° N , io° 30' E. in the mountains of Cameroon, and
flows at first N.W. In 8° 48' E., 5° 50' N. are a series of rapids;
below this point the river is navigable for shallow-draught boats.
At 8° 20' E., 6° 10' N., its most northern point, the river turns
S. W. and then S., entering the Gulf of Guinea through the Calabar
estuary. The Calabar river, which rises about 5° 30' N., 8° 30' E.,
has a course parallel to, and 10 to 20 m. east of, the Cross river.
Near its mouth, on its east bank, is the town of Calabar (q.v.).
It enters the estuary in 4 45' N. The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and
other streams farther east, which rise on the flanks of the
Cameroon Mountains, form a large delta. The Calabar and
Kwa rivers are wholly within the British protectorate of Southern
Nigeria, as is the Cross river from its mouth to the rapids
mentioned. The upper course of the river is in German
territory.

CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT, in former times the method of
disposing of executed criminals and suicides. At the cross-roads
a rude cross usually stood, and this gave rise to the belief that
these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to
consecrated ground. The real explanation is that the ancient
Teutonic peoples often built their altars at the cross-roads, and
as human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the
ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds.
Hence after the introduction of Christianity, criminals and
suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order
to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the pagans.
An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous
Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Oxford,
Edgware and London roads met.

CROSS SPRINGER, in architecture, the block from which the
diagonal ribs of a vault spring or start: the top of the springer
is known as the skewback (see Arch).

CROTCH, WILLIAM (1775-1847), English musician, was born
in Green's Lane, Norwich, on the 5th of July 1775. His father
was a master carpenter. The child was extraordinarily pre-
cocious, and when scarcely more than two years of age he played
upon an organ of his parent's construction something like the
tune of " God save the King." At the- age of four he came to
London and gave daily recitals on the organ in the rooms of a
milliner in Piccadilly. The precocity of his musical intuition
was almost equalled by a singularly early aptitude for drawing.
In 1786 he went to Cambridge as assistant to Dr Randall the
organist. His oratorio The Captivity of Judah was played at
Trinity Hall, Cambridge, on the 4th of June 1789. He was
then only fourteen years of age. His intention of entering the
church carried him to Oxford in 1788, but the superior attrac-
tions of a musical career acquired an increasing influence over
him, and in 1790 he was appointed organist of Christ Church.
At the early age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of
music in the university of Oxford, and there in 1799 he took his
degree of doctor in that art. In 1800 and the four following
years he read lectures on music at Oxford. Next he was
appointed lecturer on music to the Royal Institution, and
subsequently, in 1822, principal of the London Royal Academy
of Music. His last years were passed at Taunton in the house of
his son, the Rev. W. R. Crotch, where he died suddenly on the
29th of December 1847. He published a number of vocal and
instrumental compositions, of which the best is his oratorio
Palestine, produced in 1812. In 1831 appeared an 8vo volume
containing the substance of his lectures on music, delivered at
Oxford and in London. Previously, he had published three
volumes of Specimens of Various Styles of Music. Among his
didactic works is Elements of Musical Composition and Thorough-
Bass (London, 1812). The oratorio bearing the title The
Captivity of Judah, and produced on the occasion of the installa-
tion of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the university
of Oxford in 1834, is a totally different work from that which
he wrote upon the same subject as a boy of fourteen. He
arranged for the pianoforte a number of Handel's oratorios and
operas, besides symphonies and quartetts of Haydn, Mozart
and Beethoven. The great expectations excited by his infant
precocity were not fulfilled; for he manifested no extraordinary
genius for musical composition. But he was an industrious
student and a sound artist, and his name remains familiar in
English musical history.

CROTCHET (from the Fr. croche, a hook; whence also the
Anglicized " crochet," pronounced as in French, for the knitting-
work done with a hook instead of on pins), properly a small
hook, and so used of the hook-like setae or bristles found in
certain worms which burrow in sand. In music, a "crotchet "
is a note of half the value of a minim and double that of a quaver;
it is marked by a round black head and a line without a tail or
hook; the French croche is used of a " quaver " which has a tail,
but in ancient music the semiminima, the modern crotchet,
is marked by an open note with a hook. Derived either from
an old French proverbial phrase, il a des crochues en teste, or from
a meaning of twist or turn, as in the similar expression " crank,"
comes the sense of a whim, fancy or perverse idea, seen also in
the adjective " crotchety " of a fussy unreasonable person.

CROTONA, Croto or Croton (Gr. Kporow, mod. Cotrone)
a Greek town on the E. coast of the territory of the Bruttii
(mod. Calabria), on a promontory 7 m. N.W. of the Lacinian
promontory. It was founded by a colony of Achaeans led by
Myscellus in 710 B.C. Its name was, according to the legend,
that of a local prince who afforded hospitality to Heracles, but
was accidentally killed by him and buried on the spot. Like
Sybaris, it soon became a city of power and wealth. It was
especially celebrated for its successes in the Olympic games from
588 B.C. onwards, Milo being the most famous of its athletes.
Pythagoras established himself here between 540 and 530 B.C.
and formed a society of 300 disciples (among whom was Milo),
who acquired considerable influence with the supreme council
of 1000 by which the city was ruled. In 510 B.C. Crotona
was strong enough to defeat the Sybarites, with whom it had

CROTONIC ACID— CROUP

5"'

previously been on friendly terms, and raze their city to the ground.
Shortly afterwards, however, an insurrection took place, by
which the disciples of Pythagoras were driven out, and a demo-
cracy established. The victory of the Locrians and Phlegians
over Crotona in 480 B.C. marked the beginning of its decline.
It suffered after this from the attacks of Dionysius I., who
became its master for twelve years, of the Bruttii, and of
Agathocles, and even more from the invasion of Pyrrhus, after
which in 277 the Romans obtained possession of it. Livy states
that the walls had a length of 1 2 m. and that about half the area
within them had at that time ceased to be inhabited. After the
battle of Cannae Crotona revolted from Rome, and Hannibal
made it his winter quarters for three years. It was made a
colony by the Romans at the end of the war (194 B.C.). After
that time but little is heard of it, though Petronius mentions
the corrupt morals of its inhabitants; but it continues to be
mentioned down to the Gothic wars. The importance of the
city was mainly due to its harbour, which, though not a good
one, was the only port between Tarentum and Rhegium. The
original settlement occupied the hill above it (143 ft.) and later
became the acropolis. Its healthy situation was famous in
antiquity, and to this was ascribed its superiority in athletics;
it was the seat also of a medical school which in the days of
Herodotus was considered the first in Greece. Of the exact site
of the ancient city and its remains practically nothing is known;
a few fragments of the productions of its art preserved in private
hands at Cotrone are described by F. von Duhn in Notizie
degli scam, 1897, 343 seq. (T. As.)

CROTONIC ACID (C 4 H 6 2 ). Three acids of this empirical
formula are known, viz. crotonic acid, isocrotonic acid and
methacrylic acid; the constitutional formulae are —

HC-C0 2 H HC-CCUH r ^-CH 3

HC-CH, ' CH 3 -CH ' CH2:( ~\C0 2 H -

Crotonic Acid. Isocrotonic Acid. Methacrylic Acid.

The isomerism of crotonic and isocrotonic acids is to be explained
on the assumption of a different spatial arrangement of the
atoms in the molecule (see Stereochemistry).

Crotonic acid, so named from the fact that it was erroneously
supposed to be a saponification product of croton oil, may be
prepared by the oxidation of croton-aldehyde, CH 3 - CH :CH- CHO,
obtained by dehydrating aldol, or by treating acetylene suc-
cessively with sulphuric acid and water: by boiling allyl cyanide
with caustic potash; by the distillation of /3-oxybutyric acid;
by heating paraldehyde with malonic acid and acetic acid to
ioo° C. (T. Komnenos, Ann., 1883, 218, p. 149).

CH 2 (COOH) 2 +CH3CHO-^CH 3 -CH:C(COOH)2-^CH s -CH:CH-COOH;

or by heating pyruvic acid with an excess of acetic anhydride
and sodium acetate to 160-180 C. (B. Homolka, Ber., 1885, 18,
p. 987). It crystallizes in needles (from hot water) which melt
at 72 C. and boil at 180-181° C. It is moderately soluble in
cold water. It combines directly with bromine, and, with
fuming hydrobromic acid at 100° C, it gives chiefly ct-brom-
butyric acid. With hydriodic acid it gives only /3-iodobutyric
acid. Potash fusion converts it into acetic acid; nitric acid
oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids; chromic acid mixture
to acetaldehyde and acetic acid, and potassium permanganate
to <x/3-dioxybutyric acid.

Isocrotonic acid (Quartenylic acid) is obtained from (3-chloriso-
crotonic acid, formed when acetoacetic ester is treated with
phosphorus pentachloride and the product poured into water,
by the action of sodium amalgam (A. Geuther). It is an oil,
possessing a smell like that of butyric acid. It boils at 171-9° C.,
with partial conversion into crotonic acid; the transformation
is complete when the acid is heated to 1 70-180° C. in a sealed
tube. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to /37-dioxybutyric
acid.

Methacrylic acid was first obtained in the form of its ethyl
ester by E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa (Annalen, 1865, 136,
p. 12) by acting with phosphorus pentachloride on oxyisobutyric
ester (CH 3 ) 2 -C(OH)-COOC 2 H 6 . It is, however, more readily ob-

tained by boiling citra- or meso-brompyrotartaric acids with
alkalis. It crystallizes in prisms, which are soluble in water,
melt at 16° C, and boil at 160-5° C. When fused with an alkali,
it forms propionic acid; with bromine it yields a/3-dibromiso-
butyric acid. Sodium amalgam reduces it to isobutyric acid.
A polymeric form of methacrylic acid has been described by
F. Engelhorn (Ann., 1880, 200, p. 70).

CROTON OIL (Crotonis Oleum), an oil prepared from the seeds
of Croton Tiglium, a tree belonging to the natural order Euphor-
biaceae, and native or cultivated in India and the Malay Islands.
The tree is from 15 to 20 ft. in height, and has few and spreading
branches, alternate, oval-oblong leaves, acuminate at the point,
and covered when young with stellate hairs, and terminal
racemes of small, downy, greenish-yellow, monoecious flowers.
The male blossoms have five petals and fifteen stamens; the
females have no petals but a large oblong ovary bearing three
bifid styles. The fruit or capsule is obtusely three-cornered,
and about the size of a hazel-nut; it contains three cells each
enclosing a seed. The seeds resemble those of the castor-oil
plant; they are about half an inch long, and two-fifths of an inch
broad, and have a cinnamon-brown, brittle integument; between
the two halves of the kernel lie the large cotyledons and radicle.
The ocular distinction between the two kinds of seeds may be of
great practical importance. The most obvious distinction is that
the castor-oil seeds have a polished and mottled surface. The
kernels contain from 50 to 60 % of oil, which is obtained by
pressing them, when bruised to a pulp, between hot plates.
Croton oil is a transparent and viscid liquid of a brownish or
pale-yellow tinge, and acrid, peculiar and persistent taste, a
disagreeable odour and acid reaction. It is soluble in volatile
oils, carbon disulphide, and ether, and to some extent in alcohol.
It contains acetic, butyric and valeric acids, with glycerides of
acids of the same series, and a volatile body, C 5 H 8 2 , tiglic
acid, metameric with angelic acid, and identical with methyl-
crotonicacid, CH 3 -CH:C(CH 3 )(C0 2 H). The odour is due to various
volatile acids, which are present to the extent of about 1 %.
A substance called crotonal appears to be responsible for its
external, but not its internal, action. The latter is probably due
to crotolinic acid, C 9 Hi 4 2 , which has active purgative properties.
The maximum dose of croton oil is two minims, one-fourth of that
quantity being usually ample.

Applied to the skin, croton oil acts as a powerful irritant,
inducing so much inflammation that definite pustules are formed.
The destruction of the true skin gives rise to ugly scars which
constitute, together with the pain caused by this application,
abundant reason why croton oil should never be employed
externally. Despite the pharmacopoeial liniment and the
practice of a few, it may be said that this employment of
croton oil is now entirely without justification or excuse.

Taken internally, even in the minute doses already detailed,
croton oil very soon causes much colic and the occurrence of a
fluid diarrhoea which usually recurs several times. It is char-
acteristic of this purgative that it is a hydragogue even in minimal
dose, the fluid secretions of the bowel being most markedly
increased. The drug appears to act only upon the small intestine.
In somewhat larger doses it produces severe gastro-enteritis.
The flow of bile is somewhat increased. Such effects may all
be produced, even up to the discharge of blood, by the absorption
of croton oil from the skin.

The minuteness of the dose, the certainty of the action, and
the large amount of fluid drained away constitute this the best
drug for administration to an unconscious patient (especially
in cases of apoplexy, when it is desirable to remove fluid from
the body), or to insane patients who refuse to take any drug.
One drop of the oil, placed on the back of the tongue, must
inevitably be swallowed by reflex action. A dose should never
be repeated. The characters of this drug obviously contra-
indicate its use in all cases of organic disease or obstruction of
the bowel, in pregnancy, or in cases of constipation in children
or the aged.

CROUP, a name formerly given to diseases characterized by
distress in breathing accompanied by a metallic cough and some

512

CROUSAZ— CROW

hoarseness of speech. It is now known that these symptoms
are often associated with diphtheria (q.v.), spasmodic laryngitis
(q.v.), and a third disease, spasmodic croup, to which the term
is now alone applied. This occurs most frequently in children
above two years of age; the child goes to bed quite well, and a
few hours later suddenly awakes with great difficulty in inspira-
tion, the chest wall becomes markedly retracted, and there is
a metallic cough. The child becomes cyanosed, and, to the
inexperienced nurse, seems in an almost moribund condition.
In the course of four or five minutes, normal respiration starts
again, and the attack is over for the time being; but it may
recur several times a day. The seizure may be accompanied
by convulsions, and death has occurred from dyspnoea. The
best treatment is to plunge the child into a warm bath, and
sponge the back and chest with cold water. Subsequently
this can be done two or three times a day. Should the cyanosis
become very severe, respiration can be restarted by making the
child sick, either with a dose of ipecacuanha wine, or by forcing
one's finger down the throat. Generally the bowels should be
attended to; and the throat carefully examined for enlarged
tonsils or adenoids, which if present should be treated.

CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE (1663-1750), Swiss writer,
was born at Lausanne. He was a many-sided man, whose
numerous works on many subjects had a great vogue in their
day, but are now forgotten. He has been described as an
initiateur plutdt qu'un createur, chiefly because he introduced at
Lausanne the philosophy of Descartes in opposition to the
reigning Aristotelianism, and also as a Calvinist pendant (for
he was a pastor) of the French abbes of the 18th century. He
studied at Geneva, Leyden and Paris, before becoming (1700)
professor of philosophy and mathematics at the academy of
Lausanne, of which he was four times rector before 1724, when
the theological disputes connected with the Consensus 1 led him
to accept a chair of philosophy and mathematics at Groningen.
In 1726 he was appointed governor to the young prince Frederick
of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1735 returned to Lausanne with a good
pension. In 1737 he was reinstated in his old chair, which he
retained to his death. Gibbon, describing his first stay at
Lausanne (1752-1755), writes in his Autobiography, "the logic
of de Crousaz had prepared me to engage with his master Locke
and his antagonist Bayle."

The most important of his works are: Nouvel Essai de logique
(1712), Ceometrie des lignes et des surfaces rectilignes et circulaires
(1712), Traite du beau (17 14), Examen du traite de la liberie de
penser d'Antoine Collins (1718), De Veducation des enfants (1722,
dedicated to the then Princess of Wales), Examen du pyrrhonisme
ancien et moderne (1733, an attack chiefly on Bayle), Examen de
V essai de M. Pope sur I'homme (1737, an attack on the Leibnitzian
theory of that poem), Logique (6 vols., 1741), De I'esprit humain
(1741), and Reflexions sur I'ouvrage intitule: La Belle Wolfienne
(1743)- , (W. A. B. C.)

CROW (Dutch, kraai, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus),
a name most commonly applied in Britain to the bird properly
called a rook (Corvus frugilegus) , but perhaps originally peculiar
to its congener, nowadays usually distinguished as the black
or carrion-crow (C. cor one). By ornithologists it is also used in
a far wider sense, as under the title crows, or Corvidae, is included
a vast number of birds from almost all parts of the world, and
this family is probably the most highly developed of the whole
class Aves. Leaving out of account the best known of these, as
the raven, rook, daw, pie and jay, with their immediate allies,
our attention will here be confined to the crows in general;
and then the species of the family to which the appellation is
more strictly applicable may be briefly considered. All
authorities admit that the family is very extensive, and is capable
of being parted into several groups, but scarcely any two agree.
Especially must reserve be exercised as regards the group
Streperinae, or piping crows, belonging to the Australian Region,
and referred by some writers to the shrikes (Laniidae) : and the
jays too have been erected into a distinct family (Garrulidae) ,

1 The " Consensus ecclesiarum Helveticarum reformatarum "
was a document drawn up in 1675 and imposed in 1722 — as a test of
strict Protestant orthodoxy as to the doctrine of grace — by Bern on
its subjects in Lausanne and Vaux.

though it seems hardly possible to separate them even as a
subfamily from the pies (Pica and its neighbours), which lead
almost insensibly to the typical crows (Corvinae). Dismissing
these subjects for the present, it will perhaps be most convenient
to treat of the two groups which are represented by the genera
Pyrrhocorax or choughs, and Corvus or true crows in the most
limited sense.

Pyrrhocorax comprehends at least two very good species,
which have been needlessly divided generically. The best
known of them is the Cornish chough (P. graculus), formerly
a denizen of the precipitous cliffs of the south coast of England,
of Wales, of the west and north coasts of Ireland, and some of
the Hebrides, but now greatly reduced in numbers, and only
found in such places as are most free from the intrusion of man
or of daws (Corvus monedula), which last seem to be gradually
dispossessing it of its sea-girt strongholds, and its present scarcity
is probably in the main due to its persecution by its kindred.
In Britain, indeed, it would appear to be only one of the survivors
of a more ancient fauna, for in other countries where it is found
it has been driven inland, and inhabits the higher mountains of
Europe and North Africa. In the Himalayas a larger form
occurs, which has been specifically distinguished (P. himalay-
anus), but whether justifiably so may be doubted. The general
colour is a glossy black, and it has the bill and legs bright red.
The remaining species (P. alpinus) is altogether a mountaineer,
and does not affect a sea-shore life. Otherwise it frequents much
the same kind of localities, but it does not occur in Britain. The
alpine chough is somewhat smaller than its congener, and is
easily distinguished by its shorter and bright yellow bill. Remains
of both have been found in French caverns the deposits in which
were formed during the " Reindeer Age." Commonly placed
by systematists next to Pyrrhocorax is the Australian genus
Corcorax, represented by a single species (C. melanorhamphus) ,
but this assignment of the bird, which is chiefly a frequenter of
woodlands, cannot be admitted without hesitation.

Coming now to what may be literally considered crows, our
attention is mainly directed to the black or carrion-crow (Corvus
cor one) and the grey, hooded or Royston crow (C. comix).
Both these inhabit Europe, but their range and the time of their
appearance are very different. The former is, speaking generally,
a summer visitant to the south-western part of Europe, and
the latter occupies the north-eastern portion — an irregular line
drawn diagonally from about the Firth of Clyde to the head of
the Adriatic roughly marking their respective distribution.
But both are essentially migrants, and hence it follows that
when the black crow, as summer comes to an end, retires south-
ward, the grey crow moves downward, and in many districts
replaces it during winter. Further than this, it has been incon-
testably proved that along or near the boundary where these
two birds march they not infrequently interbreed, and it is
believed that the hybrids, which sometimes wholly resemble one
or other of the parents and at other times assume an inter-
mediate plumage, pair indiscriminately among themselves or
with the pure stock. Hence it has seemed to many ornithologists
who have studied the subject, that these two birds, so long
unhesitatingly regarded as distinct species, are only local races
of one and the same dimorphic species. No structural difference
— or indeed any difference except that of range (already spoken
of) and colour — can be detected, and the problem they offer
is one of which the solution is exceedingly interesting if not
important to zoologists in general. 2 Almost omnivorous in their
diet, there is little edible that comes amiss to them, and, except
in South America, they are mostly omnipresent. The fish-crow
of North America (C. ossifragus) demands a few words, since it
betrays a taste for maritime habits beyond that of other species,
but the crows of Europe are not averse on occasion to prey cast
up by the waters. The house-crow of India (C. splendens) i&
not very nearly allied to its European namesakes, from which

2 As bearing upon this question may be mentioned the fact that the
crow of Australia (C. australis) is divisible into two forms or races,
one having the irides white, the other of a dark colour. It is stated
that they keep apart and do not intermix.

CROWBERRY— CROWD

5 J 3

it can be readily distinguished by its smaller size and the lustrous
tints of its darkest feathers; while its confidence in the human
race has been so long encouraged by its intercourse with an
unarmed and inoffensive population that it becomes a plague
to the European abiding or travelling where it is abundant.
Hardly a station or camp in British India is free from a crowd
of feathered followers of this species, ready to dispute with the
kites and the cooks the very meat at the fire. (A. N.)

CROWBERRY, or Crakeberry, the English name for a low-
growing heath-like shrub, found on heaths and rocks in Scotland,
Ireland and mountainous parts of England. It is known botanic-
ally as Empetrum nigrum, and has slender, wiry, spreading
branches covered with short, narrow, stiff leaves, the margins
of which are recurved so as to form a hollow cylinder concealing
the hairy under face of the leaf — a device to avoid excessive
loss of water from the leaf under the exposed conditions in which
the plant grows. The minute flowers are succeeded by black,
edible, berry-like fruits, one-fourth to one-third of an inch in
diameter. The plant has a wide distribution, occurring in
suitable localities throughout the north temperate zone, and on
the Andes of South America.

CROWD, Crouth, Crowth (Welsh crwth; Fr. Grout; Ger.
Chrotta, Hrotla), a medieval stringed instrument derived from
the lyre, characterized by a sound-chest having a vaulted bac 1 :
and an open space left at each side of the strings to allow th j
hand to pass through in order to stop the strings on the finger-
board. The Welsh crwth, which survived until the end of the
1 8th century, is best represented by a
specimen of that date preserved in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, and described
and illustrated by Carl Engel. 1 The
instrument consists of a rectangular
sound-chest 22 in. long, o| in. wide and
2 in. deep; the body is scooped out of a
single block, the flat belly being glued on.
Right through the sound-chest on each
side of the finger-board is the character-
istic open sp.ace left for the hand to pass
through. There are two circular sound-

isThcentu?™' ' holes ; the left foot of the flat bridge,
which lies obliquely across the belly,
passes through the left sound-hole and rests inside on the back
of the instrument. Six catgut strings fastened to a tail-piece
are wound round pegs at the top of the crwth; four of these
strings lie over the sound-board and bridge, and are set in
vibration by means of a bow, while the two others, used as drones
and stretched across the left-hand aperture, are twanged by
the thumb of the left hand. The shape and shallowness of the
bridge make it impossible to sound a single string with
the bow; the arrangement of the strings suggests that they
were intended to be sounded in pairs. The instrument is

tuned thus:

At the beginning of the 19th century, William Bingley 2 heard a
Welsh peasant playing national airs on a crwth strung as

folio

m

Sir John Hawkins 3 relates

that in his time there was still a Welshman living in Anglesca
who understood how to play the crwth according to traditional
usage. Edward Jones 4 and Daines Barrington 5 both give an
account of the Welsh crwth of the 18th century which agrees
substantially with Engel's; the illustration communicated by
Daines Barrington shows the strings of the crwth -drawn through
holes at the top, and fastened on the back, as on the Persian rebab
and other Oriental stringed instruments. On these somewhat scanty
authentic records of the instrument, several historians of music

1 See Early History of the Violin Family (London, 1883), pp. 24-36.

2 See A Tour round North Wales (London, 1804), vol. ii. p. 332.

3 History of Music (London, 1766), vol. ii. bk. iii. ch. iii., description
and illustration.

4 Musical and Poetical Relicks of Welsh Bards (London, 1794),
illustration of crwth, also reproduced by Carl Engel; see note above.

s Archaeologia. vol. iii. (London, 1775).

VII. 17

have based an illogical claim that the crwth, or rather chrotta or
rotta, mentioned by Venantius Fortunatus as a British instrument,
was the Welsh crwth as it was known in the 18th century, and was
the earliest bowed instrument, and therefore the ancestor of the
violin. The lines of Fortunatus, who was bishop of Poictiers during
the second half of the 6th century, ran thus : — 6

" Romanusque lyra, plaudat tibi Barbarus harpa,
Graecus Achilliaca, chrotta Britanna canat."

The bow is not mentioned by Fortunatus, and there is no ground
whatever for believing that the Welsh crwth was played with a bow
in the 6th century, or indeed for several centuries after. The string-
ing of the Welsh crwth with the two drone strings still twanged,
the form of the body without incurvations, the flat bridge which
rendered bowing, even in the most highly developed specimens of
the 1 8th century, a difficult task, together with what is known of the
early history of the chrotta and rotta derived from the lyre and
cithara and like them twanged by fingers or plectrum, all make the
claim untenable. Carl Engel was probably the first to expose the
fallacy in his work on the violin. 7

British lexicographers all agree in deriving the words crwth,
crowd and other forms of the name, from some word meaning a
bulging protuberant bellying form, while in German the etymology
of the word Chrotta is given as Chrota or Chreta, the O.H.G. for
Krote = toad, Sckildkrote = tortoise. This word Chrotta was un-
doubtedly the German equivalent term for the lyre of Hermes,
having as back a tortoise-shell, x^us in Greek and testudo in Latin.
Chrotta was also spelt hrotta, and it is easy to see how this became
rotta. A thoughtful and suggestive treatment of the whole subject
will be found in Engel's work, to which reference has been made.
Just as the lyre and cithara, which appeared to be similar to the
casual observer, and are indeed still confused at the present day,
were instruments differing essentially in construction 8 ; so there
were, during the early middle ages, while lyre and cithara were still
in transition, two types of chrotta or rotta. (1) The rotta or im-
proved cithara had a body either rectangular with the corners
rounded, or guitar-shaped with incurvations, back and sound-board
being nearly or quite flat, joined as in the cithara by ribs or sides.
This rotta must be reckoned among the early ancestors of the violin
before the advent of the bow; it was known both as rotta and
cithara, and with a neck added it became the guitar-fiddle. (2) The
tortoise or lyre chrotta consisted of a protuberant, very convex
back cut out of a block of wood, to which was glued a flat sound-
board, at first like the lyre, with-
out intermediary ribs. This in-
strument became the crwth, and
there was no further develop-
ment. The first step in the
transition of both lyre and
cithara was the incorporation
of arms and cross-bar into the
body, the same outline being
preserved ; the second step was
the addition of a finger-board
against which the strings were
stopped, thus increasing the
compass while restricting the
number of strings to three or
four; the third step, observed
only in the rotta-cithara, con-
sisted in the addition of a neck, 9
as in the guitar. The crwth,
crowd, crouth did not undergo
this third transition even when
the bow was used to set the
strings in vibration.

The earliest representation of the crwth yet discovered dates from
the Carolingian period. In the miniatures of the Bible of Charles the
Bald, 10 in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, one of the musicians of
King David is seen stopping strings on the finger-board with his left
hand and plucking them with the right (fig. 2) ; this crwth has only
three strings, and may be the crwth trithant of Wales. A second
example occurs in the Bible of St Paul, 11 another of the magnificent
MSS. prepared for Charles the Bald, and preserved during the middle
ages in the monastery of St Paul extra muros in Rome (now deposited

^ Venantius Fortunatus, Poemata, lib. vii. cap. 8, p. 245 ; see
Migne's Patrologia Sacra, vol. 88.

7 Op. cit. chapters " Crwth," " Chrotta," " Rotta."

8 See Kathleen Schlesinger, Orchestral Instruments, part ii., " The
Precursors of the Violin Family " (London, 1909), pp. 14 to 23, with
illustrations.

9 See also Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. ch. vii., " The Cithara in
Transition," pp. 111-135 with illustrations.

10 See Auguste de Bastard, Peintures et ornements des MSS. de
France, and Peintures, ornements, &c, de la bible de Charles le Chauve,
in facsimile (Paris, 1883).

11 See J. O. West wood, Photographic Facsimile of the Bible of St
Paul (London, 1876).

12

Drawn from a plate in Auguste de Bastard's
Peintures et ornements de la bible de
diaries le Chauve.

Fig. 2. — Early Crwth,
9th century.

5H

CROWE— CROWLAND

in that of St Calixtus in Rome). Other representations are in the
miniatures of the nth, 12th and 13th centuries. To Edward Heron-
Allen {De fidiculis opuscula, viii., 1895) is due the discovery of a
representation of the Welsh crwth, showing the form still retained in
the 18th cent. On the seal of Roger Wade (1316) is a crwth
differing but little from the specimen in the Victoria and Albert

Museum. The 14th-century in-
strument had four strings instead
of six, and the foot of the bridge
does not appear to pass through
the sound-hole — a detail which
may have escaped the notice of
the artist who cut the seal. The
original seal lies in the muniment
room at Berkeley Castle in
Gloucestershire attached to ~
defeasance of a bond between
the crowder and his debtor Warren
de l'lsle, and a cast (see fig. 3) is
preserved at the British Museum.
The British M useum also possesses
two interesting MSS. which con-
cern the crwth : one of these
(Add. MS. 14939 ff. 4 and 27)
contains an extract made by
Lewis Morris in 1742 from an
ancient Welsh MS. of " Instructions supposed to be wrote for the
Crowd "; the other (Add. MS. 15036 ff. 656 and 66) consists of
tracings from a 16th-century Welsh MS. copied in 1610 of a
bagpipe, a harp and a krythe, together with the names of those who
played the last at the Eisteddfod. The drawing is crude, and shows
an instrument similar to Roger Wade's crowd, but having three
strings instead of four.

The genealogical tree of the violin given below shows the relative
positions of both kinds of rotta and chrotta.

Fig. 3. — Crowd on a 14th-
century Seal.

Egyptian \yre-kissar

I
Greek lyre or chelys

Roman testudo

Assyrian ketharah

Greek cithara
Roman fidicula

Persian cithara

.1
Arab cuitra, guitra

or cuitara

Latin chrotta, Old High Germ. Anglo-Saxon Welsh Cithara in transition, |

rotta, rote Chrota or crowd crwth or rotta Moorish guitarra

Chreta

r

Spanish viguela or
vihuela de arco

Guitarra Latina
or vihuela de mano

Spanish guitar

Italian viola
Violin

French vielle or viole

Guitar-fiddle

The Welsh crwth was therefore obviously not an exclusively
Welsh instrument, but only a late 18th-century survival in Wales of
an archaic instrument once generally popular in Europe but long
obsolete. An interesting article on the subject in German by
J. F. W. Wewertem will be found in Monatshefte fur Musik (Berlin,
1881), Nos. 7-12, p. 151, &c. (K. S.)

CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1 799-1868), English journalist and
historian, was born about the year 1799. He commenced his
work as a writer for the London newspaper press in connexion
with the Morning Chronicle, and he afterwards became a leading
contributor to the Examiner and the Daily News. Of the latter
journal he was principal editor for some time previous to his
death. The department he specially cultivated was that of
continental history and foreign politics. He published Lives
of Foreign Statesmen (1830), The Greek and the Turk (1853),
and Reigns of Louis X VIII. and Charles X. (1854). These were
followed by his most important work, the History of France
(5 vols., 1858-1868). It was founded upon original sources, in
order to consult which the author resided for a considerable
time in Paris. He died in London on the 25th of February 1868.

CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1828-1896), English consular
official and art critic, son of Eyre Crowe, was born in London on
the 25th of October 1828. At an early age he showed consider-
able aptitude for painting and entered the studio of Delaroche
in Paris, where his father was correspondent of the Morning
Chronicle. During the Crimean War he was the correspondent of

the Illustrated London News, and during the Austro-Italian War
represented The Times in Vienna. He was British consul-
general in Leipzig from i860 to 1872, and in Diisseldorf from
1872 to 1880, when he was appointed commercial attache in
Berlin, being transferred in a like capacity to Paris in 1882.
In 1883 he was secretary to the Danube Conference in London;
in 1889 plenipotentiary at the Samoa Conference in Berlin;
and in 1890 British envoy at the Telegraph Congress in Paris,
in which year he was made K.C.M.G. During a sojourn in Italy,
1846-1847, he cemented a lifelong friendship with the Italian
critic Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (1820-1897), arid together
;hey produced several historical works on art of classic import-
ance, notably Early Flemish Painters (London, 1857); A New
History of Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century
(London, 1864-1871, 5 vols.). In 1895 Crowe published Remin-
iscences of Thirty-Five Years of My Life. He died at Schloss
Gamburg in Bavana on the 6th of September 1896.

Crowe and Cavalcaselle's great History of Painting was under
revision by Crowe up to the time of his death, and then by S. A.
Strong (d. 1904) and Langton Douglas, who in 1903 brought out
vols. i. and ii. of Murray's new six-volume edition, the 3rd vol.,
edited by Langton Douglas, appearing in 1909. A reprint of the
original edition, brought up to date by annotations by Edward
Huttons, was published by Dent in 3 vols, in 1909.

CROW INDIANS, or Absarokas (the name for a species of
hawk), a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock.
They are now settled to the number of some 1800 on a reservation
in southern Montana to the south of the Yellowstone river.

Their original range included this
reservation and extended eastward
and southward, and no part of the
country for hundreds of miles around
was safe from their raids. They
have ever been known as marauders
and horse-stealers, and, though
they have generally been cunning
enough to avoid open war with the
whites, they have robbed them when-
ever opportunity served. Physically
they are tall and athletic, with very
dark complexions.

CROWLAND, or Croyland, a
market-town in the S. Kesteven
or Stamford parliamentary division
of Lincolnshire, England; in a
low fen district on the river
Welland, 8 m. N.E. of Peter-
borough, and 4 m. from Postland'station on the March-Spalding
line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, and
Peakirk on the Great Northern. Pop. (1901) 2747. Amonastery
was founded here in 716 by King ^Ethelbald, in honour of St
Guthlac of Mercia (d. 714), a young nobleman who became a
hermit and lived here, and, it was said, had foretold ^Ethelbald's
accession to the throne. The site of St Guthlac's cell, not far
from the abbey, is known as Anchor (anchorite's) Church Hill.
After the abbey had suffered from the Danish incursions in 870,
and had been burnt in that year and in 1091, a fine Norman
abbey was raised in 11 13. Remains of this building appear in
the ruined nave and tower arch, but the most splendid fragment
is the west front, of Early English date, with Perpendicular
restoration. The west tower is principally in this style. The
north aisle is restored and used as the parish church. Among
the abbots was Ingulphus (1085-1109), to whom was formerly
attributed the Historia Monasterii Croylandensis. A curious
triangular bridge remains, apparently of the 14th century,
but referred originally to the middle of the 9th century, which
spanned three streams now covered, and affords three footways
which meet at an- apex in the middle.

The town of Crowland grew up round the abbey. By a
charter dated 716, /Ethelbald granted the isle of Crowland,
free from all secular services, to the abbey with a gift of money,
and leave to build and enclose the town. The privileges thus

Fidel, fidula,

fyella, fythele,

&c.

Fiddle

CROWLEY— CROWN

5i5

obtained were confirmed by numerous royal charters extending
over a period of nearly 800 years. Under Abbot ^Egelric the
fens were tilled, the monastery grew rich, and the town increased
in size, enormous tracts of land being held by the abbey at the
Domesday Survey. The town was nearly destroyed by fire
(1469-1476), but the abbey tenants were given money to rebuild
it. By virtue of his office the abbot had a seat in parliament,
but the town was never a parliamentary borough. Abbot Ralph
Mershe in 1257 obtained a grant of a market every Wednesday,
confirmed by Henry IV. in 1421, but it was afterwards moved
to Thorney. The annual fair of St Bartholomew, which originally
lasted twelve days, was first mentioned in Henry III.'s con-
firmatory charter of 1227. The dissolution of the monastery in
1539 was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered
under the thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the
position of an umimportant village. The abbey lands were
granted by Edward VI. to Lord Clinton, from whose family they
passed in 1671 to the Orby family. The inhabitants formerly
carried on considerable trade in fish and wild fowl.

See R. Gough, History and Antiquities of Croyland (Bibl. Top. Brit,
iii. No. 11) (London, 1783); W. G. Searle, Ingulf and the Historia
Croylandensis (Camb. Antiq. Soc, No. 27); Dugdale, Monasticon,
ii. 91 (London, 1846; Cambridge, 1894).

CROWLEY, ROBERT (1518 ?-i 588), English religious and
social reformer, was born in Gloucestershire, and educated at
Magdalen College, Oxford, of which he was successively demy
and fellow. Coming to London, he set up a printing-office in
Ely Rents, Holborn, where he printed many of his own writings.
As a typographer, his most notable production was an edition
of Pierce Plowman in 1550, and some of the earliest Welsh
printed books came from his press. As an author, his first
venture seems to have been his " Information and Petition
against the Oppressors of the poor Commons of this realm,"
which internal evidence shows to have been addressed to the
parliament of 1547. It contains a vigorous plea for a further
religious reformation, but is more remarkable for its attack on
the " more than Turkish tyranny " of the landlords and
capitalists of that day. While repudiating communism, Crowley
was a Christian Socialist, and warmly approved the efforts of
Protector Somerset to stop enclosures. In his Way to Wealth,
published in 1550, he laments the failure of the Protector's
policy, and attributes it to the organized resistance of the richer
classes. In the same year he published (in verse) The Voice of
the last Trumpet blown by the seventh Angel; it is a rebuke in
twelve " lessons " to twelve different classes of people; and
a similar production was his One-and-Thirty Epigrams (1550).
These, with Pleasure and Pain (1551), were edited for the Early
English Text Society in 1872 (Extra Ser. xv.). The dozen or
more other works which Crowley published are more distinctly
theological: indeed, the failure of the temporal policy he
advocated seems to have led Crowley to take orders, and he
was ordained deacon by Ridley on the 29th of September
1 5 5 1 . During Mary's reign he was among the exiles at Frankfort.
At Elizabeth's accession he became a popular preacher, was
made archdeacon of Hereford in 1559, and prebendary of St
Paul's in 1563, and was incumbent first of St Peter's the Poor
in London, and then of St Giles' without Cripplegate. He
refused to minister in the " conjuring garments of popery," and
in 1566 was deprived and imprisoned for resisting the use of the
surplice by his choir. He stated his case in " A brief Discourse
against the Outward Apparel and Ministering Garments of
the Popish Church," a tract " memorable," says Canon Dixon,
" as the first distinct utterance of Nonconformity." He con-
tinued to preach occasionally, and in 1576 was presented to the
living of St Lawrence Jewry. Nor had he abandoned his con-
nexion with the book trade, and in 1578 he was admitted a
freeman of the Stationers' Company. He died on the 18th of
June 1588, and was buried in St Giles'. The most important of
his works not hitherto mentioned is his continuation of Languet
and Cooper's Epitome of Chronicles (1559).

See J. M. Cowper's Pref. to the Select Works of Crowley (1872);
Strype's Works; Gough's General Index to Parker Soc. Publ.;

Machyn's Diary; Macray's Reg. Magdalen College; Newcourt's
Rep. Eccles. Lond.; Hennessy's Nov. Rep. Eccl. (1898); Le Neve's
Fasti Eccl. Angl.; Pocock's Burnet; Pollard's England under
Somerset; R. W. Dixon's Church History. (A. F. P.)

CROWN, an English silver coin of the value of five shillings,
hence often used to express the sum of five shillings. It was
originally of gold and was first coined in the reign of Henry VIII.
Edward VI. introduced silver crowns and half-crowns, and down
to the reign of Charles II. crowns and half-crowns and some-
times double crowns were struck both in gold and silver. In
the reign of Edward VI. also was introduced the practice of
dating coins and marking them with their current value. The
" Oxford crown " struck in the reign of Charles I. was designed
by Rawlins (see Numismatics: Medieval). Since the reign of
Charles II. the crown has been struck in silver only. At one
time during the 19th century it was proposed to abandon the
issue of the crown, and from 1861 until 1887 none was struck,
but since the second issue in 1887 it has been freely in circulation
again.

CROWN and CORONET, an official or symbolical ornament
worn on or round the head. The crown (Lat. corona) at first
had no regal significance. It was a garland, or wreath, of leaves
or flowers, conferred on the winners in the athletic games. After-
wards it was often made of gold, and among the Romans was
bestowed as a recognition of honourable service performed
or distinction won, and on occasion it took such a form as to
correspond with, or indicate the character of, the service
rendered. The corona obsidionalis was formed of grass and
flowers plucked on the spot and given to the general who
conquered a city. The corona civica, made of oak leaves with
acorns, was bestowed on the soldier who in battle saved the
life of a Roman citizen. The mural crown (corona tnuralis) was
the decoration of the soldier who was the first to scale the walls
of a besieged city, and was usually a circlet of gold adorned with
a series of turrets. The naval crown (corona navalis), decorated
in like manner with a series of miniature prows of ships, was the
reward of him who gained a notable victory at sea. These latter
crowns form charges in English heraldry (see Heraldry).

Many other forms of crown were used by the Romans, as the
conqueror's triumphal crown of laurel, the myrtle crown, and
the convivial, bridal, funeral and other crowns. Some of the
emperors wore crowns on occasion, as Caligula and Domitian,
at the games, and stellate or spike crowns are depicted on the
heads of several of the emperors on their coins, but no idea of
imperial sovereignty was indicated thereby. The Roman people,
who had accepted imperial rule as a fact, were very jealous of the
employment of its emblem on the part of their rulers. That
emblem was the diadem, and although the diadem and crown are
frequently confused with each other they were quite distinct,
and it is well to bear this in mind. The diadem, which was of
eastern origin, was a fillet or band of linen or silk, richly em-
broidered, and was worn tied round the forehead. Selden
(Titles of Honour, chap. viii. sect. 8) says that the diadem and
crown " have been from ancient times confounded, yet the
diadem strictly was a very different thing from what a crown
now is or was, and it was no other then than only a fillet of silk,
linen, or some such thing." It is desirable to remember the
distinction, for, although diadem and crown are now used as
synonymous terms, the two were originally quite distinct. The
confusion between them has, perhaps, come about from the fact,
that the modern crown seems to be rather an evolution from
the diadem than the lineal descendant of the older crowns.
The linen or silk diadem was eventually exchanged for a flexible
band of gold, which was worn in its place round the forehead.
The further development of the crown from this was readily
effected by the addition of an upper row of ornament. Thus
the medieval and modern crowns may be considered as radiated
diadems, and so the diadem and crown have become, as it were,
merged in one another.

Among the historical crowns of Europe, the Iron Crown of
Lombardy, now preserved at Monza, claims notice. It is a
band of iron, enclosed in a circlet formed of six plates of gold,

5i6

CROWN

hinged one to the other, and richly jewelled and enamelled.
It is regarded with great reverence, owing to a legend that the
inner band of iron has been hammered out of one of the nails
of the true cross. The crown is so small, the diameter being
only 6 in., and the circlet only 2\ in. in width, that doubts have
been felt as to whether it was originally intended to be worn
on the head or was merely meant to be a votive crown. The
legend as to the iron being that of one of the nails of the cross
is rejected by Miiratori and others, and cannot be traced far
back. How it arose or how any credence came to be reposed
in the legend, it is difficult to surmise. Another historical crown
is that of Charlemagne, preserved at Vienna. It is composed of
a series of four larger and four smaller plaques of gold, rounded
at the tops and set together alternately. The larger plaques
art richly ornamented with emeralds and sapphires, and the
smaller plaques have each an enamelled figure of Our Lord,
David, Solomon, and Hezekiah respectively. A jewelled cross
rises from the large front plaque, and an arch bearing the name
of the emperor Conrad springs across from the back of this cross
to the back of the crown.

At Madrid there is preserved the crown of Svintilla, king of
the Visigoths, 621-631. It is a circlet of thick gold set with
pearls, sapphires and other stones. It has been given as a
votive offering at some period to a church, as was often the
custom. Attached to its upper rim are the chains whereby to
suspend it, and from the lower rim hang letters of red-coloured
glass or paste which read +svintilanvs rex offeret. Two
other Visigothic crowns are also preserved with it in the
Armeria Real.

In 1858 a most remarkable discovery was made near Toledo,
of eight gold crowns of the 7th century, fashioned lavishly with
barbaric splendour. They are now in the Cluny Museum at
Paris, having been purchased for £4000, the intrinsic value of
the gold, without reckoning that of the jewels and precious
stones, being not less than £600. The largest and most magnifi-
cent is the crown of Reccesvinto, king of the Visigoths from
653 t0 675. It is composed of a circlet of pure gold set with
pearls and precious stones in great profusion, which gives it a
most sumptuous appearance. It is 9 in. in diameter and more
than 5 in. in thickness, the width of the circlet being 4 in. It
has also been given as a votive offering to a church, and has

soon afterwards followed they were buried out of sight for
safety, where they were eventually discovered absolutely
unharmed centuries afterwards. For a detailed description of
these most remarkable crowns the reader must be referred to
a paper by the late Mr Albert Way {Archaeological Journal,
xvi. 253). Mr Way, in the article alluded to, says of the custom
of offering crowns to churches that frequent notices of the usage
may be found in the lives of the Roman pontiffs by Anastasius.
" They are usually described as having
been placed over the altar, and in many
instances mention is made of jewelled
crosses of gold appended within such
crowns as an accessory ornament.
. . •. The crowns suspended in churches
suggested doubtless the sumptuous
pensile luminaries, frequently desig-
nated from a very early period as
coronae, in which the form of the
royal circlet was preserved in much
larger proportions, as exemplified by
the remarkable corona still to be seen
suspended in the cathedral at Aix-la-
Chapelle over the crypt in which the
body of Charlemagne was deposited."

Of modern continental crowns the imperial crown of Austria
(fig. 4) may be mentioned. It is composed of a circlet of gold,
adorned with precious stones and pearls, heightened with
fleurs-de-lys, and is raised above the circlet in the form of a cap
which is opened in the middle, so that the lower part is crescent-
shaped; across this opening from front to back rises an arched
fillet, enriched with pearls and surmounted by an orb, on which
is a cross of pearls.

The papal tiara (a Greek word, of Persian origin, for a form
of ancient Persian popular head-dress, standing high erect, and
worn encircled by a diadem by the kings), the triple crown worn
by the popes, has taken various forms since the 9th century.
It is important to remember that the tiaras in old Italian pictures
are inventions of the artists and not copied from actual examples.
In its present shape, dating substantially from the Renaissance,
it is a peaked head-covering not unlike a closed mitre (q.v.), round
which are placed one above the other three circlets or open

Fig. 1. — The Papal Tiara
(without the infulae).

Figs. 2-4 from Meyer's Konversations Lexikon.

Fig. 2. — Crown of the Holy Roman Empire.

Fig. 3. — Crown of the German Empire.

Fig. 4. — Crown of the Austrian Empire.

the chains to hang it by attached to the upper rim, while from
the lower rim depend pearls, sapphires and a series of richly
jewelled letters 2 in. each in depth, which read +RECCES-
vinthvs rex OFFERET. The second of these crowns in size
is generally thought to be that of the queen of Reccesvinto.
It has no legend, but merely a cross hanging from it. The six
others are smaller, and are all most richly ornamented. They
are believed to have been the crowns of Reccesvinto's children.
From one of them hangs a legend which relates that they were
an offering to a church, which has been identified with much
probability as that of Sorbas, a small town in the province of
Almeria. It has been surmised that in the disturbances which

crowns. 1 Two bands, or infulae, as they are called, hang from
it as in the case of a mitre. The tiara is the crown of the pope
as a temporal sovereign (see Tiara).

1 A coloured drawing, done in the first half of the 18th century,
of the magnificent tiara made by the celebrated goldsmith, Cara-
dosso, for Julius II., is in the Print-Room, British Museum. It was
re-fashioned by Pius VI., but went with other treasure as part of the
indemnity to Napoleon. The splendid emerald at the summit,
which was engraved with the arms of Gregory XIII., was restored
by Napoleon and now adorns another papal tiara at Rome. In this
drawing the three crowns (a feature introduced at the beginning of
the 14th century) are represented by three bands of X-shaped
ornament in enamelled gold.

CROWN

5i7

Pictorial representations in early manuscripts, and the rude
effigies on their coins, are not very helpful in deciding as to the
form of crown worn by the Anglo-Saxon and Danish kings of
England before the Norman Conquest. In some cases it would
appear as if the diadem studded with pearls had been worn, and
in others something more of the character of a crown. We reach
surer ground after the Conquest, for then the great seals, monu-
mental effigies, and coins become more and more serviceable
in determining the forms the crown took.

The crown of William the Conqueror and his immediate
successors seems to have been a plain circlet with four uprights,

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10.

Royal Crowns. William I. to Henry IV.

which terminated in trefoils (fig. 5), but Henry I. enriched the
circlet with pearls or gems (fig. 6), and on his great seal the
trefoils have something of the character of fleurs-de-lys. The
effigy of Richard I. at Fontevrault shows a development of the
crown; the trefoil heads are expanded, and are chased and
jewelled. The crown of John is shown on his effigy at Worcester,
though unfortunately it is rather badly mutilated. It shows,
however, that the upper ornament was of neurons set with
jewels. Fig. 7 shows generally this development of the crown
in a restored form. The crown on the effigy of Henry III.
at Westminster had a beaded row below the circlet, which is
narrow and plain, and from it rises a series of plain trefoils with
slightly raised points between them. The tomb was opened in
1774, and on the king's head was found an imitation crown of
tin or latten gilt, with trefoils rising from its upper edge. This,
although only made of base metal for the king's burial, may
nevertheless be taken as exhibiting the form of the royal crown
at the time, and it may be usefully compared with that on the
effigy of the king, which was made in Edward I.'s reign (fig. 8).
Edward I. used a crown of very similar design. In the crown of
Edward II. we have perhaps the most graceful and elegant
of all the forms which the English medieval crown assumed
(fig. 9), and it seems to have continued without any marked
alteration during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.
The crown on the head of the effigy of Henry IV. at Canterbury
evidently represents one of great magnificence, both of design
and ornament. What is perhaps lost of the grace of form of
the crown of Edward II. is made up for by a profusion of adorn-
ment and ornamentation unsurpassed at any later period (fig. 10).
The circlet is much wider and is richly chased and jewelled, and
from it rise eight large leaves, the intervening spaces being filled
with fleurs-de-lys of definite outline. It will be noted that this
crown is, like its predecessors, what is known as an open crown,
without any arches rising from the circlet, but in the accounts
of the coronation of Henry IV. by Froissart and Waurin it is
distinctly stated that the crown was arched in the form of a
cross. This is the earliest mention of an arched crown, which
is not represented on the great seal till that of Edward IV. in
1461. The crown, as shown on Henry IV. 's effigy, very probably
represents the celebrated " Harry crown " which was afterwards
broken up and employed as surety for the loan required by
Henry V. when he was about to embark on his expedition to
France. Fig. n shows the crown of Henry V. The crown of

Henry VI. seems to have had three arches, and there is the same
number shown on the crown of Henry VII., which ensigns the
hawthorn bush badge of that king. The crown of Edward IV.
(fig. 1 2) shows two arches, and a crown similarly arched appears
on the great seal of Richard III. Crowns, both open and arched,
are represented in sculpture and paintings until the end of the
reign of Edward IV., and the royal arms are occasionally ensigned
by an open crown as late as the reign of Henry VIII. The
crown of Henry VII. on his effigy in Westminster Abbey shows
a circlet surmounted by four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys
alternately, and has two arches rising from it. A similar crown
appears on the great seal of Henry VIII. The crown of Henry
VII. (fig. 13), which ensigns the royal arms above the south door
of King's College chapel, Cambridge, has the motto of the order
of the Garter round the circlet. Fig. 14 shows the form of crown
used by Edward VI., but a tendency (not shown in the illustra-
tion) began of flattening the arches of the crown, and on some
of the coins of Elizabeth the arches are not merely flattened,
but are depressed in the centre, much after the character of
the arches of the crown on many of the silver coins of the 19th
century prior to 1887. The crowns of James I. and Charles I.
had four arches, springing from the alternate crosses and fleurs-
de-lys of the circlet (fig. 15). The crown which strangely enough
surmounts the shield with the arms of the Commonwealth on
the coins of Oliver Cromwell (as distinguished from those of
the Commonwealth itself, which have no crown) is a royal crown
with alternate crosses and fleurs-de-lys round the circlet, and
is surmounted by three arches, which, though somewhat flattened,
are not bent. On them rests the orb and cross. The crown
used by Charles II. (fig. 16) shows the arches depressed in the
centre, a feature of the royal crown which seems to have been
continued henceforward till 1887, when the pointed form of the
arches was resumed, in consonance with an idea that such a
form indicated an imperial rather than a regal crown, Queen
Victoria having been proclaimed empress of India in 1877. In
the foregoing account the changes of the form of the crowns of
the kings have been briefly noticed. Those crowns were the
personal crowns, worn by the different kings on various state
occasions, but they were all crowned before the Commonwealth
with the ancient crown of St Edward, and the queens consort
with that of Queen Edith. There were, in fact, two sets of
regalia, the one used for the coronations and kept at Westminster,

Fig. ii.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.
Royal Crowns.

Fig. 15.
Henry V. to Charles I.

and the other that used on other occasions by the kings and kept
in the Tower. The crowns of this latter set were the personal
crowns made to fit the different wearers, and are those which
have been briefly described. The crown of St Edward; with
which the sovereigns were crowned, had a narrow circlet from
which rose alternately four crosses and four fleurs-de-lys, and
from the crosses sprang two arches, which at their crossing
supported an orb and cross. These arches must have been a
later addition, and possibly were first added for the coronation
of Henry IV. {vide supra). Queen Edith's crown had a plain

5 i8

CROWN— CROWN DEBT

circlet with, so far as can be determined, four crosses of pearls
or gems on it, and a large cross patee rising from it in front,
and arches of jewels or pearls terminating in a large pearl at
the top. A valuation of these ancient crowns was made at the
time of the Commonwealth prior to their destruction. From this
valuation we learn that St Edward's crown was of gold filigree
or " wirework " as it is called, and was set with stones, and was
valued at £248. Queen Edith's crown was found to be only of
silver-gilt, with counterfeit pearls, sapphires and other stones,

Fig. 16. Fig. 17.

Recent Forms of the English Crown,

and was only valued at £16. At the Restoration an endeavour
was made to reproduce as well as possible the old crowns and
regalia according to their ancient form, and a new crown of
St Edward was made on the lines of the old one for the coronation
of Charles II. The framework of this crown, bereft of its- jewels,
is in the possession of Lady Amherst of Hackney. The crowns
of James II., William III. and Anne generally resembled it
in form (fig. 16). The later crowns of the Georges and William
IV. are represented in general form in fig. 17. Although the
marginal note in the coronation order of Queen Victoria indicates
" K. Edward's crown " as that with which the late queen was
to be crowned, it was actually the state or imperial crown worn
by the sovereign when leaving the church after the ceremony
that was used. It had been altered for the coronation, and the
arches were formed of oak leaves (fig. 18). Fig. 19 shows Queen
Victoria's crown with raised arches and without the inner cap
of estate, which since the reign of Henry VII. has been degraded
into forming a lining to the crowns of the sovereigns and the
coronets of the peers. Fig. 20 shows the coronation crown of
King Edward VII. The crown of Scotland, preserved with the
Scottish regalia at Edinburgh, is believed to be composed of the
original circlet worn by King Robert the Bruce. James V.

Fig. 18. Fig. 20.

Coronation Crowns of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII.

made additions to it in 1535, and in general characteristics it
much resembles an English crown of that date.

The kings of arms in England, Scotland and Ireland wear
crowns, the ornamentation of which round the upper rim of
the circlet is composed of a row of acanthus or oak leaves.
Round the circlet is the singularly inappropriate text from
Psalm li., " Miserere mei Deus secundum magnam misericordiam
tuam." The form of these crowns seems to have been settled
in the reign of Charles II. Before that period they varied at
different times, according to representations given of them in
grants of arms, &c.

This brings us to the crowns of lesser dignity, known for that
reason as coronets, and worn by the five orders of peers.

The use of crowns by dukes originated in 1362, when Edward
III. created his sons Lionel and John dukes of Clarence and
Lancaster respectively. This was done by investing them with
a sword, a cap of maintenance or estate, and with a circlet of
gold set with precious stones, which was imposed on the head.
Previous to this dukes had been invested at their creation by
the girding on of a sword only. In 1387 Richard II. created
Richard de Vere marquess of Dublin, and invested him by
girding on a sword, and by placing a golden circlet on his head.
The golden circlet was confined to dukes and marquesses till
1444, when Henry VI. created Henry Beauchamp, earl of
Warwick, premier earl, and the letters patent effecting this
concede that the earl and his heirs shall wear a golden circlet
on the head on feast days, even in the royal presence. As to
the form of these circlets we have no clear knowledge. The
dignity of a viscount was first created by Henry VI. in 1439,
but nothing is said of any insignia pertaining to that dignity.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.
Coronets of Dukes, Marquesses and Earls.

It is believed that a circlet of gold with an upper rim of pearls
was first conferred on a viscount by James I., who conceded it
to Robert Cecil, Viscount Cranborne. However, in 1625-1626
it is definitely recorded that the viscounts carried their coronets
in their hands in the coronation procession from Westminster
Hall to the Abbey church. The use of a coronet by the barons
dates from the coronation of Charles II., and by letters patent
of the 7th of August

1 66 1 their coronet is de- / Hl?r'fc^^' , $iflB > ^ ^ ■ ■ iVtT? i ■ ■ Stt t* ' '}

scribed as a circle of gold
with six pearls on it.

At the present day
the coronet of a duke
(fig. 21) is formed of

Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

Coronets of Viscounts and Barons.

a circlet of gold, from which rise eight strawberry leaves. The
coronet of a marquess (fig. 22) differs from that of a duke in
having only four strawberry leaves, the intervening spaces being
occupied by four low points which are surmounted by pearls.
The coronet of an earl (fig. 23) differs again by having eight tall
rays on each of which is set a pearl, the intervening spaces being
occupied by strawberry leaves one-fourth of the height of the
rays. The coronet of a viscount (fig. 24) has sixteen small
pearls fixed to the golden circlet, and the coronet of a baron
(fig. 25) has six large pearls similarly arranged.

Authorities. — L. G. Wickham Legg, English Coronation Records
(London, 1901); The Ancestor, Nos. i. and ii. (London, 1902);
Stothard, The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain (London, 1817).

(T. M. F.)

CROWN DEBT, in English law, a debt due to the crown. By
various statutes — the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII.
(1541) — the crown has priority for its debts before all other
creditors. At common law the crown always had a lien on the
lands and goods of debtors by record, which could be enforced
even when they had passed into the hands of other persons.
The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were subject to a
crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was pro-
vided by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act

CROWNE— CROWTHER

5i9

1865. Now by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the
crown operates as a charge on land until a writ of execution
for the purpose of enforcing it has been registered under the
Land Charges Registration and Searches Act 1888. By the
Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the same
footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the
crown also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown
are enforced by a summary process called an extent (see Writ).

CROWNE, JOHN (d. c. 1703), British dramatist, was a native
of Nova Scotia. His father " Colonel " William Crowne, accom-
panied the earl of Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna
in 1637, and wrote an account of his journey. He emigrated
to Nova Scotia where he received a grant of land from Cromwell,
but the French took possession of his property, and the home
government did nothing to uphold his rights. When the son
came to England his poverty compelled him to act as gentleman
usher to an Independent lady of quality, and his enemies asserted
that his father had been an Independent minister. He began
his literary career with a romance, Pandion and Amphigenia,
or the History of the coy Lady of Thessalia (1665). In 1671 he
produced a romantic play, Juliana, or the Princess of Poland,
which has, in spite of its title, no pretensions to rank as an
historical drama. The earl of Rochester procured for him,
apparently with the sole object of annoying Dryden by infringing
on his rights as poet-laureate, a commission to supply a masque
for performance at court. Calisto gained him the favour of
Charles II., but Rochester proved a fickle patron, and his favour
was completely alienated by the success of Crowne's heroic play
in two parts, The Destruction of Jerusalem J>y Titus Vespasian
(1677). This piece contained a thinly disguised satire on the
Puritan party in the description of the Pharisees, and about
1683 he produced a distinctly political play, The City Politiques,
satirizing the Whig party and containing characters which were
readily recognized as portraits of Titus Oates and others. This
made him many enemies, and he petitioned the king for a small
place that would release him from the necessity of writing for
the stage. The king exacted one more comedy, which should,
he suggested, he based on the No pued esser of Moreto. This
had already been unsuccessfully adapted, as Crowne discovered
later, by Sir Thomas St Serfe, but in Crowne's hands it developed
into Sir Courtly Nice, It Cannot Be (1685), a comedy which kept
its place as a stock piece for nearly a century. Unfortunately
Charles II. died before the play was completed, and Crowne was
disappointed of his reward. He continued to write plays, and
it is stated that he was still living in 1703, but nothing is known
of his later life.

Crowne was a fertile writer of plays with an historical setting,
in which heroic love was, in the fashion of the French romances,
made the leading motive. The prosaic level of his style saved him
as a rule from the rant to be found in so many contemporary heroic
plays, but these pieces are of no particular interest. He was much
more successful in comedy of the kind that depicts " humours."

The History of Charles the Eighth of France, or The Invasionof Naples
by the French (1672) was dedicated to Rochester. In Timon, generally
supposed to have been written by the earl, a line from this piece —
" whilst sporting waves smil'd on the rising sun " — was held up to
ridicule. The Ambitious Statesman, or The Loyal Favourite (1679),
one of the most extravagant of his heroic efforts, deals with the
history of Bernard d'Armagnac, Constable of France, after the battle
of Agincourt; Thyestes, A Tragedy (1681), spares none of the
horrors of the Senecan tragedy, although an incongruous love story
is interpolated; Darius, King of Persia (1688), Regulus (acted 1692,
pr. 1694) and Caligula (1698) complete the list of his tragedies. The
Country Wit: A Comedy (acted 1675, pr. 1693), derived in part from
Moliere's Le Sicilien, ou V amour peintre, is remembered for the
leading character, Sir Mannerly Shallow; The English Frier; or
The Town Sparks (acted 1689, pr. 1690), perhaps suggested by
Moliere's Tartuffe, ridicules the court Catholics, and in Father
Finical caricatures Father Petre; and The Married Beau; or The
Curious Impertinent (1694), is based on the Curioso Impertinente in
Don Quixote. He also produced a version of Racine's Andromaque,
an adaptation from Shakespeare's Henry VI., and an unsuccessful
comedy, Justice Busy.

See The Dramatic Works of John Crowne (4 vols., 1873), edited by
James Maidment and W. H. Logan for the Dramatists of the
Restoration.

CROWN LAND, in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the
crown, the hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to
parliament in the reign of George III.

In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of
(a) his private estate, (b) the demesne of the crown, comprising
palaces, &c, and (c) rights over the folkland of the kingdom.
By the time of the Norman Conquest the three became merged
into the estate of the crown, that is, land annexed to the crown,
held by the king as king. The king, also, ceased to hold as a
private owner, 1 but he had full power of disposal by grant of
the crown lands, which were increased from time to time by
confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &c. The history of the crown
lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation
to favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III.
necessitated the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of
Queen Anne an act was passed limiting the right of alienation
of crown lands to a period of not more than thirty-one years or
three lives. The revenue from the crown lands was also made
to constitute part of the civil list. At the beginning of his reign
George III. surrendered his interest in the crown lands in return
for a fixed " civil list" (q.v.). The control and management
of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act 1829
and various amending acts. Under these acts their management
is entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land
Revenues, who have certain statutory powers as to' leasing,
selling, exchanging, &c.

In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed
to be vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands;
actually, however, the various colonial legislatures have full
control over them and power of disposal. The term " crown-
lands," in Austria, is applied to the various provinces into which
that country is divided. (See Austria.)

CROWN POINT, a village of Essex county, New York, U.S.A.,
in a township of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. of Albany
and about 10 m. N. of Ticonderoga, on the W. shore of Lake
Champlain. Pop. of the township (1890) 313s; (1900) 2112;
(1905) 1890; (1910) 1690; of the village, about 1000. The
village is served by the Delaware & Hudson Railway and by the
Champlain Canal. Among the manufactures are lumber and
woodenware. Graphite has been found in the western part of
the township, and spar is mined. In 1609 Champlain fought
near here the engagement with the Iroquois Indians which
marked the beginning of the long enmity between the Five (later
Six) Nations and the French. Subsequently Dutch and English
traders trafficked in the vicinity, the latter maintaining here
for many years a regular trading-post. In 1731 the French built
here Fort Frederic, the first military post at Crown Point,
and the place was subsequently for many years of considerable
strategic importance, owing to its situation on Lake Champlain,
which with Lake George furnished a comparatively easy route
from Canada to New York. Twice during the French and Indian
War, in 1755 and again in 1756, English and colonial expeditions
were sent against it in vain; it remained in French hands until
1759, when, after Lord Jeffrey Amherst's occupation of Ticon-
deroga, the garrison joined that of the latter place and retreated
to Canada. Crown Point was then'occupied by Amherst, who
during the winter of 1759-1760 began the construction, about
a quarter of a mile from the old Fort Frederic, of a large fort,
which was garrisoned but was never completed; the ruins of this
fort (not of Fort Frederic) still remain. At the outbreak of the
War of Independence, on the nth of May 1775, the fort, whose
garrison then consisted of only a dozen men, was captured by
Colonel Seth Warner and a force of " Green Mountain Boys,"
sent from Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen; and it remained in
American hands save for a brief period in 1777, when it was
occupied by a detachment of Burgoyne's invading army.

CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI (i8o9?-i89i), African mis-
sionary-bishop, was born at Ochugu in the Yoruba country,

1 The duchy of Lancaster, which was the private property of
Henry IV. before he ascended the throne, was assured to him and
his heirs by a special act of parliament. In the first year of Henry
VII. it was united to the crown, but as a separate property.

520

CROYDON— CROZIER

West Africa, and was sold into slavery in 1821. Next year
he was rescued, with many other captives, by H.M. ship
" Myrmidon," and was landed at Sierra Leone. Educated
there in a missionary school, he was baptized on the nth of
December 1825. In time he became a teacher at Furah Bay,
and afterwards an energetic missionary on the Niger. He came
to England in 1842, entered the Church Missionary College at
Islington, and in June 1843 was ordained by Bishop Blomfield.
Returning to' Africa, he laboured with great success amongst
his own people and afterwards at Abeokuta. Here he devoted
himself to the preparation of school-books, and the translation
of the Bible and Prayer-Book into Yoruba and other dialects.
He also established a trade in cotton, and improved the native
agriculture. In 1857 he commenced the third expedition up
the Niger, and after labouring with varied success, returned
to England and was consecrated, on St Peter's Day 1864, first
bishop of the Niger territories. Before long a commencement
was'made of the missions to the delta of the Niger, and between
1866 and 1884 congregations of Christians were formed at
Bonny, Brass and New Calabar, but the progress made was slow
and subject to many impediments. In 1888 the tide of persecu-
tion turned, and several chiefs embraced Christianity, and on
Crowther's return from another visit to England, the large
iron church known as " St Stephen's cathedral " was opened.
Crowther died of paralysis on the 31st of December 1891, having
displayed as a missionary for many years untiring industry,
great practical wisdom, and deep piety.

CROYDON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Surrey, England, suburban to London, 10 m. S. of London
Bridge. Pop. (1891) 102,695; (1901) 133,895. The borough
embraces a great residential district. Several railway stations
give it communication with all parts of the metropolis, the
principal railways serving it being the London, Brighton &
South Coast and the South-Eastern & Chatham. It stands ne.ir
the sources of the river Wandle, under Banstead Downs, and
is a place of great antiquity. The original site, farther west
than the present town, is mentioned in Domesday Book. The
derivation indicated is from the O. Fr. croie dune, chalk hill.
The supposition that here was the Roman station of Noviomagus
is rejected. The site is remarkable for the number of springs
which issue from the soil. One of these, called the " Bourne,"
bursts forth a short way above the town at irregular intervals
of one to ten years or more ; and after running a torrent for
two or three months, as quickly vanishes. Until its course was
diverted it caused destructive floods. This phenomenon seems
to arise from rains which, falling on the chalk hills, sink into the
porous soil and reappear after a time from crevices at lower
levels. The manor of Croydon was presented by William the
Conqueror to Archbishop Lanfranc, who is believed to have
founded the archiepiscopal palace there, which was the occasional
residence of his successors till about 1750, and of which the
chapel and hall remain. Addington Park, 35 m. from Croydon,
was purchased for the residence, in 1807, of the archbishop of
Canterbury, but was sold in consequence of Archbishop Temple's
decision to reside at the palace, Canterbury. The neighbouring
church, which is Norman and Early English, contains several
memorials of archbishops. Near the park a group of tumuli
and a circular encampment are seen. Croydon is a suffragan
bishopric in the diocese of Canterbury. The parish church of
St John the Baptist appears to have been built in the 14th and
15th centuries, but to have contained remains of an older
building. The church was restored or rebuilt in the 1 6th century,
and again restored by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1857-1859. It was
destroyed by fire, with the exception of the tower, on the 5th
of January 1867, and was at once rebuilt by Scott on the old
lines. In 1596 Archbishop Whitgift founded the hospital or
almshouse which bears his name, and remains in its picturesque
brick buildings surrounding two quadrangles. His grammar
school was housed in new buildings in 1871, and is a flourishing
day school. The principal public building of Croydon is that
erected by the corporation for municipal business; it included
court-rooms and the public library. At Addiscombe in the

neighbourhood was formerly a mansion dating from 1702, and
acquired by the East India Company in 1809 for a Military
College, which on the abolition of the Company became the
Royal Military College for the East Indian Army, and was closed
in 1862. Croydon was formed into a municipal borough in
1883, a parliamentary borough, returning one member, in 1885,
and a county borough in 1888. The corporation consists of a
mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 9012 acres.

CROZAT, PIERRE (1661-1740), French art collector, was
born at Toulouse, one of a family who were prominent French
financiers and collectors. He became treasurer to the king in
Paris, and gradually acquired a magnificent collection of pictures
Andobjetsd'art. Between 1729 and 1742 a finely illustrated work
was published in two volumes, known as the Cabinet Crozat,
including the finest pictures in French collections. Most of
his own treasures descended to his nephews, Louis Francois
(d. 1750), Joseph Antoine (d. 1750), and Louis Antoine (d. 1770),
and were augmented by them, being dispersed after their deaths;
the collection of Louis Antoine Crozat went to St Petersburg.

CROZET ISLANDS, an uninhabited group in the Indian
Ocean, in 46°-47° S. and 51° E. They are mountainous, with
summits from 4000 to 5000 ft. high, and are disposed in two
divisions — Penguin or Inaccessible, Hog, Possession and East
Islands; and the Twelve Apostles. Like Kerguelen, and other
clusters in these southern waters, they appear to be of igneous
formation; but owing to the bleak climate and their inaccessible
character they are seldom visited, and have never been explored
since their discovery in 1772 by Marion-Dufresne, after one of
whose officers they are named. Possession, the highest, has a
snowy peak said to\xceed 5000 ft. Hog Island takes its name
from the animals which were here let loose by an English captain
many years ago, but have since disappeared. Rabbits burrow in
the heaps of scoria on the slopes of the mountains.

CROZIER, WILLIAM (1855- ), American artillerist and
inventor, born at Carrollton, Carroll county, Ohio, on the 19th
of February 1855, was the son of Robert Crozier (1827-1895),
chief justice of Kansas in 1863-1866, and a United States senator
from that state from December 1873 to February 1874. He
graduated at West Point in 1876, was appointed a 2nd lieutenant
in the 4th Artillery, and served on the Western frontier for three
years against the Sioux and Bannock Indians. From 1879 to
1884 he was instructor in mathematics at West Point, and was
superintendent of the Watertown (Massachusetts) Arsenal from
1884 to 1887. In 1888 he was sent by the war department to
study recent developments in artillery in Europe, and upon his
return he was placed in full charge of the construction of gun
carriages for the army, and with General Adelbert R. Buffmgton
(1837- ), the chief of ordnance, he invented the Buffington-
Crozier disappearing gun carriage (1896). He also invented a
wire-wound gun, and perfected many appliances connected with
heavy and field ordnance. In 1890 he attained the rank of
captain. During the Spanish-American War he was inspector-
general for the Atlantic and Gulf coast defences. In 1899 he
was one of the American delegates to the Peace Conference
at the Hague. He later served in the Philippine Islands on the
staffs of Generals John C. Bates and Theodore Schwan, and in
1900 was chief of ordnance on the staff of General A. R. Chaffee
during the Pekin Relief Expedition. In November 1901 he
was appointed brigadier-general and succeeded General Buffing-
ton as chief of ordnance of the United States army. His Notes
on the Construction of Ordnance, published by the war depart-
ment, are used as text-books in the schools for officers, and he
is also the author of other important publications on military
subjects.

CROZIER, or pastoral staff, one of the insignia of a bishop,
and probably derived from the lituus of the Roman augurs. It
is crook-headed, and borne by bishops and archbishops alike
(see Pastoral Staff). The x word "crozier" or "crosier" re-
presents the 0. Fr. crocier, Med. Lat. crociarius, the bearer of the
episcopal crook (Med. Lat. crocea, croccia, &c, Fr. croc). The
English representative of crocea was crose, later crosse, which,
becoming confused with" cross " (?.».), was replaced by " crozier-

CRUCIAL— CRUCIFERAE

52i

staff " or ' crozier's staff," and then, at the beginning of the
16th century, by " crozier " (see J. T. Taylor, Archaeologia, lii.,
" On the Use of the Terms Crosier, Pastoral Staff and Cross ").

CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross), that which has the form of
a cross, as the " crucial ligaments " of the knee-joint, which
cross each other, connecting the femur and the tibia. From
Francis Bacon's expression instantia crucis (taken, as he says,
from the finger-post or crux at cross-roads) for a phenomenon
which decides between two causes which have each similar
analogies in its favour, comes the use of " crucial " for that which
decides between two alternatives, hence, generally, as a synonym
for " critical." The word is also used, with a reference to the use
of a " crucible," of something which tests and tries.

CRUCIFERAE, or Crucifer family, a natural order of flowering
plants, which derives its name from the cruciform arrangement
of the four petals of the flower. It is an order of herbaceous

Fig. I. — Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri), reduced. 1, Flower in
vertical section. 2, Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower in
Barbarea.

plants, many of which, such as wallflower, stock, mustard,
cabbage, radish and others, are well-known garden or field-plants.
Many of the plants are annuals; among these are some of the
commonest weeds of cultivation, shepherd's purse (Capsella
Bursa-pastoris), charlock (Brassica Sinapis), and such common

FlG. a. — Cruciferae. Floral Fig. 3. — Cardamine pratensis.
Diagram (Brassica). Flower with Perianth removed.

(After Baillon.)

plants as hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), Jack-by-the-
hedge (5. Alliaria or Alliaria officinalis). Others are biennials
producing a number of leaves on a very short stem in the first
year, and in the second sending up 'a flowering shoot at the
expense of the nourishment stored in the thick tap-root during

the previous season. Under cultivation this root becomes much
enlarged, as in turnip, swede and others. Wallflower (Cheiranthus
Cheiri) (fig. 1) is a perennial. The leaves when borne on an
elongated stem are arranged alternately and have no stipules.
The flowers are arranged in racemes without bracts; during the
life of the flower its stalk continues to grow so that the open
flowers of an inflorescence stand on a level (that is, are
corymbose). The flowers are regular, with four free sepals
arranged in two pairs at right angles, four petals arranged cross-
wise in one series, and two sets of stamens, an outer with two
members and an inner with four, in two pairs placed in the
middle line of the flower and at right angles to the outer series.
The four inner stamens are longer than the two outer; and the
stamens are hence collectively described .as tetradynamous.
The pistil, which is above the rest of the members of the flower,
consists of two carpels joined at their edges to form the ovary,
which becomes two-celled by subsequent ingrowth of a septum
from these united edges; a row of ovules springs from each
edge. The frui^ is a pod or siliqua splitting by two valves from

A ' C J>

Fig. 4. — Cruciferous Fruits. (After Baillon.)

A, Cheiranthus Cheiri. D, Lunaria biennis, showing the septurv

B, Lepidium sativum. after the carpels have fallen away.

C, Capsella Bursa-pastoris. E, Crambe maritima.

below upwards and leaving the placentas with the seeds attached
to the replum or framework of the septum. The seeds are filled
with the large embryo, the two cotyledons of which are variously
folded. In germination the cotyledons come above ground and
form the first green leaves of the plant.

Pollination is effected by aid of insects. The petals are generally
white or yellow, more rarely lilac or some other colour, and
between the bases of the stamens are honey-glands. Some or
all of the anthers become twisted so that insects in probing for
honey will touch the anthers with one side of their head and
the capitate stigma with the
other. Owing, however, to
the close proximity of stigma
and anthers, very slight ir-
regularity in the movements
of the visiting insect will
cause self-pollination, which
may also occur by the drop- _£ ~

ping of pollen from the _ c , , „ .,

r ,? r f, , , Fig. 5. — Seeds of Cruciferae cut

anthers of the larger stamens across ° to show the radicle and

on to the stigma. cotyledons. (After Baillon.)

Cruciferae is a large order A, Cheiranthus Cheiri.

containing nearly 200 genera B, Sisymbrium Alliaria.

and about I20O Species. It Figures 2-5 are from Strasburger's Lehrbuck

has a world-wide distribution, der Bo,anik ' b * P« missim of Gustav Fischer
but finds its chief development in the temperate and frigid zones,
especially of the northern hemisphere, and as Alpine plants. In
the subdivision of the order into tribes use is made of differences
in the form of the fruit and the manner of folding of the embryo.
When the fruit is several times longer than broad it is known as a
siliqua, as in stock or wallflower; when about as long as broad,
a silicula, as in shepherd's purse.

522

CRUDEN, A.

Fig. 6. — Honesty {Lunaria biennis),
showing Flower and Fruit. Reduced.

The order is well represented in Britain — among others
by Nasturtium (N. officinale, water-cress), Arabis (rock-cress),
Cardamine (bitter-cress), Sisymbrium (hedge mustard, &c;

5. Irio is London rocket,
so-called because it sprang
up after the fire of 1666),
Brassica (cabbage and mus-
tard), Diplotaxis (rocket),
Cochlearia (scurvy-grass),
Capsella (shepherd'spurse) ,
Lepidium (cress) , Thlaspi
(penny-cress), Cakile (sea
rocket) , Raphanus (radish) ,
and others. Of economic
importance are species of
Brassica, including mus-
tard {B. nigra), white
mustard, used when young
in salads (B.alba), cabbage
(q.v.) and its numerous
forms derived from B. oler-
acea, turnip (B.campestris),
and swede (B. Napus),
Raphanus sativus (radish),
Cochlearia Armor acia
(horse-radish), Nasturtium
officinale (water - cress) ,
Lepidium sativum (garden
cress) . I satis affords a blue
dye, woad. Many of the genera are known as ornamental garden
plants; such are Cheiranthus (wallflower), Matthiola (stock),
Iberis (candy-tuft), Alyssum (Alison), Hesperis (dame's violet),
Lunaria (honesty) (fig. 6), Aubrietia and others.

CRUDEN, ALEXANDER (1701-1770), author of the well-known
concordance (q.v.) to the English Bible, was born at Aberdeen
on the 31st of May 1701. He was educated at the grammar
school, Aberdeen, and studied at Marischal College, intending
to enter the ministry. He took the degree of master of arts, but
soon after began to show signs of insanity owing to a disappoint-
ment in love. After a term of confinement he recovered and
removed to London. In 1722 he had an engagement as private
tutor to the son of a country squire living at Eton Hall, South-
gate, and also held a similar post at Ware. Years afterwards,
in an application for the title of bookseller to the queen, he
stated that he had been for some years corrector for the press in
Wild Court. This probably refers to this time. In 1729 he was
employed by the 10th earl of Derby as a reader and secretary,
but was discharged on the 7th of July for his ignorance of French
pronunciation. He then lodged in a house in Soho frequented
exclusively by Frenchmen, and took lessons in the language
in the hope of getting back his post with the earl, but when he
went to Knowsley in Lancashire, the earl would not see him.
He returned to London and opened a bookseller's shop in the
Royal Exchange. In April 1735 he obtained the title of book-
seller to the queen by recommendation of the lord mayor and
most of the Whig aldermen. The post was an unremunerative
sinecure. In 1737 he finished his concordance, which, he says,
was the work of several years. It was presented to the queen
on the 3rd of November 1 73 7 , a fortnight before her death.

Although Cruden's biblical labours have made his name a
household word among English-speaking people, he was dis-
appointed in his hopes of immediate profit, and his mind again
became unhinged. In spite of his earnest and self-denying piety,
and his exceptional intellectual powers, he developed idiosyn-
crasies, and his life was marred by a harmless but ridiculous
egotism, which so nearly bordered on insanity that his friends
sometimes thought it necessary to have him confined. He paid
unwelcome addresses to a widow, and was confined in a madhouse
in Bethnal Green. On his release he published a pamphlet
dedicated to Lord H. (probably Harrington, secretary of
state) entitled The London Citizen exceedingly injured, or a
British Inquisition Displayed. He also published an account of

his trial, dedicated to the king. In December 1740 he writes to
Sir H. Sloane saying he has been employed since July as Latin
usher in a boarding-school at Enfield. He then found work as
a proof-reader, and several editions of Greek and Latin classics
are said to have owed their accuracy to his care. He super-
intended the printing of one of Matthew Henry's commentaries,
and in 1750 printed a small Compendium of the Holy Bible (an
abstract of the contents of each chapter), and also reprinted a
larger edition of the Concordance.

About this time he adopted the title of " Alexander the
Corrector," and assumed the office of correcting the morals of
the nation, especially with regard to swearing and Sunday
observance. For this office he believed himself divinely com-
missioned, but he petitioned parliament for a formal appoint-
ment in this capacity. In April 1755 he printed a letter to the
speaker and other members of the House of Commons, and about
the same time an " Address to the King and Parliament." He
was in the habit of carrying a sponge, with which he effaced all
inscriptions which he thought contrary to good morals. In
September 1753, through being involved in a street brawl, he
was confined in an asylum in Chelsea for seventeen d^ys at the
instance of his sister, Mrs Wild. He brought an unsuccessful
action against his friends, and seriously proposed that they
should go into confinement as an atonement. He published
an account of this second restraint in " The Adventures ok
Alexander the Corrector." He made attempts to present to
the king in person an account of his trial, and to obtain the honour
of knighthood, one of his predicted honours. In 1754 he was
nominated as parliamentary candidate for the city of London,
but did not go to the poll. In 1755 he paid unwelcome addresses
to the daughter of Sir Thomas Abney, of Newington (1640-1722),
and then published his letters and the history of his repulse
in the third part of his " Adventures." In June and July 1755
he visited Oxford and Cambridge. He was treated with the
respect due to his learning by officials and residents in both
universities, but experienced some boisterous fooling at the
hands of the undergraduates. At Cambridge he was knighted
with mock ceremonies. There he appointed " deputy cor-
rectors " to represent him in the university. He also visited
Eton, Windsor, Tonbridge and Westminster schools, where he
appointed four boys to be his deputies. (An Admonition to
Cambridge is preserved among letters from J. Neville of
Emmanuel to Dr Cox Macro, in the British Museum.) The
Corrector's Earnest Address to the Inhabitants of Great Britain,
published in 1756, was occasioned by the earthquake at Lisbon.
In 1762 he saved an ignorant seaman, Richard Potter, from the
gallows, and in 1763 published a pamphlet recording the history
of the case. Against John Wilkes, whom he hated, he wrote a
small pamphlet, and used to delete with his sponge the number
45 wherever he found it, this being the offensive number of the
North Briton. In 1769 he lectured in Aberdeen as " Corrector,"
and distributed copies of the fourth commandment and various
religious tracts. The wit that made his eccentricities palatable
is illustrated by the story of how he gave to a conceited young
minister whose appearance displeased him A Mother's Catechism
dedicated to the young and ignorant. The Scripture Dictionary, com-
piled about this time, was printed in Aberdeen in two volumes
shortly after his death. Alexander Chalmers, who in his boyhood
heard Cruden lecture in Aberdeen and wrote his biography, says
that a verbal index to Milton, which accompanied the edition of
Thomas Newton, bishop of Bristol, in 1769, was Cruden's.

The second edition of the Bible Concordance was published in
1 76 1 , and presented to the king in person on the 2 1st of December.
The third appeared in 1769. Both contain a pleasing portrait
of the author. He is said to have gained £800 by these two
editions. He returned to London from Aberdeen, and died
suddenly while praying in his lodgings in Camden Passage,
Islington, on the 1st of November 1770. He was buried in the
ground of a Protestant dissenting congregation in Dead Man's
Place, Southwark. He bequeathed a portion of his savings for
a £5 bursary at Aberdeen, which preserves his name on the list
of benefactors of the university. (D. Mn.)

CRUDEN— CRUIKSHANK

523

CRUDEN, a village and parish on the E. coast of Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 3444. It is situated at
the head of Cruden Bay, 291 m. N.N.E. of Aberdeen by the
Great North of Scotland railway company's branch line from
Ellon to Boddam. The golf-course of 18 holes is one of the best
in Scotland, and there is a sandy beach, with good bathing.
There is some good fishing at Port Erroll, also called Ward of
Cruden. Prehistoric remains have been found in the parish,
and near Ardendraught, not far from the shore, Malcolm II.
is said to have defeated Canute in 1014. The Water of Cruden,
which rises a few miles to the west, flows through the village into
the North Sea. Slains Castle, a seat of the earl of Erroll, lies
to the north of Cruden, but must not be confounded with the
old castle of Slains, about 5 m. to the south-west, near the point
where, according to tradition, the " St Catherine " of the Spanish
Armada foundered in 1588. The Bullers of Buchan are within
2 m. walk of Cruden.

CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualti, mod. cruaute, from
the Lat. crudelilas) , the intentional infliction of pain or suffering.
It is only necessary to deal here with the legal relations involved.
Statutory provision for the prevention of cruelty to those who
are unable to protect themselves has been particularly marked
in the 19th century. The increase of legislation for the protection
of children, lunatics and animals is a proof of the growing
humanitarianism of the age. There was at one time a tendency
among jurists to question whether, for instance, the prevention
of cruelty to animals was not a recognition of a certain quasi-
right in animals, or whether it was merely that such exhibitions
as bull- and bear-baiting, cock-fights, &c, were demoralizing to
the public generally. The true fact seems to be that the first
introduction of such legislation was undoubtedly due to the
desire for the promotion of humanity, but that the principle,
for the recognition of which the time was not yet ripe, had to
be excused in the eyes of the public by the plea that cruelty had
a demoralizing effect upon spectators (see A. V. Dicey, Law
and Opinion in England, p. 188; T. E. Holland, Jurisprudence,
10th ed., p. 372).

Cruelty to Animals. — The English common law has never
taken cognizance of the commission of acts of cruelty upon
animals, and direct legislation upon the subject, dating from
the 19th century, was due in a great measure to public agitation,
supported by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals (founded in 1824). Various acts were passed in 1822
(known as Martin's Act) , 1 83 5 and 1 83 7 , and these were amended
and consolidated by the Cruelty to Animals Acts 1849 and 1854,
which, with the Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900,
are the main acts upon the subject. There are also, in addition,
many other acts that impose certain liabilities in respect of
animals and indirectly prevent cruelty. The Cruelty to Animals
Acts 1849 and 1854 render liable to prosecution and fine prac-
tically any act of cruelty to an animal; such acts as dubbing a
cock, cropping the ears of a dog or dishorning cattle, are offences.
The latter practice, however, is allowed both in Scotland and
Ireland, the courts having held that the advantages to be
obtained from dishorning outweigh the pain caused by the
operation. The word " animal " is defined as meaning " any
domestic animal " of whatever kind or species, and whether
a quadruped or not. The act of 1849 also forbids bull- and bear-
baiting, or fighting between any kinds of animals; requires
the provision of food and water to animals impounded; lays
down regulations as to the treatment of animals sent for
slaughter, and imposes a penalty for improperly conveying
animals. The Wild Animals in Captivity Protection Act 1900
extends to wild animals in captivity that protection which the
acts of 1849 and 1854 conferred on domestic animals, making
exception of any act done or any omission in the preparation
of animals for the food of man or for sport. The word "animal"
in the act includes bird, beast, fish or reptile. The Dogs Act
1865 rendered owners of dogs liable for injuries to cattle and
sheep; the Dogs Act 1906 extended the owner's liability for
injury done to any cattle by a dog, and further, where a dog
is proved to have injured cattle or chased sheep it may be treated

as a dangerous dog and must be kept under proper control or be
destroyed. The Drugging of Animals Act 1876 imposes a penalty
on giving poisonous drugs to any domestic animal unlawfully.
The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was passed for the purpose of
regulating the practice of vivisection (q.v.). The Ground Game
Act 1880, prohibits night shooting, or the use of spring traps
above ground or poison. The Injured Animals Act 1907
enables police constables to cause any animal when mortally or
seriously injured to be slaughtered. The Diseases of Animals
Act 1894 and orders under it are for* the purpose of securing
animals from unnecessary suffering, as well as from disease.
Finally, the Wild Birds Protection Acts 1880 to 1904, with various
game acts (see Game Laws), extend the protection of the law
to wild birds. The acts establish a close time for wild birds
and impose penalties for shooting or taking them within that
time; prohibit the exposing or offering for sale within certain
dates any wild bird recently killed or taken unless bought or
received from some person residing out of the United Kingdom;
the taking or destroying of wild birds' eggs, the setting of pole
traps, and the taking of a wild bird by means of a hook or other
similar instrument.

For the law relating to the prevention of cruelty to children see
Children, Law Relating to; for cruelty in the sense of such
conduct as entitles a husband or wife to judicial separation
see Divorce. (T. A. I.)

CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE (1792-1878), English artist,
caricaturist and illustrator, was born in London on the 27th of
September 1792. By natural disposition and collateral circum-
stances he may be accepted as the type of the born humoristic
artist predestined for this special form of art. His grandfather
had taken up the arts, and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, followed
the painter's profession. Amidst these surroundings the children
were born and brought up, their first playthings the materials
of the arts their father practised. George followed the family
traditions with amazing facility, easily surpassing his compeers
as an etcher. When the father died, about 181 1, George, still
in his teens, was already a successful and popular artist. All
his acquisitions were native gifts, and of home-growth; outside
training, or the serious apprenticeship to art, were dispensed
with, under the necessity of working for immediate profit. This
lack of academic training the artist at times found cause to
regret, and at some intervals he made exertions to cultivate
the knowledge obtainable by studying from the antique and
drawing from life at the schools. From boyhood he was accus-
tomed to turn his artistic talents to ready account, disposing
of designs and etchings to the printsellers, and helping his father
in forwarding his plates. Before he was twenty his spirited style
and talent had secured popular recognition; the contemporary
of Gillray, Rowlandson, Aiken, Heath, Dighton, and the estab-
lished caricaturists of that generation, he developed great pro-
ficiency as an etcher. Gillray's matured and trained skill had
some influence upon his executive powers, and when the older
caricaturist passed away in 181 5, George Cruikshank had already
taken his place as a satirist. Prolific and dexterous beyond his
competitors, for a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and
Radicals with fine impartiality. Satirical capital came to him
from every public event, — wars abroad, the enemies of England
(for he was always fervidly patriotic), the camp, the court, the
senate, the Church; low life, high life; the humours of the
people, the follies of the great. In this wonderful gallery the
student may grasp the popular side of most questions which for
the time being engaged public attention. George Cruikshank's
technical and manipulative skill as an etcher was such that
Ruskin and the best judges have placed his productions in the
foremost rank; in this respect his works have been compared
favourably with the masterpieces of etching. He died at 263
Hampstead Road on the 1st of February 1878. His remains
rest in St Paul's cathedral.

A vast number of Cruikshank's spirited cartoons were pub-
lished as separate caricatures, all coloured by hand; others
formed series, or were contributed to satirical magazines, the
Satirist, Town Talk, The Scourge (1811-1816) and the like

524

CRUNDEN— CRUSADES

ephemeral publications. In conjunction with William Hone's
scathing tracts, G. Cruikshank produced political satires to
illustrate the series of facetiae and miscellanies, like The Political
House that Jack Built (1819).

Of a more genially humoristic order are his well-known book
illustrations, now so deservedly esteemed for their inimitable fun
and frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible,
in which he excelled. Early in this series came T.he Humorist
(1819-1821) and Life in Paris (1822). The well-known series of
Life in London, conjointly produced by the brothers I. R. and
G. Cruikshank, has enjoyed a prolonged reputation, and is still
sought after by collectors. Grimm's Collection of German Popular
Stories (1824-1826), in two series, with 22 inimitable etchings,
are in themselves sufficient to account for G. Cruikshank's
reputation. To the first fourteen volumes (1837-1843) of
Bentley's Miscellany Cruikshank contributed 126 of his best
plates, etched on steel, including the famous illustrations to
Oliver Twist, Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes and The Ingoldsby
Legends. For W. Harrison Ainsworth, Cruikshank illustrated
Rookwood (1836) and The Tower of London (1840); the first six
volumes of Ainsworth 's Magazine (1842-1844) were illustrated
by him with several of his finest suites of etchings. For C.
Lever's Arthur O'Leary he supplied 10 full-page etchings
(1844), and 20 spirited graphic etchings for Maxwell's lurid
History of the Irish Rebellion in 17 gS (1845). Of his own
speculations, mention must be made of George Cruikshank's
Omnibus (1841) and George Cruikshank's Table Book (1845),
as well as his Comic Almanack (1835-1853). The Life of Sir
John Falstaff contained 20 full-page etchings (1857-1858).
These are a few leading items amongst the thousands of illus-
trations emanating from that fertile imagination. As an enthusi-
astic teetotal advocate, G. Cruikshank produced a long series of
pictures and illustrations, pictorial pamphlets and tracts; the
best known of these are The Bottle, 8 plates (1847), with its
sequel, The Drunkard's Children, 8 plates (1848), with the
ambitious work, The Worship of Bacchus, published by sub-
scription after the artist's oil painting, now in the National
Gallery, London, to which it was presented by his numerous
admirers.

See Cruikshank's Water- Colours, with introduction by Joseph
Grego (London, 1903). (J. Go.*)

CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and
mobiliary designer. Most of his early inspiration was drawn
from Chippendale and his school, but he fell later under the
influence of a bastard classicism. He produced a very large
number of designs which were published in numerous volumes;
among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings
in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame
sounding her trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural
history supplied him with many other themes, and one of his
ceilings is a hunting scene representing a " kill." His principal
works were Designs for Ceilings; Convenient and Ornamental
Architecture; The Carpenter's Companion for Chinese Railings,
Gates, &c. (1770); The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's Darling, or
Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental Frets
(1765); and The Chimney Piece Maker's Daily Assistant (1776).
Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.

CRUSADES, the name given to the series of wars for delivering
the Holy Land from the Mahommedans, so-called from the
cross worn as a badge by the crusaders. By analogy the term
" crusade " is also given to any campaign undertaken in the
same spirit.

1. The Meaning of the Crusades. — The Crusades may be
regarded partly as the decumanus fluctus in the surge of religious
revival, which had begun in western Europe during the 10th,
and had mounted high during the nth century; partly as a
chapter, and a most important chapter, in the history of the
interaction of East and West. Contemporaries regarded them
in the former of these two aspects, as " holy wars " and " pil-
grims' progresses " towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective
eye of history must perhaps regard them more exclusively from
the latter point of view. Considered as holy wars the Crusades

must be interpreted by the ideas of an age which was dominated
by the spirit of otherworldliness, and accordingly ruled by the
clerical power which represented the other world. They are a
novum salutis genus — a new path to Heaven, to tread which
counted " for full and complete satisfaction " pro omni poenitentia
and gave " forgiveness of sins " (peccaminum remissio) 1 ; they
are, again, the "foreign policy" of the papacy, directing its
faithful subjects to the great war of Christianity against the
infidel. As such a novum salutis genus, the Crusades connect
themselves with the history of the penitentiary system; as the
foreign policy of the Church they belong to that clerical purifica-
tion and direction of feudal society and its instincts, which
appears in the institution of " God's Truce " and in chivalry
itself. The penitentiary system, according to which the priest
enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the sanction
of penance — penance which must be performed as a condition
of admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist — had been
from early times a great instrument in the civilization of the
raw Germanic races. Penance might consist in fasting, it
might consist in flagellation; it might consist in pilgrimage.
The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have been practised
as. early as a.d. 700, was twice blessed; not only was it an act
of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also gained
for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under
the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 10th
century, pilgrimages became increasingly frequent; and the
goal of pilgrimage was often Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were
travelling to Jerusalem joined themselves in companies for
security, and marched under arms; the pilgrims of 1064, who
were headed by the archbishop of Mainz, numbered some
7000 men. When the First Crusade finally came, what was
it but a penitentiary pilgrimage under arms — with the one
additional object of conquering the goal of pilgrimage ? That
the Pilgrims' Progress should thus have turned into a Holy War
is a fact readily explicable, when we turn to consider the attempts
made by the Church, during the nth century, to purify, or at
any rate to direct, the feudal instinct for private war (Fehde).
Since the close of the 10th century diocesan councils in France
had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting " forms of
peace " for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (Pax Dei
or Treuga Dei). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature
(judices pads) to decide when the form had been broken ; and
an executive, or communitas pads, had been formed to enforce
the decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to
consecrate the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institu-
tion of chivalry represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal
ends and noble purposes, of the martial impulses which the
Church had hitherto endeavoured to check. In the same way
the Crusades themselves may be regarded as a stage in the
clerical reformation of the fighting laymen. As chivalry directed
the layman to defend what was right, so the preaching of the
Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong — the possession
by " infidels " of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are the
offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent — as it is also
their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus
still indulge the bellicose side of his genius — under the aegis and
at the bidding of the Church; and in so doing he would also
attain what the spiritual side of his nature ardently sought —
a perfect salvation and remission of sins. He might butcher all
day, till he waded ankle-deep in blood, and then at nightfall
kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the Sepulchre — for
was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can
readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one
reflects that they permitted men to get to the other world by
fighting hard on earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of
asceticism by the ways of hedonism. Nor was the Church merely
able, through the Crusades, to direct the martial instincts of

'Fulcher of Chartres, 1, i. For what follows, with regard to the
Church's conversion of guerra into the Holy War, cf. especially the
passage — " Procedant contra infideles ad pugnam jam incipi dignam
. . . qui abusive privatum certamen contra fideles consuescebant
distendere quondam."

CRUSADES

525

a feudal society; it was also able to pursue the object of its
own immediate policy, and to attempt the universal diffusion of
Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over the whole of
the known world.

Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of
East and West, which has never died. For a thousand years,
from the Hegira in 622 to the siege of Vienna in 1683, the peril
of a Mahommedan conquest of Europe was almost continually
present. From this point of view, the Crusades appear as a
reaction of the West against the pressure of the East — a reaction
which carried the West into the East, and founded a Latin and
Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe
from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks;
they gave it a time of rest in which the Western civilization of
the middle ages developed. But the relation of East and West
during the Crusades was not merely hostile or negative. The
Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the meeting-place of two
civilizations: on its soil the East learned from the West, and —
perhaps still more — the West learned from the East. The
culture developed in the West during the 13 th century was not
only permitted to develop by the protection of the Crusades,
it grew upon materials which the Crusades enabled it to import
from the East. Yet the debt of Europe to the Crusades in this
last respect has perhaps been unduly emphasized. Sicily was
still more the meeting-place of East and West than the kingdom
of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to the culture
of Europe than the Arabs of Syria.

2. Historical Causes of the Crusades. — Within fifteen years
of the Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (637),
and it continued to remain in the hands of Mahommedan
rulers till the end of the First Crusade. For centuries, however, a
lively intercourse was maintained between the Latin Church in
Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab conquerors tolerated,
and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in particular was
closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him the
keys of the city and a standard in 800; and in 807 Harun
al-Rashid recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged
Charlemagne as protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church
of the Sepulchre. Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library
in the Holy City; and later legend, when it made him the first
of crusaders and the conqueror of the Holy Land, was not
without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted during the
9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of Germany
sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem
acquired estates in the West. During the 10th century this
intercourse still continued; but in the nth century interruptions
began to come. The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed
the church of the Sepulchre and ended the Frankish protectorate
(1010); and the patronage of the Holy Places, a source of strife
between the Greek and the Latin Churches as late as the begin-
ning of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine empire in
1021. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the
West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after
the schism of 1054, did not seek to smooth the way of the
pilgrim, and Victor II. had to complain to the empress Theodora
of the exactions practised by her officials. But still worse for
the Latins was the capture of Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks
in 107 1. Without being intolerant, the Turks were a rougher
and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they displaced;
while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the Abbasids
of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made
Syria (one of the natural battle-grounds of history) into a
troubled and unquiet region. The native Christians suffered;
the pilgrims of the West found their way made still more difficult,
and that at a time when greater numbers than ever were throng-
ing to the East. Western Christians could not but feel hampered
and checked in their natural movement towards the fountain-
head of their religion, and it was natural that they should
ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way,
at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade-
routes by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to
endeavour to find new channels, and issued in the rounding of

the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of America. Nor,
indeed, must it be forgotten that the search for new and more
direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is one of the
motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to
what may be called the 13th-century discovery of Asia.

It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of
the Holy Land should gradually become an object for the
ambition of Western Christianity — an object which the papacy,
eager to realize its dream of a universal Church subject to its
sway, would naturally cherish and attempt to advance. Two
causes combined to make this object still more natural and
more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost territories
from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding
steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade;
on the other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1071
was a clear and definite summons to the Christian West, and
proved, in the event, the immediate occasion of the holy war.
As early as 970 the recovery of the territories lost to Mahom-
medanism in the East had been begun by emperors like Nice-
phoras Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their
conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and
the temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East
Roman arms. At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in
Spain, the Omayyad caliphate was verging to its fall: the long
Spanish crusade against the Moor had begun; and in 1018
Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans into Catalonia to
the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the Mediter-
ranean the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been
long, but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The
Arabs had begun the conquest of Sicily from the East Roman
empire in 827, and they had attacked the mainland of Italy as
early as 840. The popes had put themselves at the head of
Italian resistance: in 848 Leo IV. is already promising a sure
and certain hope of salvation to those who die in defence of the
cross; and by 916, with the capture of the Arab fortress on the
Garigliano, Italy was safe. Then came the reconquest of the
Mediterranean islands near Italy. The Pisans conquered
Sardinia at the instigation of Benedict VIII. about 1016;
and, in a thirty years' war which lasted from 1060 to 1090, the
Normans, under a banner blessed by Pope Alexander II.,
wrested Sicily from the Arabs. The Norman conquest of Sicily
may with justice be called a crusade before the Crusades;
and it cannot but have given some impulse to that later
attempt to wrest Syria from the Mahommedans, in which the
virtual leader was Bohemund, a scion of the same house which
had conquered Sicily. But while the Christians of the West
were thus winning fresh ground from the Mahommedans, in
the course of the nth century, the East Roman empire had now
to bear the brunt of a Mahommedan revival under the Seljuks —
a revival which, while it crushed for a time the Greeks, only
acted as a new incentive to the Latins to carry their arms tc
the East. The Seljukian Turks, first the mercenaries and then
the masters of the caliph, had given new life to the decadent
caliphate of Bagdad. Under the rule of their sultans, who
assumed the role of mayors of the palace in Bagdad about the
middle of the nth century, they pushed westwards towards
the caliphate of Egypt and the East Roman empire. While
they wrested Jerusalem from the former (1 071), in the same year
they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern emperor at
Manzikert. The result of the defeat was the loss of almost the
whole of Asia Minor; the dominions of the Turks extended to
the sea of Marmora. An appeal for assistance, such as was often
to be heard again in succeeding centuries, was sent by Michael
VII. of Constantinople to Gregory VII. in 1073. Gregory
listened to the appeal; he projected — not, indeed, as has often
been said, a crusade, 1 but a great expedition, which should recover

1 Tradition credits a pope still earlier than Gregory VII. with
the idea of a crusade. Silvester II. is said to have preached a general
expedition for the recovery of Jerusalem ; and the same preaching is
attributed to Sergius IV. in ion. But the supposed letter of
Silvester is a later forgery; and in 1000 the way of the Christian to
Jerusalem was still free and open.

526

CRUSADES

Asia Minor for the Eastern empire, in return for a union of the
Eastern with the Western Church. In 1074 Gregory actually
assembled a considerable army; but his disagreement with
Robert Guiscard, followed by the outbreak of the war of in-
vestitures, hindered the realization of his plans, and the only
result was a precedent and a suggestion for the events of 1095.
The appeal of Michael VII. was re-echoed by Alexius Comnenus
himself. Brave and sage as he was, he could hardly cope at one
and the same time with the hostility of the Normans on the west,
of the Petchenegs (Patzinaks) on the north, and of the Seljuks
on the east and south. Already in 1087 and 1088 he had appealed
to Baldwin of Flanders, verbally and by letter, 1 for troops;
and Baldwin had answered the appeal. The same appeal was
made, more than once, to Urban II.; and the answer was the
First Crusade. The First Crusade was not, indeed, what Alexius
had asked or expected to receive. He had appealed for rein-
forcements to recover Asia Minor; he received hundreds of
thousands of troops, independent of him, and intending to
conquer Jerusalem for themselves, though they might incident-
ally recover Asia Minor for the Eastern empire on their way.
Alexius may almost be compared to a magician, who has uttered
a charm to summon a ministering spirit, and is surrounded on the
instant by legions of demons. In truth the appeal of Alexius
had set free forces in the West which were independent of, and
even ultimately hostile to, the interests of the Eastern empire.

The primary force, which thus transmuted an appeal for
reinforcements into a holy war for the conquest of Palestine,
was the Church. The creative thought of the middle ages is
clerical thought. It is the Church which creates the Carolingian
empire, because the clergy thinks in terms of empire. It is
the Church which creates the First Crusade, because the clergy
believes in penitentiary pilgrimages, and the war against the
Seljuks can be turned into a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre;
because, again, it wishes to direct the fighting instinct of the
laity, and the consecrating name of Jerusalem provides an
unimpeachable channel; above all, because the papacy desires
a perfect and universal Church, and a perfect and universal
Church must rule in the Holy Land. But it would be a mistake
to regard the Crusades (as it would be a mistake to regard the
Carolingian empire) as a pure creation of the Church, or as merely
due to the policy of a theocracy directing men to the holy war
which is the only war possible for a theocracy. It would be
almost truer, though only half the truth, to say that the clergy
gave the name of Crusade to sanctify interests and ambitions
which, while set on other ends than those of the Church, happened
to coincide in their choice of means. There was, for instance, the
ambition of the adventurer prince, the younger son, eager to
carve a principality in the far East, of whom Bohemund is the
type; there was the interest of Italian towns, anxious to acquire
the products of the East more directly and cheaply, by erecting
their own emporia in the eastern Mediterranean. The former
was the driving force which made the First Crusade successful,
where later Crusades, without its stimulus, for the most part
failed; the latter was the one staunch ally which alone enabled
Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. to create the kingdom of Jerusalem.
So far as the Crusades led to permanent material results in the
East, they did so in virtue of these two forces. Unregulated
enthusiasm might of itself have achieved little or nothing;
enthusiasm caught and guided by the astute Norman, and the
no less astute Venetian or Genoese, could not but achieve
tangible results. The principality or the emporium, it is true,
would supply motives to the prince and the merchant only;
and it may be urged that to the mass of the crusaders the religious
motive was all in all. In this way we may return to the view
that the First Crusade, at any rate, was un fait ecclesiastique.

1 The comte de Riant impugned the authenticity of Alexius' letter
to the count of Flanders. It is very probable that the versions of
this letter which we possess, and which are to be found only in later
writings like Guibert de Nogent, are apocryphal ; Alexius can hardly
have held out the bait of the beauty of Greek women, or have written
that he preferred to fall under the yoke of the Latins rather than
that of the Turks. But it is also probable that these apocryphal
versions are based on a genuine original.

It is indeed true that to thousands the hope of acquiring spiritual
merit must have been a great motive; it is also true, as the
records of crusading sermons show, that there was a strong
element of " revivalism " in the Crusades, and that thousands were
hurried into taking the cross by a gust of that uncontrollable
enthusiasm which is excited by revivalist meetings to-day.
But it must also be admitted that there were motives of this
world to attract the masses to the Crusades. Famine and pesti-
lence at home drove men to emigrate hopefully to the golden
East. In 1094 there was pestilence from Flanders to Bohemia:
in 1095 there was famine in Lorraine. Francigenis occidentalibus
facile persuaderi polerat sua rura relinquere; nam Gallias per
annos aliquot nunc seditio civilis, nunc fames, nunc mortalitas
nimis afflixerat. 2 No wonder that a stream of emigration set
towards the East, such as would in modern times flow towards
a newly discovered gold-field — a stream carrying in its turbid
waters much refuse, tramps and bankrupts, camp-followers
and hucksters, fugitive monks and escaped villeins, and marked
by the same motley grouping, the same fever of life, the same
alternations of affluence and beggary, which mark the rush for
a gold-field to-day.

Such were the forces set in movement by Urban II., when,
after holding a synod at Piacenza (March, 1095), and receiving
there fresh appeals from Alexius, he moved to Clermont, in the
S.E. of France, and there on the 26th of November delivered
the great speech which was followed by the First Crusade. In
this speech he appealed, indeed, for help for the Greeks, auxilio
. . . saepe acclamato indigis (Fulcher i. c. i.); but the gist
of his speech was the need of Jerusalem. Let the truce of God
be observed at home; and let the arms of Christians be directed
to the winning of Jerusalem in an expedition which should
count for full and complete penance. Like Gregory, Urban had
thus sought for aid for the Eastern empire; unlike Gregory,
who had only mentioned the Holy Sepulchre in a single letter,
and then casually, he had struck the note of Jerusalem. The
instant cries of Deus vult which answered the note showed that
Urban had struck aright. Thousands at once took the cross;
the first was Bishop Adhemar of Puy, whom Urban named his
legate and made leader of the First Crusade (for the holy war,
according to Urban's original conception, must needs be led
by a clerk). Fixing the 15th of August 1096 as the time for
the departure of the crusaders, and Constantinople as the general
rendezvous, Urban returned from France to Italy. It is notice-
able that it was on French soil that the seed had been sown. 3
Preached on French soil by a pope of French descent, the
Crusades began — and they continued — as essentially a French
(or perhaps better Norman-French) enterprise; and the kingdom
which they established in the East was essentially a French
kingdom, in its speech and its customs, its virtues and its vices.
It was natural that France should be the home of the Crusades.
She was already the home of the Cluniac movement, the centre
from which radiated the truce of God, the chosen place of
chivalry; she could supply a host of feudal nobles, somewhat
loosely tied to their place in society, and ready to break loose
for a great enterprise; she had suffered from battle and murder,
pestilence and famine, from which any escape was welcome.
To the Normans particularly the Crusades had an intimate
appeal. They appealed to the old Norse instinct for wandering —
an instinct which, as it had long before sent the Norseman
eastward to find his El Dorado of Micklegarth, could now find
a natural outlet in the expedition to Jerusalem: they appealed
to the Norman religiosity, which had made them a people of
pilgrims, the allies of the papacy, and, in England and Sicily,
crusaders before the Crusades: finally, they appealed to that
desire to gain fresh territory,- upon which Malaterra remarks
as characteristic of Norman princes. 4 No wonder, then, that

2 Ekkehard, Chronica, p. 213.

3 The Chanson de Roland, which cannot be posterior to the First
Crusade — for the poem never alludes to it — already contains the
idea of the Holy War against Islam. The idea of the crusade had
thus already ripened in French poetry, before Urban preached his
sermon.

4 Book i. c. iii. (in Muratori, S.R.I., v. 550).

CRUSADES

527

the crusading armies were recruited in France, or that they
were led by men of the stock of the d'Hautevilles. Meanwhile
newly-conquered England had its own problems to solve; and
Germany, torn by civil war, and not naturally quick to kindle,
could only deride the " delirium " of the crusader. 1

3. Course of the First Crusade. — The First Crusade falls natur-
ally into two parts. One of these may be called the Crusade of
the people: the other may be termed the Crusade of the princes.
Of these the people's Crusade — prior in order of time, if only
secondary in point of importance — may naturally be studied
first. The sermon of Urban II. at Clermont became the staple
for wandering preachers, among whom Peter the Hermit dis-
tinguished himself by his fiery zeal. 2 Riding on an ass from
place to place through France and along the Rhine, he carried
away by his eloquence thousands of the poor. Some three or
four months before the term fixed by Urban II., in April and
May 1096, five divisions of pauperes had already collected.
Three of these, led by Fulcher of Orleans, Gottschalk and
William the Carpenter respectively, failed to reach even Con-
stantinople. The armies of Fulcher and Gottschalk were
destroyed by the Hungarians in just revenge for their excesses
(June) ; the third, after joining in a wild Judenhetze in the towns
of the valley of the Rhine, during which some 10,000 Jews
perished as the first-fruits of crusading zeal, was scattered to
the winds in Hungary (August). Two other divisions, however,
reached Constantinople in safety. The first of these, under
Walter the Penniless, passed through Hungary in May, and
reached Constantinople, where it halted to wait for the Hermit,
in the middle of July. The second, led by Peter himself, passed
safely through Hungary, but suffered severely in Bulgaria, and
only attained Constantinople with sadly diminished numbers
at the end of July. These two divisions (which in spite of good
treatment by Alexius began to commit excesses against the
Greeks) united and crossed the Bosporus in August, Peter
himself remaining in Constantinople. By the end of October
they had perished utterly at the hands of the Seljuks; a heap
of whitening bones also remained to testify to the later crusaders,
when they passed in the spring of 1097, of the fate of the people's
Crusade.

Meanwhile the knights had already begun to assemble in
March 1096. In small bands, and by divers ways, they streamed
gradually southward and eastward, in a steady flow, through-
out 1096. But three large divisions, under three considerable
leaders, were pre-eminent among the rest. Godfrey of Bouillon,
with his brother Baldwin, led the crusaders of Lorraine along
" the road of Charles the Great," through Hungary, to Con-
stantinople, where he arrived on the 23rd of December.
Raymund of Toulouse (the first prince to join the crusading
movement) along with Bishop Adhemar, the papal commissary,
led the Provencals down the coast of Illyria, and then due east
to Constantinople, arriving towards the end of April 1097.
Bohemund of Otranto, the destined leader of the Crusade, with
his nephew Tancred, led a fine force of Normans by sea to
Durazzo, and thence by land to Constantinople, which he reached
about the same time as Raymund. To the same great rendezvous
other leaders also gathered, some of higher rank than Godfrey
or Raymund or Bohemund, but none destined to exercise an
equal influence on the fate of the Crusade. Hugh of Vermandois,
younger brother of Philip I. of France, had reached Constanti-
nople in November 1096, in a species of honourable captivity,
and had done Alexius homage; Robert of Normandy and
Stephen of Blois, to whom Urban II. had given St Peter's banner
at Lucca, only arrived — the last of the crusaders — in May 1097
(their original companion in arms, Count Robert of Flanders,
having left them to winter at Bari, and crossed to Constantinople
before the end of 1096).

Thus was gathered at Constantinople, in the spring of

1 Ekkehard, Chronica, 214.

2 Later legend ascribed the origin of the First Crusade to the
preaching of Peter the Hermit. The legend has been followed by
modern historians; but in point of fact Peter is a figure of secondary
importance. (See Peter the Hermit.)

1097, a great host, which Fulcher computes at 600,000 men
(I. c. iv.), Urban II. at 300,000, and which was probably some
150,000 strong. 3 Before we follow this host into Asia, we may
pause to inquire into the various factors which would deter-
mine its course, or condition its activity. On the Western side,
and among the crusaders themselves, there were two factors
of importance, already mentioned above — the aims of the
adventurer prince, and the interests of the Italian merchant;
while on the Eastern side there are again two — the policy of
the Greeks, and the condition of the Mahommedan East. We
have already seen that among the princes who joined the First
Crusade there were some who were rather politiques than devots,
and who aimed at the acquisition of temporal profit as well as
of spiritual merit. Of these the type — and, it may almost be
said, the inspirer of the rest — was Bohemund. From the first
he had an Eastern principality in his mind's eye; and if we
may judge from the follower of Bohemund who wrote the Gesta
Francorum, there had already been some talk at Constantinople
of Antioch as the seat of this principality. Bohemund's policy
seems to have inspired Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey of
Bouillon to emulation; on the one hand he strove to thwart
the endeavours of Tancred, the nephew of Bohemund, to begin
the foundation of the Eastern principality for his uncle by
conquering Cilicia, and, on the other, he founded a principality
for himself in Edessa. Raymond of Provence, the third and
last of the great politiques of the First Crusade, was, like Baldwin,
envious of Bohemund; and jealousy drove him first to attempt
to wrest Antioch from Bohemund, and then to found a prin-
cipality of Tripoli to the south of Antioch, which would check
the growth of his power. The political motives of these three
princes, and the interaction of their different policies, was thus
a great factor in determining the course and the results of the
First Crusade. The influence of the Italian towns did not make
itself greatly felt till after the end of the First Crusade, when it
made possible the foundation of a kingdom in Jerusalem, in
addition to the three principalities established by Bohemund,
Baldwin and Raymond; but during the course of the Crusade
itself the Italian ships which hugged the shores of Syria were able
to supply the crusaders with provisions and munition of war,
and to render help in the sieges of Antioch and Jerusalem. 4
Sea-power had thus some influence in determining the victory
of the crusaders.

In the East the conditions were, on the whole, favourable
to the crusaders. The one difficulty — and it was serious — was
the attitude adopted by Alexius. Confronted by crusaders
where he had asked for auxiliaries, Alexius had two alternative
policies presented to his choice. He might, in the first place,
have frankly admitted that the crusaders were independent
allies, and treating them as equals, he might have waged war
in concert with them, and divided the conquests achieved in the
war. A boundary line might have been drawn somewhere to
the N.W. of Antioch; and the crusaders might have been left
to acquire what they could to the south and east of that line.
Unhappily, clinging to the conviction that all the lands which
the crusaders would traverse were the " lost provinces " of his
empire, he induced the crusaders to do him homage, so that,
whatever they conquered, they would conquer in his name,
and whatever they held, they would hold by his grant and as his
vassals. Thus Hugh of Vermandois became the man of Alexius
in November 1096; Godfrey of Bouillon was induced, not with-
out difficulty, to do homage in January 1097; and in April and
May the other leaders, including Bohemund and the obstinate
Raymond himself, followed his example. The policy of Alexius
was destined to produce evil results, both for the Eastern empire
and for the crusading movement. The West had already its
grievances against the East: the Greek emperors had taken
advantage of their protectorate of the Holy Places to lay charges

3 Godfrey's army numbered some 30,000 infantry and 10,000
cavalry (Rohricht, Erst. Kreuzz. 61): Urban II. reckons Bohemund's
knights as 7000 in number (ibid. 71, n. 7).

4 The Genoese had been invited by Urban II. in September 1096
" to go with their gallies to Eastern parts in order to set free the path
to the Lord's Sepulchre."

528

CRUSADES

on the pilgrims, against which the Papacy had already been
forced to remonstrate; nor were the Italian towns, with the
exception of favoured Venice, disposed to be friendly to the
great monopolist city of Constantinople. The old dissension
of the Eastern and Western Churches had blazed out afresh in
1054; and the policy of Alexius only added new rancours to
an old grudge, which culminated in the Latin conquest of
Constantinople in 1204. On the other hand, the success of the
crusading movement was imperilled, both now and afterwards,
by the jealousy of the Comneni.' Always hostile to the princi-
pality, which Bohemund established in spite of his oath, they
helped by their hostility to cause the loss of Edessa in 1 144, and
thus to hasten the disintegration of the Latin kingdom of
Jerusalem. Yet one must remember, in justice to Alexius,
the gravity of the problem by which he was confronted; nor
was the conduct of the crusaders themselves such that he could
readily make them his brethren in arms.

The condition of Asia Minor and Syria in 1097 was almost
altogether such as to favour the success of the crusaders. The
Seljukian sultans had only achieved a military occupation of
the country which they had conquered. There were Seljukian
garrisons in towns like Nicaea and Antioch, ready to offer an
obstinate resistance to the crusaders; and here and ther; in the
country thers were Seljukian armies, either cantoned or nomadic.
But the inhabitants of the towns were often hostile to the
garrisons, and over wide tracts of country there were no forces
at all. Accordingly, when the crusaders had captured the town
at Nicaea, and defeated the Seljukian field-army at Dorylaeum
their way lay clear before them through Asia Minor. Not only
so, but they could count, at the very least, on a benevolent
neutrality from the native population; while from the Armenian
principalities in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which survived unsubdued
in the general deluge of Seljukian conquest, they could expect
active assistance (the hope of which will explain the north-easterly
line of march which they followed after leaving Heraclea).
But the purely military character of the Seljukian occupation
helped the crusaders in yet another way. Strong generals were
needed in the separate divisions of the empire, and these, as
has always been the case in Eastern empires, made themselves
independent in their spheres of command, because there was
no organization to keep them together under a single control.
On the death of Malik Shah, the last of the great Seljukian
emperors (1092), the empire dissolved. A new sultan, Barki-
yaroq or Barkiarok, ruled in Bagdad (1 094-1 104); but in Asia
Minor Kilij Arslan held sway as the independent sultan of Konia
(Iconium), while the whole of Syria was also practically inde-
pendent. Not only was Syria thus weakened by being detached
from the body of the Seljukian empire; it was divided by
dissensions within, and assailed by the Fatimite caliph of Egypt
from without. In 1095 two brothers, Ridwan and Dekak, ruled
in Aleppo and Damascus respectively; but they were at war
with one another, and Yagi-sian, the ruler of Antioch, was a
party to their dissensions. Ridwan and Yagi-sian were only
stopped in an attack on Damascus by news of the approach
of the crusaders, which led the latter to throw himself hastily
into Antioch, in the autumn of 1097. Meanwhile the Fatimites
were not slow to take advantage of these dissensions. A great
religious difference divided the Fatimite caliph of Cairo, the
head of the Shiite sect, from the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad,
who was the head of the Sunnites. The difference may be
:ompared to the dissension between the Greek and the Latin
Churches; but it had perhaps more of the nature of a political
difference. In any case, it hampered the Mahommedans as
much as the jealousy between Alexius and the Latins hampered
the progress of the Crusade. The crusading princes were well
enough aware of the gulf which divided the caliph of Cairo from
the Sunnite princes of Syria; and they sought by envoys to
put themselves into connexion with him, hoping by his aid to
gain Jerusalem (which was then ruled for the Turks by Sokman,
the son of the amir Ortok). 1 But the caliph preferred to act for

1 Thus already on the First Crusade the path of negotiation
is attempted simultaneously with the Holy War. On the Third

himself, and took advantage of the wars of the Syrian princes,
and of the terror inspired by the advance of the crusaders to
conquer Jerusalem (August 1098). But though the leaders of
the First Crusade did not succeed in utilizing the dissensions
of the Mahommedans as fully as they desired, it still remains
true that these dissensions very largely explain their success.
It was the disunion of the Syrian amirs, and the division between
the Abbasids and the Fatimites, that made possible the conquest
of the Holy City and the foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
When a power arose in Mosul, about 1130, which was able to
unify Syria — when, again, in the hands of Saladin, unified Syria
was in turn united to Egypt — the cause of Latin Christianity
in the East was doomed.

We are now in a position to follow the history of the First
Crusade. By the beginning of May 1097 the crusaders were
crossing the Bosporus, and entering the dominions of Kilij
Arslan. Their first operation was the siege of Nicaea, defended
by a Seljuk garrison, but eventually captured, with the aid of
Alexius, after a month's siege (June 18). Alexius took possession
of the town; and though he rewarded the crusading princes
richly, some discontent was excited by his action. After the
capture of Nicaea, the field-army of Kilij Arslan had to be met.
In a long and obstinate encounter, it was defeated at Dorylaeum
(July 1); and the crusaders marched unmolested in a south-
easterly direction to Heraclea. Here Tancred, followed by
Baldwin, turned into Cilicia, and began to take possession of the
Cilician towns, and especially of Tarsus — thus beginning, it
would seem, the creation of the Norman principality of Antioch.
The main army turned to the N.E., in the direction of Caesarea
(in order to bring itself into touch with the Armenian princes
of this district), and then marched southward again to Antioch.
At Marash, half way between Caesarea and Antioch, Baldwin,
who had meanwhile wrested Tarsus from Tancred, rejoined the
ranks; but he soon left the main body again, and struck east-
ward towards Edessa, to found a principality there. At ( he end
of October the crusaders came into position before Antioch,
which was held by Yagi-sian, and began the siege of the city,
which lasted from October 21, 1097, to June 3, 1098. The
great figure in the siege was naturally Bohemund (who had also
been the hero of Dorylaeum). He repelled attempts at relief
made by Dekak (Dec. 31, 1097) and Ridwan (Feb. 9, 1098);
he put the besiegers in touch with the Genoese ships lying in the
harbour of St Simeon, the port of Antioch (March 1098) — a
move which at once served to remedy the want of provisions
from which the crusaders suffered, and secured materials for
the building of castles, with which Bohemund sought — in the
Norman fashion — to overawe the besieged city. But it was
finally by the treachery of one of Yagi-sian's commanders,
the amir Firuz, that Bohemund was able to effect its capture.
The other leaders had, however, to promise him possession of the
city, before he would bring his negotiations with Firuz to a
conclusion; and the matter was so long protracted that an army
of relief under Kerbogha' of Mosul was only at a distance of three
days' march, when the city was taken (June 3, 1098). The
besiegers were no sooner in the city, than they were besieged
in their turn by Kerbogha; and the twenty-five days which
followed were the worst period of stress and strain which the
crusaders had to encounter. Under the pressure of this strain
" spiritualistic " phenomena began to appear. It was in the
ranks of the Provencals, where the religiosity of Count Raymund
seems to have extended to his followers, that these phenomena
appeared; and they culminated in the discovery of the Holy
Lance, which had pierced the side of the Saviour. The excite-
ment communicated itself to the whole army; and the nervous
strength which it gave enabled the crusaders to meet and defeat

Crusade, and above all on the Sixth, this path was still more seriously
attempted. It is interesting, too, to notice the part which the laity
already plays in directing the course ot the Crusade. From the first
the Crusade, however clerical in its conception, was largely secular
in its conduct; and thus, somewhat paradoxically, a religious
enterprise aided the growth of the secular motive, and contributed
to the escape of the laity from that tendency towards a papal
theocracy, which was evident in the pontificate of Gregory VII.

CRUSADES

529

Kerbogha in the open (June 28), but not before many of their
number, including even Count Stephen of Blois, had deserted
and fled.

With the discovery of the Lance, which became as it were a
Provencal asset, Count Raymund assumes a new importance.
Mingled with the religiosity of his nature there was much
obstinacy and self-seeking; and when Kerbogha was finally
repelled, he began to dispute the possession of Antioch with
Bohemund, pleading in excuse his oath to Alexius. The struggle
lasted for some months, and helped to delay the further progress
of the crusaders. Raymund, indeed, left Antioch in November,
and moved S.E. to Marra; but his men still held two positions
in Antioch, from which they were not dislodged by Bohemund
till January 1090. Expelled from Antioch, the obstinate
Raymund endeavoured to recompense himself in the south
(where indeed he subsequently created the county of Tripoli);
and from February to May 1099 he occupied himself with the
siege of Area, to the N.E. of Tripoli. It was during the siege of
Area that Peter Bartholomew, to whom the vision of the Holy
Lance had first appeared, was subjected, with no definite result,
to the ordeal of fire — the hard-headed Normans doubting the
genuine character of any Provencal vision, the more when, as
in this case, it turned to the political advantage of the Provencals.
The siege was long protracted; the mass of the pilgrims were
anxious to proceed to Jerusalem, and, as the altered tone of the
author of the Gesta sufficiently indicates, thoroughly weary of
the obstinate political bickerings of Raymund and Bohemund.
Here Godfrey of Bouillon finally came to the front, and placing
himself at the head of the discontented pilgrims, he forced
Raymund to accept the offers of the amir of Tripoli, to desist
from the siege, and to march to Jerusalem (in the middle
of May 1099). Bohemund remained in Antioch: the other
leaders pressed forward, and following the coast route,
arrived before Jerusalem in the beginning of June. After a
little more than a month's siege, the city was finally captured
(July 15). The slaughter was terrible; the blood of the
conquered ran down the streets, until men splashed in blood
as they rode. At nightfall, " sobbing for excess of joy," the
crusaders came to the Sepulchre from their treading of the
winepress, and put their blood-stained hands together in
prayer. So, on that day of July, the First Crusade came
to an end.

It remained to determine the future government of Jerusalem ;
and here the eternal problem of the relations of Church and
State emerged. It might seem natural that the Holy City,
conquered in a holy war by an army of which the pope had
made a churchman, Bishop Adhemar, the leader, should be left
to the government of the Church. But Adhemar had died in
August 1098 (whence, in large part, the confusion and bickerings
which followed in the end of 1098 and the beginning of 1099);
nor were there any churchmen left of sufficient dignity or weight
to secure the triumph of the ecclesiastical cause. In the meeting
of the crusaders on the 22nd of July, some few voices were raised
in support of the view that a " spiritual vicar " should first be
chosen in the place of the late patriarch of Jerusalem (who had
just died in Cyprus), before the election of any lay ruler was
taken in hand. But the voices were not heard; and the princes
proceeded at once to elect a lay ruler. Raymund of Provence
refused to accept their nomination, nominally on the pious
ground that he did not wish to reign where Christ had suffered
on the cross; though one may suspect that the establishment
of a principality in Tripoli — in which he had been interrupted
by the pressure of the pilgrims — was still the first object of his
ambition. The refusal of Raymund meant the choice of Godfrey
of Bouillon, who had, as we have seen, become prominent since
the siege of Area; and Godfrey accordingly became — not king,
but " advocate of the Holy Sepulchre," while a few days after-
wards Arnulf, the chaplain of Robert of Normandy, and one of
the sceptics in the matter of the Holy Lance, became " vicar "
of the vacant patriarchate. Godfrey'sfirst business was to repel
an Egyptian attack, which he accomplished successfully at
Ascalon, with the aid of the other crusaders (August 12). At

the end of August the other crusaders returned, 1 and Godfrey
was left with a small army of 2000 men, and the support of
Tancred, now prince of Galilee, to rule in some four isolated
districts — Jaffa, Jerusalem, Ramlah and Haifa. At the end of
the year came Bohemund and Godfrey's brother Baldwin (now
count of Edessa) on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The result of
Bohemund's visit was new trouble for Godfrey. Bohemund
procured the election of Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa, to
the vacant patriarchate, disliking Arnulf, and perhaps hoping
to find in the new patriarch a political supporter. Bohemund
and Godfrey together became Dagobert's vassals; and in the
spring Godfrey even seems to have entered into an agreement
with the patriarch to cede Jerusalem and Jaffa into his hands,
in the event of acquiring other lands or towns, especially Cairo,
or dying without direct heirs. When Godfrey died in July 1100
(after successful forays against the Mahommedans which took
him as far as Damascus), it might seem as if a theocracy were
after all to be established in Jerusalem, in spite of the events
of 1099.

4. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem under the First Three
Kings, 2 1100-1143. — The theocracy, however, was not destined
to be established. Godfrey had died without direct heirs;
but in far Edessa there was his brother Baldwin, ready to take
his place. Dagobert had at first consented to the dying Godfrey's
wish that Baldwin should be his successor; but when Godfrey
died he saw an opportunity too precious to be missed, and
opposed Baldwin, counting on the support of Bohemund, to
whom he sent an appeal for assistance. 3 But a party in
Jerusalem, headed by the late " vicar " Arnulf, opposed itself
to the hierarchical pretensions of Dagobert and the Norman
influence by which they were backed; and this party, represent-
ing the Lotharingian laity, carried the day. Baldwin was
summoned from Edessa; and when he arrived, towards the end
of the year, he was crowned king by Dagobert himself. Thus
was founded, on Christmas day 1100, the Latin kingdom of
Jerusalem; and thus was the possibility of a theocracy finally
annihilated. A feudal kingdom of Frankish seigneurs was to be
planted on the soil of Palestine, instead of a dominium temporale
of the patriarch like that of the pope in central Italy. Nor were
any great difficulties with the Church to hamper the growth of
this kingdom. For two years, indeed, a struggle raged between
Baldwin I. and Dagobert: Baldwin accused the patriarch of
treachery, and attempted to force him to contribute to the defence
of the kingdom. But in 1102 the struggle ceased with the
deposition of the patriarch and the victory of the king; and
though it was renewed for a time by the patriarch Stephen in
the reign of Baldwin II. (n 28-1 130), the new struggle was of
short duration, and was soon ended by Stephen's death.

The establishment of a kingdom in Jerusalem in 1100 was
a blow, not only to the Church but to the Normans of Antioch.
At the end of 1099 any contemporary observer must have
believed that the capital of Latin Christianity in the East was
destined to be Antioch. Antioch lay in one of the most fertile
regions of the East; Bohemund was almost, if not quite, the
greatest genius of his generation; and when he visited Jerusalem
at the end of 1099, he led an army of 25,000 men — and those
men, at any rate in large part, Normans. What could Godfrey
avail against such a force? Yet the principality of Godfrey
was destined to higher things than that of Bohemund.
Jerusalem, like Rome, had the shadow of a mighty name to
lend prestige to its ruler; and as residence in Rome was one
great reason of the strength of the medieval papacy, so was

1 Before he left, Raymund had played in Jerusalem the same part
of dog in the manger which he had also played at Antioch, and had
given Godfrey considerable trouble. See the articles, Godfrey of
Bouillon and Raymund of Toulouse.

2 For an account of the kings of Jerusalem see the articles on the
five B ALDWiNS.on the two Amalrics, on Fulk and John of Brienne
and on the Lusignan (family).

3 The genuineness of the letter (on which, by the way, depends the
story of Godfrey's agreement with Dagobert) has been impeached
by Prutz and Kugler, and doubted by Rohricht. It is accepted by
von Sybel and Hagenmeyer.

53°

CRUSADES

residence in Jerusalem a reason for the ultimate supremacy of
the Lotharingian kings. Jerusalem attracted the flow of pilgrims
from the West as Antioch never could; and though the great
majority of the pilgrims were only birds of passage, there were
always many who stayed in the East. There was thus a steady
immigration into the kingdom, to strengthen its armies and
recruit with new blood the vigour of its inhabitants. Still more
important perhaps was the fact that the ports of the kingdom
attracted the Italian towns; and it was therefore to the kingdom
that they lent the strength of their armies and the skill of their
siege-artillery — in return, it is true, for concessions of privileges
so considerable as to weaken the resources of the kingdom
they helped to create. While Jerusalem possessed these advan-
tages, Antioch was not without its defects. It had to meet — or
perhaps it would be more true to say, it brought upon itself —
the Ziostility of strong Mahommedan powers in the vicinity.
As early as uoo Bohemund was captured in battle by Danish-
mend of Sivas; and it was his captivity, depriving the patriarch
as it did of Norman assistance, which allowed the uncontested
accession of Baldwin I. Again, in 1104, the Normans, while
attempting to capture Harran, were badly defeated on the river
Balikh, near Rakka; and this defeat may be said to have been
fatal to the chance of a great Norman principality. 1 But the
hostility of Alexius, aided and abetted by the jealousy of Ray-
mund of Toulouse, was almost equally fatal. Alexius claimed
Antioch; was it not the old possession of his empire, and had
not Bohemund done him homage? Raymund was ready to
defend the claims of Alexius; was not Bohemund a successful
rival? Thus it came about that Alexius and Raymund became
allies; and by the aid of Alexius Raymund established, from
1 102 onwards, the principality which, with the capture of
Tripoli in 1109, became the principality of Tripoli, and barred
the advance of Antioch to the south. Meanwhile the armies of
Alexius not only prevented any farther advance to the N.W., but
conquered the Cilician towns (1 104). No wonder that Bohemund
flung himself in revenge on the Eastern empire in 1108 — only,
however, to meet with a humiliating defeat at Durazzo.

Thus it was that Baldwin waxed while Bohemund waned. The
growth of Baldwin's kingdom, as it was suggested above, owed
more to the interests of Italian traders than it did to crusading
zeal. In 1100, indeed, it might appear that a new Crusade from
the West, which the capture of Antioch in 1098 had begun, and
the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 had finally set in motion, was
destined to achieve great thing , for the nascent kingdom.
Thousands had joined this new Crusade, which should deal the
final blow to Mahommedanism: among the rest came the first
of the troubadours, William IX., Count of Poitiers, to gather
copy for his muse, and even some, like Stephen of Blois and
Hugh of Vermandois, who had joined the First Crusade, but
had failed to reach Jerusalem. The new crusaders cherished
high plans; they would free Bohemund and capture Bagdad.
But each of the three sections of their army was routed in turn
in Asia Minor by the princes of Sivas, Aleppo and Harran, in the
middle of 1101; and only a few escaped to report the crushing
disaster. Baldwin I. had thus no assistance to expect from
the West, save that of the Italian towns. From an early
date Italian ships had followed the crusaders. There were
Genoese ships in St Simeon's harbour in the spring of 1098
and at Jaffa in 1099; in 1099 Dagobert, the archbishop of Pisa,
led a fleet from his city to the Holy Land; and in n 00 there
came to Jaffa a Venetian fleet of 200 sail, whose leaders promised
Venetian assistance in return for freedom from tolls and a third of
each town they helped to conquer. But it was the Genoese who
helped Baldwin I. most. The Venetians already enjoyed, since
1080, a favoured position in Constantinople, and had the less
reason to find a new emporium in the East; while Pisa connected

1 Yet the north always continued to be more populous than the
south ; and the Latins maintained themselves in Antioch and
Tripoli a century after the loss of Jerusalem. The land was richer
in the north: it was protected by its connexion with Cyprus and
Armenia: it was more remote from Egypt — the basis of Mahom-
medan power from the reign of Saladin onwards.

itself, through Dagobert, with Antioch 2 rather than with
Jerusalem, and was further, in 1111, invested by Alexius with
privileges, which made an outlet in the Holy Land no longer
necessary. But the Genoese, who had helped with provisions
and siege-tackle in the capture of Antioch and of Jerusalem,
had both a stronger claim on the crusaders, and a greater interest
in acquiring an eastern emporium. An alliance was accordingly
struck in 1101 (Fulcher II. c. vii.), by which the Genoese
promised their assistance, in return for a third of all booty,
a quarter in each town captured, and a grant of freedom from
tolls. In this way Baldwin I. was able to take Arsuf and Caesarea
in noi and Acre in 1104. But Genoese aid was given to others
beside Baldwin (it enabled Raymund to capture Byblus in 1104,
and his successor, William, to win Tripoli in 1109); while, on
the other hand, Baldwin enjoyed other aid besides that of the
Genoese. In mo, for example, he was enabled to capture
Sidon by the aid of Sigurd of Norway, the Jorsalafari, who came
to the Holy Land with a fleet of 55 ships, starting in 1107, and
in a three years' " wandering," after the old Norse fashion,
fighting the Moors in Spain, and fraternizing with the Normans
in Sicily. At a later date, in the reign of Baldwin II., Venice also
gave her aid to the kings of Jerusalem. Irritated by the con-
cessions made by Alexius to the Pisans in nil, and furious at
the revocation of her own privileges by John Comnenus in n 18,
the republic naturally sought a new outlet in the Holy Land.
A Venetian fleet of 120 sail came in 11 23, and after aiding in the
repulse of an attack, which the Egyptians had taken advantage
of Baldwin II. 's captivity to deliver, they helped the regent
Eustace to capture Tyre (1124), in return for considerable ,
privileges — freedom from toils throughout the kingdom, a
quarter in Jerusalem, baths and ovens in Acre, and in Tyre one-
third of the city and its suburbs, with their own court of justice
and their own church. After thus gaining a new footing in Tyre,
the Venetians could afford to attack the islands of the Aegean
as they returned, in revenge for the loss of their privileges in
Constantinople; but the hostility between Venice and the
Eastern empire was soon afterwards appeased, when John
Comnenus restored the old privileges of the Venetians. The
Venetians, however, maintained their position in Palestine;
and their quarters remained, along with those of the Genoese,
as privileged commercial franchises in an otherwise feudal state.
In this way the kingdom of Jerusalem expanded until it came
to embrace a territory stretching along the coast from Beirut
(captured in mo 3 ) to el-Arish on the confines of Egypt — a
territory whose strength lay not in Judaea, like the ancient
kingdom of David, but, somewhat paradoxically (though
commercial motives explain the paradox), in Phoenicia and the
land of the Philistines. With all its length, the territory had
but little breadth: towards the north it was bounded by the
amirate of Damascus; in the centre, it spread little, if at all,
beyond the Jordan; and it was only in the south that it had
any real extension. Here there were two considerable annexes.
To the south of the Dead Sea stretched a tongue of land, reaching
to Aila, at the head of the eastern arm of the Red Sea. This had
been won by Baldwin I., by way of revenge for the attacks of
the Egyptians on his kingdom; and here, as early as 1116, he
had built the fort of Monreal, half way between Aila and the
Dead Sea. To the east of the Dead Sea, again, lay a second
strip of territory, in which the great fortress was Krak (Kerak)
of the Desert, planted somewhere about 1140 by the royal butler,
Paganus, in the reign of Fulk of Jerusalem. These extensions
in the south and east had also, it is easy to see, a commercial
motive. They gave the kingdom a connexion of its own with
the Red Sea and its shipping; and they enabled the Franks to

2 Pisa naturally connected itself with Antioch, because Antioch
was hostile to Constantinople, and Pisa cherished the same hostility,
since Alexius I. had in 1080 given preferential treatment to Venice,
the enemy of Pisa.

3 This is the year in which the kingdom may be regarded as
definitely founded. The period of conquest practically ends at this
date, though isolated gains were afterwards made. The year 1 1 10
is additionally important by reason of the accession of Maudud a)
Mosul, which marks the beginning of a Moslem reaction.

CRUSADES

S3i

control the routes of the caravans, especially the route from
Damascus to Egypt and the Red Sea. Thus, it would appear,
the whole of the expansion of the Latin kingdom (which may be
said to have attained its height in 1131, at the death of
Baldwin II.) may be shown to have been dictated, at any rate
in large part, by economic motives; and thus, too, it would
seem that two of the most powerful motives which sway the
mind of man — the religious motive and the desire for gain —
conspired to elevate the kingdom of Jerusalem (at once the
country of Christ, and a natural centre of trade) to a position of
supremacy in Latin Syria. During this process of growth the
kingdom stood in relation to two sects of powers — the three
Frankish principalities in northern Syria, and the Mahommedan
powers both of the Euphrates and the Nile — whose action
affected its growth and character.

Of the three Frankish principalities, Edessa, founded in 1098
by Baldwin I. himself, was a natural fief of Jerusalem. Baldwin
de Burgh, the future Baldwin II., ruled in Edessa as the vassal
of Baldwin I. from 1100 to n 18; and thereafter the county
was held in succession by the two Joscelins of Tell-bashir until
the conquest of Edessa by Zengi in 1144. Lying to the east of
the Euphrates, at once in close contact with the Armenians, and
in near proximity to the great route of trade which came up the
Euphrates to Rakka, and thence diverged to Antioch and
Damascus, the county of Edessa had an eventful if brief life.
The county of Tripoli, the second of these principalities, had
also come under the aegis of Jerusalem at an early date.
Founded by Raymund of Toulouse, between 1102 and 1105, with
the favour of Alexius and the alliance of the Genoese, it did not
acquire its capital of Tripoli till 1109. Even before the conquest
of Tripoli, there had been dissensions between William, the
nephew and successor of Raymund, and Bertrand, Raymund 's
eldest son, which it had needed the interference of Baldwin I.
to compose; and it was only by the aid of the king that the
town of Tripoli had been taken. At an early date therefore
the county of Tripoli had already come under the influence of
the kingdom. Meanwhile the principality of Antioch, ruled by
Tancred, after the departure of Bohemund (1104-1112), and
then by Roger his kinsman (1 11 2-1 119), was, during the reign
of Baldwin I., busily engaged in disputes both with its Christian
neighbours at Edessa and Tripoli, and with the Mahommedan
princes of Mardin and Mosul. On the death of Roger in 1119,
the principality came under the regency of Baldwin II. of
Jerusalem, until 1 1 26, when Bohemund II. came of age. Bohe-
mund had married a daughter of Baldwin; and on his death in
1 130 Baldwin II. had once more become the guardian of Antioch.
From his reign therefore Antioch may be regarded as a depend-
ency of Jerusalem ; and thus the end of Baldwin's reign ( 1 13 1) may
be said to mark the time when the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem
stands complete, with its own boundaries stretching from Beirut
in the north to el-Arish and Aila in the south, and with the
three Frankish powers of the north admitting its suzerainty.

The Latin power thus established and organized in the East
had to face in the north a number of Mahommedan amirs, in the
south the caliph of Egypt. The disunion between the Mahom-
medans of northern Syria and the Fatimites of Egypt, and the
political disintegration of the former, were both favourable
to the success of the Franks; but they had nevertheless to
maintain their ground vigorously both in the north and the south
against almost incessant attacks. The hostility of the decadent
caliphate of Cairo was the less dangerous; and though Baldwin I.
had at the beginning of his reign to meet annual attacks from
Egypt, by the end he had pushed his power to the Red Sea, and
in the very year of his death (n 18) he had penetrated along the
north coast of Egypt as far as Farama (Pelusium). The plan of
conquering Egypt had indeed presented itself to the Franks
from the first, as it continued to attract them to the end; and
it is significant that Godfrey himself, in 1 100, promised Jerusalem
to the patriarch, " as soon as he should have conquered some
other great city, and especially Cairo."- But the real menace to
the Latin kingdom lay in northern Syria; and here a power
was eventually destined to rise, which outstripped the kings of

Jerusalem in the race for Cairo, and then — with the northern and
southern boundaries of Jerusalem in its control — was able to
crush the kingdom as it were between the two arms of a vice.
Until 1 1 27, however, the Mahommedans of northern Syria were
disunited among themselves. The beginning of the 1 2th century
was the age of the atabegs (regents or stadtholders). The
atabegs formed a number of dynasties, which displaced the
descendants of the Seljukian amirs in their various principalities.
These dynasties were founded by emancipated mamelukes,
who had held high office at court and in camp under powerful
amirs, and who, on their death, first became stadtholders for
their descendants, and then usurped the throne of their masters.
There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Tughtigin
(1103-1128): there was another to the N.E., that of the Ortokids,
represented by Sokman, who established himself at Kaifa in
Diarbekr about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi, who received
Mardin from Sokman about 1 108, and added to it Aleppo in 1 1 1 7. 1
But the greatest of the atabegs were those of Mosul on the Tigris
• — Maudud, who died in 11 13; Aksunkur, his successor; and
finally, greatest of all, Zengi himself, who ruled in Mosul from
1 1 27 onwards.

Before the accession of Zengi, there had been constant fighting,
which had led, however, to no definite result, between the
various Mahommedan princes and the Franks of northern Syria.
The constant pressure of Tancred of Antioch and Baldwin de
Burgh of Edessa led to a series of retaliations between n 10 and
1115; Edessa was attacked in 1110, 1111, 1112 and 1114; and
in 1 1 13 Maudud of Mosul had even penetrated as far as the
vicinity of Acre and Jerusalem. 2 But the dissensions of the
Mahommedans made their attacks unavailing; in 1115, for
instance, we find Antioch actually aided by Ilghazi and Tughtigin
against Aksunkur of Mosul. Again, in the reign of Baldwin II.,
there was steady fighting in the north; Roger of Antioch was
defeated by Ilghazi at Balat in 1119, and Baldwin II. himself
was captured by Balak, the successor of Ilghazi, in n 23, but
on the whole the Franks held the upper hand. Baldwin con-
quered part of the territory of Aleppo (in 1 1 2 1 and the following
years), and extorted a tribute from Damascus (n 26). But
when Zengi established himself in Mosul in 11 27, the tide
gradually began to turn. He created for himself a great and
united principality, comprising not only Mosul, but also Aleppo, 3
Harran, Nisibin and other districts; and in 1130, Alice, the
widow of Bohemund II., sought his alliance in order to maintain
herself in power at Antioch. In the beginning of the reign of
Fulk of Jerusalem (1131-1143) the progress of Zengi was steady.
He conquered in 1135 several fortresses in the east of the princi-
pality of Antioch, and in this year and the next pressed the
count of Tripoli hard; while in 1137 he defeated Fulk at Barin,
and forced the king to capitulate and surrender the town. If
Fulk had been left alone to wage the struggle against Zengi, and
if Zengi had enjoyed a clear field against the Franks, the fall
of the kingdom of Jerusalem might have come far sooner than
it did. 4 But there were two powers which aided Fulk, and
impeded the progress of Zengi — the amirate of Damascus and
the emperors of Constantinople. The position of Damascus
is a position of crucial importance from 1130 to 1154. Lying
between Mosul and Jerusalem, and important both strategically

1 Ilghazi died in 1 122. His successor was Balak, who ruled from
1122 to 1124, and succeeded in capturing in 1123 Baldwin II. of
Jerusalem. The union of Mardin and Aleppo under the sway of
these two amirs, connecting as it did Mesopotamia with Syria,
marks an important stage in the revival of Mahommedan power
(Stevenson, Crusades in the East, p. 109).

2 Maudud (the brother of the sultan Mahommed) may be regarded
as the first to begin the jihad, or counter-crusade, and his attack
expedition of 1 113, which carried him so far into the heart of
Palestine, may be considered as the first act of the jihad (Stevenson,
op. cit. pp. 87, 96).

3 Aleppo had passed from the rule of Timurtash (son of Ilghazi
and successor of Balak) into the possession of Aksunkur, 1125.

4 Stevenson, however, believes that Zengi was not animated by
the idea of recovering Jerusalem. He thinks that his prinpipal aim
was simply the formation of a compact Mahommedan state, which
was, indeed, in the issue destined to be the instrument of the jihad,
but was not so intended by Zengi (op. cit. pp. 123-124).

532

CRUSADES

and from its position on the great route of commerce from the
Euphrates to Egypt, Damascus became the arbiter of Syrian
politics. During the greater part of the period between 1130
and 1 1 54 the policy of Damascus was guided by the vizier Muin
eddin Anar, who ruled on behalf of the descendants of the atabeg
Tughtigin. He saw the importance of finding an ally against
the ambition of Zengi, who had already attacked Damascus
in 1130. The natural ally was Jerusalem. As early as 1133 the
alliance of the two powers had been concluded; and in 1140
the alliance was solemnly renewed between Fulk and the vizier.
Henceforth this alliance was a dominant factor in politics.
One of the great mistakes made by the Franks was the breach
of the alliance in 1147 — a breach which was widened by the
attack directed against Damascus during the Second Crusade;
and the conquest of Damascus by Nureddin in 1154 was ulti-
mately fatal to the Latin kingdom, removing as it did the one
possible ally of the Franks, and opening the wa> to Egypt
for the atabegs of Mosul.

The alliance of the emperors of Constantinople was of far more
dubious value to the kings of Jerusalem. We have already seen
that it was the theory of the Eastern emperors — a theory which
logically followed from the homage of the crusaders to Alexius —
that the conquests of the crusaders belonged to their empire,
and were held by the crusading princes as fiefs. We have seen
that the action of Bohemund at Antioch was the negation of
this theory, and that Alexius in consequence helped Raymund
to establish himself in Tripoli as a thorn in the side of Bohemund,
and sent an army and a fleet which wrested from the Normans
the towns of Cilicia (1 104). The defeat of Bohemund at Durazzo
in 1 108 had resulted in a treaty, which made Antioch a fief of
Alexius; but Tancred (who in 1107 had recovered Cilicia from
the Greeks) refused to fulfil the terms of the treaty, and Alexius
(who attempted — but in vain — to induce Baldwin I. to join an
alliance against Tancred in n 12) was forced to leave Antioch
independent. Thus, although Alexius had been able, in the
wake of the crusading armies, to recover a. large belt of land
round the whole coast of Asia Minor, — the interior remaining
subject to the sultans of Konia (Iconium) and the princes of
Sivas, — he left the territories to the east of the western boundary
of Cilicia in the hands of the Latins when he died in n 18. Not
for 20 years after his death did the Eastern empire make any
attempt to gain Cilicia or wrest homage from Antioch. But in
1 137 John Comnenus appeared, instigated by the opportunity
of dissensions in Antioch, and received its long-denied homage,
as well as that of Tripoli; while in the following year he entered
into hostilities with Zengi, without, however, achieving any
considerable result. In 1142 he returned again, anxious to
create a principality in Cilicia and Antioch for his younger son
Manuel. The people of Antioch refused to submit; a projected
visit to Jerusalem, during which John was to unite with Fulk in
a great alliance against the Moslem, fell through; and in the
spring of 1 143 the emperor died in Cilicia, with nothing accom-
plished. On the whole, the interference of the Comneni, if it
checked Zengi for the moment in 1138, may be said to have
ultimately weakened and distracted the Franks, and to have
helped to cause the loss of Edessa (1144), which marks the
turning-point in the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem.

5. Organization of the Kingdom. — Before we turn to describe
the Second Crusade, which the loss of Edessa provoked, and to
trace the fall of the kingdom, which the Second Crusade rather
hastened than hindered, we may pause at this point to consider
the organization of the Frankish colonies in Syria. The first
question which arises is that of the relation of the kingdom of
Jerusalem to the three counties or principalities of Antioch,
Tripoli and Edessa, which acknowledged their dependence upon
it. The degree of this dependence was always a matter of
dispute. The rights of the king of Jerusalem chiefly appear when
there is a vacancy or a minority in one of the principalities, or
when there is dissension either inside one of the principalities
or between two of the princes. On the .death of one of the princes
without heirs of full age, the kings of Jerusalem were entitled
to act as regents, as Baldwin II. did twice at Antioch, in ma

and 1 130; but the kings regarded this right of regency as a
burden rather than a privilege, and it is indeed characteristic
of the relation of the king to the three princes, that it imposes
upon him duties without any corresponding rights. It is his
duty to act as regent; it is his duty to compose the dissensions
in the principality of Antioch, and to repress the violences of
the prince towards his patriarch (1 1 54) ; it is his duty to reconcile
Antioch with Edessa, when the two fall to fighting. The princes
on their side acted independently: if they joined the king with
their armies, it was as equals doing a favour; and they some-
times refused to join until they were coerced. They made their
own treaties with the Mahommedans, or attacked them in spite of
the king's treaties; they dated their documents by the year of
their own reign, and they had each their separate laws or assizes.
There was, in a word, co-ordination rather than subordination; nor
did the kings ever attempt to embark on a policy of centralization.

The relation of the king to his own barons within his immediate
kingdom of Jerusalem is not unlike the relation of the king to
the three princes. In Norman England the king insisted on his
rights; in Frankish Jerusalem the barons insisted on his duties.
The circumstances of the foundation of the kingdom explain
its characteristics. As the crusaders advanced to Jerusalem,
says Raymund of Agiles (c. xxxiii.), it was their rule that the
first-comer had the right to each castle or town, provided that
he hoisted his standard and planted a garrison there. The feudal
nobility was thus the first to establish itself, and the king only
came after its institution — the reverse of Norman England,
where the king first conquered the country, and then plotted
it out among his nobles. The predominance of the nobility in
this way became as characteristic of feudalism in the Latin
kingdom of Jerusalem as the supremacy of the crown was of
contemporary feudalism in England; and that predominance
expressed itself in the position and powers of the high court, in
which the ultimate sovereignty resided. The kingdom of
Jerusalem consisted of a society of peers, in which the king might
be primus, but in which he was none the less subject to a punc-
tilious law, regulating his position equally with that of every
member of the society. In such a society the election of the
head by the members may seem natural; and in the case of
Godfrey and the first two Baldwins this was the case. But the
conception of the equality of the king and his peers in the long
run led to hereditary monarchy; for if the king held his kingdom
as a fief, like other nobles, the laws of descent which applied to a
fief applied to the kingdom, and {hose laws demanded heredity.
Yet the high court, which decided all problems of descent,
would naturally intervene if a problem of descent arose,
as it frequently did, in the kingdom; and thus the barons had
the right of deciding between different claimants, and also of
formally " approving " each new successor to the throne. The
conception of the kingdom as a fief not only subjected it to the
jurisdiction of the high court; it involved the more disastrous
result that the kingdom, like other fiefs, might be carried by an
heiress to her husband; and the proximate causes of the collapse
of the kingdom in 1187 depend on this fact and the dissensions
which it occasioned.

Thus conceived as the holder of a great fief, the king had only
the rights of suzerain over the four great baronies and the twelve
minor fiefs of his kingdom. He had not those rights of sovereign
which the Norman kings of England inherited from their Anglo-
Saxon predecessors, or the Capetian kings of France from the
Carolings; nor was he able therefore to come into direct touch
with each of his subjects, which William I., in virtue of his
sovereign rights, was able to attain by the Salisbury oath of 1086.
Amalric I. indeed, by his assise sur la ligece, attempted to reach
the vassals of his vassals; he admitted arriere-vassaux to the
haute cour, and encouraged them to carry their cases to it in the
first instance. But this is the only attempt at that policy of
immediatisation which in contemporary England was carried to
far greater lengths; and even this attempt was unsuccessful.
No alliance was actually formed between the king and the mesne
nobility against the immediate baronage. The body of the
tenants-in-chief continued to limit the power of the crown:

CRUSADES

533

their consent was necessary to legislation, and grants of fiefs
could not be made without their permission. Nor was the crown
only limited in this way. The duties of the king towards his
tenants are prominent in the assises. The king's oath to his men
binds him to respect and maintain their rights, which are as
prominent as are his duties; and if the men feel that the royal
oath has not been kept, they may lawfully refuse military service
(gager le roi) , and may even rise in authorized and legal rebellion.
The system of military service and the organization of justice
corresponded to the part which the monarchy was thus con-
strained to play. The vassal was bound to pay military service,
not, as in western Europe, for a limited period of forty days,
but for the whole year — the Holy Land being, as it were, in a
perpetual state of siege. On the other hand, the vassal was not
bound to render service, unless he were paid for his service;
and it was only famine, or Saracen devastation, which freed the
king from the obligation of paying his men. The king was also
bound to insure the horses of his men by a system called the
restor: if a vassal lost his horse otherwise than by his own
fault, it must be replaced by the treasury (which was termed,
as it also was in Norman Sicily, the secretum). 1 But the king
had another force in addition to the feudal levy — a paid force of
soudoyers, 2 holding fiefs, not of land, but of pay [fiefs de soudie).
Along with this paid cavalry went another branch of the army,
the Turcopuli, a body of light cavalry, recruited from the Syrians
and Mahommedans, and using the tactics of the Arabs; while
an infantry was found among the Armenians, the best soldiers
of the East, and the Maronites, who furnished the kingdom with
archers. To all these various forces must be added the knights
and native levies of the great orders, whose masters were practi-
cally independent sovereigns like the princes of Antioch and
Tripoli; 3 and with these the total levy of the kingdom may be
reckoned at some 25,000 men. But the strength of the kingdom
lay less perhaps in the army than in the magnificent fortresses
which the nobility, and especially the two orders, had built;
and the most visible relic of the crusades to-day is the towering
ruins of a fortress like Krak (Kerak) des Chevaliers, the fortress
of the Knights of St John in the principality of Tripoli. These
fortresses, garrisoned not by the king, as in Norman England,
but by their possessors, would only strengthen the power of the
feudatories, and help to dissipate the kingdom into a number
of local units.

In the organization of its system of justice the kingdom showed
its most characteristic features. Two great central courts sat
in Jerusalem to do justice — the high court of the nobles, and
the court of burgesses for the rest of the Franks. (1) The high
court was the supreme source of justice for the military class;
and in its composition and procedure the same limitation of the
crown, which appears in regard to military service, is again
evident. The high court is not a curia regis, but a curia baronum,
in which the theory of judicium parium is fully realized. If the
king presides in the court, the motive of its action is none the
less the preservation of the rights of the nobles, and not, as in
England, the extension of the rights of the crown. It is a court of
the king's peers: it tries cases of dispute between the king and
his peers — with regard, for instance, to military service — and
it settles the descent of the title of king. (2) The court of

1 There are certain connexions and analogies between the kingdom
of Sicily and that of Jerusalem during the twelfth century. In either
case there is an importation of Western feudalism into a country
originally possessed, of Byzantine institutions, but affected by an
Arabic occupation. The subject deserves investigation.

2 The holders of fiefs (sodeers) both held fiefs of land and received
pay; the paid force of soudoyers only received pay. An instance
of the latter is furnished by John of Margat, a vassal of the seignory
of Arsuf. He has 200 bezants along with a quantity of wheat,
barley, lentils and oil ; and in return he must march with four horses
(Rey, Les Colonies frangues en Syrie, p. 24).

3 For the history of the orders see the articles on the Templars;
St John of Jerusalem, Knights of ; Knights, and the Teutonic
Order. The Templars were founded about the year 11 18 by a
Burgundian knight, Hugh de Paganis; the Hospitallers sprang
from a foundation in Jerusalem erected by merchants of Amalfi
before the First Crusade, and were reorganized under Gerard le Puy,
master until 1 120. The Teutonic knights date from the Third Crusade.

burgesses was almost equally sovereign within its sphere. While
the body of the noblesse formed the high court, the court of the
burgesses was composed of twelve legists (probably named by
the king) under the presidency of the vicomte — a knight also
named by the king, who was a great financial as well as a judicial
officer. The province of the court included all acts and contracts
between burgesses, and extended to criminal cases in which
burgesses were involved. Like the high court, the court of
burgesses had also its assizes 4 — a body of unwritten legal

4 As was noticed above, there were apparently separate assizes
for the three principalities, in addition to the assizes of the kingdom.
The assizes of Antioch have been discovered and published. The
assizes of the kingdom itself are twofold — the assizes of the high
court and the assizes of the court of burgesses. (1) The assizes of the
high court are preserved for us in works by legists — John of Ibelin,
Philip of Novara and Geoffrey of Tort — composed in the 13th
century. We possess, in other words, law-books (like Bracton's
treatise De legibus), but not laws — and law-books made after
the loss of the kingdom to which the laws belonged. There are two
vexed questions with regard to these law-books, (a) The first con-
cerns the origin and character of the laws which the law-books profess
to expound. According to the story of the legists who wrote these
books — e.g. John of Ibelin — the laws of the kingdom were laid down
by Godfrey, who is thus regarded as the great vofix>6kTr)s of the
kingdom. These laws (progressively modified, it is admitted) were
kept in Jerusalem, under the name of " Letters of the Sepulchre,"
until 1 187. In that year they were lost; and the legists tell us
that they are attempting to reconstruct par oir dire the gist of the
lost archetype. The story of the legists is now generally rejected.
Godfrey never legislated: the customs of the kingdom gradually
grew, and were gradually defined, especially under kings like Baldwin
III. and Amalric I. If there was thus only a customary and un-
written law (and William of Tyre definitely speaks of a jus consue-
tudinarium under Baldwin III., quo regnum regebatur), then the
" Letters of the Sepulchre " are a myth — or rather, if they ever
existed, they existed not as a code of written law, but, perhaps, as a
register of fiefs, like the Sicilian Defetarii. Thus the story of the
legists shrinks down to the regular myth of the primitive legislator,
used to give an air of respectability to law-books, which really record
an unwritten custom. The fact is that until the 13th century the
Franks lived consuetudinibus antiquis et jure non scripto. They
preferred an unwritten law, as Prutz suggests, partly because it
suited the barristers (who often belonged to the baronage, for the
Frankish nobles were " great pleaders in court and out of court "),
and partly because the high court was left unbound so long as there
was no written code. In the 13th century it became necessary for
the legists to codify, as it were, the unwritten law, because the
upheavals of the times necessitated the fixing of some rules in writing,
and especially because it was necessary to oppose a definite custom
of the kingdom to Frederick II., who sought, as king of Jerusalem,
to take advantage of the want of a written law, to substitute his own
conceptions of law in the teeth of the high court, (b) The second
difficulty concerns the text of the law-books themselves. The text
of Ibelin became a textus receptus — but it also became overlaid by
glosses, for it was used as authoritative in the kingdom of Cyprus
after the loss of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and it needed expounding.
Recensions and revisions were twice made, in 1368 and 1531 ; but
how far the true Ibelin was recovered, and what additions or altera-
tions were made at these two dates, we cannot tell. We can only say
that we have the text of Ibelin which was used in Cyprus in the later
middle ages. At the same time, if our text is thus late, it must be
remembered that its content gives us the earliest and purest ex-
position of French feudalism, and describes for us the organization
of a kingdom, where all rights and duties were connected with the
fief, and the monarch was only a suzerain of feudatories. (2) The
assizes of the court of burgesses became the basis of a treatise at
an earlier date than the assizes of the high court. The date of the
redaction (which was probably made by some learned burgess) may
well have been the reign of Baldwin III., as Kugler suggests: he
was the first native king, and a king learned in the law; but Beugnot
would refer the assizes to the years immediately preceding Saladin's
capture of Jerusalem. These assizes do not, of course, appear in
Ibelin, who was only concerned with the feudal law of the high court.
They were used, like the assizes of the high court, in Cyprus; and,
like the other assizes, they were made the subject of investigation
in 1531, with the object of discovering a good text. The law which
is expounded in these assizes is a mixture of Frankish law with the
Graeco- Roman law of the Eastern empire which prevailed among the
native population of Syria.

In regard to both assizes, it is most important to bear in mind
that we possess not laws, but law-books or custumals — records made
by lawyers for their fellows of what they conceived to be the law,
and supported by legal arguments and citations of cases. But, as
Prutz remarks, Philip of Novara lehrt nicht die Wissenschaft des
Rechts, sondern die des Unrechts: he does not explain the law so
much as the ways of getting round it.

534

CRUSADES

custom. The independent position of the burgesses, who thus
assumed a position of equality by the side of the feudal class, is
one of the peculiarities of the kingdom of Jerusalem. It may
be explained by reference to the peculiar conditions of the
kingdom. Burgesses and nobles, however different in status,
were both of the same Frankish stock, and both occupied the
same superior position with regard to the native Syrians. The
commercial motive, again, had been one of the great motives
of the crusade; and the class which was impelled by that motive
would be both large and, in view of the quality of the Eastern
goods in which it dealt, exceptionally prosperous. Finally,
when one remembers how, during the First Crusade, the pedites
had marched side by side with the principes, and how, from the
beginning of 1099, they had practically risen in revolt against
the selfish ambitions of princes like Count Raymund, it becomes
easy to understand the independent position which the burgesses
assumed in the organization of the kingdom. Burgesses could
buy and possess property in towns, which knights were forbidden
to acquire; and though they could not intermarry with the
feudal classes, it was easy and regular for a burgess to thrive
to knighthood. Like the nobles, again, the burgesses had the
right of confirming royal grants and of taking part in legislation;
and they may be said to have formed — socially, politically and
judicially — an independent and powerful estate. Yet (with the
exception of Antioch, Tripoli and Acre in the course of the 13th
century) the Frankish towns never developed a communal
government: the domain of their development was private law
and commercial life.

Locally, the consideration of the system of justice administered
in the kingdom involves some account of three things — the
organization of the fiefs, the position of the Italian traders in
their quarters, and the privileges of the Church. Each fief was
organized like the kingdom. In each there was a court for the
noblesse, and a court (or courts) for the bourgeoisie. There were
some thirty-seven cours de bourgeoisie (several of the fiefs having
more than one), each of which was under the presidency of a
vicomte, while all were independent of the court of burgesses at
Jerusalem. Of the feudal courts there were some twenty-two.
Each of these followed the procedure and the law of the high
court; but each was independent of the high court, and formed
a sovereign court without any appeal. On the other hand, the
revolution wrought by Amalric I. in the status of the arriere-
vassaux, which made them members of the high court, allowed
them to carry their cases to Jerusalem in the first instance, if
they desired. Apart from this, the characteristic of seignorial
justice is its independence and its freedom from the central-
court; though, when we reflect that the central court is a court
of seigneurs, this characteristic is seen to be the logical result
of the whole system. Midway between the seignorial cours de
bourgeoisie and the privileged jurisdictions of the Italian quarter,
there were two kinds of courts of a commercial character — the
cours de la fonde in towns where trade was busy, and the cours
de la chaine in the sea-ports. The former courts, under their
bailiffs, gradually absorbed the separate courts which the Syrians
had at first been permitted to enjoy under their own rets; and
the bailiff with his 6 assessors (4 Syrians and 2 Franks) thus
came to judge both commercial cases and cases in which Syrians
were involved. The cours de la chaine, whose institution is
assigned to Amalric I. (1162-1174), had a civil jurisdiction in
admiralty cases, and, like the cours de la fonde, they were com-
posed of a bailiff and his assessors. Distinct from all these
courts, if similar in its sphere, is the court which the Italian
quarter generally enjoyed in each town under its own consuls —
a court privileged to try all but the graver cases, like murder,
theft and forgery. The court was part of the general immunity
which made these quarters imperia in imperio: their exemptions
from tolls and from financial contributions is parallel to their
judicial privileges. Regulated by their mother-town, both
in their trade and their government, these Italian quarters
outlasted the collapse of the kingd.om, and continued to exist
under Mahommedan rulers. The Church had its separate courts,
as in the West; but their province was perhaps greater than

elsewhere. The church courts could not indeed decide cases of
perjury; but, on the other hand, they tried all matters in which
clerical property was concerned, and all cases of dispute between
husband and wife. In other spheres the immunities and exemp-
tions of the Church offered a far more serious problem, and
especially in the sphere of finance. Perhaps the supreme defect
of the kingdom of Jerusalem was its want of any financial basis.
It is true that the king had a revenue, collected by the vicomte
and paid into the secretum or treasury — a revenue composed of
tolls on the caravans and customs from the ports, of the profits
of monopolies and the proceeds of justice, of poll-taxes on Jews
and Mahommedans, and of the tributes paid by Mahommedan
powers. But his expenditure was large: he had to pay his
feudatories; and he had to provide fiefs in money and kind to
those who had not fiefs of land. The contributions sent to the
Holy Land by the monarchs of western Europe, as commutations
in lieu of personal participation in crusades, might help; the
fatal policy of razzias against the neighbouring Mahommedan
powers might procure temporary resources; but what was really
necessary was a wide measure of native taxation, such as was
once, and once only, attempted in 1183. To any such measure
the privileges of the Italian quarters, and still more those of the
Church, were inimical. In spite of provisions somewhat parallel
to those of the English statute of mortmain, the clergy continued
to acquire fresh lands at the same time that they refused to
contribute to the defence of the kingdom, and rigorously exacted
the full quota of tithe from every source which they could tap,
and even from booty captured in war. The richest proprietor
in the Holy Land, 1 but practically immune from any charges
on its property, the Church helped, unconsciously, to ruin the
kingdom which it should have supported above all others. It
refused to throw its weight into the scale, and to strengthen
the hands of the king against an over-mighty nobility. On the
other hand, it must be admitted that the Church did not, after
the first struggle between Dagobert and Baldwin I., actively
oppose by any hierarchical pretensions the authority of the
crown. The assizes may speak of patriarch and king as conjoint
seigneurs in Jerusalem; but as a matter of fact the king could
secure the nomination of his own patriarch, and after Dagobert
the patriarchs are, with the temporary exception of Stephen
in 1 1 28, the confidants and supporters of the kings. It was the
two great orders of the Templars and the Hospitallers which
were, in reality, most dangerous to the kingdom. Honeycombed
as it was by immunities — of seigneurs, of Italian quarters, of
the clergy — the kingdom was most seriously impaired by these
overweening immunists, who, half-lay and half-clerical, took
advantage of their ambiguous position to escape from the duties
of either character. They built up great estates, especially in the
principality of Tripoli; they quarrelled with one another, until
their dissensions prevented any vigorous action; they struggled
against the claims of the clergy to tithes and to rights of juris-
diction; they negotiated with the Mahommedans as separate
powers; they conducted themselves towards the kings as
independent sovereigns. Yet their aid was as necessary as their
influence was noxious. Continually recruited from the West,
they retained the vigour which the native Franks of Palestine
gradually lost; and their corporate strength gave a weight to
their arms which made them indispensable.

In describing the organization of the kingdom, we have also
been describing the causes of its fall. It fell because it had
not the financial or political strength to survive. " Les vices du
gouvernement avaient ete plus puissants que les vertus des
gouvernants." But the vices were not only vices of the govern-
ment: they were also vices, partly inevitable, partly moral,
in the governing race itself. The climate was no doubt
responsible for much. The Franks of northern Europe attempted
to live a life that suited a northern climate under a southern sun.
They rode incessantly to battle over burning sands, in full armour

1 For instance, the abbey of Mount Sion had large possessions,
not only in the Holy Land (at Ascalon, Jaffa, Acre, Tyre, Caesarea
and Tarsus), but also in Sicily, Calabria, Lombardy, Spain and
France (at Orleans, Bourges and Poitiers).

CRUSADES

535

— chain mail, long shield and heavy casque — as if they were on
their native French soil. The ruling population was already
spread too thin for the work which it had to do; and exhausted
by its efforts, it gradually became extinct. A constant immigra-
tion from the West, bringing new blood and recruiting the stock,
could alone have maintained its vigour; and such immigration
never came. Little driblets of men might indeed be added to
the numbers of the Franks; but the great bodies of crusaders
either perished in Asia Minor, as in noi and 1147, or found
themselves thwarted and distrusted by the native Franks. It
was indeed one of the misfortunes of the kingdom that its
inhabitants could never welcome the reinforcements which
came to their aid. 1 The barons suspected the crusaders of
ulterior motives, and of designing to get new principalities for
themselves. In any case the native Frank, accustomed to
commercial intercourse and diplomatic negotiations with the
Mahommedans, could hardly share the unreasoning passion to
make a dash for the " infidel." As with the barons, so with the
burgesses: they profited too much by their intercourse with
the Mahommedans to abandon readily the way of peaceful
commerce, and they were far more ready to hinder than to help
any martial enterprise. Left to itself, the native population
lost physical and moral vigour. The barons alternated between
the extravagances of Western chivalry and the attractions of
Eastern luxury: they returned from the field to divans with
frescoed walls and floors of mosaic, Persian rugs and embroidered
silk hangings. Their houses, at any rate those in the towns,
had thus the characteristics of Moorish villas; and in them they
lived a Moorish life. Their sideboards were covered with the
copper and silver work of Eastern smiths and the confectioneries
of Damascus. They dressed in flowing robes of silk, and their
women wore oriental gauzes covered with sequins. Into these
divans where figures of this kind moved to the music of Saracen
instruments, there entered an inevitable voluptuousness and
corruption of manners. The hardships of war and the excesses
of peace shortened the lives of the men; the kingdom of Jeru-
salem had eleven kings within a century. While the men
died, the women, living in comparative indolence, lived longer
lives. They became regents to their young children; and the
experience of all medieval minorities reiterates the lesson — woe
to the land where the king is a child and the regent a woman.
Still worse was the frequent remarriage of widowed princesses
and heiresses. By the assizes of the high court, the widow, on
the death of her husband, took half of the estate for herself, and
half in guardianship for her children. Liberae ire cum terra,
widows carried their estates or titles to three or four husbands;
and as in 1 5th-century England, the influence of the heiress was
fatal to the peace of the country. At Antioch, for instance, after
the death of Bohemund II. in 1130, his widow Alice headed a
party in favour of the marriage of the heiress Constance to
Manuel of Constantinople, and did not scruple to enter into
negotiations with Zengi of Mosul. Her policy failed; and
Constance successively married Raymund of Antioch and
Raynald of Chatillon. The result was the renewed enmity of
the Greek empire, while the French adventurers who won the
prize ruined the prospects of the Franks by their conduct. In
the kingdom matters were almost worse. There was hardly any
regular succession to the throne; and Jerusalem, as Stubbs
writes, " suffered from the weakness of hereditary right and
the jealousies of the elective system " at one and the same time.
With the frequent remarriages of the heiresses of the kingdom,
relationships grew confused and family quarrels frequent;
and when Sibylla carried the crown to Guy de Lusignan, a new-
comer disliked by all the relatives of the crown, she sealed the
fate of the kingdom.
It may be doubted — though it seems a harsh verdict to pass
1 One must remember that these reinforcements would often
consist of desperate characters. It was one of the misfortunes of
Palestine that it served as a Botany Bay, to which the criminals
of the West were transported for penance. The natives, already
prone to the immorality which must infect a mixed population
living under a hot sun, the immorality which still infects a place like
Aden, were not improved by the addition of convicts.

on a kingdom founded by religious zeal on holy soil — whether
the kingdom possessed that moral basis which alone can give a
right of survival to any institution or organization. The crusad-
ing states had been founded by adventurers who thirsted for
gain; and the primitive appetite did not lose its edge with the
progress of time. We cannot be certain, indeed, how far the
Frankish lords oppressed their Syrian tenants: the stories of
such oppression have been discredited; while if we may trust
the evidence of a Mahommedan traveller, Ibn Jubair, the lot
of the Mahommedan who lived on Frankish manors was better
than it had been under their native lords. 2 But the habits of
the Franks were none the less habits of lawless greed: they
swooped down from their castles, as Raynald of Chatillon did
from Krak of the Desert, to capture Saracens and hold them to
ransom or to plunder caravans. The lust of unlawful gain had
infected the Frankish blood, as it seems to have infected England
during the Hundred Years' War; and in either case nemesis
infallibly came. The Moslems might have endured a state of
" infidels "; they could not endure a state of brigands.

6. The History of the Kingdom and the Crusades from the
Loss of Edessa in 1144 to the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187. — The
years 1143-1144 are in many ways the turning point in the
history of the Latin East. In 1143 began the reign of the first
native king; 3 and about this date may be placed the final
organization of the kingdom, witnessed by the completion of its
body of customary law. At the same date, however, the decline
of the kingdom also begins; the fall of Edessa is the beginning
of the end. In n 43 John Comnenus and Fulk had just died,
and Zengi, seeing his way clear, threw himself on the great
Christian outpost, against which the tides of Mahommedan
attack had so often vainly surged, and finally entered on Christ-
mas Day 1 144. Two years later Zengi died; but he left an able
successor in his son, Nureddin, and an attempt to recover
Edessa was successfully repelled in November 1146. Not only
so, but in the spring of 1147 the Franks were unwise enough to
allow the hope of gaining two small towns to induce them to
break the vital alliance with Damascus. Thus, in itself, the
position of affairs in the Holy Land in 1147 was certainly
ominous; and the kingdom might well seem dependent for its
safety on such aid as it might receive from the West.

Early in 1145 news had come from Antioch to Eugenius III.
of the fall of Edessa, and at the end of the year he had sent
an encyclical to France — the natural soil, as we have seen, of
crusading zeal. The response was instantaneous: the king of
France himself, who bore on his conscience the burden of an
unpunished massacre by his troops at Vitry in 1142, 4 took
the crusading vow on the Christmas day of 1145. But the
greatest success was attained when St Bernard — no great
believer in pilgrimages, and naturally disposed to doubt the
policy of a second Crusade — was induced by the pope to become
the preacher of the new movement. To the crusading king of

2 The manorial system in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was
a continuation of the village system as it had existed under the Arabs.
In each village {casale) the rustici were grouped in families (foci) :
the tenants paid from \ to % of the crop, besides a poll-tax and
labour-dues. The villages were mostly inhabited by Syrians: it
was rarely that Franks settled down as tillers of the soil. Prutz
regards the manorial system as oppressive. Absentee landlords, he
thinks, rack-rented the soil (p. 167), while the " inhuman severity "
of their treatment of villeins led to a progressive decay of agriculture,
destroyed the economic basis of the Latin kingdom, and led the
natives to welcome the invasion of Saladin (pp. 327-331).

The French writers Rey and Dodu are more kind to the Franks;
and the testimony of contemporary Arabic writers, who seem
favourably impressed by the treatment of their subjects by the
Franks, bears out their view, while the tone of the assizes is ad-
mittedly favourable to the Syrians. One must not forget that there
was a brisk native manufacture of carpets, pottery, ironwork,
gold-work and soap; or that the Syrians of the towns had a definite
legal position.

3 After 1 143 one may therefore speak of the period of the Epigoni —
the native Franks, ready to view the Moslems as joint occupants of
Syria, and to imitate the dress and habits of their neighbours.

4 Doubt has been cast on the view that a troubled conscience drove
Louis to take the cross ; and his action has been ascribed to simple
religious zeal (cf. Lavisse, Histoire de France, iii. 12).

S3 6

CRUSADES

France St Bernard added the king of Germany, when, in Christ-
mas week of 1146, he induced Conrad III. to take the vow by
his sermon in the cathedral of Spires. Thus was begun the
Second Crusade, 1 under auspices still more favourable than
those which attended the beginning of the First, seeing that
kings now took the place of knights, while the new crusaders
would no longer be penetrating into the wilds, but would find
a friendly basis of operations ready to their hands in Frankish
Syria. But the more favourable the auspices, the greater proved
the failure. Already at the final meeting at Etampes, in 1147,
difficulties arose. Manuel Comnenus demanded that all con-
quests made by the crusaders should be his fiefs; and the
question was debated whether the crusaders should follow the
land route through Hungary, along the old road of Charlemagne,
or should go by sea to the Holy Land. In this question the
envoys of Manuel and of Roger of Sicily, who were engaged in
hostilities with one another, took opposite sides. Conrad, related
by marriage to Manuel, decided in favour of the land route, which
Manuel desired because it brought the Crusade more under his
direction, and because, if the route by sea were followed, Roger'
of Sicily might be able to divert the crusading ships against
Constantinople. As it was, a struggle raged between Roger
and Manuel during the whole progress of the Crusade, which
greatly contributed towards its failure, preventing, as it did,
any assistance from the Eastern empire. Nor was there any
real unity among the crusaders themselves. The crusaders of
northern Germany never went to the Holy Land at all; they
were allowed the crusaders' privileges for attacking the Wends
to the east of the Elbe — a fact which at once attests the cleavage
between northern and southern Germany (intensified of late
years by the war of investitures), and anticipates the age of the
Teutonic knights and their long Crusade on the Baltic. The
crusaders of the Low Countries and of England took the sea
route, and attacked and captured Lisbon on their way, thus
helping to found the kingdom of Portugal, and achieving the one
real success which was gained by the Second Crusade. 2 Among
the great army of crusaders who actually marched to Jerusalem
there was little real unity. Conrad and Louis VII. started
separately, and at different times, in order to avoid dissensions
between their armies; and when they reached Asia Minor (after
encountering some difficulties in Greek territory) they still
acted separately* Eager to win the first spoils, the German
crusaders, who were in advance of the French, attempted a raid
into the sultanate of Iconium; but after a stern fight at Dory-
laeum they were forced to retreat (October 1147), and for the
most part perished by the way. Louis VII., who now appeared,
was induced by this failure to take the long and circuitous route
by the west coast of Asia Minor; but even so he had lost the
majority of his troops when he reached the Holy Land in 1148.
Here he joined Conrad (who had come by sea from Constanti-
nople) and Baldwin III., and after some deliberation the three

1 We speak of First, Second and Third Crusades, but, more
exactly, the Crusades were one continuous process. Scarcely a year
passed in which new bands did not come to the Holy Land. We
have already noticed the great if disastrous Crusade of iioo-noi,
and the Venetian Crusade of n 23-1 124; and we may also refer to
the Crusade of Henry the Lion in 1 172, and to that of Edward I. in
1271-1272 — all famous Crusades, which are not reckoned in the
usual numbering. Crusades appear to have been dignified by
numbers when they followed some crushing disaster — the loss of
Edessa in 1 144, or the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 — and were led by
kings and emperors; or when, like the Fourth and Fifth Crusades,
they achieved some conspicuous success or failure. But it is im-
portant to bear in mind the continuity of the Crusades — the constant
flow of new forces eastward and back again westward ; for this
alone explains why the Crusades formed a great epoch in civilization,
familiarizing, as they did, the West with the East.

2 This body of crusaders ultimately reached the Holy Land,
where it joined Conrad (who had lost his own original forces), and
helped in the fruitless siege of Damascus. The services which it
rendered to Portugal were repeated by later crusaders. Crusaders
from the Low Countries, England and the Scandinavian north took
the coast route round western Europe; and it was natural that,
landing for provisions and water, they should be asked, and should
consent, to lend their aid to the natives against the Moors. Such aid
is recorded to have been given on the Third and the Fifth Crusades.

sovereigns resolved to attack Damascus. The attack was
impolitic: Damascus was the one ally which could help the
Franks to stem the advance of Nureddin. It proved as futile
as it was impolitic; for the vizier of Damascus, Muin-eddin-
Anar, was able to sow dissension between the native Franks
and the crusaders; and by bribes and promises of tribute he
succeeded in inducing the former to make the siege an absolute
failure, at the end of only four days (July 28th, 1148). The
Second Crusade now collapsed. Conrad returned to Constanti-
nople in the autumn of 1148, and Louis VII. returned by sea
to France in the spring of 1149. The only effects of this great
movement were effects prejudicial to the ends towards which
it was directed. The position of the Franks in the Holy Land
was not improved by the attack on Damascus; while the
ignominious failure of a Crusade led by two kings brought the
whole crusading movement into discredit in western Europe,
and it was utterly in vain that Suger and St Bernard attempted
to gather a fresh Crusade in n 50.

The result of the failure of the Second Crusade was the renewal
of Nureddin's attacks. The rest of the county of Edessa,
including Tell-bashir on the west, was now conquered (1150);
while Raymund of Antioch was defeated and killed (in 1149),
and several towns in the east of his principality were captured.
Baldwin III. attempted to make head against these troubles,
partly by renewing the old alliance with Damascus, partly by
drawing closer to Manuel of Constantinople. For the next
twenty years, during the reigns of Baldwin and his brother
Amalric I., there is indeed a close connexion between the kingdom
of Jerusalem and the East Roman empire. Baldwin and Amalric
both married into the Comnenian house, while Manuel married
Mary of Antioch, the daughter of Raymund. In the north
Manuel enjoyed the homage of Antioch, which his father had
gained in 1137, and the nominal possession of Tell-bashir, which
had been ceded to him by Baldwin III. : in the south he joined
with Amalric I. in the attempt to acquire Egypt (1168-1171). In
this way he acquired a certain ascendancy over the Latin kings:
Baldwin III. rode behind him at Antioch in 1159 without any
of the insignia of royalty, and in an inscription at Bethlehem of
1 172 Amalric I. had the name of the emperor written above his
own. 3 The patronage of Constantinople, to which Jerusalem
was thus practically surrendered, contributed to some slight
extent in maintaining the kingdom against Nureddin. But
there were dissensions within, both between Baldwin and his
mother, Melisinda, who sought to protract her regency unduly,
and between contending parties in Antioch, where the hand of
Constance, Raymund's widow, was a desirable prize 4 ; while
from without the horns of the crescent were slowly closing in on
the kingdom. Nureddin pursued in his policy the tactics which
the Mahommedans used against the Franks in battle: he sought
to envelop their territories on every side. In 1 1 54 fell Damascus,
and the crescent closed perceptibly in the north: the most
valuable ally of the kingdom was lost, and the way seemed clear
from Aleppo (the peculiar seat of Nureddin's power) into Egypt.
On the other hand, in n 53 Baldwin III. had taken Ascalon,
which for fifty years had mocked the efforts of successive kings,
and by this stroke he might appear to have closed for Nureddin
the route to Egypt, and to have opened a path for its conquest
by the Franks. For the future, events hinged on the situation
of affairs in Egypt, and in Egypt the fate of the kingdom of
Jerusalem was finally decided (see Egypt: History, " Mahom-
medan Period "). There was a race for the possession of the
country between Nureddin's lieutenant Shlrgtih or Shirkuh and
Amalric I., the brother and successor of Baldwin III.; and in
the race Shirkuh proved the winner.

Since the days of Godfrey and Baldwin I., Egypt had been a

3 Manuel was an ambitious sovereign, apparently aiming at a
world-monarchy, such as was afterwards attempted from the other
side by Henry VI. As Henry VI. had designs on Constantinople
and the Eastern empire, so Manuel cherished the ambition of acquir-
ing Italy and the Western empire, and he negotiated with Alexander
III. to that end in 1167 and 1169: cf. the life of Alexander III. in
Muratori, S. R. I. iii. 460.

4 The prize was won by Raynald of Chatillon (q.v.).

CRUSADES

537

goal of Latin ambition, and the capture of Ascalon must obviously
have given form and strength to the projects for its conquest.
Plans of attack were sketched: routes were traced: distances
were measured; and finally in 1163 there came the impulse
from within which turned these plans into action. The Shiite
caliphs of Egypt were by this time the playthings of contending
viziers, as the Sunnite caliphs of Bagdad had long been the
puppets of Turkish sultans or amirs; and in 11 64 Amalric I.
and Nureddin were fighting in Egypt in support of two rival
viziers, Dirgham and Shawar. For Nureddin the fight meant
the acquisition of an heretical country for the true faith of the
Sunnite, and the final enveloping of the Latin kingdom: 1 for
Amalric it meant the escape from Nureddin's net, and a more
direct and lucrative contact with Eastern trade. Into the
vicissitudes of the fight it is not necessary here to enter; but in
the issue Nureddin won, in spite of the support which Manuel
gave to Amalric. Nureddin's Kurdish lieutenant, Shlrguh,
succeeded in establishing in power the vizier whom he favoured,
and finally in becoming vizier himself (January 1169) ; and when
he died, his nephew Saladin (Sala-ed-din) succeeded to his
position (March n 69), and made himself, on the death of the
caliph in n 71, sole ruler in Egypt. Thus the Shiite caliphate
became extinct: in the mosques of Cairo the name of the caliph
of Bagdad was now used; and the long-disunited Mahommedans
at last faced the Christians as a solid body. But nevertheless
the kingdom of Jerusalem continued almost unmenaced, and
practically undiminished, for the next sixteen years. If a
religious union had been effected between Egypt and northern
Syria, political disunion still remained; and the Franks were
safe as long as it lasted. Saladin acted as the peer of Nureddin
rather than as his subject; and the jealousy between the two
kept both inactive till the death of Nureddin in 1 1 74. Nureddin
only left a minor in his place: Amalric, who died in the same
year, left a son (Baldwin IV.) who was not only a minor but also
a leper; and thus the stage seemed cleared for Saladin. He
was confronted, however, by Raymund, count of Tripoli, the
one man of ability among the decadent Franks, who acted as
guardian of the kingdom; while he was also occupied in trying
to win for himself the Syrian possessions of Nureddin. The task
engaged his attention for nine years. Damascus he acquired as
early as n 74; but Raymund supported the heir of Nureddin
in his capital at Aleppo, and it was not until 1183 that Saladin
entered the city, and finally brought Egypt and northern Syria
under a single rule.

The hour of peril for the Latin kingdom had now at last struck.
It had done little to prepare itself for that hour. Repeated
appeals had been sent to the West from the beginning of the
Egyptian affair (1163) onwards; while in 1184-1185 a great
mission, on which the patriarch of Jerusalem and the masters
of the Templars and the Hospitallers were all present, came to
France and England, and offered the crown of Jerusalem to
Philip Augustus and Henry II. in turn, in order to secure their
presence in the Holy Land. 2 The only result of these appeals
was the rise of a regular system of taxation in France and
England, ad sustentationem Jerosolimitanae terrae, which starts
about 1 185 (though there had already been isolated taxes in
1 147 and 1 1 66), and which has been described as the beginning
of modern taxation. In the East itself, with the exception of
the tax of 1183, 3 nothing was done that was good, and two
things were done which were evil. Sibylla married her second
husband , Guy de Lusignan, in 1180 — a marriage destined to be
the cause of many dissensions; for Sibylla, the eldest daughter

1 Nureddin, unlike his father, was definitely animated by a religious
motive: he fought first and foremost against the Latins (and not,
like his father, against Moslem states), and he did so as a matter of
religious duty.

2 Henry II., as an Angevin, was the natural heir of the kingdom
of Jerusalem on the extinction of the line descended from Fulk of
Anjou. This explains the part played by Richard I. in deciding
the question of the succession during the Third Crusade.

3 The taxation levied in the West was also attempted in the East,
and in 1 183 a universal tax was levied in the kingdom of Jerusalem,
at the rate of 1 % on movables and 2 % on rents and revenues.
Cf. Dr A. Cartellieri, Philipp II. August, ii. pp. 3-18 and p. 85.

of Amalric I., carried to her husband— a French adventurer —
a presumptive title to the crown, which would never be admitted
without dispute. In 1186 Guy eventually became king, after
the death of Baldwin V. (Sibylla's son by her first marriage);
but his coronation was in violation of the promise given to
Raymund of Tripoli (that in the event of the death of Baldwin V.
without issue the succession should be determined by the pope,
the emperor and the kings of France and England), and Guy,
with a weak title, was unable to exercise any real control over
the kingdom. At this point another French adventurer, who
had already made himself somewhat of a name in Antioch, gave
the final blow to the kingdom. Raynald of Chatillon, the
second husband of Constance of Antioch, after languishing in
captivity from n 59 to n 76, had been granted the seignory of
Krak, to the east and south of the Dead Sea. From this point
of vantage he began depredations on the Red Sea (1182), building
a fleet, and seeking to attack Medina and Mecca — a policy which
may be interpreted either as mere buccaneering, or as a calculated
attempt to deal a blow at Mahommedanism in its very centre.
Driven from the Red Sea by Saladin, he turned from buccaneering
to brigandage, and infested the great trade-route from Damascus
to Egypt, which passed close by his seignory. In n 86 he
attacked a caravan in which the sister of Saladin was travelling,
thus violating a four years' truce, which, after some two years'
skirmishing, Saladin and Raymund of Tripoli had made in the
previous year owing to the general prevalence of famine. 4 The
coronation of one French adventurer and the conduct of another,
whom the first was unable to control, meant the ruin of the
kingdom; and Saladin at last delivered in full force his long-
deferred attack. The Crusade was now at last answered by the
counter-Crusade — the jihad; for though for many years past
Saladin had, in his attempt to acquire all the inheritance of
Nureddin, left Palestine unmenaced and intact, his ultimate aim
was always the holy war and the recovery of Jerusalem. The
acquisition of Aleppo could only make that supreme object more
readily attainable; and so Saladin had spent his time in acquiring
Aleppo, but only in order that he might ultimately " attain the
goal of his desires, and set the mosque of Asha free, to which Allah
once led in the night his servant Mahomet. " Thus it was on a
kingdom of crusaders who had lost the crusading spirit that a
new Crusade swept down; and Saladin's army in 1187 had the
spirit and the fire of the Latin crusaders of 1099. The tables
were turned; and fighting on their own soil for the recovery of
what was to them too a holy place, the Mahommedans easily
carried the day. At Tiberias a little squadron of the brethren
of the two Orders went down before Saladin's cavalry in May;
at Hattin the levy en masse of the kingdom, some 20,000 strong,
foolishly marching over a sandy plain under the heat of a July
sun, was utterly defeated; and after a fortnight's siege Jerusalem
capitulated (October 2nd, 1187). In the kingdom itself nothing
was left to the Latins by the end of n 89 except the city of Tyre;
and to the north of the kingdom they only held Antioch and
Tripoli, with the Hospitallers' fortress at Margat. The fingers
of the clock had been pushed back; once more things were as
they had been at the time of the First Crusade; once more the
West must arm itself for the holy war and the recovery of
Jerusalem — but now it must face a united Mahommedan world,
where in 1096 it had found political and religious dissension,
and it must attempt its vastly heavier task without the morning
freshness of a new religious impulse, and with something of the
weariness of a hundred years of struggle upon its shoulders.

7. The Forty Years' Crusade for the Recovery of Jerusalem,
1 189-1229. — The forty years from 1189 to 1229 form a period
of incessant crusading, occupied by Crusades of every kind.
There are the Third, Fifth and Sixth Crusades against the
" infidel " Mahommedans encamped in the Holy Land; there
is the Albigensian Crusade against the heretic Cathars; there
is the Fourth Crusade, directed in the issue against the schismatic

4 Stevenson argues (op. cit. p. 240) that this truce was already
practically dissolved before Raynald struck, and that Raynald's
" action may reasonably be viewed as the practical outcome* of the
feeling of a party."

538

CRUSADES

Greeks; lastly, there are the Crusades waged by the papacy
against revolted Christians — John of England and Frederick II.
Our concern lies with the first kind of Crusade, and with the
other three only so far as they bear on the first, and as they
illustrate the immense widening which the, term "Crusade"
now underwent — a widening accompanied by its inevitable
corollary of shallowness of motive and degradation of impulse.

The Third Crusade, 1189-1192. — Conrad of Montferrat was,
as much as any one man, responsible for the Third Crusade.
Compelled to leave the court of Constantinople, which he had
been serving, he had sailed for the Holy Land and reached Tyre
about three weeks after the battle of Hattin. He had saved
Tyre; and from it he sent his appeals to the West. Not the least
effective of these appeals was a great poster which he had
circulated in Europe, and which represented the Holy Sepulchre
denied by the horses of the Mahommedans. Meanwhile the
papacy, as soon as the news reached Rome, despatched encyclicals
throughout Europe; and soon a new Crusade was in full swing.
But the Third Crusade, unlike the First, does not spring from
the papacy, which was passing through one of its epochs of
depression; it springs from the lay power, which, represented
by the three strong monarchies of Germany, England and
France, was at this time dominant in Europe. In Germany it
was the solemn national diet of Mainz (Easter 1188) which
" swore the expedition " to the Holy Land; in France and
England the agreement of the two kings decided upon a joint
Crusade. The very means which Philip Augustus and Henry II.
took, in order to further the Crusade, show its lay aspect. A
scheme of taxation — the Saladin tithe — was imposed on all who
did not take the cross; and this' taxation, while on the one hand
it drove many to take the cross in order to escape its incidence,
on the other hand provided a necessary financial basis for military
operations. 1 The lay basis of the Third Crusade made it, in one
sense, the greatest of all Crusades, in which all the three great
monarchs of western Europe participated; but it also made it
a failure, for the kings of France and England, changing caelum,
non animum, carried their political rivalries into the movement,
in which it had been agreed that they should be sunk. Spiritu-
ally, therefore, the Third Crusade is inferior to the First, however
imposing it may be in its material aspects. Yet it must be
admitted that the idea of a spiritual regeneration accompanied
the crusading movement of 1188. Europe had sinned in the
face of God; otherwise Jerusalem would never have fallen;
and the idea of a spiritual reform from within, as the necessary
corollary and accompaniment of the expedition of Christianity
without, breathes in some of the papal letters, just as, during
the conciliar movement, the causa reformationis was blended
with the causa wnionis.

We may conceive of the Third Crusade under the figure of
a number of converging lines, all seeking to reach a common
centre. That centre is Acre. The siege of Acre, as arduous and
heroic in many of its episodes as the siege of Troy, had been
begun in the summer of 1189 by Guy de Lusignan, who, captured
by Saladin at the battle of Hattin, and released on parole, had
at once broken his word and returned to the attack. The army
which was besieging Acre was soon joined by various contingents ;
for Acre, after all, was the vital point, and its capture would
open the way to Jerusalem. Two of these contingents alone
concern us here — the German and the Anglo-French. Frederick
I. of Germany, using a diplomacy which corresponds to the
lay character of the Third Crusade, had sought to prepare his
way by embassies to the king of Hungary, the Eastern emperor
and the sultan of Iconium. Starting from Regensburg in May
1 1 89, the German army marched quietly through Hungary; but
difficulties arose, as they had arisen in 1147, as soon as the
frontiers of the Eastern empire were reached. The emperor
Isaac Angelus had not only the old grudge of all Eastern

1 The " economic " motive for taking the cross was strengthened
by the papal regulations in favour of debtors who joined the Crusade.
Thousands must have joined the Third Crusade in order to escape
paying either their taxes or the interest on their debts; and the
atmosphere of the gold-digger's camp (or of the cave of Adullam)
must have begun more than ever to characterize the crusading armies.

emperors against the " upstart " emperor of the West; he had
also allied himself with Saladin, in order to acquire for his
empire the patronage of the Holy Places and religious supremacy
in the Levant. The difficulties between Frederick and Isaac
Angelus became acute: in November 11 89 Frederick wrote
to his son Henry, asking him to induce the pope to preach a
Crusade against the schismatic Greeks. But terms were at last
arranged, and by the end of March 11 90 the Germans had all
crossed to the shores of Asia Minor. Taking a route midway
between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the
westerh route of Louis VII. in 1148, Frederick marched by
Philadelphia and Iconium, not without dust and heat, until he
reached the river Salof, in Armenian territory. Here, with the
burden of the day no w past, the fine old crusader — he had joined
before in the Second Crusade, forty years ago — perished by
accident in the river; and of all his fine army only a thousand
men won their way through, under his son, Frederick of Swabia,
to join the ranks before Acre (October 1 190) . The Anglo-French
detachment achieved a far greater immediate success. War had
indeed disturbed the original agreement of Gisors between
Philip Augustus and Henry II., but a new agreement was made
between Henry's successor, Richard I., and the French king at
Nonancourt (December 1189), by which the two' monarchs were
to meet at Vezelay next year, and then follow the sea route to the
Holy Land together. They met, and by different routes they
both reached Sicily, where they wintered together (1190-1191).
The enforced inactivity of a whole winter was the mother of
disputes and bad blood; and when Philip sailed for the Holy
Land, at the end of March 1191, the failure of the Crusade was
already decided. Richard soon followed; but while Philip
sailed straight for Acre, Richard occupied himself by the way
in conquering Cyprus — partly out of knight-errantry, and in
order to avenge an insult offered to his betrothed wife Berengaria
by the despot of the island, partly perhaps out of policy, and
in order to provide a basis of supplies and of operations for the
armies attempting to recover Palestine. In any case, he is the
founder of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus (for he afterwards sold
his new acquisition to Guy de Lusignan, who established a
dynasty in the island); and thereby he made possible the
survival of the institutions and assizes of Jerusalem, which
were continued in Cyprus until it was conquered by the Ottoman
Turks. From Cyprus Richard sailed to Acre, arriving on the
8th of June, and in little more than a month he was able, in
virtue of the large reinforcements he brought, and in spite of
dissensions in the Christian camp which he helped to foment,
to bring the two years' siege to a successful issue (July 12th,
1191)'. It was indeed time; the privations of the besiegers
during the previous winter had been terrible; and the position
of affairs had only been made worse by the dissensions between
Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, who had begun to
claim the crown in return for his services, and had, on the death
of Sibylla, the wife of Guy, reinforced his claim by a marriage
with her younger sister, Isabella. In these dissensions it was
inevitable that Philip Augustus and Richard I., already dis-
cordant, should take contrary sides; and while Richard naturally
sided with Guy de Lusignan, who came from his own county
of Poitou, Philip as naturally sided with Conrad. At the end
of July it was decided that Guy should remain king for his life,
and Conrad should be his successor; but as three days after-
wards Philip Augustus began his return to France (pleading
ill-health, but in reality eager to gain possession of Flanders),
the settlement availed little for the success of the Crusade.
Richard stayed in the Holy Land for another year, during which
he won a battle at Arsuf and refortified Jaffa. But far more
important than any hostilities are the negotiations which, for
the whole year, Richard conducted with Saladin. They show
the lay aspect of the Third Crusade; they anticipate the Crusade
of Frederick II. — for Richard was attempting to secure
the same concessions which Frederick secured by the same
means which he used. They show again the closer approxi-
mation and better understanding with the Mahommedans,
which marks this Crusade. Nothing is more striking in these

CRUSADES

539

respects than Richard's proposal that Saladin's brother should
marry his own sister Johanna and receive Jerusalem and the
contiguous towns on the coast. In the event, a peace was made
for three years (September 2nd, 1192), by which Lydda and
Ramlah were to be equally divided, Ascalon was to be destroyed,
and small bodies of crusaders were to be allowed to visit the
Holy Sepulchre. Meanwhile Conrad of Montferrat, at the very
instant when his superior ability had finally forced Richard to
recognize him as king, had been assassinated (April 1192):
Guy de Lusignan had bought Cyprus from Richard, and had
sailed away to establish himself there ; 1 and Henry of
Champagne, Richard's nephew, had been called to the throne of
Jerusalem, and had given himself a title by marrying Conrad's
widow, Isabella. In this condition Richard left the Holy Land,
when he began his eventful return, in October 1102. The
Crusade had failed — failed because a leaderless army, torn by
political dissensions and fighting on a foreign soil, could not
succeed against forces united by religious zeal under the banner
of a leader like Saladin. Yet it had at any rate saved for the
Christians the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli,
and some of the coast towns of the kingdom; 2 and if it had
failed to accomplish its object, it had left behind, none the less,
many important results. The difficulties which had arisen
between Isaac Angelus and Frederick Barbarossa contain the
germs of the Fourth Crusade; the negotiations between Richard
and Saladin contain the germs of the Sixth. National rivalries
had been accentuated and national differences brought into
prominence by the meeting of the nations in a common enter-
prise; while, on the other hand, Mahommedans and Christians
had fraternized as they had never done before during the progress
of a Crusade. But what the Third Crusade showed most clearly
was that the crusading movement was being lost to the papacy,
and becoming part of the demesne of the secular state — organized
by the state on its own basis of taxation, and conducted by the
state according to its own method of negotiation. This after all
is the great change ; and even the genius of an Innocent III.
" could not make undone what had once been done." On the

1 The Crusades in their course established a number of new states
or kingdoms. The First Crusade established the kingdom of Jeru-
salem (1100); the Third, the kingdom of Cyprus (1195); the
Fourth, the Latin empire of Constantinople (1204) ; while the long
Crusade bf the Teutonic knights on the coast of the Baltic led to the
rise of a new state east of the Vistula. The kingdom of Lesser
Armenia, established in 1195, may also be regarded as a result of
the Crusades. The history ot the kingdom of Jerusalem is part of
the history of the Crusades: the history of the other kingdoms or
states touches the history of the Crusades less vitally. But the
history of Cyprus is particularly important — and for two reasons.
In the first place, Cyprus was a natural and excellent basis of opera-
tions; it sent provisions to the crusaders in 1191, and again at the
siege of Damietta in 1219, while its advantages as a strategic basis
were proved by the exploits of Peter of Cyprus in the 14th century.
In the second place, as the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem fell, its
institutions and assizes were transplanted bodily to Cyprus, where
they survived until the island was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.
But the monarchy was stronger in Cyprus than in Jerusalem: the
fiefs were distributed by the monarch, and were smaller in extent;
while the feudatories had neither the collective powers of the haute
cour of Jerusalem, nor the individual privileges (such as jurisdiction
over the bourgeoisie), which had been enjoyed by the feudatories
of the old kingdom. Till 1489 the kingdom of Cyprus survived as an
independent monarchy, and its capital, Famagusta, was an important
centre of trade after the loss of the coast-towns in the kingdom of
Jerusalem. In 1489 it was acquired by Venice, which claimed the
island on the death of the last king, having adopted his widow (a
Venetian lady named Catarina Cornaro) as a daughter of the republic.
On the history of Cyprus, see Stubbs, Lectures on Medieval and
Modern History, 156-208. The history of the kingdom of Armenia is
closely connected with that of Cyprus. The Armenians in the
south-east of Asia M inor borrowed feudal institutions from the Franks
and the feudal vocabulary itself. The kingdom was involved in a
struggle with Antioch in the early part of the 13th century. Later,
it allied itself with the Mongols and fought against the Mamelukes,
to whom, however, it finally succumbed in 1375.

2 The kingdom of Jerusalem is thus from 1192 to its final fall a
strip of coast, to which it is the object of kings and crusaders to
annex Jerusalem and a line of communication connecting it with
the coast. This was practically the aim of Richard I.'s negotiations ;
and this was what Frederick II. for a time secured.

contrary, the thing once done would go further; and the state
would take up the name of Crusade in order to cover, and under
such cover to achieve, its own objects and ambitions, as in the
future it was destined again and again to do.

The Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204. — The history of the Fourth
Crusade is a history of the predominance of the lay motive, of
the attempt of the papacy to escape from that predominance,
and to establish its old direction of the Crusade, and of the
complete failure of its attempt. Until the accession of Innocent
III. in 1 1 98 the lay motive was supreme; and its representative
was Henry VI. — the greatest politician of his day, and in many
ways the greatest emperor since Charlemagne. In 1 195 Amalric,
the brother of Guy de Lusignan, and his successor in Cyprus,
sought the title of king from Henry and did homage; and at
the same time Leo of Lesser Armenia, in order to escape from
dependence on the Eastern empire, took the same course. Henry
thus gained a basis in the Levant; while the death of Saladin
in 1 193, followed by a civil war between his brother, Malik-al-
Adil, and his sons for the possession of his dominions, weakened
the position of the Mahommedans. As emperor, Henry was
eager to resume the imperial Crusade which had been stopped
by his father's death; while both as Frederick's successor and
as heir to the Norman kings of Sicily, who had again and again
waged war against the Eastern empire, he had an account to
settle with the rulers of Constantinople. The project of a
Crusade and of an attack on Constantinople wove themselves
into a single thread, in a way which very definitely anticipates
the Fourth Crusade of 1 202-1 204. In 1195 Henry took the
cross; some time before, he had already sent to Isaac Angelus
to demand compensation for the injuries done to Frederick I.,
along with the cession of all territories ever conquered by the
Norman kings of Sicily, and a fleet to co-operate with the new
Crusade. In the same year, however, Isaac was dethroned by
his brother, Alexius III.; but Henry married Isaac's daughter
Irene to his brother, Philip of Swabia, and thus attempted to
give the Hohenstaufen a new title and a valid claim against the
usurper Alexius. Thus armed he pushed forward the prepara-
tions for the Crusade in Germany — a Crusade whose first object
would have been an attack on Alexius III.; but in the middle
of his preparations he died in Sicily in the autumn of 11 97, and
the Crusade collapsed. Some results were, however, achieved
by a body of German crusaders which had sailed in advance of
Henry; by its influence Amalric of Cyprus succeeded Henry of
Champagne, who died in 1197, as king of Jerusalem, and a vassal
of the emperor thus became ruler in the Holy Land; while
the Teutonic order, which had begun as a hospital during the
siege of Acre (1190-1191), now received its organization. Some
of the coast towns, too, were recovered by the German crusaders,
especially Beirut; and in 1198 the new king Amalric II. was
able to make a truce with Malik-al-Adil for the next five years.

" The true heir of Henry VI.," Ranke has said, " is Innocent
III.," and nowhere is this more true than in respect of the
crusading movement. Throughout the course of his crowded
and magnificent pontificate, Innocent III. made the Crusade his
ultimate object, and attempted to bring it back to its old religious
basis and under its old papal direction. By the spring of 1200,
owing to Innocent's exertions, a new Crusade was in full progress,
especially in France, where Fulk of Neuilly played the part once
played by Peter the Hermit. Like the First Crusade, the Fourth
Crusade also — in its personnel, but not its direction — was a
French enterprise; and its leading members were French
feudatories like Theobald of Champagne (who was chosen leader
of the Crusade), Baldwin of Flanders (the future emperor of
Constantinople), and the count of Blois. The objective, which
these three original chiefs of the Fourth Crusade proposed to
themselves, was Egypt. 3 Since 1 163 the importance of acquiring
Egypt had, as we have seen, been definitely understood, and

3 M. Luchaire, in the volume of his biography of Innocent III.
called La Question d' Orient, shows how, in spite of the pope, the
Fourth Crusade was in its very beginnings a lay enterprise. The
crusading barons of France chose their own leader, and determined
their own route, without consulting Innocent.

54°

CRUSADES

in the summer of 1192 Richard I. had been advised by his
counsellors that Cairo and not Jerusalem was the true point of
attack; while in 1200 there was the additional reason for
preferring an attack on Egypt, that the truce in the Holy Land
between Amalric II. and Malik-al-Adil had still three years to
run. It is Egypt therefore — to which, it must be remembered,
the centre of Mahommedan power had now been virtually
shifted, and to which motives of trade impelled the Italian
towns (since from it they could easily reach the Red Sea, and
the commerce of the Indian Ocean) — it is Egypt which is hence-
forth the normal goal of the Crusades. This is one of the
many facts which differentiate the Crusades of the 13 th from
those of the preceding century. But, with Syria in the hands
of the Mahommedans, the attack on Egypt must necessarily
be directed by sea; and thus the Crusade henceforth becomes —
what the Third Crusade, here as elsewhere the turning-point in
crusading history, had already in part been — a maritime enter-
prise. Accordingly, early in 1201, envoys from each of the three
chiefs of the Fourth Crusade (among whom was Villehardouin,
the historian of the Crusade) came to Venice to negotiate for
a passage to Egypt. An agreement was made between the doge
and the envoys, by which transport and active help were to be
given by Venice in return for 85,000 marks and the cession of
half of the conquests made by the crusaders. But the Fourth
Crusade was not to be plain sailing to Egypt. It became involved
in a maelstrom of conflicting political motives, by which it was
swept to Constantinople. Here we must distinguish between
cause and occasion. There were three great causes which made
for an attack on Constantinople by the West. There was first
of all the old crusading grudge against the Eastern empire, and
its fatal policy of regarding the whole of the Levant as its lost
provinces, to be restored as soon as conquered, or at any rate held
in fee, by the Western crusaders — a policy which led the Eastern
emperors either to give niggardly aid or to pursue obstructive
tactics, and caused them to be blamed for the failure of the
Crusades in 1101, and 1149, and in 1190. It is significant of the
final result of these things that already in 1147 Roger of Sicily,
engaged in war with Manuel, had proposed the sea-route for
the Second Crusade, perhaps with some intention of diverting
it against Constantinople; and in the winter of n 89-1 190
Barbarossa, as we have seen, had actually thought and spoken
of an attack on Constantinople. In the second place, there was
the commercial grudge of Venice, which had only been given
large privileges by the Eastern empire to desire still larger,
and had, moreover, been annoyed not only by alterations
or revocations of those privileges, such as the usurper
Alexius III. had but recently attempted, but also by the
temporary destruction of their colony in Constantinople in n 71.
Lastly, and perhaps most of all, there is the old Norman blood-
feud with Constantinople, as old as the old Norse seeking for
Micklegarth, and keen and deadly ever since the Norman
conquest of the Greek themes in South Italy (1041 onwards).
The heirs of the Norman kings were the Hohenstaufen; and
we have already seen Henry VI. planning a Crusade which
would primarily have been directed against Constantinople.
It is this Hohenstaufen policy which becomes the primary
occasion of the diversion of the Fourth Crusade. Philip of
Swabia, engaged in a struggle with the papacy, found Innocent
III. planning a Guelph Crusade, which should be under the
direction of the church; and to this Guelph project he opposed
the Ghibelline plan of Henry VI., with such success that he
transmuted the Fourth Crusade into a political expedition against
Constantinople. To such a policy of transmutation he was
urged by two things. On the one hand, the death of the count
of Champagne (May 1201) had induced the crusaders to elect
as their leader Boniface of Montferrat, the brother of Conrad;
and Boniface was the cousin of Philip, and interested in Con-
stantinople, where not only Conrad, but another brother as well,
had served, and suffered for their service at the hands of their
masters. On the other hand Alexius, the son of the dethroned
Isaac Angelus, was related to Philip through his marriage with
Irene; and Alexius had escaped to the German court to urge

the restoration of his father. On Christmas day 1201, Philip,
Alexius and Boniface all met at Hagenau 1 and formulated
(one may suppose) a plan for the diversion of the Crusade.
Events played into their hands. When the crusaders gathered
at Venice in the autumn of 1202, it was found impossible to get
together the 85,000 marks promised to Venice. The Venetians —
already, perhaps, indoctrinated in the Hohenstaufen plan —
indicated to the leaders a way of meeting the difficulty: they
had only to lend their services to the republic for certain ends
which it desired to compass, and the debt was settled. The
conquest of Zara, a port on the Adriatic claimed by the Venetians
from the king of Hungary, was the only object overtly mentioned;
but the idea of the expedition to Constantinople was in the
air, and the crusaders knew what was ultimately expected
It took time and effort to bring them round to the diversion:
the pope — naturally enough — set his face sternly against the
project, the more as the usurper, Alexius III., was in negotiation
with him in order to win his support against the Hohenstaufen,
and Innocent hoped to find, as Alexius promised, a support and
a reinforcement for the Crusade in an alliance with the Greek
empire. But they came round none the less, in spite of Innocent's
renewed prohibitions. In November 1202 Zara was taken;
and at Zara the fatal decision was made. The young Alexius
joined the army; and in spite of the opposition of stern crusaders
like Simon de Montfort, who sailed away ultimately to Palestine,
he succeeded by large promises in inducing the army to follow
in his train to Constantinople. By the middle of July 1203
Constantinople was reached, the usurper was in flight, and Isaac
Angelus was restored to his throne. But when the time came
for Alexius to fulfil his promises, the difficulty which had arisen
at Venice in the autumn of 1202 repeated itself. Alexius's
resources were insufficient, and he had to beg the crusaders to
wait at Constantinople for a year in order that he might have
time. They waited; but the closer contact of a prolonged
stay only brought into fuller play the essential antipathy of the
Greek and the Latin. Continual friction developed at last into
the open fire of war; and in March 1204 the crusaders resolved
to storm Constantinople, and to divide among themselves the
Eastern empire. In April Constantinople was captured; in
May Baldwin of Flanders became the first Latin emperor of
Constantinople. Venice had her own reward; a Venetian,
Thomas Morosini, became patriarch; and the doge of Venice
added " a quarter and a half " of the Eastern empire — chiefly
the coasts and the islands — to the sphere of his sway. If
Venetian cupidity had not originally deflected the Crusade (and
it was the view of contemporary writers that Venice had com-
mitted her first treason against Christianity by diverting the
Crusade from Egypt in order to get commercial concessions
from Malik-al-Adil, 2 yet it had at any rate profited exceedingly
from that deflection; and the Hohenstaufen and their protege
Alexius only reaped dust and ashes. For, however Ghibelline
might be the original intention, the result was not commensurate
with the subtlety of the design, and the power of the pope was
rather increased than diminished by the event of the Crusade.
The crusaders appealed to Innocent to ratify the subjugation of
a schismatic people, and the union of the Eastern and Western
Churches; and Innocent, dazzled by the magic of the fait
accompli, not unwillingly acquiesced. He might soothe himself
by reflecting that the basis for the Crusade, which he had hoped
to find in Alexius III., was still more securely offered by Baldwin;
he could not but feel with pride that he had become " as it were
pope and apostolicus of a second world." Yet the result of the
Fourth Crusade was on the whole disastrous both for the papacy
and for the crusading movement. The pope had been forced to

1 As a matter of fact, there is some doubt whether Alexius arrived
in Germany before the spring of 1202. But there seems to be little
doubt of Philip's complicity in the diversion of the Fourth Crusade
to Constantinople (cf. M. Luchaire, La Question d'Orient, pp. 84-86).

2 It is true that in 1208 Venice received commercial concessions
from the court of Cairo. But this ex post facto argument is the sole
proof of this view ; and it is quite insufficient to prove the accusation.
Venice is not the primary agent in the deflection of the Fourth
Crusade.

CRUSADES

54i

see the helm of the Crusades wrenched from his grasp; and the
Albigensian Crusade against the heretics of southern France
was soon afterwards to show that the example could be followed,
and that the land-hunger of the north French baronage could
exploit a Crusade as successfully as ever did Hohenstaufen
policy leagued with Venetian cupidity. The Crusade lost its
elan when it became a move in a political game. If the Third
Crusade had been directed by the lay power towards the true
spiritual end of all Crusades, the Fourth was directed by the lay
power to- its own lay ends; and the political and commercial
motives, wh^ch were deeply implicit even in the First Crusade,
had now become dominantly explicit. In a simpler and more
immediate sense, the capture of Constantinople was detrimental
to the movement from which it sprang. The precarious empire
which had been founded in 1204 drained away all the vigorous
adventurers of the West for its support for many years to come,
and the Holy Land was starved to feed a land less holy, but
equally greedy of men. 1 No basis for the Crusades was ever to
be found in the Latin empire of the East; and Innocent, after
vainly hoping for the new Crusade which was to emerge from
Constantinople, was by 1208 compelled to return to the old idea
of a Crusade proceeding simply and immediately from the West
to the East.

The Fifth Crusade, 1218-1221. — The glow and the glamour of
the Crusades disappear save for the pathetic sunset splendours
of St Louis, as Dandolo dies, and gallant Villehardouin drops
his pen. But before St Louis sailed for Damietta there inter-
vened the miserable failure of one Crusade, and the secular and
diplomatic success of another. The Fifth Crusade is the last
which is started in that pontificate of Crusades — the pontificate
of Innocent III. It owed its origin to his feverish zeal for the
recovery of Jerusalem, rather than to any pressing need in the
Holy Land. Here there reigned, during the forty years of the
loss of Jerusalem, an almost unbroken peace. Malik-al-Adil,
the brother of Saladin, had by 1200 succeeded to his brother's
possessions not only in Egypt but also in Syria, and he granted
the Christians a series of truces (1198-1203, 1204-1210, 1211—
121 7). While the Holy Land was thus at peace, crusaders were
also being drawn elsewhere by the needs of the Latin empire of
Constantinople, or the attractions of the Albigensian Crusade. 2
But Innocent could never consent to forget Jerusalem, as long
as his right hand retained its cunning. The pathos of the
Children's Crusade of 1212 only nerved him to. fresh efforts.
A shepherd boy named Stephen had appeared in France, and
had induced thousands to follow his guidance: with his
boyish army he rode on a wagon southward to Marseilles,
promising to lead his followers dry-shod through the seas. In
Germany a child from Cologne, named Nicolas, gathered some
20,000 young crusaders by the like promises, and led them into
Italy. Stephen's army was kidnapped by slave-dealers and
sold into Egypt; while Nicolas's expedition left nothing behind
it but an after-echo in the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.
But for Innocent these outbursts of the revivalist element,
which always accompanied the Crusades, had their moral:
" the very children put us to shame," he wrote; " while we sleep

1 Already under Innocent III. the benefits of the Crusade were
promised to those who went to the assistance of the Latin empire
of the East.

2 In 1208 Innocent excommunicated Raymund VI. of Toulouse on
account of the murder of a papal legate who was attempting to
suppress Manichaeism, and offered all Catholics the right to occupy
and guard his territories. Thus was begun the First Crusade against
heresy. Raymund at once submitted to the pope, but the Crusade
continued none the less, because, as Luchaire says, " the baronage
of the north and centre of France had finished their preparations,"
and were resolved to annex the rich lands of the south. In this way
land-hunger exploited the Albigensian, as political and commercial
motives had helped to exploit the Fourth Crusade; and in the
former, as in the latter, Innocent had reluctantly to consent to the
results of the secular motives which had infected a spiritual enter-
prise. The Albigensian Crusades, however, belong to French history ;
and it can only be noted here that their ultimate result was the
absorption of the fertile lands, and the extinction of the peculiar
civilization, of southern France by the northern monarchy. (See the
article Albigenses.)

they go forth gladly to conquer the Holy Land." In the fourth
Lateran council of 1215 Innocent found his opportunity to
rekindle the flickering fires. Before this great gathering of all
Christian Europe he proclaimed a Crusade for the year 121 7,
and in common deliberation it was resolved that a truce of God
should reign for the next four years, while for the same time all
trade with the Levant should cease. Here were two things
attempted — neither, indeed, for the first time 3 — which 14th
century pamphleteers on the subject of the Crusades unanimously
advocate as the necessary conditions of success; there was to be
peace in Europe and a commercial war with Egypt. This
statesmanlike beginning of a Crusade, preached, as no Crusade
had ever been preached before, in a general council of all Europe,
presaged well for its success. In Germany (where Frederick II.
himself took the cross in this same year) a large body of crusaders
gathered together: in 1217 the south-east sent the duke of
Austria and the king of Hungary to the Holy Land; while in
1 218 an army from the north-west joined at Acre the forces of
the previous year. Egypt had already been indicated by Innocent
III. in 1 2 15 as the goal of attack, and it was accordingly resolved
to begin the Crusade by the siege of Damietta, on the eastern
delta of the Nile. The original leader of the Crusade was John
of Brienne, king of Jerusalem (who had succeeded Amalric II.,
marrying Maria, the daughter of Amalric's wife Isabella by her
former husband, Conrad of Montferrat); but after the end of
1 2 18 the cardinal legate Pelagius, fortified by papal letters,
claimed the command. In spite of dissensions between the
cardinal and the king, and in spite of the offers of Malik-al-Kamil
(who succeeded Malik-al-Adil at the end of 1218), the crusaders
finally carried the siege to a successful conclusion by the end of
1 2 19. The capture of Damietta was a considerable feat of arms,
but nothing was done to clinch the advantage which had been
won, and the whole of the year 1220 was spent by the crusaders
in Damietta, partly in consolidating their immediate position,
and partly in waiting for the arrival of Frederick II., who had
promised to appear in 122 1. Ini22i Hermann of Salza, the
master of the Teutonic order, along with the duke of Bavaria,
appeared in the camp before Damietta; and as it seemed useless
to wait any longer for Frederick II., 4 the cardinal, in spite of
the opposition of King John, gave the signal for the march on
Cairo. The army reached a fortress (erected by the sultan in
I2i9(afterwards, from 1221, the town of Mansura),and encamped
there at the end of July. Here the sultan reiterated terms which
he had already offered several times, before — the cession of most
of the kingdom of Jerusalem, the surrender of the cross (captured
by Saladin in n 87), and the restoration of all prisoners. King
John urged the acceptance of these terms. The legate insisted
on a large indemnity in addition: the negotiations failed, and
the sultan prepared for war. The crusaders were driven back
towards Damietta; and at the end of August 1221 Pelagius
had to make a treaty with Malik-al-Kamil, by which he gained
a free retreat and the surrender of the Holy Cross at the price
of the restoration of Damietta. The treaty was to last for eight
years, and could only be broken on the coming of a king or
emperor to the East. In pursuance of its terms the crusaders
evacuated Egypt, and the Fifth Crusade was at an end. It is
difficult to decide whether to blame the legate or the emperor
more for its failure. If Frederick had only come in person, a
single month of his presence might have meant everything:
if Pelagius had only listened to King John, the sultan was ready
to concede practically everything which was at issue. Unhappily
Frederick preferred to put his Sicilian house in order, and the
legate preferred to listen to the Italians, who had their own

3 A canon of the third Lateran council (1179) forbade traffic with
the Saracens in munitions of war; and this canon had^been renewed
by Innocent in the beginning of his pontificate.

4 He had promised the pope, at his coronation in 1220, to begin
his Crusade in August 1221. But he declared himself exhausted by
the expenses of his coronation; and Honorius III. consented to
defer his Crusade until March 1222. The letter of the pope informing
Pelagius of this delay is dated the 20th of June: it would probably
reach his hands after his departure from Damietta; and thus the
Cardinal gave the signal for the march, when, as he thought, the
emperor's coming was imminent.

542

CRUSADES

commercial reasons for wishing to establish a strong position
in Egypt, and to the Templars and Hospitallers, who did not
feel satisfied by the terms offered by the sultan, because he wished
to retain in his hands the two fortresses of Krak and Monreal.

The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229) succeeded as signally as the
Fifth Crusade had failed; but the circumstances under which it
took place and the means by which it was conducted made its
success still more disastrous than the failure of 1221. The last
Crusade had, after all, been under papal control: if Richard I.
had directed the Third Crusade, and the policy of the Hohen-
staufen and the Venetians had directed the Fourth, it was a papal
legate who had steered the Fifth to its ultimate fate. The
Crusade of Frederick II. in 1228-1220 finds its analogy in the
projected Crusade of Henry VI.; it is essentially lay. It is
unique in the annals of the Crusades. Alone of all Crusades
(though the Fourth Crusade offers some analogy) it was not
blessed but cursed by the papacy: alone of all the Crusades
it was conducted without a single act of hostility against the
Mahommedan. St Louis, the true type of the religious crusader,
once said that a layman ought only to argue with a blasphemer
against Christian law by running his sword into the bowels of
the blasphemer as far as it would go: 1 Frederick II. talked
amicably with all unbelievers, if one may trust Arabic accounts,
and he achieved by mere negotiation the recovery of Jerusalem,
for which men had vainly striven with the sword for the forty
years since 1187. It was in 121 5 that the leader of this strange
Crusade had first taken the vow ; it was twelve years afterwards
when he finally attempted to carry the vow into effective execu-
tion. Again and again he had excused himself to the pope, and
been excused by the pope, because the exigencies of his policy
in Germany or Sicily tied his hands. After the failure of the
Fifth Crusade — for which these delays were in part responsible —
HonoriusIII. had attempted to bind him more intimately to
the Holy Land by arranging a marriage with Isabella, the
daughter of John of Brienne, and the heiress of the kingdom of
Jerusalem. In 1 2 2 5 Frederick married Isabella, and immediately
after the marriage he assumed the title of king in right of his
wife, and exacted homage from the vassals of the kingdom. 2
It was thus as king of Jerusalem that Frederick began his
Crusade in the autumn of 1 227. Scarcely, however, had he sailed
from Brindisi when he fell sick of a fever which had been raging
for some time among the ranks of his army, while they waited
for the crossing. He sailed back to Otranto in order to recover
his health, but the new pope, Gregory IX., launched in hot anger
the bolt of excommunication, in the belief that Frederick was
malingering once more. None the less the emperor sailed on
his Crusade ir the summer of 1228, affording to astonished
Europe the spectacle of an excommunicated crusader, and
leaving his territories to be invaded by papal soldiers, whom
Gregory IX. professed to regard as crusaders against a non-
Christian king, and for whom he accordingly levied a tithe from
the churches of Europe. The paradox of Frederick's Crusade
is indeed astonishing. Here was a crusader against whom a
Crusade was proclaimed in his own territories; and when he
arrived in the Holy Land he found little obedience and many
insults from all but his own immediate followers. Yet by
adroit use of his powers of diplomacy, and by playing upon the
dissensions which raged between the descendants of Saladin's
brother (Malik-al-Adil), he was able, without striking a blow,
to conclude a treaty with the sultan of Egypt which gave him all
that Richard I. had vainly attempted to secure by arduous
fighting and patient negotiations. By the treaty of the 18th of
February 1229, which was to last for ten years, the sultan
conceded to Frederick, in addition to the coast towns already
in the possession of the Christians, Nazareth, Bethlehem and
Jerusalem, with a strip of territory connecting Jerusalem with
the port of Acre. As king of Jerusalem Frederick was now able

1 Joinville, ch. x.

2 John of Brienne had only ruled in right of his wife Mary. On
her death (1212) John might be regarded as only ruling " by the
courtesy of the kingdom " until her daughter Isabella was married,
when the husband would succeed. That, at any rate, was the view
Frederick II. took.

to enter his capital: as one under excommunication, he had to
see an interdict immediately fall on the city, and it was with his
own hands — for no churchman could perform the office — that
he had to take his crown from the altar of the church of the
Sepulchre, and crown himself king of his new kingdom. He
stayed in the Holy Land little more than a month after his
coronation; and leaving in May he soon overcame the papal
armies in Italy, and secured absolution from Gregory IX.
(August 1229). By his treaty with the sultan he had secured
for Christianity the last fifteen years of its possession of Jerusalem
(1 229-1 244): no man since Frederick II. has ever recovered
the holy places for the religion which holds them most holy.
Yet the church might ask, with some justice, whether the means
he had used were excused by the end which he had attained. After
all, there was nothing of the holy war about the Sixth Crusade:
there was simply huckstering, as in an Eastern bazaar, between
a free-thinking, semi-oriental king of Sicily and an Egyptian
sultan. It was indeed in the spirit of a king of Sicily, and not
in the spirit — though it was in the role — of a king of Jerusalem,
that Frederick had acted. It was from his Sicilian predecessors,
who had made trade treaties with Egypt, that he had learned
to make even the Crusade a matter of treaty. The Norman line
of Sicilian kings might be extinct; their policy lived after them
in their Hohenstaufen successors, and that policy, as it had
helped to divert the Fourth Crusade to the old Norman objective
of Constantinople, helped still more to give the Sixth Crusade
its secular, diplomatic, non-religious aspect.

Forty years of struggle ended in fifteen years' possession of
Jerusalem. During those fifteen years the kingdom of Jerusa-
lem was agitated by a struggle between the native barons,
championing the principle that sovereignty resided in the
collective baronage, and taking their stand on the assizes, and
Frederick II., claiming sovereignty for himself, and opposing
to the assizes the feudal law of Sicily. It is a struggle between
the king and the haute cour: it is a struggle between the aristo-
cratic feudalism of the Franks and the monarchical feudalism
of the Normans. Already in Cyprus, in the summer of 1228,
Frederick II. had insisted on the right of wardship which he
enjoyed as overlord of the island, 3 and he had appointed a
commission of five barons to exercise his rights. In 1229 this
commission was overthrown by John of Ibelin, lord of Beirut,
against whom it had taken proceedings. John of Beirut, like
many of the Cypriot barons, was also a baron of the kingdom
of Jerusalem; and resistance in the one kingdom could only
produce difficulties in the other. Difficulties quickly arose when
Frederick, in 1231, sent Marshal Richard to Syria as his legate.
This in itself was a serious matter; according to the assizes,
the barons maintained, the king must either personally reside
in the kingdom, or, in the event of his absence, be replaced by a
regency. The position became more difficult, when the legate
took steps against John of Beirut without any authorization
from the high court. A gild was formed at Acre — the gild of
St Adrian — which, if nominally religious in its origin, soon came
to represent the political opposition to Frederick, as was
significantly proved by its reception of the rebellious John of
Beirut as a member (1232). The opposition was successful: by
1233 Frederick had lost all hold on Cyprus, and only retained
Tyre in his own kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1236 he had to
promise to recognize fully the laws of the kingdom : and when,
in 1239, he was again excommunicated by Gregory IX., and a
new quarrel of papacy and empire began, he soon lost the last
vestiges of his power. Till 1 243 the party of Frederick had been
successful in retaining Tyre, and the baronial demand for a
regency had remained without effect; but in that year the
opposition, headed by the great family of Ibelin, succeeded,
under cover of asserting the rights of Alice of Cyprus to the
regency, in securing possession of Tyre, and the kingdom of
Jerusalem thus fell back into the power of the baronage. The
very next year (1244) Jerusalem was finally and for ever lost.
Its loss was the natural corollary of these dissensions. The

3 Amalric I. of Cyprus had done homage to Henry VI., from
whom he had received the title of king (1 195).

CRUSADES

543

treaty of Frederick with Malik-al-Kamil (d. 1238) had now-
expired, and new succours and new measures were needed for
the Holy Land. Theobald of Champagne had taken the cross
as early as 1230, and 1239 he sailed to Acre in spite of the
express prohibition of the pope, who, having quarrelled with
Frederick II., was eager to divert any succour from Jerusalem
itself, so long as Jerusalem belonged to his enemy. Theobald
was followed (1 240-1 241) by Richard of Cornwall, the brother
of Henry III., who, like his predecessor, had to sail in the teeth
of papal prohibitions; but neither of the two achieved any
permanent result, except the fortification of Ascalon. It was,
however, by their own folly that the Franks lost Jerusalem in
1244. They consented to ally themselves with the ruler of
Damascus against the sultan of Egypt; but in the battle of
Gaza they were deserted by their allies and heavily defeated
by Bibars, the Egyptian general and future Mameluke sultan
of Egypt. Jerusalem, which had already been plundered and
destroyed earlier in the year by Chorasmians (Khwarizmians),
was the prize of victory, and Ascalon also fell in 1247.

8. The Crusades of St Louis. — As the loss of Jerusalem in
1 187 produced the Third Crusade, so its loss in 1244 produced
the Seventh: as the preaching of the Fifth Crusade had taken
place in the Lateran council of 121 5, so that of the Seventh
Crusade began in the council of Lyons of 1 245. But the preaching
of the Crusade by Innocent IV. at Lyons was a curious thing.
On the one hand he repeated the provisions of the Fourth Lateran
council on behalf of the Crusade to the Holy Land ; on the other
hand he preached a Crusade against Frederick II., and promised
to all who would join the full benefits of absolution and remission
of sins. While the papacy thus bent its energies to the destruc-
tion of the Crusades in their genuine sense, and preferred to use
for its own political objects what was meant for Jerusalem, a
layman took up the derelict cause with all the religious zeal
which any pope had ever displayed. Paradoxically enough, it
was now the turn for the papacy to exploit the name of Crusade
for political ends, as the laity had done before; and it was left
to the laity to champion the spiritual meaning of the Crusade
even against the papacy. 1 It was at the end of the year in which
Jerusalem had fallen that St Louis had taken the cross, and by
all the means in his power he attempted to ensure the success
of his projected Crusade. He sought to mediate, though with
no success, between the pope and the emperor; he descended
to a whimsical piety, and took his courtiers by guile in distribut-
ing to them, at Christmas, clothing on which a cross had been
secretly stitched. He started in 1248 with a gallant company,
which contained his three brothers and the sieur de Joinville,
his biographer; and after wintering in Cyprus he directed his
army in the spring of 1249 against Egypt. The objective was
unexpected: it may have been chosen by St Louis, because he
knew how seriously the power of the sultan was undermined
by the Mamelukes, who were in
the very next year to depose the
Ayyubite dynasty, which had
reigned since 1171, and to sub-
stitute one of their number as
sultan. Damietta was taken with-
out a blow, and the march for Cairo
was begun, as it had been begun
by the legate Pelagius in 1221.
Again the invading army halted
before Mansura (December 1249);
again it had to retreat. The

1 It may be argued that the Crusade
against a revolted Christian like

Frederick II. was not misplaced, and

that the pope had a true sense of |

religious values when he attacked Malik-al-Adil II.
Frederick. The answer is partly that deposed 1240.
men like St Louis did think that the
Crusade was misplaced, and partly
that Frederick was really attacked not
as a revolted Christian, but as the
would-be unifier of Italy, the enemy
of the states of the church.

retreat became a rout. St Louis was captured, and a treaty
was made by which he had to consent to evacuate Damietta
and pay a ransom of 800,000 pieces of gold. Eventually
St Louis was released on surrendering Damietta and paying
one-half of his ransom, and by the middle of May 1250 he
reached Acre, having abandoned the Egyptian expedition.
For the next four years he stayed in the Holy Land, seeking to
do what he could for the establishing of the kingdom of Jerusalem.
He was able to do but little. The struggle of papacy and empire
paralysed Europe, and even in France itself there were few ready
to answer the calls for help which St Louis sent home from Acre.
The one answer was the Shepherds' Crusade, or Crusade of the
Pastoureaux — " a religious Jacquerie," as it has been called by
Dean Milman. It had some of the features of the Children's
Crusade of 121 2. That, too, had begun with a shepherd boy:
the leader of the Pastoureaux, like the leader of the children,
promised to lead his followers dry-shod through the seas; and
tradition even said that this leader, " the master of Hungary,"
as he was called, was the Stephen of the Children's Crusade.
But the anti-clerical feeling and action of the Shepherds was
new and ominous; and moved by its enormities the government
suppressed the new movement ruthlessly. None came to the aid
of St Louis; and in 1254, on the death of his mother Blanche,
the regent, he had to return to France.

The final collapse of the kingdom of Jerusalem had been
really determined by the battle of Gaza in 1244, and by the
deposition of the Ayyubite dynasty by the Mamelukes. The
Ayyubit.es had always been, on the whole, chivalrous and
tolerant: Saladin and his successors, Malik-al-Adil and Malik-al-
Kamil, had none of them shown an implacable enmity to the
Christians. The Mamelukes, who are analogous to the janissaries
of the Ottoman Turks, were made of sterner and more fanatical
stuff; and Bibars, the greatest of these Mamelukes, who had
commanded at Gaza in 1 244, had been one of the leaders in 1 2 50,
and was destined to become sultan in 1260, was the sternest
and most fanatical of them all. The Christians were, however,
able to maintain a footing in Syria for forty years after St Louis'
departure, not by reason of their own strength, but owing to two
powers which checked the advance of the Mamelukes. The first
of these was Damascus. The kingdom of Jerusalem, as we have
seen, had profited by the alliance of Damascus as early as 1130,
when the fear of the atabegs of Mosul had first drawn the two
together; and when Damascus had been acquired by the rule
of Mosul, the hostility between the house of Nureddin in
Damascus and Saladin in Egypt had still for a time preserved
the kingdom (from 1171 onwards). Saladin had united Egypt
and Damascus; but after his death dissensions broke out among
the members of his family, 2 which more than once led to wars
between Damascus and Cairo. It has already been noticed that
such a war between the sons of Malik-al-Adil accounts in large

2 The following table of the Ayyubite rulers serves to illustrate the text : —

Shadhy.

Shirguh.

Ayyub (both generals in the army of the Atabegs of Mosul).

Saladin
t H93-

I

Malik-al-Adil I.

t 1218.

i

Malik-al-Kamil,

Sultan of Egypt

t 1238.

Malik-al-Muazzam,

Sultan of Damascus,

j 1227.

J I

I Malik-al-Nasi*

Malik-al-SalihNajm of Kerak.

Malik-al-Ashraf,
ruler of Khelat,
and after 1227
of Damascus,
t 1237-

al-din Ayyub, sul
tan of Egypt, and
after 1 244 of Dam-
ascus, f 1249.

Turanshah, deposed 1250, and
succeeded by the Mameluke Aibek.

I
Malik-al-Salih Isma'il,
sultan of Damascus,
1237-1244. From
him Damascus
passed to Malik-al-
Salih Ayyub of
Egypt at the battle
of Gaza.

544

CRUSADES

measure for the success of the Sixth Crusade; and it has been
seen that the battle of Gaza was an act in the long drama of
strife between Egypt and northern Syria. The revolution in
Egypt in 1250 separated Damascus from Cairo more trenchantly
than they had ever been separated since 1171 : while a Mameluke
ruled in Cairo, Malik-al-Nasir of Aleppo was elected as sultan
by the emirs of Damascus. But an entirely new and far more
important factor in the affairs of the Levant was the extension
of the empire of the Mongols during the 13th century. That
empire had been founded by Jenghiz Khan in the first quarter
of the century; it stretched from Peking on the east to the
Euphrates and the Dnieper on the west. Two things gave the
Mongols an influence on the history of the Holy Land and the
fate of the Crusades. In the first place, the south-western
division of the empire, comprising Persia and Armenia, and
governed about 1250 by the Khan Hulaku or Hulagu, was
inevitably brought into relations, which were naturally hostile,
with the Mahommedan powers of Syria and Egypt. In the
second place, the Mongols of the 13th century were not as yet,
in any great numbers, Mahommedans; the official religion was
" Shamanism," but in the Mongol army there were many
Christians, the results of early Nestorian missions to the far East.
This last fact in particular caused western Europe to dream of
an alliance with the great khan " Prester John," who should
aid in the reconquest of Jerusalem and the final conversion to
Christianity of the whole continent of Asia. The Crusades thus
widen out, towards their close, into a general scheme for the
christianization of all the known world. 1 About 1220 James of
Vitry was already hoping that 4000 knights would, with the
assistance of the Mongols, recover Jerusalem; but it is in 1245
that the first definite sign of an alliance with the Mongols appears.
In that year Innocent IV. sent a Franciscan friar, Joannes de
Piano Carpini, to the Mongols of southern Russia, and despatched
a Dominican mission to Persia. Nothing came of either of these
missions; but through them Europe first began to know the
interior of Asia, for Carpini was conducted by the Mongols as far
as Karakorum, the capital of the great khan, on the borders
of China. Again in 1252 St Louis (who had already begun to
negotiate with the Mongols in the winter of 1 248-1 249) sent the
friar William of Rubruquis to the court of the great khan; but
again nothing came of the mission save an increase of geo-
graphical knowledge. It was in the year 1260 when it first
seemed likely that any results definitely affecting the course of
the Crusades would flow from the action of the Mongols. In
that year Hulagu, the khan of Persia, invaded Syria and captured
Damascus. His general, a Christian named Kitboga, marched
southwards to attack the Mamelukes of Egypt, but he was
beaten by Bibars (who in the same year became sultan of Egypt),
and Damascus fell into the hands of the Mamelukes. Once more,
in spite of Mongol intervention, Damascus and Cairo were united,
as they had been united in the hands of Saladin; once more
they were united in the hands of a devout Mahommedan, who
was resolved to extirpate the Christians from Syria.

While these things were taking place around them, the
Christians of the kingdom of Jerusalem only hastened their
own fall by internal dissensions which repeated the history of
the period preceding 1187. In part the war of Guelph and
Ghibelline fought itself out in the East; and while one party
demanded a regency, as in 1243, another argued for the recogni-
tion of Conrad, the son of Frederick II., as king. In part, again,
a commercial war raged between Venice and Genoa, which
attracted into its orbit all the various feuds and animosities of
the Levant (1257). Beaten in the war, the Genoese avenged
themselves for their defeat by an alliance with the Palaeologi,
which led to the loss of Constantinople by, the Latins (1261),
and to the collapse of the Latin empire after sixty years of
infirm and precarious existence. On a kingdom thus divided

1 Though Europe indulged in dreams of Mongol aid, the eventual
results of the extension of the Mongol Empire were prejudicial to
the Latin East. The sultans of Egypt were stirred to fresh activity
by the attacks of the Mongols; and as Syria became the battle-
ground of the two, the Latin principalities of Syria were fated to fall
as the prize of victory to one or other of the combatants.

against itself, and deprived of allies, the arm of Bibars soon fell
with crushing weight. The sultan, who had risen from a Mon-
golian slave to become a second Saladin, and who combined the
physique and audacity of a Danton with the tenacity and
religiosity of a Philip II., dealt blow after blow to the Franks of
the East. In 1265 fell Caesarea and Arsuf; in 1268 Antioch
was taken, and the principality of Bohemund and Tancred ceased
to exist. 2 In the years which followed on the loss of Antioch
several attempts were made in the West to meet the progress of
the new conqueror. In 1269 James the Conqueror of Aragon,
at the bidding of the pope, turned from the long Spanish Crusade
to a Crusade in the East in order to atone for his offences against
the law matrimonial. An opportune storm, however, gave the
king an excuse for returning home, as Frederick II. had done
in 1227; and though his followers reached Acre, they hardly
dared venture outside its walls, and returned home promptly
in the beginning of 1270. More serious were the plans and the
attempts of Charles of Anjou and Louis IX., in which the
Crusades may be said to have finally ended, save for sundry
disjointed epilogues in the 14th and 15th centuries.

Charles of Anjou had succeeded, as a result of the long
" crusade " waged by the papacy against the Hohenstaufen from
the council of Lyons to the battle of Tagliacozzo (1245-1268),
in establishing himself in the kingdom of Sicily. With the
kingdom of Frederick II. and Henry VI. he also took over their
policy— the " forward " policy in the East which had also been
followed by" the old Norman kings. On the one hand he aimed
at the conquest of Constantinople as Henry VI. had done before;
and by the treaty of Viterbo of 1267 he secured from the last
Latin emperor of the East, Baldwin II., a right of eventual
succession. On the other hand, like Frederick II., he aimed at
uniting the kingdom of Jerusalem with that of Sicily; and
here, too, he was able to provide himself with a title. On the
death of Conradin, Hugh of Cyprus had been recognized in the
East as king of Jerusalem (1269); but his pretensions were
opposed by Mary of Antioch, a granddaughter of Amalric II.,
who was prepared to bequeath her claims to Charles of Anjou,
and was therefore naturally supported by him. But the policy
of Charles, which thus prepared the way for a Crusade similar
to those of 1197 and 1202, was crossed by that of his brother
Louis IX. Already in 1267 St Louis had taken the cross a
second time, moved by. the news of Bibars' conquests; and
though the French baronage, including even Joinville himself,
refused to follow the lead of their king, Prince Edward of England
imitated his example. Louis had been led to think that the
bey of Tunis might be converted, and in that hope he resolved
to begin this eighth and last of the Crusades by an expedition
to Tunis. Charles, as anxious to attack Constantinople as he
was reluctant to attack Tunis, with which Sicily had long had
commercial relations, was forced to abandon his own plans
and to join in those of his brother. 3 St Louis had barely landed
in Tunis when he sickened and died, murmuring " Jerusalem,
Jerusalem " (August 1270); but Charles, who appeared immedi-
ately after his brother's death, was able to conduct the Crusade
to a successful conclusion. Negotiating in the spirit of a
Frederick II., and acting not as a Crusader but as a king of
Sicily, he not only wrested a large indemnity from the bey for
himself and the new king of France, but also secured a large
annual' tribute for his Sicilian exchequer. So ended the Eighth
Crusade — much as the Sixth had done — to the profound disgust
of many of the crusaders, including Prince Edward of England,
who only arrived on the eve of the conclusion of the treaty.
Baulked of any opportunity of joining in the main Crusade,
Edward, after wintering in Sicily, conducted a Crusade of his
own to Acre in the spring of 1271. For over a year he stayed in
the Holy Land, making little sallies from Acre, and negotiating

2 Of the four Latin principalities of the East, Edessa was the first
to fall, being extinguished between 1144 and 1 150. Antioch fell
in 1268; Tripoli in 1289; and the kingdom itself may be said to
end with the capture of Acre, 1291.

3 Michael Palaeologus had actually appealed to Louis IX. against
Charles of Anjou, who in 1270 had actively begun preparations for

I the attack on Constantinople.

CRUSADES

545

with the Mongols, but achieving no permanent results. He
returned home at the end of 1272, the last of the western
crusaders; and thus all the attempts of St Louis and Charles
of Anjou, of James of Aragon and Edward of England left Bibars
still in possession of all his conquests.

Two projects of Crusades were started before the final expulsion
of the Latins from Syria. In 1274, at the council of Lyons,
Gregory X., who had been the companion of Edward in the
Holy Land, preached the Crusade to an assembly which con-
tained envoys from the Mongol khan and Michael Palaeologus
as well as from many western princes. All the princes of western
Europe took the cross; not only so, but Gregory was successful
in uniting the Eastern and Western churches for the moment,
and in securing for the new Crusade the aid of the Palaeologi,
now thoroughly alarmed by the plans of Charles of Anjou. Thus
was a papal Crusade begun, backed by an alliance with Con-
stantinople, and thus were the plans of Charles of Anjou tem-
porarily thwarted. But in 1276 Gregory X. died, and all his
plans died with him; there was to be no union of the monarchs
of the West with the emperor of the East in a common Crusade.
Charles was able to resume his plans. In 1277 Mary of Antioch
ceded to him her claims, and he was able to establish himself
in Acre; in 1278 he took possession of the principality of Achaea.
With these bases at his disposal he began to prepare a new
Crusade, to be directed primarily (like that of Henry VI. in
1197, and like his own projected Crusade of 1270) against
Constantinople. Once more his plans were crossed finally and
fatally: the Sicilian Vespers, and the coronation of Peter of
Aragon as Sicilian king (1282), gave him troubles at home which
occupied him for the rest of his days. This was the last serious
attempt at a Crusade on behalf of the dying kingdom of Jerusalem
which was made in the West; and its collapse was quickly
followed by the final extinction of the kingdom. A precarious
peace had reigned in the Holy Land since 1272, when Bibars
had granted a truce of ten years; but the fall of the great power
of Charles of Anjou set free Kala'un the successor of Bibars' son
(who reigned little more than two years), to complete the work
of the great sultan. In 1289 Kala'un took Tripoli, and the
county of Tripoli was extinguished; in 1290 he died while
preparing to besiege Acre, which was captured after a brave
defence by his son and successor Khalil in 1291. Thus the
kingdom of Jerusalem came to an end. The Franks evacuated
Syria altogether, leaving behind them only the ruins of their
castles to bear witness, to this very day, of the Crusades they had
waged and the kingdom they had founded and lost.

9. The Ghost of the Crusades. — The loss of Acre failed to
stimulate the powers of Europe to any new effort. France,
always the natural home of the Crusades, was too fully occupied,
first by war with England and then by a struggle with the
papacy, to turn her energies towards the East. But it is often
the case that theory develops as practice fails; and as the
theory of the Holy Roman Empire was never more vigorous than
in the days of its decrepitude, so it was with the Crusades.
Particularly in the first quarter of the 14th century, writers
were busy in explaining the causes of the failures of past Crusades,
and in laying down the lines along which a new Crusade must
proceed. Several causes are recognized by these writers as
accounting for the failure of the Crusades. Some of them lay
the blame on the papacy; and it is true that the papacy had
contributed towards the decay of the Crusades when it had
allowed its own particular interests to overbear the general
welfare of Christianity, and had dignified with the name and the
benefits of a Crusade its own political war against the Hohen-
staufen. Others again find in the princes of Europe the authors
of the ruin of the Crusades; they too had preferred their own
national or dynastic interests to the cause of a common Chris-
tianity. They had indeed, as has been already noticed, done
even more; they had used the name of Crusade, from the days
of Henry VI. onwards, as a cover and an excuse for secular
ambitions of their own; and in this way they had certainly
helped, in very large measure, to discourage the old religious
zeal for the Holy War. Other writers, again, blame the com-
vii. 18

mercial cupidity of the Italian towns; of what avail, they asked
with no little justice, was the Crusade, when Venice and Genoa
destroyed the naval bases necessary for its success by their
internecine quarrels in the Levant (as in 1257), or — s.till worse—*
entered into commercial treaties with the common enemy
against whom the Crusades were directed? On the very eve
of the Fifth Crusade, Venice had concluded a commercial treaty
with Malik-al-Kamil of Egypt; just before the fall of Acre the
Genoese, the king of Aragon and the king of Sicily had all
concluded advantageous treaties with the sultan Kala'un. A
fourth cause, on which many writers dwelt, particularly at the
time when the suppression of the Templars was in question,
was the dissensions between the two orders of Templars and
Hospitallers, and the selfish policy of merely pursuing their own
interest which was followed by both in common. But one might
enumerate ad infinitum the causes of the failure of the Crusades.
It is simplest, as it is truest, to say that the Crusades did not fail
— they simply ceased; and they ceased because they were no
longer in joint with the times. The moral character of Europe
in 1300 was no longer the moral character of Europe in 1100;
and the Crusades, which had been the active and objective
embodiment of the other worldly Europe of 1 100, were alien to the
secular, legal, scholastic Europe of 1300. While Edward I. was
seeking to found a united kingdom in Great Britain; while the
Habsburgs were entrenching themselves in Austria; above all,
while Philippe le Bel and his legists were consolidating the French
monarchy on an absolutist basis, there could be little thought
of the holy war. These were hard-headed men of affairs — men
who would not lightly embark on joyous ventures, or seek for
an ideal San Grail; nor were the popes, doomed to the
Babylonian captivity for seventy long years at Avignon, able
to call down the spark from on high which should consume all
earthly ambitions in one great act of sacrifice.

But it is long before the death of any institution is recognized;
and it was inevitable that men should busy themselves in trying
to rekindle the dead embers into new life. Pierre Dubois, in a
pamphlet " De recuperatione Sanctae Terrae," addressed to
Edward I. in 1307, advocates a general council of Europe to
maintain peace and prevent the dissensions which — as, for
instance, in 1192 — had helped to cause the failure of past
Crusades. Along with this advocacy of internationalism goes
a plea for the disendowment of the Church, in order to provide
an adequate financial basis for the future Crusade. Other
proposals, made by men well acquainted with the East, are more
definitely practical and less political in their intention. A
blockade of Egypt by an international fleet, an alliance with
the Mongols, the union of the two great orders — these are the
three staple heads of these proposals. Something, indeed, was
attempted, if little was actually done, under each of these three
heads. The plan of an international fleet to coerce the Mahom-
medan is even to this day ineffective; but the Hospitallers,
who acquired a new basis by the conquest of Rhodes in 13 10,
used their fleet to enforce a partial and, on the whole, ineffective
blockade of the coast of the Levant. The union of the two
orders, already suggested at the council of Lyons in 1245, was
nominally achieved by the council of Vienne in 131 1; but
the so-called " union " was in reality the suppression of the
Templars, and the confiscation of all their resources by the
cupidity of Philippe le Bel. The alliance with the Mongols
remained, from the first to the last, something of a chimera;
and the last visionary hope vanished when the Mongols finally
embraced Mahommedanism, as, by the end of the 14th century,
they had almost universally done.

Isolated enterprises somewhat of the character of a Crusade,
but hardly serious enough to be dignified by that name, recur
during the 14th century. The French kings are all crusaders —
in name — until the beginning of the Hundred Years' War;
but the only crusader who ever carried war in Palestine and
sought to shake the hold of the Mamelukes on the Holy Land
was Peter I., king of Cyprus from 1359 to 1369. Peter founded
the order of the Sword for the delivery of Jerusalem; and
instigated by his chancellor, P. de Mezieres (one of the last of

546

CRUSADES

the theorists who speculated and wrote on the Crusades), he
attempted to revive the old crusading spirit throughout the west
of Europe. The mission which he undertook with his chancellor
for this purpose (1362-1365) only produced a crop of promises
or excuses from sovereigns like Edward III. or the Emperor
Charles IV.; and Peter was forced to begin the Crusade with
such volunteers as he could collect for himself. In the autumn
of 1365 he sacked Alexandria; in 1367 he ravaged the coast of
Syria, and inflicted serious damages on the sultan of Egypt.
But in 1369 he was assassinated, and the last romantic figure of
the Crusades died, leaving only the legacy of his memory to his
chancellor de Mezieres, who for nearly forty years longer con-
tinued to be the preacher of the Crusades to Europe, advocating
— what always continued to be the " dream of the old pilgrim " —
a new order of knights of the Passion of Christ for the recovery
and defence of Jerusalem. De Mezieres was the last to advocate
seriously, as Peter I. was the last to attempt, a Crusade after
the old fashion — an offensive war against Egypt for the recovery
of the Holy Sepulchre. 1 From 1350 onwards the Crusade
assumes a new aspect; it becomes defensive, and it is directed
against the Ottoman Turks, a tribe of Turcomans who had
established themselves in the sultanate of Iconium at the end
of the 13th century, during the confusion and displacement of
peoples which attended the Mongol invasions. As early as 1308
the Ottoman Turks had begun to settle in Europe; by 1350 they
had organized their terrible army of janissaries. They threatened
at once the debris of the old Latin empire in Greece and the
archipelago, and the relics of the Byzantine empire round
Constantinople; they menaced the Hospitallers in Rhodes and
the Lusignans in Cyprus. It was natural that the popes should
endeavour to form a coalition between the various Christian
powers which were threatened by the Turks; and Venice,
anxious to preserve her possessions in the Aegean, zealously
seconded their efforts. In 1344 a Crusade, in which Venice,
the Cypriots, and the Hospitallers all joined, ended in the
conquest of Smyrna; in 1345 another Crusade, led by Humbert,
dauphin of Vienne, ended in failure. The Turks continued
their progress; in 1363 they captured Philippopolis, and in 1365
they entered Adrianople; the whole Balkan peninsula was
threatened, and even Hungary itself seemed doomed. Already
in 1365 Urban VI. sought to unite the king of Hungary and the
king of Cyprus in a common Crusade against the Turks; but
it was not till 1396 that an attempt was at last made to supple-
ment by a land Crusade the naval Crusades of 1344 and 1345.
Master of Servia and of Bulgaria, as well as of Asia Minor, the
sultan Bayezid was now threatening Constantinople itself. To
arrest his progress, a Crusade, preached by Boniface IX.,
led by John the Fearless of Burgundy, and joined chiefly by
French knights, was directed down the valley of the Danube
into the Balkans; but the old faults stigmatized by de Mezieres,
divisio and propria voluntas, were the ruin of the crusading army,
and at the battle of Nicopolis it was signally defeated. Not the
Western Crusades but an Eastern rival, Timur (Tamerlane),
king of Transoxiana and conqueror of southern Russia and India,
was destined to arrest the progress of Bayezid; and from the
battle of Angora (1402) till the days of Murad II. (1422) the
Ottoman power was paralysed. Under Murad, however, it
rose to its old height. To meet the new danger a new union of
the churches of the East and the West was attempted. As in
1074 Gregory VII. had dreamed of such a union, to be followed
by a joint attack of East and West on the Seljuks, so in 1439,
at the council of Florence, a new union of the two churches was
again attempted and temporarily secured, in order that a united
Christendom might face the new Turkish danger. 2 The logical
result of the union was the Crusade of 1443. An army of cosmo-
politan adventurers, led by the Cardinal Caesarini, joined the

1 The dream of a Crusade to Jerusalem survived de Mezieres ; a
society which read " romaunts " of the Crusades, could not but
dream the dream. Henry V., whose father had fought with the
Teutonic knights on the Baltic, dreamed of a voyage to Jerusalem.

2 The union of 1274, conceded by the Palaeologi at the council of
Lyons in order to defeat the plans of Charles of Anjou, had only been
temporary

forces of Wladislaus of Poland and John Hunyadi of Transyl-
vania, and succeeded in forcing on Murad II. a truce of ten years
at Szegedin in 1444. But the crusaders broke the truce, to
which Caesarini had never consented; and, attempting to better
what was already good enough, they were defeated at Varna.
Here the last Crusade ended; and nine years afterwards,- in
1453, Mahommed II., the successor of Murad, captured Con-
stantinople. It was in vain that the popes sought to gather
a new Crusade for its recovery; Pius II., who had vowed to
join the crusade in person, only reached Ancona in 1464 to find
the crusaders deserting and to die. Yet the ghost of the Crusades
still lingered. It became a convention of diplomacy, designed
to cover any particularly sharp piece of policy which needed
some excuse; and the treaty of Granada, formed between
Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Aragon for the partition of Naples
in 1500, was excused as a thing necessary in the interests of
the Crusades. In a more noble fashion the Crusade survived in
the minds of the navigators; " Vasco da Gama, Christopher
Columbus, Albuquerque, and many others dreamed, and not
insincerely, that they were labouring for the deliverance of the
Holy Land, and they bore the Cross on their breasts." 3 " Don
Henrique's scheme," it has been said, ■" represents the final
effort of the crusading spirit; and the naval campaigns against
the Moslem in the Indian seas, in which it culminated, forty
years after Don Henrique's death, may be described as the last
Crusade." *

10. Results of the Crusades. — In one vital respect the result
of the Crusades may be written down as failure. They ended,
not in the occupation of- the East by the Christian West, but
in the conquest of the West by the Mahommedan East. The
Crusades began with the Seljukian Turk planted at Nicaea;
they ended with the Ottoman Turk entrenched by the Danube.
Nothing is more striking in history than the recession of Chris-
tianity in the East after the 13th century. In the 13th century
the whole of Europe was Christian; part of Asia Minor still
belonged to Greek Christianity, and there was a Christian
kingdom in Palestine. Nor was this all. A wide missionary
activity had begun in the 13 th century — an activity which was
the product of the Crusades and the contact with the Moslem
which they brought, but which yet helped to check the Crusades,
substituting as it did peaceful and spiritual conquests of souls
for the violence and materialism of even a Holy War. The
Eastern mission had been begun by St Francis, who had visited
and attempted to convert the sultan of Egypt during the Fifth
Crusade (1220) ; within a hundred years the little seed had grown
into a great tree. A great field for missionary enterprise opened
itself in the Mongol empire, in which, as has already been men-
tioned, there were many Christians to be found; and by 1350
this field had been so well worked that Christian missions and
Christian bishops were established from Persia to Peking, and
from the Dnieper to Tibet itself. But a Mahommedan reaction
came, thanks in large measure to the zeal of Timur; and central
Asia was lost to Christianity. Everywhere in the 1 5th century,
in Europe and in Asia, the crescent was victorious over the
cross; and Crusade and mission, whether one regards them as
complementary or inimical, perished together. 6

But the history of the Crusades must be viewed rather as a
chapter in the history of civilization in the West itself, than as
an extension of Western dominion or religion to the East. It
is a chapter very difficult to write, for while on the one hand an
ingenious and speculative historian may refer to the influence
of the Crusades almost everything which was thought or done
between 1100 and 1300, a cautious writer who seeks to find

3 Brehier, V&glise et VOrient, p. 347.

4 Cambridge Modern History, i. 11. It is perhaps worth remark-
ing that something of the old crusading spirit seems still to linger
in the movement of Russia towards Constantinople.

6 While from this point of view the Crusades appear as a failure,
it must not be forgotten that elsewhere than in the East Crusades
did attain some success. A Crusade won for Christianity the coast
of the eastern Baltic (see Teutonic Order) ; and the centuries
of the Spanish Crusade ended in the conquest of the whole of Spain
for Christianity.

CRUSADES

547

documentary evidence for every assertion may be rather inclined
to attribute to that influence little or nothing. 1 The dissolution of
feudalism, the development of towns, the growth of scholasticism,
all these and much more have been ascribed to the Crusades,
when in truth they were concomitants rather than results, or
at any rate, if in part the results of the Crusades, were in far
larger part the results of other things. At most, therefore, it
may be admitted that the Crusades contributed to the dissolution
of feudalism by putting property on the market and disturbing
the validity of titles; that they aided the development of towns
by vastly increasing the volume of trade; and that they
furthered the growth of scholasticism by bringing the West
into contact with the mind of the East. If we seek the peculiar
and definite results of the Crusades, we must turn to narrower
issues. In the first place, the Crusades represent the attempt
of a feudal system, bound under the law of primogeniture to
dispose of its younger sons. They are attempts at feudal
colonization; and as such they resulted in a number of colonies
— the kingdom of Jerusalem, the kingdom of Cyprus, the Latin
empire of Constantinople. They resulted too in a number of
" chartered companies " — that is to say, the three military
orders, which, beginning as charitable socities, developed into
military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into
chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable
territories. In the second place, as has already been noticed,
the Crusades represent the attempt of Western commerce to find
new and more easy routes to the wealth of the East; and in this
respect they led to various results. On the one hand they led
to the establishment of emporia in the East — for instance, Acre,
and after the fall of Acre Famagusta, both in their day g*eat
centres of Levantine trade. On the other hand, the commodities
which poured into Venice and Genoa from the East had to find
a route for their diffusion through Europe. The great route
was that which led from Venice over the Brenner and up the
Rhine to Bruges; and this route became the long red line of
municipal development, along which — in Lombardy, Germany
and Flanders — the great towns of the middle ages sprang to life.
Partly as a result of this trade, ever pushing its way farther east,
and partly as a result of the Asiatic missions, which were them-
selves an accompaniment and effect of the Crusades, a third
great result of the Crusades came to light in the 13th century —
the discovery of the interior of Asia, and an immense accession
to the sphere of geography. When one remembers that mis-
sionaries like Piano Carpini, and traders like the Venetian Polos,
either penetrated by land from Acre to Peking, or circum-
navigated southern Asia from Basra to Canton, one realizes that
there was, about 1300, a discovery of Asia as new and tremendous
as the discovery of America by Columbus two centuries later.
At the same time the old knowledge of nearer Asia was immensely
deepened. It has already been noticed how military reconnais-
sances of the routes to Egypt came to be made; but more
important were the guide-books, of which a great number were
written to guide the pilgrims from one sacred spot of Bible
history to another. There were medieval B aedekers in abundance
for the use of the annual flow of tourists, who were carried every
Easter by the vessels of the Italian towns or of the Orders to
visit the Holy Land and to bathe in Jordan, to gather palms,
and to see the miracle of fire at the Sepulchre.

Colonization, trade, geography — these then are three things
closely connected with the history of the Crusades. The
development of the art of war, and the growth of a systematic
taxation, are two debts which medieval Europe also owed to the
Crusades. Partly by contact with the Byzantines, partly by
conflict with the Mahommedans, the Franks learned new methods

'Authors like Heeren (Versuch einer Entwickelung der Folgen der
Kreuzziige) and Michaud (in the last volume of his Histoire des
croisades) fall into the error of assigning all things to the Crusades.
Even Prutz, in bis Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzziige, over-estimates
the influence ol the Crusades as a chapter in the history of civilization.
He depreciates unduly the Western civilization of the early middle
ages, and exalts the civilization of the Arabs; and starting from
these two premises, he concludes that modern civilization is the
offspring of the Crusades, which first brought East and West together.

both of building and of attacking fortifications. The concentric
castle, with its rings of walls, began to displace the old keep and
bailey with their single wall, as the crusaders brought back
news from the East. 2 The art of the sapper and miner, the use
of siege instruments like the mangonel, and the employment of
various " fires " as missiles, were all known among the Mahom-
medans; and in all these respects the Franks learned from their
enemies. The common use of armorial bearings, and the practice
of the tournament, may be Oriental in their origin; the latter
has its affinities with the equestrian exercises of the Jerid, and
the former, though of prehistoric antiquity, may have received
a new impulse from contact with the Arabs. The military
development which sprang from the Crusades is thus largely
a matter of borrowing; the financial development is independent
and indigenous in the West. As early as 1147 Louis VII. had
imposed a tax in the interests of the Crusades; and that tax
had been repeated by Louis, and imitated by Henry II. in 11 66,
while it had been still further extended in the Saladin tithe of
1 188. The taxation of 1166 is important as the first to fall on
" moveables "; the whole scheme of taxation may be regarded
as the beginning of a modern system of taxation. But it was not
only to the lay power that the Crusades gave an excuse for
taxation; the papacy also profited. Tithes for the Crusades
were first imposed on the clergy by Innocent III. at the Lateran
council of 1 2 15; and clerical taxation was thus part of the whole
statesmanlike project of the Fifth Crusade as it was sketched by
the great pope. Henceforth tithes for the Crusades are regular;
under Gregory IX. they become a great part of the papal resources
in the Crusade against the Hohenstaufen; and in the 16th
century they are still a normal part of the government of the
Church.

In many other ways the Europe over which the Crusades had
passed was different from the Europe of the nth century. In
the first place, many political changes had been wrought, largely
under its influence. Always in large part French, the Crusades
had on the whole contributed to exalt the prestige of France,
until it stood at the end of the 13th century the most considerable
power in Europe. It was France which had colonized the Levant ;
it was the French tongue which was used in the Levant; and
the results of the ancient and continuous connexion with the
East are still to be traced to-day. Of the other great powers of
Europe, England and Germany had been little changed by the
Crusades, save that Germany had been extended towards the
East by the conquests of the Teutonic Order; but the Eastern
empire had been profoundly modified, and the papacy had
suffered a great change. The Eastern empire had been for a
time annihilated by the movement which in 1095 it had helped to
evoke; and if it rose from its ashes in 1261 for two centuries
of renewed life, it was never more than the shadow of its old self,
with little hold on Asia Minor and less on Greece and the Archi-
pelago, which the Latins still continued to occupy until they were
finally conquered by the Ottoman Turks. The papacy, on the
other hand, had grown as a result of the Crusades. Popes had
preached them; popes had financed them; popes had sent their
legates to lead them. Through them the popes had deposed
the emperors of the West from their headship of the world,
partly because through the Crusades the popes were able to
direct the common Christianity of Europe in a foreign policy
of their own without consultation with the emperor, partly
because in the 13 th century they were ultimately able to direct
the Crusade itself against the empire. Yet while they had
magnified, the Crusades had also corrupted the papacy. They
became an instrument in its hands which it used to its own
undoing. It cried Crusade when there was no Crusade; and
the long Crusade against the Hohenstaufen, if it gave the papacy
an apparent victory, only served in the long run to lower its
2 It is difficult to decide how far Arabic models influenced ecclesi-
astical architecture in the West as a result of the Crusades._ Greater
freedom of moulding and the use of trefoil and cinquefoil may be,
but need not be, explained in this way. The pointed arch owes
nothing to the Arabs; it is already used in England in early Norman
work. Generally, one may say that Western architecture is inde-
pendent of the East.

548

CRUSADES

prestige in the eyes of Europe. When we turn from the sphere
of politics to the history of civilization and culture, we find the
effects of the Crusades as deeply impressed, if not so definitely
marked. The Crusades had sprung from the policy of a theo-
cratic government counting on the motive of otherworldliness ;
they had helped in their course to overthrow that motive, and
with it the government which it had made possible. In part
they had provided a field in which the layman could prove that
he too was a priest; in part they had brought the West into a
living and continuous contact with a new faith and a new
civilization. They had torn men loose from the ancestral
custom of home to walk in new ways and see new things and hear
new thoughts; and some broadening of view, some lessening
in the intensity of the old one-sidedness, was the inevitable
result. It is not so much that the West came into contact with
a particular civilization in the East, or borrowed from that
civilization; it is simply that the West came into contact with
something unlike itself, yet in many ways as high as, if not higher
than, itself. The spirit of Nathan der Weise may not have been
exactly the spirit engendered by the Crusades; and yet it is
not without reason that Lessing stages the fable which teaches
toleration in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. In any case the
accusations made against the Templars at the time of their
suppression prove that there was, at any rate in the ranks of
those who knew the East, too little of absolute orthodoxy.
While a new spirit which compares, and tolerates thus sprang
from the Crusades, the large sphere of new knowledge and
experience which they gave brought new material at once

for scientific thought and poetic imagination. Not only was
geography more studied; the Crusades gave a great impulse
to the writing of history, and produced, besides innumerable
other works, the greatest historical work of the middle ages —
the Historia transmarina of William of Tyre. Mathematics
received an impulse, largely, it is true, from the Arabs of Spain,
but also from the East; Leonardo Fibonacci, the first Christian
algebraist, had travelled in Syria and Egypt. The study of
Oriental languages began in connexion with the Christian
missions of the East; Raymond Lull, the indefatigable
missionary, induced the council of Vienne to decide on the
creation of six schools of Oriental languages in Europe (1311).
But the new field of poetic literature afforded by the Crusades
is still more striking than this development of science. New
poems in abundance dealt with the history of the Crusades,
either in a faithful narrative, like that of the Chanson of Am-
broise, which narrates the Third Crusade, or in a free and poetical
spirit, such as breathes in the Chanson a" Antioche. Nor was this
all. The Crusades.afforded new details which might be inserted
into old matters, and a new spirit which might be infused into
old subjects; and a crusading complexion thus came to be put
upon old tales like those of Arthur and Charlemagne. By the
side of these greater things it may seem little, and yet, just
because it is little, it is all the more significant that the Crusades
should have familiarized Europe with new plants, new fruits,
new manufactures, new colours, and new fashions in dress.
Sugar and maize; lemons, apricots and melons; cotton, muslin
and damask; lilac and purple (azure and gules are words derived

CRUSADES

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CRUSADES

from the Arabic) ; the use of powder and of glass mirrors, and
also of the rosary itself — all these things came to Europe from
the East and as a result of the Crusades. To this day there are
many Arabic words in the vocabulary of the languages of western
Europe which are a standing witness of the Crusades — words
relating to trade and seafaring, like tariff and corvette, or words
for musical instruments, like lute or the Elizabethan word
" naker."

When all is said, the Crusades remain a wonderful and per-
petually astonishing act in the great drama of human life. They
touched the summits of daring and devotion, if they also sank
into the deep abysms of shame. Motives of self-interest may
have lurked in them — otherworldly motives of buying salvation
for a little price, or worldly motives of achieving riches and
acquiring lands. Yet it would be treason to the majesty of
man's incessant struggle towards an ideal good, if one were to
deny that in and through the Crusades men strove for righteous-
ness' sake to extend the kingdom of God upon earth. Therefore
the tears and the blood that were shed were not unavailing;
the heroism and the chivalry were not wasted. Humanity is
the richer for the memory of those millions of men, who followed
the pillar of cloud and fire in the sure and certain hope of an
eternal reward. The ages were not dark in which Christianity
could gather itself together in a common cause, and carry the
flag of its faith to the grave of its Redeemer; nor can we but
give thanks for their memory, even if for us religion is of the
spirit, and Jerusalem in the heart of every man who believes in
Christ.

Literature. — In dealing with the literature of the Crusades, it is
perhaps better, though ideally less scientific, to begin with chronicles
and narratives rather than with documents. One of the results of
the Crusades, as has just been suggested above, was a great increase
in the writing of history. Crusaders themselves kept diaries or
itineraria; while home-keeping ecclesiastics in the West — monks
like Robert of Reims, abbots Tike Guibert of Nogent, archbishops
like Balderich of Dol — found a fertile subject for their pens in the
history of the Crusades. The history of a series of actions like the
Crusades must primarily be based on these accounts, and more
particularly on the former: narratives must precede documents
where one is dealing, not with the continuous life of an organized
kingdom, but with a number of enterprises — especially when those
enterprises have been, as in this case, excellently narrated by
contemporary writers.

I. Chronicles and Narratives of the Crusades — (l) Collections.
The authorities for the Crusades have been collected in Bongars,
Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611) (incomplete); Michaud,
Bibliotheque des croisades (Paris, 1829) (containing translations of
select passages in the authorities) ; the Recueil des historiens des
croisades, published by the Academie des Inscriptions (Paris, 1841
onwards) (the best general collection, containing many of the
Latin, Greek, Arabic and Armenian authorities, and also the text of
the assizes ; but sometimes poorly edited and still incomplete) ; and
the publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin (founded in 1875),
especially the Archives, of which two volumes were published in
1881 and 1884, and the volumes of the Revue, published yearly from
1893 to 1902, and containing not only new texts, but articles and
reviews of books which are of great service. (2) Particular authorities.
The Crusades — a movement which engaged all Europe and brought
the East into contact with the West — must necessarily be studied
not only in the Latin authorities of Europe and of Palestine, but also
in Byzantine, Armenian and Arabic writers. There are thus some
four or five different points of view to be considered.

The First Crusade, far more than any other, became the theme of
a multitude of writings, whose different degrees of value it is all-
important to distinguish. Until about 1840 the authority followed
for its history was naturally the great work of William of Tyre.
For the First Crusade William had followed Albert of Aix; and he
had consequently depicted Peter the Hermit as the prime mover
in the Crusade. But about 1840 Ranke suggested, and von Sybel
in his Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges proved, that Albert of Aix was
not a good authority, and that consequently William of Tyre must
be set aside for the history of the First Crusade, and other and more
contemporary authorities used. In writing his account of the First
Crusade, von Sybel accordingly based himself on the three con-
temporary Western authorities — the Gesta Francorum, Raymond of
Agiles, and Fulcher. His view of the value of Albert of Aix, and his
account of the First Crusade, have been generally followed (Kugler
alone having attempted, to some extent, to rehabilitate Albert of
Aix) ; and thus von Sybel's work may be said to mark a revolution
in the history of the First Crusade, when its legendary features were
stripped away, and its real progress was first properly discovered.

Taking the Western authorities for the First Crusade separately,

one may divide them, in the light of von Sybel's work, into four
kinds — the accounts of eye-witnesses; later compilations based on
these accounts; semi-legendary and legendary narratives; and
lastly, in a class by itself, the " History " of William of Tyre, who
is rather a scientific historian than a chronicler.

(a) The three chief eye-witnesses are the anonymous author of the
Gesta Francorum, Raymund of Agiles, and Fulcher. The anonymous
author of the Gesta (see Hagenmeyer's edition, Heidelberg, 1890)
was a Norman of South Italy, who followed Bohemund, ancf accord-
ingly depicts the progress of the First Crusade from a Norman point
of view. He was a layman, marching and fighting in the ranks;
and thus he is additionally valuable as representing the opinion of
the ordinary crusader. Finally he was an eye-witness throughout,
and absolutely contemporary, in the sense that he wrote his account
of each great event practically at the time of the event. He is
the primary authority for the First Crusade. Raymund of Agiles, a
Provencal clerk and a follower of Raymund of Toulouse, writes his
Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem from the Provencal
point of view. He gives an ecclesiastic's account of the First Crusade,
and is specially full on the spiritualistic phenomena which accom-
panied and followed the finding of the Holy Lance. His book might
almost be called the " Visions of Peter Bartholomew and others,"
and it is written in the plain matter-of-fact manner of Defoe's
narratives. He too was an eye-witness throughout, and thoroughly
honest; and his account ranks second to the Gesta. Fulcher of
Chartres originally followed Robert of Normandy, but in October
1097 he joined Baldwin of Lorraine in his expedition to Edessa,
and afterwards followed his fortunes. His Historia Hierosolymitana,
which extends to 1 127, and embraces not only the history of the First
Crusade, but also that of the foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem,
is written on the whole from a Lotharingian point of view, and is
thus a natural complement to the accounts of the Anonymus and
Raymund. His account of the First Crusade itself is poor (he was
absent at Edessa during its course), but otherwise he is an excellent
authority. A kindly old pedant, Fulcher interlards his history with
much discourse on geography, zoology and sacred history. Besides
these three chief eye-witnesses we may also mention the Annates
Genuenses by the Genoese consul Caffarus, 1 and the Annates Pisani
of Bernardus Marago, useful as giving the mercantile and Italian
side of the Crusade; the Hierosolymita of Ekkehard, the German
abbot of Aura, who first came to Jerusalem about 1 101 (partly based
on the Gesta, but also of independent value: see Hagenmeyer's
edition, Tubingen, 1877); and Raoul of Caen's Gesta Tancredi,
composed on the basis of information supplied by Tancred himself.
The last two works, if not actually the works of eye-witnesses, are
at any rate first-hand, and belong to the category of primary writers
rather than to that of later compilations. Finally, to contemporary
writers we may add contemporary letters, especially those written
by- Stephen of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont, and the three letters
sent to the West by the crusading princes during the First Crusade
(see Hagenmeyer, Epistulae et Chartae, &c, Innsbruck, 1901). 2

(b) The later compilations are chiefly based on the Gesta, whose
uncouth style many writers set themselves to mend. In the first
place, there is the Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere of Tudebod,
which according to Besly, writing in 1641, is the original from
which the Gesta was a mere plagiarism — an absolute inversion of the
truth, as von Sybel first proved two centuries later. Secondly,
besides the plagiarist Tudebod, there are the artistic redacteurs of
the Gesta, who confess their indebtedness, but plead the bad style of
their original — Guibert of Nogent, Balderich of Dol, Robert of Reims
(all c. 1120-1130), and Fulco, the author of a Virgilian poem on the
Crusades, continued by Gilo {ob. c. 1 142). Of these, the monk Robert
was more popular in the middle ages than either the pompous abbot
Guibert or the quiet garden-loving archbishop of Dol.

(c) The growth of a legend, or perhaps better, a saga of the First
Crusade began, according to von Sybel, even during the Crusade
itself. The basis of this growth is partly the story-telling instinct
innate in all men, which loves to heighten an effect, sharpen a point
or increase a contrast — the instinct which breathes in Icelandic
sagas like that of Burnt Njal; partly the instinct of idolization,
if it may be so called, which leads to the perversion into impossible
greatness of an approved character, and has created, in this instance,
the legendary figures of Peter the Hermit and Godfrey of Bouillon
iqq.v.) ; partly the religious impulse, which counted nothing wonder-
ful in a holy war, and imported miraculous elements even into the
sober pages of the Gesta. These instincts and impulses would be at
work already among the soldiers during the Crusade, producing a
saga all the more readily, as there were poets in the camp; for we
know that a certain Richard, who joined the First Crusade, sang
its exploits in verse, while still more famous is the princely troubadour,
William of Aquitaine, who joined the Crusade of 1100. If we are
to follow von Sybel rather than Kugler, this saga of the First
Crusade found one of its earliest expressions (c. 1120) in the prose
work of Albert of Aix (Historia Hierosolymitana) — genuine saga in its

1 His somewhat legendary treatise, De liberatione civitatum
Orientis, was only composed about 1 155.

2 There is also an Inventaire critique of these letters by the comte
de Riant (Paris, 1880).

CRUSADES

$S*

inconsistencies, its errors of chronology and topography, its poet-
ical colour, and its living descriptions of battles. Kugler, however,
regards Albert as a copyist, somewhat in the manner of Tudebod,
of an unknown writer of value, who belonged to the Lotharingian
ranks during the Crusade, and settled in the kingdom of Jerusalem
afterwards (see Kugler, Albert von Aachen, Stuttgart, 1885). * In
the Chanson des chetifs and the Chanson d'Antioche the legend of the
Crusades more certainly finds its expression. The former, composed
at Antioch about 1 130, contained an idolization of the Hermit:
the latter is a poem written about 1180 by Graindor of Douai, who
used as his basis the verses of the crusader Richard (see the edition
of P. Paris, 1848). It shows the growth of the legend that Graindor
regards the vision of the Hermit as responsible for the Crusade,
and makes the Crusade led by him precede, and indeed occasion by
its failure, the meeting at Clermont (which is dated in May instead
of November). Into the legendary overgrowth of the First Crusade
we cannot here enter any further 2 ; but it is perhaps worth while
to mention that the French legend of the Third Crusade equally
perverted the truth; making Richard I. return home in disgrace,
while Philip Augustus stays, captures Damascus and mortally
wounds Saladin (cf. G. Paris, L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, Paris,
1897; Introduction).

id) William of Tyre is the scientific historian and rationalizer,
weaving into a harmonious account, which was followed by his-
torians for centuries, the sober accounts of eye-witnesses and the
picturesque details of the saga — with somewhat of a bias towards
the latter in regard to the First Crusade. He was a native of Pales-
tine, born about 1 130, and educated in the West. On his return he
was happy in winning the good opinion of Amalric I. ; he was made
first canon and then archdeacon of Tyre, and tutor of the future
Baldwin IV. (1170); while on Baldwin's accession he became
chancellor of the kingdom and archbishop of Tyre (1174-1175).
He was a man often employed on missions and negotiations, and as
chancellor he had in his care the archives of the kingdom. His
temper was naturally that of a trimmer; and he had thus many
qualifications for the writing of well-informed and unbiassed history,
fie knew Greek and Arabic; and he was well acquainted with the
affairs of Constantinople, to which he went at least twice on political
business, and with the history of the Mahommedan powers, on which
he had written a work (now lost) at the command of Amalric. It was
Amalric also who set him to write the history of the Crusades which
we still possess (in twenty-two books, with a fragment of a twenty-
third) — the Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum. He
wrote the book at different times between 1170 and 1183, when it
abruptly ends, and its author as abruptly disappears from sight.
The book falls into two parts, the first (books i.-xv.) derivative, the
second (books xvi.-xxiii.) original. In the second part he had his
own knowledge of events and the information of his contemporaries
as his source: in the first he used the same authorities which we
still possess — the Gesta, Fulcher, and Albert of Aix— in somewhat
of an eclectic spirit, choosing now here, now there, according as he
could best weave a pleasant narrative, but not according to any real
critical principle. His book thus begins to be a real authority only
from the date of the Second Crusade onwards; but the perfection
of his form (for he is one of the greatest stylists of the middle ages)
and the prestige of his position conspired to make his book the one
authority for the whole history of the first century of the Crusades.
Nor was he (apart from his reception of legendary elements into his
narrative) unworthy of the honour in which he was held; for he is
really a great historian, in the form of his matter and in hisconception
of his subject — diligent, impartial, well-informed and interesting, if
somewhat rhetorical in style and vague in chronology.

[During the middle ages his work was current in a French trans-
lation, known as the Chronique d'outremer, or the Livre or Roman
d'Hracles (so called from the reference at the beginning to the
emperor Heraclius). This translation also contained a continuation
by various hands down to 1277 ; while besides the continuation
embedded in the Livre d'Eracles, there are separate continuations,
of the nature of independent works, by Ernoul and Bernard the
Treasurer. These latter cover the period from 11 83 to 1228; and
of the two Ernoul's account seems primary, while that of Bernard
is in large part a mere copy of Ernoul. But the whole subject of
the contmuators of William of Tyre is dubious.]

To the Western authorities for the First Crusade must be added
the Eastern — Byzantine, Arabic and Armenian. Of these the
Byzantine authority, the Alexiad of Anna Comnena, is most im-
portant, partly from the position of the authoress, partly from the
many points of contact between the Byzantine empire and the
crusaders. Anna's narrative both furnishes a useful corrective of

1 Von Sybel's view must be modified by that of Kugler, to which a
scholar like Hagenmeyer has to some extent given his adhesion (cf .
his edition of the Gesta, pp. 62-68). Hagenmeyer inclines to believe
in an original author, distinct from Albert the copyist; and he
thinks that this original author (whether or no he was present during
the Crusade) used the Gesta and also Fulcher, though he had probably
also " eigene Notizen und Aufzeichnungen."

2 See Pigonneau, Le Cycle de la croisade, &c. (Paris, 1877); and
Hagenmeyer, Peter der Eremite (Leipzig, 1879).

the prejudiced Western accounts of Alexius, and serves to bring
Bohemund forward into his proper prominence. The Armenian
view of the First Crusade and of Baldwin's principality of Edessa is
presented in the Armenian Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa. There
is little in Arabic bearing on the First Crusade : the Arabic authorities
only begin to be of value with the rise of the atabegs of Mosul (c.
1 127). But Kemal-ud-din's History of Aleppo (composed in the
13th century) contains some details on the history of the First
Crusade; and the Vie d'Ousama (the autobiography of a sheik at
Caesarea in northern Syria, edited and paraphrased by Derenbourg
in the Publications de VEcole des langues orientates v%vantes) presents
the point of view of an Arab whose life covered the first century of
the Crusades (1095-1188).

For the Second Crusade the primary authority in the West is the
work of Odo de Deuil, De profectione Ludovici VII regis Francorum
in Orientem. Odo was a monk attached by Suger to Louis VII.
during the Second Crusade; and he wrote home to Suger during
the Crusade seven short letters, afterwards pieced together in a single
work. The Gesta Friderici Primi of Otto of Freising (who joined in
the Second Crusade) gives some details from the German point of
view (i. c. 44 sqq.). The former is supplemented by the letters of
Louis VII. to Suger; the latter by the letters of Conrad III. to
Wibald, abbot of Stablo and Corvey. The Byzantine point of view
is presented in the 'Extro^ of Cinnamus, the private secretary of
Manuel, who continued the Alexiad of Anna Comnena in a work
describing the reigns of John and Manuel. It is from the Second
Crusade that William of Tyre, representing the attitude of the
Franks of Jerusalem, begins to be a primary authority ; while on the
Mahommedan side a considerable authority emerges in Ibn Athlr.
His history of the Atabegs was written about 1200, and it presents
in a light favourable to Zengi and Nureddin, but unfavourable to
Saladin (who thrust Nureddin's descendants aside), the history of
the great Mahommedan power which finally crushed the kingdom of
Jerusalem. 3

Side by side with Beha-ud-din's life of Saladin, Ibn Athlr's work
is the most considerable historical record written by the Arabs.
Generally speaking the Arabic writings are late in point of date,
and cold and jejune in style; while it must also be remembered
that they are set religious works written to defend Islam. On the
other hand they are generally written by men of affairs — governors,
secretaries or ambassadors; and a fatalistic temper leads their
authors to a certain impartial recording of everything, good or evil,
which seems of moment.

The Third Crusade was narrated in the West from very different
points of view by Anglo-Norman, French and German authorities.
The primary Anglo-Norman authority is the Carmen Ambrosii, or,
as it is called by _M. Gaston Paris, L'Estoire de la guerre sainte. This
is an octosyllabic poem in French verse, written by Ambroise, a
Norman trouvere who followed Richard I. to the Holy Land. The
poem first came to be known by scholars about 1873, and has been
edited by M. Gaston Paris (Paris, 1897). The Itinerarium Peregri-
norum, a work in ornate Latin prose, is (except for the first book) a
translation of the Carmen masquerading under the guise of an inde-
pendent work. There seems no doubt that it is a piece of plagiary,
and that its writer, Richard, " canon of the Holy Trinity " in
London, stands to the Carmen as Tudebod to the Gesta, or Albert of
Aix to his supposed original. The Third Crusade is also described
from the English point of view by all contemporary writers of
history in England, e.g. Ralph of Coggeshall, who used information
gained from crusaders, and William of Newburgh, who had access
to a work by Richard I.'s chaplain Anselm, which is now lost. 4
The French side is presented in Rigord's Gesta Philippi Augusti
and in the Gesta (an abridgment and continuation of Rigord) and the
Philippeis of William the Breton. The two French writers represent
Richard as a faithless vassal : in the German writers — Tagino, dean
of Passau, who wrote a Descriptio of Barbarossa's Crusade (1189-
1190); and Ansbert, an Austrian clerk, who wrote De expeditione
Friderici Imperatoris (1187-1196) — Richard appears rather as a
monster of pride and arrogance. From the Arabic point of view the
life of Richard's rival, Saladin, is described by Beha-ud-din, a high
official under Saladin, who writes a panegyric on his master, some-
what confused in chronology and partial in its sympathies, but
nevertheless of great value. The various continuations of William
of Tyre above mentioned represent the opinion of the native Franks
(which is hostile to Richard I.) ; while in Nicetas, who wrote a history
of the Eastern empire from 1 1 18 to 1206, we have a Byzantine
authority who, as Professor Bury remarks, " differs from Anna and
Cinnamus in his tone towards the crusaders, to whom he is surprisingly
fair."

For the Fourth Crusade the primary authority is Villehardouin's
La Conqulte de Constantinople, an official apology for the diversion
of the Crusade written by one of its leaders, and concealing the
arcana under an appearance of frank naivete. His work is usefully
supplemented by the narrative (La Prise de Constantinople) of

3 On the bibliography of the Second Crusade see Kugler, Studien
zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges (Stuttgart, 1866).
_ * Of these writers see Archer's Crusade of Richard I., Appendix
(in Nutt's series of Histories from Contemporary Writers).

552

CRUSENSTOLPE^-CRUSTACEA

Robert de Clary, a knight from Picardy, who presents the non-
official view of the Crusade, as it appeared to an ordinary soldier.
The XpociKbp tS>v iv 'Pupaviq. (composed in Greek verse some time
after 1300, apparently by an author of mixed Frankish, and Greek
parentage, and translated into French at an early date under the
title " The Book of the Conquest of Constantinople and the' Empire
of Rumania ") narrates in a prologue the events of the Fourth (as
indeed also of the First) Crusade. The Chronicle of the Morea (as
this work is generally called) is written from the Frankish point of
view, in spite of its Greek verse; and the Byzantine point of view
must be sought in Nicetas. 1

The history of the later Crusades, from the Fifth to the Eighth,
enters into the continuations of William of Tyre above mentioned ;
while the Historia orientalis of Jacques de Vitry, who had taken part
in the Fifth Crusade, and died in 1240, embraces the history of
events till 1218 (the third book being a later addition). The Secreta
fidelium Cruets of Marino Sanudo, a history of the Crusades written
by a Venetian noble between 1306 and 132 1, is also of value, particu-
larly for the Crusade of Frederick II. The minor authorities for the
Fifth Crusade have been collected by Rohricht, in the publications
of the Societe de l'Orient Latin for 1879 and 1882; the ten valuable
letters of Oliver, bishop of Paderborn, and the Historia Damiettina,
based on these letters, have also been edited by Rohricht in the
Westdeutsche Zeitschrift fiir Geschichte und Kunst (1891). The Sixth
Crusade, that of Frederick II., is described in the chronicle of
Richard of San Germano, a notary of the emperor, and in other
Western authorities, e.g. Roger of Wendover. For the Crusades of
St Louis' the chief authorities are Joinville's life of his master (whom
he accompanied to Egypt on the Seventh Crusade), and de Nangis'
Gesta Ludovici regis. Several works were written on the capture of
Acre in 1291, especially the Rxcidium urbis Acconensis, a treatise
which emerges to throw light, after many years of darkness, on the
last hours of the kingdom. The Oriental point of view for the 13th
century appears in Jelaleddin's history of the Ayyubite sultans of
Egypt, written towards the end of the 13th century; in Maqrizi's
history of Egypt, written in the middle of the 15th century; and
in the compendium of the history of the human race by Abulfeda
(fl332); while the omniscient Abulfaragius (whom Rey calls the
Eastern St Thomas) wrote, in the latter half of the 13th century, a
chronicle of universal history in Syriac, which he also issued, in an
Arabic recension, as a Compendious History of the Dynasties.

II. The documents bearing on the history of the Crusades and the
Latin kingdom of Jerusalem are various. Under the head of charters
come the Regesta regni Hierosolymitani, published by Rohricht,
Innsbruck, 1893 (with an Additamentum in 1904); the Cartulaire
generate des Hospitaliers, by Delaville Leroulx (Paris, 1894 onwards) ;
and the Cartulaire de Veglise du St Sepulcre, by de Roziere (Paris,
1849). Under the head of laws come the assizes of the Kingdom,
edited by Beugnot in the Recueil des historiens des croisades; and
the assizes of Antioch, printed at Venice in 1876. G. Schlumberger
has written on the coins and seals of the Latin East in various
publications; while Rey has written an Etude sur les monuments
de V architecture militaire (Paris, 1871). The genealogy of the Levant
is given in Le Livre des lignages d'outre-mer (published along with
the assizes).

Bibliographies. — The best modern account of the original
authorities for the Crusades is that of A. Molinier, Les Sources de
I'histoire de France, vols. ii. and iii. W. Wattenbach's Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen gives an account of Albert of Aix (vol. ii., ed. 1894,
pp. 170-180) and of Ekkehard of Aura {ibid. pp. 189-198). Von
Sybel's Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges contains a full study of the
authorities for the First Crusade ; while the prefaces to Hagenmeyer's
editions of the Gesta and of Ekkehard are also valuable. Gaston
Dodu, in the work mentioned below, begins by a brief account of
the original authorities, which is chiefly of value so far as it deals
with William of Tyre and the history of the assizes; and H. Prutz
has also a short account of some of the historians of the Crusades
(Kultur geschichte, pp. 453-469). Finally reference may be made to
the works of Kugler and Klimke above mentioned, and to J. P.
Michaud's Bibliographie des croisades (Paris, 1822).

Modern Writers. — The various works of R. Rohricht present the
soundest, if not the brightest, account of the Crusades. There is a
Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs (Innsbruck, 1901), a Geschichte des
Konigreichs Jerusalem {ibid. 1898) and a Geschichte der Kreuzzilge in
Umris {ibid. 1898). For the First Crusade von Sybel's work and
Chalandon's Alexis I" Comnene may also be mentioned; for the
Fourth A. Luchaire's volume on Innocent III: La Question d' Orient;
while for the whole of the Crusades Norden's Papstum und Byzanz
is of value. B. Kugler's Geschichte der Kreuzzilge (in Oncken's
series) still remains a suggestive and valuable work; and L. Brehier's
L'Eglise et I'orient au moyen age (Paris, 1907) contains not only an
up-to-date account of the Crusades, but also a full and useful biblio-
graphy, which should be consulted for fuller information. On
points of chronology, and on the relations between the crusaders and
their Mahommedan neighbours, W. B. Stevenson's The Crusaders in
the East (Cambridge, I907)is very valuable. On the constitutional and

1 The bibliography of the Fourth Crusade is discussed in Klimke,
Die Quellen zur Geschichte des vierten Kreuzzuges (Breslau, 1875).

social history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem Dodu's Histoire des
institutions du royaume latin de Jerusalem is very useful ; E. G. Rey's
Les Colonies franques en Syrie contains many interesting details;
and Prutz's Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzilge contains both an account
of the Latin East and an attempt to sketch the effects of the Crusades
on the progress of civilization. The works of Gmelin and J. Dela-
ville-Leroulx on the Templars and Hospitallers respectively are
worth consulting; while for Eastern affairs the English reader
may be referred to G. Lestrange's Palestine under the Moslem, and to
Stanley Lane-Poole's Life of Saladin and his Mahommedan Dynasties
(the latter a valuable work of reference). (E. Br.)

CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB (1795-1865), Swedish
historian, early became famous both as a political and a
historical writer. His first important work was a History of
the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV. Adolphus,
which was followed by a series of monographs and by some
politico-historical novels, of which The House of Holstein-Gottorp
in Sweden is considered the best. He obtained a great influence
over King Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830-
1833 gave him his fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official
character of Crusenstolpe's newspaper Fdderneslandet. In the
lastrmentioned year, however, the historian suddenly became
the king's bitterest enemy, and used his acrid pen on all occasions
in attacking him. In 1838 he was condemned, for one of these
angry utterances, to be imprisoned three years in the castle of
Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until his death
in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so
incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated
by political and personal bias.

CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715-1775), German philo-
sopher and theologian, was born on the 16th of January 171 5
at Lenau near Merseburg in Saxony. He was educated at
Leipzig, and became professor of theology there in 1750, and
principal of the university in 1773. He died on the 18th of
October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent
of the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of
religious orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the
moral evils that must flow from any system of determinism, and
exerted himself in particular to vindicate the freedom of the will.
The most important works of this period of his life are Entwurf
der nothwendigen V ernunftwahrheiten (1745), and Weg zur
Gewissheit und Zuverlassigkeil der menschlichen Erkenntniss
(1747). Though diffusely written, and neither brilliant nor
profound, Crusius' philosophical books had a great but short-
lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally
based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the
time when his system was forming; and his ethical doctrines
are mentioned with respect in the Kritik of Practical Reason.
Crusius's later life was devoted to theology. In this capacity his
sincere piety and amiable character gained him great influence,
and he led the party in the university which became known as
the " Crusianer " as opposed to the " Ernestianer," the followers
of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods
of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same
laws of exposition as are applied to other ancient books;
Crusius held firmly to orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius's
chief theological works are Hypomnemala ad theologiam pro-
pheticam (1764-17 78), and Kurzer Entwurf der Moraltheologie
(1772-1773). He sets his face against innovation in such matters
as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal inspira-
tion, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old
Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and
uncritical as they seem to us now, have had influence on later
evangelical students of the Old Testament, such as E. W.
Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch.

There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine
Encyclopddie. Consult also J. E. Erdmann's History of Philosophy ;
A. Marquardt, Kant und Crusius; and art. in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie (1898). (H. St.)

CRUSTACEA, a very large division of the animal kingdom,
comprising the familiar crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and
prawns, the sandhoppers and woodlice, the strangely modified
barnacles and the minute water-fleas. Besides these the group
also includes a multitude of related forms which, from theii

CRUSTACEA

553

aquatic habits and generally inconspicuous size, and from the
fact that they are commonly neither edible nor noxious, are
little known except to naturalists and are undistinguished by
any popular names. Collectively, they are ranked as one of the
classes forming the sub-phylum Arthropoda, and their distin-
guishing characters are discussed under that heading. It will
be sufficient here to define them as Arthropoda for the most part
of aquatic habits, having typically two pairs of antenniform
appendages in front of the mouth and at least three pairs of
post-oral limbs acting as jaws.

As a matter of fact, however, the range of structural variation
within the group is so wide, and the modifications due to parasit-
ism and other causes are so profound, that it is almost impossible
to frame a definition which shall be applicable to all the members
of the class. In certain parasites, for instance, the adults have
lost every trace not only of Crustacean but even of Arthropodous
structure, and the only clue to their zoological position is that
afforded by the study of their development. In point of size
also the Crustacea vary within very wide limits. Certain water-
fleas (Cladocera) fall short of one-hundredth of an inch in total
length; the giant Japanese crab (Macrocheira) can span over
10 ft. between its outstretched claws.

The habits of the Crustacea are no less diversified than their
structure. Most of them inhabit the sea, but representatives
of all the chief groups are found in fresh water (though the
Cirripedia have hardly gained a footing there), and this is the
chief home of the primitive Phyllopoda. A terrestrial habitat
is less common, but the widely-distributed land Isopoda or
woodlice and the land-crabs of tropical regions have solved the
problem of adaptation to a subaerial life.

Swimming is perhaps the commonest mode of locomotion,
but numerous forms have taken to creeping or walking, and
the robber-crab (Birgus latrd) of the Indo-Pacific islands even
climbs palm-trees. None has the power of flight, though certain
pelagic Copepoda are said to leap from the surface of the sea
like flying-fish. Apart from the numerous parasitic forms, the
only Crustacea which have adopted a strictly sedentary habit
of life are the Cirripedia, and here, as elsewhere, profound
modifications of structure have resulted, leading ultimately to
a partial assumption of the radial type of symmetry which is so
often associated with a sedentary life.

Many, perhaps the majority, of the Crustacea are omnivorous or
carrion-feeders, but many are actively predatory in their habits,
and are provided with more or less complex and efficient instru-
ments for capturing their prey, and there are also many plant-
eaters. Besides the sedentary Cirripedia, numbers of the
smaller forms, especially among the Entomostraca, subsist on
floating particles of organic matter swept within reach of the
jaws by the movements of the other limbs.

Symbiotic association with other animals, in varying degrees
of interdependence, is frequent. Sometimes the one partner
affords the other merely a convenient means of transport, as in
the case of the barnacles which grow on, or of the gulf-weed
crab which clings to, the carapace of marine turtles. From this
we may pass through various grades of " commensalism," like
that of the hermit-crab with its protective anemones, to the
cases of actual parasitism. The parasitic habit is most common
among the Copepoda and Isopoda, where it leads to complex
modifications of structure and life-history. Perhaps the most
complete degeneration is found in the Rhizocephala, which are
parasitic on other Crustacea. In these the adult consists of a
simple saccular body containing the reproductive organs and
attached by root-like filaments which ramify throughout the
body of the host and serve for the absorption of nourishment
(fig. i).

Many of the larger species of Crustacea are used as food by
man, the most valuable being the lobster, which is caught in
large quantities on both sides of the North Altantic. Perhaps
the most important of all Crustacea, however, with respect to
the part which they play in the economy of nature, are the
minute pelagic Copepoda, of which incalculable myriads form
an important constituent of the " plankton " in all the seas of '

the globe. It is on the plankton that a great part of the higher
animal life of the sea ultimately depends for food. The Copepoda
live upon the diatoms and other important microscopic vegetable
life at the surface of the sea, and in their turn serve as food for
fishes and other larger forms and thus, indirectly, for man
himself.

Historical Sketch. — In common with most branches of natural
history, the science of Carcinology may be traced back to its
beginnings in the writings of Aristotle. It received additions

Fig. i.

A, Group of Peltogaster socialis on the abdomen of a small hermit-
crab ; in one of them the fasciculately ramified roots, r, in the liver
of the crab are shown (Fritz Muller).

B, Young of SaccuMna purpurea with its roots. (Fritz Muller.)

of varying importance at the hands of medieval and later
naturalists, and first began to assume systematic form under the
influence of Linnaeus. The application of the morphological
method to the Crustacea may perhaps be dated from the work
of J. C. Fabricius towards the end of the 18th century.

In the first quarter of the 19th century important advances
in classification were made by P. A. Latreille, W. E. Leach and
others, and J. Vaughan Thompson demonstrated the existence
of metamorphosis in the development of the higher Crustacea.
A new epoch may be said to begin with H. Milne-Edwards'
classical Histoire naturelle des crustacis (1834-1840). It is
noteworthy that even at this late date the Cirripedia (Thyro-
straca) were still excluded from the Crustacea, though Darwin's
Monograph (1851-1854) was soon to make them known with a
wealth of anatomical and systematic detail such as was available,
at that time, for few other groups of Crustacea. About the
same period three authors call for special mention, W. de Haan,
J. D. Dana and H. Kroyer. The new impulse given to biological
research by the publication of the Origin of Species bore fruit
in Fritz Muller's Filr Darwin, in which an attempt was made to
reconstruct the phylogenetic history of the class. The same line
of work was followed in the long series of important memoirs
from the pen of K. F. W. Claus, and noteworthy contributions
were made, among many others, by A. Dohrn, Ray Lankester
and Huxley. In more recent years the long and constantly
increasing list of writers on Crustacea contains no name more
honoured than that of the veteran G. O. Sars of Christiania.
Morphology.

_ External Structure: Body. — As in all Arthropoda the body con-
sists of a series of segments or somites which may be free or more or
less coalesced together, fn its simplest form the exoskeleton of a
typical somite is a ring of chitin defined from the rings in front and
behind by areas of thinner integument forming moveable joints,
and having a pair of appendages articu-
lated to its ventral surface on either side
of the middle line. Frequently, however,
this exoskeletal somite may be differ-
entiated into various regions. A dorsal
andaventral plate are often distinguished,
known respectively as the tergum and the
sternum, and the tergum may overhang
the insertion of the limb on each side as
a free plate called the pleuron. The name
epimeron is sometimes applied to what is Somite of a Lobster, sep-
here called the pleuron, but the word has arated and viewed from
been used in widely different senses in front - f. tergum; s,
and it seems better to abandon it. The sternum; pi, pleuron.
typical form of a somite is well seen,

for example, in the segments which make up the abdomen or
" tail " of a lobster or crayfish (fig. 2). The posterior terminal
segment of the body, on which the opening of the anus is situated,
never bears appendages. The nature of this segment, which is

Fig. 2. — Abdominal

554

CRUSTACEA

known as the " anal segment " or telson (fig. 3, T), has been much
discussed, some authorities holding that it is a true somite, homo-
logous with those which precede it. . Others have regarded it as repre-
senting the fusion of a number of sbmites, and others again as
a " median appendage " or as a pair of appendages fused. Its
morphological nature, however, is clearly shown by its development.
In the larval development of the more primitive Crustacea, the
number of somites, at first small, increases by the successive appear-
ance of new somites between the last-formed somite and the terminal
region which bears the anus. The " growing point " of the trunk is,
in fact, situated in front of this region, and, when the full number
of somites has been reached, the unsegmented part remaining forms
the telson of the adult.

In no Crustacean, however, do all the somites of the body remain
distinct. Coalescence, or suppression of segmentation (" lipo-
merism "), may involve more or less extensive regions. This is
especially the case in the anterior part of the body, where, in corre-
lation with the " adaptational shifting of the oral aperture " (see
Arthropoda), a varying number of somites unite to form the
" cephalon " or head. Apart from the possible existence of an ocular

F1G.3.-

-The Separated Somites and
Lobster (Homarus

the

C, carapace covering
phalothorax.

Ab, abdominal somites.

T, telson, having the uropods or
appendages of the last ab-
dominal somite spread out
on either side of it, forming
the " tail-fan."

I, labrum, or upper lip.

m, metastoma, or lower lip.

1 , eyes.

2, antennule (the arrow points

to the opening of the so-
called auditory organ).

3, antenna.

4, mandible.'

5, maxillula (or first maxilla).

6,

7-9,

ex,
ep,

Appendages of the Common

gammarus).

maxilla (second maxilla),
first, second and third maxil-
lipeds.
exopodite.
epipodite.

s. iU -

sixth thoracic limb (second
walking-leg) of female.

last thoracic limb of male.
In 10 and II the arrows
indicate the genital aper-
tures.

sterna of the thoracic
somites, from within.

third abdominal somite, with
appendages or " swim-
merets."

somite corresponding to the eyes (the morphological nature of which
is discussed below), the smallest number of head-somites so united
in any Crustacean is five. Even where a large number of the somites
have fused, there is generally a marked change in the character of
the appendages after the fifth pair, and since the integumental fold
which forms the carapace seems to originate from this point, it is
usual to take the fifth somite as the morphological limit of the
cephalon throughout the class. It is quite probable, however, that
in the primitive ancestors of existing Crustacea a still smaller
number of somites formed the head. The three pairs of appendages
present in the " nauplius " larva show certain peculiarities of

structure and development which seem to place them in a different
category from the other limbs, and there is some ground for regard-
ing the three corresponding somites as constituting a " primary
cephalon." For practical purposes, however, it is convenient to
include the two following somites also as cephalic.

A remarkable feature found only in the Stomatopoda is the
reappearance of segmentation in the anterior part of the cephalic
region. Whether the movably articulated segments which bear the

Fig. 4.— Diagram of an Amphipod. (After Spence Bate and
Westwood.)

C, cephalon.

Th, thorax. (Only seven of the
eight thoracic somites are
visible, the first being fused
with the cephalon.)

Ab, abdomen.

The numbers appended to the
somites do not correspond to the
enumeration adopted in the text.
21 is the telson.

eyestalks and the antennules in this aberrant group correspond to
the primitive head somites or not, their distinctness is certainly a
secondarily acquired character, for it is not found in the larvae,
nor in any of the more primitive groups of Malacostraca.

The body proper is usually divisible into two regions to which
the names thorax and abdomen are applied. Throughout the whole
of the Malacostraca the thorax consists of eight and the abdomen of
six somites (fig. 4), and the two regions are sharply distinguished by
the character of their appendages. In the various groups of the
Entomostraca, on the other hand, the terms thorax and abdomen,
though conveniently employed for purposes of systematic description,
do not imply any homology with the regions so named in the Malaco-
straca. Sometimes they are applied, as in the Copepoda, to the
limb-bearing and limbless regions of the trunk, while in other cases,
as in the Phyllopoda, they denote, respectively, the regions in front
of and behind the genital apertures.

A character which recurs in the most diverse groups of the Crus-
tacea, and which is probably to be regarded as a primitive attribute

2,

Fig. 5.— Phyllopoda and Phyllocarida.
Ceratiocarispapilio, U. Silurian, head showing the labrum and

mouth-parts.

larva of Apus cancrijormis.

Branchipus stagnalis: a, adult

female; b, first larval stage

(Nauplius) ; c, second larval

stage.

Nauplius of Artemia salina.

Lanark.

Nebalia bipes (one side of
carapace removed).

Lepidurus Angassi: a, dorsal
aspect; b, ventral aspect of

6,

of the class, is the possession of a carapace or shell, arising as a dorsal
fold of the integument from the posterior margin of the head-region.
In its most primitive form, as seen in the Apddidae (fig. 5, 3) and in
Nebaha (fig. 5, 2), this shell-fold remains free from the trunk, which
it envelops more or less completely. It may assume the form of a
bivalve shell entirely enclosing the body and limbs, as in many

CRUSTACEA

555

Phyllopoda (fig. 6) and in the Ostracoda. In the Cirripedia it forms
a fleshy " mantle " strengthened by shelly plates or valves which
may assume a very complex structure. In many, cases, however,
the shell-fold coalesces with some of the succeeding somites. In
the Decapoda (fig. 3), this coalescence affects only the dorsal region
of the thoracic somites, and the lateral portions of the carapace
overhang on each side, enclosing a pair of chambers within which
lie the gills. The arrangement is similar in Schizopoda and Stomato-

From Morse's Zoology.
Fig. 6. — Estkeria, sp.; D from Dubuque, Iowa; (e) the eye.
L from Lynn, Massachusetts (nat. size). 5 presents a highly
magnified section of one of the valves to show the successive moults.
B an enlarged portion of the edge of the shell along the back,
showing the overlap of each growth.

poda (fig. 7), except that the coalescence does not usually involve
the posterior thoracic somites, several of which remain free, though
they may be overlapped by the carapace.

In the Isopoda and Amphipoda, where, as a rule, all the thoracic
somites except the first are distinct (fig. 4), there seems at first sight
to be no shell-fold. A comparison with the related Tanaidacea
(fig. 8) and Cumacea (or Sympoda), however, leads to the conclusion
that the coalescence of the first thoracic somite with the cephalon
really involves a vestigial shell-fold, and, indeed, traces of this are
said to be observed in the embryonic development of some Isopoda.
It seems likely that a similar explanation is to be applied to the
coalescence of one or two trunk-somites with the head in the Cope-
poda, and, if this be so, the only Crustacea remaining in which no
trace of a shell-fold is found in the adult are the Anostracous Phyllo-
poda such as Branchipus (fig. 5, 5).

General Morphology of Appendages. — Amid the great variety of
forms assumed by the appendages of the Crustacea, it is possible to
trace, more or less plainly, the modifications of a fundamental type
consisting of a peduncle, the protopodite, bearing two branches, the
endopodite and exopodite. This simple biramous form is shown

in the swimming-feet of the Copepoda
and Branchiura, the " cirri " of the
Cirripedia, and the abdominal appen-
dages of the Malacostraca (fig. 3, 14).
It is also found in the earliest and
most primitive form of larva, known
as the Nauplius. As a rule the pro-
topodite is composed of two segments,
though one may be reduced or sup-
pressed and occasionally three may
be present. In many cases, one of
the branches, generally the endopodite,
is more strongly developed than the
other. Thus, in the thoracic limbs of
the Malacostraca, the endopodite
generally forms a walking-leg while
the exopodite becomes a swimming-
branch or may disappear altogether.
Very often the basal segment of the
protopodite bears, on the outer side,
a lamellar appendage (more rarely,
two) , the epipodite, which may function
as a gill. In the appendages near the
mouth one or both of the protopodal
segments may bear inwardly-turned
processes, assisting in mastication and
known as gnathobases. The frequent
occurrence of epipodites and gnatho-

p IG » Squilla mantis bases tends to show that the primitive

(Stomatopoda), showing the type of appendage was more complex
last four thoracic (leg-bear- than the simple biramous limb, and
ing) somites free from the some authorities have regarded the
carapace. leaf-like appendages of the rhyllo-

' poda as nearer the original form from

which the various modifications found in other groups have been
derived. In a Phyllopod such as Apus the limbs of the trunk
consist of a flattened, unsegmented or obscurely segmented axis or
corm having a series of lobes or processes known as endites and
exites on its inner and outer margins respectively. In all the
Phyllopoda the number of endites is six, and the proximal one is

more or less distinctly specialized as a gnathobase, working against
its fellow of the opposite side in seizing food and transferring it to
the mouth. The Phyllopoda are the only Crustacea in which distinct
and functional gnathobasic processes are found on appendages far
removed from the mouth. The two distal endites are regarded as
corresponding to the endopodite and exopodite of the higher Crus-
tacea, the axis or corm of the Phyllopod limb representing the
protopodite. The number of exites is less constant, but, in Apus,
two are present, the proximal branchial in function and the distal
forming a stiffer plate which probably aids in swimming. It is not
altogether easy to recognize the homologies of the endites and exites
even within the order Phyllopoda, and the identification of the two
distal endites as corresponding to the endopodite and exopodite
of higher Crustacea is not free from difficulty. It is highly probable,
however, that the biramous limb is a simplification of a more com-
plex primitive type, to which the Phyllopod limb is a more or less
close approximation.

The modifications which this original type undergoes are usually
more or less plainly correlated with the functions which the append-
ages have to discharge. Thus, when acting as swimming organs, the
appendages, or their rami, are more or less flattened, or oar-like,
and often have the margins fringed with long plumose hairs. When
used for walking, one of the rami, usually the inner, is stout and
cylindrical, terminating in a claw, and having the segments united
by definite hinge-joints. The jaws have the gnathobasic endites
developed at the expense of the rest of the limb, the endopodite

Fig. 8. — Tanais dubius (?) Kr. 9 , showing the orifice of entrance
(x) into the cavity overarched by the carapace in which an appen-
dage of the maxilliped (/) plays. On four feet (i,k,l,m) are the
rudiments of the lamellae which subsequently form the brood-cavity.
(Fritz Miiller.)

and exopodite persisting only as sensory " palps " or disappearing
altogether. When specialized as bearers of sensory (olfactory
or tactile) organs, the rami are generally elongated, many-jointed and
flagelliform. This modification is usually only found in the an-
tennules and antennae, but it may exceptionally be found in the
appendages of the trunk, as, for instance, in the thoracic legs of
some Decapods (e.g. Mastigocheirus). Very often one or other of the
appendages may be modified for prehension, the seizing of prey or
the holding of a mate. In this case, the claw-like terminal segment
may be simply flexed against the preceding in the same way as the
blade of a penknife shuts up against the handle. The penultimate
segment is often broadened, so that the terminal claw shuts against
a transverse edge (fig. 4), or, finally, the penultimate segment may be
produced into a thumb-like process opposed to the movable terminal
segment or finger, forming a perfect chela or forceps, as, for instance,
in the large claws of a crab
or lobster. This chelate
condition may be assumed
by almost any of the appen-
dages, and sometimes it
appears in different appen-
dages in closely related
forms, so that no very
great phylogenetic import-
ance can in most cases be
attached to it. A peculiar
modification is found in the
trunk-limbs of the Cirri-
pedia (fig. 9), in which both Fig. 9. — A, Balanus (young), side
rami are multiarticulate view with cirri protruded. B, Upper
and filiform and fringed surface of same; valves closed. C,
with long bristles. When Highly magnified view of one of the
protruded from the opening cirri. (Morse.)
of the shell these " cirri "

are spread out to form a casting-net for the capture of minute
floating prey.

Gills or branchiae may be developed by parts of an appendage
becoming thin-walled and vascular and either expanded into a thin
lamella or ramified. Some of the special modifications of branchiae
are referred to below.

Special Morphology of Appendages. — In raany Crustacea the eyes
are borne on stalks which are movably articulated with the head
and which may be divided into two or three segments. The view is
commonly held that these eye-stalks are really limbs, homologous
with the other appendages. In spite of much discussion, however,
it cannot be said that this point has been finally settled. The evi-
dence of embryology is decidedly against the view that the eye-stalks
are limbs. They are absent in the earliest and most primitive

556

CRUSTACEA

larval forms (nauplius), and appear only late in the course of develop-
ment, after many of the trunk-limbs are fully formed. In the
development of the Phyllopod Branchipus, the eyes are at first
sessile, and the lateral lobes of the head on which they are set grow
out and become movably articulated, forming the peduncles. The
most important evidence in favour of their appendicular nature is
afforded by the phenomena of regeneration. When the eye-stalk is
removed from a living lobster or prawn, it is found that under certain
conditions a many-jointed appendage like the flagellum of an
antennule or antenna may grow in its place. It is open to question,
however, how far the evidence from such " heteromorphic re-
generation " can be regarded as conclusive on the points of homology.
The fact that in certain rare cases among insects a leg may appar-
ently be replaced by a wing tends to show that under exceptional
conditions similar forms may be assumed by non-homologous
parts.

The antennules (or first antennae) are almost universally regarded
as true appendages, though they differ from all the other appendages
in the fact that they are always innervated from the " brain " (or
preoral ganglia), and that they are uniramous in the nauplius larva
and in all the Entomostracan orders. As regards their innervation
an apparent exception is found in the case of Apus, where the nerves
to the antennules arise, behind the brain, from the oesophageal
commissures, but this is, no doubt, a secondary condition, and the
nerve-fibres have been traced forwards to centres within the brain.
In the Malacostraca, the antennules are often biramous, but there is
considerable doubt as to whether the two branches represent the
endopodite and exopodite of the other limbs, and three branches
are found in the Stomatopoda and in some Caridea. In the great
majority of Crustacea the antennules are purely sensory in function
and carry numerous " olfactory " hairs. They may, however, be
natatory as in many Ostracoda and Copepoda, or prehensile, as in
some Copepoda. The most peculiar modification, perhaps, is that
found in the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) , in the larvae of which the
antennules develop into organs of attachment, bearing the openings
of the cement-glands, and becoming, in the adult, involved in the
attachment of the animal to its support.

The antennae (second antennae) are of special interest on account
of the clear evidence that, although preoral in position in all adult
Crustacea, they were originally postoral appendages. In the nauplius
larva they lie rather at the sides than in front of the mouth, and
their basal portion carries a hook-like masticatory process which
assists the similar processes of the mandibles in seizing food. In the
primitive Phyllopoda, and less distinctly in some other orders, the
nerves supplying the antennae arise, not from the brain, but from
the circum-oesophageal commissures, and even in those cases where
the nerves and the ganglia in which they are rooted have been moved
forwards to the brain, the transverse commissure of the ganglia
can still be traced, running behind the oesophagus.

The functions of the antennae are more varied than is the case
with the antennules. In many Entomostraca (Phyllopoda, Clado-
cera, Ostracoda, Copepoda) they are important, and sometimes the
only, organs of locomotion. In some male Phyllopoda they form
complex " claspers " for holding the female. They are frequently
organs of attachment in parasitic Copepoda, and they may be
completely pediform in the Ostracoda. In the Malacostraca they are
chiefly sensory, the endopodite forming a long flagellum, while the
exopodite may form a lamellar " scale," probably useful as a balancer
in swimming, or may disappear altogether. A very curious function
sometimes discharged by the antennules or antennae of Decapods
is that of forming a respiratory siphon in sand-burrowing species.

The mandibles, like the antennae, have, in the nauplius, the form
of biramous swimming limbs, with a masticatory process originating
from the proximal part of the protopodite. This form is retained,
with little alteration in some adult Copepoda, where the biramous
" palp " still aids in locomotion. A somewhat similar structure is
found also in some Ostracoda. In most cases, however, the palp
loses its exopodite and it often disappears altogether, while the coxal
segment forms the body of the mandible, with a masticatory edge
variously armed with teeth and spines. In a few Ostracoda, by a
rare exception, the masticatory process is reduced or suppressed,
and the palp alone remains, forming a pediform appendage used in
locomotion as well as in the prehension of food. In parasitic blood-
sucking forms the mandibles often have the shape of piercing
stylets, and are enclosed in a tubular proboscis formed by the union
of the upper lip (labrum) with the lower lip (hypostome or para T
gnatha).

The maxillulae and maxillae (or, as they are often termed, first
and second maxillae) are nearly always flattened leaf-like appendages,
having gnathobasic lobes or endites borne by the segments of the
protopodite. The endopodite, when present, is unsegmented or
composed of few segments and forms the "palp," and outwardly-
directed lobes representing the exopodite and epipodites may also be
present. These limbs undergo great modification in the different
groups. The maxillulae are sometimes closely connected with the
' paragnatha '' or lobes of the lower lip, when these are present,
and it has been suggested that the paragnatha are really the basal
endites which have become partly separated from the rest of the
appendage.

The limbs of the post-cephalic series show little differentiation

among themselves in many Entomostraca. In the Phyllopoda they
are for the most part all alike, though one or two of the anterior
pairs may be specialized as sensory (Apus) or grasping (Estheriidae)
organs. In the Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) the six pairs of biramous
cirriform limbs differ only slightly from each other, and in many
Copepoda this is also the case. In other Entomostraca considerable
differentiation may take place, but the series is never divided into
definite " tagmata " or groups of similarly modified appendages.
It is highly characteristic of the Malacostraca, however, that the
trunk-limbs are divided into two sharply defined tagmata corre-
sponding to the thoracic and abdominal regions respectively, the limit
between the two being marked by the position of the male genital
openings. The thoracic limbs have the endopodites converted, as a
rule, into more or less efficient walking-legs, and the exopodites are
often lost, while the abdominal limbs more generally preserve the
biramous form and are, in the more primitive types, natatory.
These tagmata may again be subdivided into groups preserving a
more or less marked individuality. For example, in the Amphipoda
(fig. 4) the abdominal appendages are constantly divided into an
anterior group of three natatory " swimmerets " and a posterior
group of three limbs used chiefly in jumping or in burrowing. In
nearly all Malacostraca the last pair of abdominal appendages
(uropods) differ from the others, and in the more primitive groups
they form, with the telson, a lamellar " tail-fan " (fig. 3, T), used in
springing backwards through the water. In the thoracic series it is
usual for one or more of the anterior pairs to be pressed into the
service of the mouth, forming " foot-jaws " or maxillipeds. In the
Decapoda three pairs are thus modified, and in the Tanaidacea,
Isopoda and Amphipoda only one. In the Schizopoda and Cumacea
the line of division is less sharp, and the varying number of so-called
maxillipeds recognized by different authors gives rise to some
confusion of terminology in systematic literature.

Gills. — In many of the smaller Entomostraca (Copepoda and most
Ostracoda) no special gills are present, and respiration is carried on
by the general surface of the body and limbs. When present, the
branchiae are generally differentiations of parts of the appendages,
most often the epipodites, as in the Phyllopoda. In the Cirripedia,
however, they are vascular processes from the inner surface of the
mantle or shell-fold, and in some Ostracoda they are outgrowths
from the sides of the body. In the primitive Malacostraca the
gills were probably, as in the Phyllopoda and in Nebalia, the modified
epipodites of the thoracic limbs, and this is the condition found in
some Schizopoda. In the Cumacea and Tanaidacea only the first
thoracic limb has a branchial epipodite. In the Amphipoda, the
gills though arising from the inner side of the bases of the thoracic
legs are probably also epipodial in nature. In the Isopoda the
respiratory function has been taken over by the abdominal append-
ages, both rami or only the inner becoming thin or flattened. In the
Decapoda the branchial system is more complex. The gills are
inserted at the base of the thoracic limbs, and lie within a pair of
branchial chambers covered by the carapace. Three series are
distinguished, podobranchiae, attached to the proximal segments of
the appendages, pleurobranchiae, springing from the body-wall,
and an intermediate series, arthrobranchiae, inserted on the articular
membrane of the joint between the limb and the body. The podo-
branchiae are clearly epipodites, or, more correctly, parts of the
epipodites, and it is probable that the arthro- and pleuro-branchiae
are also epipodial in origin and have migrated from the proximal
segment of the limbs on to the adjacent body-wall.

Adaptations for aerial respiration are found in some of the land-
crabs, where the lining membrane of the gill-chamber is beset with
vascular papillae and acts as a lung. In some of the terrestrial
Isopoda or woodlice (Oniscoidea) the abdominal appendages have
ramified tubular invaginations of the integument, filled with air and
resembling the tracheae of insects.

Internal Structure: Alimentary System. — In almost all Crustacea
the food-canal runs straight through the body, except at its anterior
end, where it curves downwards to the ventrally-placed mouth.
In a few cases its course is slightly sinuous or twisted, but the only
cases in which it is actually coiled upon itself are found in the
Cladocera of the family Lynceidae (Alonidae) and in a single recently-
discovered genus of Cumacea (Sympoda). As in all Arthropoda,
it is composed of three divisions, a fore-gut or stomodaeum, ecto-
dermal in origin and lined by an inturning of the chitinous cuticle,
a mid-gut formed by endoderm and without a cuticular lining,
and a hind-gut or proctodaeum, which, like the fore-gut, is ecto-
dermal and is lined by cuticle. The relative proportions of these
three divisions vary considerably, and the extreme abbreviation of
the mid-gut found in the common crayfish (Astacus) is by no means
typical of the class. Even in the closely-related lobster (Homarus)
the mid-gut may be 2 or 3 in. long.

In a few Entomostraca (some Phyllopoda and Ostracoda) the
chitinous lining of the fore-gut develops spines and hairs which help
to triturate and strain the food, and among the Ostracods there is
occasionally (Bairdia) a more elaborate armature of toothed plates
moved by muscles. It is among the Malacostraca, however, and
especially in the Decapoda, that the " gastric mill " reaches its
greatest perfection. In most Decapods the " stomach " or dilated
portion of the fore-gut is divided into two chambers, a large anterior
" cardiac " and a smaller posterior " pyloric." In the narrow

CRUSTACEA

557

Fig. io. — Gastric Teeth of
Crab and Lobster.

opening between these, three teeth (fig. io) are set, one dorsally
and one on each side. These teeth are connected with a framework
of movably articulated ossicles developed as thickened and calcified
portions of the lining cuticle of the stomach and moved by special
muscles in such a way as to bring the three teeth together in the
middle line. The walls of the pyloric chamber bear a series of pads
and ridges beset with hairs and so disposed as to form a straining
apparatus.

The mid-gut is essentially the digestive and absorptive region of
the alimentary canal, and its surface is, in most cases, increased by
pouch-like or tubular outgrowths which not only serve as glands
for the secretion of the digestive juices, but may also become filled
by the more fluid portion of the partially digested food and facilitate
its absorption. These outgrowths vary much in their arrangement
in the different groups. Most commonly there is a pair of lateral
caeca, which may be more or less ramified and may form a massive
" hepato-pancreas " or " liver."

The whole length of the alimentary canal is provided, as a rule,
with muscular fibres, both circular and longitudinal, running in its
walls, and, in addition, there may be muscle-bands running between
the gut and the body-wall. In the region of the oesophagus these
muscles are more strongly developed to perform the movements of
deglutition, and, where a gastric mill is present, both intrinsic and

extrinsic muscles co-operate in
producing the movements of its
various parts. The hind-gut is
also provided with sphincter and
dilator muscles, and these may
produce rhythmic expansion and
contraction, causing an inflow
and outflow of water through the
anus, which has been supposed to
aid in respiration.

In the parasitic Rhizocephala
and in a few Copepoda [Monstril-
lidae) the alimentary canal is
absent or vestigial throughout
life.

Circulatory System. — As in the
other Arthropoda, the circulatory
system in Crustacea is largely
lacunar, the blood flowing in
spaces or channels without
definite walls. These spaces make
up the apparent body-cavity, the
Stomach of common crab, true body-cavity or coelom having
Cancer pagurus, laid open, been, for the most part, obliter-
showing b, b, b, some of the ated by the great expansion pf
calcareous plates inserted in the blood-containing spaces. The
its muscular coat ; g, g, the heart is of the usual Arthro-
lateral teeth, which when podous type, lying in a more or
in use are brought in con- less well-defined pericardial blood-
tact with the sides of the sinus, with which it communi-
median tooth m ; c, c, the cates by valvular openings or
muscular coat. ostia. In the details of the system,

and lb", The gastric teeth however, great differences exist
enlarged to show their within the limits of the class,
grinding surfaces. There is every reason to believe

2, Gastric teeth of common that, in the primitive Arthropoda,
lobster, Homarus vulgaris, the heart was tubular in form,
3a and 36, Two crustacean teeth extending the whole length of the
(of Dithyrocaris) from the body, and having a pair of ostia
Carboniferous series of in each somite. This arrangement
is retained in some of the Phyllo-
poda, but even in that group
a progressive abbreviation of the
heart, with a diminution in the
number of the ostia, can be traced, leading to the condition found
in the closely related Cladocera, where the heart is a sub-
globular sac, with only a single pair of ostia. In the Malacostraca,
an elongated heart with numerous segmentally arranged ostia is
found only in the aberrant group of Stomatopoda and in the transi-
tional Phyllocarida. In the other Malacostraca the heart is generally
abbreviated, and even where, as in the Amphipoda, it is elongated
and tubular, the ostia are restricted in number, three pairs only
being usually present. In many Entomostraca the heart is absent,
and it is impossible to speak of a " circulation " in the proper sense
of the term, the blood being merely driven hither and thither by
the movements of the body and limbs and of the alimentary canal.

A very remarkable condition of the blood-system, unique, as far
as is yet known among the Arthropoda, is found in a few genera of
parasitic Copepoda (Lernanthropus, Mytilicola). In these there is
a closed system of vessels, not communicating with the body-cavity,
and containing a coloured fluid. There is no heart. The morpho-
logical nature of this system is unknown.

Excretory System. — The most important excretory or renal organs
of the Crustacea are two pairs of glands lying at the base of the
antennae and of the second maxillae respectively. The two are
probably never functional together in the same animal, though one
may replace the other in the course of development. Thus, in the

iV

Renfrewshire (these, how-
ever, may be the toothed
edges of the mandibles).

Phyllopoda, the antennal gland develops early and is functional
during a great part of the larval life, but it ultimately atrophies,
and in the adult (as in most Entomostraca) the maxillary gland
is the functional excretory organ. In the Decapoda, where the an-
tennal gland alone is well-developed in the adult, the maxillary
gland sometimes precedes it in the larva. The structure of both
glands is essentially the same. There is a more or less convoluted
tube with glandular walls connected internally with a closed " end-
sac " and opening to the exterior by means of a thin-walled duct.
Development shows that the glandular tube is mesoblastic in origin
and is of the nature of a coelomoduct, while the end-sac is to be
regarded as a vestigial portion of the coelom. In the Branchiopoda
the maxillary gland is lodged in the thickness of the shell-fold (when
this is present), and, from this circumstance, it often receives the
somewhat misleading name of " shell-gland." In the Decapoda
the antennal gland is largely developed and is known as the " green
gland." The external duct of this gland is often dilated into a
bladder, and may sometimes send out diverticula, forming a complex
system of sinuses ramifying through the body. The green gland and
the structures associated with it in Decapods were at one time
regarded as constituting an auditory apparatus.

In addition to these two pairs of glands, which are in all probability
the survivors of a series of segmentally arranged coelomoducts
present in the primitive Arthropoda, other excretory organs have
been _ described in various Crustacea. Although the excretory
function of these has been demonstrated by physiological methods,
however, their morphological relations are not clear. In some cases
they consist of masses of mesodermal cells, within which the excretory
products appear to be stored up instead of being expelled from the
body.

Nervous System. — The central nervous system is constructed on
the same general plan as in the other Arthropoda, consisting of a
supra-oesophageal ganglionic mass or brain, united by circum-
oesophageal connectives with a double ventral chain of segmentally
arranged ganglia. In the primitive Phyllopoda the ventral chain
retains the ladder-like arrangement found in some Annelids and
lower worms, the two halves being widely separated and the pairs of
ganglia connected together across the middle line by double trans-
verse commissures. In the higher groups the two halves of the chain
are more or less closely approximated and coalesced, and, in addition,
a concentration of the ganglia in a longitudinal direction takes place,
leading ultimately, in many cases, to the formation of an unsegmented
ganglionic mass representing the whole of the ventral chain. This
is seen, for example, in the Brachyura among the Decapoda. The
brain, or supra-oesophageal ganglion, shows various degrees of
complexity. In the Phyllopoda it consists mainly of two pairs of
ganglionic centres, giving origin respectively to the optic and
antennular nerves. The centres for the antennal nerves form gangli-
onic swellings on the oesophageal connectives. In the higher forms,
as already mentioned, the antennal ganglia have become shifted
forwards and coalesced with the brain. In the higher Decapoda,
numerous additional centres are developed in the brain and its
structure becomes extremely complex.

Eyes. — The eyes of Crustacea are of two kinds, the unpaired,
median or " nauplius " eye, and the paired compound eyes. The
former is generally present in the earliest larval stages (nauplius),
and in some Entomostraca (e.g. Copepoda) it forms the sole organ
of vision in the adult. In the Malacostraca it is absent in the adult,
or persists only in a vestigial condition, as in some Decapoda and
Schizopoda. It is typically tripartite, consisting of three cup-shaped
masses of pigment, the cavity of each cup being filled with columnar
retinal cells. At their inner ends (towards the pigment) these cells
contain rod-like structures, while their outer ends are connected
with the nerve-fibres. In some cases three separate nerves arise
from the front of the brain, one going to each of the three divisions
of the eye. In the Copepoda the median eye may undergo con-
siderable elaboration, and refracting lenses and other accessory
structures may be developed in connexion with it.

The compound eyes are very similar in the details of their structure
(see Arthropoda) to those of insects (Hexapoda). They consist of
a varying number of ommatidia or visual elements, covered by a
transparent region of the external cuticle forming the cornea.
In most cases this cornea is divided into lenticular facets correspond-
ing to the underlying ommatidia.

As has been already stated, the compound eyes are often set on
movable peduncles. It is probable that this is the primitive con-
dition from which the sessile eyes of other forms have been derived.
In the Malacostraca the sessile eyed groups are certainly less primitive
than some of those with stalked eyes, and among the Entomostraca
also there is some evidence pointing in the same direction.

Although typically paired, the compound eyes may occasionally
coalesce in the middle line into a single organ. This is the case in the
Cladocera, the Cumacea and a few Amphipoda.

Mention should also be made of the partial or complete atrophy
of the eyes in many Crustacea which live in darkness, either in the
deep sea or in subterranean habitats. In these cases the peduncles
may persist and may even be modified into spinous organs of defence.

Other Sense-Organs. — As in Arthropoda, the hairs or setae on the
surface of the body are important organs of sense and are variously
modified for special sensory functions. Many, perhaps all, of them

55»

CRUSTACEA

are tactile. They are movably articulated at the base where they
are inserted in pits formed by a thinning away of the cuticle, and
each is supplied by a nerve-fibril. When feathered or provided
with secondary barbs the setae will respond to movements or
vibrations in the surrounding water, and have been supposed to
have an auditory function. In certain divisions of the Malacostraca
more specialized organs are found which have been regarded as
auditory. In the majority of the Decapoda there is a saccular
invagination of the integument in the basal segment of the an-
tennular peduncle having on its inner surface ' auditory " setae
of the type just described. The sac is open to the exterior in most
of the Macrura, but completely closed in the Brachyura. In the
former case it contains numerous grains of sand which are introduced
by the animal itself after each moult and which are supposed to
act as otoliths. Where the sac is completely closed it generally
contains no solid particles, but in a few Macrura a single otolith
secreted by the walls of the sac is present. In the Mysidae among the
Schizopoda a pair of similar otocysts are found in the endopodites
of the last pair of appendages (uropods). These contain each a
single concretionary otolith.

Recent observations, however, make it very doubtful whether
aquatic Crustacea can hear at all, in the proper sense of the term,
and it has been shown that one function, at least, of the so-called
otocysts is connected with the equilibration of the body. They are
more properly termed statocysts.

Another modification of sensory setae is supposed to be associated
with the sense of smell. In nearly all Crustacea the antennules
and often also the antennae bear groups of hair-like filaments in
which the chitinous cuticle is extremely delicate and which do not
taper to a point but end bluntly. These are known as olfactory
filaments or aesthetascs. They are very often more strongly developed
in the male sex, and are supposed to guide the males in pursuit of
the females.

Glands. — In addition to the digestive and excretory glands already
mentioned, various glandular structures occur in the different
groups of Crustacea. The most important of these belong to the
category of dermal glands, and may be scattered over the surface
of the body and limbs, or grouped at certain points for the discharge
of special functions. Such glands occurring on the upper and lower
lips or on the walls of the oesophagus have been regarded as salivary.
In some Amphipoda the secretion of glands on the body and limbs
is used in the construction of tubular cases in which the animals live.
In some freshwater Copepoda the secretion of the dermal glands
forms a gelatinous envelope, by means of which the animals are able
to survive desiccation. In certain Copepoda and Ostracoda glands
of the same type produce a phosphorescent substance, and others,
in certain Amphipoda and Branchiura, are believed to have a
poisonous function. Possibly related to the same group of structures
are the greatly-developed cement-glands of the Cirripedia, which
serve to attach the animals to their support.

Phosphorescent Organs. — Many Crustacea belonging to very
different groups (Ostracoda, Copepoda, Schizopoda, Decapoda)
possess the power of emitting light. In the Ostracoda and Copepoda
the phosphorescence, as already mentioned, is due to glands which
produce a luminous secretion, and this is the case also in certain
members of the Schizopoda and Decapoda. In other cases in the
last two groups, however, the light-producing organs found on
the body and limbs have a complex and remarkable structure,
and were formerly described as accessory eyes. Each consists of a
globular capsule pierced at one or two points for the entrance of
nerves which end in a central cup-shaped " striated body." This
body appears to be the source of light, and has behind it a reflector
formed of concentric lamellae, while, in front, in some cases, there is a
refracting lens. The whole organ can be rotated by special muscles.
Organs of this type are best known in the Euphausiidae among the
Schizopoda, but a modified form is found in some of the lower
Decapods.

Reproductive System. — In the great majority of Crustacea the sexes
are saparate. Apart from certain doubtful and possibly abnormal
instances among Phyllopoda and Amphipoda, the only exceptions
are the sessile Cirripedia and some parasitic Isopoda {Cymothoidae) ,
where hermaphroditism is the rule. Parthenogenesis is prevalent
in the Branchiopoda and Ostracoda, often in more or less definite
seasonal alternation with sexual reproduction. Where the sexes
are distinct, a more or less marked dimorphism often exists. The
male is very often provided with clasping organs for seizing the
female. These may be formed by the modification of almost any
of the appendages, often the antennules or antennae or some of the
thoracic limbs, or even the mandibular palps (some Ostracoda).
In addition, some of the appendages in the neighbourhood of the
genital apertures may be modified for the purpose of transferring
the genital products to the female, as, for instance, the first and
second abdominal limbs in the Decapoda. In the higher Decapoda
the male is generally larger than the female and has stronger chelae.
On the other hand, in other groups the male is often smaller than the
female. In the parasitic Copepoda and Isopoda the disparity in
size is carried to an extreme degree, and the minute male is attached,
like a parasite, to the enormously larger female.

The Cirripedia present some examples of sexual relationships
which are only paralleled, in the animal kingdom, among the para-

sitic Myzostomida. While the great majority are simple herma-
phrodites, capable of cross and self fertilization, it was discovered
by Darwin that, in certaih species, minute degraded males exist,
attached within the mantle-cavity of the ordinary individuals.
Since these dwarf males pair, not with females, but with herma-
phrodites, Darwin termed them " complemental " males. In other
species the large individuals have become purely female by atrophy
of the male organs, and are entirely dependent on the dwarf males
for fertilization. In spite of the opinion of some distinguished
zoologists to the contrary, it seems most probable that the separation
of the sexes is in this case a secondary condition, derived from
hermaphroditism through the intermediate stage represented by
the species having complemental males.

The gonads, as in other Arthropoda, are hollow saccular organs,
the cavity communicating with the efferent ducts. They are
primitively paired, but often coalesce with each other more or less
completely. The ducts are present only as a single pair, except in
one genus of parasitic Isopoda (Hemioniscus) , where two pairs of
oviducts are found. Various accessory structures may be connected
with the efferent ducts in both sexes. The oviducts may have
diverticula serving as receptacles for the spermatozoa (in cases where
internal impregnation takes place), and may be provided with glands
secreting envelopes or shells around the eggs. The male ducts often
have glandular walls, secreting capsules or spermatophores within
which the spermatozoa are packed for transference to the female.
The terminal part of the male ducts may be protrusible and act as
an intromittent organ, or this function may be discharged by some
of the appendages, as, for instance, in the Brachyura.

The position of the genital apertures varies very greatly in the
different groups of the class. They are farthest forward in the case
of the female organs of the Cirripedia, where the openings are on
the first thoracic (fourth postoral) somite. The most posterior

Fig. II. — Side view of Crab, the abdomen extended and carrying a
mass of eggs beneath it ; e, eggs. (After Morse.)

position is occupied by the genital apertures of certain Phyllopoda
(P olyartemia) , which lie behind the nineteenth trunk-somite. It is
characteristic of the Malacostraca that the position of the genital
apertures is constantly different in the two sexes, the female openings
being on the sixth, and those of the male on the eighth thoracic
somite.

Very few Crustacea are viviparous in the sense that the eggs are
retained within the body until hatching takes place (some Phyllo-
poda), but, on the other hand, the great majority carry the eggs in
some way or other after their extrusion. In some Phyllopoda (A pus)
egg-sacs are formed by modification of certain of the thoracic feet.
The eggs are retained between the valves of the shell in some Phyllo-
poda and in the Cladocera and Ostracoda, and they lie in the mantle
cavity in the Cirripedia. In the Copepoda they are agglutinated
together into masses attached to the body of the female. Among the
Malacostraca some Schizopoda, the Cumacea, Tanaidacea, Isopoda
and Amphipoda (sometimes grouped all together as Peracarida)
have a marsupium or brood-pouch formed by overlapping plates
attached to the bases of some of the thoracic legs. In most of the
Decapoda the eggs are carried by the female, attached to the ab-
dominal appendages (fig. n). A few cases are known in which the
developing embryos are nourished by a special secretion while in the
brood-chamber of the mother (Cladocera, terrestrial Isopoda).

Embryology.

The majority of the Crustacea are hatched from the egg in a form
differing more or less from that of the adult, and pass through a
series of free-swimming larval stages. There are many cases,
however, in which the metamorphosis is suppressed, and the newly-
hatched young resemble the parent in general structure. The
relative size of the eggs and the amount of nutritive yolk which they
contain are generally much greater in those forms which have a
direct development.

The details of the early embryonic stages vary considerably
within the limits of the class. They are of interest, however, rather
from the point of view of general embryology than from that of

CRUSTACEA

559

the special student of the Crustacea, and cannot be fully dealt with
here.

Segmentation is usually of the superficial or centrolecithal type.
The hypoblast is formed either by a definite invagination or by the
immigration of isolated cells, known as vitellophags, which wander
through the yolk and later become associated into a definite mesen-
teron, or by some combination of these two methods. The blastopore
generally occupies a position corresponding to the posterior end of
the body. The mesoblast of the cephalic (naupliar) region probably
arises in connexion with the lips of the blastopore and consists of
loosely-connected cells or mesenchyme. In the region of the trunk,
in many cases, paired mesoblastic bands are formed, growing in
length by the division of teloblastic cells at the posterior end, and
becoming segmented into somites. The existence of true coelom-
sacs is somewhat doubtful. The rudiments of the first three pairs
of appendages commonly appear simultaneously, and, even in forms
with embryonic development, they show differences in their mode
of appearance from the succeeding somites. Further, a definite
cuticular membrane is frequently formed and shed at this stage,
which corresponds to the nauplius-stage of larval development.

The larval metamorphoses of the Crustacea have attracted much
attention, and have been the subject of much discussion in view of
their bearing on the phylogenetic history of the group. In those
Crustacea in which the series of larval stages is most complete, the
starting-point is the form already mentioned under the name of
nauplius. The typical nauplius (fig. 12) has an oval .unsegmented
body and three pairs of limbs corresponding to the antennules,
antennae and mandibles of the adult. The antennules are uniramous,
the others biramous, and all three pairs are used in swimming.

Fig. 12. — Nauplius of a Prawn (Penaeus). (Fritz Miiller).

The antennae have a spiniform or hooked masticatory process at the
base, and share with the mandibles, which have a similar process,
the function of seizing and masticating the food. The mouth is over-
hung by a, large labrum or upper lip, and the integument of the
dorsal surface of the body forms a more or less definite dorsal shield.
The paired eyes are, as yet, wanting, but the unpaired eye is large
and conspicuous. A pair of frontal papillae or filaments, probably
sensory, are commonly present.

A nauplius larva differing only in details from the typical form
just described is found in the majority of the Phyllopoda, Copepoda
and Cirripedia, and in a more modified form, in some Ostracoda.
Among the Malacostraca the nauplius is less commonly found, but
it occurs in the Euphausiidae among the Schizopoda and in a few
of the more primitive Decapoda (Penaeidea) (fig. 12). In most
of the Crustacea which hatch at a later stage there is, as already
mentioned, more or less clear evidence of an embryonic nauplius
stage. It seems certain, therefore, that the possession of a nauplius
larva must be regarded as a very primitive character of the Crus-
tacean stock.

As development proceeds, the body of the nauplius elongates,
and indications of segmentation begin to appear in its posterior part.
At successive moults the somites increase in number, new, somites
being added behind those already differentiated, from a formative
zone in front of the telsonic region. Very commonly the posterior
end of the body becomes forked, two processes growing out at the
sides of the anus and often persisting in the adult as the " caudal
furca." The appendages posterior to the mandibles appear as buds
on the ventral surface of the somites, and in the most primitive
cases they become differentiated, like the somites which bear them,
in regular order from before backwards. The limb-buds early
become bilobed and grow out into typical biramous appendages
which gradually assume the characters found in the adult. With
the elongation of the body, the dorsal shield begins to project
posteriorly as a shell-fold, which may increase in size to envelop

more or less of the body or may disappear altogether. The rudiments
of the paired eyes appear under the integument at the sides of the
head, but only become pedunculated at a comparatively late stage.

The course of development here outlined, in which the nauplius
gradually passes into the adult form by the successive addition of
somites and appendages in regular order, agrees so well with the
process observed in the development of the typical Annelida that
we must regard it as being the most primitive method. It is most
closely followed by the Phyllopods such as Apus or Branchipus,
and by some Copepoda.

In most Crustacea, however, this primitive scheme is more or less
modified. The earlier stages may be suppressed or passed through

Fig.

A, Nauplius. e, Eye. C,

B, Cypris-larva with a bivalve

shell and just before becom- D,
ing attached (represented
feet upwards for comparison E,
with E, where it isattached).

Early Stages of Balanus. (After Spence Bate.)

After becoming attached, side

views.
Later stage, viewed from

above.
Side view, later stage and

with cirri extended.
The dots indicate the actual size.

within the egg (or within the maternal brood-chamber), so that the
larva, on hatching, has reached a stage more advanced than the
nauplius. Further, the gradual appearance and differentiation of
the successive somites and appendages may be accelerated, so that
comparatively great advances take place at a single moult. In the
Cirripedia, for example, the latest nauplius stage (fig. 13, A) gives
rise directly to the so-called CyprisAarva (fig. 13, B), differing widely
from the nauplius in form, and possessing all the appendages of the
adult. Another very common modification of the primitive method
of development is found in the accelerated appearance of certain
somites or appendages,
disturbing the regular
order of development.
This modification is
especially found in the
Malacostraca. Even in
those which have most
fully retained the primi-
tive order of develop-
ment, as in the Penae-
idea and Euphausiidae,
the last pair of abdom-
inal appendages make
their appearance in
advance of those im-
mediately in front of
them. The same pro-
cess, carried further,
leads to the very peculiar
larva known as the
Zoea, in the typical form
of which, found in the
Brachyura (fig. 14), the
posterior five or six
thoracic somites have
their development
greatly retarded, and
are still represented by
short unsegmented

Fig. 14. — Zoea of Common Shore-Crab in
its second stage. (Spence Bate.)

Rostral spine.
Dorsal spine.

Buds of

feet.

a, Abdomen.

thoracic

region of the body at a
time when the abdom- "■ T,'"~,;-~'"a""
inal somites are fully »*. Maxilhpeds.
formed and even carry

appendages. The Zoea was formerly regarded as a recapitulation
of an ancestral form, but there can be no doubt that its peculi-
arities are the result of secondary modification. It is most typically
developed in the most specialized Decapoda, the Brachyura, while
the more primitive groups of Malacostraca, the Euphausiidae,
Penaeidea and Stomatopoda, retain the primitive order of appearance

5 6 °

CRUSTACEA

of the somites, and, for the most part, of the limbs. At the same time,
the tendency to a retardation in the development of the posterior
thoracic somites is very general in Malacostracan larvae, and may
perhaps be correlated with the fact that in the primitive Phyllocarida
the whole thoracic region is very short and the limbs closely crowded
together.

Besides the nauplius and the zoea there are many other types of
Crustacean larvae, distinguished by special names, though, as their

occurrence is restricted
within the limits of the
smaller systematic groups,
they are of less general
interest. We need only
mention the Mysis-stage
(better termed Schizopod-
stage) found in many
JVlacrura (as, for example,
the lobster), which differs
from the adult in having
large natatory exopodites
on the thoracic legs.

Most of the larval forms

swim freely at the surface

of the sea, and many show

special adaptations to this

habit of life. As in many

other " pelagic " organisms,

spines and processes from

the surface of the body are

often developed, which are

probably less important as

„ _ T ,. , _ ,. defensive organs than as

Fig. 15— Nauplius of Tetrachta aids to flotation. This is

porosa after the first moult. well seen in the naup li us f

(Fritz Muller.) many Cirripedia (fig. 15) and

in nearly all zoeae. Perhaps
the most striking example is the zoea-like larva of the Sergestidae,
known as Elaphocaris , which has an extraordinary armature of
ramified spines. The same purpose is probably served by the
extreme flattening of the body in the membranous Phyllosoma-larva.
of the rock-lobsters and their allies (Loricata).

Past History.

Although fossil remains of Crustacea are abundant, from the
most ancient fossiliferous rocks down to the most recent, their
study has hitherto contributed little to a precise knowledge of the
phylogenetic history of the class. This is partly due to the fact
that many important forms must have escaped fossilization
altogether owing to their small size and delicate structure, while
very many of those actually preserved are known only from the
carapace or shell, the limbs being absent or represented only
by indecipherable fragments. Further, many important groups
were already differentiated when the geological record began.
The Phyllopoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Thyrostraca) are
represented in Cambrian or Silurian rocks by forms which seem
to have resembled closely those now existing, so that palaeon-
tology can have little light to throw on the mode of origin of these
groups. With the Malacostraca the case is little better. There
is considerable reason for believing that the Ceratiocaridae, which
are found from the Cambrian onwards, were allied to the existing
Nebalia, and may possibly include the forerunners of the true
Malacostraca, but nothing is definitely known of their appendages.
In Palaeozoic formations, from the Upper Devonian onwards,
numbers of shrimp-like forms are found which have been referred
to the Schizopoda and the Decapoda, but here again the scanty
information which may _ be gleaned as to the structure of the
limbs rarely permits of definite conclusions as to their affinities.
The recent discovery in the Tasmanian " schizopod " Anaspides,
of what is believed to be a living representative of the Carboni-
ferous and Permian Syncarida, has, however, afforded a clue
to the affinities of some of these problematical forms.

True Decapods are first met with in Mesozoic rocks, the first
to appear being the Penaeidea, a primitive group comprising
the Penaeidae and Sergestidae, which occur in the Jurassic and
perhaps in the Trias. Some of the earliest are referred to the
existing genus Penaeus. The Stenopidea, another primitive
group, differing from the Penaeidea in the character of the gills,
appear in the Trias and Jurassic. The Caridea or true prawns
and shrimps appear later, in the Upper Jurassic, some of them
presenting primitive characteristics in the retention of swimming

exopodites on the walking-legs. The Eryonidea (fig. 16, 3), a
group related to the Loricata but of a more generalized type,
are specially interesting since the few existing deep-sea forms
appear to be only surviving remnants of what was, in the Mesozoic
period, a dominant group. The Mesozoic Clyphaeidae have
been supposed to stand in the direct line of descent of the modern
rock-lobsters and their allies (Loricata). Some of the Loricata
have persisted with little change from the Cretaceous period
to the present day.

The Anomura are hardly known as fossils. The Brachyura,
on the other hand, are well represented (fig 16, 1, a). The
earliest forms, from the Lower Oolite and later, belonging
chiefly to the extinct family Prosoponidae, have been shown to
have close relations with the most generalized of existing
Brachyura, the deep-sea Homolodromiidae, and to link the
Brachyura to the Homarine (lobster-like) Macrura.

A few Isopoda are known from Secondary rocks, but their
systematic position is doubtful and they throw no light on the
evolution of the group. The Amphipoda are not definitely
known to occur till Tertiary times. Stomatopoda of a very
modern-looking type, and even their larvae, occur in Jurassic
rocks.

In the dearth of trustworthy evidence as to the actual fore-
runners of existing Crustacea, we are compelled to rely wholly

Fig.
Dromilites Lamarckii, Desm. ;

London Clay, Sheppey.
Palaeocorystes Stokesii, Gault ;

Folkestone.
Eryon arctiformis, Schl. ;

Lithographic stone, Solen-

hofen.

16.

Mecocheirus longimanus, Schl. ;
Lithographic stone, Solen-
hofen.

Cypridea tuberculata, Sby. ;
(Ostracoda) ; Weald, Sussex.

Loricula pulchella, Sby (Cirri-
pedia) ; L. Chalk, Sussex.

on the data afforded by comparative anatomy and embryology
in attempting to reconstruct the probable phylogeny of the class.
It is unnecessary to insist on the purely speculative character
of the conclusions to be reached in this way, so long as they
cannot be checked by the results of palaeontology, but, when
this is recognized, such speculation is not only legitimate but
necessary as a basis on which to build a natural classification.

The first attempts to reconstruct the genealogical history of
the Crustacea started from the assumption that the " theory
of recapitulation " could be applied to their larval history. The
various larval forms, especially the nauplius and zoea, were
supposed to reproduce, more or less closely, the actual structure
of ancestral types. So far as the zoea was concerned, this
assumption was soon shown to be erroneous, and the secondary
nature of this type of larva is now generally admitted.. As
regards the nauplius, however, the constancy of its general
character in the most widely diverse groups of Crustacea strongly
suggests that it is a very ancient type, and the view has been
advocated that the Crustacea must have arisen from an unseg-
mented nauplius-like ancestor.

The objections to this view, however, are considerable. The
resemblances between the Crustacea and the Annelid worms,
in such characters as the structure of the nervous system and
the mode of growth of the somites, can hardly be ignored.
Several structures which must be attributed, to the common

CRUSTUMERIUM— CRUZ E SILVA

561

stock of the Crustacea, such as the paired eyes and the shell-fold,
are not present in the nauplius. The opinion now most generally
held is that the primitive Crustacean type is most nearly ap-
proached by certain Phyllopods such as A pus. The large
number and the uniformity of the trunk somites and their
appendages, and the structure of the nervous system and of the
heart in A pus, are Annelidan characters which can hardly be
without significance. It is probable also, as already mentioned,
that the leaf -like appendages of the Phyllopoda are of a primitive
type, and attempts have been made to refer their structure to
that of the Annelid parapodium. In many respects, however,
the Phyllopoda, and especially A pus, have diverged considerably
from the primitive Crustacean type. All the cephalic appendages
are much reduced, the mandibles have no palps, and the maxil-
lulae are vestigial. In these respects some of the Copepoda have
retained characters which we must regard as much more
primitive. In those Copepods in which the palps of the mandibles
as well as the antennae are biramous and natatory, the first
three pairs of appendages retain throughout life, with little
modification, the shape and function which they have in the
nauplius stage, and must, in all likelihood, be regarded as
approximating to those of the primitive Crustacea. In other
respects, however, such as the absence of paired eyes and of a
shell-fold, as well as in the characters of the post-oral limbs, the
Copepoda are undoubtedly specialized.

In order to reconstruct the hypothetical ancestral Crustacean,
therefore, it is necessary to combine the characters of several
of the existing groups. It may be supposed to have approxi-
mated, in general form, to Apus, with an elongated body com-
posed of numerous similar somites and terminating in a caudal
furca; with the post-oral appendages all similar and all bearing
gnathobasic processes; and with a carapace originating as a
shell-fold from the maxillary somite. The eyes were probably
stalked, the antennae and mandibles biramous and natatory,
and botn armed with masticatory processes. It is likely that
the trunk-limbs were also biramous, with additional endites and
exites. Whether any of the obscure fossils generally referred to
the Phyllopoda or Phyllocarida may have approximated to
this hypothetical form it is impossible to say. It is to be noted,
however, that the Trilobita, which, according to the classification
here adopted, are dealt with under Arachnida, are not very far
removed, except in such characters as the absence of a shell-
fold and of eye-stalks, from the primitive Crustacean here
sketched.

On this view, the nauplius, while no longer regarded as
reproducing an ancestral type, does not altogether lose its
phylogenetic significance. It is an ancestral larval form, corre-
sponding perhaps to the stages immediately succeeding the
trochophore in the development of Annelids, but with some of
the later-acquired Crustacean characters superposed upon it.
While little importance is to be given to such characters as the
unsegmented body, the small number of limbs and the absence of
a shell-fold and of paired eyes, it has, on the other hand, preserved
archaic features in the form of the limbs and the masticatory
function of the antenna.

The probable course of evolution of the different groups of
Crustacea from this hypothetical ancestral form can only be
touched on here. The Phyllopoda must have branched off very
early and from them to the Cladocera the way is clear. The
Ostracoda might have been derived from the same stock were
it not that they retain the mandibular palp which all the Phyllo-
pods have lost. The Copepoda must have separated themselves
very early, though perhaps some of their characters may be
persistently larval rather than phylogenetically primitive.
The Cirripedia are so specialized both as larvae and as adults
that it is hard to say in what direction their origin is to be
sought.

For the Malacostraca, it is generally admitted that the Lepto-
straca (Nebalia, &c.) provide a connecting-link with the base of
the Phyllopod stem. Nearest to them come the Schizopoda,
a primitive group from which two lines of descent can be traced,
the one leading from the Mysidacea (Mysidae + Lophogastridae)

to the Cumacea and the sessile-eyed groups Isopoda and Amphi-
poda, the other from the Euphausiacea (Euphausiidae) to the
Decapoda

Classification.

The modern classification of Crustacea may be said to have
been founded by P. A. Latreille, who, in the beginning of the
19th century, divided the class into Entomostraca and Malaco-
straca. The latter division, characterized by the possession of
19 somites and pairs of appendages (apart from the eyes), by
the division of the appendages into two tagmata corresponding
to cephalothorax and abdomen, and by the constancy in position
of the generative apertures, differing in the two sexes, is unques-
tionably a natural group. The Entomostraca, however, are
certainly a heterogeneous assemblage, defined only by negative
characters, and the name is retained only for the sake of con-
venience, just as it is often useful to speak of a still more hetero-
geneous and unnatural assemblage of animals as Invertebrata.
The barnacles and their allies, forming the group Cirripedia or
Thyrostraca, sometimes treated as a separate sub-class, are
distinguished by being sessile in the adult state, the larval
antennules serving as organs of attachment, and the antennae
being lost. An account of them will be found in the article
Thyrostraca. The remaining groups are dealt with under the
headings Entomostraca and Malacostraca, the annectent
group Leptostraca being included in the former.

It may be useful to give here a synopsis of the classification
adopted in this encyclopaedia, noting that, for convenience of
treatment, it has been thought .necessary to adopt a grouping
rot always expressive of the most recent views of affinity.
Class Crustacea.

Sub-class Entomostraca.
Order Branchiopoda.

Sub-orders Phyllopoda.
Cladocera,
Branchiura.
Orders Ostracoda.
Copepoda.
Sub-classes Thyrostraca (Cirripedia).
Leptostraca.
Malacostraca.
Order Decapoda.

Sub-orders Brachyura.
Macrura.
Orders Schizopoda (including Anaspides).
Stomatopoda.
Sympoda (Cumacea).
Isopoda (including Tanaidacea).
Amphipoda. (W. T. Ca.)

CRUSTUMERIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the edge
of the Sabine territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far
from the Tiber. It appears several times in the early history
of Rome, but was conquered in 500 B.C. according to Livy ii. 19,
the tribus Crustumina [or Clustumina] being formed in 471 B.C.
Pliny mentions it among the lost cities of Latium, but the name
clung to the district, the fertility of which remained famous.
No remains of it exist, and its exact site is uncertain.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 50.
CRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791-1874), French anatomist, was
born at Limoges in 1791, and was educated at the university of
Paris, where in 1825 he became professor of anatomy. In 1836
he became the first occupant of the recently founded chair of
pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in 1874. His chief
works are Anatomie descriptive (1834-1836); Anatomie patho-
logique du corps humain (1829-1842), with many coloured plates;
Traite d'anatomie pathologique generate (1849-1864); Anatomie
du systeme nerveux de I'homme (1845); Traite d'anatomie
descriptive (1851).

CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA (1731-1799), Portuguese
heroic-comic poet, was the son of a Lisbon carpenter who
emigrated to Brazil shortly before the poet's birth, leaving his
wife to support and educate her young family by the earnings of
her needle. Diniz studied Latin and philosophy with the
Oratorians, and in 1747 matriculated at Coimbra University,
where he wrote his first verses about 1750. In 1753 he took his
degree in law, and returning to the capital, devoted much of the

562

CRYOLITE— CRYPT

next six years to literary work. In 1756 he became one of the
founders and drew up the statutes of the Arcadia Lusitana, a
literary society whose aims were the instruction of its members,
the cultivation of the art of poetry, and the restoration of good
taste. The fault was not his if these ends were not attained,
for, taking contemporary French authors as his models, he
contributed much, both in prose and verse, to its proceedings,
until he left in February 1760 to take up the position oijuiz de
fora at Castello de Vide. On returning to Lisbon for a short visit,
he found the Arcadia a prey to the internal dissensions that
caused its dissolution in 1774, but succeeded in composing them,
and in 1764 he went to Elvas to act as auditor of one of the
regiments stationed there. During a ten years' residence, his
wide reading and witty conversation gained him the friendship
of the governor of that fortress and the admiration of a circle
comprising all that was cultivated in Elvas. As in most cathedral
and garrison towns, the clerical and military elements dominated
society, and here were mutually antagonistic, because of the
enmity between their respective leaders, the bishop and the
governor. Moreover, Elvas, being a remote provincial centre,
abounded in curious and grotesque types. Diniz, who was a
keen observer, noted these, and, treasuring them in his memory,
reproduced them, with their vanities, intrigues and ignorance,
in his masterpiece, Hyssope. In 1768 a quarrel arose between
the bishop, a proud, pretentious prelate, and the dean, as to the
right of the former to receive holy water from the latter at a
private side door of the cathedral, instead of at the principal
entrance. The matter being one of principle, neither party
would yield what he considered his rights, and it led to a lawsuit,
and divided the town into two sections, which eagerly debated the
arguments on both sides and enjoyed the ridiculous incidents
which accompanied the dispute. Ultimately the dean died,
and was succeeded by his nephew, who appealed to the crown
with success and the bishop lost his pretension. The Hyssope
arose out of and deals with this affair. It was dictated in
seventeen days, in the years 1770-1772, and, in its final redaction,
consists of eight cantos of blank verse. The pressure of absolut-
ism left open only one form of expression, satire, and in this poem
Diniz produced an original work which ridicules the clergy and
the prevailing Gallomania, and contains episodes full of humour.
It has been compared with Boileau's Lutrin, because both are
founded on a petty ecclesiastical quarrel, but here the resemblance
ends, and the poem of Diniz is the superior in everything except
metrification.

Returning to Lisbon in 1774, Diniz endeavoured once more
to resuscitate the Arcadia, but his long absence had withdrawn
its chief support, its most talented members Garcao (q.v.) and
Quita were no more, and he only assisted at its demise. In
April 1776 he was appointed disembargador of the court of
Relagao in Rio de Janeiro and given the habit of Aviz. He lived
in Brazil, devoting his leisure to a study of its natural history
and mineralogy, until 1789, when he went back to Lisbon to
take up the post of disembargador of the Relacao of Oporto;
in July 1790 he was promoted, and became disembargador of
the Casa da Supplicagao. In this year he was sent again to
Brazil to assist in trying the leaders of the Republican conspiracy
in Minas, in which Gonzaga (q.v.) and other men of letters were
involved, and in December 1792 he became chancellor of the
Relac ao in Rio. Six years later he was named councillor of the
, Conselho Ultramarino, but did not live to return home, dying
in Rio on the 5th of October 1799.

Diniz possessed a poetic temperament, but his love of imitating
the classics, whose spirit he failed to understand, fettered his
muse, and he seems never to have perceived that mythological
comparisons and pastoral allegories were poor substitutes for
the expression of natural feeling. The conventionalism of his
art prejudiced its sincerity, and, inwardly cherishing the belief
that poetry was unworthy of the dignity of a judge, he never gave
his real talents a chance to display themselves. His Anacreontic
odes, dithyrambs and idylls earned the admiration of contem-
poraries, but his Pindaric odes lack fire, his sonnets are weak,
and his idylls have neither the truth nor the simplicity of Quita's

work. As a rule Diniz's versification is weak and his verses lack
harmony, though the diction is beyond cavil.

His poems were published in 6 vols. (Lisbon, 1807-1817). The
best edition of Hyssope, to which Diniz owes his lasting fame, is
that of J. R. Coelho (Lisbon, 1879), with an exhaustive introductory
study on his life and writings. A French prose version of the poem
by Boissonade has gone through two editions (Paris, 1828 and 1867),
and English translations of selections have been printed in the
Foreign Quarterly Review, and in the Manchester Quarterly (April
1896).

See also Dr Theophilo Braga, A. Arcadia Lusitana (Oporto, 1899).

(E. Pr.)

CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes
in 1794, and found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and
aluminium. From its general appearance, and from the fact that
it melts readily, even in a candle-flame, it was regarded by the
Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice; from this fact it acquired the
name of cryolite (from Gr. /cptor, frost, and \Wos , stone) , Cryolite
occurs in colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted
brown or red with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a
black variety. It is usually translucent, becoming nearly
transparent on immersion in water. The mineral cleaves in
three rectangular directions, and the crystals occasionally found
in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been proved, after
much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system. The
hardness is 2-5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the
formula NasAlFe, or 3NaF-AlF 3 , corresponding to fluorine 54-4,
sodium 32-8, and aluminium 12-8%. It colours a flame yellow,
through the presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric
acid it evolves hydrofluoric acid.

Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes
written Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland.
There it forms a large deposit, in a granitic vein running through
gneiss, and is accompanied by quartz, siderite, galena, blende,
chalcopyrite, &c. It is also associated with a group of kindred
minerals, some of which are evidently products of alteration of
the cryolite, known as pachnolite, thomsenolite, ralstonite,
gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise occurs, though
only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen Mountains;
at Pike's Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.

Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It
has been extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium,
and as a flux in smelting the metal. It is largely employed in
the manufacture of certain sodium salts, as suggested by Julius
Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849; and it has been used for the
production of certain kinds of porcelain and glass, remarkable
for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.

Although cryolite is known as "ice-stone" (Eisstein),
it is not to be confused with " ice-spar " (Eisspatk)., which
is a vitreous kind of felspar termed "glassy felspar" or
rhyacolite. (F. W. R.*)

CRYPT (Lat. crypta, from the Gr. Kpurrrttv, to hide), a vault or
subterranean chamber, especially under churches. In classical
phraseology ." crypta " was employed for any vaulted building,
either, partially or entirely below the level of the ground. It is
used for a sewer (crypta Suburae, Juvenal, Sat. v. 106) ; ; for the
" carceres," or vaulted stalls for the horses and chariots in a
circus (Sidon. Apoll. Carm. xxiii. 319); for the close porticoes
or arcades, more fully known as " cryptoporticus," attached by
the Romans to their suburban villas for the sake of coolness,
and to the theatres as places of exercise or rehearsal for the
performers (Plin. Epist. ii. 15, v. 6, vii. 21; Sueton. Calig. 58;
Sidon. Apoll. lib. ii. epist. 2); and for underground receptaclef
for agricultural produce (Vitruv. vi. 8, Varro, De re rust. i. 57).
Tunnels, or galleries excavated in the living rock, were also
called cryptae. Thus the tunnel to the north of Naples, through
which the road passes to Puteoli, familiar to tourists as the
" Grotto of Posilipo," was originally designated crypta Nea-
politana (Seneca, Epist. 57). In early Christian times crypta
was appropriately employed for the galleries of a catacomb, or
for the catacomb itself. Jerome calls them by this name when
describing his visits to them as a schoolboy, and the term is used
by Prudentius (see Catacombs).

GRYPT

563

A crypt, as a portion of a church, had its origin in the subter-
ranean chapels known as " confessiones," erected around the
tomb of a martyr, or the place of his martyrdom. This is the
origin of the spacious crypts, some of which may be called
subterranean churches, of the Roman churches of S. Prisca,
S. Prassede, S. Martino ai Monti, S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and
above all of St Peter's — the crypt being thus the germ of the
church or basilica subsequently erected above the hallowed spot.
When the martyr's tomb was sunk in the surface of the ground,
and not placed in a catacomb chapel, the original memorial-
shrine would be only partially below the surface, and conse-
quently the part of the church erected over it, which was always
that containing the altar, would be elevated some height above
the ground, and be approached by flights of steps. This fashion
of raising the chancel or altar end of a church on a crypt was
widely imitated long after the reason for adopting it ceased,
and even where it never existed. The crypt under the altar
at the basilica of St Maria Maggiore in Rome is merely imita-
tive, and the same may be said of many of the crypts of the
early churches in England. The original Saxon cathedral of
Canterbury had a crypt beneath the eastern apse, containing
the so-called body of St Dunstan, and other relics, " fabricated,"
according to Eadmer, " in the likeness of the confessionary of St
Peter at Rome " (see Basilica). St Wilfrid constructed crypts
still existing beneath the churches erected by him in the latter
part of the 7 th century at Hexham and Ripon. These are
peculiarly interesting from their similarity in form and arrange-
ment to the catacomb chapels with which Wilfrid must have
become familiar during his residence in Rome. The cathedral,
begun by /Ethelwold and finished by Alphege at Winchester, at
the end of the 10th century, had spacious crypts " supporting
the holy altar and the venerable relics of the saints " (Wulstan,
Life of St jEthelwold) , and they appear to have been common in
the earlier churches in England. The arrangement was adopted
by the Norman builders of the nth and 12th centuries, and
though far from universal is found in many of the cathedrals of
that date. The object of the construction of these crypts was
twofold, — to give the altar sufficient elevation to enable those
below to witness the sacred mysteries, and to provide a place of
burial for those holy men whose relics were the church's most
precious possession. But the crypt was " a foreign fashion,"
derived, as has been said, from Rome, " which failed to
take root in England, and indeed elsewhere barely outlasted
the Romanesque period " (Essays on Cathedrals, ed. Howson,

P- 33i)-

Of the crypts beneath English Norman cathedrals, that under
the choir of Canterbury (g.v.) is by far the largest and most
elaborate in its arrangements. It is, in fact, a subterranean
church of vast size and considerable altitude. The whole crypt
was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and contained two chapels
especially dedicated to her, — the central, one beneath the high
altar, enclosed with rich Gothic screen- work, and one under the
south transept. This latter chapel was appropriated by Queen
Elizabeth to the use of the French Huguenot refugees who had
settled at Canterbury in the time of Edv/ard VI. There were
also in this crypt a large number of altars and chapels of other
saints, some of whose hallowed bodies were buried here. At the
extreme east end, beneath the Trinity chapel, the body of St
Thomas (Becket) was buried the day after his martyrdom,
and lay there till his translation, July 7, 1220.

The cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester and Gloucester have
crypts of slightly earlier date (they may all be placed between
1080 and 1 100), but of similar character, though less elaborate.
They all contain piscinas and other evidences of the existence of
altars in considerable numbers. They are all apsidal. The most
picturesque is that of Worcester, the work of Bishop Wulfstan
(1084), which is remarkable for the multiplicity of small pillars
supporting its radiating vaults. Instead of having the air of a
sepulchral vault like those of Winchester and Gloucester, this
crypt is, in Professor Willis's words, " a. complex and beautiful
temple." Archbishop Roger's crypt at York, belonging to the
next century (n 54-1 181), was filled up with earth when the

present choir was built at the end of the 14th century, and its
existence forgotten till its disinterment after the fire of 1829;
The choir and presbytery at Rochester are supported by an
extensive Crypt, of which" the western portion is Gundulf 's work
(1076-1107), but the eastern part, which displays slender
cylindrical and octagonal shafts, with light vaulting springing
from them, is of the same period as the superstructure, the first
years of the 13th century. This crypt, and that beneath the
Early English Lady chapel at Hereford, are the latest English
existing cathedral crypts. That at Hereford was rendered
necessary by the fall of the ground, and is an exceptional case.
Later than any of these crypts was that of St Paul's, Londom
This was a really large and magnificent church of Decorated
date, with a vaulted roof of rich and intricate character resting
on a forest of clustered columns. Part of it served as the parish
church of St Faith. A still more exquisite work of the Decorated
period is the crypt of St Stephen's chapel at Westminster, than
which it is difficult to conceive anything more perfect in design
or more elaborate in ornamentation. Having happily escaped
the conflagration of the Houses of Parliament in 1834 — before
which it was degraded to the purpose of the speaker's state
dining-room— it has been restored to its former sumptuousness
of decoration, and is now one of the most beautiful architectural
gems in England.

Of Scottish cathedrals the only one that possesses a crypt is
the cathedral of Glasgow, rendered celebrated by Sir Walter
Scott in his novel of Rob Roy (ch. xx.). At the supposed date
of the tale, and indeed till a comparatively recent period, this
crypt was used as a place of worship by one of the three con-
gregations among which the cathedral was partitioned, and was
known as " the Laigh or Barony Kirk." It extends beneath
the choir transepts and chapter-house; in consequence of the
steep declivity on which the cathedral stands it is of unusual
height and lightsomeness. It belongs to the 13th century, its
style corresponding to Early English, and is simplyconstructional,
the building being adapted to the locality. In architectural
beauty it is quite unequalled by any crypt in the United
Kingdom, and can hardly anywhere be surpassed. It is an
unusually rich example of the style, the clustered piers and
groining being exquisite in design and admirable in execution.
The bosses of the roof and capitals of the piers are very elaborate,
and the doors are much enriched with foliage. " There is a
solidity in its architecture, a richness in its vaulting, and a
variety of perspective in the spacing of its pillars, which make
it one of the most perfect pieces of architecture in these
kingdoms " (Fergusson).

In the centre of the main alley stands the mutilated effigy
of St Mungo, the patron saint of Glasgow, and at the south-east
corner is a well called after the same saint.

Crypts under parish churches are not very uncommon in
England, but they are Usually small and not characterized by
any architectural beauty. A few of the earlier crypts, however,
deserve notice. One of the earliest and most remarkable is that
of the church of Lastingham near Pickering in Yorkshire, on
the site of the monastery founded in 648 by Cedd, bishop of the
East Saxons. The existing crypt, though exceedingly rude
in structure, is of considerably later date than Bishop Cedd,
forming part of the church erected by Abbot Stephen of Whitby
in 1080, when he had been driven inland by the incursions of the
northern pirates. This crypt is remarkable from its extending
under the nave as well as the chancel of the upper church, the
plan of which it accurately reproduces, with the exception of the
westernmost bay. It forms a nave with side aisles of three bays,
and an apsidal chancel, lighted by narrow deeply splayed slits.
The roof of quadripartite vaulting is supported by four very
dwarf thick cylindrical columns, the capitals of which and of
the responds are clumsy imitations of classical work with rude
volutes. Still more curious is the crypt beneath the chancel
of the church of Repton in Derbyshire. This also consists of a
centre and side aisles, divided by three arches on either side.
The architectural character, however, is very different from
that at Lastingham, and is in some respects almost unique, the

5 6 4

CRYPTEIA— CRYPTOBRANCHUS

piers being slender, and some of them of a singular spiral form,
with a bead running in the sunken part of the spiral. Another
very extensive and curious Norman crypt is that beneath the
chancel of St Peter's-in-the-East at Oxford. . This is five
bays in length, the quadripartite vaulting being supported
by eight low, somewhat slender, cylindrical columns with
capitals bearing grotesque animal and human subjects. Its
dimensions are 36 by 20 ft. and 10 ft. in height, This crypt has
been commonly attributed to Grymboldt in the 9th century;
but it is really not very early Norman. Under the church of
St Mary-le-Bow in London there is an interesting Norman crypt
not very dissimilar in character to that last described. Of a later
date is the remarkably fine Early English crypt groined in stone,
beneath the chancel of Hythe in Kent, containing a remarkable
collection of skulls and bones, the history of which is quite
uncertain. There is also a Decorated crypt beneath the chancel
at Wimborne minster, and one of the same date beneath the
southern chancel aisle at Grantham.

Among the more remarkable French crypts may be mentioned
those of the cathedrals of Auxerre, said to date from the original
foundation in 1085; of Bayeux, attributed to Odo, bishop of that
see, uterine brother of William the Conqueror, where twelve
columns with rude capitals support a vaulted roof; of Chartres,
running under the choir and its aisles, frequently assigned to
Bishop Fulbert in 1029, but more probably coeval with the
superstructure; and of Bourges, where the crypt is in the Pointed
style, extending beneath the choir. The church of the Holy
Trinity attached to Queen Matilda's foundation — the " Abbaye
aux Dames " at Caen — has a Norman crypt where the thirty-four
pillars are as closely set as those at Worcester. The church of
St Eutropius at Saintes has also a crypt of the nth century, of
very large dimensions, which deserves special notice ; the capitals
of the columns exhibit very curious carvings. Earlier than any
already mentioned is that of St Gervase of Rouen, considered
by E. A. Freeman " the oldest ecclesiastical work to be seen north
of the Alps." It is apsidal, and in its walls are layers of Roman
brick. It is said to contain the remains of two of the earliest
apostles of Gaul — St Mello and St Avitian. There are numerous
crypts in Germany. One at Gottingen may be mentioned, where
cylindrical shafts with capitals of singular design support
" vaulting of great elegance and lightness " (Fergusson), the
curves being those of a horseshoe arch. The crypts of the
cathedrals or churches at Halberstadt, Hildesheim and Naum-
burg also deserve to be noticed; that of Liibeck may be rather
called a lower choir. It is 20 ft. high and vaulted.

The Italian crypts, when found, as a rule reproduce the
" confessio " of the primitive churches. That beneath the
chancel of S. Michele at Pavia is an excellent typical example,
probably dating from the 10th century. It is apsidal and vaulted,
and is seven bays in length. That at S. Zeno at Verona (c. 1 138)
is still more remarkable; its vaulted roof is upborne by forty
columns, with curiously carved capitals. It is approached from
the west by a double flight of steps and contains many ancient
monuments. S. Miniato at Florence, begun in 1013, has a very
spacious crypt at the east end, forming virtually a second choir.
It is seven bays in length and vaulted. The most remarkable
crypt in Italy, however, is perhaps that of St Mark's, Venice.
The plan of this is almost a Greek cross. Four rows of nine
columns each run from end to end, and two rows of three each
occupy the arms of the cross, supporting low stunted arches
on which rests the pavement of the church above. This also
constitutes a lower church, containing a chorus cantorum formed
by a low stone screen, not unlike that of S. Clemente at Rome
(see Basilica), enclosing a massive stone altar with four low
columns. This crypt is reasonably supposed to belong to the
church founded by the doge P. Orseolo in 977. There are also
crypts deserving notice at the cathedrals of Brescia, Fiesole
and Modena, and the churches of S. Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio
at Milan. The former was unfortunately modernized by St
Charles Borromeo. The crypt at Assisi is really a second church
at a lower level, and being built on the steep side of a hill is well
lighted. The whole fabric is a beautiful specimen of Italian

Gothic, and both the lower and upper churches are covered with
rich frescoes.

Domestic crypts are of frequent occurrence. Medieval houses
had as a rule their chief rooms raised above the level of the
ground upon vaulted substructures, which were used as cellars
and storerooms. These were sometimes partially underground,
sometimes entirely above it. The underground vaults often
remain when all the superstructure has been swept away, and
from their Gothic character are frequently mistaken for ecclesi-
astical buildings. The older English towns are full of crypts of
this character, now used as cellars. They occur in Oxford and
Rochester, are very abundant in the older parts of Bristol, and,
according to J. H. Parker, " nearly the whole city of Chester
is built upon a series of them with the Rows or passages made
on the top of the vaults " (Domestic Architecture, iii. 91). The
crypt of Gerard's Hall in London, destroyed in the construction
of New Cannon Street, figured by Parker (Dom. Arch. ii. 185),
was a beautiful example of the lower storey of the residence of
a wealthy merchant of the time of Edward I. It was divided
down the middle by a row of four slender cylindrical columns
supporting a very graceful vault. The finest example of a
secular crypt now remaining in England is that beneath the
Guildhall of London. The date of this is early in the 15th
century — 141 1. It is a large and lofty apartment, divided into
four alleys by two rows of clustered shafts supporting a rich
lierne vault with ribs of considerable intricacy. There is a fine
vaulted crypt of the same date and of similar character beneath
St Mary's Hall, the Guildhall of the city of Coventry. (E. V.)

CRYPTEIA (Gr. Kpimrtiv, to hide), a kind of secret police
in ancient Sparta, founded, according to Aristotle, by Lycurgus;
there is, however, no real evidence as to the date of its origin.
The institution was under the supervision of the ephors, who,
on entering office, annually proclaimed war against the helots
(serf-class) and thus absolved from the guilt of murder any
Spartan who should slay a helot. It was instituted primarily
as a precaution against the ever-present danger of a helot revolt,
and secondarily perhaps as a training for young Spartans, who
were sent out by the ephors to keep watch on the helots and
assassinate any who might appear dangerous. Plato (Laws, i.
P- 633} emphasizes the former aspect, but there can be little
doubt that, at all events after the revolt of 464 (see Cimon),
its more sinister purpose was predominant, as we may gather
from the secret massacre of 2000 helots who, on the invitation
of the ephors, claimed to have rendered distinguished service
(Thuc. iv. 80).

See Helots; Ephor; also A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Gk.
Const. Hist. (London, 1896) ; G. Gilbert, Gk. Const. Antiq. (Eng.
trans., London, 1895).

CRYPTOBRANCHUS, a genus of thoroughly aquatic, but
lung-breathing tailed Batrachia, of the family Amphiumidae,
characterized by a heavy, flattened build, a very porous tuber-
cular skin, with a frilled fold along each side, short stout limbs
with four very short fingers and five very short toes, and minute
eyes without lids. The vertebrae are biconcave, and although
the gills are lost in the adult, ossified gill-arches, two to four in
number, persist. A strong series of vomerine teeth extends
across the palate. Three species of this genus are known. One
is the well-known fossil of Oeningen first described as Homo
diluvii testis and shown by Cuvier to be nearly related to the
gigantic salamander of Japan, Cryptobranchus maximus, which
has since been found to inhabit China also; the third is the
hellbender, mud-puppy or water-dog of North America, C,
alleghaniensis, also known under the name of Menopoma. Both
the fossil C. scheuchzeri and C. maximus grow to a length of
over s ft. and are by far the largest Urodeles known, whilst
C. alleghaniensis reaches the respectable length of 18 in.

The eggs are laid in rosary-like strings. They have been
found, in Japan, deposited in deep holes in the water, where
they form large clumps (70 to 80 eggs) round which the female
coils herself. The gigantic salamander has also bred in the
Amsterdam zoological gardens, the eggs numbering upwards of
500; the male, it is stated, took charge of the eggs, and for the

CRYPTOGRAPHY

565

ten weeks which elapsed before the release of the last larva, he
kept close to them, at times crawling among the coiled mass of
egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose of
aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long,
provided with three branched external gills on each side, and
showing mere rudiments of the four limbs.

CRYPTOGRAPHY (from Gr. /cpwrros, hidden, and ypafyav,
to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from
Gr. crtyavri, a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to
be incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the
system employed. The unravelling of the writing is called
deciphering. Cryptography having become a distinct art,
Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed it (under the name ciphers) as
a part of grammar. Secret modes of communication have been in
use from the earliest times. The Lacedemonians had a method
called the scytale, from the staff (<tkvto.\ti) employed in construct-
ing and deciphering the message. When the Spartan ephors
wished to forward their orders to their commanders abroad, they
wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the okvtoKt)
so that the edges met close together, and the message was then
added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was
on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll
consisted of broken letters; and in that condition it was
despatched to its destination, the general to whose hands it
came deciphering it by means of a cuvTokri exactly corresponding
to that used by the ephors. Polybius has enumerated other
methods of cryptography.

The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the
revival of letters methods of secret correspondence were intro-
duced into private business, diplomacy, plots, &c; and as the
study of this art has always presented attractions to the
ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the result.

John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the
first important writer on cryptography. His Polygraphia,
published in 1518, has passed through rhany editions, and has
supplied the basis upon which subsequent writers have worked.
It was begun at the desire of the duke of Bavaria; but
Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the ground
that it would be injurious to public interests. A Steganographia
published at Lyons (71551) and later at Frankfort (1606), is
also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were
those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathe-
matician, who wrote De furtivis litterarum notis, 1563; and of
Blaise de Vigenere, whose Traite des ckiffres appeared in Paris,
1587. Bacon proposed an ingenious system of cryptography
on the plan of what is called the double cipher; but while thus
lending to the art the influence of his great name, he gave an
intimation as to the general opinion formed of it and as to the
classes of men who used it. For when prosecuting the earl of
Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of Overbury, he urged
it as an aggrayation of the crime that the earl and Overbury
" had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the
great men, — things seldom used but either by princes and their
ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against
or, at least, upon princes."

Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with
the art. John Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published
in 1 641 an anonymous treatise entitled Mercury, or The Secret
and Swift Messenger, — a small but comprehensive work on the
subject, and a timely gift to the diplomatists and leaders of
the Civil War. The deciphering of many of the royalist papers
of that period, such as the letters that fell into the hands of the
parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe been
charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis
(Athen. Oxon. iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of
cipher-writing is referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of
, his mathematical works, 1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys.
Dr Wallis elsewhere states that this art, formerly scarcely known
to any but the secretaries of princes, &c, had grown very common
and familiar during the civil commotions, " so that now there is
scarce a person of quality but is more or- less acquainted with it,
and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it.' : Subsequent

writers on the subject are John Falconer (Cry ptomenysis pate-
facia), 1685; John Davys (An Essay on the Art of Decyphsring:
in which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis), 1737; Philip
Thicknesse (A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing
in Cypher), 1772; William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive
article "Cipher" in Rees's Cyclopaedia), 1819; and G. von
Marten (Cours diplomatique), 1801 (a fourth edition of which
appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best modern work on this
subject is the Kryptographik of J. L. Kluber (Tubingen, 1809),
who was drawn into the investigation by inclination and official
circumstances. In this work the different methods of crypto-
graphy are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who
have treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e.
Augustus, duke of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by
Niceron in 1641; the marquis of Worchester, 1659; Kircher,
1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich Hiller, 1682; Comiers;
1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a paper on
Elizabethan Cipher-books by A. J. Butler in the Bibliographical
Society's Transactions, London, 1901.

Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon
lays down the following as the " virtues " to be looked for in
them: — "that they be not laborious to write and read; that
they be impossible to decipher; and, in some cases, that they
be without suspicion." These principles are more or less disre-
garded by all the modes that have been advanced, including
that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his
admirers as " one of the most ingenious methods of writing in
cypher, and the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet
contrived " (Thicknesse, p. 13).

The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which
the writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other
letters in regular advance. This method of transposition was
used by Julius Caesar. He, " per quartam elementorum literam,"
wrote d for a, e for b, and so on. There are instances of this
arrangement in the Jewish rabbis, and even in the sacred writers.
An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah (xxv. 26), whefe the
prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction from all but
the initiated, writes Sheshak instead of Babel (Babylon), the
place meant; i.e. in place of using the second, and twelfth letters
of the Hebrew alphabet (b, b, I) from the beginning, he wrote
the second and twelfth (sh, sh, k) from the end. To this kind of
cipher- writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from a the first
letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and th the last; b the second from
the beginning, and // the second from the end). Another Jewish
cabalism of like nature was called Albam ; of which an example
is in Isaiah vii. 6, where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its
adaptation to English this method of transposition, of which
there are many modifications, is comparatively easy to decipher.
A rough key may be derived from an examination of the respec-
tive quantities of letters in a type-founder's bill, or a printer's
" case." The decipherer's first business is to classify the letters
of the secret message in the order of their frequency. The letter
that occurs oftenest is e; and the next in order of frequency is /.
The following groups come after these, separated from each other
by degrees of decreasing recurrence: — a, 0, n, i; r, s,, h;, d, I;
c, w, u, m; f, y, g, p, b; v, k; x, q, j, z. All the single letters must
be a, I or O. Letters occurring together are ee, oo,Jf,ll, ss, &c.
The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in
the order of their frequency) of, to, in, it, is, be, he, by, or, as,
at, an, so, &c. The commonest words of three letters are the
and and (in great excess), for, are, but, all, not, &c; and of four
letters — that, with, from, have, this, they, &c. Familiarity with
the composition of the language will suggest numerous other
points that are of value to the decipherer. He may obtain other
hints from Poe's tale called The Gold Bug. As to messages in the
continental languages constructed upon this system of trans-
position, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt's
Ars decifratoria (1737), and other treatises.

Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters
and alphabets yet they might be in words. Upon this basis
codes have been constructed, classified words taken from
dictionaries being made to represent complete ideas In recent

5 66

CRYPTOMERIA— CRYSTAL-GAZING

years such codes have been adapted by merchants and others to
communications by telegraph, and have served the purpose not
only of keeping business affairs private, but also of reducing
the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets.
Obviously this class of ciphers presents greater difficulties to
the skill of the decipherer.

Figures and other characters have been also used as letters;
and with them ranges of numerals have been combined as the
representatives of syllables, parts of words, words themselves,
and complete phrases. Under this head must be placed the
despatches of Giovanni Michael, the Venetian ambassador to
England in the reign of Queen Mary, documents which have only
of late years been deciphered. Many of the private letters
and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were
adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of
that monarch's letters, a document of considerable interest, con-
sisting entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858
deciphered by Professor Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingeni-
ous crypto - machine, and printed by the Philobiblon Society.
Other letters of the like character have been published in the
First Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts
(1870). In the second and subsequent reports of the same com-
mission several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which
seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under
notice. In this connexion also should be mentioned the " char-
acters," which the diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to Sir
George Downing and secretary to th'e earl of Sandwich and to
the admiralty, and which are frequently mentioned in his journal.
Pepys describes one of them as " a great large character," over
which he spent much time, but which was at length finished,
25 th April 1660; "it being," says he, " very handsomely done
and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical."

Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also
been largely imported into cryptographic systems to represent
both letters and words, but more commonly the latter. This
plan is said to have been first put into use by the old Roman poet
Ennius. It formed the basis of the method of Cicero's freedman,
Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labours of his pre-
decessors. A large quantity of these characters have been
engraved in Gruter's Inscriptiones. The correspondence of
Charlemagne was in part made up of marks of this nature. In
Rees's Cyclopaedia specimens were engraved of the cipher used
by Cardinal Wolsey at the court of Vienna in 1524, of that used
by Sir Thomas Smith at Paris in 1563, and of that of Sir Edward
Stafford in 1586; in all of which arbitrary marks are introduced.
The first English system of shorthand — Bright's Characterie,
1588 — almost belongs to the same category of ciphers. A
favourite system of Charles I., used by him during the year 1646,
was one made up of an alphabet of twenty-four letters, which
were represented by four simple strokes varied in length, slope
and position. This alphabet is engraved in Clive's Linear System
of Shorthand (1830), having been found amongst the royal manu-
scripts in the British Museum. An interest attaches to this
cipher from the fact that it was employed in the well-known
letter .addressed by the king to the earl of Glamorgan, in which
the former made concessions to the Roman Catholics of Ireland.

Complications have been introduced into ciphers by the em-
ployment of " dummy " letters, — " nulls and insignificants,"
as Bacon terms them. Other devices have been introduced to
perplex the decipherer, such as spelling words backwards, making
false divisions between words, &c. The greatest security against
the decipherer has been found in the use of elaborate tables of
letters, arranged in the form of the multiplication table, the
message being constructed by the aid of preconcerted key-words.
Details of the working of these ciphers may be found in the
treatises named in this article. The deciphering of them is one
of the most difficult of tasks. A method of this kind is explained
in the Latin and English lives of Dr John Barwick, whose
correspondence with Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, was
carried on in cryptography. In a letter dated 20th February
1659/60, Hyde, alluding to the skill of his political opponents
in deciphering, says that " nobody needs to fear them, if they

write carefully in good cyphers." In his next he allays his
correspondent's apprehensiveness as to the deciphering of their
letters.

" I confess to you, as I am sure no copy could be gotten of any
of my cyphers from hence, so I did not think it probable that they
could be got on your side the water. But I was as confident, till
you tell me you believe it, that the devil himself cannot decypher
a letter that is well written, or find that 100 stands for Sir H. Vane.
I have heard of many of the pretenders to that skill, and have
spoken with some of them, but have found them all to be mounte-
banks; nor did I ever hear that more of the King's letters that
were found at Naseby, than those which they found decyphered,
or found the cyphers in which they were writ, were decyphered.
And I very well remember that in the volume they published there
was much left in cypher which could not be understood, and which
I believe they would have explained if it had been in their power."

An excellent modification of the key-word principle was con-
structed by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort.

Ciphers have been constructed on the principle of altering
the places of the letters without changing their powers. The
message is first written Chinese- wise, upward and downward, and
the letters are then combined in given rows from left to right.
In the celebrated cipher used by the earl of Argyll when plot-
ting against James II., he altered the positions of the words.
Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the
real meaning of the message was to be gathered from words,
placed at certain intervals. This method, which is connected
with the name of Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or card-
board cipher.

The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian invention, the string-
cipher, the circle-cipher and many others are fully explained,
with the necessary diagrams, in the authorities named above —
more particularly by Kliiber in his Kryptographik. (J. E. B.)

CRYPTOMERIA, or Japanese Cedar, a genus of conifers,
containing a single species, C. japonica, native of China and
Japan, which was introduced into Great Britain by the Royal
Horticultural Society 'in 1844. It is described as one of the
finest trees in Japan, reaching a height of 100 or more feet,
usually divested of branches along the lower part of the trunk
and crowned with a conical head. The narrow, pointed leaves are
spirally arranged and persist for four or five years; the cones
are small, globose and borne at the ends of the branchlets, the
scales are thickened at the extremity and divided into sharply
pointed lobes, three to five seeds are borne on each scale. Crypto-
meria is extensively used in Japan for reafforesting denuded
lands, as it is a valuable timber tree; it is also planted to form
avenues along the public roads. In Veitch's Manual of Coniferae
(ed. 2, 1900, p. 265) reference is made to "an avenue of Crypto-
merias 7 m. in extent near Lake Hakone " in which " the trees
are more than 100 ft. high, with perfectly straight trunks crowned
with conical heads of foliage." Professor C. S. Sargent, in his
Forest Flora of Japan, says, " Japan owes much of the beauty
of its groves and gardens to the Cryptomeria. Nowhere is there
a more solemn and impressive group of trees than that which
surrounds the temples and tombs at Nikko where they rise to a
height of 100 to 125 ft.; it is a stately tree with no rival except
in the sequoias of California." Many curious varieties have
been obtained by Japanese horticulturists, including some
dwarf shrubby forms not exceeding a few feet in height. When
grown in Great Britain Cryptomeria requires a deep, well-drained
soil with plenty of moisture, and protection from cold winds.

CRYPTO-PORTICUS (Gr. Kprnros, concealed, and Lat.
porticus), an architectural term for a concealed or covered
passage, generally underground, though lighted and ventilated
from the open air. One of the best-known examples is the
crypto-porticus under the palaces of the Caesars in Rome. In
Hadrian's villa in Rome they formed the principal private
intercommunication between the several buildings.

CRYSTAL-GAZING, or Scrying, the term commonly applied
to the induction of visual hallucinations by concentrating the
gaze on any clear deep, such as a crystal or a ball of polished
rock crystal. Some persons do not even find a clear deep
necessary, and are content to gaze at the palm of the hand, for
example, when hallucinatory pictures, as they declare, emerge.

CRYSTAL-GAZING

567

Among objects used are a pool of ink in the hand (Egypt), the
liver of an animal (tribes of the North-West Indian frontier),
a hole filled with water (Polynesia), quartz crystals (the Apaches
and the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales), a smooth slab of
polished black stone (the Huille-che of South America), water
in a vessel (Zulus and Siberians), a crystal (the Incas), a mirror
(classical Greece and the middle ages), the finger-nail, a sword-
blade, a ring-stone, a glass of sherry, in fact almost anything.
Much depends on what the " seer " is accustomed to use, and
some persons who can " scry " in a glass ball or a glass water-
bottle cannot " scry " in ink.

The practice of inducing pictorial hallucinations by such
methods as these has been traced among the natives of North
and South America, Asia, Australia, Africa, among the Maoris,
who sometimes use a drop of blood, and in Polynesia, and is thus
practically of world-wide diffusion. This fact was not observed
(that is, the collections of examples were not made) till recently,
when experiments in private non-spiritualist circles drew
attention to crystal-gazing, a practice always popular among
peasants, and known historically to have survived through
classical and medieval times, and, as in the famous case of Dr
Dee, after the Reformation.

The early church condemned specularii (mirror-gazers), and
Aubrey and the Memoirs of Saint-Simon contain " scrying "
anecdotes of the 17th and 18th centuries, while Sir Walter
Scott's story, My Aunt Margaret's Mirror, is based on a tradition
of about 1750 in a noble Scottish family. The practice, in all
times and countries, was used for purposes of divination. The
gazer detected unknown criminals, or described remote events,
or even professed to foretell things future. Sometimes the
supposed magician or medicine man himself did the scrying;
occasionally he enabled his client to see for himself; often a
child was selected as the scryer. The process was usually
explained as the result of the action of a spirit, angel or devil,
and many unessential formulae, invocations, " calls," written
charms with cabbalistic signs, and fumigations, were employed.
These things may have had some effect by way of suggestion;
the scryer may have been brought by them into an appropriate
frame of mind; but, as a whole, they are tedious and superfluous.

A person can either induce the pictorial hallucinations (he
may discover his capacity by accident, like George Sand, as she
tells in her Memoirs — and other cases are known), or he cannot
induce them, though he stare till his eyes water. It is almost
universally found, in cases of successful experiment, that the
glass ball, for example, takes a milky or misty aspect, that it then
grows black, reflections disappearing, and that then the pictures
emerge. Some people arrive at seeing the glass ball milky or
misty, and can go no further. Others see pictures of persons or
landscapes, only in black and white, and motionless. Others
see in the glass coloured figures of men, women and animals in
motion; while in rarer cases the ball disappears from view, and
the scryer finds himself apparently looking at an actual scene.
In a few attested cases two persons have shared the same vision.
In experiments with magnifying glasses, and through spars,
the ordinary effects of magnifying and of alteration of view are
sometimes produced; sometimes they are not. The evidence,
of course, is necessarily only that of the scryers themselves,
but repeated experiments by persons of probity, and unfamiliar
with the topic, combined with the world-wide existence of the
practice, prove that hallucinatory pictures are really induced.

It has not been found possible to determine, before experiment,
whether any given man or woman will prove capable of the
hallucinatory experiences. Many subjects with strong powers
of " visualization," or seeing things " in the mind's eye," cannot
scry; others are successful in various degrees. We might expect
persons who have experienced spontaneous visual hallucinations,
of the kind vulgarly styled " ghosts "or " wraiths," to succeed
in inducing pictures in a glass ball. As a matter of fact such
persons sometimes can and sometimes cannot see pictures in
the way of crystal-gazing; while many who can see in the crystal
have had no spontaneous hallucinations. It is useless to make
experiments with hysterical and visionary people, " whose word

/

no man relies on "; they may have the hallucinatory experi-
ences, but they would say that they had in any case.

The nearest analogy to crystal visions, as described, is the
common experience of " hypnagogic illusions " (cf. Alfred Maury.
Les Rbies etle sommeit) . With closed eyes, between sleeping and
waking, many people see faces, landscapes and other things
flash upon their view, pictures often brilliant, but of very brief
duration and rapid mutation. Sometimes the subject opens
his eyes to get rid of an unpleasant vision of this kind. People
who cannot scry may have these hypnagogic illusions, and, so
far, may partly understand the experience of the scryer who is
wide awake. But the visions of the scryer often endure for a
considerable time. He or she may put the glass down and con-
verse, and may find the picture still there when the ball is taken
up again. New figures may join the figure first seen, as when
one enters a room. In these respects, and in the awakeness
of the scryer, crystal pictures differ from hypnagogic illusions.
In other ways the experiences coincide, the pictures are either
fanciful, like illustrations of some unread history or romance, or
are revivals of remembered places and faces.

Occasionally, in hypnagogic illusions, the observer can see
the- picture develop rapidly out of a blot of light or colour,
beheld by the closed eyes. One or two scryers think that they,
too, can trace the picture as it develops on the suggestion of some
passage of light, colour or shadow in the glass or crystal. But,
as a rule, the scryer cannot detect any process of development
from such points de mire; though this may be the actual process.

On the whole there seems little doubt that successful crystal-
gazing is the exertion of a not uncommon though far from
universal faculty, like those of " chromatic audition " — the vivid
association of certain sounds with certain colours — and the
mental seeing of figures arranged in coloured diagrams (Galton,
Inquiry into Human Faculty, pp. 114-154). The experience
of hypnagogic illusions also seems far more rare than ordinary
dreaming in sleep. Unfortunately, while these phenomena have
been carefully studied by officially scientific characters, in
England orthodox savants have disdained to observe crystal-
gazing, while in France psychologists have too commonly
experimented with subjects professionally hysterical and quite
untrustworthy. Our remarks are therefore based mainly on
considerable personal study of " scrying " among normal
British subjects of both sexes, to whom the topic was previously
unknown.

The superstitious associations of crystal-gazing, as of hypnot-
ism, appear to bar the way to official scientific investigation,
and the fluctuating proficiency of the seers, who cannot command
success, or determine the causes and conditions of success and
failure, tends in the same direction. The existence, too, of paid
professionals who lead astray silly women, encourages the
natural scientific contempt for the study of the faculty.

The seeing of the pictures, as far as we have spoken of it,
appears to be a thing unusual, but in no way abnormal, any
more than dreams or hypnagogic illusions are abnormal. Crystal
pictures, however, are commonly dismissed as mere results of
" imagination," a theory which, of course, is of no real assistance
to psychology. Persons of recognized " imaginativeness," such
as novelists and artists, do not seem more or less capable of the
hallucinatory experiences than their sober neighbours; while
persons not otherwise recognizably " imaginative " (we could
quote a singularly accurate historian) are capable of the experi-
ences. It is unfortunate, as it awakens prejudice, but in the
present writer's opinion it is true, that crystal-gazing sometimes
is rewarded with results which may be styled " supra-normal."
In addition to the presentation of revived memories, and of
" objectivation of ideas or images consciously or unconsciously
in the mind of the percipient," there occur " visions, possibly
telepathic or clairvoyant, implying acquirement of knowledge
by supra-normal means." 1

A number , of examples occurring during experiments made
by the present writer and by his acquaintances in 1897 were
carefully recorded and attested by the signatures of all concerned
1 Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, v. 486.

5 68

CRYSTALLITE

The cases, or rather a selection of the cases, are printed in A.
Lang's book, The Making of Religion (2nd ed., London, 1902,
pp. 87-104). Others are chronicled in A. Lang's Introduction
to Mr N. W. Thomas's work, Crystal Gazing (1905) . The experi-
ments took this form: any person might ask the scryer (a lady
who had never previously heard of crystal-gazing) " to see what
he was thinking of." The scryer, who was a stranger in a place
which she had not visited before, gave, in a long series of cases,
a description of the person or place on which the inquirer's
thoughts were fixed. The descriptions, though three or four
entire failures occurred, were of remarkable accuracy as a rule,
and contained facts and incidents unknown to the inquirers,
but confirmed as accurate. In fact, some Oriental scenes and
descriptions of incidents were corroborated by a letter from India
which arrived just after the experiment; and the same thing
happened when the events described were occurring in places less
remote. On one occasion a curious set of incidents were
described, which happened to be vividly present to the mind of
a sceptical stranger who chanced to be in the room during the
experiment; events unknown to the inquirer in this instance.
As an example of the minuteness of description, an inquirer,
thinking of a brother in India, an officer in the army, whose hair
had suffered in an encounter with a tiger, had described to her
an officer in undress uniform, with bald scars through the hair
on his temples, such as he really bore. The number and proportion
of successes was too high to admit of explanation by chance
coincidence, but success was not invariable. On one occasion
the scryer could see nothing, " the crystal preserved its natural
diaphaneity," as Dr Dee says; and there were failures with two
or three inquirers. On the other hand no record was kept in
several cases of success.

Whoever can believe that the successes were numerous and
that descriptions were given correctly— not only of facts present
to the minds of inquirers, and of other persons present who were
not consciously taking a share in the experiments, but also of
facts necessarily unknown to all concerned — must of course
be most impressed by the latter kind of success. If the process
commonly styled " telepathy " exists (see Telepathy), that
may account for the scryer's power of seeing facts which are in
the mind of the inquirer. But when the scryers see details of
various sorts, which are unknown to the inquirer, but are verified
on inquiry, then telepathy perhaps fails to provide an explana-
tion. We seem to be confronted with actual clairvoyance (q.v.),
or vue a distance. It would be vain to form hypotheses as to
the conditions or faculties which make vue d distance possible.
This way lie metaphysics, with Hegel's theory of the Sensitive
Soul, or Myers' theory of the Subliminal Self. " The intuitive
soul," says Hegel, " oversteps the conditions of time and space;
it beholds things remote, things long past, and things to come." 1

What we need, if any progress is to be made in knowledge of
the subject, is not a metaphysical hypothesis, but a large,
carefully tested, and well-recorded collection of examples, made
by savants of recognized standing. At present we are where
we were in electrical science, when Newton produced curious
sparks while rubbing glass with paper. By way of facts, we
have only a large body of unattested anecdotes of supra-normal
successes in crystal-gazing, in many lands and ages; and the
scanty records of modern amateur investigators, like the present
writer. Even from these, if the honesty of all concerned be
granted (and, even clever dishonesty could not have produced
many of the results) , it would appear that we are investigating
a strange and important human faculty. The writer is acquainted
with no experiments in which it was attempted to discern the
future (except in trivial cases as to events on the turf, when
chance coincidence might explain the successes), and only with
two or three cases in which there was an attempt to help historical
science and discern the past by aid of psychical methods. The
results were interesting and difficult to explain, but the experi-
ments were few. Ordinary scryers of fancy pictures are common
enough, but scryers capable of apparently supra-normal successes

1 " Philosophie der Geistes," Hegel's Werke, vii. 179, 406, 408
(Berlin, 1845). Cf. Wallace's translation (Oxford, 1894).

are apparently rare. Perhaps something depends on the inquirer
as well as the scryer.

The method of scrying, as generally practised, is simple.
It is usual to place a glass ball on a dark ground, to sit with the
back to the light, to focus the gaze on the ball (disregarding
reflections, if these cannot be excluded), and to await results.
Perhaps from five to ten minutes is a long enough time for the
experiment. The scryer may let his consciousness play freely,
but should not be disturbed by lookers-on. As a rule, if a person
has the faculty he " sees " at the first attempt; if he fails in
the first three or four efforts he need not persevere. Solitude is
advisable at first, but few people can find time amounting to ten
minutes for solitary studies of this sort, so busy and so gregarious
is mankind. The writer has no experience of trance, sleep or
auto-hypnotization produced in such experiments; scryers
have always seemed to retain their full normal consciousness.
As regards scepticism concerning the faculty we may quote
what Mr Galton says about the faculty of visualization: " Scien-
tific men as a class have feeble power of visual reproduction.
. . . They had a mental deficiency of which they were
unconscious, and, naturally enough, supposed that those who
affirmed they were possessed of it were romancing."

Authorities. — A useful essay is that of "Miss X" (Miss Goodrich
Freer) in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, v.
The history of crystal-gazing is here traced, and many examples of
the author's own experiments are recorded. A. Lang's The Making
of Religion, ch. v., contains anthropological examples and a series
of experiments. In N. W. Thomas's Crystal Gazing the history
and anthropology of the subject are investigated, with modern in-
stances. For Egypt, see Lane's Modern Egyptians, and the Journal
of Sir Walter Scott, xi. 419-421, with Quarterly Review, No- 117,
pp. 196-208. These Egyptian experiments of 1830 were vitiated
by their method, the scryer being asked to see and describe a given
person, named. He ought not, of course, to be told more than that
he is to descry the inquirer's thoughts, and there ought never to be
physical contact, as in holding hands, between the inquirer and the
scryer during the experiment. There is a chapter on crystal-gazing
in Les Nevroses et les idees fixes of Dr Janet (1898). His statements
are sometimes demonstrably inaccurate (see Making of Religion, Ap-
pendix C). A curious passage on the subject, by Ibn Khaldun, an
Arabian medieval savant, is quoted by Mr Thomas from the printed
Extracts of MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale. There is also a
chapter on crystal-gazing in Myers' Human Personality. (A. L.)

CRYSTALLITE. In media which, on account of their viscosity,
offer considerable resistance to those molecular movements
which are necessary for the building and growth of crystals,
rudimentary or imperfect forms of crystallization very fre-
quently occur. Such media are the volcanic rocks when they
are rapidly cooled, producing various kinds of pitchstone,
obsidian, &c. When examined under the microscope these
rocks consist largely of a perfectly amorphous or glassy base,
through which are scattered great numbers of very minute
crystals (microliths) , and other bodies, termed crystallites, which
seem to be stages in the formation of crystals. Crystallites
may also be produced by allowing a solution of sulphur in carbon
disulphide mixed with Canada balsam to evaporate slowly, and
their development may be watched on a microscopic slide.
Small globules appear (globulites), spherical and non-crystalline
(so far as can be ascertained). They may coalesce or may
arrange themselves into rows like strings of beads — margarites —
(Gr. fiapyapirris, a pearl) or into groups with a somewhat
radiate arrangement — globospherites. Occasionally they take
elongated shapes — longulites and baculites (Lat. baculus, a staff).
The largest may become crystalline, changing suddenly into
polyhedral bodies with evident double refraction and the optical
properties belonging to crystals. Others become long and
thread-like — trichites (Gr. 0pi£, tdix6s, hair)— and these are
often curved, and a group of them may be implanted on the
surface of a small crystal. All these forms are found in vitreous
igneous rocks. H. P. J. Vogelsang, who was the first to direct
much attention to them, believes that the globulites are pre-
liminary stages in the formation of crystals.

Microliths, as distinguished from crystallites, have crystalline
properties, and evidently belong to definite minerals or salts.
When sufficiently large they are often recognizable, but usually

CRYSTALLIZATION—CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

5^9

they are so small, so opaque, or so densely crowded together
that this is impossible. In igneous rocks they are usually felspar,
augite, enstatite, and iron oxides, and are found in abundance
only where there is much uncrystallized glassy base; in contact-
altered sediments, slags, &c, microlithic forms of garnet, spinel,
sillimanite, cordierite, various lime silicates, and many other
substances have been observed. Their form varies greatly, e.g.
thin fibres (sillimanite, augite), short prisms or rods (felspar,
enstatite, cordierite), or equidimensional grains (augite, spinel,
magnetite). Occasionally they are perfectly shaped though
minute crystals; more frequently they appear rounded (magnet-
ite, &c), or have brush-like terminations (augite, felspar, &c).
The larger microliths may contain enclosures of glass, and it is
very common to find that the prisms have hollow, funnel-shaped
ends, which are filled with vitreous material. These microliths,
under the influence of crystalline forces, may rank themselves
side by side to make up skeleton crystals and networks, or
feathery and arborescent forms, which obey more or less closely
the laws of crystallization of the substance to which they belong.
They bear a very close resemblance to the arborescent frost
flowers seen on window panes in winter, and to the stellate snow
crystals. In magnetite the growths follow three axes at right
angles to one another; in augite this is nearly, though not
exactly, the case; in hornblende an angle of 57° may frequently
be observed, corresponding to the prism angle of the fully-
developed crystal. The interstices of the network may be
partly filled up by a later growth. In other cases the crystalline
arrangement of the microliths is less perfect, and branching,
arborescent or feathery groupings are produced (e.g. felspar,
augite, hornblende). Spherulites may be regarded as radiate
aggregates of such microliths (mostly felspar mixed with quartz
or tridymite). If larger porphyritic crystals occur in the rock,
the microliths of the vitreous base frequently grow outwards
from their faces; in some cases a definite parallelism exists
between the two, but more frequently the early crystal has served
merely as a centre, or nucleus, from which the microliths and
spherulites have spread in all directions. (J. S. F.)

CRYSTALLIZATION, the art of obtaining a substance in the
form of crystals; it is an important process in chemistry since
it permits the purification of a substance, or the separation of
the constituents of a mixture. Generally a substance is more
soluble in a solvent at a high temperature than at a low, and
consequently, if a boiling concentrated solution be allowed to
cool, the substance will separate in virtue of the diminished
solubility, and the slower the cooling the larger and more perfect
will be the crystals formed. If, as sometimes appears, such a
solution refuses to crystallize, the expedient of inoculating the
solution with a minute crystal of the same substance, or with a
similar substance, may be adopted; shaking the solution, or
the addition of a drop of another solvent, may also occasion
the desired result. " Fractional crystallization " consists in re-
peatedly crystallizing a salt so as to separate the substances of
different solubilities. Examples are especially presented in the
Study of the rare-earths. .Other conditions under which crystals
are formed are given in the article Crystallography.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (from the Gr. xpwTaXXos, ice, and
' ypa(pea>, to write), the science of the forms, properties and
structure of crystals. Homogeneous solid matter, the physical
and chemical properties of which are the same about every point,
may be either amorphous or crystalline. In amorphous matter
all the properties are the same in every direction in the mass;
but in crystalline matter certain of the physical properties vary
with the direction. The essential properties of crystalline matter
are of two kinds, viz. the general properties, such as density,
specific heat, melting-point and chemical composition, which
do not vary with the direction; and the directional properties,
such as cohesion and elasticity, various optical, thermal and
electrical properties, as well as external form. By reason of the
homogeneity of crystalline matter the directional properties
are the same in all parallel directions in the mass, and there may
be a certain symmetrical repetition of the directions along which
the properties are the same.

When the crystallization of matter takes place under conditions
free from outside influences the peculiarities of internal structure
are expressed in the external form of the mass, and there results
a solid body bounded by plane surfaces intersecting in straight
edges, the directions of which bear an intimate relation to the
internal structure. Such a polyhedron (xoXi>s, many, 'i5pa, base
or face) is known as a crystal. An example of this is sugar-candy,
of which a single isolated crystal may have grown freely in a
solution of sugar. Matter presenting well-defined and regular
crystal forms, either as a single crystal or as a group of individual
crystals, is said to be crystallized. If, on the other hand, crystals
lization has taken place about several centres in a confined space,
the development of plane surfaces may be prevented, and a
crystalline aggregate of differently orientated crystal-individuals
results. Examples of this are afforded by loaf sugar and statuary
marble.

After a brief historical sketch, the more salient principles of
the subject will be discussed under the following sections: —

I. Crystalline Form.

(a) Symmetry of Crystals.

(b) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.

(c) Law of Rational Indices.

(d) Zones.

(e) Projection and Drawing of Crystals.
(/) Crystal Systems and Classes.

1. Cubic System.

2. Tetragonal System.

3. Orthorhpmbic System.

4. Monoclinic System.

5. Anorthic System.

6. Hexagonal System

(g) Regular Grouping of Crystals (Twinning, &c).

(«) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals : Characters of

Faces.
(t) Theories of Crystal Structure.
II. Physical Properties of Crystals.

(a) Elasticity and Cohesion (Cleavage, Etching, &c).

(b) Optical Properties (Interference figures, Pleochroism,

&c).

(c) Thermal Properties.

(d) Magnetic and Electrical Properties.

III. Relations between Crystalline Form and Chemical
Composition.

Most chemical elements and compounds are capable of assum-
ing the crystalline condition. y Crystallization may take place
when solid matter separates from solution (e.g. sugar, salt,
alum), from a fused mass (e.g. sulphur, bismuth, felspar), or
frorri a vapour (e.g. iodine, camphor, haematite; in the last case
by the interaction of ferric chloride and steam). Crystalline
growth may also take place in solid amorphous matter, for
example, in the devitrification of glass, and the slow change
in metals when subjected to alternating stresses. Beautiful
crystals of many substances may be obtained in the laboratory by
one or other of these methods, but the most perfectly developed
and largest crystals are those of mineral substances found in
nature, where crystallization has continued during long periods
of time. For this reason the physical science of crystallography
has developed side by side with that of mineralogy. Really,
however, there is just the same connexion between crystallo-
graphy and chemistry as between crystallography and minera-
logy, but only in recent years has the importance of determining
the crystallographic properties of artificially prepared compounds
been recognized.

History. — The word "crystal" is from the Gr. KpbaraXSos,
meaning clear ice (Lat. crystallum) , a name which was also
applied to the clear transparent quartz (" rock-crystal ") from
the Alps, under the belief that it had been formed from water
by intense cold. It was not until about the 17th century that
the word was extended to other bodies, either those found in
nature or obtained by the evaporation of a saline solution,
which resembled rock-crystal in being bounded by plane surfaces,
and often also in their clearness and transparency.

The first important step in the study of crystals was made by
Nicolaus Steno, the famous Danish physician, afterwards bishop
of Titiopolis, who in his treatise De solido intra solidum naturaliter
contento (Florence, 1669; English translation, 1671) gave the

57°

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

results of his observations on crystals of quartz. He found that
although the faces of different crystals vary considerably in
shape and relative size, yet the angles between similar pairs of
faces are always the same. He further pointed out that the
crystals must have grown in a liquid by the addition of layers of
material upon the faces of a nucleus, this nucleus having the
form of a regular six-sided prism terminated at each end by a
six-sided pyramid. The thickness of the layers, though the
same over each face, was not necessarily the same on different
faces, but depended on the position of the faces with respect to
the surrounding liquid; hence the faces of the crystal, though
variable in shape and size, remained parallel to those of the
nucleus, and the angles between them constant. Robert Hooke
in his Micrographia (London, 1665) had previously noticed the
regularity of the minute quartz crystals found lining the cavities
of flints, and had suggested that they were built up of spheroids.
About the same time the double refraction and perfect
rhomboidal cleavage of crystals of calcite or Iceland-spar were
studied by Erasmus Bartholinus (Experimenta crystalli Islandici
disdiaclastici, Copenhagen, 1669) and Christiaan Huygens
{Traiti de la lumiere, Leiden, 1690); the latter supposed, as did
Hooke, that the crystals were built up of spheroids. In 1695
Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed under the microscope that
different forms of crystals grow from the solutions of different
salts. Andreas Libavius had indeed much earlier, in 1597,
pointed out that the salts present in mineral waters could be
ascertained by an examination of the shapes of the crystals
left on evaporation of the water; and Domenico Guglielmini
{Riflessioni filosofiche dedotte dalle figure de' sali, Padova, 1706)
asserted that the crystals of each salt had a shape of their own
with the plane angles of the faces always the same.

The earliest treatise on crystallography is the Prodromus
Crystallographiae of M. A. Cappeller, published at Lucerne in
1723. Crystals were mentioned in works on mineralogy and
chemistry; for instance, C. Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae
(1735) described some forty common forms of crystals amongst
minerals. It was not, however, until the end of the 18th century
that any real advances were made, and the French crystallo-
graphers Rome de ITsle and the abbe Haiiy are rightly considered
as the founders of the science. J. B. L. de Rome de ITsle (Essai
de cristallographie, Paris, 1772; Cristallographie, ou description
des formes propres a tous les corps du regne mineral, Paris, 1783)
made the important discovery that the various shapes of crystals
of the same natural or artificial substance are all intimately
related to each other; and further, by measuring the angles
between the faces of crystals with the goniometer (q.v.), he
established the fundamental principle that these angles are
always the same for the same kind of substance and are char-
acteristic of it. Replacing by single planes or groups of planes
all the similar edges or solid angles of a figure called the
" primitive form " he derived other related forms. Six kinds
of primitive forms were distinguished, namely, the cube, the
regular octahedron, the regular tetrahedron, a rhombohedron,
an octahedron with a rhombic base, and a double six-sided
pyramid. Only in the last three can there be any variation in
the angles: for example, the primitive octahedron of alum,
nitre and sugar were determined by Rome de ITsle to have
angles of 110°, 120 and 100° respectively. Rene Just Haiiy in
his Essai d'une theorie sur la structure des crystaux (Paris, 1784;
see also his Treatises on Mineralogy and Crystallography, 1801,
1822) supported and extended these views, but took for his
primitive forms the figures obtained by splitting crystals in
their directions of easy fracture of " cleavage, " which are aways
the same in the same kind of substance. Thus he found that all
crystals of calcite, whatever their external form (see, for example,
figs. 1-6 in the article Calcite), could be reduced by cleavage
to a rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 75°. Further, by
stacking together a number, of small rhombohedra of uniform
size he was able, as had been previously done by J. G. Gahn in
I773> t° reconstruct the various forms of calcite crystals. Fig. 1
shows a scalenohedron .(o^aM^s, uneven) built up in this
manner of rhombohedra; and fig. 2 a regular octahedron built

up of cubic elements, such as are given by the cleavage of galena
and rock-salt.

The external surfaces of such a structure, with their step-like
arrangement, correspond to the plane faces of the crystal, and
the bricks may be considered so small as not to be separately
visible. By making the steps one, two or three bricks in width
and one, two or three bricks in height the various secondary

Fig. I. — Scalenohedron built
up of Rhombohedra.

Fig. 2.-

-Octahedron built up
of Cubes.

faces on the crystal are related to the primitive form or " cleavage
nucleus " by a law of whole numbers, and the angles between
them can be arrived at by mathematical calculation. By
measuring with the goniometer the inclinations of the secondary
faces to those of the primitive form Haiiy found that the
secondary forms are always related to the primitive form
on crystals of numerous substances in the manner indicated, and
that the width and the height of a step are always in a simple
ratio, rarely exceeding that of 1 : 6. This laid the foundation of
the important " law of rational indices" of the faces of crystals.

The German crystallographer C. S. Weiss (De indagando
formarum crystallinarum charactere geometrico principali dis-
sertatio, Leipzig, 1809; Ubersichlliche Darstellung der ver-
schiedenen natiirlichen Abtheilungen der KrystallisationS'Systeme,
Denkschrift der Berliner Akad. der Wissensdi., 1814-1815)
attacked the problem of crystalline form from a purely geo-
metrical point of view, without reference to primitive forms or
any theory of structure. The faces of crystals were considered
by their intercepts on co-ordinate axes, which were drawn
joining the opposite corners, of certain forms; and in this way
the various primitive forms of Haiiy were grouped into four
classes, corresponding to the four systems described below under
the names cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal and orthorhombic. The
same result was arrived at independently by F. Mohs, who
further, in 1822, asserted the existence of two additional systems
with oblique axes. These two systems (the monoclinic and
anorthic) were, however, considered by Weiss to be only hemi-
hedral or tetartohedral modifications of the orthorhombic
system, and they were not definitely established until 1835,
when the optical characters of the crystals were found to be
distinct. A system of notation to express the relation of each
face of a crystal to the co-ordinate axes of reference was devised
by Weiss, and other notations were proposed by F. Mohs, A. Levy
(1825), C. F. Naumann (1826), and W. H. Miller (Treatise on
Crystallography, Cambridge, 1839). For simplicity and utility
in calculation the Millerian notation, which was first suggested
by W. Whewell in 1825, surpasses all others and is now generally
adopted, though those of Levy and Naumann are still in use.

Although the peculiar optical properties of Iceland-spar had
been much studied ever since 1669, it was not until much later
that any connexion was traced between the optical characters
of crystals and their external form. In 1818 Sir David Brewster
found that crystals could be divided optically into three classes,
viz. isotropic, uniaxial and biaxial, and that these classes corre-
sponded with Weiss's four systems (crystals belonging to the
cubic system being isotropic, those of the tetragorial and hexa-
gonal being uniaxial, and the orthorhombic being biaxial).
Optically biaxial crystals were afterwards shown by J. F. W.
Herschel and F. E. Neumann in 1822 and 1835 to be of three
kinds, corresponding with the orthorhombic, monoclinic and

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

57i

anorthic systems. It was, however, noticed by Brewster him-
self that there are many apparent exceptions, and the " optical
anomalies " of crystals have been the subject of much study.
The intimate relations existing between various other physical
properties of crystals and their external form have subsequently
been gradually traced.

The symmetry of crystals, though recognized by Rome de
ITsle and Haiiy, in that they replaced all similar edges and
corners of their primitive forms by similar secondary planes,
was not made use of in defining the six systems of crystallization,
which depended solely on the lengths and inclinations of the
axes of reference. It was, however, necessary to recognize that
in each system there are certain forms which are only partially
symmetrical, and these were described as hemihedral and tetarto-
hedral forms (i.e. 17/xt-, half-faced, and Ttrapros, quarter-faced
forms) .

As a consequence of Hatty's law of rational intercepts, or,
as it is more often called, the law of rational indices, it was
proved by J. F. C. Hessel in 1830 that thirty-two types of
symmetry are possible in crystals. Hessel's work remained
overlooked for sixty years, but the same important result was
independently arrived at by the same method by A. Gadolin in
1867. At the present day, crystals are considered as belonging
to one or other of thirty-two classes, corresponding with these
thirty-two types of symmetry, and are grouped in six systems.
More recently, theories of crystal structure have attracted
attention, and have been studied as purely geometrical problems
of the homogeneous partitioning of space.

The historical development of the subject is treated more fully in
the article Crystallography in the 9th edition of this work.
Reference may also be made to C. M. Marx, Geschichte der Crystall-
kunde (Karlsruhe and Baden, 1825); W. Whewell, History of the
Inductive Sciences, vol. iii. (3rd ed., London, 1857); F. von Kobell,
Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860 (Munchen, 1864); L.
Fletcher, An Introduction to the Study of Minerals (British Museum
Guide-Book) ; L. Fletcher, Recent Progress in Mineralogy and
Crystallography [1832-1894] (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1894).

I. CRYSTALLINE FORM

The fundamental laws governing the form of crystals are: —

1. Law of the Constancy of Angle.

2. Law of Symmetry.

3. Law of Rational Intercepts or Indices.

According to the first law, the angles between corresponding
faces of all crystals of the sarne chemical substance are always
the same and are characteristic of the substance.

(a) Symmetry of Crystals.

Crystals may, or may not, be symmetrical with respect to
a point, a line or axis, and a plane; these " elements of
symmetry " are spoken of as a centre of symmetry, an axis of
symmetry, and a plane of symmetry respectively.

Centre of Symmetry. — Crystals which are centro-symmetrical
have their faces arranged in parallel pairs; and the two parallel
faces, situated on opposite sides of the centre (O in fig. 3) are
alike in surface characters, such as lustre, striations, and figures
of corrosion. An octahedron (fig. 3) is bounded by four pairs of
parallel faces. Crystals belonging to many of the hemihedral
and tetartohedral classes of the six systems of crystallization
are devoid of a centre of symmetry.

Axes' of Symmetry. — Consider the vertical axis joining the
opposite corners <z 3 and a 3 of an octahedron (fig. 3) and passing
through its centre 0: by rotating the crystal about this axis
through a right angle (90 ) it reaches a position such that the
orientation of its faces is the same as before the rotation; the
face oia 2 a 3 , for example, coming into the position of aid 2 a 3 .
During a complete rotation of 360 ( = go X4), the crystal
occupies four such interchangeable positions. Such an axis
of symmetry is known as a tetrad axis of symmetry. Other
tetrad axes of the octahedron are <z 2 a 2 and «i<Ji.

An Axis of symmetry of another kind is that which passing
through the centre O is normal to a face of the octahedron.
$y rotating the crystal about such an axis Op (fig. 3) through
an 1 angle of 120 those faces which are not perpendicular to the

axis occupy interchangeable positions; for example, the face
ffi<i302 comes into the position of a 2 aia 3 , and d\a\d 3 to a 3 a\a\.
During a complete rotation of 360 (=i2o°X3) tne crystal
occupies similar positions three times. This is a triad axis of
symmetry; and there being four pairs of parallel faces on an
octahedron, there are four triad axes (only one of which is
drawn in the figure).

An axis passing through the centre and the middle points
d of two opposite edges of the octahedron (fig. 4), i.e. parallel

yuzf
«,

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Axes and Planes of Symmetry of an Octahedron.

to the edges of the octahedron, is a dyad axis of symmetry.
About this axis there may be rotation of 180 , and only twice
in a complete revolution of 360 (=i8o°X2) is the crystal
brought into interchangeable positions. There being six pairs
of parallel edges on an octahedron; there are consequently six
dyad axes of symmetry.

A regular octahedron thus possesses thirteen axes of symmetry
(of three kinds), and there are the same number in the cube.
Fig. 5 shows the three tetrad (or tetragonal) axes (aa), four
triad (or trigonal) axes (pp), and six dyad (diad or diagonal) axes
(dd).

Although not represented in the cubic system, there is still
another kind of axis of symmetry possible in crystals. This is
the hexad axis or hexagonal axis, for which the angle of rotation
is 60°, or one-sixth of 360 . There can be only one hexad axis
of symmetry in any crystal (see figs. 77-80).

Planes of Symmetry. — A regular octahedron can be divided
into two equal and similar halves by a plane passing through
the corners aia 3 did 3 and the
centre O (fig. 3). One-half
is the mirror reflection of
the other in this plane, which
is called a plane of sym-
metry. Corresponding planes
on either side of a plane of
symmetry are inclined to it
at equal angles. The octa-
hedron can also be divided
by similar planes of sym-
metry passing through the
corners <Zia 2 «ia 2 and a2a 3 d 2 d 3 .
These three similar planes of
symmetry are called the cubic
planes of symmetry, since
they are parallQl to the faces
of the cube (compare figs. 6-8, showing combinations of the
octahedron and the cube).

A regular octahedron can also be divided symmetrically into
two equal and similar portions by a plane passing through the
corners a 3 and d 3 , the middle points d of the edges a\a\ and <iia 2 ,
and the centre O (fig. 4). This is called a dodecahedral plane
of symmetry, being parallel to the face of the rhombic dodeca-
hedron which truncates the edge «ia 2 (compare fig. 14, chowing
a combination of the octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron).
Another similar plane of symmetry is that passing through the
corners a 3 a 3 and the middle points of the edges aia 2 and ai<z 2 ,
and altogether there are six dodecahedral planes of symmetry,
two through each of the corners ai, a 2 , a 3 of the octahedron.

rf!-V.

v! .-jȣ/-

a /iVv-V-

Fig. 5.-

-Axes of Symmetry of
a Cube.

572

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

A regular octahedron and a cube are thus each symmetrical
with respect to the following elements of symmetry: a centre
of symmetry, thirteen axes of symmetry (of three kinds), and
nine planes of symmetry (of two kinds). This degree of sym-
metry, which is the type corresponding to one of the classes of
the cubic system, is the highest possible in crystals. As will be
pointed out below, it is possible, however, for both the octahedron
and the cube to be associated with fewer elements of symmetry
than those just enumerated.

(b) Simple Forms and Combinations of Forms.

A single face aiata 3 (figs. 3 and 4) may be repeated by certain
of the elements of symmetry to give the whole eight faces of
the octahedron. Thus, by rotation about the vertical • tetrad
axis aA* the four upper faces are obtained ; and by rotation of
these about one or other of the horizontal tetrad axes the eight
faces are derived. Or again, the same repetition of the faces
may be arrived at by reflection across the three cubic planes of
symmetry. (By reflection across the six dodecahedral planes

•
I
I

Fig. 6. — Cube in combination
with Octahedron.

Fig. 7. — Cubo-octahedron.

of symmetry a tetrahedron only would result, but if this is
associated with a centre of symmetry we obtain the octahedron.)
Such a set of similar faces, obtained by symmetrical repetition,
constitutes a " simple form." An octahedron thus consists of
eight similar faces, and a cube is bounded by six faces all of
which have the same surface characters, and parallel to each of
which all the properties of the crystal are identical.

Examples of simple forms amongst crystallized substances
are octahedra of alum and spinel and cubes of salt and fluorspar.
More usually, however, two or more forms are present on a
crystal, and we then have a combination of forms, or simply a
" combination." Figs. 6, 7 and 8 represent combinations of the
octahedron and the cube; in the first the faces of the cube
predominate, and in the third those of the octahedron; fig. 7
with the two forms equally developed is called a cubo-octahedron.
Each of these combined forms has all
the elements of symmetry proper to the
simple forms.

The simple forms, though referable
to the same type of symmetry and
axes of reference, are quite independent,
and cannot be derived one from the
other by symmetrical repetition, but,
after the manner of Rome de ITsle,
they may be derived by replacing
edges or corners by a face equally
inclined to the faces forming the edges
or corners; this is known as " trunca-
tion " (Lat. truncate, to cut off). Thus in fig. 6 the corners of
the cube are symmetrically replaced or truncated by the faces of
the octahedron, and in fig. 8 those of the octahedron are
truncated by the cube.

(c) Law of Rational Intercepts.

For axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ (fig. 9), take any three
edges formed by the intersection of three faces of a crystal.
These axes are called the crystallographic axes, and the planes in
which they lie the axial planes. A fourth face on the crystal
intersecting these three axes in the points A, B, C is taken as
the parametral plane, and the lengths OA : OB : OC are the
parameters of the crystal. Any other face on the crystal may be

Fig. 8. — Octahedron in
combination with Cube.

referred to these axes and parameters by the ratio of the inter-
cepts

OA.OB.OC

h ' k ' I '

Thus for a face parallel to the plane A Be the intercepts are in
the ratio OA : OB : Oe, or

OA.OB.OC

1 ' 1 ' 2

and for a plane fgC they are Of: Og : OC or
OA.OB.OC.

2 ' 3 ' 1

Now the important relation existing between the faces of a
crystal is that the denominators h, k and / are always rational
whole numbers, rarely exceeding 6, and usually 0,1, 2 or 3.
Written in the form (hkl), h referring to the axis OX, k to OY,
and / to OZ, they are spoken of as the indices (Millerian indices)
of the face. Thus of a face parallel to the plane A BC the indices
are (in), of ABe they are (112), and oifgC (23I). The indices
are thus inversely proportional to the intercepts, and the law
of rational intercepts is often spoken of as the "law of rational
indices."

The angular position of a face is thus completely fixed by its
indices; and knowing the angles between the axial planes and
the parametral plane all the angles of a crystal can be calculated
when the indices of the faces
are known.

Although any set of edges
formed by the intersection of
three planes may be chosen
for the crystallographic axes,
it is in practice usual to select
certain edges related to the
symmetry of the crystal, and
usually coincident with axes
of symmetry; for then the
indices' will be simpler and all
faces of the same simple form
will have a similar set of
indices. The angles between p IG . g..
the axes and the ratio of the
lengths of the parameters

OA: OB: OC (usually given as a: b: c) are spoken of as the
" elements " of a crystal, and are constant for and characteristic
of all crystals of the same substance. <■

The six systems of crystal forms, to be enumerated below,
are defined by the relative inclinations of the crystallographic
axes and the lengths of the parameters. In the cubic system, for
example, the three crystallographic axes are taken parallel to the
three tetrad axes of symmetry, i.e. parallel to the edges of the
cube (fig. 5) or joining the opposite corners of the octahedron
(fig. 3), and they are therefore all at right angles; the parametral
plane (in) is a face of the octahedron, and the parameters
are all of equal length. The indices of the eight faces of the
octahedron will then be (in), (III), (in), (ill), (in), (ill),
(ill), (III). The symbol (in) indicates all the faces belonging
to this simple form. The indices of the six faces of the cube are
(100), (010), (001), (100), (oio), (00I); here each face is parallel
to two axes, i.e. intercepts them at infinity, so that the corre-
sponding indices are zero.

(d) Zones.

An important consequence of the law of rational intercepts
is the arrangement of the faces of a crystal in zones. All faces,
whether they belong to one or more simple forms, which intersect
in parallel edges are said to lie in the same zone. A line drawn
through the centre O of the crystal parallel to these edges is
called a zone-axis, and a plane perpendicular to this axis is
called a zone-plane.' On a cube, for example, there are three
zones each containing four faces, the zone-axes being coincident
with the three tetrad axes of symmetry. In the crystal of zircon
(fig. 88) the eight prism-faces a, m, &c. constitute a zone, denoted

-Crystallographic axes of
reference. ,

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

573

by [a, m, a', &c], with the vertical tetrad axis of symmetry as

zone-axis. Again the faces [a, x, p, e', p', x'" , a"] lie in another

zone, as may be seen by the parallel edges of intersection of the

faces in figs. 87 and 88; three other similar zones may he traced

on the same crystal.

The direction of the line of intersection (i.e. zone-axis) of any

two planes (hkl) and (hkji) is given by the zone-indices [uvw],

where U=kh—lki, V=lhi—hli, and W—hki—khi, these being

obtained from the face-indices by cross multiplication as

follows: —

h k I h k I
xxx

h h /j hi ki k.

Any other face (hzkj?) lying in this zone must satisfy the
equation

hta + kiV + kvr = o.

This important relation connecting the indices of a face lying
in a zone with the zone-indices is known as Weiss's zone-law,
having been first enunciated by C. S. Weiss. It may be pointed
out that the indices of a face may be arrived at by adding
together the indices of faces on either side of it and in the same
zone; thus, (311) in fig. 12 lies at the intersections of the three
zones [210, 101], [201, no] and [211, 100], and is obtained by
adding together each set of indices.

(e) Projection and Drawing of Crystals.
The shapes and relative sizes of the faces of a crystal being
as a rule accidental, depending only on the distance of the faces

Fig. 10. — -Stereographic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.

from the centre of the crystal and not on their angular relations,
it is often more convenient to consider only the directions of the
normals to the faces. For this purpose projections are drawn,
with the aid of which the zonal relations of a crystal are more
readily studied and calculations are simplified.

The kind of projection most extensively used is the " stereo-
graphic projection;" The crystal is considered to be placed
inside a sphere from the centre of which normals are drawn to
all the faces of the crystal. The points at which these normals
intersect the surface of the sphere are called the poles of the
faces, arid by these poles the positions of the faces are fixed.
The poles of all faces in the same zone on the crystal will lie on
a great circle of the sphere, which are therefore called zone-circles.
The calculation of the angles between the normals of faces and
between zone-circles is then performed by the ordinary methods
of spherical trigonometry. The stereographic projection, however,
represents the poles and zone-circles on a plane surface and not
on a spherical surface. This is achieved by drawing lines
joining all the poles of the faces with the north or south pole
of the sphere and finding their points of intersection with the
plane of the equatorial great circle, or primitive circle, of the
sphere, the projection being represented on this plane. In fig.
10 is shown the stereographic projection, or stereogram, of a

cubic crystal; a 1 , a 2 , &c. are the poles of the faces of the cube.
o 1 , o 1 , &c. those of the octahedron, and d 1 , d 1 , &c. those' of the
rhombic dodecahedron. The straight lines and circular arcs
are the projections on the equatorial plane of the great circles in
which the nine planes of symmetry intersect the sphere. A
drawing of a crystal showing a combination of the cube, octa-
hedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown in fig. n, in which
the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the
projection. From the zone-circles in the projection and the
parallel edges in the drawing the zonal
relations of the faces are readily seen:
thus [aVrf 6 ], [aW], [a'oW], &c. are
zones. A stereographic projection of a |
rhombohedral crystal is given in fig. 72.

Another kind of projection in common (
use is the " gnomonic projection " (fig. 12).
Here the plane of projection is tangent to

the sphere, and normals to all the faces are F Clino-

drawn from the centre of the sphere tOg ra p n j,lDrawingofa
intersect the plane of projection. In this Cubic Crystal,
case all zones are represented by straight
lines. Fig. 12 is the gnomonic projection of a cubic crystal,
the plane of projection being tangent to the sphere at the
pole of an octahedral face (in), which is therefore in the
centre of the projection. The indices of the several poles are
given in the figure.

In drawing crystals the simple plans and elevations of descrip-
tive geometry (e.g. the plans in the lower part of figs. 87
and 88) have sometimes the advantage of showing the symmetry
of a crystal, but they give no idea of solidity. For instance, a
cube would be represented merely by a square, and an octahedron
by a square with lines joining the opposite corners. True per-
spective drawings are never used in the representation of crystals,
since for showing the zonal relations it is important to preserve
the parallelism of the edges. If, however, the eye, or point of
vision, is regarded as being at an infinite distance from the object
all the rays will be parallel, and edges which are parallel on the
crystal will be represented by parallel lines in the drawing.
The plane of the drawing, in which the parallel rays joining the
corners of the crystals and the eye intersect, may be either
perpendicular or oblique to the rays; in the former case we
have an "orthographic" (bpdos, straight; ypafaw, to draw)
drawing, and in the latter a " clinographic " (k\Lvuv. to incline)

lit tSo&Ofio '»*>»«> no 43pfco' 2«o sio .?« 410
Fig. 12.— Gnomonic Projection of a Cubic Crystal.

drawing. Clinographic drawings are most frequently used for
representing crystals. In representing, for example, a cubic
crystal (fig. 11) a cube face a 5 is first placed parallel to the plane
on which the crystal is to be projected and with one set of edges
vertical; the crystal is then turned through a small angle about
a vertical axis until a second cube face a 2 comes into view,

574

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

and the eye is then raised so that a third cube face a 1 may
be seen.

(f) Crystal Systems and Classes.

According to the mutual inclinations of the crystallographic
axes of reference and the lengths intercepted on them by the,
parametral plane, all crystals fall into one or other of six groups
or systems, in each of which there are several classes depending
on the degree of symmetry. In the brief description which follows
of these six systems and thirty-two. classes of crystals we shall
proceed from those in which the symmetry is most complex to
those in which it is simplest.

1. CUBIC SYSTEM

(Isometric ; Regular ; Octahedral ; Tesseral).

In this system the three crystallographic axes of reference are all
at right angles to each other and are equal in length. They are
parallel to the edges of the cube, and in the different classes Coincide
either with tetrad or dyad axes of symmetry. Five classes are in-
cluded in this system, in all of which there are, besides other elements
of symmetry, four triad axes.

In crystals of this system the angle between any two faces P and
Q with the indices (hkl) and {pqr) is given by the equation

Cog PQ —

The angles between faces with the same indices are thus the same
in all substances which crystallize in the cubic system: in other
systems, the angles vary with the substance and are characteristic of
it.

HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS

(Holohedral (oXos, whole) ; Hexakis-octahedral).

Crystals of this class possess the full number of elements of sym-
metry already mentioned above for the octahedron and the cube,
viz. three cubic planes of symmetry, six dodecahedral planes, three
tetrad axes of symmetry, four triad axes, six dyad axes, and a centre
of symmetry.

Fig. 13. — Rhombic Dodecahedron.

Fig. 14. — Combination of
Rhombic Dodecahedron and
Octahedron.

There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz. : —

Cube (fig. 5). This is bounded by six square faces parallel to the
cubic planes of symmetry; it is known also as the hexahedron.
The angles between the faces are 90°, and the indices of the form
are (100). Salt, fluorspar and galena crystallize in simple cubes.

Fig. 15.— Triakis-octahedron.

Fig. 16. — Combination of Triakis-
octahedron and Cube.

Octahedron (fig. 3). Bounded by eight equilateral triangular faces
perpendicular to the triad axes of symmetry. The angles between
the faces are 70° 32' and 109 28', and the indices are (m). Spinel,
magnetite and gold crystallize in simple octahedra. Combinations
of the cube and octahedron are shown in figs. 6-8.

Rhombic dodecahedron (fi^. 13;. Bounded by twelve rhomb-
shaped faces parallel to the six dodecahedral planes of symmetry.
The angles between the normals to adjacent faces are 6o°, and

between other pairs of faces 90 ; the indices are {no). Garnet
frequently crystallizes in this form. Fig. 14 shows the rhombic
dodecahedron in combination with the octahedron.

In these three simple forms of the cubic system (which are shown
in combination in fig. 1 1 ) the angles between the faces and the indices

Fig. 17. — Icositetrahedron.

Fig. 18. — Combination of Icosi-
tetrahedron and Cube.

are fixed and are the same in all crystals ; in the four remaining
simple forms they are variable.

'■ Triakis-Octahedron (three-faced octahedron) (fig. 15). This solid
is bounded by twenty-four isosceles triangles, and may be considered
as an octahedron with a low triangular pyramid on each of its faces.
As the inclinations of the faces may vary there is a series of these
forms with the indices {221J, {331}, {332), &c. or in general \hhk\.

Fig. 19. — Combination of
Icositetrahedron and Octa-
hedron.

Fig. 20. — Combination of
Icositetrahedron {21 ij and
Rhombic Dodecahedron.

Icositetrahedron (fig. 17). Bounded by twenty-four trapezoidal
faces, and hence sometimes called a " trapezohedron." The indices
are J2 1 1 ) , (3.1 1 } , (322) , &c. , or in general {hkk} . Analcite, leucite and
garnet often crystallize in the simple form {2 1 1 } . Combinations are
shown in figs. 18-20. The plane ABe in fig. 9 is one face (112) of an
icositetrahedron; the indices of the remaining faces in this octant
being (211) and (121).

Fig. 21. — Tetrakis-hexahedron. Fig. 22. — Tetrakis-hexahedron.

Tetrakis-hexahedron (four-faced cube) (figs. 21 and 22). Like the
triakis-octahedron this solid is also
bounded by twenty-four isosceles
triangles, but here grouped in fours
over the cubic faces. The two figures
show how, with different inclinations
of the faces, the form may vary,
approximating in fig. 21 to the cube
and in fig. 22 to the rhombic dodeca-
hedron. The angles over the edges
lettered A are different : from the
angles over the edges lettered C. Each
face is parallel to one of the crystallo-
graphic axes and intercepts the two
others in different lengths; the in-
dices are therefore {210), (310), {320),
&c, in general |iio|. Fluorspar some-
times crystallizes in the simple form I310! ; more usually, however,
in combination with the cube (fig. 23).

Hexakis-octahedron (fig. 24). Here each face of the octahedron
is replaced by six scalene triangles, so that altogether there are

Fig. 23. — Combination of
Tetrakis-hexahedron and
Cube.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

575

forty-eight faces. This is the greatest number of faces possible for
any simple form in crystals. The faces are all oblique to the planes
arid axes of symmetry, and they intercept the three crystallographic
axes in different lengths, hence the indices are all unequal, being in
general [hkl] , or in particular cases I321), {421I, {432} , &c. Such
a form is known as the " general form " of the class. The interfaeial
angles over the three edges of each triangle are all different. These
forms usually exist only in combination with other cubic forms
(for example, fig; 25), but {42 1 1 has been observed as a simple form
on fluorspar.

Fig. 24. — Hexakis-octahedron.

Fig. 25. — Combination of
Hexakis - octahedron and
Cube.

Several examples of substances which crystallize in this class
have been mentioned above under the different forms; many others
might be cited — for instance, the metals iron, copper, silver, gold,
platinum, lead, mercury, and the non-metallic elements silicon and
phosphorus.

Tetrahedral Class

(Tetrahedral-hemihedral ; Hexakis-tetrahedral).

In this class there is no centre of symmetry nor cubic planes of
symmetry; the three tetrad axes become dyad axes of symmetry,
and the four triad axes are polar, i.e. they are associated with different
faces at their two ends. The other elements of symmetry (s'x dode-
cahedral planes and six dyad axes) are the same as in the last class.

Of the seven simple forms, the cube, rhombic dodecahedron and
tetrakis-hexahedron are geometrically the same as before, though
on actual crystals the faces will have different surface characters.

Fig

Tetrahedron. Fig. 27. — Deltoid Dodecahedron.

For instance, the cube faces will be striated parallel to only one of
the diagonals (fig. 90), and etched figures on this face will be sym-
metrical with respect to two lines, instead of four as in the last class.
The remaining simple forms have, however, only half the number
of faces as the corresponding form in the last class, and are spoken
of as " hemihedral with inclined faces."

Tetrahedron (fig. 26). This is bounded by four equilateral triangles
and is identical with the regular tetrahedron of geometry. The angles
between the normals to the faces are 109 28 . It may be derived
from the octahedron by suppressing the alternate faces.

Fig. 28. — Triakis-tetrahedron.

Fig. 29. — Hexakis-tetrahedron.

Deltoid 1 dodecahedron (fig. 27). This is the hemihedral form of
the triakis-octahedron ; it has the indices {hhk\ and is bounded by
twelve trapezoidal faces.

1 From the Greek letter SeXro, A; in general, a triangular-shaped
object ; also an alternative name for a trapezoid. ;

Triakis-tetrahedron (fig. 28). The hemihedral form \hkk\ol the
icositetrahedron ; it is bounded by twelve isosceles triangles ar-
ranged in threes over the tetrahedron faces.

Hexakis-tetrahedron (fig. 29). The hemihedral form {hkl} of the
hexakis-octahedron ; it is bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles
and is the general form of the class.

Fig. 30. — Combination of two
Tetrahedra.

Fig.

31. — Combination of Tetra-
hedron and Cubes

Corresponding to each of these hemihedral forms there is another
geometrically similar form, differing, however, not only in orient-
ation, but also in actual crystals in the characters of the faces.
Thus from the octahedron there may be derived two tetrahedra
with the -indices |iii( and(Tn|, which may be distinguished as
positive and negative respectively. Fig. 30 shows a combination of

, Fig. 32.— Combination of
Tetrahedron, Cube and Rhombic
Dodecahedron.

Fig. 33. — Combination of
Tetrahedron and Rhombic
Dodecahedron.

these two tetrahedra, and represents a crystal of blende, in which the
four larger faces are dull and striated, whilst the four smaller are
bright and smooth. Figs. 31-33 illustrate other tetrahedral com-
binations.

Tetrahedrite, blende, diamond, boracite and pharmacosiderite
are substances which crystallize in this class.

Pyritohedral 1 Class
(Parallel-faced hemihedral; Dyakis-dodecahedral).

Crystals of this class possess three cubic planes of symmetry but
no dodecahedral planes. There are only three dyad axes of sym-
metry, which coincide with the crystallographic axes; in addition
there are three triad axes and a centre of symmetry.

Here the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, triakis-octa-
hedron and icositetrahedron are geometrically the same as in the
first class. The characters of the faces will, however, be different;
thus the cube faces will be striated parallel to one edge only (fig. 89),

, Fig. 34.
Pentagonal Dodecahedron.

.Fig. 35.
Dyakis-dodecahedron.

and triangular markings on the octahedron faces will be placed
obliquely to the edges. The remaining simple forms are " hemi-
hedral with parallel faces," and from the corresponding holohedral
forms two hemihedral forms, a positive and a negative, may be
derived.

Pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 34). This is bounded by twelve
pentagonal faces, but these are not regular pentagons, and the angles
over the three sets of different edges are different. The regular
dodecahedron of geometry, contained by twelve regular pentagons,
is not a possible form in crystals. The indices are {hko) : as a simple
form |2lo|is of very common occurrence in pyrites.

Dyakis-dodecahedron (fig. 35). This is the hemihedral form of

1 Named after pyrites, which crystallizes in a typical form of this
class.

57^

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the hexakis-octahedron and has the indices {hkl} ; it is bounded by
twenty-four faces. As a simple form (321) is met with in pyrites.

Combinations (figs. 36-39) of these forms with the cube and the
octahedron are common in pyrites. Fig. 37 resembles in general

Fig. 36. — Combination of
Pentagonal Dodecahedron
and Cube.

Fig. 37. — Combination of
Pentagonal Dodecahedron
and Octahedron.

appearance the regular icosahedron of geometry, but only eight of
the faces are equilateral triangles. Cobaltite, smaltite and other
sulphides and sulpharsenides of the pyrites group of minerals
crystallize in these forms. The alums also belong to this class;
from an aqueous solution they crystallize as simple octahedra,

Fig. 38. — Combination of Fig. 39. — Combination of

PentagonalDodecahedron.Cube Pentagonal Dodecahedron e

and Octahedron. I210I, Dyakisvdodecahedron /

{321 J, and Octahedron d {m).

sometimes with subordinate faces of the cube and rhombic dode-
cahedron, but from an acid solution as octahedra combined with
the pentagonal dodecahedron |2io).

Plagihedral 1 Class

(Plagihedral-hemihedral ; Pentagonal icositetrahedral ;
Gyroidal 2 ).

In this class there are the full number of axes of symmetry (three
tetrad, four triad and six dyad), but no planes of symmetry and no
centre of symmetry.

Pentagonal icositetrahedron (fig. 40). This is the only simple form in
this class which differs geometrically from those of the holosymmetric
class. By suppressing either one or other set of alternate faces of the
hexakis-octahedron two pentagonal icositetrahedra {hkl} and \khl\
are derived. These are each bounded by twenty-four irregular

Fig. 40. — Pentagonal
Icositetrahedron.

Fig. 41.

-Tetrahedral Pentagonal
Dodecahedron.

pentagons, and although similar to each other they are respectively
right- and left-handed, one being the mirror image of the other; such
similar but nonsuperposable forms are said to be enantiomorphous
(havTios, opposite, and m°P<M, form), and crystals showing such forms
sometimes rotate the plane of polarization of plane-polarized light.
Faces of a pentagonal icositetrahedron with high indices have been
very rarely observed on crystals of cuprite, potassium chloride and
ammonium chloride, but none of these are circular polarizing.

Tetartohedral Class
(Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedral).
Here, in addition to four polar triad axes, the only other elements
of symmetry are three dyad axes, which coincide with the crystallo-

1 From irXA-ctos, placed sideways, referring to the absence of planes
and centre of symmetry.
3 From yvpos, a ring or spiral, and tXSos, form.

graphic axes. Six of the simple forms, the cube, tetrahedron,
rhombic dodecahedron, deltoid dodecahedron, triakis-tetrahedron
and pentagonal dodecahedron, are geometrically the same in this
class as in either the tetrahedral or pyritohedral classes. The
general form is the

Tetrahedral pentagonal dodecahedron (fig. 41). This is bounded
by twelve irregular pentagons, and is a tetartohedral or quarter-faced
form of the hexakis-octahedron. Four such forms may be derived,
the indices of which are [hkl], \khl), \hkl] and {khl} ; the first pair
are enantiomorphous with respect to one another, and so are the last
pair. Barium nitrate, lead nitrate, sodium chlorate and sodium
bromate crystallize in this class, as also do the minerals ullmannite
(NiSbS) and langbeinite (K 2 Mg 2 (S04) 3 ).

2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEfl

(Pyramidal; Quadratic; Dimetric).

In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
angles, but while two are equal in length and interchangeable the
third is of a different length. The unequal axis is spoken of as the
principal axis or morphological axis
of the crystal, and it is always
placed in a vertical position ; in
five of the seven classes of this
system it coincides with the single
tetrad axis of symmetry.

The parameters are a: a: c, where
a refers to the two equal hori-

Fig. 42.

Tetragonal Bipyramids.

Fig. 43.

zontal axes, and c to the vertical axis; c may be either shorter (as
in fig. 42) or longer (fig. 43) than a. The ratio a: c is spoken of as
the axial ratio of a crystal, and it is dependent on the angles between
the faces. In all crystals of the same substance this ratio is constant,
and is characteristic of the substance; for other substances crystal-
lizing in the tetragonal system it will be different. For example,
in cassiterite it is given as a : c = 1 : 0-67232 or simply as c = 0-67232,
o being unity; and in anatase as c = i-777i.

Holosymmetric Class
(Holohedral; Ditetragonal bipyramidal).

Crystals of this class are symmetrical with respect to five planes,
which are of three kinds ; one is perpendicular to the principal axis,
and the other four intersect in it ; of the latter, two are perpendicular
to the equal crystallographic axes, while the two others bisect the
angles between them. There are five axes of symmetry, one tetrad
and two pairs of dyad, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry.
Finally, there is a centre of symmetry.

There are seven kinds of simple forms, viz. : —

Tetragonal bipyramid of the first order (figs. 42 and 43). This is
bounded by eight equal isosceles triangles. Equal lengths are inter-
cepted on the two horizontal axes, and the indices are {iii|, (221),
(112), &c, or in general {hhl}. The parametral plane with the inter-
cepts a : a : c is a face of the bipyramid {m}.

Tetragonal bipyramid of the second order. This is also bounded
by eight equal isosceles triangles, but differs from the last form in

Fig. 44. Fig. 45.

Tetragonal Bipyramids of the first and second orders.

its position, four of the faces being parallel to each of the horizontaf
axes; the indicesare therefore jioij, J201J, |i02J, &c, or {hoi}.

Fig. 44 shows the relation between the tetragonal bipyramids

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

577

of the first and second orders when the indices are fill} and {ioi|
respectively: ABB is the face (m), and ACC is (101). A com-
bination of these two forms is shown in fig. 45.

Ditetragonal bipyramid (fig. 46). This is the general form; it is
bounded by sixteen scalene triangles, and all the indices are unequal,
being I321I, &c, or \hkl\.

Tetragonal prism of the first order. The four faces intersect the
horizontal axes in equal lengths and are parallel to the principal
axis; the indices are therefore (uo|.
This form does not enclose space, and
is therefore called an " open form "
to distinguish it from a " closed form "
like the tetragonal bipyramids and all
the forms of the cubic system. An
open form can exist only in com-
bination with other forms ; thus fig. 47
is a combination of the tetragonal
prism jiIo| with the basal pinacoid
jooij. If the faces (no) and (001)
are of equal size such a figure will be
geometrically a cube, since all the
angles are right angles; the variety of
apophyllite known as tesselite crystal-
lizes in this form.

Tetragonal prism of the second order.
This has the same number of faces as
the last prism, but differs in position;
each face being parallel to the vertical
axis and one of the horizontal axes; the indices are jiooj.

Ditetragonal prism. This consists of eight faces all parallel to
the principal axis and intercepting the horizontal axes in different
lengths; the indices are |2lo(, J320), &c, or \hko).

Basal pinacoid (from x£ca£, a tablet). This consists of a single
pair of parallel faces perpendicular to the principal axis. It is there-
fore an open form and can exist only in combination (fig. 47).

Combinations of holohedral tetragonal forms are shown in figs.
47-49 ; fig. 48 is a combination of a bipyramid of the first order with
one of the second order and the prism of the first order; fig. 49 a

Fig.

46.— Ditetragonal
Bipyramid.

Fig. 47.
Combination of
Tetragonal Prism
and Basal Pinacoid.

Fig. 48. Fig. 49.

Combinations of Tetragonal Prisms and Pyramids.

combination of a bipyramid of the first order with a ditetragonal
bipyramid and the prism of the second order. Compare also figs.
87 and 88. _ . . '. .

Examples of substances which crystallize inthisclassarecassiterite,
rutile, anatase, zircon, thorite, vesuvianite, apophyllite, phosgenite,
also boron, tin, mercuric iodide.

SCALENOHEDRAL CLASS

(Bisphenoidal-hemihedral).

Here there are only three dyad axes and two planes of symmetry,
the former coinciding with the crystalldgraphic axes and the latter
bisecting the angles between the horizontal pair. The dyad axis
of symmetry, which in this class coincides with the principal axis
of the crystal, has certain of the characters of a tetrad axis, and is
sometimes called a tetrad axis of " alternating symmetry " ; a face
on the upper half of the crystal if rotated through 90° about this axis
and reflected across the equatorial plane falls into the position of a
face on the lower half of the crystal. This kind of symmetry, with
simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a plane,
is also called " composite symmetry."

In this class all except two of the simple forms are geometrically
the same as in the holosymmetric class.

Bisphenoid (a<t>riv, a wedge) (fig. 50). This is a double wedge-
shaped solid bounded by four equal isosceles triangles; it has the
indices (ill), J2il), (i 12 !, &c, or in general \hhl\. By suppressing
either one or other set of alternate faces of the tetragonal bipyramid
of the first order (fig. 42) two bisphenoids are derived; in the

VII. 19

same way that two tetrahedra are derived from the regular
octahedron.

Tetragonal scalenohedron or ditetragonal bisphenoid (fig. 51).
This is bounded by eight scalene triangle's and has the indices \hkl\.
It may be considered as the hemihedral form of the ditetragonal
bipyramid.

Fig. 50. — Tetragonal Bisphenoids.

Fig. 51. — Tetragonal
Scalenohedron.

The crystal of chalcopyrite (CuFeSz) represented in fig. 52 is a
combination of two bisphenoids (P and P')> two bipyramids of the
second order (6 and c), and the basal pinacoid (a). Stannite
(Cu 2 FeSnS4),acid potassium phosphate (H 2 KPOi),mercuriccyanide,
and urea (CO(NH 2 ) 2 ) also crystallize in this class.

BlPYRAMIDAL CLASS

(Parallel-faced hemihedral).

The elements of symmetry are a tetrad axis with a plane per-
pendicular to it, and a centre of symmetry. The simple forms are
the same here as in the holosymmetric class, except the prism \hko\,
which has only four faces, and the bipyramid \hkl} , which has eight
faces and is distinguished as a " tetragonal pyramid of the third
order."

Fig. 52. — Crystal of Chalcopyrite. Fig. 53. — Crystal of Fergusonite.

Fig. 53 shows a combination of a tetragonal prism of the first order
with a tetragonal bipyramid of the third order and the basal pinacoid,
and represents a crystal of fergusonite. Scheelite (q.v.), scapolite
(q.Vi), and erythrite (C4H10O4) also crystallize in this class.

Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).

Here the only element of symmetry is the tetrad axis. The pyra-
mids of the first \hhl\, second {hol\ and third \hkl\ orders have each
only four faces atone or other end of the crystal, and are hemimorphic.
All the simple forms are thus open forms.

Examples are wulfenite (PbMoCu) and barium antimonyl dextro-
tartrate (Ba(SbO) 2 (C4H 4 6 )-H 2 0).

Ditetragonal Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic-hemihedral) .

Here there are two pairs of vertical planes of symmetry inter-
secting in the tetrad axis. The pyramids \hhl\ and [hol\ and the
bipyramid \hkl) are all hemimorphic.

Examples are iodosuccimide (C 4 H 4 2 N I ) , silver fluoride (AgF • H2O) ,
and penta-erythrite (C 6 Hi 2 C>4). No examples are known amongst
minerals.

Trafezohedral Class
(Trapezohedral-hemihedral) .

Here there are the full number of axes of symmetry, but no planes
or centre of symmetry. The general form \hkl\ is bounded by eight
trapezoidal faces and is the tetragonal trapezohedron.

57«

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Examples are nickel sulphate (NiS0 4 -6H 2 0), guanidine carbonate
((CH 5 N 3 ) 2 H 2 C0 3 ), strychnine sulphate((C 2 ,H 22 N 2 2 ) 2 -H 2 SOi-6H 2 0).

BlSPHENOIDAL CLASS

(Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral).

Here there is only a single dyad axis of symmetry, which coincides
with the principal axis. All the forms, except the prisms and basal
pinacoid, are sphenoids. Crystals possessing this type of symmetry
have not yet been observed.

3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM

(Rhombic; Prismatic; Trimetric).

In this system the three crystallographic axes are all at right
angles, but they are of different lengths and not interchangeable.
The parameters, or axial ratios, are a: b: c, these referring to the
axes OX, OY and OZ respectively. The choice of a vertical axis,
OZ = c, is arbitrary, and it is customary to place the longer of the two
horizontal axes from left to right (OY = b) and take it as unity:
this is called the " macro-axis " or " macro-diagonal " (from iiaKpds,
long), whilst the shorter horizontal axis (OX = a) is called the
" brachy-axis " or " brachy-diagonal " (from /3paxis, short). The
axial ratios are constant for crystals of any one substance and are
characteristic of it; for example, in barytes (BaSCh), a: b: c =
0-8152: 1: 1-3136; inanglesite (PbSOi), 0:6:0 = 0-7852: 1: 1-2894;
in cerussite (PbC0 3 ), a:6:c=o-6loo: 1:0-7230.

There are three symmetry-classes in this system : —

HOLOHEDRAL CLASS

(Holohedral; Bipyramidal).

Here there are three dissimilar dyad axes of symmetry, each
coinciding with a crystallographic axis; perpendicular to them are
three dissimilar planes of symmetry; there is also a centre of
symmetry. There aFe seven kinds of simple forms: —

Bipyramid (figs. 54 and 55). This is the general form and is
bounded by eight scalene triangles; the indices are (m), {211),

Fig. 54. Fig. 55.

Orthorhombic Bipyramids.

J22IJ, {112}, (321I, J123I, &c, or in general {hkl). The crystallo-
graphic axes join opposite corners of these pyramids and in
the fundamental bipyramid (in) the parametral plane has the
intercepts a: b: c. This is the only closed form in this class; the
others are open forms and can exist only in combination. Sulphur
often crystallizes in simple bipyramids.

Prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the vertical axis and
intercepting the horizontal axes in the lengths a and b or in any
multiples of these; the indices are therefore jno[, (210), J120) or
\hko\.

Macro-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the macro-

Fig. 56. — Macro-prism and
Brachy-pinacoid.

Fig.

57. — Brachy-prism and
Macro-pinacoid.

axis, and has the indices jioi), {201) ... or {hoi}.

Brachy-prism. This consists of four faces parallel to the brachy-
axis, and has the indices (on), {02 1 J . . . {okl}. The macro- and
brachy-prisms are often called " domes."

Basal pinacoid, consisting of a pair of parallel faces perpendicular
to the vertical axis; the indices are jooij. The macro-pinacoid

{100} and the brachy-pinacoid {010} each consist of a pair of parallel
faces respectively parallel to the macro- and the brachy-axis.

Figs. 56-58 show combinations of these six open forms, and fig. 59
a combination of the macro-pinacoid (a), brachy-pinacoid (b), a
prism (w) , a macro-prism (d) , a brachy-prism (k) , and a bipyramid (») .

Fig. 58. — Prism a*nd Basal Fig. 59. — Crystal of

Pinacoid. Hypersthene.

Holohedral Orthorhombic Combinations.

Examples of substances crystallizing in this class are extremely
numerous; amongst minerals are sulphur, stibnite, cerussite,
chrysoberyl, topaz, olivine, nitre, barytes, columbite and many
others; and amongst artificial products iodine, potassium per-
manganate, potassium sulphate, benzene, barium formate, &c.

Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic).

Here there is only one dyad axis in which two planes of symmetry
intersect. The crystals are usually so placed that the dyad axis
coincides with the vertical crystallographic axis, and the planes
of symmetry are also vertical.

The pyramid [hkl] has only four faces at one end or other of the
crystal. The macro-prism and the brachy-prism of the last class are
here represented by the macro-dome and brachy-dome respectively,
so called because of the resemblance of the pair of equally, sloped
faces to the roof of a house. The form (001 j is a single plane at the
topof the crystal, and is called a " pedion "; the parallel -pedion
jooi) , if present at the lower end of the crystal, constitutes a different
form. The prisms {hko} and the macro- and brachy-pinacoids are
geometrically the same in this class as in the last. Crystals of this
class are therefore differently developed at the two ends and are said
to be " hemimorphic."

Fig. 60 shows a crystal of the mineral hemimorphite (H 2 Zn 2 SiOs)
which is a combination of the brachy-pinacoid (oio) and a prism,

(^^>\

Fig. 60. — Crystal of
Hemimorphite.

Fig. 61.— Orthorhombic
Bisphenoid.

with the pedion (001), two brachy-domes and two macro-domes
at the upper end, and a pyramid at the lower end. Examples
of other substances belonging to this class are struvite
(NH 4 MgP04-6H 2 O), bertrandite (H 2 Be4Si 2 0(,), resorcin, and picric
acid.

BlSPHENOIDAL CLASS

(Hemihedral).

Here there are three dyad axes, but no planes of symmetry and
no centre of symmetry. The general form [hkl] is a bisphenoid
(fig. 61) bounded by four scalene triangles. The other simple forms
are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.

Examples: epsomite (Epsom salts, MgS04-7H 2 0), goslarite
(ZnS04-7H 2 0), silver nitrate, sodium potassium dextro-tartrate
(seignette salt, NaKC4H40«-4H 2 0), potassium antimonyl dextro-
tartrate (tartar-emetic, K(SbO)C4H 4 06), and asparagine
(C4H 8 N 2 0,-H20).

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

579

4. MONOCLINIC i SYSTEM

(Oblique; Monosymmetric).
In this system two of the angles between the crystallographic
axes are right angles, but the third angle is oblique, and the axes
are of unequal lengths. The axis which is perpendicular to the other
two is taken as OY — b (fig. 62) and is called the ortho-axis or ortho-
diagonal. The choice of the other two axes is arbitrary ; the vertical
axis (OZ = c) is usually taken parallel to the edges of a prominently
developed prismatic zone, and the clino-axis or clino-diagonal
(OX = a) parallel to the zone-axis of some other prominent zone on
the crystal. The acute angle between the axes OX and OZ is usually
denoted as ff, and it is necessary to know its magnitude, in addition
to the axial ratios a: b: c, before the crystal is completely deter-
mined. As in other" systems, except the cubic, these elements,
a : b : c and /3, are characteristic of the substance. Thus for gypsum
a : b : £=0-6899 : 1:0-4124; /S = 8o° 42'; for orthoclase a : b : c =
0-6585 :l : 0-5^554; = 63° 57'; and for cane-sugar a : b :c =
1-2595 : 1 : 0-8782; = 76° 30'.

HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS

(Holohedral; Prismatic).

Here there is a single plane of symmetry perpendicular to which
is a dyad axis ; there is also a centre of symmetry. The dyad axis
coincides with the ortho-axis OY, and the vertical axis OZ and the
clino-axis OX lie in the plane of symmetry.

All the forms are open, being either pinacoids or prisms; the
former consisting of a pair of parallel faces, and the latter of four
faces intersecting in parallel edges and with a rhombic cross-section.
The pair of faces parallel to the plane of symmetry is distinguished
as the " clino-pinacoid " and has the indices joioj. The other
pinacoids are all perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (and
parallel to the ortho-axis) ; the one parallel to the vertical axis is
called the " ortho-pinacoid " {100), whilst that parallel to the clino-
axis is the " basal pinacoid " (001 j ; pinacoids not parallel to the
arbitrarily chosen clino- and vertical axes may have the indices
|ioi), {201!, {102J . . . (hoi) or |ioi|, (201), JT02! . . . {EoZ),
according to whether they lie in the obtuse or the acute axial angle.
Of the prisms, those with edges (zone-axis) parallel to the clino-axis,
and having indices joul, {021J, {012) . . . \okl\ , are called " clino-
prisms " ; those with edges parallel to the vertical. axis, and with the
indices {noj, (210), {120) . . . \hko], are called simply "prisms."
• Prisms with edges parallel to neither of the axes OX and OY have
the indices (in), {221), |2iij, {321I . . . [hkl\ or {in| . . . {hkl\,

Fig. 62. — Monoclinic Axes and
Hemi-pyramid.

Fig. 63. — Crystal of Augite.

and are usually called " hemi-pyramids " (fig. 62) ; they are dis-
tinguished as negative or positive according to whether they lie
in the obtuse or the acute axial angle fi.

Fig. 63 represents a crystal of augite bounded by the clino-
pinacoid (I), the ortho-pinacoid (r), a prism (M), and a hemi-pyramid

«■

The substances which crystallize in this class are extremely
numerous: amongst minerals are gypsum, orthoclase, the amphi-
boles, pyroxenes and micas, epidote, monazite, realgar, borax,
mirabilite (Na 2 SO4-10H 2 O), melanterite (FeS0 4 -7H 2 0) and many
others; amongst artificial products are monoclinic sulphur, barium
chloride (Ba0 2 -2H 2 0), potassium chlorate, potassium ferrocyanide
(K 4 Fe(CN) e -3H 2 0), oxalic aqid (C 2 4 H 2 -2H 2 0), sodium acetate
(NaC 2 H 3 2 -3H a O) and naphthalene.

Hemimorphic Class
(Sphenoidal).

In this class the only element of symmetry is a single dyad axis,
which is polar in character, being dissimilar at the two ends.

The form (oioj perpendicular to the axis of symmetry consists of
a single plane or pedion; the parallel face is dissimilar in character
and belongs to the pedion (olo[. The pinacoids jioo), jooij, [hoi]
and {hoi} parallel to the axis of symmetry are geometrically the

1 From jaWs, single, and Mvtiv, to incline, since one axis is inclined
to the plane of the other two axes, which are at right angles.

same in this class as in the holosymmetric class. The remaining
forms consist each of only two planes on the same side of the axial
plane XOZ and equallyjnclined to the dyad axis (e.g. in fig. 62 the
two planes XYZ and XYZ); such a wedge-shaped form is some-
times called a sphenoid.

Fig. 64. — Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid.

Fig. 64 shows two crystals of tartaric acid, a a right-handed
crystal of dextro-tartaric acid, and b a left-handed crystal of laevo-
tartaric acid. The two crystals are enantiomorphous, i.e. although
they have the same interfacial angles they are not superposable,
one being the mirror image of the other. Other examples are
potassium dextro-tartrate, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, quercite, lithium
sulphate (Li 2 S04-H 2 0) ; amongst minerals the only example is the
hydrocarbon fichtelite (C 5 H 8 ).

Clinohedral Class
(Hemihedral ; Domatic).

Crystals of this class are symmetrical only with respect to a single
plane. The only form which is here geometrically the same as in the
holosymmetric class is the clino-pinacoid (oioj. The forms per-
pendicular to the plane of symmetry are all pedions, consisting of
single planes with the indices (100), (100), (001), (001), (hoi), &c.
The remaining forms, {kko) ,(okl) and (hkl), are domes or " gonioids "
(yawta, an angle, and tlSos, form), consisting of two planes equally
inclined to the plane of symmetry.

Examples are potassium tetrathionate (K 2 S 4 6 ), hydrogen tri-
sodium hypophosphate (HNa 3 P 2 6 -9H 2 0) ; and amongst minerals,
clinohedrite (H 2 ZnCaSi0 4 ) and scolectite.

5. ANORTHIC SYSTEM

(Triclinic).
In the anorthic (from &.v, privative, and dpdos, right) or triclinic
system none of the three crystallographic axes are at right angles,
and they are all of unequal lengths. In addition to the parameters
a : b : c, it is necessary to know the angles, a, /3, and 7, between the
axes. In anorthite, for example, these elements are a : b : c =
0-6347:1:0-5501; a = 93° 13', /3 = II5°55', 7 = 91° 12'.

Holosymmetric Class
(Holohedral; Pinacoidal).

Here there is only a centre of symmetry. All the forms are pina-
coids, each consisting of only two parallel faces. The indices of the
three pinacoids parallel to the axial planes are (looj, joio| and
{oo 1 1 ; those of pinacoids parallel to only one axis are {hko}, {hol\
and \okl\ ; and the general form is [hkl] .

Several minerals crystallize in this class ; for example, the plagio-
clastic felspars, microcline, axinite (fig. 65), cyanite, amblygonite,
chalcanthite(CuS04-5H 2 0),sassolite(H 3 BOs);
among artificial substances are potassium
bichromate, racemic acid (C4H 6 0e-2H 2 0),
dibrom-para-nitrophenol, &c.

Asymmetric Class

(Hemihedral, Pediad).

Crystals of this class are devoid of any
elements of symmetry. All the forms are
pedions, each consisting of a single plane ;
they are thus hemihedral with respect to
crystals of the last class. Although there is
a total absence of symmetry, yet the faces are arranged in zones
on the crystals.

Examples are calcium thiosulphate (CaS 2 3 -6H 2 0) and hydrogen
strontium dextro-tartrate ((C4H40 e H) 2 Sr-5H 2 0) ; there is no example
amongst minerals.

6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

Crystals of this system are characterized by the presence of a single
axis of either triad or hexad symmetry, which is spoken of as the
" principal " or " morphological " axis. Those with a triad axis
are grouped together in the rhombohedral or trigonal division, and
those with a hexad axis in the hexagonal division. By some authors
these two divisions are treated as separate systems; or again the
rhombohedral forms may be considered as hemihedral developments

Fig. 65. — Crystal of
Axinite.

5 8o

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

of the hexagonal. On the other hand, hexagonal forms may be
considered as a combination of two rhombohedral forms.

Owing to the peculiarities of symmetry associated with a single
triad or hexad axis, the crystallographic axes of reference are different
in this system from those used in the five other systems of crystals.
Two methods of axial representation are in common use; rhombo-
hedral axes being usually used for crystals of the rhombohedral
division, and hexagonal axes for those of the hexagonal division;
though sometimes either one or the other set is employed in both
divisions.

Rhombohedral axes are taken parallel to the three sets of edges
of a rhombohedron (fig. 66). They are inclined to one another at
equal oblique angles, and they are all equally inclined to the principal
axis; further, they are all of equal length and are interchangeable.
With such a set of axes there can be no statement of an axial ratio,
but the angle between the axes (or some other angle which may be
calculated from this) may be given as a constant of the substance.
Thus in calcite the rhombohedral angle (the angle between two faces
of the fundamental rhombohedron) is 74 55', or the angle between
the normal to a face of this rhombohedron and the principal axis is

44° 36*'-

Hexagonal axes are four in number, viz. a vertical axis coinciding
with the principal axis of the crystal, and three horizontal axes
inclined to one another at 6o c in a plane perpendicular to the princi-
pal axis. The three horizontal axes, which are taken either parallel
or perpendicular to the faces of a hexagonal prism (fig. 71) or the
edge of a hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), are equal in length (a) but
the vertical axis is of a different length (c). The indices of planes
referred to such a set of axes are four in number; they are written
as \hikl\, the first three (h+i+k=o) referring to the horizontal
axes and the last to the vertical axis. The ratio a : c of the para-
meters, or the axial ratio, is characteristic of all the crystals of the
same substance. Thus for beryl (including emerald) a : c = i:
0-4989 (often written 6 = 0-4989) ; for zinc £ = 1-3564.

Rhombohedral Division.

In the rhombohedral or trigonal division of the hexagonal system
there are seven symmetry-classes, all of which possess a single
triad axis of symmetry.

HOLOSYMMETRIC CLASS

(Holohedral; Ditrigonal scalenohedral).
In this class, which presents the commonest type of symmetry
of the hexagonal system, the triad axis is associated with three
similar planes of symmetry inclined to one another at 60° and inter-

Fig. 66. Fig. 67.

Direct and Inverse Rhombohedra.

secting in the triad axis; there are also three similar dyad axes,
each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, and a centre of sym-
metry. The seven simple forms are : —

Rhombohedron (figs. 66 and 67), consisting of six rhomb-shaped
faces with the edges all of equal lengths : the faces are perpendicular
to the planes of symmetry. There are
two sets of rhombohedra, distinguished
respectively as direct and inverse ; those
of one set (fig. 66) are brought into the
orientation of the other set (fig. 67) by
a rotation of 6o° or 180 about the prin-
cipal axis. For the fundamental rhombo-
hedron, parallel to the edges of which
are the crystallographic axes of reference,
the indices are (iooj. Other rhombo-
hedra may have the indices (211), (41TJ,
jiio}, J22iJ, juTj, &c, or in general
\hkk\. (Compare fig. 72; for figures of
other rhombohedra see Calcite.)

Scalenohedron (fig. 68), bounded by
twelve scalene triangles, and with the
general indices [hkl] . The zig-zag lateral
edges coincide with the similar edges of a
rhombohedron, as shown in fig. 69;
if the indices of the inscribed rhombo-
hedron be (iooj, the indices of the
scalenohedron represented in the figure are {201) . The scalenohedron
{201 j is a characteristic form of calcite, which for this reason is some-
times called " dog-tooth-spar." The angles over the three edges of

Fig. 68. — Scalenohedron.

a face of a scalenohedron are all different; the angles over three
alternate polar edges are more obtuse than over the other three
polar edges. Like the two sets of rhombohedra, there are also
direct and inverse scalenohedra, which may be similar in form and
angles, but different in orientation and indices.

Hexagonal bipyramid (fig. 70), bounded by twelve isosceles
triangles each of which are equally inclined to two planes of sym-
metry. The indices are J210}, (412J, &c, or in general {hkl), where
h-2k+l = o.

Fig. 70. — Hexagonal
Bipyramid.

<r

c >l

m

1
1
1

1.
1

m mi

1
1
(

j

i^

Fig. 69. — Scalenohedron with
inscribed Rhombohedron.

Fig. 71. — Hexagonal Prism
and Basal Pinacoid.

Hexagonal prism of the first order (2TT), consisting of six faces
parallel to the principal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
symmetry ; the angles between (the normals to) the faces are 60 °.

Hexagonal prism of the second order (101), consisting of six faces
parallel to the principal axis and parallel to the planes of symmetry.
The faces of this prism are inclined to 30° to those of the last prism.

Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the
principal axis and inclined to the planes of symmetry. There are
two sets of angles between the faces. The indices are {32TJ , {532)
. . . \hk~l), where h+k+l = o.

Basal pinacoid {iii)_, consisting of a pair of parallel faces per-
pendicular to the principal axis.

Fig. 71 shows a combination of a hexagonal prism (w) with the
basal pinacoid (c). For figures of other combinations see Calcite

hoi

101

oh

•^joy

LLL^pU-

An _

Jt2f^

*"fcy

i\ty

OI2

jOoj

■J V"**^

*&

241

1 1 2/ \ d

\9*

n \

tjp^ /

Xxtf

^^a. j

\\

t2t\

x^Vi"

\ '*>/i\

W

/

Jkf'Q j

\ A>

OW

/ j^

—JJOj

^™W

jNgrw

MI \ /

\ / '-i*

Q2I

yff^v <

3 J£*K/(

Atj.

rSof

jZr™*

t/7i /j>

Oil

~??*tof

Fig. 72.-

-Stereographic Projection of a Holosymmetric
Rhombohedral Crystal.

and Corundum. The relation between rhombohedral forms and
their indices are best studied with the aid of a stereographic pro-
jection (fig. 72); in this figure the thicker lines are the projections
of the three planes of symmetry, and on these lie the poles of the
rhombohedra (six of which are indicated).

Numerous substances, both natural and artificial, crystallize

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

581

=0),

and

in this class; for example, calcite, chalybite, calamine, corundum
(ruby and sapphire), haematite, chabazite; the elements arsenic,
antimony, bismuth, selenium, tellurium and perhaps graphite;
also ice, sodium nitrate, thymol, &c.

Ditrigonal Pyramidal Class

(Hemimorphic-hemihedral) .

Here there are three similar planes of symmetry intersecting in
the triad axis; there are no dyad axes and no centre of symmetry.
The triad axis is uniterminal and polar, and the crystals are differ-
ently developed at the two ends ; crystals of this class are therefore
pyro-electric. The forms are all open forms : —

Trigonal pyramid {hkk} , consisting of three faces which correspond
to the three upper or the three lower faces of a
rhombohedron|of the holosymmetric class.

Ditrigonal pyramid \hkl\, of six faces,
corresponding to the six Upper or lower faces
of, the scalenohedron.

Hexagonal pyramid (hkl) (where h-2k +
/ = o), of six faces, corresponding to the six
upper or lower faces of the hexagonal bi-
pyramid.

Trigonal prism (211) or j5llj, two forms
each consisting of three faces parallel to prin-
cipal axis and perpendicular to the planes of
symmetry.

Hexagonal prism {lot}, which is geo-

t*„ _, r^.,ci-t,l n( metrically the same as in the last class.

Tourmaline Ditrigonal prism {hkl} (where h+k+l

of six faces parallel to the principal axis,
with two sets of angles between them.

Basal pedion (ill) or (ITT), each consisting of a single plane
perpendicular to the principal axis.

Fig- 73 represents a crystal of tourmaline with the trigonal prism
(21T), hexagonal prism (101), and a trigonal pyramid at each end.
Other substances crystallizing in this class are pyrargyrite, proustite,
iodyrite (Agl), greenockite, zincite, spangolite, sodium lithium
sulphate, tolylphenylketone.

Trapezohedral Class

(Trapezohedral-hemihedral).
Here there are three similar dyad axes inclined to one another at
6o° and perpendicular to the triad axis. There are no planes or
centre of symmetry. The dyad axes are uniterminal, and are pyro-
electric axes. Crystals of most substances of this class rotate the

plane of polarization of
a beam of light.

In this class the
rhombohedra {hkk} , the
hexagonal prism |2iT| ,
and the basal pinacoid
jm) are geometrically
the same as in the
holosymmetric class ;
the trigonal prism jioT)
and the ditrigonal
prisms are as in the
ditrigonal pyramidal
class. The remaining :
simple forms are: —
Trigonal trapezohedron (fig. 74), bounded by six trapezoidal
faces. There are two complementary and enantiomorphous trapezo-
hedra, {hkl} and {hlk\, derivable from the scalenohedron.

Trigonal bipyramid (fig. 75), bounded by six isosceles triangles;
the indices are \hkl\, where h-2k+l = o, as in the hexagonal
bipyramid.

The only minerals crystallizing in this class are quartz (q.v.)
and cinnabar, both of which rotate the plane of a beam of polarized
light transmitted along the triad axis. Other examples are dithio-
nates of lead (PbS 2 6 -4H 2 0), calcium and strontium, and ot potas-
sium (K2S2O6), benzil, matico-stearoptene.

Rhombohedral Class
■ (Parallel-faced hemihedral),

The only elements of symmetry are the triad axis and a centre of
symmetry. The general form {hkl} is a rhombohedron, and is a
hemihedral form, with parallel faces, of the scalenohedron. The
form {hkl}, where h-2k+l = o, is also a rhombohedron, being the
hemihedral form of the hexagonal bipyramid. The dihexagonal
prism {hkl} of the holosymmetric class becomes here a hexagonal
prism. The rhombohedra {hkk), hexagonal prisms {21T) and jioT),
and the basal pinacoid |m) are geometrically the same in this
class as in the holosymmetric class.

Fig. 76 represents a crystal of dioptase with the fundamental
rhombohedron rjiooj and the hexagonal -prism of the second order
m jlot| combined with the rhombohedron s 1031).

Examples of minerals which crystallize in this class are phenacite,

Fig. 74. — Trigonal
Trapezohedron.

Fig. 75. — Trigonal
Bipyramid.

dioptase, willemite, dolomite, ilmenite and pyrophanite: amongst
artificial substances is ammonium periodate ((NH4)4l20 9 -3H 2 0).

Trigonal Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).

Here there is only the triad axis of symmetry, which is uniterminal.
The general form {hkl} is a trigonal pyramid consisting of three faces
at one end of the crystal. All other forms, in
which the faces are neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the triad axis, are trigonal
pyramids. All the prisms are trigonal prisms;
and perpendicular to these are two pedions.

The only substance known to crystallize in
this class is sodium periodate (NaI04-3H 2 0),
the crystals of which are circularly polarizing.

Trigonal Bipyramidal Class

Here there is a plane of symmetry per-
pendicular to the triad axis. The trigonal
pyramids of the last class are here trigonal
bipyramids (fig. 75) ; the prisms are all trigonal
prisms, and parallel to the plane of symmetry
is the basal pinacoid. No example is known
for this class.

Ditrigonal Bipyramidal Class

Fig. 76. — Crystal of
Dioptase.

Here there are three similar planes of sym-
metry intersecting in the triad axis, and perpendicular to them is
a fourth plane of symmetry; at the intersection of the three
vertical planes with the horizontal plane are three similar dyad
axes ; there is no centre of symmetry.

The general form is bounded by twelve scalene triangles and is
a ditrigonal bipyramid. Like the general form of the last class, this
has two sets of indices {hkl, pqf}, (hkl) for
faces above the equatorial plane of symmetry
and (pqf) for faces below: with hexagonal
axes there would be only one set of indices.
The hexagonal bipyramids, the hexagonal
prism jioT} and the basal pinacoid |m)
are geometrically the same in this class as
in the holosymmetric class. The trigonal
prism J2T1J and ditrigonal prisms {hkl} are
the same as in the ditrigonal pyramidal
class.

The only representative of this type of
symmetry is the mineral benitoite (q.v.).

Hexagonal Division.

In crystals of this division of the hexa- Fig. 77. — Dihexagonal
gonal system the principal axis is a hexad Bipyramid.

axis of symmetry. Hexagonal axes of

reference are used: if rhombohedral axes be used many of the
simple forms will have two sets of indices.

Holosymmetric Class
(Holohedral; Dihexagonal bipyramidal).

Intersecting in the hexad axis are six planes of symmetry of two
kinds, and perpendicular to them is an equatorial plane of symmetry.
Perpendicular to the hexad axis are six dyad axes of two kinds and
each perpendicular to a vertical plane of symmetry. The seven
simple forms are :—

Dihexagonal bipyramid, bounded by twenty-four scalene triangles
(fig. 77; v in fig. 80). The indices are {2131), &c, or in general
{hikl}. This form may be considered as a combination of two
scalenohedra, a direct and an inverse.

Hexagonal bipyramid of the first order, bounded by twelve

Fig. 80.

78. Fig. 79.

Combinations of Hexagonal forms.

isosceles triangles (fig. 70; p and u in fig. 80); indices (ioTl),
{2021) . . . (hoJtl). The hexagonal bipyramid so common in quartz
is geometrically similar to this form, but it really is a combination
of two rhombohedra, a direct and an inverse, the faces of which
differ in surface characters and often also in size.

582

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Hexagonal bipyramid of the second order, bounded by twelve
faces (s in figs. 79 and 80); indices (1121), (1122} . . . {h.h.2h.l\.

Dihexagonal prism, consisting of twelve faces parallel to the hexad
axis and inclined to the vertical planes of symmetry; indices {hiko}.

Hexagonal prism of the first order [ioio), consisting of six faces
parallel to the hexad axis and perpendicular to one set of three
vertical planes of symmetry (m in figs. 71, 78-80). _

Hexagonal prism of the second order {n5o|, consisting of six
faces also parallel to the hexad axis, but perpendicular to the other
set of three vertical planes of symmetry (a in fig. 78).

Basal pinacoid joooi|, consisting of a pair of parallel planes per-
pendicular to the hexad axis (c in figs. 71, 78-80).

Beryl (emerald), connellite, zinc, magnesium and beryllium
crystallize in this class.

BlPYRAMIDAL CLASS

(Parallel-faced jemihedral).

Here there is a plane of -symmetry perpendicular to the hexad
axis ; thene is also a centre of symmetry. All the closed forms are
hexagonal bipyramids; the open forms are hexagonal prisms or
the basal pinacoid. The general form [MM] is hemihedral with
parallel faces with respect to the general form of the holosymmetric
class.

Apatite (q.v.), pyromorphite, mimetite and vanadinite possess
this degree of symmetry.

Dihexagonal Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic-hemihedral).

Six planes of symmetry of two kinds intersect in the hexad axis.
The hexad axis is uniterminal and all the forms are open forms. The
general form \hikl} consists of twelve faces at one end of the crystal,
and is a dihexagonal pyramid. The hexagonal pyramids \h6ti\ and
(h.h.ifi.l) each consist of six faces at one end of the crystal. The
prisms are geometrically the same as in the holosymmetric class.
Perpendicular to the hexad axis are the pedions (0001) and (000I).

Iodyrite (Agl), greenockite (CdS), wurtzite (ZnS) and zincite
(ZnO) are often placed in this class, but they more probably belong
to the hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral division
of this system.

Trapezohedral Class
(Trapezohedral-hemihedral) .

Six dyad axes of two kinds are perpendicular to the hexad axis.
The general form \hikl\ is the hexagonal trapezohedron bounded
by twelve trapezoidal faces. The other simple forms are geo-
metrically the same as in the holosymmetric class. Barium-anti-
monyldextro-tartrate+potassiumnitrate(Ba(SbO)2(C 4 H40 6 )2-KN03)
and the corresponding lead salt crystallize in this class.

Hexagonal Pyramidal Class
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral).

No other element is here associated with the hexad axis, which is
uniterminal. The pyramids all consist of six faces at one end of the
crystal, and prisms are all hexagonal prisms; perpendicular to the
hexad axis are the pedions.

Lithium potassium sulphate, strontium-antimonyl dextro-tartrate,
and lead-antimonyl dextro-tartrate are examples of this type of
symmetry. The mineral nepheline is placed in this class because of the
absence of symmetry in the etched figures on the prism faces (fig. 92).

(g) Regular Grouping of Crystals.
Crystals of the same kind when occurring together may some-
times be grouped in parallel position and so give rise to special
structures, of which the dendritic (from bkvbpov, a tree) or
brancK-like aggregations of native copper or of magnetite
and the fibrous structures of many minerals furnish examples.
Sometimes, owing to changes in the surrounding conditions, the
crystal may continue its growth with a different external form
or colour, e.g. sceptre-quartz.

' Regular intergrowths of crystals of totally different substances
such as staurolite with cyanite, rutile with haematite, blende
with chalcopyrite,calcite with sodium nitrate, are not uncommon.
In these cases certain planes and edges of the two crystals are
parallel. (See 0. Miigge, "Die regelmassigen Verwachsungen
von Mineralien verschiedener Art," Neues Jahrbuchfur Minera-
logie, 1903, vol. xvi. pp. 335-475-)

But by far the most important kind of regular conjunction
of crystals is that known as "twinning." Here two crystals
or individuals of the same kind have grown together in a certain
symmetrical manner, such that one portion of the twin may be
brought into the position of the other by reflection across a

Fig. 81. — Twinned Fig. 82.— Simple
Crystal of Gypsum. Crystal of Gypsum.

plane or by rotation about an axis. The plane of reflection is
called the twin-plane, and is parallel to one of the faces, or to a
possible face, of the crystal: the axis of rotation, called the
twin-axis, is parallel to one of the edges or perpendicular to a
face of the crystal.

In the twinned crystal of gypsum represented in fig. 81 the
two portions are symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel
to the ortho-pinacoid
(100), i.e. a vertical
plane perpendicular to
the face b. Or we may
consider the simple
crystal (fig. 82) to be cut
in half by this plane and
one portion to be rotated
through 180 about the
normal to the same plane.
Such a crystal (fig. 81) is
therefore described as
being twinned on the
plane (100).

An octahedron (fig. 83) twinned on an octahedral face (111)
has the two portions symmetrical with respect to a plane parallel
to this face (the large triangular face in the figure) ; and either
portion may be brought into the position of the other by a rota-
tion through 180 about the triad axis of symmetry which is
perpendicular to this face. This kind of twinning is especially
frequent in crystals of spinel, and is consequently often referred
to as the " spinel twin-law."

In these two examples the surface of the union, or composition-
plane, of the two portions is a regular surface coinciding with the
twin-plane; such twins are called " juxtaposition-twins." In
other juxtaposed twins the plane of composition is, however, not
necessarily the twin-plane. Another type of twin is the " inter-
penetration twin," an example of which is shown in fig. 84.
Here one cube may be brought into the position of the other by
a rotation of 180 about a triad axis, or by reflection across the
octahedral plane which is perpendicular to this axis; the twin-
plane is therefore (in).

Since in many cases twinned crystals may be explained by
the rotation of one portion through two right angles, R. J. Haiiy
introduced the term " hemitrope " (from the Gt. 17/ii-, half, and
Tpo7ros, a turn); the word "made" had been earlier used by
Rome d'Isle. There are, however, some rare types of twins
which cannot be explained by rotation about an axis, but only

Fig. 83. — -Spinel-twin.

Fig. 84. — Interpenetrating
Twinned Cubes.

by reflection across a plane; these are known as " symmetric
twins," a good example of which is furnished by one of the twin-
laws of chalcopyrite.

Twinned crystals may often be recognized by the presence of
re-entrant angles between the faces of the two portions, as may
be seen from the above figures. In some twinned crystals (e.g.
quartz) there are, however, no re-entrant angles. On the other
hand, two crystals accidentally grown together without any
symmetrical relation between them will usually show some
re-entrant angles, but this must not be taken to indicate the
presence of twinning.

Twinning may be several times repeated on the same plane
or on other similar planes of the crystal, giving rise to triplets,

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

583

quartets and other complex groupings. When often repeated
on the same plane, the twinning is said to be " polysynthetic,"
and gives rise to a laminated structure in the crystal. Sometimes
such a crystal (e.g. of corundum or pyroxene) may be readily
broken in this direction, which is thus a " plane of parting,"
often closely resembling a true cleavage in character. In calcite
and some other substances this lamellar twinning may be pro-
duced artificially by pressure (see below, Sect. II. (a), Glide-
plane).

Another curious result of twinning is the production of forms
which apparently display a higher degree of symmetry than that
actually possessed by the substance. Twins of this kind are
known as " mimetic-twins or pseudo-symmetric twins." Two
hemihedral or hemimorphic crystals (e.g. of diamond or of
hemimorphite) are often united in twinned position to produce a
group with apparently the same degree of symmetry as the
holosymmetric class of the same system. Or again, a substance
crystallizing in, say, the orthorhombic system (e.g. aragonite)
may, by twinning, give rise to pseudo-hexagonal forms: and
pseudo-cubic forms often result by the complex twinning of
crystals (e'.g. stannite, phillipsite, &c.) belonging to other systems.
Many of the so-called " optical anomalies " of crystals may be
explained by this pseudo-symmetric twinning.

(h) Irregularities of Growth of Crystals; Character of Faces.

Only rarely do actual crystals present the symmetrical appear-
ance shown in the figures given above, in which similar faces
are all represented as of equal size. It frequently happens that
the crystal is so placed with respect to the liquid in which it
grows that there will be a more rapid deposition of material on
one part than on another; for instance, if the crystal be attached
to some other solid it cannot grow in that direction. Only when
a crystal is freely suspended in the mother-liquid and material
for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does an equably
developed form result.

Two misshapen or distorted octahedra are represented in figs.
85 and 86; the former is elongated in the direction of one of the
edges of the octahedron, and the latter is flattened parallel to one
pair of faces. It will be noticed in these figures that the edges in
which the faces intersect have the same directions as before,
though here there are additional edges not present in fig. 3.
The angles (70 32' or 109° 28') between the faces also remain
the same; and the faces have the same inclinations to the axes
and planes of symmetry as in the equably developed form. Al-
though from a geometrical point of view these figures are no

Fig. 85.

Misshapen Octahedra.

longer symmetrical with respect to the axes and planes of sym-
metry, yet crystallographically they are just as symmetrical
as the ideally developed form, and, however much their
irregularity of development, they still are regular (cubic) octa-
hedra of crystallography. A remarkable case of irregular
development is presented by the mineral cuprite, which is often
found as well-developed octahedra; but in the variety known
as chalcotrichite it occurs as a matted aggregate of delicate hairs,
each of which is an individual crystal enormously elongated
in the direction of an edge or diagonal of the cube.

The symmetry of actual crystals is sometimes so obscured by
irregularities of growth that it can only be determined by measure-
ment of the angles. An extreme case, where several of the planes
have not been developed at all, is illustrated in fig. 87, which
shows the actual shape of a crystal of zircon from Ceylon; the
ideally developed form (fig. 88) is placed at the side for com-

parison, and the parallelism of the edges between corresponding
faces will be noticed. This crystal is a combination of five simple
forms, viz. two tetragonal prisms (a and m,) two tetragonal
bipyramids (e and p), and one ditetragonal bipyramid (x, with
16 faces).

The actual form, or " habit," of crystals may vary widely
in different crystals of the same substance, these differences
depending largely on the conditions under which the growth has
taken place. The material may have crystallized from a fused
/

Fig. 87.— Actual Crystal. Fig. 88.— Ideal Development.

Crystal of Zircon (clinographic drawings and plans).

mass or from a solution; and in the latter case the solvent may
be of different kinds and contain other substances in solution,
or the temperature may vary. Calcite (q.v.) affords a good
example of a substance crystallizing in widely different habits,
but all crystals are referable to the same type of symmetry and
may be reduced to the same fundamental form.

When crystals are aggregated together, and so interfere with
each other's growth, special structures and external shapes often
result, which are sometimes characteristic of certain substances,
especially amongst minerals.

Incipient crystals, the development of which has been arrested
owing to unfavourable conditions of growth, are known as
crystallites (q.v.). They are met with in imperfectly crystallized
substances and in glassy rocks (obsidian and pitchstone), or may
be obtained artificially from a solution of sulphur in carbon
disulphide rendered viscous by the addition of Canada-balsam.
To the various forms H. Vogelsang gave, in 1875, the names
"globulites," "margarites" (from ixa.pyapiri\%, a pearl), "longu-
lites," &c. At a more advanced stage of growth these bodies react
on polarized light, thus possessing the internal structure of true
crystals; they are then called " microlites." These have the
form of minute rods, needles or hairs, and are aggregated into
feathery and spherulitic forms or skeletal crystals. They are
common constituents of microcrystalline igneous rocks, and
often occur as inclusions in larger crystals of other substances.

Inclusions of foreign matter, accidentally caught up during
growth, are frequently present in crystals. Inclusions of other
minerals are specially frequent and conspicuous in crystals
of quartz, and crystals of calcite may contain as much as 60%
of included sand. Cavities, either with rounded boundaries
or with the same shape (" negative crystals ") as the surrounding
crystal, are often to be seen; they may be empty or enclose a
liquid with a movable bubble of gas.

The faces of crystals are rarely perfectly plane and smooth,
but are usually striated, studded with small angular elevations,
pitted or cavernous, and sometimes curved or twisted. These
irregularities, however* conform with the symmetry of the
crystal, and much may be learnt by their study. The parallel
grooves or furrows, called " striae," are the result of oscillatory
combination between adjacent faces, narrow strips of first one
face and then another being alternately developed. Sometimes

S 84

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the striae on crystal-faces are due to repeated lamellar twinning,
as in the plagioclase felspars. The directions of the striations
are very characteristic features of many crystals: e.g. the faces
of the hexagonal prism of quartz are always striated horizontally,
whilst in beryl they are striated vertically. Cubes of pyrites
(fig. 89) are striated parallel to one edge, the striae on adjacent
faces being at right angles, and due to oscillatory combination
of the cube and the pentagonal dodecahedron (compare fig. 36) ;
whilst cubes of blende (fig. 90) are stria f ed parallel to one diagonal
of each face, i.e. parallel to the tetrahedron faces (compare

Fig. 89;— Striated Cube of
Pyrites.

Fig. 90. — Striated Cube of
Blende.

fig. 31). These striated cubes thus possess different degrees of
symmetry and belong to different symmetry-classes. Oscillatory
combination of faces gives rise also to curved surfaces. Crystals
with twisted surfaces (see Dolomite) are, however, built up of
smaller crystals arranged in nearly parallel position. Sometimes
a face is entirely replaced by small faces of other forms, giving
rise to a drusy surface; an example of this is shown by some
octahedral crystals of fluorspar (fig. 2) which are built up of
minute cubes.

The faces of crystals are sometimes partly or completely
replaced by smooth bright surfaces inclined at only a few
minutes of arc from the true position of the face; such surfaces
are called " vicinal faces," and their indices can be expressed
only by very high numbers. In apparently perfectly developed
crystals of alum the octahedral face, with the simple indices
(in), is usually replaced by faces of very low triakis-octahedra,
with indices such as (251-251-250); the angles measured on
such crystals will therefore deviate slightly from the true octa-
hedral angle. Vicinal faces of this character are formed during
the growth of crystals, and have been studied by H. A. Miers
(Phil. Trans., 1903, Ser. A. vol. 202). Other faces with high
indices, viz. " prerosion faces " and the minute faces forming the
sides of etched figures (see below) , as well as rounded edges and
other surface irregularities, may, however, result from the
corrosion of a crystal subsequent to its growth. The pitted and
cavernous faces of artificially grown crystals of sodium chloride
and of bismuth are, on the other hand, a result of rapid growth,
more material being supplied at the edges and corners of the
crystal than at the centres of the faces. ■

(i) Theories of Crystal Structure.
The ultimate aim of crystallographic research is to determine
the internal structure of crystals from both physical and chemical
data. The problem is essentially twofold: in the first place
it is necessary to formulate a theory as to the disposition of the
molecules, which conforms with the observed types of symmetry
—this is really a mathematical problem; in the second place,
it is necessary to determine the orientation of the atoms (or
groups of atoms) composing the molecules with regard to the
crystal axes — this involves a knowledge of the atomic structure
of the molecule. As appendages to the second part of our
problem, there have to be considered: (1) the possibility of the
existence of the same substance in two or more distinct crystal-
line forms — polymorphism, and (2) the relations between the
chemical structure of compounds which affect nearly identical
or related crystal habits — isomorphism and morphotropy. Here
we shall discuss the modern theory of crystal structure; the
relations between chemical composition and crystallographical
form are discussed in Part III. of this article; reference should
also be made to the article Chemistry : Physical.

Hauy.

The earliest theory of crystal structure of any moment is that
of Hauy, in which, as explained above, he conceived a crystal
as composed of elements bounded by the cleavage
planes of the crystal, the elements being arranged
contiguously and along parallel lines. There is, however, no
reason to suppose that matter is continuous throughout a
crystalline body; in fact, it has been shown that space does,
separate the molecules, and we may therefore replace the
contiguous elements of Hauy by particles equidistantly dis-
tributed along parallel lines; by this artifice we retain the
reticulated or net-like structure, but avoid the continuity of
matter which characterizes Haiiy's theory; the permanence
of crystal form being due to equilibrium between the inter-
molecular (and , interatomic) forces. The crystal is thus Con-
jectured as a " space-lattice," composed of three sets of parallel
planes which enclose parallelopipeda, at the corners of which are
placed the constituent molecules (or groups of molecules) of
the crystal.

The geometrical theory of crystal structure (i.e. the determina-
tion of the varieties of crystal symmetry) is thus reduced to the
mathematical problem: " in how many ways can
space be partitioned ? " M. L. Frankenheim, in 1835, f r f * en "
determined this number as fifteen, but A. Bravais, ; Brav'ala.
in 1850, proved the identity of two of Frankenheim's
forms, and showed how the remaining fourteen coalesced by
pairs, so that really these forms only corresponded to seven
distinct systems and fourteen classes of crystal symmetry.
These systems, however, only represented holohedral forms,
leaving the hemihedral and tetartohedral classes to be explained.
Bravais attempted an explanation by attributing differences
in the symmetry of the crystal elements, or, what comes to the
same thing, he assumed the crystals to exhibit polar differences
along any member of the lattice; for instance, assume the
particles to be (say) pear-shaped, then the sharp ends point in
one direction, the blunt ends in the opposite direction.

A different view was adopted by L. Sohncke in 1879, who,
by developing certain considerations published by Camille
Jordan in 1869 on the possible types of regular repeti-
tion in space of identical parts, showed that the
lattice-structure of Bravais was unnecessary, it being sufficient
that each molecule of an indefinitely extended crystal, repre-
sented by its "point" (or centre of gravity), was identically
situated with respect to the molecules surrounding it. The
problem then resolves itself into the determination of the number
of " point-systems " possible; Sohncke derived sixty-five such
arrangements, which may also be obtained from the fourteen
space-lattices of Bravais, by interpenetrating any one space-
lattice with one or more identical lattices, with the condition
that the resulting structure should conform with the homo-
geneity characteristic of crystals. But the sixty-five arrange-
ments derived by Sohncke, of which Bravais' lattices are
particular cases, did not complete the solution, for certain of the
known types of crystal symmetry still remained unrepresented.
These missing forms are characterized as being enantiomorphs
consequently, with the introduction of this principle of repetition
over a plane, i.e. mirror images. E. S. Fedorov (1890), A
Schoenfhes (1891), and W. Barlow (1894), independently and
by different methods, showed how Sohncke's theory of regular
point-systems explained the whole thirty-two classes of crystal
symmetry, 230 distinct types of crystal structure falling into
these classes. ... .

By considering the atoms instead of the centres of gravity
of the molecules, Sohncke (Zeits. Kryst. Min., 1888, 14, p. 431),
has generalized his theory, and propounded the structure of a
crystal in the following terms: "A crystal consists of a finite
number of interpenetrating regular point-systems, which all
possess like and like-directed coincidence movements. Each
separate point-system is occupied by similar material particles,
but these may be different for the different interpenetrating
partial systems which form the complex system." Or we may
quote the words of P. von Groth {British Assoc. Rep., 1904):
" A crystal — considered as indefinitely extended— consists pf n

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

585

interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed
of similar atoms; each of these point-systems is built up from
a number of interpenetrating space-lattices, each of the latter
being formed from similar atoms occupying parallel positions.
All the space-lattices of the combined system are geometrically
identical, or are characterized by the same elementary parallel-
opipedon."

A complete r6sum£, with references to the literature, will be found
in " Report on the Development of the Geometrical Theories of
Crystal Structure, 1666-1901 " (British Assoc. Rep., 1901).

II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS.

Many of the physical properties of crystals vary with the
direction in the material, but are. the same in certain directions;
these directions obeying the same laws of symmetry as do the
faces on the exterior of the crystal. The symmetry of the internal
structure of crystals is thus the same as the symmetry of their
external form.

(a) Elasticity and Cohesion.

The elastic constants of crystals are determined by similar
methods to those employed with amorphous substances, only
the bars and plates experimented upon must be cut from the
crystal with known orientations. The " elasticity surface "
expressing the coefficients in various directions within the crystal
has a configuration symmetrical with respect to the same planes
and axes of symmetry as the crystal itself. In calcite, for in-
stance, the figure has roughly the shape of a rounded rhombo-
hedron with depressed faces and is symmetrical about three
vertical planes.- In the case of homogeneous elastic deformation,
produced by pressure on all sides, the effect on the crystal is the
same as that due to changes of temperature; and the surfaces
expressing the compression coefficients in different directions have ;
the same higher degree of symmetry, being either a sphere,
spheroid or ellipsoid. When strained beyond the limits of
elasticity, crystalline matter may suffer permanent deformation
in one or other of two ways, or may be broken along cleavage
surfaces or with an irregular fracture. In the case of plastic
deformation, e.g. in a crystal of ice, the crystalline particles
are displaced but without any change in their orientation.
Crystals of some substances {e.g. para-azoxyanisol) have such
a high degree of plasticity that they are deformed even by
their surface tension, and the crystals take the form of drops
of doubly refracting liquid which are known as " liquid crystals."
(See O. Lehmann, Fliissige Kristalle, Leipzig, 1904 ; F. R. Schenck,
Kristallinische Flussigkeiten una 1 fliissige Krystalie, Leipzig,

I905-)

In the second, and more usual kind of permanent deformation
without fracture, the particles glide along certain planes into "a
new (twinned) position of equilibrium. If a knife blade be
pressed into the edge of a cleavage rhombohedron of calcite
(at 6, fig. 91) the portion abcde of the crystal will take up the
, position a'b'cde. The obtuse solid

angle at a becomes acute (a'), whilst
the acute angle at b becomes obtuse (b') ;
and the new surface a'ce is as bright
and smooth as before. This result
has been effected by the particles in
successive layers gliding or rotating
over each other, without separation,
along planes parallel to cde. This
plane, which truncates the edge of
the rhombohedron and has the indices
(no), is called a "glide-plane." The new portion is in
twinned position with respect to the rest of the crystal,
being a reflection of it across the plane cde, which is there-
fore a plane of twinning. This secondary twinning is often
to be observed as a repeated lamination In the grains of calcite
composing a crystalline limestone, or marble, which has been
subjected to earth movements. Planes of gliding have been
observed in many -minerals (pyroxene^ corundum, &c.) and their
crystals may often be readily broken along these directions,
which are thus " planes of parting " or " pseudo-cleavage."

Fig. 91. — Glide-plane
of Calcite.

The characteristic transverse striae, invariably present on the
cleavage surfaces of stibnite and cyanite are due to secondary
twinning along glide-planes, and have resulted from the bending
of the crystals.

One of the most important characters of crystals is that of
" cleavage "; there being certain plane directions across which
the cohesion is a minimum, and along which the crystal may be
readily split or cleaved. These directions are always parallel to
a possible face on the crystal and usually one prominently
developed and with simple indices, it being a face in which the
crystal molecules are most closely packed. The directions of
cleavage are symmetrically repeated according to the degree
of symmetry possessed by the crystal. Thus in the cubic
system, crystals of salt and galena cleave in three directions
parallel to the faces of the cube { 100 ) , diamond and fluorspar
cleave in four directions parallel to the octahedral faces {in},
and blende in six directions parallel to the faces of the rhombic
dodecahedron { 1 10 j . In crystals of other systems there will be
only a single direction of cleavage if this is parallel to the f aCes of
a pinacoid ; e.g. the basal pinacoid in tetragonal (as in apophyllite)
and hexagonal crystals; or parallel (as in gypsum) or perpendicu-
lar (as in mica and cane-sugar) to the plane of symmetry in
monoclinie crystals. Calcite cleaves in three directions parallel
to the faces of the primitive rhombohedron. Barytes, which
crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, has two sets of
cleavages, viz. a single cleavage parallel to the basal
pinacoid {ooi( and also two directions parallel to the faces
of the prism {no). In all of the examples just quoted the
cleavage is described as perfect, since cleavage flakes with very
smooth and bright surfaces may be readily detached from the
crystals. Different substances, however, vary widely in their
character of cleavage; in some it can only be described as
good or distinct, whilst in others, e.g. quartz and alum, there
is little or no tendency to split along certain directions and the
surfaces of fracture are very uneven. Cleavage is therefore a
character of considerable determinative value, especially for the
purpose of distinguishing different minerals.

Another result of the presence in crystals of directions of mini-
mum cohesion are the " percussion figures," which are produced
oh a crystal-face when this is struck with a sharp point. A
percussion figure consists of linear cracks radiating from the
point of impact, which in their number and orientation agree
with the symmetry of the face. Thus on a cube face of a crystal
of salt the rays of the percussion figure are parallel to the
diagonals of the face, whilst on an octahedral face a three-rayed
star is developed. By pressing a blunt point into a crystal face
a somewhat similar figure, known as a " pressure figure," is
produced. Percussion and pressure figures are readily developed
in cleavage sheets of mica (q.v.).

Closely allied to cohesion is the character of "hardness,"
which is often defined, and measured by, the resistance which
a crystal face offers to scratching. That hardness is a character
depending largely on crystalline structure is well illustrated
by the two crystalline modifications of carbon: graphite is one
of the softest of minerals, whilst diamond is the hardest of all.
The hardness of crystals of different substances thus varies
widely, and with minerals it is a character of considerable
determinative value; for this purpose a scale of hardness is
employed (see Mineralogy) . Various attempts have been made
with the view of obtaining accurate determinations of degrees
of hardness, but with varying results; an instrument used for this
purpose is called a sclerometer (from ctkX»)p6s, hard). It may,
however, be readily demonstrated that the degree of hardness on
a crystal face varies with the direction, and that a curve ex-
pressing these relations possesses the same geometrical symmetry
as the face itself. The mineral cyanite is remarkable in having
widely different degrees of hardness on different faces of its
crystals and in different directions on the same face.

Another result of the differences of cohesion in different
directions is that crystals are corroded, or acted upon by chemical
solvents, at different rates in different directions. This is
strikingly shown when a sphere cut from a crystal, say of calcite

5 86

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

or quartz, is immersed in acid; after some time the resulting form
is bounded by surfaces approximating to crystal faces, and has
the same symmetry as that of the crystal from which the sphere
was cut. When a crystal bounded by faces is immersed in a
solvent the edges and corners become rounded and " prerosion
faces " developed in their place; the faces become marked
all over with minute pits or shallow depressions, and as these
are extended by further solution they give place to small eleva-
tions on the corroded face. The sides of the pits and elevations
are bounded by small faces which have the character of vicinal
faces. These markings are known as " etched figures " or
" corrosion figures," and they are extremely important aids in
determining the symmetry of crystals. Etched figures are some-
times beautifully developed on the faces of natural crystals,
e.g. of diamond, and they may be readily produced artificially
with suitable solvents.

As an example, the etched figures on the faces of a hexagonal
prism and the basal plane are illustrated in figs. 02-04 for three
of the several symmetry-classes of the hexagonal system. The
classes chosen are those in which nepheline, calcite and beryl
(emerald) crystallize, and these minerals often have the simple
form of crystal represented in the figures. In nepheline (fig. 92)
the only element of symmetry is a hexad axis; the etched
figures on the prism are therefore unsymmetrical, though similar
on all the faces; the hexagonal markings on the basal plane
have none of their edges parallel to the edges of the face;
further the crystals being hemimorphic, the etched figures on
the basal planes at the two ends will be different in character.

r^

<=> "^

»

9

9
1

>

t
t

<=*-'<=> _

> »

Fig. 92 .—Nepheline. Fig. 93. — Calcite. Fig. 94. — Beryl.

Etched Figures on Hexagonal Prisms.

The facial development of crystals of nepheline give no indication
of this type of symmetry, and the mineral has been referred to
this class solely on the evidence afforded by the etched figures.
; In calcite there is a triad axis of symmetry parallel to the prism
edges, three dyad axes each perpendicular to a pair of prism edges
and three planes of symmetry perpendicular to the prism faces;
the etched figures shown in fig. 93 will be seen to conform to all
these elements of symmetry. There being in calcite also a centre
of symmetry, the equilateral triangles on the basal plane at the
lower end of the crystal will be the same in form as those at the
top, but they will occupy a reversed position. In beryl, which
crystallizes in the holosymmetric class of the hexagonal system,
the etched figures (fig. 94) display the fullest possible degree of
symmetry; those on the prism faces are all similar and are each
symmetrical with respect to two lines, and the hexagonal
markings on the basal planes at both ends of the crystal are
symmetrically placed with respect to six lines. A detailed
account of the etched figures of crystals is given by H. Baum-
hauer, Die Resultate der Atzmethode in der krystallographischen
Forschung (Leipzig, 1894).

(b) Optical Properties.

The complex optical characters of crystals are not only of
considerable interest theoretically, but are of the greatest
practical importance. In the absence of external crystalline
form, as with a faceted gem-stone, or with the minerals con-
stituting a rock (thin, transparent sections of which are examined
in the polarizing microscope), the mineral species may often
be readily identified by the determination of some of the optical
characters.

According to their action on transmitted plane-polarized light
(see Polarization of Light) all crystals may be referred to one
or other of the five groups enumerated below. These groups

correspond with the six systems of crystallization (in the
second group two systems being included together) . The several
symmetry-classes of each system are optically the same, except
in the rare cases of substances which are circularly polarizing.

(1) Optically isotropic crystals — corresponding with the cubic
system.

(2) Optically uniaxial crystals — corresponding with the
tetragonal and hexagonal systems.

(3) Optically biaxial crystals in which the three principal
optical directions coincide with the three crystallographic axes —
corresponding with the orthorhcmbic system.

(4) Optically biaxial crystals in which only one of the three
principal optical directions coincides with a crystallographic axis
— corresponding with the monoclinic system.

(5) Optically biaxial crystals in which there is no fixed and
definite relation between the optical and crystallographic
directions — corresponding with the anorthic system.

Optically Isotropic Crystals. — These belong to the cubic
system, and like all other optically isotropic (from Ztros, like,
and Tpfriros, character) bodies have only one index of refraction
for light of each colour. They have no action on polarized light
(except in crystals which are circularly polarizing); and when
examined in the polariscope or polarizing microscope they
remain dark between crossed nicols, and cannot therefore be
distinguished optically from amorphous substances, such as
glass and opal.

Optically Uniaxial Crystals. — These belong to the tetragonal
and hexagonal (including rhombohedral) systems, and between
crystals of these systems there is no optical distinction. Such
crystals are anisotropic or doubly refracting (see Refraction:
Double) ; but for light travelling through them in a certain, single
direction they are singly refracting. This direction, which is
called the optic axis, is the same for light of all colours and at
all temperatures; it coincides in direction with the principal
crystallographic axis, which in tetragonal crystals is a tetrad
(or dyad) axis of symmetry, and in the hexagonal system a triad
or hexad axis.

For light of each colour there are two indices of refraction;
namely, the ordinary index (co) corresponding with the ordinary
ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis; and the
extraordinary index (e) corresponding with the extraordinary
ray, which vibrates parallel to the optic axis. If the ordinary
index of refraction be greater than the extraordinary index,
the crystal is said to be optically negative, whilst if less the
crystal is optically positive. The difference between the two
indices is a measure of the strength of the double refraction or
birefringence. Thus in calcite, for sodium (D) light, a> = 1-6585
and 6=1-4863; hence this substance is optically negative
with a relatively high double refraction of o>— 6 = 0-1722. In
quartz o> = i-5442, 6=1-5533 and «— (0 = 0-0091; this mineral
is therefore optically positive with low double refraction. The
indices of refraction vary, not only for light of different colours,
but also slightly with the temperature.

The optical characters of uniaxial crystals are symmetrical
not only with respect to the full number of planes and axes of
symmetry of tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, but also with
respect to all vertical planes, i.e. all planes containing the optic
axis. A surface expressing the optical relations of such crystals
is thus an ellipsoid of revolution about the optic axis. (In cubic
crystals the corresponding surface is a sphere.) In the " optical
indicatrix " (L. Fletcher, The Optical Indicatrix and the Trans-
mission of Light in Crystals, London, 1892), the length of the
principal axis, or axis of rotation, is proportional to the index
of refraction, {i.e. inversely proportional to the velocity) of the
extraordinary rays, which vibrate along this axis and are trans-
mitted in directions perpendicular thereto; the equatorial
diameters are proportional to the index of refraction of the
ordinary rays, which vibrate perpendicular to the optic axis.
For positive uniaxial crystals the indicatrix is thus a prolate
spheroid (egg-shaped), and for negative crystals an oblate
spheroid (orange-shaped).

In " Fresnel's ellipsoid " the axis of rotation is proportional to

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

587

the velocity of the extraordinary ray, and the equatorial dia-
meters proportional to the velocity of the ordinary ray; it is
therefore an oblate spheroid for positive crystals, and a prolate
spheroid for negative crystals. The " ray-surface," or " wave-
surface," which represents the distances traversed by the rays
during a given interval of time in various directions from a
point of origin within the crystal, consists in uniaxial crystals
of two sheets; namely, a sphere, corresponding to the ordinary
rays, and an ellipsoid of revolution, corresponding to the extra-
ordinary rays, The difference in form of the ray-surface for
positive and negative crystals is shown in figs. 95 ar *d 96.

When a uniaxial crystal is examined in a polariscope or
polarizing microscope between crossed nicols (i.e. with the
principal planes of the polarizer or analyser at right angles, and

Fig. 95. — Section of the
Ray-Surface of a Positive
Uniaxial Crystal.

Fig. 96. — Section of the
Ray-Surface of a Negative
Uniaxial Crystal.

so producing a dark field of view) its behaviour differs according
to the direction in which the light travels through the crystal,
to the position of the crystal with respect to the principal planes
of the nicols, and further, whether convergent or parallel polarized
light be employed. A tetragonal or hexagonal crystal viewed,
in parallel light, through the basal plane, i.e. along the principal
axis, will remain dark as it is rotated between crossed nicols, and
will thus not differ in its behaviour from a cubic crystal or other
isotropic body. If, however, the crystal be viewed in any other
direction, for example, through a prism face, it will, except in
certain positions, have an action on the polarized light. A
plane-polarized ray entering the crystal will be resolved into two
polarized rays with the directions of vibration parallel to the
vibration-directions in the crystal. These two rays on leaving
the crystal will be combined again in the analyser, and a portion
of the light transmitted through the instrument; the crystal
will then show up brightly against the dark field. Further,
owing to interference of these two rays in the analyser, the
light will be brilliantly coloured, especially if the crystal be thin,
or if a thin section of a crystal be examined. The particular
colour seen will depend on the strength of the double refraction,
the orientation of the crystal or section, and upon its thickness.
If now, the crystal be rotated with the stage of the microscope,
the nicols remaining fixed in position, the light transmitted
through the instrument will vary in intensity, and in certain
positions will be cut out altogether. The latter happens when
the vibration-directions of the crystal are parallel to the vibration-
directions of the nicols (these being indicated by cross-wires in
the microscope). The crystal, now being dark, is said to be in
position of extinction; and as it is turned through a complete
rotation of 360° it will extinguish four times. If a prism face
be viewed through, it will be seen that, when the crystal is in a
position of extinction, the cross-wires of the microscope are
parallel to the edges of the prism: the crystal is then said to
give " straight extinction."

In convergent light, between crossed nicols, a very different
phenomenon is to be observed when a uniaxial crystal, or section
of such a crystal, is placed with its optic axis coincident with the
axis of the microscope. The rays of light, being convergent, do
not travel in the direction of the optic axis and are therefore
doubly refracted in the crystal; in the analyser the vibrations
will be reduced to the same plane and there will be interference
of the two sets of rays. The result is an " interference figure "
(fig. 97), which consists of a number of brilliantly coloured con-
centric rings, each showing the colours of the spectrum of white

light; intersecting the rings is a black cross, the arms of which
are parallel to the principal planes of the nicols. If mono-
chromatic light be used instead of white light, the rings will
be alternately light and dark. The
number and distance apart of the
rings depend on the strength of the
double refraction and on the thick-
ness of the crystal. By observing the
effect produced on such a uniaxial y^^&sSM-a&JJffJ
interference figure when a ''quarter
undulation (or wave - length) mica-

plate " is superposed on the crystal,

Fig. 97. — Interference

it may be at once decided whether Figure of a Uniaxial
the crystal is optically positive or Crystal,
negative. Such a simple test may, for

example, be applied for distinguishing certain faceted gem-
stones: thus zircon and phenacite are optically positive, whilst
corundum (ruby and sapphire) and beryl (emerald) are optically
negative.

Optically Biaxial Crystals.— In these crystals there are three
principal indices of refraction, denoted by a, /3 and 7; of these
7 is the greatest and a the least (7>|3>a). The three principal
vibration-directions, corresponding to these indices, are at right-
angles to each other, and are the directions of the three rect-
angular axes of the optical indicatrix. The indicatrix (fig. 98)
is an ellipsoid with the lengths of its axes proportional to the
refractive indices; OC=y, OB=fi,OA—.a, where OC> OB > OA.
The figure is symmetrical with respect to the principal planes
OAB,OAC,OBC.

InFresnePs ellipsoid the three rectangular axes are proportional
to i/a, i//3, and 1/7, and are usually denoted by a, b and c
respectively, where a>b>c: these have often been called
" axes of optical elasticity," a term now generally discarded.

The ray-surface (represented in fig. 99 by its sections in the
three principal planes) is derived from the indicatrix in the
following manner. A ray of light entering the crystal and travel-
ling in the direction OA is resolved into polarized rays vibrating
parallel to OB and OC, and therefore propagated with the
velocities i//3 and 1/7 respectively: distances Ob and Oc (fig. 99)
proportional to these velocities are marked off in the direction
OA. Similarly, rays travelling along OC have the velocities

Fig. 98. — Optical Indicatrix of a
Biaxial Crystal.

Fig. 99. — Ray-Surface of a
Biaxial Crystal;

i/a and i//3, and those along OB the velocities i/a and 1/7. In the
two directions Opi and 0p 2 (fig. 98), perpendicular to the two
circular sections P1P1 and P2-P2 of the indicatrix, the two rays
will be transmitted with the same velocity 1//8. These two direc-
tions are called the optic axes (" primary optic axis "), though
they have not all the properties which are associated with the
optic axis of a uniaxial crystal. They have very nearly the same
direction as the lines Osi and Os 2 in fig. 99, which are distinguished
as the " secondary optic axes." In most crystals the primary
and secondary optic axes are inclined to each other at not more
than a few minutes, so that for practical purposes there is no
distinction between them.

The angle between Opi and Opi is called the " optic axial
angle"; and the plane OAC in which they lie is called the
" optic axial plane." The angles between the optic axes are
bisected by the vibration-directions OA and OC ; the one which

588

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

bisects the acute angle being called the " acute bisectrix " or
"first mean line," and the other the " obtuse bisectrix " or
" second mean line." When the acute bisectrix coincides with
the greatest axis OC of the indicatrix, i.e. the vibration-direction
corresponding with the refractive index 7 (as in figs. 98 and 00),
the crystal is described as being optically positive; and when the
acute bisectrix coincides with OA, the vibration-direction for
the index a, the crystal is negative. The distinction between
positive and negative biaxial crystals thus depends on the
relative magnitude of the three principal indices of refraction;
in positive crystals /3 is nearer to a than to 7, whilst in negative
crystals the reverse is the case. Thus in topaz, which is optically
positive, the refractive indices for sodium light are a= 1-6120,
/3 = 1-6150, 7 = 1-6224; and for orthoclase which is optically
negative, 0=1-5190, (3 = 1-5237, 7 = 1-5260. The difference
7— a represents the strength of the double refraction.

Since the refractive indices vary both with the colour of the
light and with the temperature, there will be for each colour and
temperature slight differences in the form of both the indicatrix
and the ray-surface: consequently there will be variations in
the positions of the optic axes and in the size of the optic axial
angle. This phenomenon is known as the "dispersion of the
optic axes." When the axial angle is greater for red light than
for blue the character of the dispersion is expressed by p>»,
and when less by p <v. In some crystals, e.g. brookite, the optic
axes for red light and for blue light may be, at certain tempera-
tures, in planes at right angles.

The type of interference figure exhibited by a biaxial crystal
in convergent polarized light between crossed nitols is repre-
sented in figs. 100 and ror. The crystal must be viewed along

Fig. 100. Fig. ioi.

Interference Figures of a Biaxial Crystal.

the acute bisectrix, arid for this purpose it is often necessary
to cut a plate from the crystal perpendicular to this direction :
sometimes, however, as in mica and topaz, a cleavage flake will
be perpendicular to the acute bisectrix. When seen in white
light, there are around each optic axis a series of brilliantly
coloured ovals, which at the centre join to form an 8-shaped loop,
whilst further from the centre the curvature of the rings is
approximately that of lemniscates. In the position shown in
fig. 100 the vibration-directions in the crystal are parallel to
those of the nicols, and the figure is intersected by two black
bands or " brushes " forming a cross. When, however, the crystal
is rotated with the stage of the microscope the cross breaks up
into the two branches of a hyperbola, and when the vibration-
directions of the crystal are inclined at 45° to those of the nicols
the figure is that shown in fig. ior. The points of emergence of
the optic axes are at the middle of the hyperbolic brushes when
the crystal is in the diagonal position : the size of the optic axial
angle can therefore be directly measured with considerable
accuracy.

In orthorhombic crystals the three principal vibration-direc-
tions coincide with the three crystallographic axes, and have
therefore fixed positions in the crystal, which are the same for
light of all colours and at all temperatures. The optical orienta-
tion of an orthorhombic crystal is completely defined by stating
to which crystallographic planes the optic axial plane and the
acute bisectrix are respectively parallel and perpendicular.
Examined in parallel light between crossed nicols, such a crystal
extinguishes parallel to the crystallographic axes, which are
often parallel to the edges of a face or section; there is thus

usually " straight extinction." The interference figure seen in
convergent polarized light is symmetrical about two lines at right
angles.

In monoclinic crystals only one vibration-direction has a
fixed position within the crystal, being parallel to the ortho-axis
(i.e. perpendicular to the plane of symmetry or the plane (010)).
The other two vibration-directions lie in the plane (010), but they
may vary in position for light of different colours and at different
temperatures. In addition to dispersion of the optic axes there
may thus, in crystals of this system, be also " dispersion of the
bisectrices." The latter may be of one or other of three kinds,
according to which of the three vibration-directions coincides
with the /ortho-axis of the crystal. When the acute bisectrix
is fixed in position, the optic axial planes for different colours
may be crossed, and the interference figure will then be sym-
metrical with respect to a point only (" crossed dispersion ").
When the obtuse bisectrix is fixed, the axial planes may be in-
clined to one another, and the interference figure is symmetrical
only about a line which is perpendicular to the axial planes
(" horizontal dispersion "). Finally, when the vibration-direc-
tion corresponding to the refractive index /?, or the "third mean
line," has a fixed position, the optic axial plane lies in the plane
(010), but the acute bisectrix may vary in position in this plane;
the interference figure will then be symmetrical only about a
line joining the optic axes ("inclined dispersion "). Examples
of substances exhibiting these three kinds of dispersion are
borax, orthoclase and gypsum respectively. In orthoclase and
gypsum, however, the optic axial angle gradually diminishes
as the crystals are heated, and after passing through a uniaxial
position they open out in a plane at right angles to the one
they previously occupied; the character of the dispersion thus
becomes reversed in the two examples quoted. When examined
in parallel light between crossed nicols monoclinic crystals will
give straight extinction only in faces and sections which are
perpendicular to the plane of symmetry (or the plane (010));
in all other faces and sections the extinction-directions will be
inclined to the edges of the crystal. The angles between these
directions and edges are readily measured, and, being dependent
on the optical orientation of the crystal, they are often character-
istic constants of the substance (see, e.g., Plagioclase).

In anorthic crystals there is no relation between the optical
and crystallographic directions, and the exact determination
of the optical orientation is often a matter of considerable
difficulty. The character of the dispersion of the bisectrices
and optic axes is still more complex than in monoclinic crystals,
and the interference figures are devoid of symmetry.

Absorption of Light in Crystals: Pleochroism.— In crystals
other than those of the cubic system, rays of light with different
vibration-directions will, as a rule, be differently absorbed;
and the polarized rays on emerging from the crystal may be of
different intensities and (if the observation be made in white
light and the crystal is coloured) differently coloured. Thus,
in tourmaline the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular
to the principal axis, is almost completely absorbed, whilst the
extraordinary ray is allowed to pass through the crystal. A
plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the principal axis may there-
fore be used for producing a beam of polarized light, and two such
plates placed in crossed position form the polarizer or analyser
of " tourmaline tongs," with the aid of which the interference
figures of crystals may be simply shown. Uniaxial (tetragonal
and hexagonal) crystals when showing perceptible differences in
colour for the ordinary and extraordinary rays are said to be
" dichroic." In biaxial (orthorhombic, monoclinic and anorthic)
crystals, rays vibrating along each of the three principal vibration*
directions may be differently absorbed, and, in coloured crystals,
differently coloured; such crystals are therefore said to be
" trichroic " or in general " pkochroic " (from irKkoov, more,
and xp<fo, colour). The directions of maximum absorption in
biaxial crystals have, however, no necessary relation with the axes
of the indicatrix, unless these have fixed crystallographic direc-
tions, as in the orthorhombic system and the ortho-axis in the
monoclinic. In epidote it has been shown that the two directions

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

589

of maximum absorption which lie in the plane of symmetry
are not even at right angles.

The pleochroism of some crystals is so strong that when they
are viewed through in different directions they exhibit marked
differences in colour. Thus a crystal of the mineral iolite (called
also dichroite because of its strong pleochroism) will be seen to
be dark blue, pale blue or pale yellow according to which of
three perpendicular directions it is viewed. The " face colours "
seen directly in this way result, however, from the mixture of two
'" axial colours " belonging to rays vibrating in two directions.
In order to see the axial colours separately the crystal must
be examined with a dichroscope, or in a polarizing microscope
from which the analyser has been removed. The dichroscope,
or dichroiscope (fig. 102), consists of a cleavage rhombohedron

of calcite (Iceland-spar)
p, on the ends of which
glass prisms w are ce-
mented: the lens / is
focused on a small square
aperture in the tube of
the instrument. The eye
Fig. 102— Dichroscope. of t h e observer placed at

e will see two images of the square aperture, and if a pleochroic
crystal be placed in front of this aperture the two images will
be differently coloured. On rotating this crystal with respect
to the instrument the maximum difference in the colours will be
obtained when the vibration-directions in the crystal coincide
with those in the calcite. Such a simple instrument is especially
useful for the examination of faceted gem-stones, even when they
are mounted in their settings. A single glance suffices to dis-
tinguish between a ruby and a " spinel-ruby," since the former
is dichroic and the latter isotropic and therefore not dichroic.

The characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum of white
light which has been transmitted through certain crystals,
particularly those of salts of the cerium metals, will, of course,
be different according to the direction of vibration of the rays.

Circular Polarization in Crystals. — Like the solutions of certain
optically active organic substances, such as sugar and tartaric
acid, some optically isotropic and uniaxial crystals possess the
property of rotating the plane of polarization of a beam of light.
In uniaxial (tetragonal and hexagonal) crystals it is only for
light transmitted in the direction of the optic axis that there is
rotatory action, but in isotropic (cubic) crystals all directions
are the same in this respect. Examples of circularly polarizing
cubic crystals are sodium chlorate, sodium bromate, and sodium
uranyl acetate; amongst tetragonal crystals are strychnine
sulphate and guanidine carbonate; amongst rhombohedral
are quartz (q.v.) and cinnabar (q.v.) (these being the only two
mineral substances in which the phenomenon has been observed) ,
dithionates of potassium, lead, calcium and strontium, and
sodium periodate; and amongst hexagonal crystals is potassium
lithium sulphate. Crystals of all these substances belong to one
or other of the several symmetry-classes in which there are
neither planes nor centre of symmetry, but only axes of sym-
metry. They crystallize in two complementary hemihedral
forms, which are respectively right-handed and left-handed, i.e.
enantiomorphous forms. Some other substances which crystal-
lize in enantiomorphous forms are, however, only " optically
active " when in solution (e.g. sugar and tartaric acid) ; and there
are many other substances presenting this peculiarity of crystal-
line form which are not circularly polarizing either when crystal-
lized or when in solution. Further, in the examples quoted above,
the rotatory power is lost when the crystals are dissolved (except
in the case of strychnine sulphate, which is only feebly active
in solution) . The rotatory power is thus due to different causes
in the two cases, in the one depending on a spiral arrangement of
the crystal particles, and in the other on the structure of the
molecules themselves.

The circular polarization of crystals may be imitated by a pile
of mica plates, each plate being turned through a small angle on
the one below* thus giving a spiral arrangement to the pile.
" Optical Anomalies " of Crystals. — When, in 1818, Sir David

Brewster established the important relations existing between
the optical properties of crystals and their external form, he at
the same time noticed many apparent exceptions. For example,
he observed that crystals of leucite and boracite, which are cubic:
in external form, are always doubly refracting and optically
biaxial, but with a complex internal structure; and that cubic
crystals of garnet and analcite sometimes exhibit the same
phenomena. Also some tetragonal and hexagonal crystals, e.g.
apophyllite, vesuvianite, beryl, &c, which should normally be
optically uniaxial, sometimes consist of several biaxial portions
arranged in sectors or in a quite irregular manner. Such excep-
tions to the general rule have given rise to much discussion.
They have often been considered to be due to internal strains in
the crystals, set up as a result of cooling or by earth pressures,
since similar phenomena are observed in chilled and compressed
glasses and in dried gelatine. In many cases, however, as shown
by E. Mallard, in 1876, the higher degree of symmetry exhibited
by the external form of the crystals is the result of mimetic
twinning, as in the pseudo-cubic crystals of leucite (q.vl) and
boracite (q.v.). In other instances, substances not usually
regarded as cubic, e.g. the' monoclinic phillipsite (q.v.), may by
repeated twinning give rise to pseudo-cubic forms. In some
cases it is probable that the substance originally crystallized
in one modification at a higher temperature, and when the
temperature fell it became transformed into a dimorphous
modification, though still preserving the external form of the
original crystal (see Boracite). A summary of the literature
is given by R. Brauns, Die optischen Anomalien der Krystalle
(Leipzig, 1891).

(c) Thermal Properties.

The thermal properties of crystals present certain points in
common with the optical properties. Heat rays are transmitted
and doubly refracted like light rays; and surfaces expressing
the conductivity and dilatation in different directions possess the
same degree of symmetry and are related in the same way to
the crystallographic axes as the ellipsoids expressing the optical
relations. That crystals conduct heat at different rates in
different directions is well illustrated by the following experiment.
Two plates (fig. 103) cut from a crystal .

of quartz, one parallel to the principal
axis and the other perpendicular to it,
are coated with a thin layer of wax,
and a hot wire is applied to a point
on the surface. On the transverse
section the wax will be melted in a
circle, and on the longitudinal section
(or on the natural prism faces) in an
ellipse. The isothermal surface in a
uniaxial crystal is therefore a spheroid;
in cubic crystals it is a sphere; and in
biaxial crystals an ellipsoid, the three
axes of which coincide, in orthorhombic
crystals, with the crystallographic axes.

With change of temperature cubic
crystals expand equally in all direc-
tions, and the angles between the faces
are the same at all temperatures. In

uniaxial crystals there are two principal p IG . I0 , — Conductivity
coefficients of expansion; the one of Heat in Quartz,
measured in the direction of the prin-
cipal axis may be either greater or less than that measured
in directions perpendicular to this axis. A sphere cut from a
uniaxial crystal at one temperature will be a spheroid at another
temperature. In biaxial crystals there are different coefficients
of expansion along three rectangular axes, and a sphere at one
temperature will be an ellipsoid at another. A result of this is
that for all crystals, except those belonging to the cubic system,
the angles between the faces will vary, though only slightly, with
changes of temperature. E. Mitscherlich found that the rhombo-
hedral angle of calcite decreases 8' 37" as the crystal is raised
in temperature from 0° to 100° C.

59°

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

As already mentioned, the optical properties of crystals vary
considerably with the temperature. Such characters as specific
heat and melting-point, which do not vary with the direction,
are the same in crystals as in amorphous substances.

(d) Magnetic and Electrical Properties.

Crystals, like other bodies, are either paramagnetic or dia-
magnetic, i.e. they are either attracted or repelled by the pole
of a magnet. In crystals other than those belonging to the cubic
system, however, the relative strength of the induced magnetiza-
tion is different in different directions within the mass. A
sphere cut from a tetragonal or hexagonal (uniaxial) crystal will
if freely suspended in a magnetic field (between the poles of a
strong electro-magnet) take up a position such that the principal
axis of the crystal is either parallel or perpendicular to the lines
of force, or to a line joining the two poles of the magnet. Which
of these two directions is taken by the axis depends on whether
the crystal is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, and on whether
the principal axis is the direction of maximum or minimum
magnetization. The surface expressing the magnetic character
in different directions is in uniaxial crystals a spheroid; in
cubic crystals it is a sphere. In orthorhombic, monoclinic and
anorthic crystals there are three principal axes of magnetic
induction, and the surface is an ellipsoid, which is related to the
symmetry of the crystal in the same way as the ellipsoids express-
ing the thermal and optical properties.

Similarly, the dielectric constants of a non-conducting crystal
may be expressed by a sphere, spheroid or ellipsoid. A sphere
cut from a crystal will when suspended in an electro-magnetic
field set itself so that the axis of maximum induction is parallel
to the lines of force.

The electrical conductivity of crystals also varies with the
direction, and bears the same relation to the symmetry as the
thermal conductivity. In a rhombohedral crystal of haematite
the electrical conductivity along the principal axis is only half
as great as in directions perpendicular to this axis; whilst in a
crystal of bismuth, which is also rhombohedral, the conductivities
along and perpendicular to the axis are as i-6:i.

Conducting crystals are thermo-electric: when placed against
another conducting substance and the contact heated there will
be a flow of electricity from one body to the other if the circuit
be closed. The thermo-electric force depends not only on the
nature of the substance, but also on the direction within the
crystal, and may in general be expressed by an ellipsoid. A
remarkable case is, however, presented by minerals of the
pyrites group: some crystals of pyrites are more strongly
thermo-electrically positive than antimony, and others more
negative than bismuth, so that the two when placed together
give a stronger thermo-electric couple than do antimony and
bismuth. In the thermo-electrically positive crystals of pyrites
the faces of the pentagonal dodecahedron are striated parallel
to the cubic edges, whilst in the rarer negative crystals the faces
are striated perpendicular to these edges. Sometimes both sets
of striae are present on the same face, and the corresponding
areas are then thermo-electrically positive and negative.

The most interesting relation between the symmetry of
crystals and their electrical properties is that presented by
the pyro-electrical phenomena of certain crystals. This is a
phenomenon which may be readily observed, and one which often
aids in the determination of the symmetry of crystals. It is
exhibited by crystals in which there is no centre of symmetry,
and the axes of symmetry are uniterminal or polar in character,
being associated with different faces on the crystal at their two
ends. When a non-conducting crystal possessing this hemi-
morphic type of symmetry is subjected to changes of temperature
a charge of positive electricity will be developed on the faces in
the region of one end of the uniterminal axis, whilst the faces
at the opposite end will be negatively charged. With rising
temperature the pole which becomes positively charged is called
the " analogous pole," and that negatively charged the " anti-
logous pole ": with falling temperature the charges are reversed.
The phenomenon was first observed in crystals of tourmaline,

the principal axis of which is a uniterminal triad axis of sym-'
metry. In crystals of quartz there are three uniterminal dyad
axes of symmetry perpendicular to the principal triad axis (which
is here similar at its two ends): the dyad axes emerge at the
edges of .the hexagonal prism, alternate edges of which become
positively and negatively charged on change of temperature.
In boracite there are four uniterminal triad axes, and the faces
of the two tetrahedra perpendicular to them will bear opposite
charges. Other examples of pyro-electric crystals are the
orthorhombic mineral hemimorphite (called also, for this reason,
" electric calamine ") and the monoclinic tartaric acid and
cane-sugar, each of which possesses a uniterminal dyad axis of
symmetry. In some exceptional cases, e.g. axinite, prehnite,
&c, there is no apparent relation between the distribution of the
pyro-electric charges and the symmetry of the crystals.

The distribution of the electric charges may be made visible
by the following simple method, which may be applied even
with minute crystals observed under the microscope. A finely
powdered mixture of red-lead and sulphur is dusted through a
sieve over the cooling crystal. In passing through the sieve
the particles of red-lead and sulphur become electrified by
mutual friction, the former positively and the latter negatively.
The red-lead is therefore attracted to the negatively charged
parts of the crystal and the sulphur to those positively charged,
and the distribution of the charges over the whole crystal
becomes mapped out in the two colours red and yellow.

Since, when a crystal changes in temperature, it also expands
or contracts, a similar distribution of " piezo-electric " (from
Tiifeip, to press) charges are developed when a crystal is sub-
jected to changes of pressure in the direction of a uniterminal
axis of symmetry. Thus increasing pressure along the principal
axis of a tourmaline crystal produces the same electric charges
as decreasing temperature.

III. RELATIONS BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE FORM
AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

That the generaland physical characters of a chemical substance
are profoundly modified by crystalline structure is strikingly
illustrated by the two crystalline modifications of the element
carbon — namely, diamond and graphite. The former crystallizes
in the cubic system, possesses four directions of perfect cleavage,
is extremely hard and transparent, is a non-conductor of heat
and electricity, and has a specific gravity of 3-5; whilst graphite
crystallizes in the hexagonal system, cleaves in a single direction,
is very soft and opaque, is a good conductor of heat and electricity,
and has a specific gravity of 2-2. Such substances, which are
identical in chemical composition, but different in crystalline
form and consequently in their physical properties, are said to
be " dimorphous." Numerous examples of dimorphous sub-
stances are known; for instance, calcium carbonate occurs in
nature either as calcite or as aragonite, the former being rhombo-
hedral and the latter orthorhombic; mercuric iodide crystallizes-
from solution as red tetragonal crystals, and by sublimation
as yellow orthorhombic crystals. Some substances crystallize
in three different modifications, and these are said to be " tri-
morphous "; for example, titanium dioxide is met with as the
minerals rutile, • anatase and brookite (q.v.). In general, or in
cases where more than three crystalline modifications are known
(e.g. in sulphur no less than six have been described), the term
" polymorphism " is applied.

On the other hand, substances which are chemically quite
distinct may exhibit similarity of crystalline form. For example,
the minerals iodyrite (Agl), greenockite (CdS), and zincite
(ZnO) are practically identical in crystalline form; calcite
(CaC0 3 ) and sodium nitrate (NaN0 3 ); celestite (SrSO) 4 and
marcasite (FeS 2 ); epidote and azurite; and many others,
some of which are no doubt only accidental coincidences. Such
substances are said to be " homoeomorphous " (Gr. ofwios, like,
and iiop4>ri, form).

Similarity of crystalline form in substances which are chemically
related is frequently met with and is a relation of much

CRYSTAL PALACE— CSENGERY

59 1

importance: such substances are described as being " isomorph-
ous." Amongst minerals there are many examples of isomorphous
groups, e.g. the rhombohedral carbonates, garnet (q.v.), plagio-
clase (q.v.) ; and amongst crystals of artificially prepared salts
isomorphism is equally common, e.g. the sulphates and selenates
of potassium, rubidium and caesium. The rhombohedral car-
bonates have the general formula R"C0 3 , where R" represents
calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt or lead, and
the different minerals (calcite, ankerite, magnesite, chalybite,
rhodochrosite and calamine (q.v.)) of the group are not only
similar in crystalline form, cleavage, optical and other characters,
but the angles between corresponding faces do not differ by more
than i° or 2°. Further, equivalent amounts of the different
chemical elements represented by R" are mutually replaceable,
and two or more of these elements may be present together in
the same crystal, which is then spoken of as a " mixed crystal "
or isomorphous mixture.

In another isomorphous series of carbonates with the same
general formula R" C0 3 , where R" represents calcium, strontium,
barium, lead or zinc, the crystals are orthorhombic in form, and
are thus dimorphous with those of the previous group (e.g.
calcite and aragonite, the other members being only represented
by isomorphous replacements). Such a relation is known as
" isodimorphism." An even better example of this is presented
by the arsenic and antimony trioxides, each of which occurs as
two distinct minerals: —

AS2O3, Arsenolite (cubic); Claudetite (monoclinic).

SbjOs, Senarmontite (cubic) ; Valentinite (orthorhombic).

Claudetite and valentinite though crystallizing in different
systems have the same cleavages and very nearly the same
angles, and are strictly isomorphous.

Substances which form isodimorphous groups also frequently
crystallize as double salts. For instance, amongst the carbonates
quoted above are the minerals dolomite (CaMg(COs) 2 ) and
barytocalcite (CaBa(COs)2). Crystals of barytocalcite (q.v.) are
monoclinic; and those of dolomite (q.v.), though closely related
to calcite in angles and cleavage, possess a different degree of
symmetry, arid the specific gravity is not such as would result
by a simple isomorphous mixture of the two carbonates. A
similar case is presented by artificial crystals of silver nitrate
and potassium nitrate. Somewhat analogous to double salts
are the molecular compounds formed by the introduction of
" water of crystallization," " alcohol of crystallization," &c.
Thus sodium sulphate may crystallize alone or with either seven
or ten molecules of water, giving rise to three crystallographically
distinct substances.

A relation of another kind is the alteration in crystalline form
resulting from the replacement in the chemical molecule of one
or more atoms by atoms or radicles of a different kind. This is
known as a " morphotropic " relation (Gr. noptjrfi, form, rpowos,
habit). Thus when some of the hydrogen atoms of benzene are
replaced by (OH) and (NO2) groups the orthorhombic system
of crystallization remains the same as before, and the crystallo-
graphic axis a is not much affected, but the axis c varies
considerably : —

a : b : c

Benzene, C 6 H 6 0891 : 1 : 0799

Resorcin, C 6 H 4 (OH)2 .... 0910 : 1 : 0-540
Picric acid, C 6 H 2 (OH)(N0 2 )3 . 0937 :i : 0-974

A striking example of morphotropy is shown by the humite
(q.v.) group of minerals: successive additions of the group
Mg2Si0 4 to the molecule produce successive increases in the
length of the vertical crystallographic axis.

In some instances the replacement of one atom by another
produces little or no influence on the crystalline form; this
.happens in complex molecules of high molecular weight, the
" mass effect " of which has a controlling influence on the
isomorphism. An example of this is seen in the replacement of
sodium or potassium by lead in the alunite (q.v.) group of minerals,
or again in such a complex mineral as tourmaline, which, though
varying widely in chemical composition, exhibits no variation
in crystalline form.

For the purpose of comparing the crystalline forms of iso-
morphous and morphotropic substances it is usual to quote the
angles or the axial ratios of the crystal, as in the table of benzene
derivatives quoted above. A more accurate comparison is, how-
ever, given by the " topic axes," which are calculated from
the axial ratios and the molecular volume; they express the
relative distances apart of the crystal molecules in the axial
directions.

The two isomerides of substances, such as tartaric acid, which
in solution rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right
or to the left, crystallize in related but enantiomorphous forms.

References.— An introduction to crystallography is given in
most text-books of mineralogy, e.g. those of H. A. Miers and of E. S.
Dana (see Mineralogy). The standard work treating of the subject
generally is that of P. Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie (4th ed.,
Leipzig, 1905). A condensed summary is given by A. J. Moses,
The Characters of Crystals (New York, 1899).

For geometrical crystallography, dealing exclusively with the
external form of crystals, reference may be made to N. Story-
Maskelyne, Crystallography, a Treatise on the Morphology of Crystals
(Oxford, 1895) and W. J. Lewis, A Treatise on Crystallography
(Cambridge, 1899). Theories of crystal structure are discussed
by L. Sohncke, Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur
(Leipzig, 1879); A. Schoenflies, Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruciur
(Leipzig, 1891) ; and H. Hilton, Mathematical Crystallography and the
Theory of Groups of Movements (Oxford, 1903).

The physical properties of crystals are treated by T. Liebisch,
Physikalische Krystallographie (Leipzig, 1 891), and in a more elemen-
tary form in his Grundriss der physikalischen Krystallographie
(Leipzig, 1896) ; E. Mallard, Traite de cristallographie, Cristallographie
physique (Paris, 1884) ; C. Soret, Elements de cristallographie physique
(Geneva and Paris, 1893).

For an account of the relations between crystalline form and
chemical composition, see A. Arzruni, Physikalische Chemie der
Krystalle (Braunschweig, 1893); A. Fock, An Introduction to
Chemical Crystallography, translated by W. J. Pope (Oxford, 1895);
P. Groth, An Introduction to Chemical Crystallography, translated
by H. Marshall (London, 1906) ; A. E. H. Tutton, Crystalline Struc-
ture and Chemical Constitution, 1910. Descriptive works giving
the crystallographic constants of different substances are C. F.
Rammelsberg, Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie
(Leipzig, 1881-1882); P. Groth, Chemische Krystallographie (Leipzig,
1906) ; and of minerals the treatises of J. D. Dana ana C. Hintze.

(L. J. S.)

CRYSTAL PALACE, THE, a well-known English resort,
standing high up in grounds just outside the southern boundary
of the county of London, in the neighbourhood of Sydenham.
The building, chiefly of iron and glass, is flanked by two towers
and is visible from far over the metropolis. It measures 1608
ft. in length by 384 ft. across the transepts, and was opened in
its present site in 1854. The materials, however, were mainly
those of the hall set up in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition
of 1851. The designer was Sir Joseph Paxton. In the palace
there are various permanent exhibitions, while special exhibitions
are held from time to time, also concerts, winter pantomimes
and other entertainments. In the extensive grounds there is
accommodation for all kinds of games: the final tie of the
Association Football Cup and other important football matches
are played here, and there are also displays of fireworks and
other attractions.

CSENGERY, ANTON (182 2-1880), Hungarian publicist, and a
historical writer of great influence on his time, was born at
Nagyvarad on the 2nd of June 1822. He took, at an early date,
a very active part in the literary and political movements
immediately preceding the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. He
and Baron Sigismund Kemeny may be considered as the two
founders of high-class Magyar journalism. After 1 867 the greatest
of modern Hungarian statesmen, Francis Deak, attached
Csengery to his personal service, and many of the momentous
state documents inspired or suggested by Deak were drawn up
by Csengery. In that manner his influence, as represented by
the text of many a statute regulating the relations between
Austria and Hungary, is one of an abiding character. As a
historical writer he excelled chiefly in brilliant and thoughtful
essays on the leading political personalities of his time, such as
Paul Nagy, Bertalan, Szemere and others. He also commenced
a translation of Macaulay's History. He died at Budapest on
the 13th of July 1880.

592

CSIKY— CTENOPHORA

CSIKY, GREGOR (1842-1891), Hungarian dramatist, was born
on the 8th of December 1842 at Pankota, in the county of Arad.
He studied Roman Catholic theology at Pest and Vienna, and was
professor in the Priests' College at Temesvar from 1870 to 1878.
In the latter year, however, he joined the Evangelical Church,
and took up literature. Beginning with novels and works on
ecclesiastical history, which met with some recognition, he
ultimately devoted himself to writing for the stage. Here his
success was immediate. In his Az ellendllhatatlan (" L'lrresis-
tible "), which obtained a prize from the Hungarian Academy,
'he showed the distinctive features of his talent — directness,
freshness, realistic vigour, and highly individual style. In rapid
succession he enriched Magyar literature with realistic genre-
pictures, such as A Prolet&rok ("Proletariate"), Buborckok
(" Bubbles "), KSt szerelem (" Two Loves "), A szigyenlos (" The
Bashful "), Athalia, &c, in all of which he seized on one or
another feature or type of modern life, dramatizing it with
unusual intensity, qualified by chaste and well-balanced diction.
Of the latter, his classical studies may, no doubt, be taken as
the inspiration, and his translation of Sophocles and Plautus
will long rank with the most successful of Magyar translations of
the ancient classics. Among the best known of his novels are
Arnold, Az Atlasz csaldd ("The Atlas Family"). He died at
Budapest on the 19th of November 1891.

CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ (1773-1805), Hungarian poet,
was born at Debreczen in 1773. Having been educated in his
native town, he was appointed while still very young to the
professorship of poetry there; but soon after he was deprived
of the post on account of the immorality of his conduct. The
remaining twelve years of his short life were passed in almost
constant wretchedness, and he died in his native town, and in
his mother's house, when only thirty-one years of age. Csokonai
was a genial and original poet. with something of the lyrical fire
of Petofi, and wrote a mock-heroic poem called Dorottya or the
Triumph of the Ladies at the Carnival, two or three comedies
or farces, and a number of love-poems. Most of his works have
been published, with a life, by Schedel (1844-1847).

CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER (c. 1790-1842), or, as the
name is written in Hungarian, Korosi Csoma Sandor, Hungarian
traveller and philologist, born about 1790 at Koros in Tran-
sylvania, belonged to a noble family which had sunk into poverty.
He was educated at Nagy-Enyed and at Gottingen; and, in
order to carry out the dream of his youth and discover the
origin of his countrymen, he divided his attention between
medicine and the Oriental languages. In 1820, having received
from a friend the promise of an annuity of 100 florins (about £10)
to support him during his travels, he set out for the East. He
visited Egypt, and made his way to Tibet, where he spent four
years in a Buddhist monastery studying the language and the
Buddhist literature. To his intense disappointment he soon
discovered that he could not thus obtain any assistance in his
great object; but, having visited Bengal, his knowledge of
Tibetan obtained him employment in the library of the Asiatic
Society there, which possessed more than 1000 volumes, in that
language; and he was afterwards supported by the government
while he published a Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar
(both of which appeared at Calcutta in 1834). He also contri-
buted several articles on the Tibetan language and literature to
the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and he published
an analysis of the Kah-Gyur, the most important of the Buddhist
sacred books. Meanwhile his fame had reached his native
country, and procured him a pension from the government,
which, with characteristic devotion to learning, he devoted to
the- purchase of books for Indian libraries. He spent some time
in Calcutta, studying Sanskrit and several other languages;
but; early in 1842, he commenced his second attempt to discover
the origin of the Hungarians, but he died at Darjiling on the nth
of April 1842. An oration was delivered in his honour before
the Hungarian Academy by Eotvos, the novelist.

CTENOPHORA, in zoology, a class of jelly-fish which were
briefly described by Professor T. H. Huxley in 1875 (see
Actinozoa, Ency. Brit. 9th ed. vol. i.) as united with what we

Onxl pde

now term Anthozoa to form the group Actinozoa; but little was
known of the intimate structure of those remarkable and beauti-
ful forms till the appearance in 1880 of C. Chun's Monograph of
the Ctenophora occurring in the Bay of Naples. They may be
defined as Coelentera which exhibit both a radial and bilateral
symmetry of organs; with a stomodaeum; with a mesenchyma
which is partly gelatinous but partly cellular; with eight meri-
dianal rows of vibratile paddles formed of long fused or matted
cilia; lacking nematocysts (except in one genus). An example
common on the British coasts is furnished by Hormiphora
(Cydippe). In outward form this is an egg-shaped ball of clear
jelly, having a mouth at the pointed (oral) pole, and a sense-
organ at the broader (ab-
oral) pole. It possesses
eight meridians (costae) of
iridescent paddles in con-
stant vibration, which run
from near one pole towards
the other; it has also two
pendent feathery tentacles
of considerable length,
which can be retracted into
pouches. The mouth leads
into an ectodermal stomo-
daeum (" stomach "), and
the latter into an endo-
dermal funnel (infundi-
bulum); these two are
compressed in planes at
right angles to one another,
the sectional long axis of
the stomodaeum lying in the
so-called sagittal (stomo-
daeal or gastric) plane, that
of the funnel in the trans-
verse (tentacular or funnel)
plane. From the funnel,
canals are given off in three
directions; (a) a pair of
paragastric (stomachal, or
stomodaeal) canals run
orally, parallel to the stomo-
daeum, and end blindly near
the mouth; (b) a pair of
perradial canals run in the
transverse plane towards the
equator of the animal; each
of these becomes divided
into two short canals at the
base of the tentacle sheath
which they supply, but has
previously given off a pair
of short interradial canals,
which again bifurcate into
two adradial canals; all
these branches lie in the
equatorial plane of the
animal, but the eight adra-
dial canals then open into
eight meridianal canals
which run orally and abor-
ally under the costae; (c) a
pair of aboral vessels which
run towards the sense-organ,
each of which bifurcates;

of the four vessels thus formed, two only open at the sides
of the sense-organ, forming the so-called excretory apertures.
These three sets of structures, with the funnel from which they
rise, make up the endodermal coelenteron, or gastro-vascular
system. The generative organs are endodermal by origin,
borne at the sides of the meridianal canals as indicated by the
signs $ 9 . There exists a subepithelial plexus with nerve cells

Fig. 1. — Schematic drawing of a
Cydippid from the side. (After
Chun.)

A , Adradial canals.
F, Infundibulum.
/, Interradial canal.
M, Meridianal canal lying under a

costa.
N, Ciliated furrow from sense pole

to costa.
Pg, Paragastric canal.
SO, Sense-organ.
St, Stomodaeum.
Subs, Subsagittal costa.
Subt, Subtentacular costa.
T, Tentacle.
Ts, Boundaries of tentacle-sheath.

CTENOPHORA

593

Suit

T (centrally), Tentacular canal, and (dis-
tally) tentacle.
Position of testes.

Position of ovaries; other letters as
in fig. I . The stomodaeum lies in the
sagittal plane, the funnel and tentacles
in the transverse or tentacular plane.

and fibres, similar to that of jelly-fishes. The sense-organ of the
aboral pole is complex, and lies under a dome of fused cilia
shaped like an inverted bell-jar; it consists of an otolith, formed
of numerous calcareous spheroids, which is supported on four
plates of fused cilia termed balancers, but is otherwise free.
The ciliated ectoderm below the organ is markedly thickened, and
perhaps functionally represents a nerve-ganglion: from it eight
ciliated furrows radiate outwards, two passing under each
balancer as through an archway, and diverge each to the head

of a meridianal costa.
These ciliated furrows
stain deeply with osmic
acid, and nervous im-
pulses are certainly
transmitted along
them. Locomotion is
effected by strokes of
the paddles in an aboral
direction, driving the
animal mouth forwards
through the water: each
paddle or comb (Gr.
KTtis; hence Cteno-
phora) consists of a
plate of fused or matted
cilia set transversely to
Fig. 2.— Schematic drawing of a Cy- the costa. The myoepi-

ChuS fr ° m the ab ° ral P ° le ' (Aft6r thelial Cells < formerl y

termed neuro-muscular

cells), characteristic of
other Coelentera, are
not to be found in this
group. On the other
hand there are well-
marked muscle fibres
in definite layers, derived from special m'esoblastic cells
in the embryo, which are embedded in a jelly; these in their
origin and arrangement are quite comparable to the meso-
derm of Triploblastica, and, although the muscle-cells of some
jelly-fish exhibit a somewhat similar condition, nothing so
highly specialized as the mesenchyme of Ctenophora occurs in any
other Coelenterate. The nematocysts being nearly absent from
their group, their chief function is carried out by adhesive
lasso-cells.

The Ctenophora are classified as follows: —

Subclass i. Tentacalata, Order i. Cydippidea, Hormiphora.
,, 2. Lobata, Deiopea.

,, 3. Cestoidea, Cestus.
„ ii. Nuda, ,, Beroe.

The Tentaculata, as the name implies, may be recognized by the
presence of tentacles of some sort. The Cydippidea are generally
spherical or ovoid, with two long retrusible pinnate tentacles: the
meridianal and paragastric canals end blindly. An example of
these has already been briefly described. The Lobata are of the
same general type as the first Order, except for the presence of four
circumoral auricles (processes of the subtransverse costae) and of
a pair of sagittal outgrowths or lobes, on to which the subsagittal
costae are continued. Small accessory tentacles lie in grooves, but
there is no tentacular pouch ; the meridianal vessels anastomose in
the lobes. In the Cestoidea the body is compressed in the trans-
verse plane, elongated in the sagittal plane, so as to become riband-
like: the subtransverse costae are greatly reduced, the subsagittal
costae extend along the aboral edge of the riband. The subsagittal
canals lie immediately below their costae aborally, but continuations
of the subtransverse canals round down the middle of the riband,
and at its end unite, not only with the subsagittal but also with the
paragastric canals which run along the oral edge of the riband.
The tentacular bases and pouches are present, but there is no main
tentacle as in Cydippidea ; fine accessory tentacles lie in four grooves
along the oral edge. The subclass Nuda have no tentacles of any
kind; they are conical or ovoid, with a capacious stomodaeum like
the cavity of a thimble. There is a coelenteric network formed by
anastomoses of the meridianal and paragastric canals all over the
body.

The embryology of Callianira has been.worked out by E. Mechni-
kov. Segmentation is complete and unequal, producing macromeres
and micromeres marked by differences in the size and in yolk-

contents. The micromeres give rise to the ectoderm; each of the
sixteen macromeres, after budding off a small mesoblast cell, passes
on as endoderm. A gastrula is established by a mixed process of
embole and epibole. The mesoblast cells travel to the aboral pole
of the embryo, and there form a cross-shaped mass, the arms of which
lie in the sagittal and transverse planes (perradii).

There can be but little question of the propriety of including
Ctenophora among the Coelentera. The undivided coelenteron
(gastro-vascular system) which constitutes the sole cavity of
the body, the largely radial symmetry, the presence of endo-

Fig. 3. — Schematic Drawing of Cestus. (After Chun.)
Subs, Subsagittal costae. Pg, Continuation of the para-

subtenta-

Subt, Much reduced

cular costae.
Subt, Branch of the subten-

tacular canal which runs

along the centre of the

riband.

gastric canal at right
angles to its original direc-
tion along the lower edge
of the riband. At the
right-hand end the last
two are seen to unite with
the subsagittal canal.

dermal generative organs on the coelenteric canals, the sub-
epithelial nerve-plexus, the mesogloea-like matrix of the body —
all these features indicate affinity to other Coelentera, but, as
has been stated in the article under that title, the relation is by
no means close. At what period the Ctenophora branched off
from the line of descent, which culminated in the Hydromedusae
and Scyphozoa of to-day, is not clear, but it is practically certain
that they did so before the point of divergence of these two groups
from one another. The peculiar sense-organ, the specialization
of the cilia into paddles with the corresponding modifications of
the coelenteron, the anatomy and position of the tentacles, and,
above all, the character and mode of formation of the mesen-
chyme, separate them widely from other Coelentera.

The last-named character, however, combined with the
discovery of two remarkable organisms, Coeloplana and Cteno-
plana, has suggested affinity to the flat-
worms termed Turbellaria. Ctenoplana, ■
the best known of these, has recently been
redescribed by A. Willey (Quart. Journ.
Micr. Sci. xxxix., 1896). It is flattened
along the axis which unites sense-organ
and mouth, so . as to give it a dorsal
(aboral) surface, and a ventral (oral)
surface on which it frequently creeps. Its
costae are very short, and retrusible;
its two tentacles are pinnate and are also
retrusible. Two crescentic rows of ciliated

papillae lie in the transverse plane on each t~ c u

Kf , ., „,^ . , Fig. 4. — Schematic

side of the sense-organ. Ihe coelenteron rj raw ; n g f Beroe.

exhibits six lobes, two of which Willey (After Chun.)
identifies with the stomodaeum of other
Ctenophora; the other four give rise to a system of anas-
tomosing canals such as are found in Beroe and Polyclad
Turbellaria. An aboral vessel embraces the sense-organ, but
has no external opening. Ctenoplana is obviously a Cteno-
phoran flattened and of a creeping habit. Coeloplana is of
similar form and habit, with two Ctenophoran tentacles: it
has no costae, but is uniformly ciliated. These two forms at
least indicate a possible stepping-stone from Ctenophora to

594

CTESIAS— CUBA

Turbellaria, that is to say, from diploblastic to triploblastic
Metazoa. By themselves they would present no very weighty
argument for this line of descent from two-layered to three-
layered forms, but the coincidences which occur in the develop-
ment of Ctenophora and Turbellaria, — the methods of segmenta-
tion and gastrulation, of the separation of the mesoblast cells,
and of mesenchyme formation, — together with the marked
similarity of the adult mesenchyme in the two groups, have led
many to accept this pedigree. In his Monograph on the Polyclad
Turbellaria of the Bay of Naples, A. Lang regards a Turbellarian,
so to say, as a Ctenophora, in which the sensory pole has rotated
forwards in the sagittal plane through oo° as regards the original
oral-aboral axis, a rotation which actually occurs in the develop-
ment of Thysanozoon (Muller's larva); and he sees, in the eight
lappets of the preoral ciliated ring of such a larva, the rudiments
of the costal plates. According to his view, a simple early
Turbellarian larva, such as that of Stylochus, most nearly,
represents for us to-day that ancestor from which Ctenophora
and Turbellaria are alike derived. For details of this brilliant
theory, the reader is referred to the original monograph.

Literature. — G. C. Bourne, " The Ctenophora," in Ray Lan-
kester's Treatise on Zoology (1900), where a bibliography is given;
G. Curreri, " Osservazioni sui ctenofori," Boll. Soc. Zool. Ital. (2), i.
pp. 190-193 et ii. pp. 58-76; A. Garbe, " Untersuchungen iiber die
Entstehung der Geschlechtsorgane bei den Ctenophoren.," Zeitschr.
Wiss. Zool. lxix. pp. 472-491; K. C. Schneider, Lehrbuch der
vergleich. Histologic (1902). (G. H. Fo.)

CTESIAS, of Cnidus in Caria, Greek physician and historian,
flourished in the 5th century B.C. In early life he was physician
to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied (401) on his
expedition against his brother Cyrus the Younger. Ctesias was
the author of treatises on rivers, and on the Persian revenues,
of an account of India (which is of value as recording the beliefs
of the Persians about India), and of a history of Assyria and
Persia in 23 books, called Persica, written in opposition to
Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the
Persian royal archives. The first six books treated of the history
of Assyria and Babylon to the foundation of the Persian empire;
the remaining seventeen went down to the year 398. Of the
two histories we possess abridgments by Photius, and fragments
are preserved in Athenaeus, Plutarch and especially Diodorus
Siculus, whose second book is mainly from Ctesias. As to the
worth of the Persica there has been much controversy, both in
ancient and modern times. Being based upon Persian authorities,
it was naturally looked upon with suspicion by the Greeks and
censured as untrustworthy.

For an estimate of Ctesias as a historian see G. Rawlinson's
Herodotus, i. 71-74; also the edition of the fragments of the Persica
by J. Gilmore (1888, with introduction and notes and list of
authorities).

CTESIPHON, a large village on the left bank of the Tigris,
opposite to Seleucia, of which it formed a suburb, about 25 m.
below Bagdad. It is first mentioned in the year 220 by Polybius
v. 45. 4. When the Parthian Arsacids had conquered the lands
east of the Euphrates in 129 B.C., they established their winter
residence in Ctesiphon. They dared not stay in Seleucia, as
this city, the most populous town of western Asia, always
maintained her Greek self-government and a strong feeling of
independence, which made her incline to the west whenever a
Roman army attacked the Parthians. The Arsacids also were
afraid of destroying the wealth and commerce of Seleucia, if they
entered it with their large retinue of barbarian officials and
soldiers (Strabo xvi. 743, Plin. vi. 122, cf. Joseph. Ant. xviii.
9, 2). From this time Ctesiphon increased in size, and many
splendid buildings rose; it had the outward appearance of a
large town, although it was by its constitution only a village.
From a.d. 36-43 Seleucia was in rebellion against the Parthians
till at last it was forced by King Vardanes to yield. It is
very probable that Vardanes now tried to put Ctesiphon in its
place; therefore he is called founder of Ctesiphon by Ammianus
Marcellinus (xxiii. 6. 23), where King Pacorus (78-110) is said
to have increased its inhabitants and built its walls. Seleucia
was destroyed by the Romans in a.d. 164. When Ardashir I.

founded the Sassanian empire (226), and fixed his residence at
Ctesiphon, he built up Seleucia again under the name of Veh-
Ardashir. Later kings added other suburbs; Chosroes I. in 540
established the inhabitants of Antiochia in Syria, whom he had
led into captivity, in a new city, " Chosrau-Antioch " (or " the
Roman city ") near his residence. Therefore the Arabs designate
the whole complex of towns which lay together around Seleucia
and Ctesiphon and formed the residence of the Sassanids by
the name Madain, " the cities," — their number is often given
as seven. In the wars between the Roman and Persian empires,
Ctesiphon was more than once besieged and plundered, thus by
Odaenathusin 261, andby Carus in 283; Julian in 363 advanced
to Ctesiphon, but was not able to take it (Ammianus xxiv. 7).
After the battle of Kadisiya (Qadisiya) Ctesiphon and the
neighbouring towns were taken and plundered by the Arabs
in 637, who brought home an immense amount of booty (see
Caliphate). From then, these towns decayed before the in-
creasing prosperity of the new Arab capitals Basra and Bagdad.
The site is marked only by the ruins of one gigantic building of
brick-work, called Takhti Khesra, " throne of Khosrau " {i.e.
Chosroes) . It is a great vaulted hall ornamented with pilasters,
the remainder of the palace and the most splendid example of
Sassanian architecture (see Architecture, vol. ii. p. 558, for
further details and illustration). (Ed. M.)

CUBA (the aboriginal name), a republic, the largest and most
populous of the West India Islands, included between the
meridians of 74 7' and 84° 57' W. longitude and (roughly) the
parallels of 19° 48' and 23° 13' N. latitude. It divides the en-
trance to the Gulf of Mexico into two passages of nearly equal
width, — the Strait of Florida, about no m. wide between Capes
Hicacos in Cuba and Arenas in Florida (Key West being a little
over 100 m. from Havana); and the Yucatan Channel, about
130 m. wide between Capes San Antonio and Catoche. On the
N.E., E. and S.E., narrower channels separate it from the
Bahamas, Haiti (50 m.) and Jamaica (85 m.). In 1908, by the
opening of a railway along the Florida Keys, the time of passage
by water between Cuba and the United States was reduced to a
few hours.

The island is long and narrow, somewhat in the form of an
irregular crescent, convex toward the N. It has a decided pitch,
to the S. Its length from Cape Maisi to Cape San Antonio along
a medial line is about 730 m. ; its breadth, which averages about
50 m., ranges from a maximum of 160 m. to a minimum of about
22 m. The total area is estimated at 41,634 sq. m. without the
surrounding keys and the Isle of Pines (area about 1180 sq. m.),
and including these is approximately 44,164. The geography
of the island is still very imperfectly known, and all figures are
approximate only. The coast line, including larger bays, but
excluding reefs, islets, keys and all minute sinuosities, is about
2500 m. in length. The N. littoral is characterized by bluffs,
which grow higher and higher toward the east, rising to 600 ft.
at Cape Maisi. They are marked by distinct terraces. The
southern coast near Cape Maisi is low and sandy. From Guanti-
namo to Santiago it rises in high escarpments, and W. of Santiago,
where the Sierra Maestra runs close to the sea, there is a very
high abrupt shore. To the W. of Manzanillo it sinks again, and
throughout most of the remaining distance to Cape San Antonio
is low, with a sandy or marshy littoral; at places sand hills
fringe the shore; near Trinidad there are hills of considerable
height; and the coast becomes high and rugged W. of Point
Fisga, in the province of Pinar del Rio. On both the N. and the S.
side of the island there are long chains of islets and reefs and
coral keys (of which it is estimated there are 1300), which limit
access to probably half of the coast, and on the N. render naviga-
tion difficult and dangerous. On the S. they are covered with
mangroves. A large part of the southern littoral is subject to
overflow, and much more of it is permanently marshy. The
Zapata Swamp near Cienfuegos is 600 sq. m. in area; other large
swamps are the Majaguillar, E. of C&rdenas, and the Cienaga
del Buey, S. cf the Cauto river. The Isle of Pines in its northern
part is hilly and wooded; in its southern part, very low, level and
rather barren; a tidal swamp almost cuts the island in two.

CUBA

595

GULF dF

EmcryV*ltar St.

A remarkable feature of the Cuban coast is the number of
excellent anchorages, roadsteads and harbours. On the N. shore,
beginning at the W., Bahia Honda, Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas,
Nuevitas and Nipe; and on the S. shore running westward
Guantanamo, Santiago and Cienfuegos, are harbours of the first
class, several of them among the best of the world. Mariel,
Cabanas, Banes, Sagua la Grande and Baracoa on the N., and
Manzanillo, Santa Cruz, Batabano and Trinidad on the S. are
also excellent ports or anchorages. The peculiar pouch-shape
of almost all the harbours named (Matanzas being a marked
exception) greatly increases their security and defensibility.
These pouch harbours are probably "drowned " drainage basins.
The number of small bays that can be utilized for coast trade
traffic is extraordinary.

In popular language the different portions of the island are
distinguished as the Vuelta Abajo (" lower turn "), W. of Havana;
the Vuelta Arriba (" upper turn "), E. of Havana to Cienfuegos —
Vuelta Abajo and Vuelta' Arriba are also used colloquially at
any point in the island to mean " east " and " west " — Las Cinco
Villas — i.e. Villa Clara, Trinidad, Remedios, Cienfuegos and
Sancti Spiritus — between Cienfuegos and Sancti Spiritus; and
Tierra Adentro, referring to the region between Cienfuegos and
Bayamo. These names are extremely common. The province
and city of Puerto Principe are officially known as Camagiiey,
their original Indian name, which has practically supplanted
the Spanish name in local usage.

Five topographic divisions of the island are fairly marked.
Santiago (now Oriente) province is high and mountainous.
Camagiiey is characterized by rolling, open plains, slightly broken,
especially in the W., by low mountains. The E. part of Santa
Clara province is decidedly rough and broken. The W. part,
with the provinces of Matanzas and Havana, is flat and rolling,
with occasional hills a few hundred feet high. Finally, Pinar del
Rio is dominated by a prominent mountain range and by outlying
piedmont hills and mesas. There are mountains in Cuba from
one end of the island to the other, but they are not derived from
any central mass and are not continuous. As just indicated
there are three distinctively mountainous districts, various
minor groups lying outside these. The three main systems are
known in Cuba as the occidental, central and oriental. The
first, the Organ mountains, in Pinar del Rio, rises in a sandy,
marshy region near Cape San Antonio. The crest runs near
the N. shore, leaving various flanking spurs and foothills, and a
coastal plain which at its greatest breadth on the S. is some 20 m.
wide. The plain on the N. is narrower and higher. The southern

slope is smooth, and abounds in creeks and rivers. The portion
of the southern plain between the bays of Cortes and Majana
is the most famous portion of the Vuelta Abajo tobacco region.
The mountain range is capriciously broken at points, especially
near Bejucal. The highest part is the Pan de Guajaib6n, near
Bahia Honda, at the W. end of the chain; its altitude has
been variously estimated from 2500 to 1950 ft. The central
system has two wings, one approaching the N. coast, the
other covering the island between Sancti Spiritus and Santa
Clara. It comprehends a number of independent groups. The
highest point, the Pico Potrerillo, is about 2900 ft. in altitude.
The summits are generally well rounded, while the lower slopes
are often steep. Frequent broad intervals of low upland or low
level plain extend from sea to sea between and around the moun-
tains. Near the coast runs a continuous belt of plantations, while
grazing, tobacco and general farm lands cover the lower slopes
of the hills, and virgin forests much of the uplands and mountains.
The oriental mountain region includes the province of Oriente
and a portion of Camagiiey. In extent, in altitude, in mass,
in complexity and in geological interest, it is much the most
important of the three systems. Almost all the mountains are
very bold. They are imperfectly known. There are two main
ranges, the Sierra Maestra, and a line of various groups along
the N. shore. The former runs from Cape Santa Cruz eastward
along the coast some 125 m. to beyond the river Baconao. The
Sierra de Cobre, a part of the system in the vicinity of Santiago,
has a general elevation of about 3000 ft. Monte Turquino,
7700-8320 ft. in altitude, is the highest peak of the island.
Gran Piedra rises more than 5200 ft., the Ojo del Toro more than
3300, the Anvil de Baracoa is somewhat lower, and Pan de
Matanzas is about 1267 ft. The western portions of the range
rise abruptly from the ocean, forming a bold and beautiful
coast. A multitude of ravines and gullies, filled with torrential
streams or dry, according to the season of the year, and character-
ized by many beautiful cascades, seam the narrow coastal plain
and the flanks of the mountains. The spurs of the central range
are a highly intricate complex, covered with dense forests of
superb woods. Many points are inaccessible, and the scenery
is wild in the extreme. The mountains beyond Guantanamo are
locally known by a variety of names, though topographically
a continuation of the Sierra Maestra. The same is true of the
chains that coalesce with these near Cape Maisi and diverge
northwesterly along the N. coast of the island. The general
character of this northern marginal system is much the same
as that of the southern, save that the range is much less

59^

CUBA

continuous. A dozen or more groups from Nipe in the E. to the
coast N. of Camaguey in the W. are known only by individual
names. The range near Baracoa is entremely wild and broken.
The region between the lines of the two coastal systems is a
much dissected plateau, imperfectly explored. The Cauto river,
the only one flowing E. or W. and the largest of Cuba, flows
through it westward to the southern coast near Manzanillo.
The scenery in the oriental portion of the island is very beautiful,
with wild mountains and tropical forests. In the central
part there are extensive prairies. In the west there are
swelling hills and gentle valleys, with the royal palm the
dominating tree. The valley of the Yumuri, near Matanzas,
a small circular basin crossed by a river that issues through a
glen to the sea, is perhaps the most beautiful in Cuba.

A very peculiar feature of Cuba is the abundance of caverns
in the limestone deposits that underlie much of the island's
surface. The caves of Cotilla near Havana, of Bellamar near
Matanzas, of Monte Libano near Guantanamo, and those of San
Juan de los Remedios, are the best known, but there are scores
of others. Many streams are " disappearing," part of their
course being through underground tunnels. Thus the Rio San
Antonio suddenly disappears near San Antonio de los Bafios;
the cascades of the Jatibonico del Norte disappear and reappear
in a surprising manner; the Moa cascade (near Guantanamo)
drops 300 ft. into a cavern and its waters later reissue from the
earth; the Jojo river disappears in a great " sink " and later
issues with violent current at the edge of the sea. The springs
of fresh water that bubble up among the keys of the S. coast
are also supposedly the outlets of underground streams.

The number of rivers is very great, but almost without excep-
tion their courses are normal to the coast, and they are so short
as to be of but slight importance. The Cauto river in Oriente
province is exceptional; it is 250 m. long, and navigable by
small vessels for about 75 m. Inside the bar at its mouth (formed
by a storm in 1616) ships of 200 tons can still ascend to Cauto.
In Camaguey province the jatibonico del Sur; in Oriente the
Salado, a branch of the Cauto; in Santa Clara the Sagua la
Grande (which is navigable for some 20 ni. and has an important
traffic), and the Damuji; in Matanzas, the Canimar; and in
Pinar del Rio the Cuyaguateje, are important streams. The
water-parting in the four central provinces is very indefinite.
There are few river valleys that are noteworthy — those of the
Yumuri, the Trinidad and the Giiines. At Guantanamo and
Trinidad are other valleys, and between Mariel and Havana
is the fine valley of Ariguanabo. Of lakes, there are a few on the
coast, and a very few in the mountains. The finest is Lake
Ariguanabo, near Havana, 6 sq. m. in area. Of the almost
innumerable river cascades, those of the Sierra Maestra
Mountains, and in particular the Moa cascade, have already been
mentioned. The Guama cascade in Oriente province and the
Hanabanilla Fall near Cienfuegos (each more than 300 ft. high),
the Rosario Fall in Pinar del Rio, and the Almendares cascade
near Havana, may also be mentioned.

Geology. — The foundationof the island is formed of metamorphic
and igneous rocks, which appear in the Sierra Maestra and are ex-
posed in other parts of the island wherever the comparatively thin
covering of later beds has been worn away. A more or less con-
tinuous band of serpentine belonging to this series forms the principal
watershed, although it nowhere rises to any great height. It is in
this band that the greater part of the mineral wealth of Cuba is
situated. These ancient rocks have hitherto yielded no fossils and
their age is therefore uncertain, but they are probably pre-Cretaceous
at least. Fossiliferous Cretaceous limestones containing Rudistes
have been found in several parts of the island (Santiago de los
Banos, Santa Clara province, &c). At the base there is often an
arkose, composed largely of fragments of serpentine and granite
derived from the ancient floor. At Esperanza and other places in
the Santa Clara province, bituminous plant-bearing beds occur
beneath the Tertiary limestones, and at Baracoa a Radiolarian earth
occupies a similar position. The latter, like the similar deposits in
other West Indian islands, is probably of Oligocene age. It is the
Tertiary limestones which form the predominant feature in the geo-
logy of Cuba. Although they do not exceed 1000 ft. in thickness,
they probably at one time covered the whole island except the
summits of the Sierra Maestra, where they have been observed,
resting upon the older rocks, up to a height of 2300 ft. They contain
corals, but are not coral reefs. The shells which have been found in

them indicate that they belong for the most part to the Oligocene
period. They are frequently very much disturbed and often strongly
folded. Around, the coast there is a raised shelf of limestone which
was undoubtedly a coral reef. But it is of recent date and does not
attain an elevation of more than 40 or 50 ft.

Minerals are fairly abundant in number, but few are present in
sufficient quantity to be industrially important. Traditions of gold
and silver, dating from the time of the Spanish conquest, still endure,
hut these metals are in fact extremely rare. Oriente province
is distinctively the mineral province of the island. Large copper
deposits of peculiar richness occur here in the Sierra de Cobre,
near the city of Santiago; and both iron and manganese are
abundant. Besides the deposits in Oriente province, iron is
known to exist in considerable amount in Camaguey and
Santa Clara, and copper in Camaguey and Pinar del Rio
provinces. The iron ores mined at Daiquiri near Santiago are
mainly rich hematites running above 60 % of iron, with very little
sulphur or phosphorus admixture. The copper deposits are mainly
in well-marked fracture planes in serpentine; the ore is pyrrhotite,
with or without chalcopyrite. Manganese occurs especially along the
coast between Santiago and Manzanillo; the best ores run above
50 %. Chromium and a number of other rare minerals are known
to exist, but probably not in commercially available quantities.
Bituminous products of every grade, from clear translucent oils
resembling petroleum and refined naphtha, to lignite-like substances,
occur in all parts of the island. Much of the bituminous deposits
is on the dividing line between asphalt and coal. There is an endless
amount of stone, very little of which is hard enough to be good for
building material, the greatest part being a soft coralline limestone.
The best buildings in Havana are constructed of a very rich white
limestone, soft and readily worked when fresh, but hardening and
slightly darkening with age. There are extensive and valuable
deposits of beautiful marbles in the Isle of Pines, and lesser ones
near Santiago. The Organ Mountains contain a hard blue limestone ;
and sandstones occur on the N. coast of Pinar del Rio province.
Clays of all qualities and colours abound. Mineral waters, though
not yet important in trade, are extremely abundant, and a score of
places in Cuba and the Isle of Pines are already known as health
resorts. Those near San Diego, Guanabacoa and Santa Maria del,
Rosario (near Havana) and Madruga (near Giiines) are the best
known.

The soil of the island is almost wholly of modern formation,
mainly alluvial, with superficial limestones as another prominent
feature. In the original formation of the island volcanic disturbances
and coral growth played some part ; but there are only very slight
superficial evidences in the island of former volcanic activity. Note-
worthy earthquakes are rare. They have been most common in
Oriente province. Those of 1776, 1842 and 1852 were particularly
destructive, and of earlier ones those of 1551 and 1624 at Bayamo
and of 1578 and 1678 at Santiago. Every year there are seismic
disturbances, and though Santiago is the point of most frequent
visitation, they occur in all parts of the island, in 1880 affecting the
entire western end. Notable seismic disturbances in Cuba have coin-
cided with similar activity in Central America so often as to make
some connexion apparent.

Flora. — The tropical heat and humidity of Cuba make possible
a flora of splendid richness. All the characteristic species of the
West Indies, the Central American and Mexican and southern
Florida seaboard, and nearly all the large trees of the Mexican tropic
belt, are embraced in it. As many as 3350 native flowering species
were catalogued in 1876. The total number of species of the island
flora was estimated in 1892 by a writer in the Revista Cubana (vol.
xv. pp. 5-16) to be between 5000 and 6000, but hardly one-third of
this number had then been gathered into a herbarium, and all parts
of the island had not then been explored. It was estimated officially
in 1904 that the wooded lands of the island comprised 3, 628,434acres,
of which one-third were in Oriente province, another third in
Camaguey, and hardly any in Havana province. Much of this
area is of primeval forest ; somewhat more than a third of the total,
belonging to the government, was opened to sale (and speculative
exspoliation) in 1904. The woods are so dense over large districts
as to be impenetrable, except by cutting a path foot by foot through
the close network of vines and undergrowth. The jagiiey (Ficus
sp.), which stifles in its giant coils the greatest trees of the forest,
and the copei {Clusia rosea) are remarkable parasitic lianas. Of the
palm there are more than thirty species. The royal palm is the most
characteristic tree of Cuba. It attains a height of from 50 to 75 ft.,
and sometimes of more than 100 ft. Alone, or in groups, or in long
aisles, towering above the plantations or its fellow trees of the forest,
its beautiful crest dominates every landscape. Every portion, from
its roots to its leaves, serves some useful purpose. From it the native
draws lumber for his hut, utensils for his kitchen, thatch for his roof,
medicines, preserved delicacies, and a long list of other articles.
The corojo palm (Cocos crispa) rivals the royal palm in beauty and
utility; oil, sugar, drink and wood are derived from it. The coco
palm (Cocos nuctfera) is also put to varied uses. The mango is
planted with the royal palm along the avenues of the plantations.
The beautiful ceiba (Bombax ceiba L., Ceiba pentandra) or silk cotton
tree is the giant of the Cuban forests; it often grows to a height of
100 to 150 ft. with enormous girth. The royal pifion (Erythrina

CUBA

597

velatina) is remarkable for the magnificent purple flowers that cover
it. The tamarind and banyan are also noteworthy. Utilitarian
trees and plants are legion. There are at least forty choice cabinet
and building woods. Of these, ebonies, mahogany (for the bird's-eye
variety such enormous prices are paid as $1200 to $1800 per.thousand
board-feet), culla (or cuya, Bumelia retusa), cocullo (cocuyo, Bumelia
nigra), ocuje (Callophyllum viticifolia, Ornitrophis occidentalis, O.
coniinia), jigiie (jique, Lysiloma sabicu), mahagua {Hibiscus tiliaceus),
granadillo (Brya ebenus), icaquillo (Licania incania) and ag.ua-baria
(Cordia gerascanthes) are perhaps the most beautiful. Other woods,
beautiful and precious, include guayacan (Guaiacum sanctum), baria
(varia, Cordia gerascanthoides) — the fragrant, hard-wood Spanish
elm — the quiebra-hacha (Copaijera hymenofolia) , which three
are of wonderful lasting qualities; the jiqui (Malpighia obovata),
acana (Achras disecta, Bassia albescens),- caigaran (or caguairan,
Hymenaea floribunda), and the dagame {Calicophyllum candidissi-
mum), which four, like the culla, are all wonderfully resistant to
humidity; the caimatillo (Chrysophyllum oliviforme), the yaya (or
yayajabico, yayabito: Erylhalis fructicosa, Bocagea virgata, Guateria
virgata, A simina Blaini) , a magnificent construction wood ; the
maboa (Cameraria latifolia) and the jocuma (jocum: Sideroxylon
mastichodendron, Bumelia saticifolia) , all of individual beauties and
qualities. Many species are rich in gums and resins ; the calambac,
mastic, copal, cedar, &c. Many others are oleaginous, among them,
peanuts, sun-flowers, the bene seed (sesame), corozo, almond and
palmachristi. Others (in addition to some already mentioned) are
medicinal; as the palms, calabash, manchineel, pepper, fustic and
a long list of cathartics, caustics, emetics, astringents, febrifuges,
vermifuges, diuretics and tonics. Then, too, there are Various
dyewoods; rosewood, logwood (or campeachy wood), indigo,
manajii (Garcinia Morella), Brazil-wood and saffron. Textile plants
are extremely common. The majagua tree grows as high as 40 ft. ;
from its bark is made cordage of the finest quality, which is scarcely
affected by the atmosphere. Strong, fine, glossy fibres are yielded
by the exotic ramie (Boehmeria nivea), whose fibre, like that of the
majagua, is almost incorruptible; by themaya or rat-pineapple
(Brbmelia Pinguin), and by the daquilla (or daiguiya — Lagetta
lintearia, L. valenzuelana) , which like the maya yields a brilliant,
flexible product like silk; stronger cordage by the corojo palms,
and various henequen plants, native and exotic (especially Agave
americana, A. Cubensis); and various plantains, the exotic San-\
sevieria guineensis, okra, jute, Laportea, various lianas, and a great
variety of reeds, supply varied textile materials of the best quality.
The yucca is a source of starch. For building and miscellaneous
purposes, in addition to the rare woods above named, there are
cedars (used in great quantities for cigar boxes) ; the pine, found
only in the W., where it gives its name to. the Isle of Pines and the
province of Pinar del Rio ; various palms ; oaks of varying hardness
and colour, &c. The number of alimentary plants is extremely great.
Among economic plants should be mentioned the coffee, cacao,
citron, cinnamon, cocoanut and rubber tree. Wheat, Indian corn
and many vegetables, especially tuberous, are particularly important.
Plantain occurs in several varieties; it is in part a cheap and health-
ful substitute for bread, which is also made from the bitter cassava,
after the poison is extracted. The sweet cassava yields tapioca.
Bread-trees are fairly common, but are little cared for. White and
sweet potatoes, yams, sweet and bitter yuccas, sago and okra, may
also be mentioned.

Fruits are varied and delicious. The pineapple is the most favoured
by Cubans. Four or five annual crops grow from one plant, but not
more than three can be marketed, unless locally, as the product
deteriorates. The better (" purple ") varieties are mainly consumed
in the island, and the smaller and less juicy " white " varieties
exported. The tamarind is everywhere. Bananas are grown par-
ticularly in the region about Nipe, Gibara and Baracoa, whence
they are exported in large quantities, though there is a tendency
to lessen their culture in these parts in favour of sugar. Mangoes,
though exotic, are extremely common, and in the E. grow wild in the
forests. They are the favourite fruit of the negroes. Oranges are
little cultivated, although they offer apparently almost unlimited
possibilities; their culture decreased steadily after 1880, but after
about 1900 was again greatly extended. Lemons yield continuously
through the year, but like oranges, not much has yet been done
with them commercially. Pomegranates are as universally Used in
Cuba as apples in the United. States. Figs and grapes degenerate in
Cuba. Dates grow better, but nothing has been done with them.
The coco- nut palm is most abundant in the vicinity of Baracoa.
Among the common fruits are various anonas — : the custard apple
(Anonacherimolia), sweet-sop (A. squamosa), sour-sop (A. muricala),
mamon (A. reticulata), and others, — the star-apple (Chrysophyllum
cainito, C. pomiferum), rose-apple (Eugenia jambos), pawpaw, the
sapodilla (Sapota achras), the caniste {Sapota Elongata), jagua
(Genipa americana), alligator pear (Per sea gratissimd), the . yellow
mammee (Mammea americana) and so-called '*' red mammee "
(Lucuma mammosa) and limes.

Fauna. — The fauna of Cuba, like the flora, is still imperfectly
known. Collectively it shows long isolation from the other Antilles.
Only two land mammals are known to be indigenous. One is the
hutia (agouti) or Cuban rat, of which three species are known
(Capromys Fournieri, C. melanurus- and C. Poey). It lives in the

most solitary woods, especially in the eastern hills. The other is
a peculiar insectivore (Solenodon paradoxus), the only other repre-
sentatives of whose family are found in Madagascar. Various animals,
apparently indigenous, that are described by the early historians
of the conquest, have disappeared. An Antillean rabbit is very
abundant. Bats in prodigious numbers, and some of them of
extraordinary size, inhabit the many caves of the island ; more than
twenty species are known. Rats and mice, especially the guayabita
(Mus musculus), an extremely destructive rodent, are very abundant.
The manatee, or sea-cow, frequents the mouths of rivers, the sargasso
drifts, and the regions of submarine fresh-water springs off the coast.
Horses, asses, cows, deer, sheep, goats, swine, cats and dogs were
introduced by the early Spaniards. The last three are common in
a wild state. Deer are not native, and are very rare ; a few live in
the swamps.

Of birds there are more than 200 indigenous species, it is said,
and migratory species are also numerous. Waders are represented
by more than fifty species. Vultures are represented by only one
species, the turkey buzzard, which is the universal scavenger of the
fields, and until recent years even of the cities, and has always
been protected by custom and, the Laws of the Indies. Falcons
are represented by a score of species, at least, several of them noc-
turnal. Kestrels are common. The gallinaceous order is rich in
Columbidae. Trumpeters are notably represented, and climbers
still more so. Among the latter are species of curious habits and
remarkable colouring. Woodpeckers (Coloptes auratus), macaws,
parrakeets and other small parrots, and trogons, these last of beauti-
fully resplendent plumage, deserve particular mention. The Cuban
mocking-bird is a wonderful songster. Of humming-birds there
are said to be sixty species, probably only one indigenous. Of the
other birds mere mention may be made of the wild pigeon, raven,
indigo-bird, English lady-bird and linnet.

Reptiles are numerous. Many tortoises are notable. The croco-
dile and cayman occur in the swampy littoral of the south. Of
lizards the iguana (Cyclura caudata) is noteworthy. Chameleons
are common. Snakes are not numerous, and it is said that none is
poisonous or vicious. There is one enormous boa, the maja (Epi-
crates angulifer), which feeds on pigs, goats and the like, but does
not molest man.

Fishes are present in even greater variety than birds. Felipa
Poey, in his Ictiologia Cubana, listed 782 species of fish and crus-
taceans, of which 105 were doubtful; but more than one-half of the
remainder were first described by Poey. The fish of Cuban waters are
remarkable for their metallic colourings'. The largest species are
found off the northern coast. Food fishes are relatively not abundant,
presumably because the deep sea escarpments of the N. are un-
favourable to their life. Shell fish are unimportant. Two species
of blind fish, of extreme scientific interest, are found 'in the caves of
the island. Of the " percoideos " there are many genera. Among
the most important are the robalo (Labrax), an exquisite food fish,
the tunny, eel, Spanish sardine and mangua. Of the sharks the
genus Squalus is represented by individuals that grow to a length of
26 to 30 ft. The hammer-head attains a weight at times of 600 lb.
The saw-fish is common. Of fresh-water fish the lisa, dogro, guaya-
con and viajocos (Chromis fuscomaculalus) are possibly the most
noteworthy.

Molluscs are extraordinarily numerous ; and many, both of water
and land, are rarities among their kind for size and richness of colour.
Of crustaceans, land-crabs are remarkable for size and number.
Arachnids are prodigiously numerous. Insect life is abundant and
beautiful. The bite of the scorpion and of the numerous spiders
produces no serious effects. The nigua, the Cuban jigger, is a pest of
serious consequence, and the mal de nigua (jigger sickness) some-
times causes the death of lower animals and men. Sand-flies and
biting gnats are lesser nuisances. Lepidoptera are very brilliant in
colouring. The cucujo or Cuban firefly (Pyrophorus noctilucus)
gives out so strong a light that a few of them serve effectively as
a lantern. The Stegomyia mosquito, is the agent of yellow fever
inoculation. Sponges grow in great variety.

Climate. — The climate of Cuba is tropical and distinctively
insular in characteristics of humidity, equability and high mean
temperature. There are two distinct seasons: a " dry " season
from November to April, and a hotter, " wet " season. About
two-thirds of the total precipitation falls in the latter. Droughts,
extensive in area and in duration, are by no means uncommon.
At Havana the mean temperature is about 76° F , with extreme
monthly oscillations ranging on the average from 6° to 12° F.
for different months, and with a range between the means of the
coldest and warmest months of io° (70 to 8o°); temperatures
below 50° or above go° being rare. The mean rainfall at Havana
is about 40-6 in. (sometimes over 80), and the mean absolute
huniidity of different months ranges from 70 to 80%. These
figures represent fairly well the conditions of much of the northern
coast. In the N.E. the rainfall is much greater. The equability
of heat throughout the day is masked and relieved by the after-
noon sea breezes. The trades are steady through the year, and

59 8

CUBA/

in the dry season the western part of the island enjoys cool
"northers." Despite this the interior is somewhat cooler than
the coast, and in the uplands frost is not uncommon. The
southern littoral is also (except in sheltered points such as
Santiago, which is one of the hottest cities of the island) some-
what cooler than the northern.

More than eight or ten years rarely pass without tornadoes
or hurricanes of local severity at least. Notably destructive
ones occurred in 1768, 1774, 1842, 1844, 1846, 1865, 1870, 1876,
1885 and 1894. Those of 1842 and 1844 caused extreme distress
in the island. In 1846, 300 vessels and 2000 houses were destroyed
at Havana; in 1896 the banana groves of the N.E. coast were
ruined and the banana industry prostrated; and in 1906
Havana suffered damage. The autumn months, particularly
October and November, are those in which such storms most
frequently occur.

Health. — Convincing evidence is offered by the qualities of
the Spanish race in Cuba that white men of temperate lands can
be perfectly acclimatized in this tropical island. As for diseases,
some common to Cuba and Europe are more frequent or severe
in the island, others rarer or milder. There are the usual malarial,
bilious and intermittent fevers, and liver, stomach and intestinal
complaints prevalent in tropical countries; but unhygienic
living is, in Cuba as elsewhere, mainly responsible for their
existence. Yellow fever (which first appeared in Cuba in 1647)
was long the only epidemic disease, Havana being an endemic
focus. Aside from the recurrent loss of life, the pecuniary loss
from such epidemics was enormous, and the interference with
commerce and social intercourse with other countries extremely
vexatious. The Cuban coast was uninterruptedly full of infec-
tion, and the danger of an outbreak in each year was never
absent, until the work of the United States army in 1901-1902
conclusively proved that this disease, though ineradicable by
the most extreme sanitary measures, based on the accepted
theory of its origin as a filth-disease, could -be eradicated entirely
by removing the possibility of inoculation by the Stegomyia
mosquito. Since then yellow fever has ceased to be a scourge
in Cuba. Small-pox was the cause of a greater mortality than
yellow fever even before the means of combating the latter had
been ascertained. The remarkable sanitary work begun during
the American occupation and continued by the republic of Cuba,
has shown that the ravages of this and other diseases can be
greatly diminished. Leprosy is rather common, but seemingly
only slightly contagious. Consumption is very prevalent.

Agriculture. — Soils are of four classes: calcareous-ferruginous,
alluvial, argillous and silicious. Calcareous lands are pre-
dominant, especially in the uplands. Deep residual clay soils
derived from underlying limestones, and coloured red or black
according to the predominance of oxides of iron or vegetable
detritus, characterize the plains. A red-black soil known as
" mulatto " or tawny is perhaps the best fitted for general
cultivation. Tobacco is most generally cultivated on loose red
soils, which are rich in clays and silicates; and sugar-cane pre-
ferably on the black and mulatto soils; but in general, contrary
to prevalent suppositions, colour is no test of quality and not a
very valuable guide in the setting of crops. Almost without
exception the lands throughout the island are of extreme fertility.
The lowlands about Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Mariel and Matanzas
are noted for their richness. The census of 1899 showed that
farm lands occupied three- tenths of the total area; the cultivated
area being one-tenth of the farms or 3 % of the whole. At the
end of 1905 it was officially estimated that 16% was in cultiva-
tion. In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land
available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest
lands, was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly
in the province of Oriente. The average size of a farm in 1899
was 143 acres. More than 85% of all cultivated lands were
then occupied by whites; and somewhat more than one-half
(56-6%) of all occupiers were renters. Holdings of more than
32 acres constituted only 7% of the total. As regards crops,
47% of the cultivated area was given over to sugar, 11% to
sweet potatoes, 9% to tobacco and almost 9% to bananas.

Sugar.

But owing to the disturbed conditions created by the war it
is probable that these figures by no means represent normal
conditions. The actual sugar crop of 1899-1900, for example,
was not a quarter of that of 1894. With the establishment of
peace in 1898 and the influx of American and other capital and
of a heavy immigration, great changes took place in agriculture
as in other industrial conditions.

Sugar has been the dominant crop since the end of the 18th
century. Before the Civil War of 1893-1898 the capital invested
in sugar estates was greater by half than that repre-
sented by tobacco and coffee plantations, live-stock
ranches and other farms. Since that time fruit and live-stock
interests have increased. The dependence of the island on one
crop has been an artificial economic condition often of grave
momentary danger to prosperity; but generally speaking, the
progress of the industry has been steady. The competition of
the sugar-beet has been felt severely. During and after the
war of 1868-1878, when many Cuban estates were confiscated,
many families emigrated, and many others were ruined, the
ownership of plantations largely passed from the hands of Cubans
to Spaniards. Under the conditions of free labour, the develop-
ment of railways abroad, the improvement of machinery both
in cane and beet producing countries, the general competition
of the beet, and the fall of prices, it was impossible for the Cuban
industry to survive without radical betterment of methods.
About 1885 began an immense development of centralization
(the tendency having been evident many years before this).
Plantations have increased greatly in size (and also diminished
in number), greater capital is involved, bagasse furnaces have been
introduced, double grinding mills have increased by more than
a half the yield of juice from a given weight of cane, and ex-
tractive operations instead of being carried on on all plantations
have been (since 1880) concentrated in comparatively few
" centrals " (168 in Feb. 1908). Three-fourths of all are in the
jurisdictions of Cienfuegos, Cardenas, Havana, Matanzas and
Sagua la Grande, which are the great sugar centres of the island
(three-fourths of the crop coming from Matanzas and Santa
Clara provinces). Caibarien, Guantanamo and Manzanillo are
next in importance. A comparatively low cost of labour, the
fact that labour is not, as in the days of slavery, that of unin-
telligent blacks but of intelligent free labourers, the centralized
organization and modern methods that prevail on the plantations,
the remarkable fertility of the soil (which yields 5 or 6 crops on
good soil and with good management, without replanting), and
the proximity of the United States, in whose markets Cuba
disposes of almost all her crop, have long enabled her to distance
her smaller West Indian rivals and to compete with the bounty-fed
beet. The methods of cultivation, however, are still distinctly
extensive, and the returns are much less than they would be
(and in some other cane countries are) under more intensive
and scientific methods of cultivation. Indeed, conditions were
relatively primitive so late as 1880, if compared with those of
other sugar-producing countries. More than four-fifths of the
total area sown to cane in the island is in the three provinces of
Santa Clara, Matanzas and Oriente (formerly Santiago), tlie
former two representing two-thirds of the area and three-fourths
of the crop. The majority of the sugar estates are of an area
less than 3000 acres, and the most common area is between
1500 and 2000 acres; but the extremes range from a very small
size to 60,000 acres. Only a part of the great estates is ever
planted in any one season. The most profitable unit is calculated
to be a daily consumption of 1500 tons of cane, or 150,000 in a
grinding season of 100 days, which implies a feeding area not
above 6000 acres. In the season of 1904-1905, which may be
taken as typical, 179 estates, with a planted area of 431,056
acres, produced 11,576,137 tons of cane, and yielded — in addition
to alcohol, brandy and molasses — 1,089,814 tons of sugar. Of
this amount 416,862 tons were produced by 24 estates yielding
more than 1 1,000 tons each, including one (planting 28,050 acres)
that yielded 33,609, and 4 others more than 22,000 tons each.
The production of the island from 1850 to 1868 averaged 469,934
tons yearly, rising from 223,145 -to 749,000; from 1869 to 1886

CUBA

599

Tobacco.

(coutinuing high during the period of the Ten Years' War),
632,003 tons; from 1887 to 1907 — omitting the five years 1896-
1900 when the industry was prostrated by war, — 909,827 tons
(and including the war period, 758,066); and in the six harvests
of 1901-1906, 1,016,899 tons. Prior to 1902 the million mark
was reached only twice — in 1894 and 1895. Following the
resuscitation of the industry after the last war, the island's crop
rose steadily from one-sixth to a full quarter of the total cane
sugar output of the world, its share in the world's product of
sugar of all kinds ranging from a tenth to an eighth. Of this
enormous output, from 98-3% upward went to the United
States; 1 of whose total importation of all sugars and of cane
sugar the proportion of Cuban cane— steadily rising — was
respectively 49-8 and 53-7% in the seasons of 1900-1901 and
1904-1905.

If sugar is the island's greatest crop, tobacco is her most
renowned in the markets of the world. Three-fourths of the
tobacco of Cuba comes from Pinar del Rio province;
the rest mainly from the provinces of Havana and
Santa Clara, — the description de partido being applied to the
leaf not produced in Havana and Pinar del Rio provinces, and
sometimes to all produced outside the vuelta abajo. » This district,
including the finest land, is on the southern slope of the Organ
Mountains between the Honda river and Mantua; bananas are
cultivated with the tobacco. " Vegas " (tobacco fields) of
especially good repute are also found near Trinidad, Remedios,
Yara, Mayari and Vicana. The tobacco industry has been
uniformly prosperous, except when crippled by the destruction
of war in 1868-1878 and 1895-1898. Even in the time of slavery
tobacco was generally a white-man's crop; for it requires
intelligent labour and intensive care. In recent years the growth
of the leaf under cloth tents has greatly increased, as it has been
abundantly proved that the product thus secured is much more
valuable— lighter in colour and weight, finer in texture, with an
increased proportion of wrapper leaves, and more uniform
qualities, and with lesser amounts of cellulose, nicotine, gums and
resins. In these respects the finest Cuban tobacco crops, pro-
duced in the sun, hardly rival the finest Sumatra product; but
produced under cheese-cloth they do. " Cuban tobacco " does
not mean to-day, as a commercial fact, what the words imply;
for the original Nicotiana Tabacum, variety havanensis, can
probably be found pure to-day only in out-of-the-way corners
of Pinar del Rio. After the Ten Year's War seed of Mexican
and United States tobaccos was in great demand to re-seed
the ruined vegas, and was introduced in great quantities;
and although by a later law the destruction of these exotic
species was ordered, that destruction was in fact quite impossible.
" Lusty growers and coarser than the genuine old-time Cuban . . .
Mexican tobaccos (Nicotiana Tabacum, variety macrophyllum)
are to-day predominant in a large part of Cuban vegas. . . .
Ordinary commercial Cuban seed of to-day is largely, and often
altogether, Mexican tobacco." Though improved in the Cuban
environment, the foreign tobaccos introduced after the Ten
Years' War did not lose their exotic character, but prevailed
over the indigenous forms: " Tobaccos with exactly the char-
acter of the introduced types are now the prevalent forms "
(quotation from Bulletin of the Estacidn Central Agrondmica,
Feb. 1908). In the markets of the world Cuban tobacco has
always suffered less competition than Cuban sugar, and still less
has been done than in the case of sugar cane in the study of
methpds of cultivation, which in several respects are far behind
those pf other tobacco-growing countries. The crop of 1907 was
201, sj2 bales (109,562,400 lb Sp.).

Coffee-raising was once a flourishing and very promising
industry. It first attained prominence with the settlement in
Coffee eastern Cuba, late in the 18th century, of French
refugee immigrants from San Domingo. Some " cafe-
tales " were established by the newcomers near Havana, but
the industry has always been almost exclusively one of Oriente
province; with Santa Clara as a much smaller producer. Before

•Other countries taking only 27,462 -long tons out of a total of
h>T l 9'117 > n the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906.

the war of 1868-1878 the production amounted to about
25,000,000 lb yearly. The war of 1895-1898 still further
diminished the vitality of the industry. * In 1907 the crop was
6,595,7°° tt>- The berries are of fine quality, and despite the
competition of Brazil there is no (agricultural) reason why the
home market at least should not be supplied from Cuban estates.

Of other agricultural crops those of fruits are of greatest import-
ance — bananas (which are planted about once in three years),
pine-apples (planted about once in five years), coco-nuts, oranges,
&c. The coco-nut industry has long been largely confined to the
region about Baracoa, owing to the ruin of the trees elsewhere by a
disease not yet thoroughly understood, which, appearing finally
near Baracoa, threatened by 1908 to destroy the industry there as
well. Yams and sweet-potatoes, yuccas, malangas, cacao, rice — ■
which is one of the most important foods of the people, but which
is not yet widely cultivated on a profitable basis — and Indian corn,
which grows everywhere and yields two crops yearly, may be men-
tioned also. In very recent years gardening has become an interest
of importance, particularly in the province of Pinar del Rio. Save
on the coffee, tobacco and sugar plantations, where competition in
large markets has compelled the adoption of adequate modern
methods, agriculture in Cuba is still very primitive. The wooden
ploughstick, for instance — taking the country as a whole — has never
been displaced. A central agricultural experiment station (founded
1904) is maintained by the government at Santiago de las Vegas;
but there is no agricultural college, nor any special school for the
scientific teaching and improvement of sugar and tobacco farming or
manufacture.

Stock-breeding is a highly important interest. It was the all-
important one in the early history of the island, down to about the
latter part of the 18th century. Grasses grow luxuriantly, and the
savannahs of central Cuba are, in this respect, excellent cattle
ranges. The droughts to which the island is recurrently subject are,
however, a not unimportant drawback to the industry ; and though
the best ranges, under favourable conditions, are luxuriant, never-
theless the pastures of the island are in general mediocre. Practically
nothing has yet been done in the study of native grasses and the
introduction of exotic species. The possibilities of the stock interest
have as yet by no means been realized. The civil wars were probably
more disastrous to it than to any other agricultural interest of the
island. It has been authoritatively estimated, for example, that
from 90 to 95 % of all horses, neat cattle and hogs in the entire
island were lost in the war years of 1 895-1 898. In the decade after
1898 particularly great progress was made in the raising of live-stock.
The fishing and sponge industries are important. Batabano and
Caibarien are centres of the sponge fisheries.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing industries of Cuba have
never been more than insignificant as compared with what they
might be. In 1907 48-5% of all wage-earners were engaged in
agriculture, fishing and mining, 16-3 in manufactures, and 17-7
in trade and transportation. Such manufactures as are of any
consequence are mostly connected with the sugar and tobacco
industries. Forest resources have been but slightly touched
(more so since the end of Spanish rule) except mahogany, which
goes to the United States, and cedar, which is used to box the
tobacco products of the island, much going also to the United
States. The value of forest products in 1 901-1902 amounted
to $320,528. There are some tanneries, some preparation of
preserves and other fruit products, and some old handicraft
industries like the making of hats; but these have been of
comparatively scant importance. Despite natural advantages
for all meat industries, canned meats have generally been
imported. The leading manufactures are cigars and cigarettes,
sugar, rum and whisky. The tobacco industries are very largely
concentrated in Havana, and there are factories in Santiago
de las Vegas and Bejucal. The yearly output of cigars was
locally estimated in 1908 at about 500,000,000, but this is prob-
ably too high an estimate. In 1904-1906 the yearly average
sent to the United States was 234,063,652 cigars, 29,776,429 lb
of leaf and 14,203,571 packages of cigarettes. The sugar
industry is not similarly centralized. With the improvement
of methods the old partially refined grades (moscobados) have
disappeared.

Mining. — Mining is of very considerable importance. The
Cobre copper mines near Santiago were once the greatest pro-
ducers of the world. They were worked from 1524 until about
1730, when they were abandoned for almost a century, after
which they were reopened and greatly developed. In 1828-
1840 about two million dollars' worth of ore was shipped yearly

6oo

CUBA

to the United States alone. After 1868 the mines were again
abandoned and flooded, the mining property being ruined during
the civil war. Finally, after 1900 they again became prosperous
producers. The " Cobre " mine is only the most famous and
productive of various copper properties. The copper output
has not greatly increased since 1890, and is of slight importance
in mineral exports. , Iron and manganese have, on the contrary,
been greatly developed in the same period. Iron is now the most
important mineral product. The iron ores are even more
accessible than the famous ones of the Lake Superior region
in the United States. No shafts or tunnels are necessary except
for exploration; the mining consists entirely in open-cut and
terrace work. The cost of exploitation is accordingly slight.
Daiquiri, near Santiago, and mines near Nipe, on the north coast,
are the chief centres of production. Nearly the entire product
goes to the United States. The first exports from the Daiquiri
district were made by an American company in 1884; the Nipe
(Cagimaya) mines became prominent in promise in 1906. The
shipments from Oriente province from 1884 to 1901 aggregated
5,053,847 long tons, almost all going to the United States (which
is true of other mineral products also). After 1900 production
was greatly increased and by 1906 had come to exceed half a
million, tons annually. There are small mines in Santa Clara
and Camaguey provinces. Manganese is mined mainly near La :
Maya and El Cristo in Oriente. The traditions as to gold and silver
have already been referred to. Evidences of ancient workings
remain near Holguin and Gibara, and it is possible that some
of these workings are still exploitable. Mining for the precious
metals ceased at a very early date, after rich discoveries were
made on the continent. Bituminous products, though, as already
stated, widely distributed, are not as yet much developed.
The most promising deposits and the most important workings
are in Matanzas and Santa Clara provinces. Petroleum has
been used to some extent both as a fuel and as an illuminant.
Small amounts of asphalt have been sent to the United States.
Locally, asphalts are used as gas enrichers. Grahamite and
glance-pitch are common, and are exported for use in varnish and
paint manufactures. The commercial product of stones, brick
and cement is of rapidly increasing importance. The founda-
tion of the island is in many places almost pure carbonate
of lime, and there are numerous small limekilns. The product
is used to bleach sugar, as well as for construction and disinfec-
tion purposes. The number of small brick plants is legion,
almost all very primitive.

Commerce.— Commerce (resting largely upon specialized agri-
culture) is vastly more prominent as yet than manufacturing
and mining in the island's economy. The leading articles of
export are sugar, tobacco and fruit products; of import, textiles,
foodstuffs, lumber and wood products, and machinery. Sugar
and tobacco products together represent seven-eighths (in 1904-
1907 respectively 60-3 and 27-3 %) of the normal annual
exports. In the quinquennial period 1890-1894 (immediately
preceding the War of Independence) the average yearly commerce
of the island in and out was $86,875,663 with the United States;
and $28,161,726 with Spain. 1 During the American military
occupation of the island in 1899-1902, of the total imports
45 '9% wef e from the United States, 14 from other American
countries, 15 from Spain, 14 from the United Kingdom, 6 from
France and 4 from Germany; of the exports the corresponding
percentages for the same countries were 70-7, 2, 3, 10, 4 and 7.
No special favours were enjoyed by the United States in this
period, and about the same percentages prevailed in the years
following! The total commerical movement of the island in
the five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 (for
the five fiscal years 1902-1903 to 1906-1907, $185,987,020)
annually, and of this the share of the United States was
$108,431,000 yearly, representing 45-8% of all imports and 1
. 'In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba
and Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444
annually; exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corre-
sponding figures for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and
fo>- the United Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with
other countries being of much less amount.

8 1 • 9% of all exports. The proportion of imports taken from the
United States is greatest in foodstuffs, metals and metal manu-
factures, timber and furniture, mineral oils and lard. The trade
of the United States with the island was as great in 1906-1907
as with Mexico and all the other West Indies combined; as
great as its trade with Spain, Portugal and Italy combined;
and almost as great as its trade with China and Japan.

Communications. — Poor means of communication have always
been a great handicap to the industries of the island. The first
railroad in Cuba (and the first in Spanish lands) was opened from
Havana to Giiines in 1837. In succeeding years a fairly ample
system was built up between the cities of Pinar del Rio and
Santa Clara, with a number of short spurs from the chief ports
farther eastward into the interior. After the first American
occupation a private company built a line from Santa Clara to
Santiago, more than half the length of the island, finally connect-
ing its two ends (1 902) . The policy of the railways was always one
rather of extortion than of fairness or of any interest in the
development of the country, but better conditions have begun.
There was ostensible government regulation of rates after 1877,
but the roads were guaranteed outright against any loss of
revenue, and in fact practically nothing was ever done in the way
of reform in the Spanish period. In 1900 the total length of rail-
ways was 2097 m., of which 1226 were of 17 public roads arid
871 m. of 107 private roads. In August 1908 the mileage of
all railways (including electric) in Cuba was 2329-8 m. The tele-
graph and telephone systems are owned by the government.
Cables connect the island with Florida, Jamaica, Haiti and San
Domingo, Porto Rico, the lesser Antilles, Panama, Venezuela
and Brazil. Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos are cable ports.
Wagon roads are still of small extent and primitive character
save in a very few localities. The peculiar two-wheeled carts
of the country, carrying enormous loads of 4 to 6 tons, destroy
even the finest road. Similar carts, slightly lighter, used in the
cities, quickly destroy any paving but stone block. The only
good highways of any considerable length in 1908 were in the
two western provinces and in the vicinity of Santiago. During
the second American occupation work was begun on a network
of good rural highways.

■. Population. — Various censuses were taken in Cuba beginning
in 1774; but the results of those preceding the abolition of
slavery, at least, are probably without exception extremely
untrustworthy. The census of 1887 showed a population of
1,631,687, that of 1899 a population of 1,572,792 (the decrease of
3-6 % is explained by the intervening war) ; and by the census of
1907 there were 2,048,980 inhabitants, 30-3 % more than in 1899.
The average of settlement per square mile varied from 169-7
in Havana province to n -8 in Camagiiey, and was 46-4 for all
of Cuba; the percentage of urban population (in cities, that is,
with more than 1000 inhabitants) in the different provinces
varied from 18-2 in Pinar deJ Rio to 74-7 in Havana, and was
43 -9 for the entire island. There were five cities having popu-
lations above 25,000 — Havana, 297,159; Santiago, 45,470;
Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfuegos, 30,100; Puerto Principe (or
Camaguey), 29,616; and fourteen more above 8000— Cardenas,
Manzanillo, Guanabacoa, Santa Clara, Sagua la Grande, Sancti
Spiritus, Guantanamo; Trinidad, Pinar del Rio, San Antonio de
los Banos, Jovellanos, Marianao, Caibarien and Giiines. The
proportion of the total population which in 1907 was in cities
of 8000 or more was only 30-3%; and the proportion in cities
of 25,000 or more was 21-4%. Mainly owing to the large
element of transient foreign whites without families (long
characteristic of Cuba), males outnumber females — -in 1907 as
21 to 19. Native whites, almost everywhere in the majority,
constituted 59-8% of all inhabitants; persons of negro and
mixed blood, 29-7%; foreign-born whites, 9-9%; Chinese less
than o-6 %. Foreigners constituted 25-6 % of the population in
the cityof Havana; only 7 % in Pinar del Rio province. Native
blood is most predominant in the provinces of Oriente and Pinar
del Rio. After the end of the war of 1895-1898 a large immigra-
tion from Spain began; the inflow from the United States was
very small in comparison. The Republic strongly encourages

CUBA

60 1

immigration. In 1000- 1906 there were 143,122 immigrants,
of whom 124,863 were Spaniards, 4557 were from the United
States, 2561 were Spanish Americans, and a few were Italian,
Syrian, Chinese, French, English, &c. The Chinese element
is a remnant of a former coolie population; their numbers in
1907 (11,217) were less than a fourth the number in 1887. Their
introduction began in 1847 and ended in 1871. Conjugal con-
ditions in Cuba are peculiar. In 1907 only 20-7% of the total
population were legally married; an additional 8-6% were living
in more or less permanent consensual unions, these being particu-
larly common among the negroes. Including all unions the total
is below the European proportion, but above that of Porto Rico
or Jamaica in 1899.

The negro element is strongest in the province of Oriente and
weakest in Camagiiey; in the former it constituted 43-1%
of the population, in the latter 18-3%, and in Havana City
25-5%. In Guantanamo, in Santiago de Cuba, and in seven
other towns they exceeded the whites in number. Caibarien
and San Antonio de los Banos had the largest proportion of
white population. The position of the negroes in Cuba is
exceptional. Despite the long period of slavery they are
decidedly below the whites in number. The Spanish slave laws
(although in practice often frightfully abused) were always
comparatively generous to the slave, making relatively easy,
among other things, the purchase of his freedom, the number of
free blacks being always great. Since the abolition of slavery
the status of the black has been made more definite, and his
rights naturally much greater. The wars of 1868-1878 and
1895-1898 and the threatened war of 1906 all helped to give
to the negro element its high position. There is no antagonism
between the divisions of the coloured race. All hold their own
with the white in industrial usefulness to the community, and
though the blacks are more backward in education and various
other tests of social advancement, still their outlook is full of
promise. There is practically no colour caste in Cuba ; politically
the negro is the white man's equal; socially there is very little
ostensible inequality and almost perfect toleration. The negro
in Cuba shows promising though undeveloped traits of landlord-
ship. Women labour habitually in the fields. Miscegenation of
blacks and whites was extremely common before emancipation.
It is sometimes said that since then there has been a counter -
tendency, but it is impossible to prove such a statement con-
clusively except with the aid of future censuses. Few of the
negroes are black; some of the blackest have the regular features
of the Caucasian; and racial mixtures are everywhere evidenced
by colour of skin and by physiognomy. Its seems certain that
the African element has been holding its own in the population
totals since emancipation.

Cuba is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religion, but under
the new Republic there is a complete separation of church and
state, and liberalism and indifference are increasing. Illiteracy is
extremely widespread. In 1907 the census showed 56-6% (43-3
in 1899) of persons above ten years who could read. Of the
voting population 53-2% of native white, and 37-3% of coloured
Cuban citizens, and 71-6% of Spanish citizens could read.
A revolution in education was begun the first year of the United
States military occupation and continued under the Republic.

Constitution. — The constitution upon which the government
of Cuba rests was framed during the period of the United States
military government; it was adopted the 21st of February
igoij and certain amendments or conditions required by the
United States were accepted on the 12th of June 1901. The
constitution is republican and modelled on the Constitution
of the United States, with some marked differences of greater
centralization, due to colonial experience under the rule of Spain,
notably as regards federalism; the provinces of the island being
less important than the states of the American Union. The
president of the Republic, who is elected for four years by an
electoral college, and cannot hold office for more than two
successive terms, has a cabinet whose members he may appoint
and remove freely, their number being determined by law. He
sanctions, promulgates and executes the laws, and supplements

them (partly co-ordinately with congress) by administrative
regulations in harmony with their ends; holds a veto power
and pardoning power; controls with the senate political appoint-
ments and removals; and conducts foreign relations, sub-
mitting treaties to the senate for ratification. Congress consists
of two houses. The senate contains four members from each
province, chosen for eight years by a provincial electoral board,
which consists of the provincial councilmen plus a double number
of electors (half of them paying high taxes) who are selected at a
special election by their fellow citizens. Half of the senators
retire every four years. The senate is the court of trial for the
president, officers of the cabinet, and provincial governors when
accused of political offences, It also acts jointly with the
president in political appointments and treaty making. The
house of representatives, whose members are chosen directly
by the citizens for four years, one-half retiring every two years,
has the special power of impeaching the president and cabinet
officers. Congress meets twice annually, in April and November.
Its powers are extensive, including, in addition to ordinary
legislative powers, control of financial affairs, foreign affairs, the
power to declare war and approve treaties of peace, amnesties,;
electoral legislation for the provinces and municipalities, control
of the electoral vote for president and vice-president, and
designation of an acting president in case of the death or in-
capacity of these officers. The subjects of legislative power are
very similar to those of the United States congress; but con-
trol of railroads, canals and public roads is explicitly given to
the federal government. Justice is administered by courts of
various grades, with a supreme court at Havana as the head;
the members of this being appointed by the president and senate.
This court passes on the constitutionality of all laws, decrees and
regulations.

There are six provinces — Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas,
Santa Clara, Camagiiey or Puerto Principe, and Oriente. Each has
a provincial governor and assembly chosen directly by the people,
generally charged with independent control of matters affecting
the province; but the president may interfere against an abuse
of power by either the governor or the assembly. Municipalities
are administered by mayors (alcaldes) and assemblies elected by
the people, and control strictly municipal affairs. The " termino
municipal " is the chief political and administrative civil division.
It is an urban district together with contiguous rural territory.
Its divisions are " barrios." The president may interfere if
necessary in the municipality as in the province; and so may the
governor of the province. But all interference is subject to
review of claims by the courts. Both provinces and munici-
palities are forbidden by the constitution to contract debts
without a coincident provision of permanent revenue for their
settlement.

The franchise is granted to every male Cuban twenty-one years
of age, not mentally incapacitated, nor previously a convict of
crime, nor serving in the army or navy of the state. Foreigners
may become citizens in five years by naturalization. Church
and state are completely separated, toleration being guaranteed
for the profession and practice of all religious beliefs, and the
government may not subsidize any religion.

Primary education is declared by the constitution to be free

and compulsory; and its expenses are paid by the central

government so far as it may be beyond the power of _, „,
?, . . . ..^ ' , -V, „^ , Education.

the province or municipality to bear them. Secondary

and advanced education is controlled by the state. In the last

days of Spanish rule (1894), there were 904 public and 704

private schools, and not more than 60,000 pupils enrolled; in

1900 there were 3550 public schools with an enrolment of

172,273 and an average attendance of 123,362. In the four

school years from 1903-1904 to 1906-1907 the figures of

enrolment and average attendance were: 201,824 and 110,531;

194,657 and 105,706; 186,571 and 98,329; and 189,289 and

93,865. In 1906-1907 the percentage (31-6) of attendants to

children of school age was twice as large as in 1898-1899. Private

schools, some of very high grade, draw many pupils. Almost

all schools are primary. The university of Havana (founded

6o2

CUBA

1728) was given greatly improved facilities, especially of material
equipment, by the American military government, and seems
to have begun an ambitious progress. In 1907- the number of
students was 554. Below the university there are six provincial
institutes, one in each province, in each of which there is a
preparatory department, a department of secondary education,
and (this due to peculiar local conditions) a school of surveying;
and in that of Havana commercial departments in addition.
In Havana, also, there is a school of painting and sculpture,
a school of arts and trades, and a national library, all of which
are supported or subventioned by the national government, as
are also a public library in Matanzas, and the Agricultural
Experiment Station at Santiago de las Vegas. In connexion
with the university is a botanical garden; with the national
sanitary service, a biological laboratory, and special services for
small-pox, glanders and yellow fever. Independent of the
government are various- schools and learned societies in Havana
(q.v.). A school was established by the government in Key
West, Florida (U.S.A.), in 1905, for the benefit of the Cuban
colony there. Finally, the government sustains about two score of
penal establishments, reform schools, hospitals, dispensaries and
asylums, which are scattered all over the island, — every town of
any considerable size having one or more of these charities.

Under the colonial rule of Spain the head of government was
a supreme civil-military officer, the governor and captain-
general. His control of the entire administrative life
govern- °f tne island was practically absolute. Originally
meat. residents at Santiago de Cuba, the captains-general
resided after 1 589 at Havana. Because of the isolation
of the eastern part of the island, the dangers from pirates, and
the important considerations which had caused Santiago de
Cuba {q.v.) to be the first capital of the island, Cuba was divided
in 1607 into two departments, and a governor, subordinate in
military matters to the captain-general at Havana, was appointed
to rule the territory east of Puerto Principe. In 1801, when the
audiencia — of which the captain-general was ex officio president
— began its functions at that point, the governor of Santiago
became subordinated in political matters as much as in military.
Two chief courts of justice (audiencias) sat at Havana (after
1832) and Puerto Principe (1800-1853); appeals could go to
Spain; below the audiencias were " alcaldes mayores " or
district judges and ordinary " alcaldes " or local judges. The
audiencias also held important political powers under the
Laws of the Indies. The captaincy-general of Cuba was not
originally, however, by any means so broad in powers as the
viceroyalties of Mexico and Peru; and by the creation in 1765
of the office of intendant — the delegate of the national treasury —
his faculties were very greatly curtailed. The great powers of
the intendant were, however, merged in those of the governor-
general in 1853; and the captain-general having been given
by royal order in 1825 (several times later explicitly confirmed,
and not revoked until 1870) the absolute powers (to be assumed
at his initiative and discretion) of the governor of a besieged
city, and by a royal order of 1834 the power to banish at will
persons supposed to be inimical to the public peace; and being
by virtue of his office the president and dominator of all the
important administrative boards of the government, held the
government of the island, and in any emergency the liberty and
property of its inhabitants, in his hand. The royal orders following
1825 developed a system of extraordinary and extreme repression.
In 1878, as the result of the Ten Years' War, various adminis-
trative reforms, of a decentralizing tendency, were introduced.
The six provinces were created, and had governors and as-
semblies (" diputaciones ") ; and a municipal law was provided
that in many ways was a sound basis for local government. But
centralization remained very great. In the municipality the
alcalde (mayor) was appointed by the governor-general, and the
ayuntamiento (council) was controlled by the veto of the pro-
vincial governor and by the assembly of the province. The
deputation was subject in turn to the same veto of the provincial
governor, and he controlled by the governor-general. There was
besides a provincial commission of five lawyers named by the

governor-general from the members of the deputation, who
settled election questions, and questions of eligibility in this
body, gave advice as to laws, acted for the deputation wheD
it was not sitting, and in general facilitated centralized control
of the administrative system. The character of this body was
altered in 1890, and in 1898, in which latter year its functions
were reduced to the essentially judicial. Despite superficial
decentralization after 1878 any real growth of local self-govern-
ment was rendered impossible. Moreover, no great reforms
were made in the abuses naturally incident to the old personal
system. Exile and imprisonment at the will of the government
and without trial were common. Personal liberty, liberty of
conscience, speech, assembly, petition, association, press, liberty
of movement and security of home, were without real guarantee
even within the extremely small limits in which they nominally
existed. Under the constitution of the Republic the sphere of
individual liberty is large and constitutionally protected against
the government.

Finance. — There has been a great change in the budget of
Cuba since the advent of the*Republic. In 1 89 1-1 896 the average
annual income was $20,738,930, the annual average expenditure
$25,967,139. More than half of the revenue was derived from
customs duties (two-thirds of the total being collected at Havana) .
Of the expenditure more than ten million dollars annually went
for the public debt, 5-5 to 6 millions for the army and navy, as
much more for civil administration (including more than two
millions for purely Peninsular services with which the colony
was burdened); and on an average probably one million more
went for sinecures. Every Cuban paid about twice as heavy
taxes as a Spaniard of the Peninsula. Very little was spent
on sanitation, roads, other public works and education. The
revenue receipts under the Republic have increased especially
over those of the old regime in the item of customs duties; and
the expenditure is very differently distributed. Lotteries which
were an important source of revenue under Spain were abolished
under the Republic. The debt resting on the colony in 1895
(a large part of it as a result of the war of 1868-1878, the entire
cost of which was laid upon the island, but a part as the result
of Spain's war adventures in Mexico and San Domingo, home
loans, &c.) was officially stated at $168,500,000. The attain-
ment of independence freed the island from this debt, and from
enormous contemplated additions to cover the expense incurred
by Spain during the last insurrection. The debt of the Republic
in April 1908 was $48,146,585, including twenty-seven millions
which were assumed in 1902 for the payment of the army of
independence, four for agriculture, and four for the payment of
revolutionary debts, and $2,196,585, representing obligations
assumed by the revolution's representative in the United States
during the War of Independence. United States and British
investments, always important in the agriculture and manu-
factures of the island, greatly increased following 1898, and by
1908 those of each nation were supposed to exceed considerably
$100,000,000.

Archaeology. — Archaeological study in Cuba has been limited,
and has not produced results of great importance. Almost
nothing is actually known of prehistoric Cuba; and a few skulls
and implements are the only basis existing for conjecture. Very
little also is known as to the natives who inhabited the island
at the time of the discovery. They were a tall race of copper
hue; fairly intelligent, mild in temperament, who lived in poor
huts and practised a limited and primitive agriculture. How
numerous they were when the Spaniards first came among
them cannot be said; undoubtedly tradition has greatly ex^
aggerated their number. They are supposed to have been
practically extinct by 1550. Even in the 19th century reports
were spread of communities in which Indian blood was supposedly
still plainly dominant; but the conclusion of the competent
scientists who have investigated such rumours has been that at
least absolutely nothing of the language and traditions of the
aborigines has survived.

tlistory. — Cuba was discovered by Columbus in the course of
his first voyage, on the 27th of October 1492. He died believing

CUBA

603

Cuba was part of a continent. In 1508 Sebastian de Ocampo
circumnavigated it. In 1 5 1 1 Diego Velazquez began the conquest
of the island. Baracoa (the landing point), Bayamo, Santiago
de Cuba, Puerto Principe, Sancti Spiritus, Trinidad and the
original Havana were all founded by 1515. Velazquez's reputa-
tion and legends of wealth drew many immigrants to the island.
From Cuba went the expeditions that discovered Yucatan ( 1 5 1 7 ) ,
and explored the shores of Mexico, Hernando Cortes's expedition
for the invasion of Mexico, and de Soto's for the exploration of
Florida. The last two had a pernicious effect on Cuba, draining
it of horses, money and of men. At least as early as 1523 the
African slave trade was begun. In 1544 the Indians, so far as
they had not succumbed to the labour of the mines and fields to
which they were put by the Spaniards, were proclaimed emanci-
pated. The administration in the 16th century was loose and
violent. The local authorities were divided among themselves
by bitter feuds — the ecclesiastical against the civil, the ayunia-
miento against the governors, the administrative officers among
themselves; brigandage, mutinies and intestinal struggles dis-
turbed the peace. As a result of the transfer of Jamaica to
England, the population of Cuba was greatly augmented by
Jamaican immigrants to about 30,000 in the middle of the
17 th century.

The activity of English and French pirates began in the 16th
century, and reached its climax in the middle of the 17 th Century.
So early also began dissatisfaction with the economic regulations
of the colonial system, even grave resistance to their enforcement;
and illicit trade with privateers and foreign colonies had begun
long before, and in the 17th and 18th centuries was the basis of
the island's wealth. In 1762 Havana was captured after a long
resistance by a British force under Admiral Sir George Pocock
and the earl of Albemarle, with heavy loss to the besiegers.
It was returned to Spain the next year in exchange for the
Floridas. From this date begins the modern history of the island.
The British opened the port to commerce and the slave trade
and revealed its possibilities. The government of Spain, begin-
ning in 1764, made notable breaches in the old monopolistic
system of colonial trade throughout America; and Cuba received
special privileges, also, that were a basis for real prosperity.
Spain paid increasing attention to the island, and in harmony
with the policy of the Laws of the Indies many decrees intended
to stimulate agriculture and commerce were issued by the
crown, first in the form of monopolies, then with increased
freedom and with bounties. Various colonial products and the
slave trade were favoured in this way. After the cession of the
Spanish portion of San Domingo to France hundreds of Spanish
families emigrated to Cuba, and many thousand more immi-
grants, mainly French, followed them from the entire island
during the revolution of the blacks. Most of them settled in
Oriente province, where their names and blood are still apparent,
and with their cafetales and sugar plantations converted that
region from neglect and poverty to high prosperity.

Under a succession of liberal governors (especially Luis de las
Casas, 1790-1796, and the marques de Someruelos, 1799-1813),
at the end of the 18th century and the first part of the 19th,
when the wars in Europe cut off Spain almost entirely from
the colony, Cuba was practically independent. Trade was
comparatively free, and worked a revolution in culture and
material conditions. General Las Casas, in particular, left
behind him in Cuba an undying memory of good efforts. Free
commerce with foreigners — a fact after 1809 — was definitely
legalized in 1818 (confirmed in 1824). The state tobacco
monopoly was abolished in 181 7. The reported populations
by the (untrustworthy) censuses of 1774, 1792 and 1817 were
161,670, 273,301 and 553,033. Something of political freedom
was enjoyed during the two terms of Spanish constitutional
government under the constitution of 1812. The sharp division
between Creoles and peninsulars {i.e. between those born in Cuba
and those born in Spain), the question of annexation to the
United States or possibly to some other power, the plotting for
independence, all go back to the early years of the century.

Partly because of political and social divisions thus revealed,

conspiracies being rife in the decade 1820-1830, and partly as
preparation for the defence against Mexico and Colombia, who
throughout these same years were threatening the island with
invasion, the captains-general, in 1825, received the powers above
referred to; which became, as time passed, monstrously in dis-
accord with the general tendencies of colonial government and
with increasing liberties in Spain, but continued to be the
spiritual basis of Spanish rule in the island. Among the governors
of the 19th century Miguel Tacon, governor in 1834-1839,
a forceful and high-handed soldier, deserves mention, especially
in the annals of Havana; he ruled as a tyrant, rnade many
reforms as regarded law and order, and left Havana, in particular,
full of municipal improvements. The good he did was limited
to the spheres of public works and police; in other respects
his rule was a pernicious influence for Cuba. Politically his rule
was marked by the proclamation at Santiago in 1836, without
his consent, of the Spanish constitution of 1834; he repressed
the movement, and in 1837 the deputies of Cuba to the Cortes
of Spain (to which they were admitted in the two earlier con-
stitutional periods) were excluded from that body, and it was
declared in the national constitution that Cuba (and Porto Rico)
should be governed by " special laws." The inapplicability
of many laws passed for the Peninsula— all of which under a
constitutional system would apply to Cuba as to any other
province, unless that system be modified — was indeed notorious;
and Cuban opinion had repeatedly, through official bodies,
protested against laws thus imposed that worked injustice, and
had pleaded for special consideration of colonial conditions.
The promise of " special laws " based upon such consideration
was therefore not, in itself, unjust, nor unwelcome. But as the
colony had no voice in the Cortes, while the " special laws "
were never passed (Cuba expected special fundamental laws,
reforming her government, and the government regarded the
old Laws of the Indies as satisfying the obligation of the con-
stitution) the arbitrary rule of the captains-general remained
quite supreme, under the will of the crown, and colonial dis-
content became stronger and stronger. The rule of Leopoldo
O'Donnell was marked in 1844 by a cruel and bloody persecution
of negroes for a supposed plot of servile war; O'Donnell's
actions being partly due to the inquietude that had prevailed
for some years over the supposed machinations of English
abolitionists and even of English official residents in the island,
and also over the mutual jealousies and supposed annexation
ambitions of Great Britain and the United States.

A Cuban international question had arisen before 1820.
Spain, the United States, England, France, Colombia and
Mexico were all involved in it, the first four continually. In
the eighteen-fifties a strong pro-slavery interest in the United
States advocated the acquisition of the island. One feature of
this was the " Ostend Manifesto " (see Buchanan, James),
in which the ministers of the United States at London, Paris and
Madrid declared that if Spain refused a money offer for the
colony the United States should seize it. Their government
gave this document publicity. The Cuban policy of Presidents
Pierce and Buchanan (during 1853-1861) was vainly directed
to acquiring the island. From 1849 to 1851 there were three
abortive filibustering expeditions from the United States, two
being under a Spanish general, Narciso Lopez (1798-1851).
The domestic problem, the problem of discontent in the island,
had become acute by 1850, and from this time on to 1868 the
years were full of conflict between liberal and reactionary senti-
ment in the colony, centreing about the asserted connivance
of the captains-general in the illegal slave trade (declared illegal
after 1820 by the treaties of 1817 and 1835 between Great Britain
and Spain), the notorious immorality and prodigal wastefulness
of the government, and the selfish exploitation of the colony
by Spaniards and the Spanish government. From early in the
19th century there had always been separatists, reformists and
repressionists in the island, but they were individuals rather than
groups. The last were peninsulars, the others mainly Creoles, and
among the wealthy classes of the latter the separatists gradually
gained increasing support.

6°4

CUBA

An inpffective and extremely corrupt administration, a grave
economic condition, new arid heavy taxes, military repression,
recurring heavy deficits in the budget, adding to a debt (about
$150,000,000 in 1868) already very large and burdensome, and
the complete fiasco of the junta of inquiry of Cuban and Porto
Rican representatives which met in Madrid in 1866-1867 — all
were important influences favouring the outbreak of the Ten
Years' War. Among those who waged the war were men who
fought to compel reforms, others who fought for annexation
to the United States, others who fought for independence.
The reformists demanded, besides the correction of the above
evils, action against slavery, assimilation of rights between
peninsulars and Creoles and the practical recognition of equality,
e.g. in the matter of office-holding, a grievance centuries
old in Cuba as in other Spanish colonies, and guarantees of
personal liberties. The separatists, headed by Carlos Manuel
de Cespedes (1819-1874), a wealthy planter who proclaimed
the revolution at Yara on the 10th of October, demanded
the same reforms, including gradual emancipation of the
slaves with indemnity to owners, and the grant of free and
universal suffrage. War was confined throughout the ten years
almost wholly to the E. provinces. The policy of successive
captains-general was alternately uncompromisingly repressive
and conciliatory. The Spanish volunteers committed horrible
excesses in Havana and other places; the rebels also burned
and killed indiscriminatingly, and the war became increasingly
cruel and sanguinary. Intervention by the United States
seemed probable, but did not come, and after alternations in
the fortunes of war, Martinez Campos in January 1878 secured
the acceptance by the rebels of the convention (pacto) of Zanj6n,
which promised amnesty for the war, liberty to slaves in the
rebel ranks, the abolition of slavery, reforms in government, and
colonial autonomy. A small rising after peace (the "Little
War " of 1879-1880) was easily repressed. Gradual abolition
of slavery was declared by a law of the 13th of February 1880;
definitive abolition in 1886; and in 1893 the equal civil status
of blacks and whites in all respects was proclaimed by General
Calleja. There is no more evidence to warrant the wholly
erroneous statement sometimes made that emancipation was an
economic set-back to Cuba than could be gathered to support
a similar statement regarding the United States. Coolie importa-
tion from China had been stopped in 1871.

As for autonomy and political reforms it has already been
remarked that the change from the old regime was only super-
ficial. The Spanish constitution of 1876 was proclaimed in
Cuba in 1881. In 1878-1895 political parties had a complex
development. The Liberal party was of growing radicalism,
the Union Constitutional party of growing conservatism; and
after 1893 a Reformist party was launched that drew the com-
promisers and the waverers. The demands of the Liberals were
as in 1868; those for personal and property rights Were much
more definitely stated, and among explicit reforms demanded
were the separation of civil and military power, general recogni-
tion of administrative responsibility under a colonial autono-
mous constitutional regime; also among economic matters,
customs reforms and reciprocity with the United States were
demanded. As for the representation accorded Cuba in the
Spanish Cortes, as a rule about a quarter of her deputies were
Cuban-born, and the choice of only a few autonomists was
allowed by those who controlled the elections. Reciprocity
with the United States was in force from 1891 to 1894 and was
extremely beneficial to Cuba. Its cessation greatly increased
disaffection.

Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On
the 23rd of February 1895 General Calleja suspended the con-
stitutional guarantees. The leading chiefs of the Ten Years'
War took the field again— Maximo Gomez, Antonio Maceo,
Jose Marti, Calixto Garcia and others. Unlike that war, this
was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest
there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards
to isolate their foe were " trochas "" (i.e. entrenchments, barb-
wire fences, and lines of block-houses) across the narrow parts of

the island, and " reconcentracion " of non-combatants in camps
guarded by the Spanish forces. The latter measure produced
extreme suffering and much starvation (as the reconcentrados
were~4argely thrown 1 upon the charity of the beggared com-
munities in which they were huddled). In October 1897 the
Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of
autonomy, and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba
in December. But again all final authority was reserved to the
captain-general. The system was never to have a practical
trial, although a full government was quickly organized under
it. The American people had sent food to the reconcentrados;
President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the rebels,
affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this
attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States
battleship " Maine " was blown up — by whom will probably
never be known — in the harbour of Havana.

On the 20th of April the United States demanded the with-
drawal of Spanish troops from the island. War followed immedi-
ately. ; A fine Spanish squadron seeking to escape from Santiago
harbour was utterly destroyed by the American blockading
force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was invested by land forces,
ahd on the 15th of July the city surrendered. Other operations
in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th
of December, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United
States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of
American occupation being recognized throughout the treaty,
in accord with the terms of the American declaration of war, in
which the United States disclaimed any intention to control the
■island except for its pacification, and expressed the determination
to lea ve the island thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish
authority ceased on the 1st of January 1899, and was followed by
American " military " rule (January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902).
During these three years the great majority of offices were filled
by Cubans, and the government was made as different as possible
from the military control to which the colony had been accus-
tomed. Very much was done for public works, sanitation,
the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most
notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been
endemic for centuries. A constitutional convention sat at
Havana from the 5th of November 1900 to the 2rst of February
1901. The provisions of the document thus formed have already
been referred to. In the determination of the relations that
should subsist between the new- republic and the United s States
certain definite conditions known as the Piatt Amendment were
finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba
(12th of June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these
Cuba was bound not to incur debts her current revenues will
not bear; to continue the sanitary administration undertaken
by the military government of intervention; to lease naval
stations (since located at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo) to
the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to
intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly
affirmed in the provision, " That the government of Cuba
consents that the United States may exercise the right to
intervene for the protection of Cuban independence, the main-
tenance of a government adequate for the protection of life,
property and individual liberty, and for discharging the obliga-
tions with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on the
United States, now to be assumed alid undertaken by the
government of Cuba." The status thus created is very excep-
tional in the history of international relations. The' status of
the Isle of Pines was left an open question by the treaty of Paris,
but a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States has
declared it (in a question of customs duties) to be a part of Cuba,
and though a treaty to the same end did not secure ratification
(1908) by the United States Senate, repeated efforts by American
residents thereon to secure annexation to the United States
were ignored by the United States government.

The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, pre-
pared to take over the government from the American military
authorities, which it did on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada
Palma (1835-^08) became the first president of the Republic.

CUBA

605

In material prosperity the progress of the island from 1902 to 1906
was very great; but in its politics, various social and economic
elements, and political habits and examples of Spanish pro-
venience that ill befit a democracy, led once more to revolution.
Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required by
the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy,
independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation
of minority parties, were intended to make impossible the
abuses of centralized government that had characterized Spanish
administration. Political parties were forming without very
evident basis for differences outside questions of political
patronage and the good or ill use of power; and, in the absence
of the laws just mentioned, the Moderates, being in power, used
every instrument of government to strengthen their hold on
office. The preliminaries of the elections of December 1905 and
March 1006 being marked by frauds and injustice, the Liberals
deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing
to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a
manifesto of revolution on the 28th of July 1906. 1 This insurrec-
tion rapidly assumed large proportions. The government was
weak and lacked moral support in the whole island. After
repeated petitions from President Palma for intervention by
the United States, commissioners (William H. Taft, Secretary
of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State) were sent
from Washington to act as peace mediators.

All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve
the Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of
September), Congress dispersed without choosing a successor,
and as an alternative to anarchy the United States was compelled
to proclaim on the 29th of September 1906 a provisional govern-
ment, — to last " long enough to restore order and peace and
public confidence," and hold new elections. The insurrectionists
promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under the
Cuban flag, — the diplomatic and consular relations with even
the United States remaining in outward forms unchanged;
and the regular forms of the constitution were scrupulously
maintained so far as possible. No use was made of American
military force save as a passive background to the government.
The government of intervention at first directed its main effort
simply to holding the country together, without undertaking
much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably
foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few funda-
mental laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater
simplicity, strength and stability to a new native government.
These laws strictly defined the powers of the president; more
clearly separated the executive departments, so as to lessen
friction and jealousies; reformed the courts; reformed adminis-
trative routine; and increased the strength of the provinces
at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of January
1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was
a second time inaugurated, with General Jose Miguel Gomez
(b. 1 8 56) , the leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party,
as president, and Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction
of the same party, as vice-president. The last American troops
were withdrawn from the island on the 1st of April 1909.

Authorities. — General Description. — There is no trustworthy
recent description. The best books are E. Pechardo, Geografia de la
isla de Cuba (4 torn., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, Natura-
leza y civilization de . . . Cuba, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also :
United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192 (1902), H. Gannett,
" A Gazetteer of Cuba." Of general descriptions in English, in
addition to travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, Cuba and
Porto Rico with the other West Indies (New York, 1898).

Fauna and Flora. — A. H. R. Grisebach, Catalogus plantarum
Cubensium (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, Flora Cubana:
revisio catalogi Grisebachiani (Havana, 1868); and Flora Cubana:
enumeratio nova plantarum Cubensium (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et
al., Repertorio fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba (2 vols., Havana,
1 865-1 868), and F. Poey, Memorias sobre la historia natural de . , .
Cuba (3 torn., Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many
collaborators, Historia fisica, politica y natural de . . . Cuba_ (Paris,
1842-1851, 12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the

1 In the preliminary registration by. Moderate officials a total
electorate was registered of 432,313, — about 30% of the supposed
population of the island.

" Historia Natural ") ; Anales of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana,
1863- , annual) ; M. Gomez de laMaza, Flora Habanera (Havana,
1897); S. A. de Morales, Flora arboricolade Cuba aplicada (Havana,
1887, only part published); D. H. Segui, Ojeado sobre la. flora
mSdica y toxica de Cuba (Havana, 1900) ; J. Gundlach, Contribution
a la entomologia Cubana (Havana, 1881) ; J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez,
Tratado de la arboricultura Cubana (Havana, 1867).

Geology and Minerals.- — M. F. de Castro," Pruebas paleontologicas
de que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve
idea de su constitution ge'ologica," Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp. vol.
viii. (1881), pp. 357-372 ; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y Legarra,
" Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba," ibid. vol. viii. pi. vi. (published
with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in Anales of the Academy;
also, R. T. Hill in Harvard College Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Bulletin, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); United States Geological
Survey, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes et al., " Geological
Reconnaissance of Cuba"; Civil Report of General Leonard Wood,
governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, " Report on Mineral
Resources of Cuba."

Climate. — See the Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura,
and publications of the observatory of Havana. Sanitation.— For
conditions 1 899-1902, see Civil Reports of American military
governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the Informe Mensual
(1903- ) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad.

Agriculture.— Consult the Boletin above mentioned, publications
of the Estacion Central Agronomica, and current statistical serial
reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources,
live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &c.

Industries, Commerce, Communications. — See the works of Sagra
and Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter
(Special Commissioner of the United States government), Industrial
Cuba (New York, 1899) ; W. J. Clark, Commercial Cuba (New York,
1898) ; reports of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical
annuals of the Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways.

Population. — The early censuses were extremely unreliable.
Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt's Essay,
Saco's Papeles and Pezuela's Diccionario. See United States Depart-
ment of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899 (Washington, 1899) ;
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and Resources,
1907 (1909).

Education. — See Civil Reports of the American military govern-
ment, 1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, Report,
1897-1898 ; current reports in Informe del superintendente de
escuelasde Cuba . . . (Havana, 1903- ). On Letters and Culture.
— E. Pechardo y Tapia, Diccionario . . . de voces Cubanas (Havana,
1836, 4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio
Bachiller y Morales, Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la
instruction publica de Cuba (3 torn., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M.
Mestre, De la filosofia en la Habana (Havana, 1862) ; A. Mitjans,
Estudio sobre el movimiento cientifico y literario de Cuba (Havana,
1890); biographies of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see
below); files of La Revista de Cuba (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884)
and La Revista Cubana (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The litera-
ture of Travel is rich. It suffices to mention Letters from the
Havannah, by the English consul (London, 1821); E. M. Masse,
L'lle de Cuba (Paris, 1825) ; D. Turnbull, Travels in the West (London,
1840), and R. R. Madden, The Island of Cuba (London, 1853) — two
very important books regarding slavery; J. B. Rosemond de
Beauvallon, L'lle de Cuba (Paris, 1844) ; J. G. Taylor, The United
States and Cuba (London, 1851); F. Bremer, The Homes of the New
World (2 vols., New York, 1853) ; M. M. Ballou, History of Cuba,
or Notes of a Traveller (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana, To Cuba and
Back (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, Die Perle der Antillen (Leipzig,
1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, The Pearl of the Antilles (London, 1873);
S. Hazard, Cuba with Pen and Pencil (Hartford, Conn., 1873);
H. Piron, L'lle de Cuba (Paris, 1876). Of later books, F. Matthews,
The New-Born Cuba (New York, 1899); R. Davey, Cuba Past and
Present (London, 1898). _ Among the writers who have left short
impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J. A. Ampere
(1855), A. Trollope (i860), J. A. Froude (1888).

Administration. — Consult the literature of history and colonial
reform given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, Guia del
empleado de hacienda (Havana, i860), with very valuable historical
data; Carlos de Sedano y Cruzat, Cuba desde i8$o a 1873. Coleccion
de informes, memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de
la isla de Cuba (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, Informe
fiscal sobre fomento de la poblacion blanca (Madrid, 1845) ; Infor-
mation sobre reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en
1866 y 67 por los representantes de ambas islas (2 torn., New York,
1867; 2nd ed., New York, 1877); and the Diccionario of Pezuela.
These, with the works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von
Humboldt's work, Essai politique sur Vile de Cuba (2 vols., Paris
1826; Spanish editions, I vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English trans-
lation by J. S. Thrasher, with interpolations, New York, 1856),
are indispensable. For conditions at the end of the 1 8th century,
Fran, de Arango y Parreno, Obras (2 torn., Havana, 1888). For
later conditions, E. Valdes Dominguez, Los Antiguos Diputados de
Cuba (Havana, 1879); B. Huber, Apercu statistique de Vile de Cuba
(Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra, vols. 1-2 of the book cited above,

6o6

CUBE

being the Historia fisica y politica, and also the earlier work on which
they are based, Historia economica-politica y estadistica de . . .
Cuba (Havana, 1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by
J. M. Morilla (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin
(3 vols., Havana, 1882-1883) ; A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay,
The Island of Cuba (New York, 1896); Coleccion de reales ordenes,
decretos y disposiciones (Havana, serial, 1857-1898) ; Spanish Rule
in Cuba. Laws Governing the Island. Reviews Published by the
Colonial Office in Madrid . . . (New York, for the Spanish legation,
1896) ; and compilations of Spanish colonial laws listed under
article Indies, Laws of the. On the new Republican regime:
Gaceta Oficial (Havana, 1903- ); reports of departments of
government; M. Romero Palafox, Agenda de la republica de Cuba
(Havana, 1905). See also the Civil Reports of the United States
military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and
Washington, 190a), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington,
1901-1902).

History. — The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango
are indispensable ; also those of Francisco Calcagno, Diccionario
biogrdfico Cubano (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y
Morales, Iniciadores y primeros mdrtires de la revolution Cubana
(Havana, 1901) ; Jose Ahumada y Centurion, Memoria historica
politica de . . . Cuba (Havana, 1874) ; Jacobo de la Pezuela,
Diccionario geogrdfico-estadistico-historico de . . . Cuba (4 torn.,
Madrid, 1863-1866); Historia de . . . Cuba, (4 torn., Madrid,
1868-1878; supplanting his Ensayo historico de . . . Cuba, Madrid
and New York, 1842) ; and Jose Antonio Saco, Obras (2 vols., New
York, 1853), Papeles (3 torn., Paris, 1858-1859), and Coleccion
■bostuma de Papeles (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer,
op. oil. above, vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guiteras, Historia de
... Cuba (2 vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J.
Zaragoza, Las Insurrecciones en Cuba. Apuntes para la historia
politica (2 torn., Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, Vida
de . . . Felix Varela (New York, 1878), and Vida de D. Josi de
la Luz (New York, 1874; 2nd ed., 1879). On. early history see
Coleccion de documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento . . . de
ultramar (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6, Madrid, 1885-1890). On
archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, Cuba indigena (Madrid, 1881);
M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above) ; and especially A. Bachiller y
Morales, Cuba primitiva (Havana, 1883). For the history of the
Cuban international problem consult Jose Ignacio Rodriguez, Idea
de la anexionde la isla de Cuba a los Estados Unidos de America
(Havana, l9O0),and J. M. Callahan, Cubaand International Relations
(Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which supplement
each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an enormous
literature, from which may be selected (see general histories above
and works cited under § Administration of this bibliography) : M.
Torrente, Bosquejo economico-politico (2 torn., Madrid - Havana,
1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, Cuba en 1858 (Madrid, 1859); Jose de
la Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, Memorias sobre el estado
politico, gobierno y adminislracion de . . . Cuba (Madrid, 1853;
A. Lopez de Letona, Isla de Cuba, reflexiones "(Madrid, 1856) ; F. A.
Conte, Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba (Havana, 1892);
P. Valiente, Reformes dans les ties de Cuba et de Porto Rico (Paris,
1869); C. de Sedano, Cuba: Estudios polilicos (Madrid, 1872);
H. H. S. Aimes, History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868 (New York,
1907) ; F. Armas y Cespedes, De la esclavitud en Cuba (Madrid,
1866), and Regimen politico de las Antillas Espanolas (Palma, 1882) ;
R. Cabrera, Cuba y sus Jueces (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia,
1895 ; 8th ed., in English, Cuba and the Cubans, Philadelphia, 1896) ;
P. de Alzola y Minondo, El Problema Cubano (Bilbao, 1898) ; various
works by R. M. de Labra, including La Cueslion social en las Antillas
Espanolas (Madrid, 1874), Sistemas coloniales (Madrid, 1874), &c. ;
R. Montoro, Discursos . . .1878-1893 (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra
et al., El Problema colonial contempordnea (2 vols., Madrid, 1894) ;
articles by Em. Castelar et al., in Spanish reviews (1895-1898).
On the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M
Pepper, To-morrow in Cuba (New York, 1899) ; A. G. Robinson,
Cuba and the Intervention (New York, 1905). (F. S. P.)

CUBE (Gr. Kvfios, a cube), in geometry, a solid bounded by
six equal squares, so placed that the angle between any pair of
adjacent faces is a right angle . This solid played an all-important
part in the geometry and cosmology of the Greeks. Plato
(Timaeus) described the figure in the following terms: — " The
isosceles triangle which has its vertical angle a right angle . . .
combined in sets of four, with the right angles meeting at the
centre, form a single square. Six of these squares joined together
formed eight solid angles, each produced by three plane right
angles: and the shape of the body thus formed was cubical,
having six square planes for its surfaces." In his cosmology
Plato assigned this solid to " earth," for " ' earth ' is the least
mobile of the four (elements-^' fire,' ' water,' ' air ' and ' earth ')
and most plastic of bodies: and that substance must possess
this nature in the highest degree which "has its bases most stable."
The mensuration of the cube, and its relations to other geometrical

solids are treated in the article Polyhedron; in the same article
are treated the Archimedean solids, the truncated and snub-
cube ; reference should be made to the article Crystallography
for its significance as a crystal form.

A famous problem concerning the cube, namely, to construct
a cube of twice the volume of a given cube, was attacked with
great vigour by the Pythagoreans, Sophists and Platonists.
It became known as the " Delian problem " or the " problem
of the duplication of the cube," and ranks in historical importance
with the problems of " trisecting an angle " and " squaring the
circle." The origin of the problem is open to conjecture. The
Pythagorean discovery of " squaring a square," i.e. constructing
a square of twice the area of a given square (which follows as a
corollary to the Pythagorean property of a right-angled triangle,
viz. the square of the hypotenuse .equals the sum of the squares
on the sides), may have suggested the strictly analogous problem
of doubling a cube. Eratosthenes ic. 200 B.C.), however, gives a
picturesque origin to the problem. In a letter to Ptolemy
Euergetes he narrates the history of the problem. The Delians,
suffering a dire pestilence, consulted their oracles, and were
ordered to double the volume of the altar to their tutelary god,
Apollo. An altar was built having an edge double the length of
the original; but the plague was unabated, the oracles not having
been obeyed. The error was discovered, and the Delians applied
to Plato for his advice, and Plato referred them to Eudoxus.
This story is mere fable, for the problem is far older than Plato.

Hippocrates of Chios (c. 430 B.C.), the discoverer of the square
of a lune, showed that' the problem reduced to the determination
of two mean proportionals between two given lines, one of them
being twice the length of the other. Algebraically expressed,
if x and y be the required mean proportionals and a, 2a, the lines,
we have a :x::x: y :: y : 2a, from which it follows that x 3 =2a%
Although Hippocrates could not determine the proportionals,
his statement of the problem in this form was a great advance,
for it was perceived that the problem of trisecting an angle was
reducible to a similar form which, in the language of algebraic
geometry, is to solve geometrically a cubic equation. According
to Proclus, a man named Hippias, probably Hippias of Elis
(c. 460 B.C.), trisected an angle with a mechanical curve, named
the quadratrix (q.v.). Archytas of Tarentum (c. 430 B.C.) solved
the problems by means of sections of a half cylinder; according
to Eutocius, Menaechmus solved them by means of the inter-
sections of conic sections; and Eudoxus also gave a solution.

All these solutions were condemned by Plato on the ground
that they were mechanical and not geometrical, i.e. they were
not effected by means of circles and lines. However, no proper
geometrical solution, in Plato's sense, was obtained; in fact
it is now generally agreed that, with such a restriction, the
problem is insoluble. The pursuit of mechanical methods
furnished a stimulus to the study of mechanical loci, for example,
the locus of a point carried on a rod which is caused to move
according to a definite rule. Thus Nicomedes invented the
conchoid (q.v.); Diodes the cissoid (q.v.); Dinostratus studied
the quadratrix invented by Hippias; all these curves furnished
solutions, as is also the case with the trisectrix, a special form of
Pascal's limacon (q.v.). These problems were also attacked by
the Arabian mathematicians; Tobit ben Korra (836-901) is
credited with a solution, while Abul Gud solved it by means of a
parabola and an equilateral hyperbola.

In algebra, the " cube " of a quantity is the quantity multiplied
by itself twice, i.e. if a be the quantity oX«X«( = fl ! ) is its cube.
Similarly the " cube root " of a quantity is another quantity
which when multiplied by itself twice gives the original quantity;
thus a J is the cube root of a (see Arithmetic and Algebra).
A " cubic equation " is one in which the highest power of the
unknown is the cube (see Equation) ; similarly, a " cubic curve "
has an equation containing no term of a power higher than the
third, the powers of a compound term being added together.

In mensuration, " cubature " is sometimes used to denote the
volume of a solid; the word is parallel with " quadrature, " to de
termine the area of a surface (see Mensuration; Infinitesimal
Calculus).

CUBEBS— CUBITT, ■ SIR WILLIAM

607

CUBEBS (Arab, kabdbak), the fruit of several species of pepper
(Piper), belonging to the natural order Piperaceae. The cubebs
of pharmacy are produced by Piper Cubeba, a climbing woody
shrub indigenous to south Borneo, Sumatra, Prince of Wales
Island and Java. It has round, ash-coloured, smooth branches;
lanceolate, or ovate-oblong, somewhat leathery, shining leaves,
4 to 6J in. long and 15 to 2 in. broad. Male and female flowers
are borne on distinct plants. The fruits are small, globose, about
£ in. in diameter, and not so large as white pepper; their con-
tracted stalk-like bases are between 5 and | in. in length; and
from forty to fifty of them are borne upon a common stem. The
cubeb is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, the fruits are gathered
before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs
consist of the dried berries, usually with their stalks attached;
the pericarp is greyish-brown, or blackish and wrinkled; and
the seed, when present, is hard, white and oily. The odour of
cubebs is agreeable and aromatic; the taste, pungent, acrid,
slightly bitter and persistent. About 15% of a volatile oil is
obtained by distilling cubebs with water; after rectification
with water, or on keeping, this deposits rhombic crystals of
camphor of cubebs, C] 5 H 26 0; cubebene, the liquid portion, has
the formula C 16 H 24 . Cubebin, CH 2 [0] 2 C 6 H r CH:CH-CH 2 OH,
is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by
Eugene Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839; it may be prepared
from cubebene, or from the pulp left after the distillation of
the oil. The drug, along with gum, fatty oils, and malates of
magnesium and calcium, contains also about 1 % of cubebic
acid, and about 6% of a resin.

The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains, and the British Pharma-
copoeia contains a tincture with a dose of 5 to 1 drachm. The
volatile oil— oleum cubebae — is also official, and is the form in
which this drug is most commonly used, the dose being 5 to 20
minims, which may be suspended in mucilage or given after
meals in a cachet. The drug has the typical actions of a volatile
oil, but exerts some of them in an exceptional degree. Thus it
is liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its
excretion by the skin; it has a marked diuretic action; and it is
a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages. Its adminis-
tration causes the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic
acid which is precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and is therefore
liable to be mistaken for albumin, when these two most common
tests for the occurrence of albuminuria are applied. Cubebs is
frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma, chronic
pharyngitis and hay-fever. A small percentage of cubebs is
also commonly included in lozenges designed for use in bronchitis,
in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug
are useful. But the most important therapeutic application of
this drug is in gonorrhoea, where its antiseptic action is of much
value. As compared with copaiba in this connexion cubebs has
the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat
less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged
administration. The introduction of the drug into medicine is
supposed to have been due to the Arabian physicians in the
middle ages. Cubebs were formerly candied and eaten whole,
or used ground as a seasoning for meat. Their modern employ-
ment in England as a drug dates from 1815. " Cubebae "
were purchased in 1284 and 1285 by Lord Clare at 2s. 3d. and
2s. gd. per lb respectively; and in 1307 1 lb for the king's
wardrobe cost 9s., a sum representing about £3, 12s. in present
value (Rogers, Hist, of Agriculture and Prices, i. 627-628, ii. 544).

A closely allied species, Piper Clusii, produces the African
cubebs or West African black-pepper, the berry of which is
smoother than that of common cubebs and usually has a curved
pedicel. In the 14th century it was imported into Europe from
the Grain Coast, under the name of pepper, by merchants of
Rouen and Lippe.

CUBICLE (Lat. cubiculum), a small chamber containing a
couch or a bed. The small rooms opening into the atrium of
a Pompeian house are known as cubicula. In modern English
schools " cubicle " is the term given to the separate small bed-
rooms into which the dormitories are divided, as opposed to the
system of large open dormitories.

CUBITT, THOMAS (1788-1855), English builder, was born at
Buxton, near Norwich, on the 25th of February 1788. Few men
have exhibited greater self-reliance in early life in the pursuit
of a successful career. In his nineteenth year, when he was
working as a journeyman carpenter, his father died, and he tried
to better his position by going on a voyage to India, as captain's
joiner. He returned to London, two years after, in the possession
of a small capital, and began business as a carpenter. The growth
of his establishment was steady and rapid. He was one of the
first to combine several trades in a ".builder's " business; and
this very much increased his success. One of the earlier works
which gave him reputation was the London Institution in Fins-
bury Circus; but it is from 1824 that the vast building operations
date which identify his name with many splendid ranges of
London houses, such as Tavistock, Gordon, Belgrave and Lowndes
Squares, and the district of South Belgravia. While these and
similar extensive operations were in progress, a financial panic,
which proved ruinous to many, was surmounted in his case
by a determined spirit and his integrity of character. He took
great interest in sanitary measures, and published, for private
circulation, a pamphlet on the general drainage of London, the
substance of which was afterwards embodied in a letter to
The Times; the plan he advocated was subsequently adopted
by the conveyance of the sewage matter some distance below
London. He advocated the provision of open spaces in the
environs of London as places of public recreation, and was one
of the originators of Battersea Park, the first of the people's
parks. At a late period he received professionally the recognition
of royalty, the palace at Osborne being erected after his designs,
and under his superintendence; and in the Life of the Prince
Consort he is described by Queen Victoria as one " than whom
a better and kinder man did not exist." In 1851, although he
was not identified with the management of the Great Exhibition,
he showed the warmest sympathy with its objects, and aided its
projectors in many ways, especially in the profitable investment
of their surplus funds. Cubitt, when he rose to be a capitalist,
never forgot the interests and well-being of his workpeople.
He was elected president of the Builders' Society some time
before his death, which took place at his seat Denbies, near
Dorking, on the 20th of December 1855.

His son, George Cubitt (1828- ), who had a long and
useful parliamentary career, as Conservative member for West
Surrey (1860-1865) and Mid-Surrey (1885-1892), was in 1892
raised to the peerage as Baron Ashcombe.

CUBITT, SIR WILLIAM (1785-1861), English engineer, was
born in 1785 at Dilham in Norfolk, where his father was a
miller. After serving an apprenticeship of four years (1800-1804)
as a joiner and cabinetmaker at Stalham, he became associated
with an agricultural-machine maker, named Cook, who resided
at Swanton. In 1807 he patented self-regulating sails for wind-
mills, and in 1812 he entered the works of Messrs Ransome
of Ipswich, where he soon became chief engineer, and ultimately
a partner. Meanwhile, the subject of the employment of criminals
had been much in his thoughts; and the result was his introduc-
tion of the treadmill about 1818. In 1826 he removed to London,
where he gained a very large practice as a civil engineer. Among
his works were the Oxford canal, the. Birmingham & Liverpool
Junction Canal, the improvement of the river Severn, the Bute
docks at Cardiff, the Black Sluice drainage and its outfall sluice
at Boston harbour, the Middlesborough docks and coal drops
in the Tees, and the South-Eastern railway, of which he was
chief engineer. The Hanoverian government consulted him
about the harbour and docks at Harburg; the water- works
of the city of Berlin were constructed under his immediate
superintendence; he was asked to report on the construction
of the Paris & Lyons railway; and he was consulting engineer
for the line from Boulogne to Amiens. Among his later works
were two floating landing stages at Liverpool, and the bridge
for carrying the London turnpike across the Medway at Rochester.
In 185 1, when he was president of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, he was knighted for his services in connexion with the
buildings erected in Hyde Park for the exhibition of that year.

6o8

CUCHULINN— CUCKOO

He retired from active work in 1858, and died on the 13th of
October 1861 at his house on Clapham Common, London.
His son, Joseph Cubitt (1811-1872), was trained under him,
and was engineer of various railways, including the Great
Northern, London, Chatham & Dover, and part of the London
& South- Western.

CUCHULINN (Cuchulinn; pronounced " Coohoollin "), the
chief warrior in the Conchobar-Cuchulinn or older heroic (Ulster)
cycle of Ireland. The story of his origin is very obscure. The
god Lug is represented as. having been swallowed in a draught
of wine by his mother Dechtire, sister of Conchobar, who was
king of Ulster. But it is not unlikely that this story was invented
to supersede the account of the incestuous union of Conchobar
with his sister, which seems to be hinted at on various occasions.
Usually, however, he is styled son of Sualdam, an Ulster warrior
who plays a very inferior part in the cycle. His earliest name
was Setanta, and he was brought up at Dun Imbrith (Louth).
When he was six years of age he announced his intention of
going to Conchobar's court at Emain Macha (Navan Rath near
Armagh) to play with the boys there. He defeats all the boys
in marvellous fashion and is received as one of their number.
Shortly after he kills Culann, the smith's hound, a huge watch-dog.
The smith laments that all his property is of no value now that
his watchman is slain, whereupon the young hero offers to guard
his domains until a whelp of the hound's has grown. From this
the boy received the name of Cu Chulinn or Culann's Hound.
The next year Cuchulinn receives arms, makes his first foray,
and slays the three sons of Necht, redoubtable hereditary foes
of the Ulstermen, in the plain of Meath. The men of Ulster
decide that Cuchulinn must marry, as all the women of Ireland
are in love with him. Chosen envoys fail to find a bride worthy
of him after a year's search, but the hero goes straight to Emer,
the daughter of Forgall the Wily, at Lusk (county Dublin).
The lady is promised to him if he will go to learn chivalry of
Domnall the Soldierly and the amazon Scathach in Alba. After
enduring great hardships he goes through the course and leaves
a son Connlaech behind in Scotland by another amazon, Aife.
On his return he carries off and weds Emer. He is represented
as living at Dun Delgan (Dundalk) . The greatest of all the hero's
achievements was the defence of the frontier of Ulster against
the forces of Medb, queen of Connaught, who had come to carry
off the famous Brown Bull of Cualnge (Cooley). The men of
Ulster were all suffering from a strange debility, and Cuchulinn
had to undertake the defence single-handed from November
to February. This was when he was seventeen years of age.
The cycle contains a large number of episodes, such as the
gaining of the champion's portion and the tragical death by the
warrior's hand of his own son Connlaech. When he was twenty-
seven he met with his end at the hands of Lugaid, son of Curoi
MacDaire, the famous Munster warrior, and the children of
Calatln Dana, in revenge for their father's death (see Celt:
Irish Literature).'

Medieval Christian synchronists make Cuchulinn's death take
place about the beginning of the Christian era. It is not necessary
to regard Cuchulinn as a form of the solar hero, as some writers
have done. Most, if not all, of his wonderful attributes may be
ascribed to the Irish predilection for the grotesque. It is true
that Cuchulinn seems to stand in a special relation to the Tuatha
De Danann leader, the god Lug, but in primitive societies there
is always a tendency to ascribe a divine parentage to men who
stand out pre-eminently in prowess beyond their fellows.

See A. Nutt, Cuchulainn, the Irish Achilles (London, 1900); E.
Hull, The Cuchullin Saga (London, 1898). (E. C. Q.)

CUCKOO, or Cuckow, as the word was formerly spelt, the
common name of a well-known and often-heard bird, the Cuculus
canorus of Linnaeus. In some parts of the United Kingdom
it is more frequently called gowk, and it is the Gr. kokkv£, the
Ital. cuculo or cucco, the Fr. coucou, the Ger. Kuckuk, the
Dutch koekkoek, the Dan. kukker or gjog, and the Swed. gok.
The oldest English spelling of the name seems to have been
cuccu.

No single bird has perhaps so much occupied the attention

both of naturalists and of those who are not naturalists, or has
had so much written about it, as the common cuckoo, and of
no bird perhaps have more idle tales been told. Its strange and,
according to the experience of most people, its singular habit
of entrusting its offspring to foster-parents is enough to account
for much of the interest which has been so long felt in its history;
but this habit is shared probably by many of its Old World
relatives, as well as in the New World by birds which are not
in any degree related to it. The cuckoo is a summer visitant
to the whole of Europe, reaching even far within the Arctic
circle, and crossing the Mediterranean from its winter quarters
in Africa at the end of March or beginning of April. Its arrival
is at once proclaimed by the peculiar and in nearly all languages
onomatopoeic cry of the cock — a true song in the technical
sense of the word, since it is confined to the male sex and to the
season of love. In a few days the cock is followed by the hen,
and amorous contests between keen and loud-voiced suitors are
to be commonly noticed, until the respective pretensions of
the rivals are decided. Even by night they are not silent; but
as the season advances the song is less frequently heard, and the
cuckoo seems rather to avoid observation as much as possible,
the more so since whenever it shows itself it is a signal for all
the small birds of the neighbourhood to be up in its pursuit, just
as though it were a hawk, to which indeed its mode of flight
and general appearance give it an undoubted resemblance — a
resemblance that misleads some into confounding it with the
birds of prey, instead of recognizing it as a harmless if not a
beneficial destroyer of hairy caterpillars. Thus pass away some
weeks. Towards the middle or end of June its " plain-song "
cry alters; it becomes rather hoarser in tone, and its first
syllable or note is doubled. Soon after it is no longer heard at all,
and by the middle of July an old cuckoo is seldom to be fou^d
in the British Islands, though a stray example, or even, but very
rarely, two or three in company, may occasionally be seen for
a month longer. Of its breeding comparatively few have any
personal experience. Yet a diligent search for and peering into
the nests of several of the commonest little birds — more especially
the pied wagtail(Mofo«'Wa lugubris) , the tit\a.rk(Anthus pratensis) ,
the reed- wren (Acrocephalus streperus), and the hedge-sparrow
(Accentor modularis) — will be rewarded by the discovery of the
egg of the mysterious stranger which has been surreptitiously
introduced, and those who wait till this egg is hatched may be
witnesses (as was Edward Jenner in the 18th century) of the
murderous eviction of the rightful tenants of the nest by the
intruder, who, hoisting them one after another on his broad
back, heaves them over to die neglected by their own parents,
of whose solicitous care he thus becomes the only object. In
this manner he thrives, and, so long as he remains in the country
of his birth his wants are anxiously supplied by the victims of
his mother's dupery. The actions of his foster-parents become,
when he is full grown, almost ludicrous, for they often have to
perch between his shoulders to place in his gaping mouth the
delicate morsels he is too indolent or too stupid to take from
their bills. Early in September he begins to shift for himself,
and then follows the seniors of his kin to more southern climes.
So much caution is used by the hen cuckoo in choosing a nest
in which to deposit her egg that the act of insertion has been
but seldom witnessed. The nest selected is moreover often so
situated, or so built, that it would be an absolute impossibility
for a bird of her size to lay her egg therein by sitting upon the
fabric as birds commonly do; and there have been a few
fortunate observers who have actually seen the deposition of
the egg upon the ground by the cuckoo, who, then taking it in
her bill, introduces it into the nest. Of these, the earliest in Great
Britain seem to have been two Scottish lads, sons of Mr Tripeny,
a farmer in Coxmuir, who, as recorded by Macgillivray {Brit.
Birds, iii. 130, 131) from information communicated to him
by Mr Durham Weir, saw most part of the operation performed,
June 24, 1838. But perhaps the most satisfactory evidence on
the point is that of Adolf Miiller, a forester at Gladenbach in
Darmstadt, who says (Zoolog. Garten, 1866, pp. 374, 375) that
through a telescope he watched a cuckoo as she laid her egg on a

CUCKOO

609

bank, and then conveyed the egg in her bill to a wagtail's nest.
Cuckoos, too, have been not unfrequently shot as they were
carrying a cuckoo's egg, presumably their own, in their bill,
and this has probably given rise to the vulgar, but seemingly
groundless, belief that they suck the eggs of other kinds of birds.
More than this, Mr G. D. Rowley, who had much experience of
cuckoos, declares (Ibis, 1865, p. 186) his opinion to be that traces
of violence and of a scuffle between the intruder and the owners
of the nest at the time of introducing the egg often appear,
whence we are led to suppose that the cuckoo ordinarily, when
inserting her egg, excites the fury (already stimulated by her
hawk-like appearance) of the owners of the nest by turning out
one or more of the eggs that may be already laid therein, and thus
induces the dupe to brood all the more readily and more strongly
what is left to her. Of the assertion that the cuckoo herself
takes any interest in the future welfare of the egg she has foisted
on her victim, or of its product, there is no good evidence.

But a much more curious assertion has also been made, and
one that at first sight appears so incomprehensible as to cause
little surprise at the neglect it long encountered. To this
currency was first given by Salerne (L'Hist. nat. &c, Paris,
1767, p. 42), who was, however, hardly a believer in it, and it is
to the effect, as he was told by an inhabitant of Sologne, that
the egg of a cuckoo resembles in colour that of the eggs normally
laid by the kind of bird in whose nest it is placed. In 1853 the
same notion was prominently and independently brought forward
by Dr A. C. E. Baldamus (Naumannia, 1853, pp. 307-325), and
in time became known to English ornithologists, most of whom
were naturally sceptical as to its truth, since no likeness whatever
is ordinarily apparent in the very familiar case of the blue-green
egg of the hedge-sparrow and that of the cuckoo, which is so
often found beside it. 1 Dr Baldamus based his notion on a
series of eggs in his cabinet, 2 a selection from which he figured
in illustration of his paper, and, however the thing may be
accounted for, it seems impossible to resist, save on one supposi-
tion, the force of the testimony these specimens afford. This one
supposition is that the eggs have been wrongly ascribed to the
cuckoo, and that they are only exceptionally large examples
of the eggs of the birds in the nests of which they were found,
for it cannot be gainsaid that some such abnormal examples are
occasionally to be met with. But it is well known that abnormally
large eggs are not only often deficient in depth of colour, but
still more often in stoutness of shell. Applying these rough
criteria to Dr Baldamus's series, most of the specimens stood
the test very well.

There are some other considerations to be urged. For instance,
Herr Braune, a forester at Greiz in the principality of Reuss
(Naumannia, lorn. cil. pp. 307, 313), shot a hen cuckoo as she
was leaving the nest of an icterine warbler (Hypolais iclerina).
In the oviduct of this cuckoo he found an egg coloured very like
that of the warbler, and on looking into the nest he found
there an exactly similar egg, which there can be no reasonable
doubt had just been laid by that very cuckoo. Moreover, Herr
Grunack (Journ. fur Orn., 1873, p. 454) afterwards found one
of the most abnormally coloured specimens, quite unlike the
ordinary egg of the cuckoo, to contain an embryo so fully
formed as to show the characteristic zygodactyl feet of the bird,
thus proving unquestionably its parentage.

On the other hand, we must bear in mind the numerous
instances in which not the least similarity can be traced — as in
the not uncommon case of the hedge-sparrow already mentioned,
and if we attempt any explanatory hypothesis it must be one
that will fit all round. Such an explanation seems to be this.
We know that certain kinds of birds resent interference with
their nests much less than others, and among them it may be
asserted that the hedge-sparrow will patiently submit to various
experiments. She will brood with complacency the egg of a
redbreast (Erithacus rubecula), so unlike her own, and for aught
we know to the contrary may even be colour-blind. In the case

1 An instance to the contrary has been recorded by Mr A. C.
Smith (Zoologist, 1873, p. 3516) on Mr Brine's authority.
1 This series was seen in 1861 by the writer.

vu. 20

of such a species there would be no need OI anything further to
ensure success — the terror of the nest-owner a^ seeing her home
invaded by a hawk-like giant, and some of her treasures tossed
out, would be enough to stir her motherly feelings so deeply that
she would without misgiving, if not with joy that something
had been spared to her, resume the duty of incubation so soon
as the danger was past. But with other species it may be, and
doubtless is, different. Here assimilation of the introduced egg
to those of the rightful owner may be necessary, for there can
hardly be a doubt as to the truth of Dr Baldamus's theory as to
the object of the assimilation being to render the cuckoo's egg
"less easily recognized by the foster-parents as a substituted
one." It is especially desirable to point out that there is not
the slightest ground for imagining that the cuckoo, or any other
bird, can voluntarily influence the colour of the egg she is about
to lay. Over that she can have no control, but its destination
she can determine. It would seem also impossible that a cuckoo,
having laid an egg, should look at it, and then decide from its
appearance in what bird 's nest she should put it. That the colour
of an egg-shell can be in some mysterious way affected by the
action of external objects on the perceptive faculties of the
mother is a notion too wild to be seriously entertained. Con-
sequently, only one explanation of the facts can here be suggested.
Every one who has sufficiently studied the habits of animals
will admit the influence of heredity. That there is a reasonable
probability of each cuckoo most commonly putting her eggs in
the nest of the same species of bird, and of this habit being
transmitted to her posterity, does not seem to be a very violent
supposition. Without attributing any wonderful sagacity to
her, it does not seem unlikely that the cuckoo which bad once
successfully foisted her egg on a reed-wren or a titlark should
again seek for another reed-wren's or another titlark's nest (as
the case may be), when she had another egg to dispose of, and
that she should continue her practice from one season to another.
It stands on record (Zoologist, 1873, p. 3648) that a pair of wag-
tails built their nest for eight or nine years running in almost
exactly the same spot, and that in each of those years they
fostered a young cuckoo, while many other cases of like kind,
though not perhaps established on so good authority, are believed
to have happened. Such a habit could hardly fail to become
hereditary, so that the daughter of a cuckoo which always put
her egg into a reed-wren's, titlark's or wagtail's nest would do
as did her mother. Furthermore it is unquestionable that,
whatever variation there may be among the eggs laid by different
individuals of the same species, there is a strong family likeness
between the eggs laid by the same individual, even at the interval
of many years, and it can hardly be questioned that the eggs
of the daughter would more or less resemble those of her mother.
Hence the supposition may be fairly credited that the hafcit of
laying a particular style of egg is also likely to become hereditary.
Combining this supposition with that as to the cuckoo's habit
of using the nest of the same species becoming hereditary, it will
be seen that it requires only an application of the principle of
natural selection to show the probability of this principle operat-
ing in the course of time to produce the facts asserted by the
anonymous Solognot of the 18th century, and by Dr Baldamus
and others since. The particular gens of cuckoo which inherited
and transmitted the habit of depositing in the nest of any
particular species of bird eggs having more or less resemblance to
the eggs of that species would prosper most in those members
of the gens where the likeness was strongest, and the other
members would (ceteris paribus) in time be eliminated. As
already shown, it is not to be supposed that all species, or even
all individuals of a species, are duped with equal ease. The
operation of this kind of natural selection would be most needed
in those cases where the species are not easily duped — that is,
in those cases which occur the least frequently. Here it is we
find it, for observation shows that eggs of the cuckoo deposited
in nests of the red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) , of the bunting
(Emberiza miliaria), and of the icterine warbler approximate in
their colouring to eggs of those species — species in whose nests
the cuckoo rarely (in comparison with others) deposits -eggs.

S3

6i6

CUCKOO-SPIT— CUCUMBER

Of species which are more easily duped, such as the hedge-
sparrow, mention has already been made.

More or less nearly allied to the British cuckoo are many other
Forms of the genus from various parts of Africa, Asia and their
islands, while one even reaches Australia. In some cases the
chief difference is said to lie in the diversity of voice — -a character
only to be appreciated by those acquainted with the living birds,
and though of course some regard should be paid to this distinc-
tion, the possibility of birds using different "dialects" according
to the locality they inhabit must make it a slender specific
diagnostic. All these forms are believed to have essentially
the same habits as the British cuckoo, and, as regards parasitism
the same is to be said of the large cuckoo of southern Europe and
North Africa (Cbccysles glandarius) , which victimizes pies (Pica
mauritanica and Cyanopica cooki) and crows (Corvus comix).
True it is that an instance of this species, commonly known as
the great spotted cuckoo, having built a nest and hatched its
young, is on record, but the later observations of others tend to
cast doubt on the credibility of the ancient report. It is worthy
of remark that the eggs of this bird so closely resemble those of
one of the pies in whose nest they have been found, that even
expert zoologists have been deceived by them, only to discover
the truth when the cuckoo's embryo had been extracted from
the supposed pie's egg. This species of cuckoo, easily distin-
guishable by its large size and long crest, has more than once
made its appearance as a straggler in the British Isles. Equally
parasitic are many other cuckoos, belonging chiefly to genera
which have been more or less clearly defined as Cacomantis,
Chrysococcyx, Eudynamis, Oxylophus, Polyphasia and Sumiculus,
and inhabiting parts of the Ethiopian, Indian and Australian
regions; 1 but there are certain aberrant forms of Old World
cuckoos which unquestionably do not shirk parental responsi-
bilities. Among these especially are the birds placed in or allied
to the genera Centropus and Coua — the former having a wide
distribution from Egypt to New South Wales, living much on
the ground and commonly called lark-heeled cuckoos; the latter
bearing no English name, and limited to the island of Madagascar.
These build a nest, not perhaps in a highly finished style of
architecture, but one that serves its end.

Respecting the cuckoos of America, the evidence-, though it
has been impugned, is certainly enough to clear them from the
charge which attaches to so many of their brethren of the Old
World. There are two species very well known in parts of the
United States and some of the West Indian Islands (Coccysus
.imericanus and C. erythrophthalmus), and each of them has
occasionally visited Europe. They both build nests— remarkably
small structures when compared with those of other birds of
their size — and faithfully incubate their delicate sea-green eggs.
In the south-western states of the Union and thence into Central
America is found another curious form of cuckoo (Geococcyx) —
the chaparral-cock of northern and paisano of southern settlers.
The first of these names it takes from the low brushwood (chap-
arral) in which it chiefly dwells, and the second is said to be due
to its pheasant4ike (faisan corrupted into paisano, properly a
countryman) appearance as it runs on the ground. Indeed,
one of the two species of the genus was formerly described as a
Phasianus. They both have short wings, and seem never to fly,
but run with great rapidity. Returning to arboreal forms, the
genera Neomorphus, Diplopterus, Saurothera and Piaya (the last
two commonly called rain-birds, from the belief that their cry
portends rain), may be noticed — all of them belonging to the
Neotropical region; but perhaps the most curious form of
American cuckoos is the ani (Crotophaga), of which three species
inhabit the same region. The best-known species (C. ani) is
foud throughout the Antilles and on the opposite continent.
In most of the British colonies it is known as the black witch,
and is accused of various malpractices — it being, in truth, a
perfectly harmless if not a beneficial bird. As regards its pro-
pagation this aberrant form of cuckoo departs in one direction

1 Evidence tends to show that the same is to be said of the curious
channel-bill (Scythrops novae-holiandiae) , though absolute proof
seems to be wanting. .

from the normal habit of birds, for several females, unite to lay
their eggs in one nest. • It is evident that incubation is carried
on socially, since an intruder on approaching the rude nest will
disturb perhaps half a dozen of its sable proprietors, who, loudly
complaining, seek safety either in the leafy branches of the tree
that holds it, or in the .nearest available covert, with all the
speed that their feeble powers of flight permit. (A. N.)

CUCKOO-SPIT, a frothy secretion found upcn plants, and
produced by the immature nymphal stage of various plant-lice
of the familiar Cercopidae and Jassidae, belonging to the homo-
pterous division of the Hemiptera, which in the adult condition
are sometimes called frog-hoppers.

CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus, Fr. concombre, O. Fr. cou-
combre, whence the older English spelling and pronunciation
" cowcumber," the standard in England up to the beginning
of the 1 8th century), a creeping plant of the natural order
Cucurbitaceae. It is widely cultivated, and originated prob-
ably in northern India, where Alphonse de Candolle affirms
(Origin of Cultivated Plants) that it has been cultivated for at
least three thousand years. It spread westward to Europe and
was cultivated by the ancient Greeks under the name gIkvos;
it did not reach China until two hundred years before the Christian
era. It is an annual with a rough succulent trailing stem and
stalked hairy leaves with three to five pointed lobes; the stem
bears branched tendrils by means of which the plant can be
trained to supports. The short-stalked, bell-shaped flowers are
unisexual, but staminate and pistillate are borne on the same
plant; the latter are recognized by the swollen warty green ovary
below the rest of the flower. The ovary develops into the
" cucumber " without fertilization, and unless seeds are wanted,
it is advisable to pinch off the male flowers.

There are a great many varieties of cucumber in cultivation,
which may be grouped under the two headings (i) forcing, (2).
field varieties.

1. The former are large-leaved strong-growing plants, not
suited to outdoor culture, with long smooth-rinded fruit; there
are many excellent varieties such as Telegraph, Sion House,
duke of Edinburgh, &c. The plants are grown in a hot-bed
which is prepared towards the end of February from rich stable
manure, leaves, &c. A rich turfy loam with a little well-decom-
posed stable manure forms a good soil. The seeds are sown
singly in rich, sandy soil in small pots early in February and
plunged in a bottom heat. After they have made one or two
foliage-leaves the seedlings are transferred to larger pots, and
ultimately about the middle of March to the hot-bed. Each
plant is placed in the centre of a mound of soil about a foot deep
and well watered with tepid water. The plants should be well
watered during their growing period, and the foliage sprinkled
or syringed two or three times a day. In bright sunshine the
plants are lightly shaded. When grown in frames the tops of
the main stems are pinched off when the stems are about 2 ft.
long; this causes the development of side shoots on which fruits
are borne. When these have produced one or two fruits, they are
also stopped at the joint beyond the fruit. When grown in green-
houses the vines may be allowed to reach the full length of
the house before they are stopped. To keep the fruits straight
they may be grown in cylindrical glass tubes about a foot long,
or along narrow wooden troughs. If seeds are required one or
more female flowers should be selected and pollen from male
flower placed on their stigmas.

2. The outdoor varieties are known as hill or ridge cucumbers.
They may be grown in any good soil. A warm, sheltered spot with
a south aspect and a mound of rich, sandv loam with a little leaf-
mould placed over a hot-bed of dung and leaves is recommended.
The mounds or ridges should be 4 to 5 ft. apart, and one plant
is placed in the centre of each. The seeds are sown in March
in light, rich soil in small pots with gentle heat. The seedlings
are repotted and well hardened for planting out in June. The
plants must be well watered in and, until established, shaded by
a hand-light from bright sunshine. When the leading shoots are
from 1 5 to 2 ft. long the tips are pinched off to induce the forma-
tion of fruit-bearing side-shoots. If seed is required a pistillate

CUCURBIT ACEAE— CUDDALORE

611

flower is selected and pollinated. There are numerous varieties
distinguished by size and the smooth or prickly rind. King of
the Ridge has smooth fruits a foot or more long; gherkin, a
short, prickly form, is much used for pickling.

Cucumber is subject to the attacks of green fly, red spider and
thrips; for the two latter, infected leaves should be sponged with
soapy water; for green fly careful fumigating is necessary.

The Sikkim cucumber, C. sativus var. sikkimensis, is a large
fruited form, reaching 15 in. long by 6 in. thick, grown in
the Himalayas of Sikkim and Nepal. It was discovered by Sir
Joseph Hooker in the eastern Himalayas in 1848. He says
" so abundant were the fruits, that for days together I saw
gnawed fruits lying by the natives' paths by thousands, and
every man, woman and child seemed engaged throughout the
day in devouring them." The fruit is reddish-brown, marked
with yellow, and is eaten both raw and cooked.

The West India gherkin is Cucumis Anguria, a plant with
small, slender vines, and very abundant small ellipsoid green
fruit covered with warts and spines. It is used for pickling.

Cucumbers were much esteemed by the ancients. According
to Pliny, the emperor Tiberius was supplied with them daily,
both in summer and winter. The kishuim or cucumbers of the
scriptures (Num. xi. 5; Isa. i. 8) were probably a wild form of
C. Melo, the melon, a plant common in Egypt, where a drink
is prepared from the ripe fruit. Peter Forskal, one of the early
botanical writers on the country, describes its preparation.
The pulp is broken and stirred by means of a stick thrust through
a hole cut at the umbilicus of the fruit; the hole is then closed
with wax, and the fruit, without removing it from its stem,
is buried in a little pit; after some days the pulp is found to
be converted into an agreeable liquor (see Flora aegyptiaco-
arabica, p. 168, 1775). The squirting cucumber, Ecballium
Elaterium, the 'EIkvos aypios of Theophrastus, furnishes the drug
elaterium (q.v.).

See Naudin in Annal. des sci. nat. ser. 4 (Botany), t. xi. (1859);
G. Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening (1885) ; L. H. Bailey, Cyclo-
paedia of American Horticulture (1900).

CUCURBITACEAE, a botanical order of dicotyledons, con-
taining 87 genera and about 650 species, found in the temperate
and warmer parts of the earth but especially developed in the

Fig. 1. — Bryonia dioica, Bryony. I, part of corolla of male
flower with attached stamens; 2, female flower after removal of
calyx and carolla; 3, berries; 1,2,3 about nat. size.

tropics. The plants are generally annual herbs, climbing by
means of tendrils and having a rapid growth. The long-stalked
leaves are arranged alternately, and are generally palmately

lobed and veined. The flowers or inflorescences are borne in
the leaf-axils, in which a vegetative bud is also found, and at
the side of the leaf-stalk is a simple or branched tendril. • There
has been much difference of opinion as to what member or
members the tendril represents; the one which seems most in
accordance with facts regards the tendril as a shoot, the lower
portion representing the stem, the upper twining portion a leaf.
The flowers are unisexual, and strikingly epigynous, the perianth
and stamens being attached to a bell-shaped prolongation of the
receptacle above the ovary. The five narrow pointed sepals
are followed by five petals which are generally united to form
a more or less bell-shaped corolla. There are five stamens in
the male flowers; the anthers open towards the outside, are

wKHHHr

mmm ^

of

Fig. 2.
cucumber

1, Male flower

(Cucumis).

2, Same, in vertical section,

slightly enlarged.

3, Stamens, after removal of

calyx and corolla.

4, Female flower.

5, Horizontal plan of male flower.

6, Transverse section of fruit.

1 and 4 nat. size.

one-celled, with the pollen-sacs generally curved and variously
united. The carpels, normally three in number, form an ovary
with three thick, fleshy, bifid placentas bearing a large number
of ovules on each side, and generally filling the interior of the
ovary with a juicy mass. The short thick style has generally
three branches each bearing a fleshy, usually forked stigma. The
fruit is a fleshy many-seeded berry with a tough rind (known as
a pepo), and often attains considerable size. The embryo
completely fills the seed.

The order is represented in Britain by bryony (Bryonia dioica),
(fig. 1) a hedge-climber, perennial by means of large fleshy tubers
which send up each year a number of slender angular stems.
The leaves are heart-shaped with wavy margined lobes. The
flowers are greenish, \ to \ in. in diameter; the fruit, a red
several-seeded berry, is about \ in. in diameter.

Many genera are of economic importance; Cucumis (fig. 2)
affords cucumber (q.v.) and melon (q.v.) ; Cucurbita, pumpkin and
marrow; Citrullus vulgaris is water-melon, and C. Colocynthis,
colocynth; Ecballium Elaterium (squirting cucumber) is
medicinal; Sechium edule (chocho), a tropical American species,
is largely cultivated for its edible fruit; it contains one large
seed which germinates in situ. Lagenaria is the gourd (q.v.).
The fruits of Luffa aegyptiaca have a number of closely netted
vascular bundles in the pericarp, forming a kind of loose felt
which supplies the well-known loofah or bath-sponge.

CUDDALORE, a town of British India, in the South Arcot
district of Madras, on the coast 125 m. S. of Madras by rail.
Pop. (1001) 52,216, showing an increase of 10% in the decade.
It lies low, but is regarded as exceptionally healthy, and serves
as a kind of sanatorium for the surrounding district. The
principal exports are sugar, oil-seeds and indigo. There are two
colleges and two high schools. In the neighbourhood are the
ruins of Fort St David situated on the river Gadilam, which has

6l2

CUDDAPAH— CUDWORTH

as stirring a history <w <iny spot in the Presidency. As a small
fort built by a Hindu merchant it fell into the hands of the
Mahrattas after the capture of Gingi by Sivaji in 1677. From
them it was purchased by the English in 1690, the purchase
including not only the fort but the adjacent towns and villages
" within ye randome shott of a piece of ordnance." A great gun
was fired to different points of the compass and all the country
within its range, including the town of Cuddalore, passed into
the possession of the English. The villages thus obtained are
still spoken of as " cannon ball villages." From 1725 onwards
the fortifications were greatly strengthened. In 1746 Fort
St David became the British headquarters for the south of India,
and Dupleix' attack was successfully repulsed. Clive was
appointed its governor in 1756; in 1758 the French captured it,
but abandoned it two years later to Sir Eyre Coote. In 1782
they again took it and restored it sufficiently to withstand a
British attack in 1783. In 1785 it finally passed into British
possession.

CUDDAPAH, a town and district of British India, in the
Madras Presidency. The town is 6 m. from the right bank of
the river Pennar, and 161 m. by rail from Madras. Pop. (1901)
16,432. It is now a poor place, but has some trade in cotton and
indigo, and manufactures of cotton cloth. Hills surround it
on three sides, and it has a bad reputation for unhealthiness.

The District or Cuddapah has an area of 8723 sq. m. It
is in shape an irregular parallelogram, divided into two nearly
equal parts by the range of the Eastern Ghats, which intersects
it throughout its entire length. The two tracts thus formed
possess totally different features. The first, which constitutes
the north, east and south-east of the district, is a low-lying plain;
while the other, which comprises the southern and south-
western portion, forms a high table-land from 1500 to 2500 ft.
above sea-level. The chief river is the Pennar, which enters the
district from Bellary on the west, and flows eastwards into
Nellore. Though a large and broad river, and in the rains
containing a great volume of water, in the hot weather months
it dwindles down to an inconsiderable stream. Its principal
tributaries are the Kundaur, Saglair, Cheyair, and Papagni
rivers. One of the most interesting antiquities in the district
is the ancient fort of Gurramkonda. The fort is supposed to have
been built by the Golconda sultans; it stands on a hill 500
ft. high, three sides of which consist of almost perpendicular
precipices. According to a local legend the name Gurramkonda,
meaning " horse hill," was derived from the fact that a horse was
supposed to be guardian of the fort and that the place was
impregnable so long as the horse remained there. The story
goes that a Mahratta chief at length succeeded in scaling the
precipice and in carrying off the horse, and although the thief
was captured before reaching the base of the hill, the spell was
broken and the fort, when next attacked, fell. The population
of the district in 1901 was 1,291,267. The principal crops are
millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and indigo.
The two last are largely exported. There are several steam
factories for pressing cotton, and indigo vats. The district
is served by lines of the Madras and the South Indian
railways.

CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688), English philosopher, was
born at Aller, Somersetshire, the son of Dr Ralph Cudworth
(d. 1624), rector of Aller, formerly fellow of Emmanuel College,
Cambridge. His father died in 1624, and his mother then
married the Rev. Dr Stoughton, who gave the boy a good home
education. Cudworth was sent to his father's college, was elected
fellow in 1639, and became a successful tutor. In 1642 he
published A Discourse concerning the true Notion of the Lord's
Supper, and a tract entitled The Union of Christ and the Church.
In 1645 he was appointed master of Clare Hall and the same year
was elected Regius professor of Hebrew. He was now recognized
as a leader among the remarkable group known as the Cambridge
Platonists (q.v.) . The whole party were more or less in sympathy
with the Commonwealth, and Cudworth was consulted by John
Thurloe, Cromwell's secretary of state, in regard to university
and government appointments. His sermons, such as that

preached before the House of Commons, on the 31st of March
1647, advocate principles of religious toleration and charity.
In 1650 he was presented to the college living of North Cadbury,
Somerset. From the diary of his friend John Worthington we
learn that Cudworth was nearly compelled, through poverty,
to leave the university, but in 1654 he was elected master of
Christ's College, whereupon he married. On the Restoration
he contributed some Hebrew verses to the Academiae Canta-
brigiensis Sworpa, a congratulatory volume addressed to the king.
In 1662 he was presented to the rectory of Ashwell, Herts.
In 1665 he almost quarrelled with his fellow-Platonist, Henry
More, because the latter had written an ethical work which
Cudworth feared would interfere with his own long-contemplated
treatise on the same subject. To avoid clashing, More brought
out his book, the Enchiridion ethicum, in Latin; Cudworth's
never appeared. In 1678 he published The True Intellectual
System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and
philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated
(imprimatur dated 167 1). No more was published, perhaps
because of the theological clamour raised against this first part.
Cudworth was installed prebendary of Gloucester in 1678. He
died on the 26th of June 1688, and was buried in the chapel
of Christ's. His only surviving child, Damaris, a devout and
talented woman, became the second wife of Sir Francis Masham,
and was distinguished as the friend of John Locke. Much of
Cudworth's work still remains in manuscript; A Treatise
concerning eternal and immutable Morality was published in 1731 ;
and A Treatise of Freewill, edited by John Allen, in 1838; both
are connected with the design of his magnum opus, the Intellectual
System.

The Intellectual System arose, so its author tells us, out of a
discourse refuting " fatal necessity," or determinism. Enlarging
his plan, he proposed to prove three matters: (a) the existence
of God; (b) the naturalness of moral distinctions; and (c) the
reality of human freedom. These three together make up the
intellectual (as opposed to the physical) system of the universe;
and they are opposed respectively by three false principles,
atheism, religious fatalism which refers all moral distinctions to
the will of God, and thirdly the fatalism of the ancient Stoics,
who recognized God and yet identified Him with nature. The
immense fragment dealing with atheism is all that was published
by its author. Cudworth criticizes two main forms of materialistic
atheism, the atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus and
Hobbes; and the hylozoic, attributed to Strato, which explains
everything by the supposition of an inward self-organizing life
in matter. Atomic atheism is by far the more important, if
only because Hobbes, the great antagonist whom Cudworth
always has in view, is supposed to have held it. It arises out of
the combination of two principles, neither of which is atheistic
taken separately, i.e. atomism and corporealism, or the doctrine
that nothing exists but body. The example of Stoicism, as
Cudworth points out, shows that corporealism may be theistic.
Into the history of atomism Cudworth plunges with vast erudi-
tion. It is, in its purely physical application, a theory that he
fully accepts; he holds that it was taught by Pythagoras,
Empedocles, and in fact, nearly all the ancient philosophers,
and was only perverted to atheism by Democritus. It was
first invented, he believes, before the Trojan war, by a Sidonian
thinker named Moschus or Mochus, who is identical with the
Moses of the Old Testament. In dealing with atheism Cud-
worth's method is to marshal the atheistic arguments elaborately,
so elaborately that Dryden remarked " he has raised such ob-
jections against the being of a God and Providence that many
think he has not answered them "; then in his last chapter,
which by itself is as long as an ordinary treatise, he confutes
them with all the reasons that his reading could supply. A
subordinate matter in the book that attracted much attention
at the time is the conception of the " Plastic Medium," which
is a mere revival of Plato's " World-Soul," and is meant to
explain the existence and laws of nature without referring all
to the direct operation of God. It occasioned a long-drawn
controversy between Pierre Bayle and Le Clerc, the former

CUENCA— CUIRASS

613

maintaining, the latter denying, that the Plastic Medium is
really favourable to atheism.

No modern reader can endure to toil through the Intellectual
System; its only interest is the light it throws upon the state of
religious thought after the Restoration, when, as Birch puts it,
" irreligion began to lift up its head." It is immensely diffuse
and pretentious, loaded with digressions, its argument buried
under masses of fantastic, uncritical learning, the work of a
vigorous but quite unoriginal mind. As Bolingbroke said,
Cudworth " read too much to think enough, and admired too
much to think freely." It is no calamity that natural pro-
crastination, or the clamour caused by his candid treatment of
atheism and by certain heretical tendencies detected by orthodox
criticism in his view of the Trinity, made Cudworth leave the
work unfinished.

A much more favourable judgment must be given upon the
short Treatise on eternal and immutable Morality, which deserves
to be read by those who are interested in the historical develop-
ment of British moral philosophy. It is an answer to Hobbes's
famous doctrine that moral distinctions are created by the state,
an answer from the standpoint of Platonism. Just as knowledge
contains a permanent intelligible element over and above the
flux of sense-impressions, so there exist eternal and immutable
ideas of morality. Cudworth's ideas, like Plato's, have " a
constant and never-failing entity of their own," such as we see
in geometrical figures; but, unlike Plato's, they exist in the
mind of God, whence they are communicated to finite under-
standings. Hence " it is evident that wisdom, knowledge and
understanding are eternal and self- sub si stent things, superior
to matter and all sensible beings, and independent upon them " ;
and so also are moral good and evil. At this point Cudworth
stops; he does not attempt to give any list of Moral Ideas. It
is, indeed, the cardinal weakness of this form of intuitionism
that no satisfactory list can be given and that no moral principles
have the " constant and never-failing entity," or the definiteness,
of the concepts of geometry. Henry More, in his Enchiridion
ethicum, attempts to enumerate the " noemata moralia"; but,
so far from being self-evident, most of his moral axioms are
open to serious controversy.

The Intellectual System was translated into Latin by J. L. Mosheim
and furnished with notes and dissertations which were translated
into English in J. Harrison's edition (1845). Our chief biographical
authority is T. Birch's " Account," which appears in editions of the
Works. There is a good chapter on Cudworth in J. Tulloch's
Rational Theology, vol. ii. Consult also P. Janet's Essai sur le
mediateur plastique (i860), W. R. Scott's Introduction to Cudworth's
" Treatise," and J. Martineau's Types of Ethical Theory, vol. ii.

(H. St.)

CUENCA, a city , and the capital of the province of Azuay,
Ecuador, about 190 m. S. of Quito and 70 m. S.E. of Guayaquil.
Pop. (1908 estimate) 30,000 (largely Indians), including the
suburb of Ejido. Cuenca stands at the northern end of a broad
valley, or basin, of the Andes, lying between the transverse
ridges of Azuay and Loja, and is about 8640 ft. above sea-level.
Near by is the hill of Tarqui which the French astronomers chose
for their meridian in 1742. Communication with the coast is
difficult. Cuenca is the third most important city of Ecuador,
being the seat of a bishopric, and having a college, a university
faculty, a cathedral, and several churches, and a considerable
industrial and commercial development. It manufactures
sugar, woollen goods and pottery, and exports Peruvian bark
(cinchona), hats, cereals, cheese, hides, &c. It was founded in
1557 on the site of a native town called Tumibamba, and was
made an episcopal see in 1786.

CUENCA, a province of central Spain bounded on the N. by
Guadalajara, N.E. by Teruel, E. by Valencia, S. by Albacete,
S.W. by Ciudad Real, W. by Toledo and N.W. by Madrid.
Pop. (1900) 249,696; area, 6636 sq. m. Cuenca occupies the
eastern part of the ancient kingdom of New Castile, and slopes
from the Serrania de Cuenca (highest point the Cerro de San
Felipe, on the north-eastern border of the province, 5905 ft.),
down into the great southern Castilian plain watered by the upper
streams of the Guadiana. The lowlands bordering on Ciudad

Real belong to the wide plain of La Mancha (q.v.). The rocky
and bare highland of Cuenca on the north and east includes the
upper valley of the Jucar and its tributary streams, but in the
north-west the province is watered by tributaries of the Tagus.
The forests are proverbial for their pine timber, and rival those
of Soria; considerable quantities of timber are floated down the
Tagus to Aranjuez and thence taken to Madrid for building
purposes. Excessive droughts prevail; the climate of the hills
and of the high plateaus is harsh and cold, but the valleys are
excessively hot in summer. The soil, where well watered, is
fertile, but little attention is paid to agriculture, and three-
fourths of the area is left under pasture. The rearing of cattle,
asses, mules and sheep is the principal employment of the people;
olive oil, nuts, wine, wheat, silk, wax and honey are the chief
products. Iron, copper, alum, saltpetre, jasper and agates are
found, but in 1903 all the workings had been abandoned except
three salt mines ; and there are few manufactures except the
weaving of coarse cloth. The roads are in such a backward
condition that they cripple not only the mining interests but also
the exports of timber, and at the beginning of the 20th century
there was no railway except a branch line which passed westwards
from Aranjuez through Tarancon to Cuenca, the capital (pop.
1900, 10,756). No other town has as many as 6000 inhabitants,
and no other Spanish province is so thinly populated as Cuenca.
In 1900 there were only 37-6 inhabitants per sq. m. Education
is backward, and extreme poverty almost universal among the
peasantry. See also Castile.

CUENCA, the capital of the Spanish province of Cuenca;
125 m. by rail E. by S. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 10,756. Cuenca
occupies a height of the well-wooded Serrania de Cuenca, at an
elevation of 2960 ft., overlooking the confluence of the rivers
Jucar and Huecar. A fine bridge, built in 1523, crosses the
Jucar to the convent of San Pablo. Among several interesting
churches in the city, the most noteworthy is the 13th-century
Gothic cathedral, celebrated for the beautiful carved woodwork
of its 16th-century doorway, and containing some admirable
examples of Spanish sculpture. The city has a considerable
trade in timber, and was long the headquarters of the provincial
wool industry; the loss of which, in modern times, has partly
been compensated by the development of soap, paper, chocolate,
match and leather manufactures. Cuenca was captured from
the Moors by Alphonso VIII. of Castile in n 77, and shortly
afterwards became an episcopal see. In 1874 it offered a pro-
longed and gallant resistance to the Carlist rebels.

CUESTA, a name of Spanish origin used in New Mexico for
low ridges of steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the
other. It has been proposed as a term for the land form which
consists of the two elements of a steep scarp or " strike " face,
and an inclined plain or gentle " dip " slope.

CUEVAS DE VERA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the pro-
vince of Almeria; on the right bank of the river Almanzora,
8 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 20,562. Cuevas
de Vera is built at the eastern extremity of the Sierra de los
Filabres (6823 ft.), which isolate it from the railway system of
Almeria. It is, however, the chief market for the rich agricultural
districts towards the south and for the argentiferous lead and
other mines among the mountains. In appearance it is modern,
with wide streets, two fine squares, and a parish church in Doric
style, dating from 1758. But in reality the town is of considerable
antiquity. One of the towers in the Moorish palace owned
by the marquesses of Villafranca is probably of Roman origin.

CUFF. (1) (Of uncertain origin), the lower edge of a sleeve
turned back to show an ornamental border, or with an addition
of lace or trimming; now used chiefly of the stiff bands of linen
worn under the coat-sleeve either loose or attached to the shirt.
(2) Also uncertain in origin, but with no connexion, probably,
with (1), a blow with the hand either open or closed, as opposed to
the use of weapons.

CUIRASS (Fr. cuirasse, Lat. coriaceus, made of leather, from
corium, the original breastplate being of leather), the plate
armour, whether formed of a single piece of metal or other rigid
material or composed of two or more pieces, which covers the

6 14

CUIRASSIERS— CUJAS

front of the wearer's person. In a suit of armour, however, since
this important piece was generally worn in connexion with a
corresponding defence for the back, the term cuirass commonly
is understood to imply the complete body-armour, including
both the breast and the back plates. Thus this complete body-
armour appears in the middle ages frequently to have been
described as a " pair of plates." The corslet (Fr. corselet, diminu-
tive of the O. Fr. cors, body), a comparatively light cuirass, is
more strictly a breast-plate only. As parts of the military
equipment of classic antiquity, cuirasses and corslets of bronze,
and at later periods also of iron or some other rigid substance,
were habitually in use; but while some special kind of secondary
protection for the breast had been worn in earlier times by the
men-at-arms in addition to their mail hauberks and their " cotes "
armed with splints and studs, it was not till the 14th century that
a regular body-defence of plate can be said to have become an
established component of medieval armour. As this century
continued to advance, the cuirass is found gradually to have
come into general use, in connexion with plate defences for the
limbs, until, at the close of the century, the long familiar inter-
linked chain-mail is no longer visible in knightly figures, except
in the camail of the bassinet and at the edge of the hauberk.
The prevailing, and indeed almost the universal, usage through-
out this century was that the cuirass was worn covered. Thus,
the globose form of the breast-armour of the Black Prince, in
his effigy in Canterbury cathedral, 1376, intimates that a cuirass
as well as a hauberk is to be considered to have been covered
by the royalty-emblazoned jupon of the prince. The cuirass,
thus worn in the 14th century, was always made of sufficient
length to rest on the hips; otherwise, if not thus supported, it
must have been suspended from the shoulders, in which case it
would have effectually interfered with the free and vigorous
action of the wearer. Early in the 1 5th century, the entire'
panoply of plate, including the cuirass, began to be worn without
any surcoat; but in the concluding quarter of the century the
short surcoat, with full short sleeves, known as the tabard, was
in general use over the armour. At the same time that the disuse
of the surcoat became general, small plates of various forms and
sizes (and not always made in pairs, the plate for the right or
sword-arm often being smaller and lighter than its companion),
were attached to the armour in front of the shoulders, to defend
the otherwise vulnerable points where the plate defences of the
upper-arms and the cuirass left a gap on each side. About the
middle of the century, instead of being formed of a single plate,
the breast-plate of the cuirass was made in two parts, the lower
adjusted to overlap the upper, and contrived by means of a strap
or sliding rivet to give flexibility to this defence. In the second
half of the 1 5th century the cuirass occasionally was superseded by
the " brigandine jacket," a defence formed of some textile fabric,
generally of rich material, lined throughout with overlapping
scales (resembling the earlier " imbricated " form) of metal,
which were attached to the jacket by rivets, having their heads,
like studs, visible on the outside. In the 16th century, when
occasionally, and by personages of exalted rank, splendid
surcoats were worn over the armour, the cuirass — its breast-
piece during the first half of the century, globular in form —
was constantly reinforced by strong additional plates attached
to it by rivets or screws. About 1550 the breast-piece of the
cuirass was characterized by a vertical central ridge, called the
" tapul " having near its centre a projecting point; this pro-
jection, somewhat later, was brought lower down, and eventually
the profile of the plate, the projection having been Carried to its
base, assumed the singular form which led to this fashion of the
cuirass being distinguished as the " peascod cuirass."

Corslets provided with both breast and back pieces were worn
by foot-soldiers in the 17th century, while their mounted com-
rades were equipped in heavier and stronger cuirasses; and these
defences continued in use after the other pieces of armour, one
by one, had gradually been laid aside. Their use, however,
never altogether ceased, and in "modern armies mounted
cuirassiers, armed as in earlier days with breast and back plates,
have in some degree emulated the martial splendour of the body-

armour of the era; of medieval chivalry. Some years after
Waterloo certain historical cuirasses were taken from their
repose in the Tower of London, and adapted for service by the
Life Guards and the Horse Guards. For parade purposes,
the Prussian Gardes du Corps and other corps wear cuirasses
of richly decorated leather.

CUIRASSIERS, a kind of heavy cavalry, originally developed
out of the men-at-arms or gendarmerie forming the heavy
cavalry of feudal armies. Their special characteristic was the
wearing of full armour, which they retained long after other
troops had abandoned it. Hence they became distinguished
as cuirassiers. The first Austrian corps of kyrissers was formed
in 1484 by the emperor Maximilian and was 100 strong. In
1705 Austria possessed twenty regiments of cuirassiers. After
the war of 1866, however, the existing regiments were converted
into dragoons. Russia has likewise in modern times abolished
all but a few guard regiments of cuirassiers. The Prussian
cuirassiers were first so called under Frederick William I., and
in the wars of his successor Frederick the Great they bore a
conspicuous part. After the Seven Years' War they ceased to
wear the cuirass on service, but after 1814 these were reintro-
duced, the spoils taken from the French cuirassiers being used
to equip the troops. The cuirass is now worn only on ceremonial
parades. In France the cuirassiers date from 1666, when a
regiment, subsequently numbered 8th of the line, was formed.
During the first Empire many regiments were created, until
in 181 2 there were fourteen. The number was reduced after the
fall of Napoleon, but in modern times it has been again increased.
The French regiments alone in Europe wear the cuirass on all
parades and at manoeuvres.

CUJAS (or Cujacitjs), JACQUES (or as he called himself,
Jacques de Cujas) (1520-1590), French jurisconsult, was born
at Toulouse, where his father, whose name was Cujaus, was a
fuller. Having taught himself Latin and Greek, he studied law
under Arnoul Ferrier, then professor at Toulouse, and rapidly
gained a great reputation as a lecturer on Justinian. In 1554
he was appointed professor of law at Cahors, and about a year
after L'Hopital called him to Bourges. Duaren, however, who
also held a professorship at Bourges, stirred up the students
against the- new professor, and such was the disorder produced
in consequence that Cujas was glad to yield to the storm, and
accept an invitation he had received to the university of Valence.
Recalled to Bourges at the death of Duaren in 1 559, he remained
there till 1567, when he returned to Valence. There he gained
a European reputation, and collected students from all parts
of the continent, among whom were Joseph Scaliger and de
Thou. In 1573 Charles IX. appointed Cujas counsellor to the
parlement of Grenoble, and in the following year a pension was
bestowed on him by Henry III. Margaret of Savoy induced
him to remove to Turin; but after a few months (1575) he once
more took his old place at Bourges. But the religious wars
drove him thence. He was called by the king to Paris, and
permission was granted him by the parlement to lecture on civil
law in the university of the capital. A year after, however,
he finally took up his residence at Bourges, where he remained
till his death in 1590, in spite of a handsome offer made him by
Gregory XIII. in 1 584 to attract him to Bologna.

The life of Cujas was altogether that of a scholar and teacher.
In the religious wars which filled all the thoughts of his contem-
poraries he steadily refused to take any part. Nihil hoc ad
edictttm praetoris, " this has nothing to do with the edict of the
praetor," was his usual answer to those who spoke to him on
the subject. His surpassing merit as a jurisconsult consisted
in the fact that he turned from the ignorant commentators on
Roman law to the Roman law itself. He consulted a very large
number of manuscripts, of which he had collected more than 500
in his own library; but, unfortunately, he left orders in his will
that his library should be divided among a number of purchasers,
and his collection was thus scattered, and in great part lost. His
emendations, of which a large number were published under the
title of Animadversiones et observationes, were not confined to law-
books, but extended to many of the Latin and Greek classical

CULDEES— CULEBRA

613

authors. In jurisprudence his study was far from being devoted
solely to Justinian; he recovered and gave to the world a part of
the Theodosian Code, with explanations; and he procured the
manuscript of the Basilica, a Greek abridgment of Justinian,
afterwards published by Fabrot (see Basilica). He also com-
posed a commentary on the Consueludines Feudorum, and oil
some books of the Decretals. In the Paratitla, or summaries
which he made of the Digest, and particularly of the Code of
Justinian, he condensed into short axioms the elementary
principles of law, and gave definitions remarkable for their
admirable clearness and precision. His lessons, which he never
dictated, were continuous discourses, for which he made no
other preparation than that of profound meditation on the
subjects to be discussed. He was impatient of interruption,
and upon the least noise he would instantly quit the chair and
retire. He was strongly attached to his pupils, and Scaliger
affirms that he lost more than 4000 livres by lending money to
such of them as were in want.

In his lifetime Cujas published an edition of his works (Neville,
1577)- It is beautiful and exact, but incomplete; it is now very
scarce. The edition of Colombet (1634) is also incomplete. Fabrot,
however, collected the whole in the edition which he published at
Paris (1658), in 10 vols, foiio, and which was reprinted at Naples
(1722, 1727), in 11 vols, folio, and at Naples and at Venice (1758),
in 10 vols, folio, with an index forming an eleventh volume. In the
editions of Naples and Venice there are some additions not to be
found in that of Fabrot, particularly a general table, which will be
found very useful., and interpretations of all the Greek words used
by Cuj»s.

See Papire-Masson, Vie de Cujas (Paris, 1590); Terrasson, His-
toire de la jurisprudence romaine, and Melanges d'histoire, de litte-
rature, et de jurisprudence; Bernardi, Aloge de Cujas (Lyons,
1775); Hugo, Civilistisches Magazin; Berriat Saint Prix, Memoires
dt Cujas, appended to his Histoire du droit romain; Biographie
univcrselle; Gravina, De ortu et progressu juris civilis; Spangen-
berg, Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen (Leipzig, 1882).

CULDEES, an ancient monastic order with settlements in
Ireland and Scotland. It was long fondly imagined by Pro-
testant and especially by Presbyterian writers that they had
preserved primitive Christianity free from Roman corruptions
in one remote corner of western Europe, a view enshrined in
Thomas Campbell's Reidlura:

" Peace to their shades. The pure Culdees

Were Albyn's earliest priests of God,

Ere yet an island of her seas

By foot of Saxon monk was trod."

Another view, promulgated like the above by Hector Boece
in his Latin history of Scotland (1516), makes them the direct
successors in the 9th to the 12 th century of the organized Irish
and lona monasticism of the 6th to the 8th century. Both these
views were disproved by William Reeves (1815-1892), bishop of
Down, Connor and Dromore.

As found in the Irish MSS. the name is Cile D6, i.e. God's
comrade or sworn ally. It was latinized as Coli dei, whence
Boece's culdei. The term seems, like the Latin vir dei, to have
been applied generally to monks and hermits. There are very
few trustworthy ancient sources of information, but it seems
probable that the Rule of Chrodegang, 1 archbishop of Metz
(d. 766), was brought by Irish monks to their native land
from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish
anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister
bound themselves by it. In the course of the 9th century we find
mention of nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clon-
macnoise, Clones, Devenish and Sligo) where communities of
these Culdees were established as a kind of annexe to the regular
monastic institutions. They seem especially to have had the
care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the musical
part of worship. Meanwhile in Scotland the lona monks had
been expelled by the Pictish king Nechtan in 717, and the
vacancies thus caused were by no means filled by the Roman
monks who thronged into the north from Northumbria. Into

1 Devised originally for the clergy of Chrodegang's cathedral, it
was largely an adaptation of St Benedict's rule to secular clergy living
in common. In 816 it was confirmed, with.certain modifications, by
the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, and became the law for collegiate and
cathedral churches in the Frankish empire. See Canon.

the gap, towards the end of the 8th century, came the Culdees
from Ireland. The features of their life in Scotland, which : is
the most important epoch in the history of the order, seem to
resemble closely those of the secular canons of England and the
continent. From the outset they were more or less isolated,
and, having no fixed forms or common head, tended to decay.
In the 12th century the Celtic Church was completely meta-
morphosed on the Roman pattern, and in the process the Culdees
also lost any distinctiveness they may formerly have had, being
brought, like the secular clergy, under canonical rule. ; The
pictures that we have of Culdee life in the 12th century vary
considerably. The chief houses in Scotland were at St Andrews,
Dunkeld, Lochleven, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, Abernethy
and Brechin. Each was an independent establishment con-
trolled entirely by its own abbot and apparently divided into
two sections, one priestly and the other lay and even married.
At St Andrews about the year 1 100 there were thirteen Culdees
holding office by hereditary tenure and paying more regard' to
their own prosperity and aggrandizement than to the services
of the church or the needs of the populace. A much-needed
measure of reform, inaugurated by Queen Margaret, was carried
through by her sons. Alexander I. and David I.; gradually the
whole position passed into: the hands of Turgot and his successors
in the bishopric. Canons Regular were instituted and some of
the Culdees joined the new order. Those who declined were
allowed a life-rent of their revenues and lingered on as a separate
but ever-dwindling body till the beginning of the 14th century,
when, excluded from voting at the election of the bishop, they
disappear from history. At Dunkeld, Crinan, the grandfather of
Malcolm Canmore, was a lay abbot, and tradition says that
even the clerical members were married, though like the priests
of the Eastern Church, they lived apart from their wives during
their term of sacerdotal service. The Culdees of Lochleyen
lived on St Serf's Inch, which had been given them by a Pictish
prince, Brude, about 850. In 1093 they surrendered their
island to the bishop of St Andrews in return for perpetual food
and clothing, but Robert, who was bishop in 1144, handed over
all their vestments, books, 2 and other property, with the island,
to the newly founded Canons Regular, in which probably the
Culdees were incorporated. There is no trace of such partial
independence as was experienced at St Andrews itself, possibly
because the bishop's grant was backed up by a royal charter.
In the same fashion the Culdees of Monymusk, originally perhaps
a colony from St Andrews, became Canons Regular of the
Augustinian order early in the 13th century, and those of
Abernethy in 1273. At Brechin, famous like Abernethy for its
round tower, the Culdee prior and his monks helped to form the
chapter of the diocese founded by David I. in 1145, though the
name persisted for a generation or two. Similar absorptions
no doubt account for the disappearance of the Culdees of York,
a name borne by the canons of St Peter's about 925, and of
Snowdon and Bardsey Island in north Wales mentioned by
Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 11 90) in his Speculum Ecclesiae and
Itinerarium respectively. The former community was, he says,
sorely oppressed by the covetous Cistercians. These seem to be
the only cases where the Culdees are found in England and
Wales. In Ireland the Culdees of Armagh endured until the
dissolution in 1541, and enjoyed a fleeting resurrection in 1627,
soon after which their ancient property passed to the vicars
choral of the cathedral.

See W. Reeves, The Culdees of the British Islands (Dublin, 1864) ;
W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876-1880), especially vol. ii.; W.
Beveridge, Makers of the Scottish Church (1908). The older view
will be found in J. Jamieson's Historical Account of the Ancient
Culdees (1811). . • .

CULEBRA, the smaller of two islands lying in the Virgin
Passage immediately E. of Porto Rico and known as the Islas
de Passaje. It is about 18 m. distant from Cape San Juan and
rises from the same submerged plateau with the larger islands of
the Antilles. Its extreme dimensions are 3 by 6 m., and its
surface is low and comparatively uniform, which gives the

2 The list of these in the deed of transfer is the oldest Scottish
library catalogue. : . : . • ■ '

6i6

CULLEN, P.— CULLEN, W.

prevailing winds an unbroken sweep across it. For this reason
the rainfall is limited to a short season, and the population is
compelled to store rainwater in cisterns for drinking purposes.
Its soil is fertile, and cattle, poultry, vegetables and small
fruits are produced. The island has been a dependency of
Porto Rico since 1879, when its colonization was formally under-
taken, and it is now described as a ward of the Vieques district
of the department of Humacao. In 1902 the American naval
authorities selected the Playa Sardinas harbour on the S. side
of Culebra as a rendezvous of the fleet and marine encampments
were located on shore. The strategic position of the island, its
healthiness and its continued use as a naval station have given
it considerable importance. Its population was 704 in 1899,
which had increased to nearly 1200 in 1903.

CULLEN, PAUL (1803-1878), cardinal and archbishop of
Dublin, was born near Ballytore, Co. Kildare; and educated
first at the Quaker school at Carlow and afterwards at Rome,
where he joined the Urban College of the Propaganda and, after
passing a brilliant course, was ordained in 1829. He then
became vice-rector, and afterwards rector, of the Irish National
College in Rome; and during the Mazzini revolution of 1848 he
was rector of the Urban College, saving the property under the
protection of the American flag. In 1849, on the strong recom-
mendation of Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam, Cullen was
nominated as successor to the primatial see of Armagh; and,
on his return to Ireland, presided as papal delegate at the
national council of Thurles in the August of 1850. Taking a
strong line on the educational question which was then agitating
Ireland, he took a leading part in the national movement of
1850-1852, and at first supported the Tenant Rights League.
In May 1852 he was translated to Dublin, and soon a divergence
of opinion broke out between him and the more ardent National-
ists under Archbishop MacHale. When the Irish university
was started, with Newman, appointed by Cullen, at its head,
the scheme was wrecked by the personal opposition to the
archbishop of Dublin. As time went on, his distrust of the
national movement grew deeper; and in 1853 he sternly forbade
his clergy to take part publicly in politics, and for this he was
denounced by the Tablet newspaper. His own political opinion
had best be told in his own words. " Fqr thirty years I have
studied the revolution on the continent, and for nearly thirty
years I have watched the Nationalist movement in Ireland.
It is tainted at its sources with the revolutionary spirit. If any
attempt is made to abridge the rights and liberties of the Catholic
Church in Ireland, it will not be by the English government nor
by a ' No Popery ' cry in England, but by the revolutionary and
irreligious Nationalists of Ireland " (Purcell's Life of Manning,
ii. 610). Cullen, therefore, while an ardent patriot, was con-
sistently an opponent of Fenianism. He was made cardinal in
1866, being the first Irish cardinal. Energetic as an adminis-
trator, churches and schools rose throughout his diocese; and
the excellent Mater Misericordiae Hospital and the seminary
at Clonlife are lasting memorials of his zeal. He took part in
the Vatican Council as an ardent infallibilist. In 1873 he was
defendant in a libel action brought against him by the Rev.
R. O'Keeffe, parish priest of Callan, on account of two sentences
of ecclesiastical censure pronounced by the cardinal as papal
delegate. The damages were laid at £10,000. Three of the four
judges allowed the defence of the cardinal to be valid; but it
was held that the papal rescript upon which he relied for his
extraordinary powers as delegate was illegal under statute; and
the lord chief justice decided that the plaintiff could not renounce
his natural and civil liberty. After several days' trial, during
which Cullen was submitted to a very close examination, the ver-
dict was given for the plaintiff with jd. damages. The cardinal
died in Dublin on the 24th of October 1878. (E. Tn.)

CULLEN, WILLIAM (1710-1790), Scottish physician and
medical teacher, was born at Hamilton, Lanarkshire, on the
15th of April 1710. He received his early education at the
grammar-school of Hamilton, and he appears to have sub-
sequently attended some classes at the university of Glasgow.
He began his medical career as apprentice to John Paisley, a

Glasgow surgeon, and after completing his apprenticeship he
became surgeon to a merchant vessel trading between London
and the West Indies. On his return to Scotland in 1732 he
settled as a practitioner in the parish of Shotts, Lanarkshire,
and in 1 734-1 736 studied medicine at Edinburgh, where
he was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society.
In 1736 he began to practise in Hamilton, where he rapidly
acquired a high reputation. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter
was his resident pupil, and at one time they proposed to enter
into partnership. In 1740 Cullen took the degree of M.D. at
Glasgow, whither he removed in 1 744. During his residence at
Hamilton, besides the arduous duties of medical practice, he
found time to devote to the study of the natural sciences, and
especially of chemistry. On coming to Glasgow he appears to
have begun to lecture in connexion with the university, the
medical school of which was as yet imperfectly organized.
Besides the subjects of theory and practice of medicine, he
lectured systematically on botany, materia medica and chemistry.
His great abilities, enthusiasm and power of conveying instruction
made him a successful and highly popular teacher, and his
classes increased largely in numbers. At the same time he
diligently pursued the practice of his profession. Chemistry
was the subject which at this time seems to have engaged the
greatest share of his attention. He was himself a diligent
investigator and experimenter, and he did much to encourage
original research among his pupils, one of whom was Dr Joseph
Black. In 1751 he was appointed professor of mediqpe, but
continued to lecture on chemistry, and in 1756 he was elected
joint professor of chemistry at Edinburgh along with Andrew
Plummer, on whose death in the following year the sole appoint-
ment was conferred on Cullen. This chair he held for ten years —
his classes always increasing in numbers. He also practised his
profession as a physician with eminent success. From 1757 he
delivered lectures on clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary.
This was a work for which his experience, habits of observation,
and scientific training peculiarly fitted him, and in which his
popularity as a teacher, no less than his power as a practical
physician, became more than ever conspicuous. On the death
of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the students
undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica;
he delivered an entirely new course, which were published in
an unauthorized edition in 1771, but which he re- wrote and issued
as A Treatise on Materia Medica in 1789.

On the death of Robert Whytt (1714-1766), the professor of
the institutes of medicine, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same
time resigning that of chemistry. In the same year he had been
an unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice
of physic, but subsequently an arrangement was made between
him and John Gregory, who had gained the appointment, by
which they agreed to deliver alternate courses on the theory and
practice of physic. This arrangement proved eminently satis-
factory, but it was brought to a close by the sudden death of
Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole professor of
the practice of physic, and he continued in this office till a few
months before his death, which took place on the 5th of February
1790.

As a lecturer Cullen appears to have stood unrivalled in his
day. His clearness of statement and power of imparting interest
to the most abstruse topics were the conspicuous features of
his teaching, and in his various capacities as a scientific lecturer,
a physiologist, and a practical physician, he was ever surrounded
with large and increasing classes of intelligent pupils, to whom
his eminently suggestive mode of instruction was specially
attractive. Living at the time he did, when the doctrines of
the humoral pathologists were carried to an extreme extent,
and witnessing the ravages which disease made on the solid
structures of the body, it was not surprising that he should
oppose a doctrine which appeared to him to lead to a false practice
and to fatal results, and adopt one which attributed more to
the agency of the solids and very little to that of the fluids of
the body. His chief works were First Lines of the Practice of
Physic (1774); Institutions of Medicine (i77o"k and Synopsis

CULLEN— CULM

6 1 7

Nosologicae Medicae (1785), which contained his classification
of diseasesinto four great classes — (1) Pyrexiae, or febrile diseases,
as typhus fever; (2) Neuroses, or nervous diseases, as epilepsy;
(3) Cachexiae, or diseases resulting from bad habit of body,
as scurvy; and (4) Locales, or local diseases, as cancer.

Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796
under the title of Lord Cullen, and was known for his powers of
mimicry.

The first volume of an account of Cullen's Life, Lectures and
Writings was published by Dr John Thomson in 1832, and was re-
issued with the second volume (completing the work) by Drs W.
Thomson and D. Craigie in 1859.

CULLEN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Banffshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1936. It is situated on Cullen Bay,
115 m. W. by N. of Banff and 665 m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the
Great North of Scotland railway. Deskford Burn, after a course
of '7 J m., enters the sea at Cullen, which it divides into two parts,
Seatown, the older, and Newtown, dating only from 1822. St
Mary's, the parish church, a cruciform structure, was founded
by Robert Bruce, whose second wife died at Cullen. The in-
dustries include rope and sail making, boat-building, brewing
and fishing. The harbour, constructed between 181 7 and 1834,
though artificial, is one of the best on this coast. About 1 m. to
the S. is Cullen House, a seat of the earl of Seafield, which con-
tains some fine works of art. A mile and a half to the W. is
the picturesque fishing village of Port Knockie with a deep-sea
harbour, built in 1891. On the cliffs, 2 m. to the E., stand the
ruins of Findlater Castle, fortified in 1455. From 1638 to 181 1,
when the title expired, it gave the title of earl to the Ogilvies,
whose name was adopted in addition to his own by Sir Lewis
Alexander Grant, when he succeeded, as 5th earl of Seafield,
to the surviving dignities. Five miles to the E. of Cullen is the
thriving fishing town of Portsoy, with a small, safe harbour and
a station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Besides the
fisheries there is fish-curing and a distillery; and the quarrying
of a pink-coloured variety of granite and of Portsoy marble is
carried on. Good limestone is also found in the district. Pop.
(1901) 2061.

CULLERA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of
Valencia; on the Mediterranean Sea, at the mouth of the river
Jucar, and at the southern terminus of the Valencia-Silla-Cullera
railway. Pop. (1900) 11,947. Cullera is a walled town, contain-
ing a ruined Moorish citadel, large barracks, several churches
and convents and a hospital. It occupies the Jucar valley, south
of the Sierra de Zorras, a low range of hills which terminates
eastward in Cape Cullera, a conspicuous headland surmounted
by a lighthouse. To the south and west extends a rich agricul-
tural district, noted for its rice. Besides farming and fishing,
the inhabitants carry on a coasting trade with various Mediter-
ranean ports. In 1903 the harbour was entered by 66 vessels
of about 25,060 tons, engaged in the exportation of grain, rice
and fruit, and the importation of guano. The town of Sueca
(q.v.) is 4 m. W.N.W. by rail.

CULLINAN, a town of the Transvaal, 36 m. by rail E. by N.
of Pretoria. It grew up round the Premier diamond mine and
dates from 1903, being named after T. Cullinan, the purchaser
of the ground on which the mine is situated. Here was discovered
in January 1905 a diamond — the largest on record — weighing
3025! carats. This diamond was in 1907 presented by the
Transvaal government to Edward VII. and was subsequently
cut into two stones, one of 5165 carats, the other of 309 carats,
intended to ornament the sceptre and crown of England. The
" chippings " yielded several smaller diamonds (see Diamond).

CULLODEN, a desolate tract of moorland, Inverness-shire,
Scotland. It forms part of the north-east of Drummossie
Muir, and is situated about 6 m. by road E. of Inverness, and
5 m. from Culloden Muir station on the Highland railway from
Aviemore to Inverness via Daviot. It is celebrated as the scene
of the battle of the 16th of April 1746 (see Cumberland, William
Augustus, Duke of, and Murray, Lord George), by which
the fate of the house of Stuart was decided. By Highlanders the
battle is more generally described as the battle of Drummossie.

Memorial stones bearing the names of the clans engaged in the
conflict were erected in 1881 at the head of each trench where the
clansmen — about 1000 in number — were buried. A monumental
cairn, 20 ft. high, marks the chief scene of the fight, and the
Cumberland Stone, a huge boulder, indicates the spot where
the English commander took up his position. A mile to the
north is Culloden House, which belonged to Duncan Forbes,
the president of the Court of Session. The Culloden Papers, a
number of historical documents ranging from 1625 to 1748,
were discovered in this mansion in 1812 and published in 1815
by Duncan George Forbes. On the death of the 10th laird,
the collection of Jacobite relics and works of art was sold by
auction in 1897. About 1 m. to the south of the field, on the
right bank of the Nairn, is the plain of Clava, containing several
stone circles, monoliths, cairns and other prehistoric remains. »
The circles, some apparently never completed, vary in circum-
ference from 12 yds. to 140 yds.

CULM, in geology, the name applied to a peculiar local phase
of the Carboniferous system. In 1837 A. Sedgwick and R. I.
Murchison classified into two divisions the dark shales, grits
and impure limestones which occupy a large area in Devonshire
and extend into the neighbouring counties of Somerset and Corn-
wall. These two divisions were the Upper and Lower Culm
Measures, so named from certain impure coals, locally called
"culm," 1 contained within the shales near Bideford. Sub-
sequently, these two geologists, when prosecuting their researches
in Germany and Austria, applied the same name to similar
rocks which contained, amongst others, Posidonomya Becheri,
common to the phase of sedimentation in both areas.

The Culm measures of the Devonshire district are folded
into a broad syncline with its axis running east and west; but
within this major fold the rocks have been subjected to much
compression accompanied by minor folding. This circumstance,
together with the apparent barrenness of the strata, has always
made a correct interpretation of their position and relationships
a matter of difficulty; and for long they were regarded as an
abnormal expression of the Lower Carboniferous, with the upper-
most beds as doubtful equivalents of the Millstone Grit of other
parts of Britain. The labours of W. A. E. Ussher and of G. J.
Hinde and H. Fox have resulted in the differentiation of the
following subdivisions in the Devonshire Culm:' — (1) Upper
Culm Measures or Eggesford grits; (2) Middle Culm Measures,
comprising the Morchard, Tiverton and Ugbrooke lithological
types overlying the Exeter type; (3) Lower Culm, the Posido-
nomya limestone and shale overlying the Coddon Hill beds with
radiolaria. Ussher's subdivisions were introduced to satisfy
the exigencies of geological mapping, but, as he pointed out,
while they are necessary in some parts of the district and con-
venient in others, the lithological characters upon which they
are founded are variable and inconstant. More recently E. A. N.
Arber (1 904-1 907) clearly demonstrated that no palaeontological
subdivision of the Upper Culm (Middle and Upper) is possible,
and that these strata, on the evidence of the fossil plants,
represent the Middle Coal Measures of other parts of the country.
Wheelton Hind has called attention to the probability that the
Pasidonomya limestone and shale may represent the Pendleside
group of Lancashire, Derbyshire, &c. The Coddon Hill beds
may belong to this or to a lower horizon. Thus the English Culm
measures comprise an Upper Carboniferous and a Lower Carboni-
ferous group, while in Germany, Austria and elsewhere, as it is
important to bear in mind, the Culm, or " Kulm," stage is shown
by its contained fossils to belong to the lower division alone.

The typical Carboniferous limestone of the Franco-Belgian
area changes as it is traced towards the east and south into the
sandy, shaly Culm phase, with the characteristic " Posidonia "
(Posidonomya) schists. This aspect of the Culm is found in
Saxony, where there are workable coals, in Bohemia, Thuringia,
the Fichtelgebirge, the Harz, where the beds are traversed by
mineral veins, and in Moravia and Silesia. In the last-mentioned
region the thickness of the Culm formation has been estimated

1 This word is possibly connected with col, coal ; distinguish
" culm," the stem of a plant, Lat. culmus.

6i8

CULMINATION— CUMAE

by D. Stur at over 45,000 ft. In the east and south of the
Schiefergebirge (a general term for the slaty mountains of the
Hundsriick and Taunus range, the Westerwald and part of the
Eifel district), the Culm shales pass upwards into a coarser
deposit, the " Culm-grauwacke," which attains a considerable
thickness and superficial extent. Culm fossils appear in the
Carnic Alps, in the Balkans and parts of Spain, also in Spitz-
bergen and part of New Guinea.

The most characteristic fossil is of course Posidonomya
Becheri; others are Glyphioceras sphaericum, Rhodea patentissima,
Asterocalamites scrobiculatus (Schloth), Lepidodendronveltheimia-
num., Gastrioceras carbonarium.

See E. A. N. Arber, " On the Upper Carboniferous Rocks of
West Devon and North Cornwall," Q.J.G.S. lxiii. (1Q07), which con-
tains a bibliography of the English Culm; E. Hofzapfel, Palaont.
*4bhandl. Bd. v. Heft i. (1889); H. PotoniS, Abhandl. preuss. geol.
Landesanst., Neue Folge, 36 (1901); D. Stur, " Die Culm Flora,"
Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichsanst. viii. (Vienna, 1875). (J. A. H.)

CULMINATION (from Lat. oilmen, summit), the attainment
of the highest point. In astronomy the term is given to the
passage of a heavenly body over the meridian of a place. Two
culminations take place in the course of the day, one above and
the other below the pole. The. first is called the upper, the second
the lower. Either or both may occur below the horizon and
therefore be invisible.

CULPRIT, properly the prisoner at the bar, one accused of
a crime; so used, generally, of one guilty of an offence. In
origin the word is a combination of two Anglo-French legal
words, culpable, guilty, and prit or prist, i.e. prest, Old French for
pret, ready. On the prisoner at the bar pleading " not guilty,"
the clerk of the crown answered " culpable," and stated that he
was ready {prest) to join issue. The words cul. prist (or prit) were
then entered on the roll as showing that issue had been joined.
When French law terms were discontinued the words were taken
as forming one word addressed to the prisoner. The formula
" Culprit, how will you be tried ?" in answer to a plea of "not
guilty," is first found in the trial for murder of the 7th earl of
Pembroke in 1678.

CULROSS (locally pronounced Coo-rus), a royal and police
burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, 6£ m. W. by S. of Dunfermline and
2§ m. from East Grange station on the North British railway
company's line from Dunfermline to Stirling. Pop, 348. Until
1890 it belonged to the detached portion of Perthshire. Attrac-
tively situated on a hillside sloping gently to the Forth, its
placid old-world aspect is in keeping with its great antiquity.
Here St Serf Carried on his missionary labours, and founded a
church and cemetery, and here he died and was buried. For
centuries the townsfolk used to celebrate his day (July 1st) by
walking in procession bearing green boughs. Kentigern, the
apostle to Cumbria and first bishop of Glasgow, was born at
Culross, his mother having been driven ashore during a tempest,
and was adopted by St Serf as his son. These religious associa-
tions, coupled with the fertility of the soil, led to the founding
of a Cistercian abbey in 1 2 1 7 . Of this structure the only remains
are the western tower and the choir, which, greatly altered as
well as repaired early in the 19th century, now forms the parish
church. It is supposed that a chapel of which some traces exist
in the east end of the town was dedicated to Kentigern. James
VI. made Culross a royal burgh in 1588. In 1808 there was
discovered in the abbey church, embalmed in a silver casket,
still preserved there, bearing his name and arms, the heart of
Edward, Lord Bruce of Kinloss, who was killed in August 1613
near Bergen-op-Zoom in a duel with Sir Edward Sackville,
afterwards earl of Dorset. Robert Pont (1524-1606), the Re-
former, was born at Shirresmiln, or Shiresmill, a hamlet in Culross
parish. Nearly all its old industries — the coal mines, salt works,
linen manufacture, and even the making of iron girdles for the
baking of scones — have dwindled, but its pleasant climate and
picturesqueness make it a holiday resort. Dunimarle Castle,
a handsome structure on the sea-shore, adjoins the site of the
Castle where, according to tradition, Macbeth slew the wife
and children of Macduff. Culross belongs to the Stirling district
group of parliamentary burghs.

Ransome's Spring Tine Cultivator.

CULTIVATOR, 1 also called Scuffler, Scarifier or Grubber,
an agricultural implement employed in breaking up land or in
stirring it after ploughing. The first all-iron cultivator, known
as Finlayson's grubber, was a large harrow with curved teeth
carried on wheels, and was brought out about 1820. It was
designed to meet the need for some implement of intermediate
character between the plough and harrow, which should stir
the soil deeply and expeditiously without reversing it, and bring
the weeds unbroken
to the surface. The
chief modern im-
provement has been
the imparting of
vibratory movement
and hence greater
stirring capacity to |
the tines, either by
making them of
spring steel or by
fitting springs to the
point of attachment
of the tine to the
framework of the
machine. In its
modern form the implement consists of a framework fitted with
rows of curved stems or tines, which may be raised clear of the
ground or lowered into work by means of a lever, and differs
from the harrow in that it is provided with two wheels, which
prevent the tines from embedding themselves too deeply in the
soil. The stems may be fitted either with chisel-points or with
broad shares, according as it is required to merely stir the soil
or to bring up weeds and clean the surface. In the disk cultivator
revolving disks take the place of tines. The implement is usually
provided with a seat for the driver and is drawn by horses, but
steam power is also commonly applied to it, the speed of the
operation in that case increasing its effectiveness. The method
is the same as that of steam-ploughing (see Plough).

CUMAE (Gr. Ku/i??), an ancient city of Campania, Italy, about
1 2 m. W. of Neapolis, on the W. coast of Campania, on a volcanic
eminence, overlooking the plain traversed by the Volturno.

There are many legends as to its foundation, but even the
actual period of its colonization by the Greeks is so early (ancient
authorities give it as 1050 B.C.) that there is some doubt as to
who established it, whether Chalcidians from Euboea or Aeolians
from Ku/i7j(Cyme), and it should probably be regarded as a joint
settlement. It was certainly, as Strabo says, the oldest of the
Greek colonies on the mainland of Italy or in Sicily. Livy tells
us (viii. 22) that the settlers first landed on Pithecusae (Ischia)
and thence transferred their position to the mainland, which
seems a probable story. We find it in 721 B.C. founding Zancle
(Messina) in Sicily jointly with Chalcis, and it extended its
power gradually over the coast of the Gulf of Puteoli and the
harbours of the promontory of Misenum. Puteoli itself under
the name Dicaearchia was probably founded by Cumae. In the
7th century, according to the legends, Parthenope, whither the
demos of Cumae had taken refuge after an unsuccessful rising
against the aristocracy, was attacked by the latter and destroyed,
but soon rebuilt under the name of Neapolis (New City, the
present Naples). 2 The most fertile portion of the Campanian
plain was also under its dominion; the name " fossa Graeca "
still lingered onin 205 B.C. to testify to its ancient limits. Cumae
was now at the height of its power, and many fine coins testify
to its prosperity. In 524 B.C. it was the object of a joint attack
by the Etruscans of Capua, the Daunians of the district of Nola,
and the Aurunci of the Mons Massicus. A brilliant victory was,
however, won in the hilly district outside the town, largely owing

1 From Late Lat. cultivate, through cultivus, from colere, to till,
cultivate ; whence cultus, worship, form of religion, cult.

2 Mommsen, however (Corpus Inscrip. Latin, x., Berlin, 1883,
p. 170), rightly throws considerable doubt on the existence of
Parthenope and even of Palaeopolis, of which there is some men-
tion in Roman annals; under both he is inclined to trace Cumae
itself.

CUM ANA— CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF 61,9

to the bravery of Aristodemus, who then led a force to the relief
of Aricia, which was being attacked by the Etruscans, and,
returning at the head of his victorious army, overturned the
aristocracy and made himself tyrant, but was ultimately
murdered by the aristocrats. These were unable to repel a
renewed Etruscan attack without the help of Hiero of Syracuse,
who in the battle of Cumae of 474 B.C. drove the Etruscan fleet
from the sea, and broke their power in Campania.

The Samnites finally destroyed the Etruscan supremacy by
the capture of Capua in the latter half of the 5th century (see
Capua; Campania), and the Greeks of Cumae were overwhelmed
by the same invasion, either in 420 B.C. (Livy iv. 44) or in 421
(Diodor. Sic. xii. 76) , if his statement is drawn from Greek sources,
428 if it is to be dated by the Roman consuls to whose year he
ascribes it. This catastrophe brought to an end the beautiful
series of Greek coins from the town (B. V. Head, Historia
Numorum, p. 31), and Oscan became its language, though in
many respects the Greek character of the town survived (Strabo
v. .4. 3, and the other references given by R. S. Conway, Italic
Dialects, p. 84). One or two inscriptions in Oscan survive
{id. ib. 88-92), one of which is a Iovila or heraldic dedication.
The date of the general disuse of Oscan in the town appears to be
fixed about 180 B.C. by the request (Livy xl. 44) which the
Cumaeans addressed to Rome that they might be allowed to use
Latin for public purposes. Cumae now ceased to have any
independent history. It came under the supremacy of Rome
in 343 (or 340) as Capua did, obtained the civitas sine suffragio
and was governed after 318 by the praefecli Capuam Cupias.

(R. S. C.)

In the Hannibalic wars it remained faithful to Rome. It
probably acquired civic rights in the Social War and remained
a municipium until Augustus established a colony here. Under
the empire it is spoken of as a quiet country town, in contrast
to the gay and fashionable Baiae, which, however, with the
lacus Avernus and lacus Lucrinus, formed a part of its territory.
Cicero's villa on the east bank of the latter, for example, which
he called the Academia, was also known as Cumanum. In the
Gothic wars the acropolis of Cumae was, except Naples, the only
fortified town in Campania, and it retained its military import-
ance until it was destroyed by the Neapolitans in 1205, since
which time it has been deserted.

The acropolis hill (260 ft. above sea-level), a mass of trachyte
which has broken through the surrounding tufa, lies hardly
100 yds. from the low sandy shore. It is traversed by caves,
which are at three different levels with many branches. Some
of them may belong to a remote date, while others may be
quarries, but they have not been thoroughly investigated. They
are famous in legend as the seat of the oracle of the Cumaean
Sibyl.

The acropolis has only one approach, on the south-east;
on all other sides it falls away steeply. Remains. of fortifications
of all ages run round the edge of the hill; some of the original
Greek work, in finely hewn rectangular tufa blocks, exists on
the east. The medieval line follows the ancient, except on the
<N.E., where it takes in a larger area.

Within the acropolis stood the temple of Apollo, erected,
according to tradition, by Daedalus himself, the remains of
which, restored in Roman times, were discovered in 181 7, on
the eastern and lower summit. On the higher western summit
stood another temple, excavated in 1792, but now covered up
again. This may be that of the Olympian Zeus (Liv. xxvii. 23).

There are also various remains of buildings of the imperial
period, and these are far more frequent on the site of the lower
town (now occupied by vineyards) which lies below the acropolis
to the south. The line of the city walls can be traced both on
the E. and on the W., though the remains on the E. are insignifi-
cant, and on the W. (the seaward side) only the scarping of the
hill remains. To the S. of the town, just outside the wall, is
the amphitheatre. To the N. of it is the point where the roads
from Liternum (the Via Domitiana running along the sandy
coast), Capua (a branch of the Via Campana), Misenum and
Puteoli meet. The last passes through the Arco Felice, an arch

of brick-faced concrete 63 ft. high which spans a cutting through
the Monte Grillo, made by Domitian to shorten the course of the
road, which had hitherto run farther north. The Grotto della
Pace leads to the shores of Avernus. On the E. side of Cumae
are considerable remains of the Roman period, among them
those of the temple of Demeter, as restored by the family of
the Lucceii.

The cemeteries of Cumae extended on all sides of the ancient
city, except towards the sea, but the most important lay on the
north, between this temple and the Lago di Licola. Excavations
during the 19th century in Greek, Samnite and Roman graves
have produced many important objects, now in the various
museums of Europe, but especially at Naples. Recent discoveries
in this necropolis (including that of a circular archaic tomb with
a conical roof) have led to considerable discussion as to the true
date of the foundation of Cumae, and have made it clear that,
in any case, a pre-Hellenic indigenous settlement existed here — a
result of great importance. ,

See J. Beloch, Campanien (Breslau, 1890), 145 seq. ; G. Pellegrini,
Monumenti del Lincei, xiii. (1903); G. Patroni, Atti del Congressa
di Scienze Storiche (1904), vol. v. p. 215 seq. (T. As.)

CUMANA, a city and port of Venezuela, capital of the state
of Bermudez, situated on the Manzanares river about 1 m.
above its mouth, 52 ft. above sea-level and 180 m. E. of Caracas.
It is the oldest existing European settlement on the South
American continent, having been founded by Diego Castellon
in 1523 under the name of Nueva Toledo. The city was almost
totally destroyed by an earthquake in 1766, and again in 1797.
Slight shocks are very frequent, some of them severe enough to
cause considerable damage to the buildings. The mean annual
temperature is 83° F. and the climate is enervating. In colonial
times the city was rich and prosperous and enjoyed a lucrative
trade with the mother country, its population at that time being
estimated at 30,000, but much of its prosperity has disappeared
and its population is. now estimated at 10,000. Excellent fruits
are produced in its vicinity, and its exports include cacao, coffee,
sugar, hides, tobacco and sundry products in small quantities.
A tramway connects the city with its port at the mouth of the
Manzanares.

CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF. The earldom of
Cumberland was held by the family of Clifford (q.v.) from 1525
to 1.643, when it became extinct by the death of Henry, the 5th
earl. The 1st earl of Cumberland was Henry, nth Lord Clifford
(1493-1542), a son of Henry, 10th Lord Clifford (c. 1454-1323).
Created an earl by Henry VIII. in 1525, Henry remained loyal
during the great rising in the north of England in 1536, and
died on the 22nd of April 1542. His son and successor, Henry,
the 2nd earl (c. 1 5 1 7-1 5 70) , married Eleanor (d. 1 547) , a daughter
of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, and Mary, daughter of
King Henry VII. ; he had the tastes of a scholar rather than a
soldier, and died early in 1 570. By his first wife, Eleanor, he
left an only daughter Margaret (1540-1596), who married Henry
Stanley, 4th earl of Derby, and who in 1557 was regarded by
many as the rightful heiress to the English throne. By his
second wife he left two sons and a daughter; his elder son George
succeeding to the earldom in 1570, and his younger son Francis
succeeding his brother in 1605. George, 3rd earl of Cumberland
(1558-1605), was born on the 8th of August 1558, and married
Margaret (c. 1560-1616), daughter of his guardian, Francis,
2nd earl of Bedford. Although interested in mathematics and
geography he passed his early years in dissipation and extrava-
gance; then he took to the sea, commanded the " Bonaveriture '"
against the Spanish Armada, and from this time until his death
on the 30th of October 1605 was mainly engaged in fitting out
and leading plundering expeditions, some of which, especially
the one undertaken in 1589, gained a large amount of booty.
The earl left no sons, and his barony was claimed by his only
daughter Anne (1590-1676), the wife successively of Richard
Sackville, 3rd earl of Dorset, and of Philip Herbert, 4th earl of
Pembroke and Montgomery; while his earldom was inherited
by his brother Francis (1559-1641). A long law-suit between
the new earl and the countess Anne over the possession of the

620

CUMBERLAND, BISHOP

family estates was settled in 1617. The 5th earl was Francis's
only son Henry (1 591-1643), who was born on the 28th of
February 1501, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford.
He was a supporter of Charles I. during his two short wars with
the Scots, and also during the Civil War until his death on the
nth of December 1643. He left no sons; his earldom became
extinct; his new barony of Clifford, created in 1628, passed to
his daughter Elizabeth (1618-1691), wife of Richard Boyle, earl
of Cork and Burlington; and the Cumberland estates to his
cousin Anne, countess of Dorset and Pembroke.

In 1644 the English title of duke of Cumberland was created
in favour of Rupert, son of Frederick V., elector palatine of the
Rhine, and nephew of Charles I. Having lapsed on Rupert's
death without legitimate issue in 1682, it was created again in
1689 to give an English title to George, prince of Denmark,
who had married the lady who afterwards became Queen Anne.
It again became extinct when George died in 1708, but was
revived in 1726 in favour of William Augustus, third son of
George II. As this duke was never married the title lapsed on his
death in 1765, but was revived in the following year in favour
of Henry Frederick (1745-1790), son of Frederick, prince of
Wales, and brother of George III. Having again become
extinct on Henry Frederick's death, the title of duke of Cumber-
land was created for the fifth time in favour of Ernest Augustus,
who was made duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in 1799.
In 1837 Ernest (q.v.) became king of Hanover, and on his death
in 185 1 the title descended with the kingdom of Hanover to his
son King George V. (q.v.), and on George's death in 1878 to his
grandson Ernest Augustus (b. 1845). In 1866 Hanover was
annexed by Prussia, but King George died without renouncing
his rights. His son Ernest, while maintaining his claim to the
kingdom of Hanover, is generally known by his title of duke of
Cumberland.

CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718), English philosopher
and bishop of Peterborough, the son of a citizen of London, was
born in the parish of St Ann, near Aldersgate. He was educated
in St Paul's school, and at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where
he obtained a fellowship. He took the degree of B.A. in 1653;
and, having proceeded M.A. in 1656, was next year incorporated
to the same degree in the university of Oxford. For some time
he studied medicine; and although he did not adhere to this
profession, he retained his knowledge of anatomy and medicine.
He took the degree of B.D. in 1663 and that of D.D. in 1680.
Among his contemporaries and intimate friends were Dr Hezekiah
Burton, Sir Samuel Morland, who was distinguished as a mathe-
matician, Sir Orlando Bridgeman, who became keeper of the
great seal, and Samuel Pepys. To this academical connexion he
appears to have been in a great measure indebted for his advance-
ment in the Church. When Bridgeman was appointed lord
keeper, he nominated Cumberland and Burton as his chaplains,
nor did he afterwards neglect the interest of either. Cumber-
land's first preferment, bestowed upon him in 1658 by Sir John
Norwich, was the rectory of Brampton in Northamptonshire.
In 1 66 1 he was appointed one of the twelve preachers of the
university. The lord keeper, who obtained his office in 1667,
invited him to London, and soon afterwards bestowed upon him
the rectory of Allhallows at Stamford, where he acquired new
credit by the fidelity with which he discharged his duties. In
addition to his ordinary work he undertook the weekly lecture.
This labour he constantly performed, and in the meantime found
leisure to prosecute his scientific and philological studies.

At the age of forty he published his earliest work, entitled
De legibus naturae disquisitio philosophica, in qua earum forma,
summa capita, ordo, promulgaiio, el obligatio e rerum natura
investigantur ; quin etiam elementa philosophiae Hobbianae,
cum moralis turn civilis, considerantur et refutantur (London,
1672). It is dedicated to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, and is prefaced
by an " Alloquium ad Lectorem," contributed by Dr Burton.
It appeared during the same year as Pufendorf's Dejure naturae
et gentium, and was highly commended in a subsequent publica-
tion by Pufendorf, whose approbation must have had the effect
of making it known on the continent. Having thus established

a solid reputation, Cumberland next prepared a work on a very
different subject — An Essay towards the Recovery of the Jewish
Measures and Weights, comprehending their Monies; by help
of ancient standards, compared with ours of England: useful also
to state many of those of the Greeks and Romans, and the Eastern
Nations (London, 1686). This work, dedicated to Pepys,
obtained a copious notice from Leclerc, and was translated into
French.

About this period he was depressed by apprehensions respecting
the growth of Popery; but his fears were dispelled by the
Revolution, which brought along with it another material change
in his circumstances. One day in 1691 he went, according to
his custom on a post-day, to read the newspaper at a coffee-house
in Stamford, and there, to his surprise, he read that the king had
nominated him to the bishopric of Peterborough. The bishop
elect was scarcely known at court, and he had resorted to none
of the usual methods of advancing his temporal interest.

" Being then sixty years old," says his great-grandson, " he was
with difficulty persuaded to accept the offer, when it came to him
from authority. The persuasion of his friends, particularly Sir
Orlando Bridgeman, at length overcame his repugnance; and
to that see, though very moderately endowed, he for ever after
devoted himself, and resisted every offer of translation, though
repeatedly made and earnestly recommended. To such of his
friends as pressed an exchange upon him he was accustomed to
reply, that Peterborough was his first espoused, and should be his
only one."

He discharged his new duties with energy and kept up his
episcopal visitations till his eightieth year. His charges to the
clergy are described as plain and unambitious, the earnest
breathings of a pious mind. When Dr Wilkins (David Wilke)
published the New Testament in Coptic he presented a copy to
the bishop, who began to study the language at the age of eighty-
three. " At this age," says his chaplain, " he mastered the
language, and went through great part of this version, and would
often give me excellent hints and remarks, as he proceeded in
reading of it." He died in 1718, in the eighty-seventh year of
his age; he was found sitting in his library, in the attitude of
one asleep, and with a book in his hand. 1 His great-grandson
was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist.

Bishop Cumberland was distinguished by his gentleness and
humility. He could not be roused to anger, and spent his days
in unbroken serenity. The basis of his ethical theory is Benevol-
ence, and is the natural outcome of his temperament. He was
a man of a sound understanding, improved by extensive learning,
and left behind him several monuments of his talents and
industry. His favourite motto was that a man had better
" wear out than rust out."

The philosophy of Cumberland is expounded in the treatise
De legibus naturae. The merits of the work are almost confined
to its speculative theories; its style is destitute of strength and
grace, and its reasoning is diffuse and unmethodical. Its main
design is to combat the principles which Hobbes had promulgated
as to the constitution of man, the nature of morality, and the
origin of society, and to prove that self-advantage is not the chief
end of man, that force is not the source of personal obligation
to moral conduct nor the foundation of social rights, and that the
state of nature is not a state of war. The views of Hobbes seem

1 The care of his posthumous publications devolved upon his
domestic chaplain and son-in-law, Squier Payne, who soon after the
bishop's death edited " Sanchonialo' s Phoenician History, translated
from the first book of Eusebius, De praeparatione evangelica : with
a continuation of Sanchoniato's history of Eratosthenes Cyrenaeus's
Canon, which Dicaearchus connects with the first Olympiad. These
authors are illustrated with many historical and chronological
remarks, proving them to contain a series of Phoenician and Egyptian
chronology, from the first man to the first Olympiad, agreeable to
the Scripture accounts " (London, 1720). The preface contains an
account of the life, character and writings of the author, which was
likewise published in a separate form, and exhibits a pleasing
picture of his happy old age. A German translation appeared under
the title of Cumberlands phonizische Historie des Sanchoniathons,
iibersetzt von J oh. Phil. Cassel (Magdeburg, 1755). The sequel to
the work was likewise published by Payne — Origines gentium
antiquissimae; or Attempts for discovering the Times of the First
Planting of Nations: in several Tracts (London, 1724).

CUMBERLAND, BISHOP

621

to Cumberland utterly subversive of religion, morality and civil
society, and he endeavours, as a rule, to establish directly
antagonistic propositions. He refrains, however, from denuncia-
tion, and is a fair opponent up to the measure of his insight.

Laws of nature are defined by him as " immutably true pro-
positions regulative of voluntary actions as to the choice of good
and the avoidance of evil, and which carry with them an obliga-
tion to outward acts of obedience, even apart from civil laws and
from any considerations of compacts constituting government."
This definition, he says, will be admitted by all parties. Some
deny that such laws exist, but they will grant that this is what
ought to be understood by them. There is thus common ground
for the two opposing schools of moralists to join issue. The
question between them is, Do such laws exist or do they not?
In reasoning thus Cumberland obviously forgot what the position
maintained by his principal antagonist really was. Hobbes
must have refused to accept the definition proposed. He did
not deny that there were laws of nature, laws antecedent to
government, laws even in a sense eternal and immutable. The
virtues as means to happiness seemed to him to be such laws.
They precede civil constitution, which merely perfects the obliga-
tion to practise them. He expressly denied, however, that " they
carry with them an obligation to outward acts of obedience,
even apart from civil laws and from any consideration of com-
pacts constituting governments." And many besides Hobbes
must have felt dissatisfied with the definition. It is ambiguous
and obscure. In what sense is a law of nature a " proposition "?
Is it as the expression of a constant relation among facts, or is it
as the expression of a divine commandment? A proposition is
never in itself an ultimate fact although it may be the statement
of such a fact. And in what sense is a law of nature an " immut-
ably true " proposition? Is it so because men always and every-
where accept and act on it, or merely because they always and
everywhere ought to accept and act on it? The definition, in
fact, explains nothing.

The existence of such laws may, according to Cumberland,
be established in two ways. The inquirer may start either from
effects or from causes. The former method had been taken by
Grotius, Robert Sharrock (1630-1684) and John Selden. They
had sought to prove that there were universal truths, entitled
to be called laws of nature, from the concurrence of the testi-
monies of many men, peoples and ages, and through generalizing
the operations of certain active principles. Cumberland admits
this method to be valid, but he prefers the other, that from
causes to effects, as showing more convincingly that the laws
of nature carry with them a divine obligation. It shows not only
that these laws are universal, but that they were intended as
such; that man has been constituted as he is in order that they
might be. In the prosecution of this method he expressly
declines to have recourse to what he calls " the short and easy
expedient of the Platonists," the assumption of innate ideas of
the laws of nature. He thinks it ill-advised to build the doctrines
of natural religion and morality on a hypothesis which many
philosophers, both Gentile and Christian, had rejected, and which
could not be proved against Epicureans, the principal impugners
of the existence of laws of nature. He cannot assume, he says,
that such ideas existed from eternity in the divine mind, but must
start from the data of sense and experience, and thence by search
into the nature of things discover their laws. It is only through
nature that we can rise to nature's God. His attributes are not
to be known by direct intuition. He, therefore, held that the
ground taken up by the Cambridge Platonists could not be
maintained against Hobbes. His sympathies, however, were all
on their side, and he would do nothing to diminish their chances
of success. He would not even oppose the doctrine of innate
ideas, because it looked with a friendly eye upon piety and
morality. He granted that it might, perhaps, be the case that
ideas were both born with us and afterwards impressed upon us
from without.

Cumberland's ethical theory (see Ethics) is summed up in his
principle of universal Benevolence, the one source of moral good.
" No action can be morally good which does not in its own nature

contribute somewhat to the happiness of men." The theory
is important in comparison (1) with that of Hobbes, and (2)
with modern utilitarianism.

1. Cumberland's Benevolence is, deliberately, the precise
antithesis to the Egoism of Hobbes. To this fact it owes its
existence and also its extravagance. Feeling that the most
forcible method of attacking Hobbes was to assert the opposite
in the same form, he maintained that the whole-hearted pursuit
of the good of all contributes to the good of each and brings
personal happiness; that the opposite process involves misery
to individuals including the self. If, then, Hobbes went to the
one extreme of postulating selfishness as the sole motive of human
action, Cumberland was equally extravagant as regards Benevo-
lence. The testimony of history shows, prima facie at least,
that both motives have operated throughout, and just as self-
interest has been increasingly modified by conscious benevolence,
so benevolence alone does not explain all personal virtue nor
love to God. But it is essential to notice that Cumberland never
appealed to the evidence of history, although he believed that
the law of universal benevolence had been accepted by all nations
and generations; and he carefully abstains from arguments
founded on revelation, feeling that it was indispensable to estab-
lish the principles of moral right on nature as a basis. His method
was the deduction of the propriety of certain actions from the
consideration of the character and position of rational agents
in the universe. He argues that all that we see in nature is
framed so as to avoid and reject what is dangerous to the in-
tegrity of its constitution; that the human race would be an
anomaly in the world had it not for end its conservation in its
best estate; that benevolence of all to all is what in a rational
view of the creation is alone accordant with its 'general plan;
that various peculiarities of man's body indicate that he has
been made to co-operate with his fellow men and to maintain
society; and that certain faculties of his mind show the common
good to be more essentially connected with his perfection than
any pursuit of private advantage. The whole course of his
reasoning proceeds on, and is pervaded by, the principle of
final causes.

2. To the question, What is the foundation of rectitude?,
he replies, the greatest good of the universe of rational beings.
He may be regarded as the founder of English utilitarianism,
but his utilitarianism is distinct from what is known as the
selfish system; it goes to the contrary extreme, by almost
absorbing individual in universal good. Nor does it look merely
to the lower pleasures, the pleasures of sense, for the constituents
of good, but rises above them to include especially what tends
to perfect, strengthen and expand our true nature. Existence
and the extension of our powers of body and mind are held to
be good for their own sakes without respect to enjoyment.
Cumberland's views on this point were long abandoned by
utilitarians as destroying the homogeneity and self-consistency
of their theory ; but J. S. Mill and some recent writers have
reproduced them as necessary to its defence against charges not
less serious than even inconsistency.

The answer which Cumberland gives to the question, Whence
comes our obligation to observe the laws of nature ?, is that
happiness flows from obedience, and misery from disobedience
to them, not as the mere results of a blind necessity, but as the
expressions of the divine will. Reward and punishment, supple-
mented by future retribution, are, in his view, the sanctions of
the laws of nature, the sources of our obligation to obey them.
To the other great ethical question, How are moral distinctions
apprehended ?, he replies that it is by means, of right reason.
But by right reason he means merely the power of rising to
general laws of nature from particular facts of experience. It
is no peculiar faculty or distinctive function of mind; it involves
no original element of cognition; it begins with sense and
experience; it is gradually generated and wholly derivative.
This doctrine lies only in germ in Cumberland, but will be found
in full flower in Hartley, Mackintosh and later associationists.

Bibliography. — Editions of the De legibus naturae (Liibeck,
1683 and 1694; English versions by John Maxwell, prebendary of

622

CUMBERLAND, RICHARD

Connor, A Treatise of the Laws of Nature (London, 1727), and John
Towers (Dublin, 1750); French translation by Jean Barbeyrac
(Amsterdam, 1744); James Tyrrell (1642-1718), grandson of
Archbishop Ussher, published an abridgment of Cumberland's
views in A Brief Disquisition of the Laws of Nature according to the
Principles laid down in the Rev. Dr Cumberland's Latin Treatise
(London, 1692; ed. 1701). For biographical details see Squier
Payne, Account of the Life and Writings of R. Cumberland (London,
1720); Cumberland's Memoirs (1807), i. 3-6; Pepys's Diary.
For his philosophy, see E. Albee, Philosophical Review, iv. 3 (1895),
pp. 264 and 371 ; F. E. Spaulding, R. Cumberland als Begriinder
der englischen Ethik (Leipzig, 1894) ; and text-books on ethics.

CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811), English dramatist,
was born in the master's lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge,
on the 19th of February 1732. He was the great-grandson of
the bishop of Peterborough; and his father, Dr Denison Cumber-
land, became successively bishop of Clonfert and of Kilmore.
His mother was Joanna, the youngest daughter of the great
scholar Richard Bentley, and the heroine of John Byrom's once
popular little eclogue, Colin and Phoebe. Of the great master
of Trinity his grandson has left a kindly account; he afterwards
collected all the pamphlets bearing on the Letters of Phalaris
controversy, and piously defended the reputation of his ancestor
in his Letter to Bishop Lowth, who had called Bentley " aut
caprimulgus aut fossor." Cumberland was in his seventh
year sent to the grammar-school at Bury St Edmunds, and he
relates how, on the head-master Arthur Kinsman undertaking,
in conversation with Bentley, to make the grandson as good a
scholar as the grandfather himself, the latter retorted: " Pshaw,
Arthur, how can that be, when I have forgot more than thou ever
knewest?" Bentley died during his grandson's Bury school-
days; and in 1744 the boy, who, while rising to the head of his
school^ had already begun to " try his strength in several slight
attempts towards the drama," was removed to Westminster,
then at the height of its reputation under Dr Nicholls. Among
his schoolfellows here were Warren Hastings, George Colman
(the elder), Lloyd, and (though he does not mention them as
such) Churchill and Cowper. From Westminster Cumberland
passed, in his fourteenth year, to Trinity College, Cambridge,
where in 1750 he took his degree as tenth wrangler. His account
of his degree examination, as well as that for a fellowship at his
college, part of which he underwent in the " judges' chamber,"
where he was born, is curious; he was by virtue of an alteration
in the statutes elected to his fellowship in the second year of his
degree.

Meanwhile his projects of work as a classical scholar had been
interspersed with attempts at imitating Spenser — -whom, by his
mother's advice, he "laid upon the shelf" — and a dramatic
effort (unprinted) on the model of Mason's Elfrida, called
Caractacus. He had just begun to read for his fellowship, when
he was offered the post of private secretary by the earl of Halifax,
first lord of trade and plantations in the duke of Newcastle's
ministry. His family persuaded him to accept the office, to
which he returned after his election as fellow. It left him
abundant leisure for literary pursuits, which included, the design
of a poem in blank verse on India. He resigned his Trinity
fellowship on his marriage— in 1759— to his cousin Elizabeth
Ridge, to whom he had paid his addresses on receiving through
Lord Halifax " a small establishment as crown-agent for Nova
Scotia." In 1761 he accompanied his patron (who had been
appointed lord-lieutenant) to Ireland as Ulster secretary; and
in acknowledgment of his services was afterwards offered a
baronetcy. By declining this he thinks he gave offence; at all
events, when in 1762 Halifax became secretary of state, Cumber-
land in vain applied for the post of under-secretary, and could
only obtain the clerkship of reports at the Board of Trade under
Lord Hillsborough. While he takes some credit to himself for
his incorruptibility when in Ireland, he showed zeal for his
friend and secured a bishopric for his father. On the accession
to office of Lord George Germaine (Sackville) in 1775, Cumberland
was appointed secretary to the Board of Trade and Plantations,
which post he held till the abolition of that board in 1782 by
Burke's economical reform. Before' this event he had, in 1780,
been sent on a confidential mission to Spain, to negotiate a

separate treaty of peace with that power; but though he was
well received by King Charles III. and his minister Floridablanca,
the question of Gibraltar proved a stumbling-block, and the
Gordon riots at home a most untoward occurrence. He was
recalled in 1781, and was refused repayment of the expenses
he had incurred, towards which only £1000 had been advanced
to him. He thus found himself £4500 out of pocket: in vain,
he says, " I wearied the door of Lord North till his very servants
drove me from it "; his memorial remained unread or unnoticed
either by the prime minister or by secretary Robinson, through
whom the original promise had been made. Soon after this
experience he lost his office, and had to retire on a compensation
allowance of less than half-pay. He now took up his residence
at Tunbridge Wells; but during liis last years he mostly lived
in London, where he died on the 7th of May 181 1. He was
buried in Westminster Abbey j a short oration being pronounced
on this occasion by his friend Dean Vincent.

Cumberland's numerous literary productions are spread over
the whole of his long life; but it is only by his contributions
to the drama, and perhaps by his Memoirs, that he is likely to
be remembered. The collection of essays and other pieces
entitled The Observer (1785), afterwards republished together
with a translation of The Clouds, found a place among The
British Essayists. For the accounts- given in The Observer of
the Greek writers, especially the comic poets, Cumberland availed
himself of Bentley's MSS. and annotated books in his possession;
his translations from the Greek fragments, which are not in-
elegant but lack closeness, are republished in James Bailey's
Comicorum Graecorum (parti., 1840) and Hermesianactis, Archi-
lochi, et Pratinae fragmenta. Cumberland further produced
Anecdotes of Eminent Painters hi Spain (1782 and 1787); a
Catalogue of the King of Spain's Paintings (1787) ; two novels —
Arundel (1789), a story in letters, and Henry (1795), a " diluted
comedy" on the construction and polishing of which he seems
to have expended great care; a religious epic, Calvary, or the
Death of Christ (1792); his last publication was a poem entitled
Retrospection. He is also supposed to have joined Sir James
Bland Burges in an epic, the Exodiad (1807), and in John de
Lancaster, a novel. Besides these he wrote the Letter to the
Bishop of 0[xfor]d in vindication of Bentley (1767); another
to the Bishop of Llandajf (Richard Watson) on his proposal for
equalizing the revenues of the Established Church (1783); a
Character of the late Lord Sackville (1785), whom in his Memoirs
he vindicates from the stigma of cowardice; and an anonymous
pamphlet, Curtius rescued from the Gulf, against the redoubtable
Dr Parr. He was also the author of a version of fifty of the
Psalms of David; of a tract on the evidences of Christianity;
and of other religious exercises in prose and verse, the former
including " as many sermons as would make a large volume,
some of which have been delivered from the pulpits." Lastly,
he edited, in 1809, a short-lived critical journal called The London
Review, intended to be a rival to the Quarterly, with signed
articles.

Cumberland's Memoirs, which he began at the close of 1804,
and concluded in September 1805, were published in 1806, and
a supplement was added in 1807. This narrative, which includes
a long aceount of his Spanish mission, contains some interesting
reminiscences of several persons of note — more especially Bubb
Dodington, Single-Speech Hamilton, and Lord George Sackville
among politicians, and of Garrick, Foote and Goldsmith;
but the accuracy of some of the anecdotes concerning the last-
named is not beyond suspicion. The book exhibits its author
as an amiable egotist, careful of his own reputation, given to
prolixity and undistinguished by wit, but a good observer of
men and manners. The uneasy self-absorption which Sheridan
immortalized in the character of Sir Fretful Plagiary in The
Critic is apparent enough in this autobiography, but presents
itself there in no offensive form. The incidental criticisms of
actors have been justly praised.

Cumberland was hardly warranted in the conjecture that
no English author had yet equalled his list of dramas in point of
number; but his plays, published and unpublished, have been

CUMBERLAND, DUKE OF

623

computed to amount to fifty-four. About 35 of these are regular
plays, to which have been added 4 operas and a farce; and about
half of the whole list are comedies. The best known of them
belong to what he was pleased to term " legitimate comedy,"
and to that species of it known as " sentimental." The essential
characteristic of these plays is the combination of plots of
domestic interest with the rhetorical enforcement of moral
precepts, and with such small comic humour as the author
possesses. These comedies are primarily, to borrow Cumber-
land's own phraseology, designed as " attempts upon the heart."
He takes great credit to himself for weaving his plays out of
" homely stuff, right British drugget," and for eschewing " the
vile refuse #f the Gallic stage "; on the other hand, he borrowed
from the sentimental fiction of his own country, including
Richardson, Fielding and Sterne. The favourite theme of his
plays is virtue in distress or danger, but safe of its reward in
the fifth act; their most constant characters are men of feeling
and young ladies who are either prudes or coquettes. Cumber-
land's comic power — such as it was — lay in the invention of
comic characters taken from the "outskirts of the empire,"
and professedly intended to vindicate from English prejudice
the good elements in the Scotch, the Irish and the colonial
character. For the rest, patriotic sentiment liberally asserts
itself by the side of general morality. If Cumberland's dialogue
lacks brilliance and his characters reality, the construction of
the plots is as a rule, skilful, and the situations are contrived
with what Cumberland indisputably possessed — a thorough
insight into the secrets of theatrical effect. It should be added
that, though Cumberland's sentimentality is often wearisome,
his morality is generally sound; that if he was without the genius
requisite for elevating the national drama, he did his best to keep
it pure and sweet; and that if he borrowed much, as he un-
doubtedly did, it was not the vicious attractions of other
dramatists of which he was the plagiary.

His debut as a dramatic author was made with a tragedy,
The Banishment of Cicero, published in 1761 after its rejection
by Garrick; this was followed in 1765 by a musical drama,
The Summer's Tale, subsequently compressed into an afterpiece
Amelia (1768). Cumberland first essayed sentimental comedy
in The Brothers (1769). The theme of this comedy is inspired
by Fielding's Tom Jones; its comic characters are the jolly
old tar Captain Ironsides, and the henpecked husband Sir
Benjamin Dove, whose progress to self-assertion is genuinely
comic, though not altogether original. Horace Walpole said
that it acted well, but read ill, though he could distinguish in
it " strokes of Mr Bentley." The epilogue paid a compliment
to Garrick, who helped the production of Cumberland's second
comedy The West-Indian ( 1 7 7 1 ) . The hero of this comedy, which
probably owes much to the suggestion of Garrick, is a young
scapegrace fresh from the tropics, " with rum and sugar enough
belonging to him to make all the water in the Thames into
punch," — a libertine with generous instincts, which in the end
prevail. This early example of the modern drame was received
with the utmost favour; it was afterwards translated into
German by Boden, and Goethe acted in it at the Weimar court.
The Fashionable Lover (1772) is a sentimental comedy of the
most pronounced type. The Choleric Man (1774), founded on
the Adelphi of Terence, is of a similar type, the comic element
rather predominating, but philanthropy being duly represented
by a virtuous lawyer called Manlove. Among his later comedies
may be mentioned The Natural Son (1785), in which Major
O'Flaherty who had already figured in The West-Indian, makes
his reappearance; The Impostors (1789), a comedy of intrigue;
The Box Lobby Challenge (1794), a protracted farce; The Jew
(1794), a serious play, highly effective when the character of
Sheva was played by the great German actor Theodor Coring;
The Wheel of Fortune (1795), in which John Kemble found a
celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who cannot
forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by Kotzebue
to have been stolen from his Menschenhass und Reue), while
the lawyer Timothy Weasel was made comic by Richard Suett;
First Love (1795); The Last of the Family (1795); False

Impressions (1797); The Sailor's Daughter (1804); and a Hint to
Husbands (1806), which, unlike the rest, is in blank verse. The
other works printed during his lifetime include The Note of
Hand (1774), a farce; the songs of his musical comedy, The
Widow of Delphi (1780); his tragedies of The Battle of Hastings
(1778); and The Carmelite (1784), a romantic domestic drama
in blank verse, in the style of Home's Douglas, furnishing some
effective scenes for Mrs Siddons and John Kemble as mother and
son; and the domestic drama (in prose) of The Mysterious
Husband (1783). His posthumously printed plays (published
in 2 vols, in 1813) include the comedies of The Walloons (acted
in 1782); The Passive Husband (acted as A Word for Nature,
1798); The Eccentric Lover (acted 1798); and Lovers' Resolutions
(once acted in 1802) ; the serious quasi-historic drama Confession;
the drama Don Pedro (acted 1796); and the tragedies of Alcanor
(acted as The Arab, 1785); Torrendal; The Sibyl, or The Elder
Brutus (afterwards amalgamated with other plays on the subject
into a very successful tragedy for Edmund Kean by Payne);
Tiberius in Capreae; and The False Demetrius (on a theme
which attracted Schiller). Cumberland translated the Clouds
of Aristophanes (1797), and altered for the stage Shakespeare's
Timon of Athens (1771), Massinger's The Bondman and The
Duke of Milan (both 1779).

In 1806-1807 appeared Memoirs of R. Cumberland, written by
himself. Cumberland's novel, Henry, was printed, in Ballantyne's
Novelists' Library (1 821), with a prefatory notice of the author by
Sir Walter Scott. A so : called Critical Examination of Cumberland's
works and a memoir of the author based oh his autobiography,
with the addition of some more or less feeble criticisms, by William
Madford, appeared in 1812. An excellent account of Cumberland
is included in " George Paston's " Little Memoirs of the Eighteenth
Century (1901). ' Hettner well characterizes Cumberland's position
in the history of the English drama in Litteraturgesch. d. 18. Jahr-
hunderts (2nd ed., 1865), i. 520. Cumberland's portrait by Romriey
(whose talent he was one of the first to encourage) is in the National
Portrait Gallery. (A. W. W.)

CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Duke of (1721-
1765), son of King George II. and Queen Caroline, was born on
the 15th of April 1721, and when five years of age was created
duke of Cumberland. His education was well attended to,
and his courage and capacity in outdoor exercises were notable
from his early years. He was intended by the king and queen
for the office of lord high admiral, and in 1740 he sailed as a
volunteer in the fleet under the command of Sir John Norris;
but he quickly became dissatisfied with the navy, and early in
1742 he began a military career. In December 1742 he was
made a major-general, and in the following year he first saw
active service in Germany. George II. and the " martial boy "
shared in the glory of Dettingen (June 27), and Cumberland,
who was wounded in the action, displayed an energy and valour,
the report of which in England founded his military popularity.
After the battle he was made lieutenant-general. In 1 745, having
been made captain-general of the British land forces at home and
in the field, the duke was again in Flanders as commander-in-
chief of the allied British, Hanoverian, Austrian and Dutch
troops. Advancing to the relief of Tournay, which was besieged
by Marshal Saxe, he engaged that great general in the battle of
Fontenoy (q v.) on the nth of May. It cannot now be doubted
that, had the duke been supported by the allies in his marvellously
courageous attack on the superior positions of the French army,
Fontenoy would not have been recorded as a defeat to the British
arms. He himself was in the midst of the heroic column which
penetrated the French centre, and his conduct of the inevitable
retreat was "unusually cool and skilful.

Notwithstanding the severity of his discipline, the young duke
had the power to inspire his men with a strong attachment to
his person and a very lively esprit de corps. As a general his>
courage and resolution were not sufficiently tempered with
sagacity and tact; but he displayed an energy and power in
military affairs which pointed him out to the British people as the
one commander upon whom they could rely to put a decisive stop
to the successful career of Prince Charles Edward in the rebellion,
of 1745-1746. John (Earl) Ligonier wrote of him at this time:
" Ou je suis fort trompe ou il se forme la un grand capitaine."

624

CUMBERLAND

He was recalled from Flanders, and immediately proceeded with
his preparations for quelling the insurrection. He joined the
midland army under Sir John Ligonier, and was at once in pursuit
of his swift-footed foe. But the retreat of Charles Edward from
Derby disconcerted his plans; and it was not till they had
reached Penrith, and the advanced portion of his army had been
repulsed on Clifton Moor, that he became aware how hopeless
an attempt to overtake the retreating Highlanders would then
be. Carlisle having been retaken, he retired to London, till
the news of the defeat of Hawley at Falkirk roused again the
fears of the English people, and centred the hopes of Britain on
the royal duke. He was appointed commander of the forces
in Scotland.

Having arrived in Edinburgh on the 30th of January 1746, he
at once proceeded in search of the young Pretender. He diverged,
however, to Aberdeen, where he employed his time in training
the well-equipped forces now under his command for the peculiar
nature of the warfare in which they were about to engage.
What the old and experienced generals of his time had failed to
accomplish or even to understand, the young duke of Cumberland,
as yet only twenty-four years of age, effected with simplicity
and ease. He prepared to dispose his army so as to withstand
with firmness that onslaught on which all Highland successes
depended; and he reorganized the forces and restored their
discipline and self-confidence in a few weeks.

On the 8th of April 1746 he set out from Aberdeen towards
Inverness, and on the 15th he fought the decisive battle of
Culloden, in which, and in the pursuit which followed, the forces
of the Pretender were completely destroyed. He had become
convinced that the sternest measures were needed to break
down the Jacobitism of the Highlanders. He told his troops to
take notice that the enemy's orders were to give no quarter to
the " troops of the elector," and they took the hint. No trace
of such orders remains (see Murray, Lord George), and it is
probable that Cumberland had merely received word of wild
talk in the enemy's camp, which he credited the more easily
as he thought that those who were capable of rebellion were cap-
able of any crime. On account of the merciless severity with
which the fugitives were treated, Cumberland received the
nickname of the " Butcher." That the implied taunt was
unjust need not be laboured. It was used for political purposes
in England, and his own brother, the prince of Wales, encouraged,
it appears, the virulent attacks which were made upon the duke.
In any case there is a marked similarity between Cumberland's
conduct in Scotland and that of Cromwell in Ireland. Both
dared to do acts which they knew would be cast against them for
the rest of their lives, and terrorized an obstinate and unyielding
enemy into submission. How real was the danger of a pro-
tracted guerrilla warfare in the Highlands may be judged from
the explicit declarations of Jacobite leaders that they intended
to continue the struggle. As it was, the war came to an end
almost at once. Here, as always, Cumberland preserved the
strictest discipline in his camp. He was inflexible in the execution
of what he deemed to be his duty, without favour to any man.
At the same time he exercised his influence in favour of clemency
in special cases that were brought to his notice. Some years
later James Wolfe spoke of the duke as " for ever doing noble and
generous actions."

The relief occasioned to Britain by the duke's victorious
efforts was acknowledged by his being voted an income of
£40,000 per annum in addition to his revenue as a prince of the
royal house. The duke took no part in the Flanders campaign
of 1746, but in 1747 he again opposed the still victorious Marshal
Saxe; and received a heavy defeat at the battle of Lauffeld,
or Val, near Maestricht (2nd of July 1 747) . During the ten years
of peace Cumberland occupied himself chiefly with his duties as
captain-general, and the result of his work was clearly shown
in the conduct of the army in the Seven Years' War. His un-
popularity, which had steadily increased since Culloden, inter-
fered greatly with his success in politics, and when the death of
the prince of Wales brought a minor next in succession to the
throne the duke was not able to secure for himself the contingent

regency, which was vested in the princess-dowager of Wales.
In 1757, the Seven Years' War having broken out, Cumberland
was placed at the head of a motley army of allies to defend
Hanover. At Hastenbeck, near Hameln, on the 26th of July
1757, he was defeated by the superior forces of D'Estrees (see
Seven Years' War). In September of the same year his defeat
had almost become disgrace. Driven from point to point, and
at last hemmed in by the French under Richelieu, he capitulated
at Klosterzeven on the 8th of the month, agreeing to disband
his army and to evacuate Hanover. His disgrace was completed
on his return to England by the king's refusal to be bound by
the terms of the duke's agreement. In chagrin and disappoint-
ment he retired into private life, after having formally resigned
the public offices he held. In his retirement he made no attempt
to justify his conduct, applying in his own case the discipline
he had enforced in others. For a few years he lived quietly at
Windsor, and subsequently in London, taking but little part in
politics. He did much, however, to displace the Bute ministry
and that of Grenville, and endeavoured to restore Pitt to office.
Public opinion had now set in his favour, and he became almost
as popular as he had been in his youth. Shortly before his
death the duke was requested to open negotiations with Pitt for
a return to power. This was, however, unsuccessful. On the
31st of October 1765 the duke died.

A Life of the. duke of Cumberland by Andrew Henderson was
published in 1766, and anonymous (Richard Rolt) Historical Memoirs
appeared in 1767. See especially A. N. Campbell Maclachlan,
William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (1876).

CUMBERLAND, the north-westernmost county of England,
bounded N. by the Scottish counties of Dumfries and Roxburgh,
E. by Northumberland, S. by Westmorland and Lancashire,
and W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1520-4 sq. m. In the south
the county includes about one-half of the celebrated Lake
District (q.v.), with the highest mountain in England, Scafell
Pike (3210 ft.), and the majority of the principal lakes, among
which are Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, Buttermere and
Crummock Water, Ennerdale, Wastwater, and, on the bound-
ary with Westmorland, Ullswater. From this district valleys
radiate north, west and south to a flat coastal belt, the widest
part of which (about 8 m.) is found in the north in the Solway
Plain, bordering Solway Firth, which here intervenes between
England and Scotland. The valley of the Eden, opening upon
this plain from the south-east, separates the mountainous Lake
District from the straight westward face of a portion of the
Pennine Chain (q.v.), which, though little of it lies within
this county, reaches its highest point within it in Cross Fell
(2930 ft.). A well-marked pass, called the Tyne Gap, at the
water-parting between the rivers Irthing and South Tyne,
traversed by the Newcastle & Carlisle railway, intervenes between
these hills and their northward continuation in the hills of the
Scottish border. Besides the waters of the Eden, Solway Firth
receives those of the Esk, which enter Cumberland from Scotland.
Liddel Water, joining this river from the north east from Liddis-
dale, forms a large part of the boundary with Scotland. The
Eden receives the Irthing from the east, and from the Lake
District the Caldew, rising beneath Skiddaw and joining the main
river at Carlisle, and the Eamont, draining Ullswater and forming
part of the boundary with Westmorland. The principal streams
flowing east and south from the Lake District are the Derwent,
from Borrowdale and Derwentwater, the Eden from Ennerdale,
the Esk from Eskdale, and the Duddon, forming the greater
part of the boundary with Lancashire. There are valuable salmon
fisheries in the Eden, and trout are taken in many of the streams
and lakes.

Geology. — The mountainous portion of Cumberland is built up of
two different types of rock. The older, a sedimentary slaty series
of Ordovician age, the Skiddaw slates, surrounds Bassenthwaite,
Saddleback, Crummock Water, Keswick and Cockermouth and the
western end of Ennerdale Water. The same formation is found
in the northern flanks of Ullswater also north and east of Whitbeck.
The other type of rock is volcanic; it gives a more rugged aspect
to the scenery, as may be seen in comparing the rough outlines of
Scafell and Honister Crags or Helvellyn with the smoother form
of Saddleback or Skiddaw. These volcanic rocks, owing to much

CUMBERLAND

625

alteration, are often slaty; they have been called the " green slates
and porphyries " or the Borrowdale Series. The Skiddaw slates are
usually separated from the newer green slates above them by a plane
of differential movement, for both have been thrust by earth-
pressures from south to north, but the former rocks have travelled
farther than the latter which have lagged behind; hence Messrs
Marr and Harker describe the plane of separation as a " lag-fault."
Much general faulting and folding have resulted from the movement;
the thrusting took place in Devonian times. About the same period
great masses of granitic rock were intruded into the slates in the
form of laccolites, which often lie along the lag planes. Such rocks
are the granophyre hills of Buttermere and Ennerdale, the micro-
granite patches on either side of the Vale of St John, and the great
mass of Eskdale granite which reaches from Wastwater to the flanks
of Black Combe. At Carrock Fell, N.E. of Skiddaw, is an extremely
interesting complex of volcanic rocks, and in many other places are
diabase and other forms, e.g. the well-known rock at Castle Head,
Keswick.

From Pooley Bridge, Ullswater, on the east, by Udale round to
Egremont on the west, the mountainous region just described, is
surrounded by the Carboniferous Limestone series, with a con-
glomerate at the base. Upon these rocks the coalfield of Whitehaven
rests and extends as far as Maryport. The coal seams are worked
for some distance beneath the sea. The vale of Eden between
Penrith, Hornsby and Wreay is occupied by Permian sandstone,
usually bright red in colour. Red Triassic rocks form a strip about
4 m. broad east of the Permian outcrop; a similar strip forms a
coastal fringe from St Bees Head to Duddon Sands. The same
formations are spread out round Carlisle, Brampton, Longtown,
Wigton and Aspatria. East of Carlisle they are covered by an
outlier of Lias. A great dislocation, the Pennine Fault, runs along
the eastern side of the vale of Eden; it throws up the Lower Carboni-
ferous limestones with their associated shales and sandstones to
form the elevated ground in the north and north-east of the county.
Several basic intrusions penetrate the limestone scries, the best
known being the Whin Sill, which may be traced for a number of
miles northward from Crossfell. Evidences of glacial action are
abundant ; till with sands and gravel lie on the lower ground ;
striated rocks and roches moutonnees are common; perched blocks
are found on the plateau by Sprinkling Tarn and elsewhere. Moraine
mounds are quite numerous in the valleys, and have frequently
been the cause of small lakes.

Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is generally temperate,
but in the higher parts bleak, snow sometimes lying fully six
months of the year on Cross Fell and the mountains of the Lake
District. As regards rainfall, the physical configuration makes
for contrast. At Carlisle, on the Solway plain, the mean annual
fall is 30.6 in. At Penrith, on the north-eastern flank of the
Lake District, it is 31.67; on the western flank 42.3 in. are
recorded at Ravenglass, close to the coast, and 51.78 at Cocker-
mouth, some miles inland. In the heart of the district, however,
the fall is as a rule much heavier, in fact, the heaviest recorded
in the British Isles (see Lake District). Somewhat less than
three-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation,
the proportion being higher than that of the neighbouring
counties of Northumberland and Westmorland, but still much
below the average of the English counties. Black peaty earth
is the most prevalent soil in the mountainous districts; but dry
loams occur in the lowlands, and are well adapted to green crops,
grain and pasture. Wheat and barley are practically neglected,
but large crops of oats are grown. Turnips and swedes form the
bulk of the green crops. Hill pasture amounts to nearly 270,000
acres, and a good number of cattle are reared, but the principal
resource of the farmer is sheep-breeding. The sheep on the
lowland farms are generally of the Leicester class or cross-bred
between the Leicester and Herdwick, with a few Southdowns.
Throughout the mountainous districts the Herd wicks have taken
the place of. the smaller black-faced heath variety of sheep
once so commonly met with on the sheep farms. They are
peculiar to this part of England; the ewes and wethers and
many of the rams are polled, the faces and legs are speckled,
and the wool is finer and heavier in fleece than that of the
heath breed. They originally came from the neighbourhood of
Muncaster in the Duddon and Esk district, and tradition ascribes
their origin variously to introduction by Scandinavian settlers,
or to parents that escaped from a wrecked ship of the Spanish
Armada. In general they belong to the proprietors of the sheep-
walks, and have been farmed out with them from time immemorial,
from which circumstance it is said they obtained the name of
" Herdwicks." Long after the Norman Conquest Cumberland

remained one of the most densely forested regions of England,
and much of the low-lying land is still well wooded, the Lake
District in particular displaying beautiful contrasts between
bare mountain and tree-clad valley. The oak, ash and birch
are the principal natural trees, while sycamores have been
planted for shelter round many farmsteads. Plantations of
larch are also numerous, and the holly, yew, thorn and juniper
flourish locally.

Landed property was formerly much divided in this county,
and the smaller holdings were generally occupied by their owners,
who were known as " statesmen," i.e. " estatesmen," a class of
men long noted for their sturdy independence and attachment
to routine husbandry. Most of these estates were held of the
lords of manors under customary tenure, which subjected them
to the payments of fines and heriots on alienation as well as on
the death of the lord or tenant. According to the Agricultural
Survey printed in 1794, about two- thirds of the county was held
by this tenure, in parcels worth from £15 to £30 rental. On
large estates, also, the farms were in general rather small, few
then reaching £200 a year, held on verbal contracts, or very
short leases, and burdened like the small estates with payments
or services over and above a money rent. In modern times these
conditions have changed, the " statesmen " gradually becoming
extinct as a class, and many of the small holdings falling into the
hands of the larger landed proprietors.

Other Industries. — Carlisle is the seat of a variety of manu-
factures; there are also in the county cotton and woollen
industries, pencil mills at Keswick, and iron shipbuilding yards
at Whitehaven. But the mining industry is the most important,
coal being raised principally in the district about Whitehaven,
Workington and Maryport. Side by side with this industry
much iron ore is raised, and there is a large output of pig-iron,
and ore is also found in the south, in the neighbourhood of
Millom. Gypsum, zinc and some lead are mined. Copper was
formerly worked near Keswick, and there was a rich deposit of
black lead at the head of Borrowdale. Granite and limestone
are extensively quarried. Stone is very largely used even for
housebuilding, a fine green slate being often employed. Shap
and other granites are worked for building and roadstones.

Communications. — The chief ports of Cumberland are White-
haven, Workington, Maryport, Harrington and Silloth. The
London & North- Western railway enters the county near Pen-
rith, and terminates at Carlisle, which is also served by the
Midland. The Caledonian, North British and Glasgow & South-
western lines further serve this city, which is thus an important
junction in through communications between England and
Scotland. The North-Eastern railway connects Carlisle with
Newcastle. The Maryport & Carlisle, the Cockermouth, Keswick
& Penrith; and the Cleator & Workington Junction lines serve
the districts indicated by their names, while the Furness railway
passes along the west coast from the district of Furness in
Lancashire as far north as Whitehaven, also serving Cleator and
Egremont. The Ravenglass & Eskdale light railway gives access
from this system to Boot in Eskdale. Coaches and motor cars
maintain passenger communications in the Lake District where
the railways do not penetrate.

Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient and
the administrative county is 973,086 acres, with a population
in 1891-of 266,549 and in 1901 of 266,933. The county contains
five wards, divisions which in this and neighbouring counties
correspond to hundreds, and also appear in Lanarkshire and
Renfrewshire in Scotland. The municipal boroughs are Carlisle
(pop. 45,480), a city and the county town, Whitehaven (19,324),
and Workington (26,143). The other urban districts are Arlecdon
and Frizington (5341), Aspatria (2885), Cleator Moor (8120),
Cockermouth (5355), Egremont (5761), Harrington (3679),
Holme Cultram (4275), Keswick (4451), Maryport (11,897),
Millom (10,426), Penrith (9182), Wigton (3692). Of these all
except Keswick, Millom and Penrith are in the industrial district
of the west and north-west. The urban district of Holme
Cultram includes the port of Silloth. Among lesser towns may
be mentioned St Bees (1236), on the coast south of Whitehaven,

626

CUMBERLAND

until 1897 the seat of a Church of England theological college.
The grammar school here, founded in 1533, is liberally endowed,
with scholarships and exhibitions. Cumberland is in the
northern circuit, and assizes are held at Carlisle. It has one
court of quarter sessions and 12 petty sessional divisions. The
city of Carlisle has a separate commission of the peace and court
of quarter sessions. There are 213 civil parishes. Cumberland
is in the diocese of Carlisle, with a small portion in that of
Newcastle. There are 167 ecclesiastical parishes or districts
within the county. There are four parliamentary divisions, the
Northern or Eskdale, Mid or Penrith, Cockermouth and Western
or Egremont, each returning one member; while the parlia-
mentary boroughs of Carlisle and Whitehaven each return one
member.

History. — After the withdrawal of the Romans (of whose
occupation there are various important relics in the county)
little is known of the region which is now Cumberland, until
the great battle of Ardderyd in 573 resulted in its consolidation
with the kingdom of Strathclyde. About 670-680 the western
district between the Solway and the Mersey was conquered by
the Angles of Northumbria and remained an integral portion
of that kingdom until the Danish invasion of the 9th century.
In 875 the kingdom of the Cumbri is referred to, but without
any indication of its extent, and the first mention of Cumberland
to denote a geographical area occurs in 945 when it was ceded
by Edmund to Malcolm of Scotland. At this date it included
the territory north and south of the Solway from the Firth of
Forth to the river Duddon. The Scottish supremacy was not
uninterrupted, for the district at the time of its invasion by
Ethelred in 1000 was once more a stronghold of the Danes,
whose influence is clearly traceable in the nomenclature of the
Lake District. At the time of the Norman invasion Cumberland
was a dependency of the earldom of Northumbria, but its history
at this period is very obscure, and no notice of it occurs in the
Domesday Survey of 1086; Kirksanton, Bootle and Whicham,
however, are entered under the possessions of the earl of North-
umbria in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The real, Norman
conquest of Cumberland took place in 1092, when William Rufus
captured Carlisle, repaired the city, built the castle, and after
sending a number of English husbandmen to till the land, placed
the district under the lordship of Ranulf Meschines. The fief
of Ranulf was called the Power or Honour of Carlisle, and a sheriff
of Carlisle is mentioned in 1 106. The district was again captured
by the Scots in the reign of Stephen, and on its recovery in 1157
the boundaries were readjusted to include the great barony
of Coupland. At this date the district was described as the
county of Carlisle, and the designation county of Cumberland is
not adopted in the sheriff's accounts until n 77. The five
present wards existed as administrative areas in 1278, when
they were termed bailiwicks, the designation ward not appearing
until the 16th century, though the bailiwicks of the Forest of
Cumberland are termed wards in the 14th century. In the
17 th and 1 8 th centuries each of the five wards was under the
administration of a chief constable.

Owing to its position on the Border Cumberland was the scene
of constant warfare from the time of its foundation until the
union of England and Scotland, and families like the Tilliols,
the Lucies, the Greystokes, and the Dacres were famous for
their exploits in checking or avenging the depredations of the
Scots. During the War of Independence in the reign of Edward I.
Carlisle was the headquarters of the English army. In the Wars
of the Roses the prevailing sympathy was with the Lancastrian
cause, which was actively supported by the representatives of
the families of Egremont, Dacre and Greystoke. In 1542 the
Scottish army under James V. suffered a disastrous defeat at
Solway Moss. After the union of the crowns of England and
Scotland in 1603, the countries hitherto known as " the Borders "
were called " the Middle Shires," and a period of comparative
peace ensued. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th
century the northern counties associated in raising forces for
the king, and the families of Howard, Dalston, Dacre and
Musgrave rendered valuable service to the royalist cause. In

1645 Carlisle was captured by the parliamentary forces, but in
April 1648 it was retaken by Sir Philip Musgrave and Sir Thomas
Glenham, and did not finally surrender until the autumn of 1648.
Cumberland continued, however, to support the Stuarts; it was
one of the first counties to welcome back Charles II.; in 171 5
it was associated with the rising on behalf of the Pretender, and
Carlisle was the chief seat of operations in the 1745 rebellion.

In 685 Carlisle and the surrounding district was annexed by
Ecgfrith king of Northumbria to the diocese of Lindisfarne,
to which it continued subject, at least until the Danish invasion
of the gth century. In 1133 Henry I. created Carlisle (q.v.) a
bishopric. The diocese included the whole of modern Cumberland
(except the barony of Coupland and the parishes of Alston,
Over-Denton and Kirkandrews) , and also the barony of Appleby
in Westmorland. The archdeaconry of Carlisle, co-extensive
with the diocese, comprised four deaneries. Coupland was a
deanery in the archdeaconry of Richmond and diocese of York
until 1541, when it was annexed to the newly created diocese of
Chester. In 1856 the area of the diocese of Carlisle was extended,
so as to include the whole of Cumberland except the parish of
Alston, the whole of Westmorland, and the Furness district
of Lancashire. In 1858 the deaneries were made to number
eighteen, and in 1870 were increased to twenty.

The principal industries of Cumberland have been from earliest
times connected with its valuable fisheries and abundant mineral
wealth. The mines of Alston and the iron mines about Egremont
were worked in the 12th century. The Keswick copper mines
were worked in the reign of Henry III., but the black-lead mine
was not worked to any purpose until the 18th century. Coal-
mining is referred to in the 15th century, and after the revival
of the mining industries in the 16th century, rose to great
importance. The saltpans about the estuaries of the Esk and
the Eden, were a source of revenue in the 12th century.

Cumberland returned three members for the county to the
parliament of 1 290, and in 1 295 returned in addition two members
for the city of Carlisle and two members each for the boroughs
of Cockermouth and Egremont. The boroughs did not agair
return members until in 1640 Cockermouth regained represen-
tation. Under the Reform Act of 1832, Cumberland returned
four members for two divisions, and Whitehaven returned one
member. The county now returns six members to parliament;
one each for the four divisions of the county, Egremont, Cocker-
mouth, Eskdale and Penrith, one for the city of Carlisle and one
for the borough of Whitehaven.

Antiquities. — Very early crosses, having Celtic or Scandinavian
characteristics, are seen at Gosforth, Bewcastle and elsewhere.
In ecclesiastical architecture Cumberland is not rich as a whole,
but it possesses Carlisle cathedral, with its beautiful choir, and
certain monastic remains of importance. Among these are the
fine remnants of Lanercost priory (see Brampton). Calder
Abbey, near Egremont, a Cistercian abbey founded in 1134,
has ruins of the church and cloisters, of Norman and Early
English character, and is very beautifully situated on the Calder.
The parish Church of St Bees, with good Norman and Early
English work, belonged to a Benedictine priory of n 20; but
according to tradition the first religious house here was a nunnery
founded c. 650 by St Bega, who became its abbess. Among the
parish churches there are a few instances of towers strongly
fortified for purposes of defence; that at Burgh-on-the-Sands,
near Carlisle, being a good illustration. Castles, in some cases
ruined, in others modernized, are fairly numerous, both near the
Scottish border and elsewhere. Na worth Castle near Brampton
is the finest example; others are at Bewcastle, Carlisle, Kirk-
oswald, Egremont, Cockermouth and Millom. Among many
notable country seats, Rose Castle, the palace of the bishops
of Carlisle; Greystoke Castle and Armathwaite Hall may be
mentioned.

See J. Nicolson and R. Burn, History and Antiquities of the Counties
of Westmorland and Cumberland (London, 1777); W. Hutchinson,
History of Cumberland (Carlisle, 1794); S. Jefferson, History and
Antiquities of Cumberland (Carlisle, 1840-1842); S. Gilpin, Songs
and Ballads of Cumberland (London, 1866); W. Dickinson, Glossary
of Words and Phrases of Cumberland (London, English Dialect

CUMBERLAND— CUMBERLAND RIVER

627

Society, 1878, with a supplement, 1881); Sir G. F. Duckett, Early
Sheriffs of Cumberland' (Kendal, 1879); J. Denton, "Account of
Estates and Families in the County of Cumberland, 1066-1603," in
Antiquarian Society's Transactions (1887) ; R. S. Ferguson, History of
Cumberland (London, 1890) ; " Archaeological Survey of Cumber-
land," in Archaeologia, vol. liii. (London, 1893); W. Jackson, Papers
and Pedigrees relating to Cumberland (2 vols., London, 1892); T.
Ellwood, The Landnama Book of Iceland as it illustrates the Dialect
and Antiquities of Cumberland (Kendal, 1894); Victoria County
History, Cumberland; and Transactions of the Cumberland and
Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society.

CUMBERLAND, a city and the county-seat of Allegany
county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Potomac river, about 178 m.
W. by N. of Baltimore and about 153 m. S. by E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 12,729; (1900) 17,128, of whom 1113 were foreign-
born and 1100 were of negro descent; (1910) 21,839.
Cumberland is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western
Maryland, the Pennsylvania, the Cumberland & Pennsylvania
(from Cumberland to Piedmont, Virginia), and the George's
Creek & Cumberland railways, the last a short line extending to
Lonaconing (19 m.); by an electric line extending to Western
Port, Maryland ; and by the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, of which
it is a terminus. The city is about 635 ft. above sea-level, and
from a distance appears to be completely shut in by lofty ranges
of hills, which are cut through to the westward by a deep gorge
called " The Narrows," making a natural gateway of great
beauty. Cumberland has a large trade in coal, which is mined in
the vicinity. As a manufacturing centre it ranked in 1905 second
in the state, the chief products being iron, steel, bricks, flour,
cement, silk and leather; there is also a large dyeing and clean-
ing establishment. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $2,900,267 in 1900 to $4,595,023 in 1905, or
58-4 %. Cumberland is an important jobbing centre also.
The municipality owns and operates its water- works and electric
lighting plant. The first settlement of the place was made in
1750; in 1754 Fort Cumberland was erected within what are
now the city limits, and in the year following this fort was
occupied by General Edward Braddock. Cumberland was laid
out in 1763, but there was little growth until 1787, and it was not
incorporated as a town until 1815; it was chartered as a city in
1850.

CUMBERLAND, a township of Providence county, Rhode
Island, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. N.
of Providence and having the Blackstone river for most of its
W. boundary. Pop. (1890) 8090; (1900) 8925, of whom 3473
were foreign-born; (1910) 10,107; area, 27-5 sq. m.
It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway.
Within its borders are the villages of Cumberland Hill, Diamond
Hill, Arnold Mills, Abbott Run, Berkeley, Robin Hollow, Happy
Hollow, East Cumberland, and parts of Manville, Ashton,
Lonsdale and Valley Falls. The surface of the township is gener-
ally hilly and rocky. In the N. part is a valuable granite quarry;
and limestone, and some coal, iron and gold are also found.
Cumberland has been called the " mineral pocket of New
England." The Blackstone and its tributaries provide consider-
able water power; and there are various manufactures, including
cotton goods, silk goods, and horse-shoes and other iron ware.
The value of the township's factory product in 1905 was
$3,171,3 18, an increase of 8o- 6% since 1900, this ratio of increase
being greater than that shown by any other " municipality "
in the state having a population in 1900 of 8000 or more. At
Lonsdale, William Blackstone (c.1595-1675), the first permanent
white settler within the present limits of Rhode Island, built
his residence, " Study Hall," about 1635. Cumberland was
originally a part of Rehoboth, and then of Attleborough, Massa-
chusetts, and for many years was called, like other sparse settle-
ments, the Gore, or Attleborough Gore. In 1747, by the royal
decree establishing the boundary between Massachusetts and
Rhode Island, Attleborough Gore, with other territory formerly
under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was annexed to Rhode
Island, and the township of Cumberland was incorporated,
the name being adopted in honour of William Augustus, duke of
Cumberland. In 1867 a part of Cumberland was set off to form
the township of Woonsocket.

CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS (or more correctly the Cumber-
land Plateau or Highlands), the westernmost of the three great
divisions of the Appalachian uplift in the United States, com-
posed of many small ranges of mountains (of which Cumberland
Mountain in eastern Kentucky is one) . It extends from Pennsyl-
vania to Alabama, attaining its greatest height (about 4000 ft.)
in Virginia. The plateau is rich in a variety of mineral products,
of which special mention may be made of coal, which occurs in
many places, and of the beautiful marbles quarried in that
portion of the plateau which lies between Virginia and Kentucky
and crosses Tennessee. The plateau has an abrupt descent,
almost ah escarpment, into the great Appalachian Valley on its
E., while the W. slope is deeply and roughly broken. The whole
mass is eroded in Virginia into a maze of ridges. Cumberland
Mountain parts the waters of the Cumberland and Tennessee
rivers. This range and the other ranges about it are perhaps the
loveliest portion of the whole plateau. The peaks here and in the
Blue Ridge to the E. are the highest of the Appalachian system.
Forest-filled valleys, rounded hills and rugged gorges afford in
every part scenery of surpassing beauty. The Cumberland Valley
between the Cumberland range and the Pine range is one of
special fame. In the former range there are immense caverns
and subterranean streams. Cumberland Gap, crossing the ridge
at about 167 ft. above the sea, where Kentucky, Virginia and
Tennessee meet, is a gorge about 500 ft. deep, with steep sides
that barely give room in places for a roadway. The mountains,
river and gap were all discovered by a party of Virginians in
1748, and named in honour of the victor of Culloden, William,
duke of Cumberland. Afterwards the gap gained a place in
American history as one of the main pathways by which
emigrants crossed the mountains to Kentucky and Tennessee.
During the Civil War it was a position of great strategic im-
portance, as it afforded an entrance to eastern and central
Tennessee from Kentucky, which was held by the Union arms;
and it was repeatedly occupied in alternation by the opposing
forces.

The mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee are a strange
stock, who retain in their customs and habits the primitive
conditions of a life that has elsewhere long since disappeared.
They have been pictured in the novels of Miss Murfree and John
Fox, Junr. They are a tall, straight, angular folk, of fine physical
development; the volunteers for the Union army from Kentucky
and Tennessee during the Civil War — most of whom came from
the non-slave-holding mountain region — exceeded in physical
development the volunteers from all other states. For the
education of these mountaineers Major-General Oliver Otis
Howard founded in 1895 at Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, the
Lincoln Memorial University (co-educational; non-sectarian;
opened in 1897), which has collegiate, normal training and in-
dustrial courses, and an affiliated school of medicine, Tennessee
Medical College, at Knoxville. The university had in 1907-1908
14 instructors and 570 students. Berea College in Kentucky was
a pioneer institution for the education of mountaineers.

CUMBERLAND RIVER, a large southern branch of the Ohio
river, U.S.A., rising in the highest part of the Cumberland plateau
in south-east Kentucky, and emptying into the Ohio in Kentucky
(near Smithland) after a devious course of 688 m. through that
state and Tennessee. It drains a basin of somewhat more than
18,000 sq. m., and is navigable for light-draught steamers through
about 500 m. under favourable conditions — Burnside, Pulaski
county, 518 m. from the mouth, is the head of navigation — and
through 193 m. — to Nashville — all the year round; for boats
drawing not more than 3 ft. the river is navigable to Nashville for
6 to 8 months. At the Great Falls, in Whitley county, Kentucky,
it drops precipitously 63 ft. Above the falls it is a mountain
stream, of little volume in the dry months. It descends rapidly
at its head to the highland bench below the mountains and
traverses this to the falls, then flows in rapids (the Great Shoals)
for some 10 m. through a' fine gorge with cliffs 300-400 ft. high,
and descends between bluffs of decreasing height and beauty
into its lower level. Save in the mountains its gradient is slight,
and below the falls, except for a number of small rapids, the

628

CUMBRAES, THE— CUMMING

flow of the stream is equabk. Timbered ravines lend charm
to much of its shores, and in the mountains the scenery is most
beautiful. Below Nashville the stream is some 400 to 500 ft.
wide, and its high banks are for the most part of alluvium, with
rocky bluffs at intervals. At the mouth of the river lies Cumber-
land Island, in the Ohio. During low water of the latter stream
the Cumberland discharges around both ends of the island, but
in high water of the Ohio the gradient of the Cumberland is so
slight that its waters are held back, forming a deep quiet pool
that extends some 20 m. up the river A system of locks and
dams below Nashville was planned in 1846 by a private company,
which accomplished practically nothing. Congress appropriated
$155,000 in 1832-1838; in the years immediately after 1888
$305,000 was expended, notably for deepening the shoals at the
junction of the Cumberland and the Ohio; in 1892 a project
was undertaken for 7 locks and dams 52 ft. wide and 280 ft.
long below Nashville. Aboye Nashville $346,000 was expended
on the open channel project (of 1871-1872) from Nashville to
Cumberland Ford (at Pineville); in 1886 a canalization project
was undertaken and 22 locks and dams below Burnside and 6
above Burnside were planned, but by the act of 1907 the project
was modified — $2,319,000 had been appropriated up to 1908
for the work of canalization. During the Civil War Fort Donelgon
on the Cumberland, and Fort Henry near by on the Tennessee
were erected by the Confederates, and their capture by Flag-
officer A. H. Foote and General Grant (Feb. 1862) was one of
the decisive events of the war, opening the rivers as it did
for the advance of the Union forces far into Confederate
Territory.

CUMBRAES, THE, two islands forming part of the county of
Bute, Scotland, lying in the Firth of Clyde, between the southern
shores of Bute and the coast of Ayrshire. Great Cumbrae
Island, about 15 m. W.S.W. of Largs, is 3J m. long and 2: m.
broad, and has a circumference of 10 m. and an area of 3200
acres or 5 sq. m. Its highest point is 417 ft. above the sea.
There is some fishing and a little farming, but the mainstay of
the inhabitants is the custom of the visitors who crowd every
summer to Millport, which is reached by railway steamer from
Largs. This town (pop. 1901, 1663) is well situated at the head
of a fine bay and has a climate that is both warm and bracing.
Its chief public buildings include the cathedral, erected in Gothic
style on rising ground behind the town, the college connected
with it, the garrison, a picturesque seat belonging to the marquess
of Bute, who owns the island, the town hall, a public hall,
library and reading room, the Lady Margaret fever hospital,
and a marine biological station. The cathedral, originally the
collegiate church, was founded in 1849 by the earl of Glasgow
and opened in 1851. In 1876 it was constituted the cathedral
of Argyll and the Isles. Millport enjoys exceptional facilities
for boating and bathing, and there is also a good golf-course.
Pop. (1901) 1754, of whom 1028 were females, and 59 spoke both
English and Gaelic. Little Cumbrae Island lies to the south,
separated by the Tan, a strait half a mile wide. It is if m. long,
barely 1 m. broad, and has an area of almost a square mile.
Its highest point is 409 ft. above sea-level. On the bold cliffs
of the west coast stands a lighthouse. Robert II. is said to have
built a castle on the island which was demolished by Cromwell's
soldiers in 1653.

The strata met with in the Great and Little Cumbrae belong to the
Upper Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous systems. The former,
consisting of false-bedded sandstones and conglomerates, are con-
fined to the larger island. The Carboniferous rocks of the Cumbrae
belong to the lower part of the Calciferous Sandstone series with the
accompanying volcanic zone. In the larger island these sediments,
comprising sandstones, red, purple and mottled clays with occasional
bands of nodular limestone or cornstone, occupy a considerable area
on the north side of Millport Bay. In the Little Cumbrae they appear
on the east side, where they underlie and are interbedded with the
lavas. The interesting geological feature of these islands is the
development of Lower Carboniferous volcanic rocks. They cover
nearly the whole of the Little Cumbrae, where they give rise to
marked terraced features and are arranged in a gentle synclinal fold.
The flows are often scoriaceous at the top and sometimes display
columnar structure, as in the crags at the lighthouse. Those rocks ex-
amined microscopically consist of basalts which are often porphyritic.

In Great Cumbrae the intrusive rocks mark four periods of erup-
tion, three of which may be of Carboniferous age. The oldest,
consisting of trachytes, occur as sheets and dikes trending generally
E.N.E., and are confined chiefly to the Upper Old Red Sandstone.
They seem to be of older date than the Carboniferous lavas of Little
Cumbrae and south Bute. Next come dikes of olivine basalt of the
type of the Lion's Haunch on Arthur's Seat, which, though possess-
ing the same general trend as the trachytes, are seen to cut them.
The members of the third group comprise dikes of dolerite or basalt
with or without olivine, which have a general east and west trend,
and as they intersect the two previous groups they must be of later
date. They probably belong to the east and west quartz dolerite
dikes which are now referred to late Carboniferous time. Lastly
there are representatives of the basalt dikes of Tertiary age with a
north-west trend.

CUMIN.or Cummin (CuminumCyminum), an annual herbaceous
plant, a member of the natural order Umbelliferae and probably
a native of some part of western Asia, but scarcely known at the
present time in a wild state. It was. early cultivated in Arabia,
India and China, and in the countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean.. Its stem is slender and branching, and about a foot
in height; the leaves are deeply cut, with filiform segments;
the flowers are small and white. The fruits, the so-called seeds,
which constitute the cumin of pharmacy, are fusiform or ovoid
in shape and compressed laterally; they are two lines long, are
hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway
seeds, and have on each half nine fine ridges, overlying as many
oil-channels or vittae. Their strong aromatic smell and warm
bitterish taste are due to the presence of about 3 % of an essential
oil. The tissue of the seeds contains a fatty oil, with resin,
mucilage and gum, malates and albuminous matter; and in the
pericarp there is much tannin. The volatile oil of cumin, which
may be separated by distillation of the seed with water, is mainly
a. mixture of cymol or cymene, CioHu, and cumic aldehyde,
C 6 H 4 (C 3 H7)COH. Cumin is mentioned in Isaiah xxviii. 25, 27,
and Matthew xxiii. 23, and in the works of Hippocrates and
Dioscorides. From Pliny we learn that the ancients took the
ground seed medicinally with bread, water or wine, and that it
was accounted the best of condiments as a remedy for squeamish-
ness. It was found to occasion pallor ,of the face, whence the
expression of Horace, exsangue cuminum (Epist. i. 19), and that
of Persius, pallentis gratia cumini (Sat. v. 55). Pliny relates the
story that it was employed by the followers of Porcius Latro,
the celebrated rhetorician, in order to produce a complexion
such as bespeaks application to study (xx. 57). In the middle
ages cumin was one of the commonest spices of European growth.
Its average price per pound in England in the 13th and 14th
centuries was 2d. or, at present value, about is. 4d. (Rogers, Hist.
of Agric. and Prices, i. 631). It is stimulant and carminative, and
is employed in the manufacture of curry powder. The medicinal
use of the drug is now confined to veterinary practice. Cumin
is exported from India, Mogador, Malta and Sicily.

CUMMERBUND, a girdle or waistbelt (Hindostani kamar^band,
a loin-band). In the East the principle of health is to keep the
head cool and the stomach warm; the turban protects the one
from the sun, and the cummerbund ensures the other against
changes of temperature. In India the cummerbund consists of
many folds of muslin or bright-coloured cloth.

CUMMING, JOSEPH GEORGE (1812-1868), English geologist
and archaeologist, was born at Matlock in Derbyshire on the
15 th of February 181 2. He was educated at Oakham grammar
school, and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, taking the degree of
M.A., and entering holy orders in 1835. In 1841 he was appointed
vice-principal of King William's College, Castletown, in the Isle
of Man, and this position he held until 1856. During this period
his leisure time was devoted to a study of the geology and
archaeology of the island. The results were published in a
classic volume The Isle of Man; its History, Physical, Ecclesi-
astical, Civil and Legendary (1848). In 1856 he became master
of Ring Edward's grammar school at Lichfield, in 1858 warden
and professor of classical literature and geology in Queen's
College, Birmingham, in 1862 rector of Mellis, in Suffolk, and
in 1867 vicar of St John's, Bethnal Green, London. He died
in London on the 21st of September 1868.

CUMNOCK— CUNEIFORM

629

CUMNOCK AND HOLMHEAD, a police burgh of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on the Lugar, 33I m. S. of Glasgow by road, with two
stations (Cumnock and Old Cumnock) on the Glasgow & South-
western railway. Pop. (1001) 3088. It lies in the parish of
Old Cumnock (pop. 5144), and is a thriving town, with a town
hall, cottage hospital, public library and an athenaeum. Coal
and ironstone are extensively mined in the neighbourhood, and
the manufactures include woollens, tweeds, agricultural imple-
ments and pottery. When Alexander Peden (1626-1686), the
persecuted Covenanter, died, he was buried in the Boswell aisle
of Auchinleck church; but his corpse was borne thence with
every indignity by a company of dragoons to the foot of the
gallows at Cumnock, where they intended to hang it in chains.
This proving to be impracticable they buried it at the gallows-
foot. After the Revolution the inhabitants out of respect for
the " Prophet's " memory abandoned their then burying-ground
and turned the old place of execution into the present cemetery.
Five miles S.E. lies the parish of New Cumnock (pop. 5367) at
the confluence of Afton Water and the Nith. It is rich in
minerals, iron, coal, limestone and freestone, and has a station
on the Glasgow & South- Western railway. Two miles N.W. of
Cumnock is Auchinleck (pronounced Affleck), with a station
on the Glasgow & South- Western railway. Coal and iron mining
and farming are important industries. It is the seat of the
Boswell family, three generations of which achieved greatness —
Lord Auchinleck, the judge (who dubbed Dr Johnson " Ursa
Major"), his son James, the biographer, and his grandson Sir
Alexander, the author of " Gude nicht and joy be wi' you a',"
" Jenny's Bawbee," " Jenny dang the weaver," and other songs
and poems, who perished miserably in a duel. Pop. of Auchinleck
parish (1901) 6605.

CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL, Bart. (1787-1865), British civil
engineer, founder of the Cunard line of steam-ships, was born
at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the 21st of November 1787. He was
the son of a merchant, and was himself trained for the pursuits
of commerce, in which, by his abilities and enterprising spirit,
he attained a conspicuous position. When, in the early years
of steam navigation, the English government made known its
desire to substitute steam vessels for the sailing ships then
employed in the mail service between England and America,
Cunard heartily entered into the scheme, came to England, and
accepted the government tender for carrying it out. In con-
junction with Messrs Burns of Glasgow and Messrs Maclver
of Liverpool, proprietors of rival lines of coasting steamers
between Glasgow and Liverpool, he formed a company, and the
first voyage of a Cunard steamship was successfully made by
the "Britannia" from Liverpool to Boston, U.S.A., between
July 4 and 19, 1840 (see Steamship Lines). In acknowledgment
of his energetic and successful services Cunard was, in 1859,
created a baronet. He died in London on the 28th of April
1865.

CUNAS, a tribe of Central American Indians. Their home is
the Isthmus of Panama, from the Chagres to the Atrato. They
are sometimes called Darien or San Bias Indians. They are a
small active people, with remarkably light complexions.

CUNDINAMARCA, till 1909 a department of the eastern
plateau of Colombia, South America, having the departments
of Quesada and Tundama on the N., Tolima on the W. and S.,
and the Meta territory on the S.E. and E. The territorial
redistribution of 1905 deprived Cundinamarca of its territories
on the eastern plains, and a part of its territory in the Eastern
Cordillera out of which Quesada and the Federal district were
created — its area being reduced from 79,691 to 5060 sq. m.,
and its estimated population from 500,000 to 225,000. A
considerable part of its area consists of plateaus enjoying a
temperate climate and producing the fruits and cereals of the
temperate zone, and another important part lies in the valley
of the Magdalena and is tropical in character. The district of
Fusagasuga in the southern part of this region is celebrated
for the excellence of its coffee. The capital of the department
was Facatativa (est. population, 7500), situated on the western
margin of the sabana of Bogota, 25 m. N.W. from that capital

by rail. Other important towns are Caque2a, Sibate, La Meza
and Tocaima.

CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge), a form of writing,
ex ensively used in the ancient world, especially by the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians. The word " cuneiform " was first
applied in 1700 by Thomas Hyde, professor of Hebrew in the
university of Oxford, in the expression " dactuli pyramidales
seu cuneifo:mes," and it has found general acceptance, though
efforts have been made to introduce the expression " arrow-
headed " writing. The name " cuneiform " is fitting, for each
character or sign is composed of a wedge (J or ►— ), or a combina-
tion of wedges („IiJ50, written from left to right. The wedge
is always pointed towards the right (»— ) or downwards (]) or
aslant(\), or two may be so combined as to form an angle (()
called by German Assyriologists a Winkelhaken, a word now
sometimes adopted by English writers on the subject. The
word cuneiform has passed into most modern languages, but
the Germans use Keilschrift {i.e. wedge-script) and the Arabs
mismari (t#.A*— •») or nail- writing.

In Persia, 40 m. N.E. of Shiraz, is a range of hills, Mount
Rachmet, in front of which, in a semicircular form, rises a vast
terrace-like platform. It is partly natural, but was Discovery
walled up in front, levelled off and used as the base and
of great temples and palaces. The earliest European, decipher-
at present known to us, who visited the site was a me " '
Wandering friar Odoricus (about a.d. 1320), who does not seem
to have noticed the inscriptions cut in the stone. These were
first observed by Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian traveller, about
1472. In 1621 the ruins were visited by Pietro della Valle, who
was the first to copy a few of the signs, which he sent in a letter
to a friend in Naples. His copy was not well made, but it served

<1

\«TT

the useful purpose of directing attention to an unknown script
which was certain to attract scholars to the problem of its
decipherment. To this end it was necessary that complete
inscriptions and not merely separate signs should be made
accessible to European scholars. The first man to attempt to
satisfy this need was Sir John Chardin, in whose volumes of
travels published at Amsterdam in 1711 one of the small inscrip-
tions found at the ruins of Persepolis was carefully and accurately
reproduced. It was now plainly to be seen, as indeed others had
surmised, that these inscriptions at Persepolis had been written
in three languages, distinguished each from other by an increasing
complexity in the signs with which they were written. The three
languages have since been determined as Persian, Susian and
Babylonian. But before the decipherment could begin it was
necessary that all the available material should be copied and
published. The honour of performing this great task fell to
Carsten Niebuhr, who visited Persepolis in March 1765, and in
three weeks and a half copied all the texts, so well that little
improvement has been made in them since. When Niebuhr
returned to Denmark he studied carefully the little inscriptions
and convinced himself that the guesses of some of his predecessors
were correct, and that the inscriptions were to be read from left
to right. He observed that three systems of writing were
discernible, and that these were always kept distinct in the
inscriptions. He did not, however, draw the natural conclusion
that they represented three languages, but supposed that the
proud builders of Persepolis had written their inscriptions in
threefold form. He divided the little inscriptions into three
classes, according to the manner of their writing, calling them
classes I., II. and III. He then arranged all those he had
copied that belonged to class I., and by careful comparison
decided that in them there were employed altogether but forty-
two signs. These he copied out and set in order in one of
his plates. This list of signs was so nearly complete and accu-
rate that later study has made but slight changes in it. When

630

CUNEIFORM

Niebuhr had made his list of signs he naturally enough decided
that this language, whatever it might be, was written in alpha-
betic characters, a conclusion which later investigation has not
overthrown. Beyond this Niebuhr was not able tc go, and not
even one sign revealed its secret to his inquiry. When, however,
he had published his copies (in 1777) there were other scholars
ready to take up the difficult task. Two scholars independently,
Olav Tychsen of Rostock and Friedrich Miinter of Copenhagen,
began work upon the problem. Tychsen first observed that
there occurred at irregular intervals in the inscriptions of the
first class a wedge that pointed neither directly to the right nor
downward, but inclined diagonally. This he suggested was the
dividing sign used to separate words. This very simple discovery
later became of great importance in the hands of Miinter.
Tychsen also correctly identified the alphabetic signs for " a,"
" d ," " u " and " s," but he failed to decipher an entire inscription,
chiefly perhaps because, through an error in history, he supposed
that they were written during the Parthian dynasty (246 b.c-
a.d. 227). Miinter was more fortunate than Tychsen in his
historical researches, and this made him also more successful
in linguistic attempts. He rightly identified the builders of
Persepolis with the Achaemenian dynasty, and so located in
time the authors of the inscriptions (538-465 B.C.). Inde-
pendently of Tychsen he identified the oblique wedge as a
divider between words, and found the meaning of the sign for
" b." These may appear to be small matters, but it must be
remembered that they were made without the assistance of any
bilingual text, and were indeed taken bodily out of the gloom
which had settled upon these languages centuries before. They
did not, however, bring us much nearer to the desired goal of
a reading of any portion of the inscriptions. The whole case
indeed seemed now perilously near a stalemate. New methods
must be found, and a new worker, with patience, persistence,
power of combination, insight, the historical sense and the
feeling for archaeological indications.

In 1802 Georg Friedrich Grotefend (q.v.) was persuaded by
the librarian of Gottingen University to essay the task. He
began with the assumption that there were three languages,
and that of these the first was ancient Persian, the language of
the Achaemenians, who had erected these palaces and caused
these inscriptions to be written. For his first attempts at
decipherment he chose two of these old Persian inscriptions and
laid them side by side. They were of moderate length, and the
frequent recurrence of the same signs in them seemed to indicate
that their contents were similar. The method which he now
pursued was so simple, yet so sure, as he advanced step by step,
that there seemed scarcely a chance of error. Miinter had
observed in all the Persian texts a word which occurred in two
forms, a short and a longer form. This word appeared in
Grotefend's two texts in both long and short forms. Miinter
had suggested that it meant " king " in the short form and
" kings " in the longer, and that when the two words occurred
together the expression meant " king of kings." But further,
this word occurred in both inscriptions in the first line, and in
both cases was followed by the same word. This second word
Grotefend supposed to mean " great," the combined expression
being " king great," that is, " great king." All this found support
in the phraseology of the lately deciphered Sassanian inscriptions,
and it was plausible in itself. It must, however, be supported
by definite facts, and furthermore each word must be separated
into its alphabetic parts, "every one of them identified, and the
words themselves be shown to be philologically possible by the
production of similar words in related languages. In other
words, the archaeological method must find support in a philo-
logical method. • To this Grotefend now devoted himself with
equal energy. His method was as simple as before. He had
made out to his own satisfaction the titles " great king, king of
kings." Now, in the Sassanian inscriptions, the first word was
always the king's name, followed immediately by " great king,
king of kings," and Grotefend reasoned that this was probably
true in his texts. But if true, then these two texts were set up
by two different kings, for the names were not the same at the

beginning. Furthermore the name with which his text No. I.
began appears in the third line of text No. II., but in a somewhat
longer form, which Grotefend thought was a genitive and meant
" of N." It followed the word previously supposed to be " king "
and another which might mean son (N king son), so that the
whole expression would be " son of N king." From these facts
Grotefend surmised that in these two inscriptions he had the
names of three rulers, grandfather, father and son. It was now
easy to search the list of the Achaemenian dynasty and to find
three names which would suit the conditions, and the three
which he ventured to select were Hystaspes, Darius, Xerxes.
According to his hypothesis the name at the beginning of inscrip-
tion I. was Darius, and he was ready to translate his texts in
part as follows: —

I. Darius, great king, king of kings . . . son of Hystaspes. . . .
II. Xerxes, great king, king of kings . . . son of Darius king.

The form which he provisionally adopted for Darius was
Darheush; later investigation has shown that it ought really
to be read as Daryavush, but the error was not serious, and he
had safely secured at least the letters D, A, R, SH. It was a
most wonderful achievement, the importance of which he did
not realize, for in it was the key to the decipherment of three
ancient languages. To very few men has it been given to make
discoveries so important both for history and for philology.

To Grotefend it was, however, not given to translate a whole
text, or even to work out all the words whose meaning he had
surmised. Rasmus Christian Rask (1787-1832), who followed
him, found the plural ending in Persian, which had baffled him;
and Eugene Burnouf (1801-1852), by the study of a list of
Persian geographical names found at Naksh-i-Rustam, dis-
covered at a single stroke almost all the characters of the Persian
alphabet, and incidentally confirmed the values already deter-
mined by his predecessors.

At the same time as Burnouf, the eminent Sanskrit scholar
Professor Christian Lassen (1800-1876), of Bonn, was studying
the same list of names; and his results were published at the
same time. The controversy which resulted as to priority of
discovery may be here passed over while we sum up the results
in general conclusions. Lassen may certainly claim in the final
court of history that he discovered independently of Burnouf
the values of at least six and possibly of eight signs. But in
another respect he made very definite progress over Burnouf.
He discovered that, if the system of Grotefend were rigidly
followed, and to every sign were given the- value Grotefend had
assigned, some words would be left wholly or almost wholly
without vowels; and therefore unpronounceable. As instances
of such words he mentioned CPRD, THTGUS, KTPTUK,
FRAISJM. This situation led Lassen to a very important
discovery, towards which his knowledge of the Sanskrit alphabet
did much to bring him. He came, in short, to the conclusion
that the ancient Persian signs were not entirely alphabetic,
but were at least partially syllabic, that is, that certain signs
were used to represent not merely an alphabetic character like
" b," but also a syllable such as " ba," " bi " or " bu." He
claimed that he had successfully demonstrated that the sign
for " a " was only used at the beginning of a word, or before
a consonant, or before another vowel, and that in every other
case it was included in the consonant sign. Thus in the
inscription No I. in the second line the signs should be read
VA-ZA-RA-KA. This was a most important discovery, and may
be said to have revolutionized the study of these long puzzling
texts.

During the entire time of this slow process of decipherment,
from the first essays of Grotefend in 1802 until the publication
of Lassen's book in 1836, there were more sceptics than believers
in the results of the deciphering process. Indeed the history of
all forms of decipherment of unknown languages shows that
scepticism concerning them is far more prevalent than credulity
or even a too ready acceptance. There was need for a man of
another people, of different training and a fresh and unbiased
mind, to put the capstone upon the decipherment, and he was
already at work when Lassen's important researches appeared.

CUNEIFORM

631

Major (afterward Sir) Henry Rawlinson had gone out to India,
in the service of the East India Company, while still a boy. There
he had learned Persian and several of the Indian vernaculars.
That was not the sort of training that had prepared Grotefend,
Burnouf or Lassen, but it was the kind that the early travellers
and copyists had enjoyed. In 1833 young Rawlinson went to
Persia, to work with other British officers in the reorganization
of the Persian army. While engaged in this service his attention
was drawn to the ancient Persian cuneiform inscriptions. In
1835 he copied with great care the texts at Hamadan, and began
their decipherment. Of all the eager work which had been going
on in Europe he knew little. It is no longer possible to ascertain
when he gained his first information of Grotefend's work, for
Norris, the secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, has left
us no record of when he began to send notices of the German's
work. Whenever it was, there seems to be no doubt that
Rawlinson worked independently for a time. His method was
strikingly like Grotefend's. He had copied two trilingual in-
scriptions, and recognized at once that he had three languages
before him. In 1839 (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, x.
pp. 5, 6) he thus wrote of his method: " When I proceeded . . .
to compare and interline the two inscriptions (or rather the
Persian columns of the two inscriptions, for, as the compartments
exhibiting the inscription in the Persian language occupied the
principal place in the tablets, and were engraved in the least
complicated of the three classes of cuneiform writing, they were
naturally first submitted to examination) I found that the
characters coincided throughout, except in certain particular
groups, and it was only reasonable to suppose that the grounds
which were thus brought out and individualized must represent
proper names. I further remarked that there were but three of
these distinct groups in the two inscriptions; for the group
which occupied the second place in one inscription, and which,
from its position, suggested the idea of its representing the name
of the father of the king who was there commemorated, corre-
sponded with the group which occupied the first place in the other
inscription, and thus not only served determinately to connect
the two inscriptions together, but, assuming the groups to
represent proper names, appeared also to indicate a genealogical
succession. The natural inference was that in these three groups
of characters I had obtained the proper names belonging to three
consecutive generations of the Persian monarchy; and it so
happened that the first three names of Hystaspes, Darius and
Xerxes, which I applied at hazard to the three groups, according
to the succession, proved to answer in all respects satisfactorily
and were, in fact, the true identification."

Rawlinson's next work was the copying of the great inscription
of Darius on the rocks at Behistun (q.v.). He had first seen it in
1835, and as it was high up on the rocky face, and apparently
inaccessible, he had studied it by means of a field-glass. He was
not able to copy the whole of the Persian text, but in 1837, when
he was more skilled in the script, he secured more of it. In the
next year he forwarded to the Royal Asiatic Society of London
his translation of the first two paragraphs of the Persian text,
containing the name, titles and genealogy of Darius. This was
little less than a tour de force, for it must be remembered that
this had been accomplished without the knowledge of other
ancient languages which his European competitors had enjoyed.
The translation, received in London on the 14th of March, made a
sensation, and a transcript sent in April to the Asiatic Society
of Paris secured him an honorary membership in that dis-
tinguished body. He was now known, and many made haste to
send him copies of everything important which had been pub-
lished in Europe. The works of Burnouf, Niebuhr, le Brun and
Porter came to his hands, and with such assistance he made rapid
progress, and in the winter of 1 838-1 839 his alphabet of ancient
Persian was almost complete. In 1839 he was in Bagdad, his
work written out and almost ready for publication. But he
delayed, hoping for more light, and revising sign by sign with
exhaustless patience. He expected to publish his preliminary
memoir in the spring of 1840, when he was suddenly sent to
Afghanistan as political agent at Kandahar. Here he was too

busily engaged in war administration to attend to his favourite
studies, which were not renewed until 1843 when he returned
to Bagdad. There he received fresh copies and corrections of
the Persepolis inscriptions which had been made by Westergaard,
and later made a journey to Behistun to perfect his own copies
of the texts which had formed the basis of his own first study.
At last, after many delays and discouragements, he published,
in 1846, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, his memoir,
or series of memoirs, on the ancient Persian inscriptions, in which
for the first time he gave a nearly complete translation of the
Persian text of Behistun. In this one publication Rawlinson
attained imperishable fame in Oriental research. His work had
been carried on under greater difficulties than those in the path
of his European colleagues, but he had surpassed them all in the
making of an intelligible and connected translation of a long
inscription. He had indeed not done it without assistance from
the work of Burnouf, Grotefend and Lassen, but when all
allowance is made for these influences his fame is not diminished
nor the extent of his services curtailed. His method was adopted
before he knew of Lassen's work. That two men of such different
training and of such opposite types of mind should have lighted
upon the same method, and by it have attained the same results,
confirmed in the eyes of many the truth of the decipherment.

The work of the decipherment of the old Persian texts was now
complete for all practical purposes. But in 1846 there appeared
a paper read before the Royal Irish Academy by the Rev.
Edward Hincks of Killyleagh, County.Down, Ireland, whose keen
criticisms of Lassen's work, and original contributions to the
definite settlement of syllabic values, may be regarded as closing
the period of decipherment of Persian cuneiform writing.

The next problem in the study of cuneiform was the decipher-
ment of the second language in each of the trilingual groups.
The first essay in this difficult task was made in 1844 by Niels
Louis Westergaard. His method was very similar to that used by
Grotefend in the decipherment of Persian. He selected the names
of Darius, Hystaspes, Persians and others, and compared them
with their equivalents in the Persian texts. By this means he
learned a number of signs, and sought by their use in other
words to spell out syllables or words whose meanings were then
ascertained by conjecture or by comparison. He estimated the
number of characters at eighty-two or eighty-seven, and judged
the writing to be partly alphabetic and partly syllabic. The
language he called Median, and classified it in " the Scythian,
rather than in the Japhetic family." The results of Westergaard
were subjected to incisive criticism by Hincks, who made a
distinct gain in the problem. It next passed to the hands of de
Saulcy, who was able to see further than either. But the matter
moved with difficulty because the copied texts were not accurate.
By the generosity of Sir Henry Rawlinson his superb copies
of the Behistun text, second column, were placed in the hands
of Mr Edwin Norris, who was able in 1852 to present a paper
to the Royal Asiatic Society deciphering nearly all of it. Mordt-
mann followed him, naming the language Susian, which was met
with general acceptance and was not displaced by the name
Amardian, suggested by A. H. Sayce in two papers which other-
wise made important contributions to the subject. With his
contributions the problem of decipherment of Susian may be
considered as closed. The latter workers could only be builders
on foundations already laid.

The decipherment of the third of the three languages found
at Persepolis and Behistun followed quickly on the success with
Susian. The first worker was Isadore Lowenstern, who made
out the words for " king " and " great " and the sign for the
plural, but little more. The first really great advance was made
by Hincks in 1846 and 1847. In these he determined successfully
the values of several signs, settled the numerals, and was
apparently on the high-road toward the translation of an entire
Assyrian text. He was, however, too cautious to proceed so far,
and the credit of first translating a short Assyrian text belongs
to Longperier, who in 1847 published the following as the trans-
lation of an entire text: "Glorious is Sargon, the great king,
the (. . .) king, king of kings, king of the land of Assyria."

632

CUNEO

It was nearly all correct, but it advanced our knowledge but
slightly because it did not give the forms of the words — because
(to put it in another way) he was not able to transliterate the
Assyrian words. This was the great problem. In the Persian
texts there were but forty-four signs, but in the third column
of the Persepolis texts Grotefend had counted one hundred
and thirty different characters, and estimated that in all the
Babylonian texts known to him there were about three hundred
different signs, while Botta discovered six hundred and forty-two
in the texts found by him at Khorsabad. That was enough to
make the stoutest heart quail, for a meaning must be found for
every one of these signs. There could not be so many syllables,
and it was, therefore, quite plain that the Babylonian language
must have been written in part at least in ideograms. But in
1851 Rawlinson published one hundred and twelve lines of the
Babylonian column from Behistun, accompanied by an inter-
linear transcription into Roman characters, and a translation
into Latin. That paper, added to Hinck's still more acute
detail studies, brought to an end the preliminary decipherment
of Babylonian. There were still enormous difficulties to be
surmounted in the full appreciation of the complicated script,
but these would be solved by the combined labours of many
workers.

The cuneiform script had its origin in Babylonia and its

inventors were a people whom we call the Sumerians. Before

the Semitic Babylonians conquered the land it was

ga ' inhabited by a. people of unknown origin variously
classified, by different scholars, with the Ural-altaic or . even
with the Indo-European family, or as having blood relationship
with both. This people is known to us from thousands of cunei-
form inscriptions written entirely in their language, though our
chief knowledge of them was for a long time derived from
Sumerian inscriptions with interlinear translations in Assyrian.
Their language is called Sumerian (li-sa-an Su-me-ri) by the
Assyrians (Br. Mus. 81-7-27, 130), and its characteristics are
being slowly developed by the elaborate study of the immense
literature which has come down to us. In 1884 Halevy denied
the existence of the Sumerian language, and claimed that it
was merely a cabalistic script invented by the priests of the
Semites. His early success has not been sustained, and the vast
majority of scholars have ceased to doubt the existence of the
language.

The Sumerians developed their script from a rude picture-
writing, some early forms of which have come down to us. In
course of time they used the pictures to represent sounds, apart
from ideas. They wrote first on stone, and when clay was
adopted soon found that straight lines in soft clay when made
by a single pressure of the stylus tend to become wedges, and the
pictures therefore lost their character and came to be mere
conventional groups of wedges. Some of these wedge-shaped
signs are of such character that we are still able to recognize
or re-construct the original picture from which they came. The
Assyrian sign »-*f", which means heaven, appears in early texts
in the form ^J6 in which its star-like form is quite evident
(star = heaven) and from which the linear form ^j£ may be not
improbably pre-supposed. A number of other cases were
enumerated by the Assyrians themselves (see Cuneiform Texts
from Bab. Tab. in Brit. Museum, vol. v., 1898), and there can be
no reasonable doubt that this is the origin of the script.

The number of the original picture-signs cannot have been
great, but the development of new signs never ceased till the
_ . cuneiform script passed wholly from use. The simplest

meat and form of development was doubling, to express plurality
character- or intensity. After this came the working of two
istics. s j gns j ntQ ong . t jj US yj « water » w hen placed in»-t£rj

" mouth " gave the new sign r-zfiTj " t0 drink," and many others.
Other signs were formed by the addition of four lines, either
vertically or horizontally, to intensify the original meaning.
Thus, for instance, the old linear sign r~f^] means dwelling, but
with four additional signs, thus CZX^, it means " great house."

History.

This sign gradually changed in form until it came to be £:\<« [.
This method of development was called by the Sumerians gunu,
and signs thus formed are now commonly called by us, gunu
signs. They number hundreds and must be reckoned with in
our study of the script development, though perhaps recent
scholars have somewhat exaggerated their importance. The
process of development is obscure and must always remain so.

The script as finally developed and used by the Assyrians is
cumbrous and complicated, and very ill adapted to the sounds
of the Semitic alphabet. It has (1) simple syllables, consisting
of one vowel and a consonant, or a vowel by itself, thus ff "a,"
ttT ab, fcU ib, t£ ub, -Jz{ ba, JlJ bi, ¥»• bu. In addition to
these the Assyrian had also (2) compound syllables, such as *hI|
bit, «-£ = y£ bal, and (3) ideograms, or signs which express an
entire word, such as ~G~^\ beltu, lady, f £j abu, father. The
difficulty of reading this script is enormously increased by the
fact that many signs are polyphonous, i.e. they may have more
than one syllabic value and also be used as an ideogram. Thus
the sign ^ has the ideographic values of matu, land, shadu,
mountain, kashadu, to conquer, napachu, to arise (of the sun),
and also the syllabic values kur, mad, mat, shad, shat, ' lat, nad,
nat, kin and gin. This method of writing must lead to ambiguity,
and this difficulty is helped somewhat by (4) determinatives,
which are signs intended to indicate the class to which the word
belongs. Thus, the f is placed before names of persons, and V 1
(the ideogram for matu, country, and shadu, mountain) is
placed before names of countries and mountains, and >-*f- (ilu,
god) before the names of gods.

The cuneiform writing, begun by the Sumerians in a period
so remote that it is idle to speculate concerning it, had a long
and very extensive history. It was first adopted by
the Semitic Babylonians, and as we have seen was
modified, developed, nay almost made over. Their inscriptions
are written in it from circa 4500 B.C. to the 1st century B.C.
From their hands it passed to the Assyrians, who simplified
some characters and conventionalized many more, and used
the script during the entire period of their national existence
from 1500 B.C. to 607 B.C. From the Babylonian by a slow
process of evolution the much simplified Persian script was
developed, and with the Babylonian is also to be connected the
Susian, less complicated than the Babylonian, but less simple
than the Persian. The Chaldians (not Chaldaeans), who lived
about Lake Van, also adopted the cuneiform script with values
of their own, and expressed a considerable literature in it. The
discovery in 1887 of the Tell-el-Amarna tablets in upper Egypt
showed that the same script was in use in the 15th century B.C.,
from Elam to the Mediterranean and from Armenia to the
Persian Gulf for purposes of correspondence. There is good
reason to expect the discovery of its use by yet other peoples.
It was one of the most widely used of all the forms of ancient
writing.

Bibliography. — The history of the decipherment may be further
studied in R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, vol.i. (N.Y.
and London, 1900) ; and in A. J. Booth, The Discovery and Decipher-
ment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions (London, 1902), which
is very exhaustive and accurate. The Sumerian question may best
be studied in F. H. Weissbach, Die Sumerische Frage (Leipzig, 1898),
and Charles Fossey, Manuel d'Assyriologie, tome i. (Paris, 1904).
For development and characteristics, see Friedrich Delitzsch, Die
Entstehung des dllesten Schriftsystems (Leipzig, 1897) ; Paul Toscanne,
Les Signes sumeriens derives (Paris, 1905). (R. W. R.)

CUNEO (Fr. Coni), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, the capital of the province of Cuneo, 55 m. by rail S. of
Turin, 1722 ft. above sea-level. Cuneo lies on the railway from
Turin to Ventimiglia, which farther on passes under the Col di
Tenda (tunnel 5 m.' long). It is also a junction for Mondovi
and Saluzzo, and has steam tramways to Borgo S. Dalmazzo,
Boves, Saluzzo and Dronero. Pop. (1901) 15,412 (town), 26,879
(commune). Its name (" wedge ") is due to its position on a hill
between two streams, the Stura and the Gesso, with fine views
of the mountains. The Franciscan church, now converted into
a military storehouse, belongs to the 1 2th century, but there are
no other buildings of special interest. The fortifications have

CUNEUS— CUNNINGHAM, W.

633

been converted into promenades. Cuneo was founded about
1 1 20 by refugees from local baronial tyranny, who, after the
destruction of Milan by Barbarossa, were joined by Lombards.
In 1382 it swore fealty to Amedeus VI., duke of Savoy. It was
an important fortress, and was ceded by the treaty of Cherasco
(1796), with Ceva and Tortona, to the French. In 1799 it was
taken after ten days' bombardment by the Austrian and Russian
armies, and, in 1800, after the victory of Marengo, the French
demolished the fortifications.

CUNEUS (Latin for " wedge "; plural, cunei), the architectural
term applied to the wedge-shaped divisions of the Roman
theatre separated by the scalae or stairways; see Vitruvius v. 4.

CUNITZ, MARIA (c. 16 10-1664), Silesian astronomer, was
the eldest daughter of Dr Heinrich Cunitz of Schweinitz, and the
wife (1630) of Dr Elias von Lbven, of Pitschen in Silesia — both
of them men of learning and distinction. From her universal
accomplishments she was called the " Silesian Pallas," and the
publication of her work, Urania propitia (Oels, 1650), a simplifica-
tion of the Rudolphine Tables, gained her a European reputation.
It was composed at the village of Lugnitz, close by the convent
of Olobok (Posen), where, with her husband, she had taken
refuge at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, and was dedi-
cated to the emperor Frederick III. The author became a widow
in 1661, and died at Pitschen on the 24th of August 1664.

See A. G. Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik, iv. 430 (1800) ;
N. Henelii, Silesiographia renovata, cap. vi. p. 684; J. C. Eberti's
Schlesiens wohlgelehrtes Frauenzimmer , p. 25 (Breslau, 1727) ;
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (Schimmelpfenning) ; &c.

CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER (£.1655-1730), Scottish classi-
cal scholar and critic, was born in Ayrshire. Very little is known
of his uneventful life. It is probable that he completed his
education at Leiden or Utrecht. He was tutor to the son of
the first duke of Queensberry, through whose influence he was
appointed professor of civil law in the university of Edinburgh.
In 17 10, the Edinburgh magistrates, regarding the university
patronage as their privilege, appointed another professor, ignoring
the appointment of Cunningham, who had been installed in the
office for at least ten years. Cunningham thereupon left England
for the Hague, where he resided until his death. He is chiefly
known for his edition of Horace (1721) with notes, mostly critical,
which included a volume of Animadversiones upon Richard
Bentley's notes and emendations. They marked him as one of
the most able critics of Bentley's (in many cases) rash and taste-
less conjectural alterations of the text. Cunningham also edited
the works of Virgil and Phaedrus (together with the Sententiae
of Publilius Syrus and others). He had also been engaged for
some years in the preparation of an edition of the Pandects and
of a work on Christian evidences.

Life by D. Irving in Lives of Scottish Writers (1839).

The above must not be confused with Alexander Cunningham,
British minister to Venice (1715-1720), a learned historian and
author, of The History of Great Britain (from 1688 to the accession
of George I.), originally written in Latin and published in an
English translation after his death.

CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842), Scottish poet and man
of letters, was born at Kenj Dumfriesshire, on the 7th of December
1784, and began life as a stone mason's apprentice. His father
was a neighbour of Burns at Ellisland, and Allan with his brother
James visited James Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, who became
a friend to both. Cunningham contributed some songs to Roche's
Literary Recreations in 1807, and in 1809 he collected old ballads
for Robert Hartley Cromek's Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway
Song; he sent in, however, poems of his own, which the editor
inserted, even though he may have suspected their real author-
ship. In 18 10 Cunningham went to London, where he supported
himself chiefly by newspaper reporting till 1814, when he became
clerk of the works in the studio of Francis Chantrey, retaining this
employment till the sculptor's death in 1841. He meanwhile
continued to be busily engaged in literary work. Cunningham's
prose is often spoiled by its misplaced and too ambitious rhetoric;
his verse also is often over-ornate, and both are full of manner-
isms. Some of his songs, however,, hold a high place among

British lyrics. "A Wet Sheet and a Flowing Sea " is one of the
best of our sea-songs, although written by a landsman ; and many
other of Cunningham's songs will bear comparison with it. He
died on the 30th of October 1842.

He was married to Jean Walker, who had been servant in a
house where he lived, and had five sons and one daughter.
Joseph Davey Cunningham (1812-1851) entered the Bengal
Engineers, and is known by his History of the Sikhs (1849).
Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893) also entered the
Bengal Engineers; attaining the rank of major-general; he was
director general of the Indian Archaeological Survey (1870-1885),
and wrote an Ancient Geography of India (1871) and Coins of
Medieval India (1894). Peter Cunningham (1816-1869) pub-
lished several topographical and biographical studies, of which
the most important are his Handbook of London (1849) and
The Life of Drummond of Hawthornden (1833). Francis
Cunningham (1820-1875) joined the Indian army, and published
editions of Ben Jonson (1871), Marlowe (1870) and Massinger
(1871).

The works of Allan Cunningham include Lives of the Most Eminent
British Painters, Sculptors and Architects (1829-1833); Sir Marma-
duke Maxwell (1820), a dramatic poem; Traditionary Tales of the
Peasantry (1822), several novels (Paul Jones, Sir Michael Scott,
Lord Roldan) ; the Maid of Elwar, a sort of epic romance ; the Songs
of Scotland (1825) ; Biographical and Critical History of the Literature
of the Last Fifty Years (1833); an edition of The Works of Robert
Burns, with notes and a life containing a good deal of new material
(1834); Biographical and Critical Dissertations affixed to Major's
Cabinet Gallery of Pictures; and Life, Journals and Correspondence
of Sir David Wilkie, published in 1843. An edition of his Poems and
Songs was issued by his son, Peter Cunningham, in 1847.

CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861), Scottish theologian
and ecclesiastic, was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, on the
2nd of October 1805, and educated at the university of Edinburgh.
He was licensed to preach in 1828, and in 1830 was ordained to
a collegiate charge in Greenock, where he remained for three
years. In 1834 he was transferred to the charge of Trinity
College parish, Edinburgh. His removal coincided with the com-
mencement of the period known in Scottish ecclesiastical history
as the Ten Years' Conflict, in which he was destined to take a
leading share. In the stormy discussions and controversies which
preceded the Disruption the weight and force of his intellect,
the keenness of his logic, and his firm grasp of principle made him
one of the most powerful advocates of the cause of spiritual
independence; and he has been generally recognized as one of
three to whom mainly the existence of the Free Church is due,
the others being Chalmers and Candlish. On the formation of
the Free Church in 1843. Cunningham was appointed professor
of church history and divinity in the New College, Edinburgh,
of which he became principal in 1847 in succession to Thomas
Chalmers. His career was very successful, his controversial
sympathies combined with his evident desire to be rigidly im-
partial qualifying him to be an interesting delineator of the more
stirring periods of church history, and a skilful disentanglerof the
knotty points in theological polemics. In 1859 he was appointed
moderator of the General Assembly. He had received the degree
of D.D. from the university of Princeton in 1842. He died on the
14th of December 1861. He was one of the founders of the
Evangelical Alliance. A theological lectureship at the New
College, Edinburgh, was endowed in 1862, to be known as the
Cunningham lectureship.

A Life of Cunningham, by Rainy and Mackenzie, appeared in 1871.

CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1849- ), English economist,
was born at Edinburgh on the 29th of December 1849. Educated
at Edinburgh Academy and University and Trinity College,
Cambridge, he graduated 1st class in the Moral Science tripos in
1873, and in the same year took holy orders. He was university
lecturer in history from 1884 to 1891, in which year he was
appointed professor of economics at King's College, London,
a post which he held until 1897. He was lecturer in economic
history at Harvard University (1899), and Hulsean lecturer at
Cambridge (1885). He became vicar of Great St Mary's, Cam-
bridge, in 1887, and was made a fellow of the British Academy.
In 1906 he was appointed archdeacon of Ely. Dr Cunningham's

'634

CUP— CUPBOARD

Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early and
Middle Ages (1890; 4th ed., 1905) and Growth of English Industry
and Commerce in Modern Times (1882; 3rd ed., 1903) are the
standard works of reference on the industrial history of England.
He also wrote The Use and Abuse of Money (1891); Alien
Immigration (1897); Western Civilization in its Economic Aspect
in Ancient Times (1898), and in Modern Times (1900), and
The Rise and Decline of Free Trade (1905). Dr Cunningham's
eminence as an economic historian gave special importance to
his attitude as one of the leading supporters of Mr Chamberlain
from 1903 onwards in criticizing the English free^ trade policy
and advocating tariff reform.

CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat.
cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. nvTreWov), a drink-
ing vessel, usually in the form of a half a sphere, with or without
a foot or handles. The footless type with a single handle is
preserved in the ordinary tea-cup. The cup on a stem with a
base is the usual form taken by the cup as used in the celebration
of the eucharist, to which the name " chalice " (Lat. calix,
Gr. kuXi£, a goblet) is generally given. (See Drinking Vessels
and Plate.)

CUPAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital of
the county of Fifeshire, Scotland, 11 m. W. by S. of St Andrews
by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 4511. It is situated
on the left bank of the Eden, in the east of the Howe (Hollow)
of Fife, and is sometimes written Cupar-Fife to distinguish it
from Coupar-Angus in Perthshire. Among the chief buildings
are the town hall, county buildings, corn exchange, Duncan
Institute, cottage hospital, Union Street Hall and the Bell-
Baxter school. The school, formerly called the Madras Academy,
was originally endowed (1832) by Dr Bell, founder of the
Madras system of education, but, having been enriched at a
later date by a bequest of Sir David Baxter (1873), it was after-
wards called the Bell-Baxter school. The Mercat Cross stands
at " the Cross " in the main street, where it was set up in 1897,
having been removed from Hilltarvit, an eminence in the
neighbourhood of Cupar, on the western slope of which, at
Garliebank, the truce was signed between Mary of Guise and
the lords of the Congregation. In the parish, but at a distance
from the town, are the Fife and Kinross asylum and the Adam-
son institute, a holiday home for poor children from Leith.
The town received its charter in 1356 from David II., and,
being situated between Falkland and St Andrews, was con-
stantly visited by Scottish sovereigns, James VI. holding his
court there for some time in 1583. The site of the 12th-century
castle, one of the strongholds of the Macduffs, thanes or earls
of Fife, is occupied by a public school. On the esplanade in
front of Macduff Castle, still called the Playfield, took place
in 1552 one of the first recorded performances of Sir David Lind-
say's Ane Satyre of the Three Estaits (1540); his Tragedy of the
Cardinal (1547), referring to the murder of Beaton, being also
performed there. Sir David sat in the Scottish parliament as
commissioner for Cupar, his place, the Mount, being within
3 m. north-west of the town. Lord Chancellor Campbell
(1799-1861) was a native of Cupar.

Cupar is an agricultural and legal centre. Its chief industry
is the manufacture of linen, and tanning is carried on. At
Cupar Muir, i| m. to the west, there are a sandstone quarry
and brick works. The town has also some repute for the
quality of its printing, both in black and colour. This was
largely due to the Tullis press, which produced about the
beginning of the 19th century editions of Virgil, Horace and
other classical writers, under the recension of Professor John
Hunter of St Andrews, which were highly esteemed for the
accuracy of their typography. Cupar belongs to the St Andrews
district group of burghs for returning one member to parliament,
the other constituents being Crail, the two Anstruthers, Kil-
renny, Pittenweem and St Andrews.

There are several interesting places within a few miles. To
the north-east is the parish of Dairsie, where one of the few
parliaments that ever met in Fife assembled in 1335. The castle
in which the senate sat was also the residence for a period of

Archbishop Spottiswood, who founded the parish church in
1621. Two miles and a half north of Dairsie is situated Kilmany,
which was the first charge of Thomas Chalmers. He was ordained
to it in May 1803 and held it for twelve years. David Hackston,
the Covenanter, who was a passive assister at the assassination
of Archbishop Sharp, belonged to this parish, his place being
named Rathillet. After his execution at Edinburgh (1680) one
of his hands was buried at Cupar, where a monument inscription
records the circumstances of his death. To the west of Kilmany
lies Creich, where Alexander Henderson (1583-1646), the Cove-
nanting divine and diplomatist, and John Sage (1652-1711),
the non-juring archbishop of Glasgow, were born. Henderson
took a keen interest in education and gave the school at Creich
a small endowment. Some 3 m. to the south-west of Cupar is
Cults, where Sir David Wilkie, the painter, was born. His
father was minister of the parish, and Pitlessie, the fair of which
provided the artist with the subject of the first picture in which
he showed distinct promise, lies within a mile of the manse. In
the sandstone of Dura Den, a ravine on Ceres Burn, 25 m. E.
of Cupar, have been found great quantities of fossils of ganoid
fishes. The rocks belong to the Upper Old Red Sandstone.

CUPBOARD, a fixed or movable closet usually with shelves.
As the name suggests, it is a descendant of the credence or
buffet, the characteristic of which was a series of open shelves
for the reception of drinking vessels and table requisites. After
the word lost its original meaning — and down to the end of the
16th century we still find the expression " on the cupboard " — ■
this piece of furniture was, as it to some extent remains, movable,
but it is now most frequently a fixture designed to fill a corner
or recess. Throughout the 18th century the cupboard was a
distinguished domestic institution, and the housewife found her
chief joy in accumulating cupboards full of china, glass and
preserves.. With the exception of a very few examples of fine
ecclesiastical cupboards which partook chiefly of the nature
of the armoire in that they were intended for the storage of
vestments, the so-called court-cupboard is perhaps the oldest
form of the contrivance. The derivation of the expression is
somewhat obscure, but it is generally taken to refer to the
French word court, short. This particular type was much used
from the Elizabethan to the end of the Carolinian period. It
was really a sideboard with small square doors below, and a
recessed superstructure supported upon balusters. Of these
many examples remain. Less frequent is the livery cupboard,
the meaning of which may be best explained by the following
quotation from Spenser's Account of the State of Ireland: —
" What livery is we by common use in England know well
enough, namely, that it is an allowance of horse-meat, as they
commonly use the word stabling, as to keep horses at livery;
the which word I guess is derived of livering or delivering forth
their nightly food; so in great houses the livery is said to be
served up for all night— that is, their evening allowance for
drink." The livery cupboard appears usually to have been
placed in bedrooms, so that a supply of food and drink was
readily available when a very long interval separated the last
meal of the evening from the first in the morning. The livery
cupboard was often small enough to stand upon a sideboard or
cabinet, and had an open front with a series of turned balusters.
It was often used in churches to contain the loaves of bread
doled out to poor persons under the terms of ancient charities.
They were then called dole cupboards; there are two large and
excellent examples in St Alban's Abbey. The butter, or bread
and cheese cupboard, was a more ordinary form, with the back
and sides bored with holes, sometimes in a geometrical pattern,
for the admission of air to the food within. The corner cupboard,
which is in many ways the most pleasing and artistic form of this
piece of furniture, originated in the 18th century, which as we
have seen was the golden age of the cupboard. It was often of
oak, but more frequently of mahogany, and had either a solid
or a glass front. The older solid-fronted pieces are fixed to the
wall half-way up, but those of the somewhat more modern type,
in which there is much glass, usually have a wooden base with
glazed superstructure. Most corner cupboards are attractive

CUPID-^-CUPULIFERAE

6 35

in form and treatment, and many of them, inlaid with satinwood,
ebony, holly or box, are extremely elegant.

CUPID {Cupido, " desire "), the Latin name for the god of
love, Eros (q.v.). Cupid is generally identical with Amor. The
idea of the god of love in Roman poetry is due to the influence of
Alexandrian poets and artists, in whose hands he degenerated
into a mischievous boy with essentially human characteristics.
His usual attribute is the bow. For the story of Cupid and
Psyche, see under Psyche.

CUPOLA (Ital., from Lat. cupula, small cask or vault, cupa,
tub), a term, in architecture, for a spherical or spheroidal covering
to a building, or to any part of it. In fortification the word is
used of a form of armoured structure, in which guns or howitzers
are mounted. It is a low flat turret resembling an overturned
saucer and showing little above the ground except the muzzles
of the guns. See for details and illustrations Fortification
and Siegecraft; also Ordnance.

CUPPING. The operation of cupping is one of the methods
that have been adopted by surgeons to draw blood from an
inflamed part in order to relieve the inflammation. The skin
is washed and dried; a glass cup with a rounded edge is then
firmly applied, after the air in it has been heated; the cooling
of the air causes the formation of a partial vacuum, and the blood
is thus drawn from the neighbouring parts to the skin under the
cup. Either the blood is drawn from the patient's body through
a number of small wounds which are made in the skin, with a
special instrument, before the cup is applied; or the cup is
simply applied to the unbroken skin and the blood drawn into
the subcutaneous tissue within the circumference of the cup.
The result of both methods is the same, — namely, a withdrawal
of blood locally from the inflamed part. The former is called
moist cupping, the latter dry cupping. This operation has natur-
ally declined in vogue with the obsolescence of blood-letting as
a remedy.

CUPRA, the name of two ancient Italian municipia in Picenum.

i. Cupra Maritima (Civita di Marano near the modern Cupra
Marittima), on the Adriatic coast, 48 m. S.S.E. of Ancona,
erected in the neighbourhood of an ancient temple of the Sabine
goddess Cupra, which was restored by Hadrian in a.d. 127, and
probably (though there is some controversy on the point)
occupied the site of the church of S. Martino, some way to the
south, in which the inscription of Hadrian exists. At Civita the
remains of what was believed to be the temple were more probably
those of the forum of the town, as is indicated by the discovery
of fragments of a calendar and of a statue of Hadrian. Some
statuettes of Juno were also among the finds. An inscription of
a water reservoir erected in 7 B.C. is also recorded. But the more
ancient Picene town appears to have been situated near the hill
of S. Andrea, a little way to the south, where pre-Roman tombs
have been discovered.

See C. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart,
1901), iv. 1760; G. Speranza, II Piceno (Ascoli Piceno, 1900),
i. 119 seq.

2. Cupra Montana, 10 m. S.W. of Aesis (mod. Jesi) by road.
The village, formerly called Massaccio, has resumed the ancient
name. Its site is fixed by inscriptions— cf. Th. Mommsen in
Corp. Inscrip. Lat. ix. (Berlin, 1883), p. 543; and various ruins,
perhaps of baths, and remains of subterranean aqueducts have
been discovered near the church of S. Eleuterio.

See F. Menicucci in G. Colucci, Antichitd Picene, xx. (1793).

CUPRITE, a mineral consisting of cuprous oxide, CU2O,
crystallizing in the cubic system, and forming an important ore
of copper, of which element cuprite contains 88-8%. The
name cuprite (from Lat. cuprum, copper) was given by W.
Haidinger in 1845; earlier names are red copper ore and ruby
copper, which at once distinguish this mineral from the other
native copper oxide — cupric oxide — known as black copper ore
or melaconite. Well-developed crystals are of common occur-
rence; they Usually have the form of the regular octahedron,
sometimes in combination with the .cube and the rhombic
dodecahedron. A few Cornish crystals have been observed with
faces of a form \hkl\ known as the pentagonal icositetrahedron,

since it is bounded by twenty-four irregular pentagons. In
this class of cubic crystals there are no planes or centre of sym-
metry, but the full number (thirteen) of axes of symmetry; it is
known as the trapezohedral hemihedral class, and cuprite affords
the best example of this type of symmetry. The etching figures
do not, however, conform to this lower degree of symmetry, nor
do crystals of cuprite rotate the plane of polarization of plane-
polarized light. The colour of the
mineral is cochineal-red, and the lustre
brilliant and adamantine to sub-
metallic in character; crystals are
often translucent, and show a crimson-
red colour by transmitted light. On
prolonged exposure to light the crystals
become dull and opaque. The streak is
brownish-red. Hardness 3J; specific
gravity 6'o; refractive index 2-85.

Compact to granular masses also
occur, and there are two curious
varieties— chalcotrichite and tile-ore — which require special
mention. Chalcotrichite (from Gr. xa^^s, copper, and 0pi£,
rptxos, hair) or " plush copper ore " is a capillary form
with a rich carmine colour and silky lustre; the delicate hairs
are loosely matted together, and each one is an individual
crystal enormously elongated in the direction of the diagonal
or the edge of the cube. Tile-ore (Ger. Ziegelerz) is a soft earthy
variety of a brick-red to brownish-red colour; it contains ad-
mixed limonite, and has been formed by the alteration of chalco-
pyrite (copper and iron sulphide).

Cuprite occurs in the upper part of copper-bearing lodes,
and is of secondary origin, having been produced by the alteration
of copper sulphides. Beautifully crystallized specimens were
formerly found in Wheal Gorland and Wheal Unity at Gwennap,
and in Wheal Phoenix near Liskeard in Cornwall; they also
occur in the copper mines of the Urals, and in Arizona. Isolated
crystals bounded by faces on all sides, and an inch or more in
diameter, are found embedded in a soft white clay at Chessy
near Lyons; they are usually altered on the surface, or through-
out, to malachite. Chalcotrichite comes from Wheal Phoenix and
Fowey Consols mine in Cornwall, and from Morenci in Arizona;
tile-ore from Bogoslovsk in the Urals, Atacama in South America,
and other localities. Small crystals of cuprite, together with
malachite, azurite and cerussite, are sometimes found encrusting
ancient objects of copper and bronze, such as celts and Roman
coins, which have for long periods remained buried in the soil.
Artificially formed crystals have been observed in furnace
products. (L. J. S.)

CUPULIFERAE, a botanical order, or, in recent arrangements,
group of orders, containing several familiar trees. The plants
are trees or shrubs with simple leaves alternately arranged and
small unisexual flowers generally arranged in catkins and pollin-
ated by wind-agency. The generally one-seeded nut-like fruit
is associated with the persistent often hardened or greatly
enlarged bracts forming the so-called cupule which gives the
name to the group. The group is subdivided as follows, and
these subdivisions are now generally regarded either as distinct
natural orders or the first two as sub-orders of one natural order.

Betuleae or Betulaceae. Female flowers arranged, two to three
together on scale-like structures formed by the union of bracts,
in catkins; ovary two-celled; fruit small, flattened, protected
between the ripened scales of the catkin. Includes Betula
(birch) and Alnus (alder).

Coryleae or Corylaceae. Female flowers in pairs, the bracts
enlarging in the fruit to form a membranous cup (hazel), or a
flat three-lobed structure (hornbeam). Ovary two-celled. In-
cludes Corylus (hazel) and Carpinus (hornbeam).

Fagaceae (Cupuliferae in a restricted sense). Bracts forming
a fleshy or hard cupule which envelops the one to several fruits.
Ovary three-celled. Includes Quercus (oak), Fagus (beech),
Castanea (sweet-chestnut) .

Detailed accounts of the trees will be found under separate
headings.

6 3 6

CURASAO— CURATOR

CURAQAO, or Curacoa, an island in the Dutch West Indies.
It lies 40 m. from the north coast of Venezuela, in 12 N. and
69° W., being 40 m. long from N.W. to S.E., with an average
width of 10 m. and an area of 2 1 2 sq. m. The surface is generally
flat, but in the south-west there are hills attaining an elevation
of 1200 ft. The shores are in places deeply indented, forming
several natural harbours, the chief of which is that of St Anna
on the south-west coast. Curacao consists of eruptive rocks,
chiefly diorite and diabase, and is surrounded by coral reefs.
Streams are few and the rainfall is scanty, averaging only 16 in.
per annum. Although the plains are for the most part arid
wastes, sugar, aloes, tobacco and divi-divi are produced with
much toil in the more fertile glens. Salt, phosphates and cattle
are exported. The commerce is mainly with the United States,
and there is a large carrying trade with Venezuela. The famous
Curacoa liqueur (see below) was originally made on the island
from a peculiar variety of orange, the Citrus Aurantium curas-
suviensis. Willemstad (pop. about 8000), on the harbour of St.
Anna, is the principal town. It bears a strong resemblance to
a Dutch town, for the houses are built in the style of those of
Amsterdam, and the narrow channel separating it from its
western suburb of Overzijde and the waters of the Waigat,
which intersect it, recall the canals. The narrow entrance leading
to the Schottegat or Inner Harbour is protected by forts. The
negroes of the island speak a curious dialect called Papaimento,
composed of Spanish, Dutch, English and native words. Curacao
gives name to the government of the Dutch West Indies, which
consists of Aruba, an island lying W. of Curagao, with an area
of 69 sq. m. and a population of 9591; Buen Ayre, lying 20 m.
N.E., with an area of 95 sq. m. and a population of 4926; together
with St Eustatius, Saba and part of St Martin. The governor is
assisted by a council of four members and a colonial council of
eight members nominated by the crown. The island of Curacao
has a population of 30,119; and altogether the Dutch West
Indies have a population of 51,693.

Curacao was discovered by Hojeda about 1499 and occupied
by the Spaniards in 1527. In 1634 it fell into the hands of the
Dutch, who have held it ever since, except during the year 1798
and from 1806 to 1814 when it passed into the possession of Great
Britain.

See Wynmalen, " Les Colonies neerlandaises dans les Antilles,"
Revue colon, internal. (1887), ii. p. 391; K. Martin, West-Indische
Skizzen (Leiden, 1887); De Veer, La Colonie de Curacoa (Les Pays
Bas, 1898). Also several articles on all the islands in Tijdschrift v.
h. Ned. Aardr. Genootschap (1883-1886).

CURAQOA, a liqueur, chiefly manufactured in Holland. It
is relatively simple in composition, the predominating flavour
being obtained from the dried peel of the Curacoa orange.
The method of preparation is in principle as follows. The peel
is first softened by maceration; then a part of the softened peel
is distilled with spirit and water, and the remainder is macerated
in a portion of the distillate so obtained. After two or three days
the infusion is strained and added to the remainder of the original
distillate. This simple method is subject to variations in manu-
facture, and the addition of a small quantity of Jamaica rum,
in particular, is said to much improve the flavour. Dry Curacoa
contains about 39%, the sweet variety about 36% of alcohol.
A lighter variety of Curacoa, made with fine brandy, is known
as " Grand Marnier."

CURASSOW (Cracinae), a group of gallinaceous birds forming
one of the subfamilies of Cracidae, the species of which are
among the largest and most splendid of the game birds of South
America, where they may be said to represent the pheasants
of the Old World. They are large, heavy birds, many of them
rivalling the turkey in size, with short wings, long and broad
tail, and strong bill. In common with the family to which they
belong, they have the hind toe of the foot placed on a level with
the others, thus resembling the pigeons, and unlike the majority
of gallinaceous birds. With the exception of a single species
found north of Panama, the curassows are confined to the
tropical forests of South America, .east of the Andes, and not
extending south of Paraguay. They live in small flocks, and
are arboreal in their habits, only occasionally descending to the

ground, while always roosting and building their nests on the
branches of trees. Their nests are neat structures, made of
slender branches interlaced with stems of grass, and lined
internally with leaves. They feed on fruits, seeds and insects.
They are often tamed in several parts of South America, but have
never been thoroughly domesticated anywhere. Large numbers
of these birds were, according to K. J. Temminck, brought to
Holland from Dutch Guiana towards the end of the 18th century,
and got so completely acclimatized and domesticated as to
breed in confinement, like ordinary poultry; but the establish-
ments in which these were kept were broken up during the
troubles that followed on the French Revolution. Their flesh
is said to be exceedingly white and delicate, and this, together
with their size and the beauty of their plumage, would make the
curassows an important gain to the poultry yards of Europe,
if they were not such bad breeders. The subfamily of curassows
contains four genera and twelve species, all confined to South
America, with the exception of Crax globicera — a Central
American species, which extends northward into Mexico. This
bird is about 3 ft. in length, of a glossy black colour over the
whole body, excepting the abdomen and tail coverts, which are
white. In common with the other species of this genus its head
bears a crest of feathers curled forward at the tips, which can
be raised or depressed at will. The female is of a reddish-brown
colour, although varying greatly in this respect, and was formerly
-described as a separate species — the red curassow. In another
species, Crax incommoda, the greater part of the black plumage
is beautifully varied with narrow transverse bars of white. The
galea ted curassow (Pauxi galeata) is peculiar in having a large
blue tubercle, hard and stony externally, but cellular within,
and resembling a hen's egg in size and shape, situated at the base
of the hill. It only appears after the first moulting, and is much
larger in the male than in the female.

CURATE (from the Lat. curare, to take care of), properly a
presbyter who has the cure of souls within a parish. The term
is used in this general sense in certain rubrics of the English
Book of Common Prayer, in which it is applied equally to rectors
and vicars as to perpetual curates. So, on the continent of
Europe, it is applied in this sense to parish priests, as the Fr. cure,
Ital. curato, Span, cura, &c. In a more limited sense it is applied
in the Church of England to the incumbent of a parish who has
no endowment of tithes, as distinguished from a perpetual vicar,
who has an endowment of small tithes, which are for that reason
sometimes styled vicarial tithes. The origin of such unendowed
curacies is traceable to the fact that benefices were sometimes
granted to religious houses pleno jure, and with liberty for them
to provide for the cure; and when such appropriations were
transferred to lay persons, being unable to serve themselves,
the impropriators were required to nominate a clerk in full orders
to the ordinary for his licence to serve the cure. Such curates,
being not removable at the pleasure of the impropriators, but
only on due revocation of the licence of the ordinary, came to be
entitled perpetual curates. The term " curate " in the present
day is almost exclusively used to signify a clergyman who is
assistant to a rector or vicar, by whom he is employed and paid;
and a clerk in deacon's orders is competent to be licensed by a
bishop to the office of such assistant curate. The consequence
of this misuse of the term " curate "was that the title of " per-
petual curate " fell into desuetude in the Anglican Church, and
an act of parliament (1868) was passed to authorize perpetual
curates to style themselves vicars (see Vicar). The term is in
use in the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland to designate an
assistant clergyman, and also to a certain extent in the American
Episcopal Church, though " assistant minister " is usually
preferred.

CURATOR (Lat. for " one who takes care," curare, to take
care of), in Roman law the " caretaker " or guardian of a spend-
thrift (prodigus) or of a person of unsound mind (furiosus), and,
more particularly, one who takes charge of the estate of an
adolescens, i.e. of a person sui juris, above the age of a pupillus,
fourteen or twelve years, according to sex, and below the full
age of twenty-five. Such persons were known as " minors,"

CURCI— CURETES

637

i.e. minores viginti quinque annis. While the tutor, the guardian
of the pupillus, was said to be appointed for the care of the person,
the curator took charge of the property. The term survives in
Scots law for the guardian of one in the second stage of minority,
i.e. below twenty-one, and above fourteen, if a male, and twelve,
if a female. Under the Roman empire the title of curator was
given to several officials who were in charge of departments of
public administration, such as the curatores annonae, of the public
supplies of corn and oil, or the curatores regionum, who were
responsible for order in the fourteen regiones or districts into
which the city of Rome was divided, and who protected the
citizen from exaction in the collection of taxes; the curatores
aquarum had the charge of the aqueducts. Many of these
curato'rships were instituted by Augustus. In modern usage
" curator " is applied chiefly to the keeper of a museum, art
collection, public gallery, &c, but in many universities to an
official or member of a board having a general control over the
university, or with the power of electing to professorships. In
the university of Oxford " curators " are nominated to administer
certain departments, such as the University Chest.

CURCI, CARLO MARIA (1810-1801), Italian theologian, was
born at Naples. He joined the Jesuits in 1826, and for some time
was devoted to educational work and the care of the poor and
prisoners. He became one of the first editors of the Jesuit organ,
the Civilta Catlolica; but then came under the influence of
Gioberti, Rosmini and other advocates for reform. He wrote a
preface to Gioberti's Primato (1843), but dissented from his
Prolegomena. After the events of 1870, Curci, at Florence,
delivered a course on Christian philosophy; and in 1874 began
to publish several Scriptural works. In his edition of the New
Testament (1879-1880) he makes some severe remarks on the
neglect of the study of Scripture amongst the Italian clergy.
In the meantime he began to attack the political action of the
Vatican, and in his II Moderno Dissidio tra la Chiesa e V Italia
1878) he advocated an understanding between the church and
state. This was followed by La Nuova Italia ed i Vecchi Zelanti
(1881), another attack on the Vatican policy; and by his
Vaticano Regio (1883), in which he accuses the Vatican of
trafficking in holy things and declares that the taint of worldli-
ness came from the false principles accepted by the Curia. His
former work at Naples drew him also in the direction of Christian
Socialism. He was condemned at Rome, and in a letter to The
Times (10th of September 1884) declares that it was on account
of his disobedience to the decrees of the Roman Congregation:
" I am a dutiful son of the Church who hesitates to obey an order
of his mother because he does not see clear enough the maternal
authority in it." He was cast out of the Society of Jesus and
suspended, and during this time Cardinal Manning put his purse
at Curci's disposal. Finally he accepted the decrees against him
and retracted " all that he said contrary to the faith, morals and
discipline of the Church." He passed the remainder of his life in
retirement at Florence, and, a few months before his death, was
readmitted to the Jesuit Society. He died on the 8th of June
1801. (E. Tn.)

CUREL, FRANCOIS, Vicomte de (1854- ), French
dramatist, was born at Metz on the 10th of June 1854. He was
educated at the ficole Centrale as a civil engineer, the family
wealth being derived from smelting works. He began his literary
career with two novels, L'Etedes fruits sees (i885)and Le Sauvelage
du grand due (1889). In 1891 three pieces were accepted by the
Theatre Libre. The list of his plays includes L'Envers d'une
sainte (1892); Les Fossiles (1892), a picture of the prejudices
of the provincial nobility; V Invitee (1893), the story of a mother
who returns to her children after twenty years' separation;
V Amour brode (1893), which was withdrawn by the author from
the Theatre Francais after the second representation; La
Figurante (1896); Le Repas du lion (1898), dealing with the
relations between capital and labour; La Fille sauvage (1902),
the history of the development of the religious idea; La Nouvelle
Idole (1899), dealing with the worship. of science; and Le Coup
d'aile (1906).

See also Contemporary Review for August 1903.

CURELY, JEAN NICOLAS (1774-1827), French cavalry leader,
was the son of a poor peasant of Lorraine. Joining, in 1793, a
regiment of hussars, he served with great distinction as private
and as sous-qfficier in the Rhine campaigns from 1794 to 1800.
He was, however, still a non-commissioned officer of twelve
years' service, when at Afflenz (12th of November 1805) he
attacked and defeated, with twenty-five men, a whole regiment
of Austrian cavalry. This brilliant feat of arms won him the
grade of sous-lieutenant, and the reputation of being one of the
men of the future. The next two campaigns of the Grande
Armie gained him two more promotions, and as a captain of
hussars he performed, in the campaign of Wagram, a feat of
even greater daring than the affair of Afflenz. Entrusted with
despatches for the viceroy of Italy, Curely, with forty troopers,
made his way through the Austrian lines, reconnoitred every-
where, even in the very headquarters-camp of the archduke John,
and finally accomplished his mission in safety. This exploit,
only to be compared to the famous raids of the American Civil
War, and almost unparalleled in European war, gained him
the grade of chef d'escadrons, in which for some years he served
in the Peninsular War. Under Gouvion St Cyr he took part in
the Russian War of 18 12, and in 181 3 was promoted colonel.
In the campaign of France (1814) Curely, now general of brigade,
commanded a brigade of " improvised " cavalry, and succeeded
in infusing into this unpromising material some of his own
daring spirit. His regiments distinguished themselves in several
cbmbats, especially at the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. The
Restoration government looked with suspicion on the most
dashing cavalry leader of the younger generation, and in 1815
Curely, who during the Hundred Days had rallied to his old
leader, was placed on the retired list. Withdrawing to the little
estate of Jaulny (near Thiaucourt) , which was his sole property,
he lived in mournful retirement, which was saddened still further
when in 1824 he was suddenly deprived of his rank. This last
blow hastened his death. Curely, had he arrived at high
command earlier, would have been ranked with Lasalle and
Montbrun, but his career, later than theirs in beginning, was
ended by the fall of Napoleon. His devoted friend, De Brack,
in his celebrated work Light Cavalry Outposts, considers Curely
incomparable as a leader of light cavalry, and the portrait of
Curely to be found in its pages is justly ranked as one of the
masterpieces of military literature. The general himself left
but a modest manuscript, which was left for a subsequent
generation to publish.

See also Thoumas, Le General Curely: itineraires d'un Cavalier
leger, 17Q3-1815 (Paris, 1887).

CURES, a Sabine town between the left bank of the Tiber
and the Via Salaria, about 26 m. from Rome. According to the
legend, it was from Cures that Titus Tatius led to the Quirihal the
Sabine settlers, from whom, after their union with the settlers
on the Palatine, the whole Roman people took the name Quirites.
It was also renowned as the birthplace of Numa, and its import-
ance among the Sabines at an early period is indicated by the
fact that its territory is often called simply ager Sabinus. At
the beginning of the imperial period it is spoken of as an un-
important place, but seems to have risen to greater prosperity
in the 2nd century. It appears as the seat of a bishop in the
5th century, but seems to have been destroyed by the Lombards
in a.d. 589. The site consists of a hill with two summits, round
the base of which runs the Fosso Corese : the western summit
was occupied by the necropolis, the eastern by the citadel, and
the lower ground between the two by the city itself. A temple,
the forum, the baths, &c, were excavated in 1874-1877.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 34. (T. As.)
CURETES (Gr. Kovprires and Kovpr}res). (1) A legendary
people mentioned by Homer (II. ix. 529 ff.) as taking part in
the quarrel over the Calydonian boar. They were identified
in antiquity as either Aetolians or Acarnanians (Strabo 462,
26), and were also represented by a stock in Chalcis in Euboea.
(2) In mythology (unconnected with the above), the attendants
of Rhea. The story went that they saved the infant Zeus from
his father Cronus in Crete by surrounding his cradle and with

6 3 8

CURETON— CURIA

clashing of sword and shield preventing his cries from being
heard, and thus became the body-guard of the god and the
first priests of Zeus and Rhea. In historic times the cult of the
Curetes was widely known in Greece in connexion with that of
Rhea (<?.»•). Its ceremonies consisted principally in the perform-
ance of the Pyrrhic dance to the accompaniment of hymns and
flute music, by the priests, who represented and thus com-
memorated the original act of the Curetes themselves. The
dance was originally distinguished from that of the Corybantes
by its comparative moderation, and took on the full character
of the latter only after the cult of the Great Mother, Cybele, to
>vhich it belonged, spread to Greek soil. The origin of the dance
may have lain in the supposed efficacy of noise in averting evil.

The Curetes are represented in art with shield and sword
performing the sacred dance about the infant Zeus, sometimes
in the presence of a female figure which may be Rhea. Their
number in art is usually two or three, but in literature is some-
times as high as ten. Of their names the following have survived:
Kures, Kres, Biennos, Eleuther, Itanos, Labrandos, Panamoros,
Palaxos; but no complete list of names is possible because of
their confusion with the names of the Corybantes and other
like deities. Their origin is variously related: they were earth-
born, sprung of the rain, sons of Zeus and Hera, sons of Apollo
and Danais, sons of Rhea, of the Dactyli, contemporary with
the Titans (Diod. Sic. v. 66). Rationalism made them the
mortal sons of a mortal Zeus, or originators of the Pyrrhic dance,
inventors of weapons, fosterers of agriculture, regulators of
social life, &c. A plausible theory is that of Georg Kaibel
(Gottinger Nachrichten, iooi, pp. 512-514), who sees in them,
together with the Corybantes, Cabeiri, Dactyli, Telchines,
Titans, &c, only the same beings under different names at
different times and in different places. Kaibel holds that they
all had a phallic significance, having once been great primitive
deities of procreation, and that having: fallen to an indistinct,
subordinate position in the course of the development and
formalization of Greek religion, they survive in historic times
only as half divine, half demonic beings, worshipped in connexion
with the various forms of the great nature goddess. The
resemblances, especially between Rhea and her Curetes and the
Great Mother and her Corybantes (</.».), .were so striking that
their origins were inextricably confused even in the minds of
the ancients: e.g. Demetrius of Scepsis (Strabo 469, 12) derives
the Curetes and Rhea from the cult of the Great Mother in Asia,
while Virgil (Aen. iii. in) looks upon the latter and the Cory-
bantes as derivations from the former. The worship of both
was akin in nature to that of the Dactyli, the Cabeiri, and even
of Dionysus, the special visible bond being the orgiastic character
of their rites.

Consult Immisch in Roscher's Lexicon, s. v. "Kureten." (G. Sn.)

CURETON, WILLIAM (1808-1864), English Orientalist, was
born at Westbury, in Shropshire. After being educated at the
free grammar school of Newport, and at Christ Church, Oxford,
he took orders in 1832, became chaplain of Christ Church, sub-
librarian of the Bodleian, and, in 1837, assistant keeper of MSS.
in the British Museum. He was afterwards appointed select
preacher to the university of Oxford, chaplain in ordinary to the
queen, rector of St Margaret's, Westminster, and canon of West-
minster. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and a
trustee of the British Museum, and was also honoured by several
continental societies. He died on the 17th of June 1864.

Cureton's most remarkable work was the edition with notes and
an English translation of the Epistles of Ignatius to Polycarp, the
Ephesians and the Romans, from a Syriac MS. that had been found
in the monastery -of St Mary Deipara, in the desert of Nitria, near
Cairo. He held that the MS. he used gave the truest text, that all
other texts were inaccurate, and that the epistles contained in the .
MS. were the only genuine epistles of Ignatius that we possess — a
view which received the support of F. C. Baur, Bunsen, and many
others, but which was opposed by Charles Wordsworth and by several
German scholars, and is now generally abandoned (see Ignatius).
Cureton supported his view by his Vindiciae Ignatianae and his
Corpus Ignatianum,—a Complete Collection of the Ignatian Epistles,
genuine, interpolated and spurious. He also edited a partial Syriac
text of the Festal Letters of St Athanasius , which was translated into
English by Henry Burgess (1854), and published in the Library of

Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church; Remains of a very Ancient
Recension of the Four Gospels in Syriac, hitherto unknown in Europe ;
Spicilegium Syriacum, containing Remains of Bardesan, Meliton,
Ambrose, Mara Bar Serapion; The third Part of the Ecclesiastical
History of John, Bishop of Ephesus, which was translated by Payne
Smith; Fragments of the Iliad of Homer from a Syriac Palimpsest;
an Arabic work known as the Thirty-first Chapter of the Book entitled
The Lamp that guides to Salvation, written by a Christian of Tekrit ;
The Book of Religious and Philosophical Sects, by Muhammed al
Sharastani ; a Commentary on the Book of Lamentations, by Rabbi
Tanchum ; and the Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites. Cureton also
published several sermons, among which was one entitled The
Doctrine of the Trinity not Speculative but Practical. After his
death Dr W. Wright edited with a preface the Ancient Syriac Docu-
ments relative to the earliest Establishment of Christianity in Edessa
and the neighbouring Countries, from the Year of our Lord's Ascension
to the beginning of the Fourth Century ; discovered, edited and annotated
by the late W. Cureton.

CURETUS, a tribe of South American Indians, inhabiting
the country between the rivers of Japura and Uaupes, north-
western Brazil. They are short but sturdy, wear their hair long,
and paint their bodies. Their houses are circular, with walls
of thatch and a high conical roof. They are a peaceable people,
living in small villages, each of which is governed by a chief.
. CURFEW, Curfeu or Couvke-fetj, a signal, as by tolling a
bell, to warn the inhabitants of a town to extinguish their fires or
cover them up (hence the name) and retire to rest. This was a
common practice throughout Europe during the middle ages,
especially in cities taken in war. In the law Latin of those
times it was termed ignitegium or pyritegium. In medieval
Venice it was a regulation from which only the Barbers' Quarter
was exempt, doubtless because they were also surgeons and their
services might be needed during the night. Th e curfew originated
in the fear of fire when most cities were built of timber. That
it was a most useful and practical measure is obvious when it is
remembered that the household fire was usually made in a hole
in the middle of the floor, under an opening in the roof through
which the smoke escaped. The custom is commonly said to have
been introduced into England by William the Conqueror, who
ordained, under severe penalties, that at the ringing of the curfew-
bell at eight o'clock in the evening all lights and fires should be
extinguished. But as there is good reason to believe that the
curfew-bell was rung each night at Carfax, Oxford (see Peshall,
Hist, of Oxford), in the reign of Alfred the Great, it would seem
that all William did was to enforce more strictly an existing
regulation. The absolute prohibition of lights after the ringing
of the curfew-bell was abolished by Henry I. in 1100. The
practice of tolling a bell at a fixed hour in the evening, still extant
in many places, is a survival of the ancient curfew. The common
hour was at first seven, and it was gradually advanced to eight,
and in some places to nine o'clock. In Scotland ten was not an
unusual hour. In early Roman times curfew may possibly have
served a political purpose by obliging people to keep within
doors, thus preventing treasonable nocturnal assemblies, and
generally assisting in the preservation of law and order. The
ringing of the " prayer-bell," as it is called, which is still practised
in some Protestant countries, originated in that of the curfew-bell.
In 1848 the curfew was still rung at Hastings, Sussex, from
Michaelmas to Lady-Day, and this was the custom too at
Wrexham, N. Wales.

CURIA, in ancient Rome, a section of the Roman people,
according to an ancient division traditionally ascribed to
Romulus. He is said to have divided the people into three tribes,
and to have subdivided each of these into ten curiae, each of
which contained a number of families (gentes). It is more prob-
able that the curiae were not purely artificial creations, but repre-
sent natural associations of familief, artificially regulated and
distributed to serve a politicalpurpose. The local names of curiae
which have come down to us suggest a local origin for the groups;
but as membership was hereditary, the local tie doubtless grew
weak with successive generations. Each curia was organized
as a political and religious unit. As a political corporation
it had no recognized activities beyond the command of a vote
in the Comitia Curiata (see Comitia) , a vote whose nature was
determined by a majority in the votes of the individual members

CURIA REGIS— CURIA ROM ANA

639

(curiales). But as a religious' unit the curia had more individual
activity. There were, it is true, ceremonies (sacra) performed
by all the curiae to Juno Curis in which each curia offered its
part in a collective rite of the whole people; but each curia had
also its peculiar sacra and its own special place of worship.
The religious affairs of each were conducted by a priest called
curio assisted by zflamen curialis. The thirty curiae must always
have comprised the whole Roman people; for citizenship de-
pended on membership of a gens (gentUitas) and every member
of a gens was ipso facto attached to a curia. They therefore
included plebeians as well as patricians (q.v .) from the date at
which plebeians were recognized as free members of the body
politic. But, just as enjoyment of the full rights of gentUitas
was only very gradually granted to plebeians, so it is probable
that a plebeian did not, when admitted through a gens into a
curia, immediately exercise all the rights of a curialis. It is
unlikely, for instance, that plebeians voted in the Comitia Curiata
at the early date implied by the authorities; but it is probable
that they acquired the right early in the republican period, and
certain that they enjoyed it in Cicero's time. A plebeian was
for the first time elected curio maximus in 209 B.C. The curia
ceased to have any importance as a political organization some
time before the close of the republican period. But its religious
importance survived during the principate; for the two festivals
of the Fornacalia and the Fordicidia were celebrated by the
Curiales (Ovid, Fasti, ii. 527, iv. 635).

The term curia seems often to have been applied to the common
shrine of the curiales, and thus to other places of assembly.
Hence the ancient senate house at Rome was known as the
Curia Hostilia. The curia was also adopted as a state division
in a large number of municipal towns; and the term was often
applied to the senate in municipal towns (see Decurio), probably
from the name of the old senate house at Rome.

Authorities. — Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, iii. p. 89 ff.
(Leipzig, 1887); Romische Forschungen i. p. 140 ff. (Berlin, 1864,
&c); Clason, "Die Zusammensetzung der Curien und ihrer
Comitien " (Kritische Erorterungen i., Rostock, 1871); Karlowa,
Romische Rechtsgeschichte, i. p. 382 ff. (Leipzig, 1885); E. Hofmann,
Patricische und plebeische Curien (Wien, 1879); for the Fornacalia,
&c., Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, iii. p. 197 (Leipzig, 1885) ; for
local names of curiae, Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, iv. p. 1822
(new edition, 1893, &c.) ; 0. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic
der Stadt Rom (Leipzig, 1883); for municipal curiae, Mommsen, in
Ephemeris epigraphica, ii. p. 125; Schmidt, in Rheinisches Museum,
xlv. (1890) p. 599 ff. On the Roman comitia in general see also
G. W. Botsford, Roman Assemblies (1909). (A. M. Cl.)

In medieval Latin the word curia was used in the general
sense of " court." It was thus used of " the court," meaning the
royal household {aula); of "courts" in the sense of solemn
assemblies of the great nobles summoned by the king (curiae
solennes, &c); of courts of law generally, whether developed
out of the imperial or royal curia (see Curia Regis) or not (e.g.
curia baronis, Court Baron, curia christianitatis , Court Christian).
Sometimes curia means jurisdiction, or the territory over which
jurisdiction is exercised; whence possibly its use, instead of
cortis, for an enclosed space, the court-yard of a house, or for the
house itself (cf. the English " court," e.g. Hampton Court, and
the Ger. H of). The word Curia is now only used of the court of
Rome, as a convenient term to express the sum of the organs that
make up the papal government (see Curia Romana).
See Du Cange, Gloss, med. el inf. Lat. (1883), s.v. " Curia."
CURIA REGIS, or Aula Regis, a term used in England from
the time of the Norman Conquest to about the end of the 13th
century to describe a council and a court of justice, the com-
position and functions of which varied considerably from time
to time. Meaning in general the " king's court," it is difficult
to define the curia regis with precision, but it is important and
interesting because it is the germ from which the higher courts of
law, the privy council and the cabinet, have sprung. It was,
at first the general council of the king, or the commune concilium,
i.e. the feudal assembly of the tenants-in-chief; but it assumed
a more definite character during the reign of Henry I., when its
members, fewer in number, were the officials of the royal house-
hold and other friends and attendants of the king. It was thus

practically a committee of the larger council, and assisted' the king
in his judicial work, its authority being as undefined as his own.
About the same time the curia undertook financial duties, and
in this way was the parent of the court of exchequer (curia regis
ad scaccarium). The members were called " justices," and in
the king's absence the chief justiciar presided over the court. A
further step was taken by Henry II. In n 78 he appointed five
members of the curia to form a special court of justice, and these
justices, unlike the other members of the curia, were not to follow
the king's court from place to place, but were to remain in one
place. Thus the court of king's bench (curia regis de banco)
was founded, and the foundation of the court of common pleas
was provided for in one of the articles of Magna Carta. The court
of chancery is also an offshoot of the curia regis. About the time
of Edward I. the executive and advising duties of the curia regis
were discharged by the king's secret council, the later privy council,
which is thus connected with the curia regis, and from the privy
council has sprung the cabinet.

In his work Tractatus de legibus Angliae, Ranulf de Glanvill treats
of the procedure of the curia regis as a court of law. See W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History, vol. i. (Oxford, 1883); R. Gneist, Englische
Verfassungsgeschichte, English translation by P. A. Ashworth
(London, 1891); A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council (London, 1887);
and the article Privy Council. (A. W. H.*)

CURIA ROMANA, the name given to the whole body of
administrative and judicial institutions, by means of which the
pope carries on the general government of the Church; the name
is also applied by an extension of meaning to the persons who
form part of it, and sometimes to the Holy See itself. Rome is
almost the only place where the word curia has preserved
its ancient form; elsewhere it has been almost always replaced
by the word court (cour, corte), which is etymologically the same.
Even at Rome, however, the expression " papal court " (corte
romana) has acquired by usage a sense different from that of
the word curia; as in the case of royal courts it denotes
the whole body of dignitaries and officials who surround and
attend on the pope; the pope, however, has two establishments:
the civil establishment, in which he is surrounded by what is
termed his " family " (familia) ; and the religious establishment,
the members of which form his " chapel " (capella). The word
curia is more particularly reserved to the, tribunals and
departments which actually deal with the general business of
the Church.

I. In order to understand the organization of the various
constituent parts of the Roman Curia, we must remember that
the modern principle of the separation of powers is _
unknown to the Church; the functions of each depart- remarks.
ment are limited solely by the extent of the powers
delegated to it and the nature of the business entrusted to it;
but each of them may have a share at the same time in the
legislative, judicial and administrative power. Similarly, the
necessity for referring matters to the pope in person, for his
approval or ratification of the decisions arrived at, varies greatly
according to the department and the nature of the business.
But on the whole, all sections of the Curia hold their powers
direct from the pope, and exercise them in his name. Each of
them, then, has supreme authority within its own sphere, while the
official responsibility belongs to the pope, just as in all govern-
ments it is the government that is responsible for the acts of its
departments. Of these official acts, however, it is possible
to distinguish two categories: those emanating directly from
the heads of departments are generally called Acts of the Holy
See (and in this sense the Holy See is equivalent to the Curia) ;
those which emanate direct from the pope are called Pontifical
Acts. The latter are actually the Apostolic Letters, i.e. those
documents in which the pope speaks in his own name (bulls,
briefs, encyclicals, &c.) even when he does not sign them, as we
shall see. The Apostolic Letters alone may be ex cathedra
documents, and may have the privilege of infallibility, if the
matter admit of it. There are also certain differences between
the two sorts of documents with regard to their penal conse-
quences. But in all cases the disciplinary authority is evidently
the same; we need only note that acts concerning individuals

64Q

CimiA ROM4MA

Division.

do not claim the force of general law; the legal decisions serve
at most to settle matters of jurisprudence, like the judgments of
all sovereign courts.

The constituent parts of the Roman Curia fall essentially
into two classes: (i) the tribunals and offices, which for centuries

served for the transaction of business and which

continue their activity; (2) the permanent com-
missions of cardinals, known by the name of the Roman Con-
gregations. These, though more recent, , have taken precedence
of the former, the work of which they have, moreover, greatly
relieved; they are indeed composed of the highest , dignitaries
of the church, the cardinals (q.v.), and are, as it were, subdivisions
of the consistory (q.v.), a council in which the whole of the
Sacred College takes part.

II. The Roman Congregations. — The constitution of all of
these is the same; a council varying in numbers, the members

of which are cardinals, who alone take part in the
Roman deliberations. One of the cardinals acts as president,
rations. or prefect, as he is called; the congregation is assisted

by a secretary and a certain number of inferior officials,
for secretarial and office work. They have also consultors,
whose duty it is to study the subjects for consideration. Their
deliberations are secret and are based on prepared documents
bearing on the case, written, or more often printed, which are
distributed to all the cardinals about ten days in advance. The
deliberations , follow a simplified procedure, which is founded
more on equity than on the more strictly legal forms, and
decisions are given in the shortest possible form, in answer to
carefully formulated questions or dubia. The cardinal prefect,
aided by the secretariate, deals with the ordinary business, only
important matters being submitted for the consideration of the
general meeting. To have the force of law the acts of the con-
gregations must be signed by the cardinal prefect and secretary,
and sealed with his seal. Practically the only exception is in
the cases of the Holy Office, and of the Consistorial Congregation
of which the pope himself is prefect; the acts of the first are
signed by the " notary," and the acts of the second by the
assessor.

We may pass over those temporary congregations of cardinals
known also as " special," the authority and existence of which
extend only to the consideration of one particular question;
and also those which had as their object various aspects of the
temporal administration of the papal states, which have ceased
to exist since 1870. We deal here only with the permanent
ecclesiastical congregations, the real machinery of the papal
administration. Some of them go quite far back into the 16th
century; but it was Sixtus V. who was their great organizer;
by his bull Immensa of the 22nd of January 1587, he apportioned
all the business of the Church (including that of the papal states)
among fifteen Congregations of cardinals, some of which were
already in existence, but most of which were established by him;
and these commissions, or those of them at least which are
concerned with spiritual matters, are still working. A few others
have been added by his successors. Pius X., by the constitution
Sapienti Consilio of the 29th of June 1908, proceeded to a
general reorganization of the Roman Curia: Congregations,
tribunals and offices. In this constitution he declared that the
competency of these various organs was not always clear, and
that their functions were badly arranged; that certain of them
had only a small amount of business to deal with, while others
were overworked; that strictly judicial affairs, with which
the Congregations had not to deal originally, had developed to an
excessive extent, while the tribunals, the Rota and the Signatura,
had nothing to do. He consequently withdrew all judicial affairs
from the Congregations, and handed them over to the two
tribunals, now revived, of the Rota and the papal Signatura;
all affairs concerning the discipline of the sacraments were
entrusted to a new Congregation of that name; the competency
of the remaining Congregations was modified, according to the
nature of the affairs with which they deal, and certain of them
were amalgamated with others; general rules were laid down
for the expedition of business and regarding personnel; in

short, the work of Sixtus V. was repeated and adapted to later
conditions. We will now give the nomenclature of the Roman
Congregations, as they were until 1908, and mentioning the
modifications made by Pius X.

(1) The Holy Inquisition, Roman and universal, or Holy
Office (Sacra Congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisilionis
seu Sancti Officii), the first of the Congregations, hence

called the supreme. It is composed of twelve cardinals, office
assisted by a certain number of officials: the assessor,
who practically fulfils the functions of the secretary, the com-
missary general, some consultors and the qualifica tors, whose
duty it is to determine the degree of theological condemnation
deserved by erroneous doctrinal propositions (haeretica, erronea,
temeraria, &c;). The presidency is reserved to the pope, and the
cardinal of longest standing takes the title of secretary. This
Congregation, established in 1542 by Paul III., constitutes the
tribunal of the Inquisition (q.v.), of which the origins are much
older, since it was instituted in the 13th century against the
Albigenses. It deals with all questions of doctrine and with the
repression of heresy, together with those crimes which are more
or less of the character of heresy. Its procedure is subject to the
strictest secrecy. Pius X. attached to it all matters concerning
indulgences ; on the other hand, he transferred to the Congrega-
tion of the Council matters concerning the precepts of the Church
such as fasting, abstinence and festivals. The choosing of
bishops, which had in recent times been entrusted to the Holy
Office, was given to the Consistorial Congregation, and dis-
pensations from religious vows to the Congregation of the Re-
ligious Orders. The Holy Office continues, however, to deal with
mixed marriages and marriages with infidels.

(2) The Consistorial Congregation (Sacra Congregatio Consis-
torialis), established by Sixtus V., has as its object the preparation
of business to be dealt with and decided in secret
consistory (q.v.); notably promotions to cathedral orlal!^"
churches' and consistorial benefices, the erection of
dioceses, &c. To this congregation is also subject the administra-
tion of the common property of the college of cardinals. Pius X.
restored this Congregation to a position of great importance;
in the first place he gave it the effective control of all matters
concerning the erection of dioceses and chapters and the appoint-
ment of bishops, except in the case of countries subject to the
Propaganda, and save that for countries outside Italy it has to
act upon information furnished by the papal secretary of state.
He further entrusted to this Congregation everything relating
to the supervision of bishops and of the condition of the dioceses,
and business connected with the seminaries. It has also the duty
of deciding disputes as to the competency of the other Congrega-
tions. The pope continues to be its prefect, and the cardinal
secretary of the Holy Office and the secretary of state are ex
officio members of it ; the cardinal who occupies the highest
rank in it, with the title of secretary, is chosen by the pope ;
he is assisted by a prelate with the title of assessor, who is
ex officio secretary of the Sacred College. The assessor of the
Holy Office and the secretary for extraordinary ecclesiastical
affairs are ex officio consultors.

(3) The Pontifical Commission for the reunion of the dissident
Churches, established by Leo XIII, in 1895 after his constitution
Orientalium. The pope reserved the presidency for himself;
its activity is merely nominal. It was attached by Pius X.
to the Congregation of the Propaganda.

(4) The Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation (Sacra
Congregatio Visitationis apostolicae) . The Visitation is the
personal inspection of institutions, churches, religious
establishments and their personnel, to correct abuses ™f on Vls>t '
and enforce the observation of rules. Through this
Congregation the pope, as bishop of Rome, made the inspection
of his diocese; it is for this reason that he was president of
this commission, the most important member of which was the
cardinal vicar. He takes the place of the pope in the administra-
tion of the diocese of Rome; he has his own offices and diocesan
assistants as in other bishoprics. The Congregation of the
Visitation was suppressed by Pius X. as a separate Congregation,

CURIA ROM AH A

641

and was reduced to a mere commission which is attached, as
before, to the Vicariate.

(5) The Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments
(Sacra Congregatio de Disciplina Sacratneniorum) , established
by Pius X., thus comes to occupy the third rank. With the
reservation of those questions, especially of a dogmatic character,
which belong to the Holy Office, and of purely ritual questions,
which come under the Congregation of Rites, this Congregation
brings under one authority all disciplinary questions concerning
the sacraments, which were formerly distributed among several
Congregations and offices. It deals with dispensations for
marriages, ordinations, &c, concessions with regard to the mass,
the communion, &c.

(6) The Congregation of the Bishops and Regulars, of which the
full official title was, Congregation for the Affairs and Consulta-
tions of the Bishops and Regulars (Sacra Congregatio

Bishops super negoliis Episcoporum et Regularium; now Sacra
Regulars. Congregatio negoliis religiosorum sodalium praeposita) .
It is the result of the fusion of two previous com-
missions; that for the affairs of bishops, established by Gregory
XIII., and that for the affairs of the regular clergy, founded by
Sixtus V.; the fusion dates from Clement VIII. (1601). This
congregation was very much occupied, being empowered to deal
with all disciplinary matters concerning both the secular and
regular clergy, whether in the form of consultations or of con-
tentious suits; it had further the exclusive right to regulate the
discipline of the religious orders and congregations bound by the
simple vows, the statutes of which it examined, corrected and
approved; finally it judged disputes and controversies between
the secular and regular clergy. On the 26th of May 1 906, Pius X.
incorporated in this Congregation two others having a similar
object: that on the discipline of the regular clergy (Congregatio
super Disciplina Regularium) , founded by Innocent XII. in 1695,
and that on the condition of the regular clergy (Congregatio super
Statu Regularium) , established by Pius IX. in 1846. In 1908
Pius X. withdrew from this Congregation all disciplinary matters
affecting the secular clergy, and limited its competency to matters
concerning the religious orders, both as regards their internal
affairs and their relations with the bishops.

(7) The Congregation of the Council (Sacra Congregatio
Cardinalium Concilii Tridentini inter prelum), i.e. a number of

cardinals whose duty it is to interpret the disciplinary
decrees of the council of Trent, was instituted by Pius
IV. in 1563, and reorganized by Sixtus V.; its mission is to
promote the observation of these disciplinary decrees, to give
authoritative interpretations of them, and to reconcile disputes
arising out of them. Pius X. in 1908 entrusted to this Congrega-
tion the supervision of the general discipline of the secular clergy
and the faithful laity, empowering it to deal with matters con-
cerning the precepts of the Church, festivals, foundations,
church property, benefices, provincial councils and episcopal
assemblies. Proceedings for annulling marriages, which used
to be reserved to it, were transferred to the tribunal of the Rota;
reports on the condition of the dioceses were henceforth to be
addressed to the Consistorial Congregation, which involved the
suppression of the commission which had hitherto dealt with
them. The other commission, formerly charged with the revision
of the decrees of provincial councils, was merged in the Congrega-
tion itself. The Congregation of Immunity (Sacra Congregatio
Jurisdictionis et Immunitatis ecclesiasticae) was created by
Urban VIII. (1626) to watch over the immunities of the clergy in
respect of person or property, whether local or general. This,
having no longer any object, was also attached to the Congrega-
tion of the Council, and is now amalgamated with it.

(8) The Congregation of the Propaganda (Sacra Congregatio
de Propaganda Fide) was established by Gregory XV. in 1622,

and added to by Urban VIII., who founded the
gaada. celebrated College of the Propaganda for the education

of missionaries, and his polyglot press for printing
the liturgical books of the East. It had charge of the administra-
tion of the Catholic churches in all non-Catholic countries, for
which it discharged the functions of all the Congregations, except

Council.

in doctrinal and strictly legislative matters. Its sphere was very
wide; it administered all non-European countries, except Latin
America and the old colonies of the Catholic countries of Europe;
in Europe it had also charge of the United Kingdom and the
Balkan States. But the constitution " Sapienti " of 1908
withdrew from the Propaganda and put under the common law
of the Church most of those parts in which the episcopal hierarchy
had been re-established, i.e. in Europe, the United Kingdom,
Holland and Luxemburg; in America, Canada, Newfoundland
and the United States. Further, even for those countries which
it continues to administer, the Propaganda has to submit to the
various Congregations all questions affecting the Faith, marriage
and rites. The missions begin by establishing apostolic pre-
fectures under the charge of priests; the prefecture is later
transformed into an apostolic vicariate, having at its head a
bishop; finally, the hierarchy, i.e. the diocesan episcopate, is
established in the country, with residential sees. Thus the
hierarchy was re-established in England in 1850 by Pius IX., in
1878 by Leo XIII. in Scotland, in 1886 in India, in 1891 in Japan.
It is also the work of the Propaganda to appoint the bishops for
the countries it administers. Under the same cardinal prefect
is found that section of the Propaganda which deals with matters
concerning oriental rites (Congregatio specialis pro negoliis
ritus Oricntalis), the object of which is indicated by its name.
To the former were attached two commissions, one for the
approbation of those religious congregations which devote
themselves to missions, which is now transferred to the Con-
gregation of the Religious Orders; the other for the examination
of the reports sent in by the bishops and vicars apostolic on their
dioceses or missions. With the latter is connected the com-
mission for the examination of the liturgical books of the East
(Commissio pro corrigendis libris ecclesiae Orientaiis). Finally,
the popes have devoted to the missions the income arising from
the Chamber of Spoils (Camera Spoliorum), i.e. that portion of
the revenue from church property which cannot be bequeathed
by the holders of benefices as their own property; this source
of income, however, has decreased greatly.

(9) The Congregation of the Index (Congregatio indicis
librorum prohibitorum) , founded by St Pius V. in 1571 and
reorganized by Sixtus V., has as its object the examina- .
tion and the condemnation or interdiction of bad or
dangerous books which are submitted to it, or, since the con-
stitution " Sapienti," of those which it thinks fit to examine on
its own initiative (see Index).

(10) The Congregation of Rites (Congregatio sacrorum Rituum),
founded by Sixtus V., has exclusive charge of the liturgy and
liturgical books; it also deals with the proceedings

in the beatification and canonization of saints. Of

late years there have been added to it a Liturgical Commission,

a Historico-liturgical Commission, and a Commission for church

song, the functions of which are sufficiently indicated by their

names.

(n) The Ceremonial Congregation (Sacra Congregatio caere-
monialis), the prefect of which is the cardinal dean,
was instituted by Sixtus V.; its mission is to settle monial.
questions of precedence and etiquette, especially at
the papal court ; it is nowadays but little occupied.

(12) The Congregation of Indulgences and Relics (Sacra
Congregatio Indulgentiarum et Sacrarum Reliquiarum) , founded
in 1669 by Clement IX., devoted itself to eradicating
any abuses which might creep into the practice of
indulgences and the cult of relics. It had also the
duty of considering applications for the concession of indulgences
and of interpreting the rules with regard to them. In 1904
Pius X. attached this Congregation to that of Rites, making the
personnel of both the same, without suppressing it. In 1908,
however, it was suppressed, as stated above, and its functions
as to indulgences were transferred to the Holy Office, and those
as to relics to the Congregation of Rites.

(13) The Congregation of the Fabric of St Peter's (Sacra
Congregatio reverendae Fabricae S. Petri) is charged with the
upkeep, repairs and temporal administration of the great basilica'

Indul-
gences.

VII. 21

642

CURIA ROMANA

Studies.

in this capacity it controls the famous manufacture of the
Vatican mosaics. It also formerly enjoyed certain spiritual

powers for the reduction of the obligations imposed by
F f %' C pio us legacies and foundations, the objects of which, for
Peter's. want of funds or any other reason, could not be fully

carried out, and for the condonation of past omission
of such obligations, e.g. of priests to celebrate the foundation
masses of their benefices. In 1908 these powers were taken away
from it by Pius X., and transferred to the Congregation of the
Council, which already exercised some of them.

(14) The Congregation of Loretto (Congregatio Lauretana)
discharged the same functions for the sanctuary of that name;
its temporal administration was latterly very much reduced, and
in 1908 it was united by Pius X. with the Congregation of the
Council.

(15) The Congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs
[Sacra Congregatio super negotiis ecclesiasticis extraordinariis) ,

established by Pius VI. at the end of the 18th century
E *f™' to study the difficult questions relative to France,
affairs. was afterwards definitively continued by Pius VII.;

and there has been no lack of fresh extraordinary
matters. It also dealt with the administration of the churches
of Latin America, not to mention certain European countries,
such as Russia, under the same conditions as the Propaganda
in countries under missions. Since the constitution Sapienti,
its competency has been confined to the examination, at the
request of the secretary of state, of questions which are submitted
to it, and especially those arising from civil laws and concordats.

(16) The Congregation of Studies (Congregatio pro Univtrsilate
studii Romani, Congregazione degli Studi), founded by Sixtus

V. to act as a higher council for the Roman university

of La Sapienza, had ceased to have any functions
when in 1824 it was re-established by Leo X.L1. to supervise
education in Rome and the Papal States; since 1870 it has been
exclusively concerned with the Catholic universities, so far as
the sacred sciences are concerned. With this should be connected
the commission for historical studies, instituted in 1883 by Leo
XIII., at the same time as he threw the Vatican archives freely
open to scholars.

III. The Tribunals and Offices. — Though it has been relieved
of the functions allotted to the Congregations of cardinals, the

old machinery of the ecclesiastical administration has
Tribunals not Deen abolished; and the process of centralization
offices. which has been accentuated in the course of the last

few centuries, together with the facility of communica-
tion, ensured for them a fresh activity, new offices having even
been added. The chief thing to be observed is that the prelates
who were formerly at the head of these departments have almost
all been replaced by cardinals. The following is the list of the
tribunals and offices, including the changes introduced by the
reorganization of the Curia by Pius X. in 1908. The tribunals
are three in number: one for the forum internum, the Peni-
tentiary; the other two for judicial matters .in foro exlerno, the
Rota and the papal Signatura.

(1) The Penitentiary (Sacra poenitentiaria Apostolica) is the
tribunal having exclusive jurisdiction in matters of conscience

(in foro interno),e.g. dispensations from secret impedi-
ments and private vows, the absolution of reserved
cases. These concessions are applied for anonymously.
It also had, previously to the constitution Sapienti, a certain
jurisdiction in foro externo, such as over matrimonial dispensa-
tions for poor people. Its concessions are absolutely gratuitous.
Since the 12th century, the papal court had already had officials
known as penitentiaries (poenitentiarii) for matters of conscience;
the organization of the Penitentiary, after several modifications,
was renewed by Benedict XIV. in 1748. At the head of it is the
cardinal grand penitentiary (major poenitentiarius), assisted by
the regens (It. regente) and various other functionaries and
officials.

(2) The court of the Rota (Sacra Rota Romano.) used to be
the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its
decisions had great authority. This tribunal goes back at least

Peni-
tentiary.

Rota.

Signatura.

as far as the 14th century, but its activity had been reduced as
a result of the more expeditious and summary, and less costly,
procedure of the Congregations. The constitution
Sapienti restored the Rota to existence and activity:
it is now once more the ecclesiastical court of appeal for both
civil and criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations
for it, by which its ancient usages are adapted to modern circum-
stances. The tribunal of the Rota consists of ten judges called
auditors (uditori), of whom the most senior is president with the
title of dean. Each judge has an auxiliary; to the tribunal are
attached a promotor fiscalis, charged with the duty of securing
the due application of the law, and an official charged with the
defence of marriage and ordination; there is also a clerical
staff (notaries, scribes) attached to the court. Cases are judged
by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (per
turnum) according to the order in Which the cases are entered,
and in exceptional cases by all the auditors (videntibus omnibus).
Under the jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first
instance submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of
episcopal courts as are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for
petitions against non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congre-
gations. Appeal is sometimes allowed from one " turn " to
another; if the second sentence of the Rota confirms the first,
it is definitive; if not, a third may be^obtained.

(3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (Signatura
Apostolica) . There were formerly two sections: the Signatura
Justitiae and the Signatura Gratiae; by the con-
stitution Sapientis they were suppressed and amal-
gamated into one body, the Signatura Apostolica, which is the
exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This
tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect,
assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary
inferior officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the
Rota are concerned, such as personal objections, but especially
objections (querelae) lodged against sentences of the Rota,
with a view to their being annulled or revised (restitutio in
integrum).

Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number.

(1) The Chancery (Cancellaria Apostolica), the department
from which are sent out the papal letters, has for a long time
drawn up only those letters written in solemn form _.
known as bulls. The bull, so called from the leaden ncer y.
seal (bulla), is written on thick parchment; the special writing
known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished
by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the „ „

more important letters; on the others it has been
replaced by a red ink stamp bearing both the emblems repre-
sented on the leaden seal: the two heads, face to face, of St
Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls
are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself " (Pius)
Episcopus servus servorum Dei; (Pius), bishop, servant of
the servants of God." They were formerly dated by kalends
and from the era of the Incarnation, which begins on the 25th
of March, but in 1908 Pius X. ordered them to be dated according
to the common era. It is practically only bulls of canonization
which are signed by the pope and all the cardinals present in
Rome; the signature of the pope is then " (Pius) Episcopus
Ecclesiae catholicae," while his ordinary, signature bears only his
name and number, " Pius PP. X." Ordinary bulls are signed
by several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only
by the cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled vice-
chancellor, because the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate,
not a cardinal; but since the constitution Sapienti has been
entitled chancellor. He is assisted by several officials, beginning
with the regens of the chancery. To the chancery were attached
the abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori (see Abbreviators),
formerly charged with the drawing up or " extension " of bulls;
they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions trans-
ferred to the Protonotarii apostolici participants (i.e. active).
Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery
to the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (sub plumbo),
for the erection of dioceses, the provision of bishoprics and

CURICO

&43

consistorial benefices, and other affairs of importance, these
bulls being sent out by order of the Consistorial Congregation.

(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with
matters of grace, e.g. the concession of privileges, nominations

to benefices and dispensations in foro externo, especially
Apos-* matrimonial ones; but its functions have been greatly
toUca. reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the matrimonial

section has been suppressed,dispensations for marriages
now belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the
sacraments; the section dealing with benefices, which is the only
one preserved, deals with non-consistorial benefices reserved to
the Holy See; it examines the claims of the candidates, draws
up and sends out the letters of collation, gives dispensations, when
necessary, in matters concerning the benefices, and manages
the charges (i.e. pensions to incumbents who have resigned, &c.)
imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its head a
cardinal formerly called the pro-datarius, the datarius having
formerly been a prelate; and now datarius, since the reform
by Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the
sub-datarius, and other officials.

(3) The Apostolic Chamber (Referenda Camera Apostolica)
was before the abolition of the temporal power of the papacy

the ministry of finance, at once treasury and exchequer,
chamber. °* t ' le P°P es as heads of the Catholic Church as well as

sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is neces-
sarily diminished in importance, it has retained the administra-
tion of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy.
At its head is the cardinal camerlengo (Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae
Cardinalis Camerarius) , who, as we know, exercises the external
authority during the vacancy of the Holy See.

(4) Next come the palatine secretariates, the first and principal
of which is the secretariate of state (Secretaria status). The

cardinal secretary of state is as it were the pope's
shio of*' P rmle minister, gathering into one centre the internal
State. administration and foreign affairs, by means of the

nunciatures and delegations depending on his depart-
ment. The secretary of state is the successor of what was called
in the 17th century the cardinal nephew; his functions and
importance have increased more and more. The secretariate
of state is the department dealing with the political affairs
of the Church. To it belongs the internal administration of the
apostolic palaces, with the library, archives, museums, &c.
In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate of
state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal
secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesi-
astical affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation
of the same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed
by a substitute, is the department dealing, among other things,
with the concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics
and laymen; the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto
Briefs. formed a separate secretariate. It is this department

which sends out, at the command of the secretary of
state or the various Congregations those papal letters which are
written in less solemn form, brevi manu, hence the word " brief."
They are written in the pope's name, but he only takes the less
solemn style of: " Pius PP. X." The brief is written on thin
parchment, and dated by the ordinary era and the day of the
month; they were formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary
of briefs or his substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of
state or the head of the office, called the chancellor of Briefs
(cancellarius Brevium). The seal is that of the fisherman's
ring, hence the formula of conclusion, " Datum Romae, sub annulo
Piscatoris." The " Fisherman's ring " is a red ink stamp
representing St Peter on a boat casting out his nets, with the
name of the reigning pope.

The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices
called the secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of

Latin Letters, the names of which are sufficient indica-
otfices. t ' on °f their functions. The secretariate of memorials

(Secretaria Memorialium), through which pass requests
addressed to the pope for the purpose of obtaining certain favours,
was formerly of great importance; it is now suppressed and the

requests are addressed to the proper departments. Finally,
the pope has his special secretary, his auditor, with his offices,
as well as the papal almonry, the officials of which administer
the papal charities.

IV. The pontifical " family " (jamilia) forms the pope's civil
court. First come the palatine cardinals, i.e. those who, on
account of their office, have the right' of living in the

papal palaces. These were formerly four in number: p„^ t if ica /
the pro-datarius (now datarius) , the secretary of state, "family."
the secretary of briefs, and the secretary of the
memorials; the two last of these were suppressed in 1908.
Next come the four palatine prelates, the majordomo, the
superintendent of the household and its staff, and successor
of the ancient vicedominus; the master of the chamber, who
presides over the arrangement of audiences; the auditor, or
private secretary; and finally the master of the sacred palace
(magister sacri palatii), a kind of theological adviser, always a
Dominican, whose special duty is nowadays the revision of books
published at Rome. Other prelates rank with the above, but in
a lower degree, notably the almoner and the various secretaries.
All ecclesiastics admitted, by virtue of their office or by a gracious
concession of the pope, to form part of the " family," are called
domestic prelates, prelates of the household; this is an honorary
title conferred on many priests not resident in Rome. The ex-
ternal service of the palace is performed by the Swiss Guard and
the gendarmerie; the service of the ante-chamber by the lay and
ecclesiastical chamberlains; this service has also given rise
to certain honorary titles both for ecclesiastics, e.g. honorary
chamberlain, and for laymen, e.g. secret chamberlain (cameriere
segreto). (See Chamberlain.)

V. The pontifical " chapel " (capella) is the papal court for
purposes of religious worship. In it the pope is surrounded
by the cardinals according to their order; by the
patriarchs, archbishops and bishops attending at the chapell
throne, and others; by the prelates of the Curia,

and by all the clergy both secular and regular. Among the
prelates we should mention the protonotaries, the successors of
the old notaries or officials of the papal chancery in the earliest
centuries; the seven protonotarii participantes were restored by
Pope Pius X. to the chancery, as noted above, but they have
kept important honorary privileges; this is yet another source
of distinctions conferred upon a great number of priests outside
of Rome, the protonotaries of different classes. In a lower
degree there are also the chaplains of honour. Since 1870 the
great pontifical ceremonies have lost much of their splendour.

Bibliography. — La Gerarchia cattolica, an annual directory pub-
lished at Rome; Lunadoro, Relazione delta corte di Roma (Rome,
1 765) ; Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione, under the various headings ;
Card. De Luca, Relatio curiae romanae (Cologne, 1683) ; Bouix,
De curia romana (Paris, 1859) ; Ferraris, Prompta bibliotheca (addit.
Cassinenses) , s.v. Congregatio; Grimaldi, Les Congregations romaines
(Sienna, 1891) ; Dictionnaire de tkeologie catholique, s.v. Cour romaine
(Paris, 1907) ; Publications of the acts of the Roman Congregations:
Bishops and regulars — Bizzarri, Collectanea in usum Secretariat
(Rome, 1866, 1885). Council: the Thesaurus resolutionum has
published all business since 1700: a volume is issued every year,
and the contents have been published in alphabetical order by
Zamboni (4 vols., Rome, 1812; Arras, i860) and by Pallottini
(18 vols., Rome, 1868, &c). Immunity: Ricci, Synopsis, decreta et
resolutiones (Palestrina, 1 708). Propaganda: De Martinis, Juris
pontificii de Propaganda Fide, &c. (Rome, 1888, &c.) ; Collectanea
S. C.de Prop. Fide (2nd ed., Rome, 1907). Index: Index librorum
prohibitorum (Rome, 1900). Rites: Decreta authentica (Rome,
1898). Indulgences: Decreta authentica (Regensburg, 1882);
Rescripta authentica (ib., 1885). (A. Bo.*)

CURICO, a province of central Chile, lying between the
provinces of Colchagua and Talca and extending from the
Pacific to the Argentine frontier; area, 2978 sq. m.; pop. (1895)
103,242. The eastern and western sections are mountainous,
and are separated by the fertile valley of central Chile. The
mineral resources are undeveloped, but are said to include
copper, gold and silver. Cattle, wheat and wine are the principal
products, but Indian corn and fruit also are produced. On the
coast are important salt-producing industries. The climate is
mild and the rainfall more abundant than at the northern part
of the valley, and the effects of this are to be seen in the better

6 44

CURIE— CURLEW

pasturage. Irrigation is used to a large extent. The province
was created in 1865 by a division of Colchagua. The capital
is Curic6, on the Mataquito river, in lat. 34 58' S. long. 71 19'
W., 114 m. S. of Santiago by the Chilean Central railway, which
crosses the province. The city stands on the great central plain,
748 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of a comparatively well-
cultivated district. It was founded in 1742 by Jose de Manso,
and is one of the more cultured and progressive provincial towns
of Chile. Pop. (1895) 12,669. Vichiquen, on a tide-water lake
on the coast, is a prosperous town, the centre of the salt trade.

CURIE, PIERRE (1859-1906), French physicist, was born in
Paris on the 15th of May 1859, and was educated at the Sorbonne,
where he subsequently became professor of physics. Although
he had previously published meritorious researches on piezo-
electricity, the magnetic properties of bodies at different tem-
peratures, and other topics, he was chiefly known for his work
on radium carried out jointly with his wife, Marie Sklodowska,
who was born at Warsaw on the 7th of November 1867. After
the discovery of the radioactive properties of uranium by Henri
Becquerel in 1896, it was noticed that some minerals of uranium,
such as pitchblende, were more active than the element itself,
and this circumstance suggested that such minerals contained
small quantities of some unknown substance or substances
possessing radioactive properties in a very high degree. Acting
on this surmise M. and Mme Curie subjected a large amount
of pitchblende to a laborious process of fractionation, with
the result that in 1898 they announced the existence in it of
two highly radioactive substances, polonium and radium. In
subsequent years they did much to elucidate the remarkable
properties of these two substances, one of which, polonium,
came to be regarded as one of the transformation-products of the
other (see Radioactivity). In 1903 they were awarded the
Davy medal of the Royal Society in recognition of this work,
and in the same year the Nobel prize for physics was divided
between them and Henri Becquerel. Professor Curie, who was
elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1905, was run over by a
dray and killed instantly in Paris on the 19th of April 1906.

His elder brother, Paul Jacques Curie, born at Paris on
the 29th of October 1856, published an elaborate memoir on the
specific inductive capacities of crystalline bodies (Ann. Chim.
Phys. 1889, 17 and 18).

CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS, Roman statesman and orator,
son of a distinguished orator of the same name, flourished during
the 1st century B.C. He was tribune of the people in 90 B.C.,
and afterwards served in Sulla's army in Greece against Archelaus,
general of Mithradates, and as his legate in Asia, where he was
commissioned to restore order in the kingdoms abandoned by
Mithradates. In 76 he was consul, and as governor of Macedonia
carried on war successfully against the Thracians and Dardanians,
and was the first Roman general who penetrated as far as the
Danube. On his return he was granted the honour of a triumph.
During the discussion as to the punishment of the Catilinarian
conspirators he supported Cicero, but he spoke in favour of P.
Clodius (q.v.) when the latter was being tried for the Bona Dea
affair. This led to a violent attack on the part of Cicero, but
it does not appear to have interfered with their friendship. Curio
was a vehement opponent of Caesar, against whom he wrote
a political pamphlet in the form of a dialogue. He was pontifex
maximus in 57, and died in 53. His reputation as an orator
was considerable, but according to Cicero he was very illiterate,
and his only qualifications were brilliancy of style and the purity
of his Latin. He was nicknamed Burbuleius (after an actor)
from the way in which he moved his body while speaking.

Orelli, Onomasticon to Cicero; Florus iii. 4; Eutropius vi. 2;
Val. Max. ix. 14, 5; Quintilian, Instit., vi. 3, 76; Dio Cassius
xxxviii. 16.

His son, Gaius Scribonius Curio, was first a supporter of
Pompey, but after his tribuneship (50 B.C.) went over to Caesar,
by whom he was said to have been bribed. But, while breaking
off relations with Pompey, Curio desired to keep up the appear-
ance of impartiality. When it was -demanded that Caesar should
Jay down his imperium before entering Rome, Curio proposed

that Pompey should do the same* adding that, if the rivals
refused to do so, they ought both to be declared public enemies.
His proposal was carried by a large majority, but a report having
spread that Caesar was on the way to attack Rome, the consuls
called upon Pompey to undertake the command of all the troops
stationed in Italy. Curio's appeal to the people to prevent the
levying of an army by Pompey was disregarded; whereupon,
feeling himself in danger, he fled to Ravenna to Caesar. He was
commissioned by Caesar, who was still unwilling to proceed to
extremities, to take a message to the senate. But Curio's
reception was so hostile that he hurriedly returned during the
night to Caesar. It was now obvious that civil war would break
out. Curio collected troops in Umbria and Etruria for Caesar,
who sent him to Sicily as propraetor in 49. After having fought
with considerable success there against the Pompeians, Curio
crossed over to Africa, where he was defeated and slain by Juba,
king of Numidia. Curio, although a man of profligate character,
possessed conspicuous ability, and was a distinguished orator.
In spite of his faults, Cicero, as an old friend of his father, took
a great interest in him and did his utmost to reform him. Seven
of Cicero's letters {Ad. Fam. ii. 1-7) are addressed to him. There
can be no doubt that Curio's behaviour in regard to the laying
down of the imperium by Caesar and Pompey in great measure
contributed to the outbreak of civil war. The first amphitheatre
in Rome was erected by him (50), for the celebration of the
funeral games in honour of his father.

Orelli, Onomasticon to Cicero; Livy, Epit. 109, no; Caesar,
Bell. Civ., ii. 23, for Curio's African campaign; Appian, Bell. Civ.,
ii. 26-44 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 48.

CURITYBA (also Corityba and Curitiba), capital of the state
of Parana, Brazil, situated on an elevated plateau (2916 ft.
above sea-level) 68 m. W. of its seaport Paranagua, with which
it is connected by a railway remarkable for the engineering
difficulties overcome and for the beautiful scenery through which
it passes. Pop. (1890) 22,694; of the municipality, 24,553.
There is a large foreign element in the population, the Germans
preponderating. The city has a temperate, healthy climate,
and is surrounded by a charming campo country, which, however,
is less fertile than the forested river valleys. Mate is the principal
export.

CURLEW (Fr. Courlis or Corlieu), a name given to two birds,
of whose cry it is an imitation, both belonging to the group
Limicolae, but possessing very different habits and features.

1. The long-billed curlew, or simply curlew of most British
writers, the Numenius arquata of ornithologists, is one of the
largest of the family Scolopacidae, or snipes and allied forms.
It is common on the shores of the United' Kingdom and most
parts of Europe, seeking the heaths and moors of the interior
and more northern countries in the breeding-season, where it
lays its four brownish-green eggs, suffused with cinnamon
markings, in an artless nest on the ground. In England it has
been ascertained to breed in Cornwall and in the counties of
Devon, Dorset, Salop, and Derby — though sparingly. In York-
shire it is more numerous, and thence to the extreme north of
Scotland, as well as throughout Ireland, it is, under the name of
whaup, familiar to those who have occasion to traverse the wild
and desolate tracts that best suit its habits. So soon as the young
are able to shift for themselves, both they and their parents
resort to the sea-shore or mouths of rivers, from the muddy
flats of which they at low tide obtain their living, and, though
almost beyond any other birds wary of approach, form an object
of pursuit to numerous gunners. While leading this littoral life
the food of the curlew seems to consist of almost anything edible
that presents itself. It industriously probes the mud or sand in
quest of the worms that lurk therein, and is also active in seeking
for such crustaceans and molluscs as can be picked up on the
surface, while vegetable matter as well has been found in its
stomach. During its summer-sojourn on the moorlands insects
and berries, when they are ripe, enter largely into its diet. In
bulk the curlew is not less than a crow, but it looks larger still
from its long legs, wings arid neck. Its bill, from 5 to 7 in. in
length, and terminating in the delicate nervous apparatus

CURLING, T. B.— CURLING

645

common to all birds of its family, is especially its most remark-
able feature. Its plumage above is of a drab colour, streaked
and mottled with very dark brown; beneath it is white, while
the flight-quills are of a brownish black.

Nearly allied to the curlew, but smaller and with a more
northern range, is the whimbrel (N. phaeopus), called in some
parts jack-curlew, from its small size; May-fowl, from the
month in which it usually arrives; and titterel, from one of its
cries. 1 This so much resembles the former in habit and appear-
ance that no further details need be given of it. In the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean occurs a third species (N.
tenuirostris) . Some fifteen other species, or more, have been
described, but it is probable that this number is too great. The
genus Numenius is almost cosmopolitan. In North America
three very easily recognized species are found — the first (N.
longirostris) closely agreeing with the European curlew, but
larger and with a longer bill; the second {N. hudsonicus) repre-
senting the British whimbrel; and the third (N. .borealis),
which has several times found its way to Britain, very much less
in size — indeed the smallest of the genus. All these essentially
agree with the species of the Old World in habit; but it is re-
markable that the American birds can be easily distinguished by
the rufous colouring of their axillary feathers^a feature which
is also presented by the American godwits (Limosa).

2. The curlew of inlanders, or stone-curlew — called also, by
some writers, from its stronghold in England, the Norfolk plover,
and sometimes the thick-knee — is usually classed among the
Charadriidae, but it offers several remarkable differences from
the more normal plovers. It is the Charadrius oedicnemus of
Linnaeus, the C. scolopax of Sam. Gottl. Gmelin, and the Oedi-
cnemus crepitans of K. J. Temminck. With much the same cry
as that of the Numenii, only uttered in a far sweeter tone, it is
as fully entitled to the name of curlew as the bird most commonly
so called. In England it is almost solely a summer visitor,
though an example will occasionally linger throughout a mild
winter; and is one of the few birds whose distribution is affected
by geological formation, since it is nearly limited to the chalk-
country — the open spaces of which it haunts, and its numbers
have of late years been sensibly diminished by their inclosure.
The most barren spots in these districts, even where but a super-
ficial coating of light sand and a thin growth of turf scarcely
hide the chalk below, supply its needs; though at night (and it
chiefly feeds by night) it resorts to moister and more fertile
places. Its food consists of snails, coleopterous insects, and
earth-worms, but larger prey, as a mouse or a frog, is not rejected.
Without making the slightest attempt at a nest, it lays its two
eggs on a level spot, a bare fallow being often chosen. These are
not very large, and in colour so closely resemble the sandy, flint-
strewn surface that their detection except by a practised eye
is difficult. The bird, too, trusts much to its own drab colouring
to elude observation, and, on being disturbed, will frequently run
for a considerable distance and then squat with outstretched
neck so as to become almost invisible. In such a case it may be
closely approached, and its large golden eye, if it do not pass for
a tuft of yellow lichen, is perhaps the first thing that strikes the
searcher. As autumn advances the stone-curlew gathers in
large flocks, and then is as wary as its namesake. Towards
October these take their departure, and their survivors return,
often with wonderful constancy, to their beloved haunts. In
size this species exceeds any other European plover, and looks
even still larger than it is. The bill is short, blunt, and stout;
the head large, broad, and flat at the top; the wings and legs
long — the latter presenting the peculiarity of a singular enlarge-
ment of the upper part of the tarsus, whence the names Oedi-
cnemus and Thick-knee have been conferred. The toes are short
and fleshy, and the hind-toe is wanting. This bird seems to have
been an especial favourite with Gilbert White, in whose classical
writings mention of it is often made. Its range extends to North
Africa and India. Five other species of Oedicnemus from Africa

1 The name spowe (cf. Icelandic Spot) also seems to have been
anciently given to this bird (see Stevenson's Birds of Norfolk,
ii. 201).

have also been described as distinct. Australia possesses a very
distinct species (0. grallarius), and the genus has two members
in the Neotropical Region (0. bislrialus and 0. superciliaris) .
An exaggerated form of Oedicnemus is found in Aesacus, of which
two species have been described, one (A. recurvirostris)from the
Indian, and the other (A. magnirostris) from the northern parts
of the Australian region. (A. N.)

CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD (1811-1888), British surgeon,
was born in London in 1811. Through his uncle, Sir William
Blizard, he became assistant-surgeon to the London hospital in
1833, becoming full surgeon in 1849. After filling other im-
portant posts in the College of Surgeons, he was appointed
president in 1873. In 1843 he won the Jacksonian prize for his
investigations on tetanus; and he became famous for his skill
in treating diseases of the testes and rectum, his published works
on which went through many editions. He died on the 4th of
March 1888.

CURLING, a game in which the players throw large rounded
stones upon a rink or channel of ice, towards a mark called the
tee. Where the game originated is not precisely known; but it
has been popular in Scotland for three centuries at least. Some
writers, looking to the name and technical terms of the game,
trace its invention to the Netherlands; thus " curl " may have
been derived from the Ger. kurzweil, a game; 'tee" from the
Teutonic tighen, to point out; " bonspiel," a district curling
competition, from the Belgic bonne, a district, and spel, play;
the further supposition that " rink " is merely a modification of
the Saxon hrink, a strong man, seems scarcely tenable. Curling
is called " kuting " in some parts of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire,
and very much resembles quoiting on the ice, so that the name
may have some connexion with the Dutch coete, a quoit; while
Cornells Kiliaan (1528-1607) in his Teutonic Dictionary gives
the term khuyten as meaning a pastime in which large globes of
stone like the quoit or discus are thrown upon ice. Possibly
some of the Flemish merchants who settled in Scotland towards
the close of the 16th century may have brought the game to the
country. Unfortunately, however, for the theory that assigns
to it a far-away origin, we find no early mention of it in the
literature of the continent; while Camden, when describing the
Orkney Islands in 1607, tells us that one of them supplies " plenty
of excellent stones for the game called curling "; and incidental
references to it as a game played in Scotland are made by several
authors during the first half of the same century.

If the game be not indigenous to Scotland it certainly owes
its development to that country, and in the course of time it has
come to be the national sport. It was played at first with very
rude engines — random whin boulders fashioned by nature alone,
or misshapen granite blocks, bored through to let in the
thumb of the player, having been the primitive channel stones.
In course of years the rough block was superseded by a sym-
metrical object usually made of whinstone or granite, beautifully
rounded, brilliantly polished, and supplied with a convenient
handle.

Although curling boasts a literature of its own and songs in-
numerable, yet it has received but the scantiest notice from such
important Scottish writers as Scott and Burns, or from con-
temporary literature in general. In 1834 an " Amateur Curling
Club of Scotland " was formed, but this " mutual admiration
amateur society came to nothing, as might be expected." Far
more businesslike were the methods of the men who set afoot the
" Grand Caledonian Curling Club," which began its existence
on the 15th of November 1838, and which, under its present title
of " The Royal Caledonian Curling Club," is regarded in all parts
of the. world as the mother-club and legislative body, even in
Canada, where, however, curling conditions differ widely from
those of Scotland; devotion to the mother-club does not by any
means imply submission. Starting with 28 allied clubs the Royal
Club grew so rapidly that there were 500 such in 1880 and 720
in 1903. It was under the auspices of the Royal Caledonian that
a body of Scottish curlers visited Canada and the United States
in the winter of 1 902-1903, and, while a slight margin of victory
remained with the home players under their own climatic con-

646

CURLING

ditions, the visit did much to bring together the lovers of the
game on both sides of the Atlantic. The assumption of the title
" Royal " in place of " Grand " was due to the visit of Queen
Victoria and the prince consort to Scotland in 1842, on which
occasion they were initiated into the mysteries of the game on
the polished floor of the drawing-room in the Palace of Scone;
and the prince consort, who was presented with a pair of curling-
stones, consented to become patron of the club. On his death he
was succeeded by the prince of Wales, who, as Edward VII.,
still continued his patronage. The Club's main duties are to
further the interests of the game, to revise the laws and to arrange
the important matches, especially the grand match, played
annually between the Scottish clubs north of the Forth & Clyde
Canal and those south of it. In the first of these matches (1847)
only twelve " rinks " were played; in 1903 there were no fewer
than 286. During this time the southern clubs were usually
victorious. Curlers claim to be a united brotherhood within
which peer and peasant are equal " on the ice." To the same end
the laws of the club are framed with a due regard to economy,
not forgetting conviviality in the matter of " beef and greens,"
the curler's traditional dish, washed down with whisky. A
formal freemasonry exists among curlers, who must be initiated
into the mysteries and instructed in the grip, password and
ceremony, being liable at any moment to be examined in these
essentials and fined for lapses of memory. Betting, excepting
for the smallest stakes, is discountenanced.

- Glossary. — As curling has a language which contains many curious
terms, puzzling to the uninitiated, the English equivalents of some
of them are here given. Baugh ice, rough or soft ice. Bias, a slope
on the ice. Boardhead (also house or parish), the large circle round
the tee. Bonspiel, a match between two clubs. Break an egg on a
stone, touch it very slightly. Broughs, the small circles round the
tee. Chipping, striking a stone of which a small part can be seen.
Core, old name for rink. Cowe or kowe, a besom made of broom-
twigs. Draw, to play gently. Drive, to play hard. Drug ice, soft
bad ice. Fill the port, to block the interval between two stones.
Gogsee, tee. Guard, a stone that covers and protects another.
Hack, a hollow cut in the ice for the player's foot, used in place of a
crampit. Hands up! stop sweeping. Hog, a stone that stops short
of the hog-score, a line drawn one-sixth of the length of the rink from
the tee. Head, an innings, both sides delivering all their stones once.
Howe, the middle of the rink, gradually hollowed by stones. In-
ringing, gaining a good position by rebounding off another stone.
In-wick, the same. Lie shot, the stone resting nearest the tee.
Mar, to interfere with a stone while running. Out-Turn, to make the
stone twist to the left. In-Turn, to make one turn to the right.
Out-wick, to strike a stone on the edge so as to drive it towards the
tee. Pat-lid, a stone that lies on the tee. Pittycock, the oldest form
of curling-stone. Raise, to drive a " friendly " stone nearer the tee.
Rebut, to deliver the stone with great force, so as to scatter the stones
on the boardhead. Red the ice, clear away the opponents' stones.
Rink, the space in which the game is played ; also the members of a
side. Sole, the under part of the stone; also to deliver the stone.
Soop, to sweep. Souter, to win without allowing the opponents to
score at all ; a term derived from a famous team of cobblers (souters)
of Lochmaben, whose opponents seldom or never scored a point.
Spiel, a match between members of the same club. Spend the stone,
to waste a shot by playing wide intentionally. Slug, a fluke. Tee,
the mark in the centre of the boardhead, against which it is the curler's
object to lay the stone. The tee may be any kind of a mark ; a small
iron plate with a spike in it is often used. Tozee, tee. Tramp,
crampit, trigger or tricker, an iron plate fitted with spikes which the
player stands upon to deliver the stone. Wittyr, tee.

The Rink and Implements. — The rink is marked out in the ice,
which should be very hard and smooth, in curling language
" keen and clear." To keep it swept every curler carries a broom,
sometimes a mere bundle of broom-twigs, more often an ordinary
housemaid's broom. Good " sooping," or sweeping, is part of
the curler's art, and is performed subject to strict rules and under
the direction of the skip, or captain; its importance lying in the
fact that the progress of a stone is retarded by the ice-dust caused
by the play, the sweeping of which in front of a running stone
consequently prolongs its course. Apart from the broom and
the crampit, the " roarin' game," as curlers love to call it,
requires no further implement than the stone, a flattened,
polished disk, fitted with a handle. In weight it must not
exceed 44 lb, 35 to 40 lb being usual. It must not exceed 36 in.
in circumference or be less in height than one-eighth of the
circumference. The two flat sides, or soles, are so shaped that

one is serviceable for keen ice and the other for ice that is soft,
rough or " baugh." The handle can be fitted to either side, as
the case demands. The cost of a pair of stones is not less than
£2, generally more. In the intense cold of Canada and the United
States iron is found more serviceable than stone, and the irons
weigh from 60 to 70 lb. Even these are light compared with the
earlier rough boulder-stones, some of which weighed over 115 lb,
although the very early ones were much lighter. The modern
stone took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. The
ancient stones had no handles, but notches were hewn in
them for finger and thumb, and, as their weight varied from
5 to 25 lb, it is probable that they were thrown after the
manner of quoits. Channel-stones, stones rounded by the
action of water in a river-bed, were the favourites, while the shape
was a matter of individual taste, oblong and triangular stones
having been common. The soles were artificially flattened.
During the next period we find the heavy boulder-stones, un-
hewn blocks fitted with handles and probably used at shorter
distances, 70 or 80 lb being no uncommon weight. The rounded
stone, made on scientific principles, did not appear until about
1800. Even then it was of all shapes and sizes, with and without
handles, and not uncommonly made of wood. The stones of
to-day are named after the places in which they are quarried,
Ailsa Craigs, Burnocks, Carsphairn Reds and Crawfordjohns
being some of the best-known varieties. The stones are quarried
and never blasted, as the shock of the explosion is apt to strain
or split the rock.

The Game. — Curling is practically bowls played on the ice,
the place of the " jack " being taken by a fixed mark, as at
quoits, called the tee, to which the curler aims his stone; every
stone that finally lies nearer than any of the opposing stones
counting a point or " shot." As each side has four players, each
playing two stones, it is possible for one side to score eight points
at a " head " or innings; but in practice it is found wiser, when
a good shot has been made, to play some or all following stones
to such positions as will prevent opposing stones from disturbing
the stone lying near the tee. Stones thus placed are called
" guards." Strategic matters like this are decided by the skip,
or captain, of the rink, who plays last, and who is an autocrat
whose will is law. The " lead," or first player, is expected to
play quietly up the rink, leaving his stone as close to the tee as
possible, but on no account beyond it. He is followed by the
" lead " of the other side, who, instructed by his skip, will either
try to drive away the first stone, if well placed, or put his own
stone in a better position. When the skip's turn comes he is
" skipped," or directed, by another player, appointed by himself,
usually the third player. When all sixteen stones have been
delivered the players cross over, the scores are counted, and the
game proceeds from the other end of the rink. If a stone fails
to cross the "hog-score" it is a "hog" and is removed from
the rink, unless it has struck another stone in position. Stones
that pass the back- score or touch the swept snow on either side
are also removed. By a cleverly imparted twist a stone may be
made to curve round a guard and either drive away an opposing
winner or find a favourable lie for itself. This, the equivalent
of " bias " in the game of bowls, is the height of scientific play.
If the situation seems desperate a very hard throw, a " thunderin'
cast," may succeed in clearing away the opponents' stones from
the neighbourhood of the tee. Different methods are adopted
in delivering the stone, but in all of them a firm stand should
be taken on the crampit, and the stone swung, either quietly , or,
if the skip calls for a " thunderin' cast," vigorously; but care
must be taken to avoid striking the ice with the stone so as to
crack or " star " the ice. All matches are for a certain number
of " heads " or of points, or for all that can be made within a
certain time limit, as may be agreed.

Abridged Rules. — Tees shall be 38 yds. apart, and with the tee as
centre a circle having a radius of 7 ft. shall be drawn. In alignment
with the tees, lines, to be called Central Lines, are drawn from the tees
to points 4 yds. behind each tee, and at these points Foot Scores
18 in. long shall be drawn at right angles, on which, at 6 in. from
Central Line, the heel of the Crampit shall be placed. All matches
shall be of a certain number of heads, or shots, or by time, as agreed.

CURLL— CURRAN

647

Every rink of players shall be composed of four a side. No shoes
likely to break the ice may be worn.

The skips opposing each other shall settle by lot, or in any other
way they may agree upon, which party shall lead at the first head,
after which the winning party shall do so.

All curling stones shall be of a circular shape, fto stone shall be
of a greater weight than 44 lb imperial, or of greater circumference
than 36 in., or of less height than one-eighth part of its greatest
circumference.

No stone, or side of a stone, shall be changed after a match has
been begun, or during its continuance, unless by consent.

Should a stone happen to be broken, the largest fragment shall be
considered in the game for that end — the player being entitled after-
wards to use another stone or another pair.

If a played stone rolls over, or stops, on its side or top, it shall
be put off the ice. Should the handle quit the stone in delivery,
the player must keep hold of it, otherwise he shall not be entitled to
replay the shot.

Players, during the course of each end, to be arranged along the
sides of the rink, anywhere skips may direct ; and no party, except
when sweeping according to rule, shall go upon the middle of the
rink, or cross it, under any pretence whatever. Skips alone to stand
at or about the tee — that of the playing party having the choice of
place, and not to be obstructed by the other.

If a player should play out of turn, the stone so played may
be stopped in its progress, and returned to the player. Should the
mistake not be discovered till the stone be at rest, or has struck
another stone, the opposite skip shall have the option of adding
one to his score, allowing the game to proceed, or declaring the
end null and void. But if a stone be played before the mistake has
been discovered, the head must be finished as if it had been properly
played from the beginning.

The sweeping shall be under the direction and control of the
skips. The player's party may sweep the ice anywhere from the
centre line to the tee, and behind it, — the adverse party having
liberty to sweep behind the tee, and in front of any of their own
stones when moved by another, and till at rest. Skips to have full
liberty to clean and sweep the ice behind the tee at any time, except
when a player is being directed by his skip.

If in sweeping or otherwise, a running stone be marred by any
of the party to which it belongs, it may, at the option of the opposite
skip, be put off the ice; if by any of the adverse party, it may be
placed where the skip of the party to which it belongs shall direct.
If otherwise marred, it shall be replayed.

Every player to be ready to play when his turn comes, and not
to take more than a reasonable time to play. Should he play a
wrong stone, any of the players may stop it while running; but if
not stopped till at rest, the one which ought to have been played
shall be placed instead, to the satisfaction of the opposing skip.

No measuring of shots allowable previous to the termination
of the end. Disputed shots to be determined by the skips, or, if
they disagree, by the umpire, or, when there is no umpire, by some
neutral person chosen by the skips. All measurements to be taken
from the centre of the tee, to that part of the stone which is nearest
it. No stone shall be considered without a circle, or over a line,
unless it clear it; — and in every case, this is to be determined by
placing a square on the ice, at the circle or line.

Skips shall have the exclusive regulation and direction of the
game for their respective parties, and may play last stone, or in
what part of it they please ; and, when their turn to play comes, they
may name one of their party to take charge for them.

If any player shall speak to, taunt or interrupt another, not
being of his own party, while in the act of delivering his stone, one
shot shall be added to the score of the party so interrupted.

If from any change of weather after a match has been begun,
or from any other reasonable cause, one party shall desire to shorten
the rink, or to change to another one, and, if the two skips cannot
agree, the umpire shall, after seeing one end played, determine
whether the rink shall be shortened, and how much or whether it
shall be changed, and his decision shall be final.

See Annual of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, Edinburgh.

CURLL, EDMUND (1675-1747), English bookseller, was born
in 1675 in the west of England. His parents were in humble
circumstances. After being apprenticed to an Exeter bookseller
he came to London and started business on his own account,
advertising himself by a system of newspaper quarrels. His
connexion with the anonymously-published Court Poems in 17 16
led to the long quarrel with Pope, who took his revenge by
immortalizing Curll in the Dunciad. Curll became notorious
for his indecent publications, so much so that " Curlicism " was
regarded as a synonym for literary indecency. In 1 716 and again
in 1721 he had to appear at the bar of the House of Lords for
publishing matter concerning its members. In 1725 he was con-
victed of publishing obscene books, and fined in 17 28for publishing
The Nun in her Smock and Be Usu Flagrorum, while his Memories

of John Ker of Kersland cost him an hour in the pillory. When
Curll in 1735 announced the forthcoming publication of "Mr
Pope's Literary Correspondence," his stock, at Pope's instigation,
was seized. It hassince been proved thatthepublication wasreally
instigated by Pope, who wanted an excuse to print his letters,
as he actually did (173 7-1 741). Inhisfortyyearsof business Curll
published a great variety of books, of which a very large number,
fortunately, were quite free from " Curlicisms." A list of his
publications contains, indeed, 167 standard wwrks. He died
on the nth of December 1747.

For Curll's relations with Pope, see the Life of Pope, by Sir Leslie
Stephen in the English Men of Letters series.

CURRAGH, a level stretch of open ground in Co. Kildare,
Ireland, famous for its race-course and its military camp. It
has an area of upwards of 4800 acres; and its soft natural
sward, which has never been broken by the plough, affords
excellent pasture for sheep. From the peculiarity of its herbage,
the district is known in the neighbourhood as " the short grass ";
and the young men of Kildare are jocularly distinguished as
the " boys of the short grass." The land is the property of the
crown, which appoints a special officer as the ranger of the
Curragh; but the right of pasturage is possessed by the land-
owners of the vicinity. The oldest mention of the Curragh
occurs in the Liber Hymnorum (the manuscript of which probably
dates from the 10th century) in connexion with St Bridget,
who is said to have received a grant of the district from the king
of Leinster, and is popularly credited with the honour of having
turned it into a common. It is evident, however, that long before
the days of the saint the downs of Kildare had afforded a regular
place of assembly for the people of the south of Ireland. The
word cuirrech, cognate with the Lat. cursus, signifies a race-
course, and chariot-races are spoken of as taking place on the
Curragh as early as 'the 1st century a.d. The Aenach Colmain
(Curragh fair), also called Aenach Life (the fair on the plain of
the Liffey), is frequently mentioned in the Irish annals, and both
racing and other sports were carried on at this, the principal
meeting of its kind in southern Ireland, and the plain appears
from time to time as the scene of hostile encounters between the
kings of Meath, Leinster and Offaly. In 1234 the earl of Pem-
broke was defeated here by the viceroy of Ireland, Lord Geoffrey
de Monte Marisco; and in 1406 the Irish under the prior of
Connell were routed by the English. In 1789 the Curragh was
the great rendezvous for the volunteers, and in 1804 it saw the
gathering of 30,000 United Irishmen. The camp was established
at the time of the Crimean War, and is capable of accommodating
12,000 men. The races are held in April, June, September and
October.

See W. M. Hennessy, in Proceedings of Royal Irish Acad., 1866.

CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT (1750-1817), Irish politician and
judge, was born on the 24th of July 1750, at Newmarket, Cork,
where his father, a descendant of one of Cromwell's soldiers,
was seneschal to the manor-court. He was educated at Middle-
ton, through the kind help of a friend, the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse,
and at Trinity College, Dublin; and in 1773, having taken his
M. A. degree, he entered the Middle Temple. In 1 774 he married
a lady who brought him a small dowry; but the marriage proved
unhappy, and Mrs Curran finally eloped from her husband.

In 1775 Curran was called to the Irish bar, where he very soon
obtained a practice. On his first rising in court excessive nervous-
ness prevented him from even reading distinctly the few words
of a legal form, and when requested by the judge. to read more
clearly he became so agitated as to be totally unable to proceed.
But, his feelings once roused, all nervousness disappeared.
His effective and witty attack upon a judge who had sneered at
his poverty, the success with which he prosecuted a nobleman for
a disgraceful assault upon a priest, the duel which he fought
with one of the witnesses for this nobleman, and other similar
exploits, gained him such a reputation that he was soon the most
popular advocate in Ireland.

In 1783 Curran was appointed king's counsel; and in the same
year he was presented to a seat in the Irish House of Commons.
His conduct in connexion with this affair displays his conduct

648

CURRANT— CURRICLE

in a most honourable light; finding that he differed radically in
politics from the gentleman from whom he had received his seat,
he expended £1500 in buying another to replace that which he
Occupied. In his parliamentary career Curran was throughout
sincere and consistent. He spoke vigorously on behalf of
Catholic emancipation, and strenuously attacked the ministerial
bribery which prevailed. His declamations against the govern-
ment party led him into two duels — the first with John Fitz-
gibbon, then attorney-general, afterwards Lord Clare; the
second with tne secretary of state, Major Hobart, afterwards
earl of Buckinghamshire. The Union caused him the bitterest
disappointment; he even talked of leaving Ireland, either for
America or for England.

Curran's fame rests most of all upon his speeches on behalf
of the accused in the state trials that were so numerous between
1794 and '1803; and among them may be mentioned those
in defence of Hamilton Rowan, the Rev. William Jackson, the
brothers John and Henry Sheares, Peter Finnerty, Lord Edward
Fitzgerald, Wolfe Tone and Owen Kirwan. Another of his
most famous and characteristic speeches is that against the
marquis of Headfort, who had eloped with the wife of a clergyman
named Massey. On the arrest of Robert Emmet, who had formed
an attachment to his daughter, Curran was himself under
suspicion; but, on examination before the privy council, nothing
was brought forward to implicate him in the intended rebellion.

In 1806, on the death of Pitt and the formation of the Fox
ministry, Curran received the post of master of the rolls, with a
seat in the privy council, much to his disappointment, for he
had desired a position of greater political influence. For eight
years, however, he held this office. He then retired on a pension
of £3000 ; and the three remaining years of his life were spent
in London, where he became one of the most brilliant members
of the society which included Sheridan, Erskine, Thomas Moore,
and William Godwin. He died at his house in Brompton on
the 14th of October 1817.

Curran's legal erudition was never profound; and though he
was capable of the most ingenious pleading, his appeal was
always to the emotions of his audience. His best speeches are
one fiery torrent of invective, pathos, national feeling and wit.
His diction was lofty and sonorous. He was, too, a most brilliant
wit and of wonderful quickness in repartee. To his personal
presence he owed nothing; for he was short, slim and boyish-
looking, and his voice was thin and shrill.

See Curran and his Contemporaries, a most entertaining work, by
Charles Phillips, a personal friend of Curran's (1818), and the Life
of Curran, by his son, W. H. Curran (1810), and with additions by
Dr Shelton Mackenzie, New York, 1855), both of which contain
numerous samples of Curran's eloquence. See also Curran's Speeches
(1805, 1808, 1845); Memoirs of Curran, by Wm. O'Regan (1817);
Letters to Rev. H. Weston (1819); T. Moore's Memoirs (1853).

CURRANT. (1) The dried seedless fruit of a variety of the
grape-vine, Vitis vinifera, cultivated principally in Zante,
Cephalonia and Ithaca, and near Patras, in the Morea (see
Greece). Currants were brought originally from Corinth,
whence their name; in the 13th and 14th centuries they were
known as raisins de Corauntz. In the Ionian Islands the currant-
vine is grown on the sides of the lower hills, or in the valleys,
the grape-vine occupying the higher and less open and rich
ground. Gypseous marls, or calcareous marls containing a
little gypsum, are preferred to limestone soils, as they allow of
deep penetration of the roots of the vines. The most favourable
situations are-those where a good supply of water can be obtained
for the irrigation of the plantations. This is carried on from the
end of October to the close of the year, after which all that is
necessary is to keep the ground moist. The vines are planted in
rows 3 or 4 ft. apart. Propagation is effected by grafting on
stocks of the grape-vine, or by planting out in spring the young,
vigorous shoots obtained at the end of the previous year from
old currant-vines that have been cut away below the ground.
The grafts bear fruit in three years, the slips in about double
that time. The vine stock for grafting is cut down to the depth
of a foot below the surface of the soil; two or three perpendicular
incisions are made near the bark with a chisel; and into these

are inserted shoots of the last year's growth. The engrafted part
then receives an application of moist marls, is wrapped in leaves
and bound with rushes, and is covered with earth, two or three
eyes of the sioots being left projecting above ground. In
December the currant plantations are cleared of dead and weak
wood. In February the branches are cut back, and pruned
of median shoots, which are said to prevent the lateral ones pro-
ceeding from the same bud from bearing fruit. In order effectu-
ally to water the trees, the earth round about them is in February
and March hoed up so as to leave them in a kind of basin, or is
piled up against their stems. In March, when the leaves begin
to show, the ground is thoroughly turned, and if requisite
manured, and is then re-levelled. By the middle of April the
leaves are fully out, and in June it is necessary to break back
the newly-formed shoots. The fruit begins to ripen in July,
and in the next month the vintage takes place. At this season
rain is greatly dreaded, as it always damages and may even
destroy the ripe fruit. The plantations, which are commonly
much exposed, are watched by dogs and armed men. In Cepha-
lonia the currant-grape is said to ripen at least a week earlier
than in Zante. To destroy the oidium, a fungal pest that severely
injures the plantations, the vines are dusted, at the time the fruit
is maturing, with finely-ground brimstone. The currants when
sufficiently ripe are gathered and placed on a drying ground,
where they are exposed to the sun in layers half an inch thick;
from time to time they are turned and swept into heaps, until they
become entirely detached from stalk. They are then packed
in large butts for exportation. The wine made from the currant-
grape is inferior in quality, but is said to be capable of much
improvement. The fresh fruit is luscious and highly flavoured,
but soon cloys the palate.

(2) The currants of British kitchen-gardens — so called from
a resemblance to the foregoing — are the produce of Ribes nigrum
and R. rubrum, deciduous shrubs of the natural order Ribesiaceae,
indigenous to Britain, northern and central Europe, Siberia and
Canada. The former species bears the black, the latter the red
currant. White currants are the fruit of a cultivated variety
of R. rubrum. Both red and black currants are used for making
tarts and pies, jams, jellies and wine; the latter are also employed
in lozenges, popularly supposed to be of value in relieving a
sore throat, are occasionally preserved in spirits, and in Russia
are fermented with honey to produce a strong liquor.

Currants will flourish in any fairly good soil, but to obtain
large crops and fine fruit a good rich loam is desirable; with an
annual dressing of farmyard manure or cowdung, after the winter
pruning, for established trees. The plants are best propagated
by cuttings, which should consist of strong well-ripened young
shoots taken off close to the old wood. These should be planted
as soon as possible after the wood is matured in autumn about
6 in. apart. The plants are grown with the best results as bushes,
but may also be trained against a wall or trellis. In the matter
of pruning it must be borne in mind that red and white currants
form their fruit buds on wood two to three years old, and the
main shoots and side branches may therefore be cut back. Black
currants on the other hand form fruit buds on the new wood of the
previous year, hence the old wood should be cut away and the
young left.

The black currant is subject to the attacks of a mite,
Phytoptus ribis, which destroys the unopened buds. The buds,
when attacked, recognized by their swollen appearance, should
be picked off and burned. The attacks of the caterpillars of
the gooseberry and other moths may be met by dusting the
bushes with lime and soot when the plants are moist with dew
or after syringing.

The following forms are recommended for cultivation: —
Black: Lee's Prolific, Baldwin's or Carter's Champion and
Black Naples; Red: Cherry, Raby Castle, Red Dutch and
Comet; White: White Dutch. A kind of black currant (Ribes
magellanicum) , bearing poor and acid fruit, is indigenous to
Tierra del Fuego.

CURRICLE (Lat. curriculum, a small car), a light two-wheeled
vehicle, generally for driving with two horses.

CURRIE, SIR DONALD— CURSOR

649

CURRIE, SIR DONALD (1825-1909), British shipowner,
was born at Greenock on the 17th of September 1825. At a
very early age he was employed in the office of a shipowner in
that port, but at the age of eighteen left Scotland for Liverpool,
where shipping business offered more scope. By a fortunate
chance he attracted the notice of the chief partner in the newly
started Cunard steamship line, who found him a post in that
company. In 1849 the Cunard Company started a service
between Havre and Liverpool to connect with their transatlantic
service. Currie was appointed Cunard agent at Havre and Paris,
and secured for his firm a large share of the freight traffic between
France and the United States. About 1856 he returned to Liver-
poo), where till 1862 he held an important position at the Cunard
Company's headquarters. In 1862 he determined to strike out
for himself, and leaving the Cunard established the " Castle "
line of sailing-ships between Liverpool and Calcutta. Business
prospered, but in 1864 Currie found it profitable to substitute
London for Liverpool as the home port of his vessels, and himself
settled in London. In 1872 he came to the conclusion, after a
careful study of all the circumstances, that the development of
Cape Colony justified the starting of a new line of steamers
between England and South Africa. The result of this decision
was the founding of the successful Castle line of steamers (see
under Steamship Lines), which after 1876 divided the South
African mail contract with the older Union line, and was finally
amalgamated with the latter under the title Union Castle line
in 1900. Currie's intimate knowledge of South African condi-
tions and persons was on several occasions of material service to
the British government. His acquaintance with Sir John Brand,
the president of what was then the Orange Free State, caused him
to be entrusted by the home government with the negotiations
in the dispute concerning the ownership of the Kimberley
diamond-fields, which were brought to a successful conclusion.
He introduced the two Transvaal deputations which came to
England in 1877 and 1878 to protest against annexation, and
though his suggestions for a settlement were disregarded by the
government of the day, the terms on which the Transvaal was
subsequently restored to the Boers agreed, in essentials, with
those he had advised. The first news of the disaster of Isandhl-
wana in the Zulu War was given to the home government through
his agency. At that time there was no cable between England
and South Africa, and the news was sent by a Castle liner to
St Vincent, and telegraphed thence to Currie. At the same
time by diverting his outward mail-boat then at sea from its
ordinary course to St Vincent, he enabled the government to
telegraph immediate instructions to that island for conveyance
thence by the mail, thus saving serious delay, and preventing the
annihilation of the British garrison at Eshowe. The present
arrangement under which the British admiralty is enabled to
utilize certain fast steamers of the mercantile marine as armed
cruisers in war-time was suggested and strongly urged by Currie
in 1880. In the same year he was returned to parliament as
Liberal member for Perthshire, but, though a strong personal
friend of W.E. Gladstone, he was unable to follow that statesman
on the Home Rule question, and from 1 88 5 to 1 900 he represented
West Perthshire as a Unionist. In 188 1 his services in connexion
with the Zulu War were rewarded with knighthood, and in 1897
he was created G.C.M.G. He died at Sidmouth on the 13th of
April 1909.

CURRIE, JAMES (1756-1805), Scottish physician and editor
of Burns, son of the minister of Kirkpatrick-Fleming, in Dumfries-
shire, was born there on the 31st of May 1756. Attracted by
the stories of prosperity in America he went in 1771 to Virginia,
where he spent five hard years, much of the time ill and always
in unprofitable commercial business. The outbreak of war be-
tween the Colonies and England ended any further chance of
success, and sailing for home in the spring of 1776 after many
delays he reached England a year later. He then proceeded to
study medicine at Edinburgh, and after taking his degree at
Glasgow he settled at Liverpool in 1780, where three years later
he became physician to the infirmary. He died at Sidmouth
on the 31st of August 1805. Among other pamphlets Currie

was the author of Medical Reports on the Effects of Water, Cold
and Warm, as a Remedy in Fevers and Febrile Diseases (1797),
which had some influence in promoting the use of cold water
affusion, and contains the first systematic record in English
of clinical observations with the thermometer. But he is
best known for his edition (1800), long regarded as the
standard, of Robert Burns, which he undertook in behalf of
the family of the poet. It contained an introductory criticism
and an essay on the character and condition of the Scottish
peasantry.

See the Memoir by W. W. Currie, his son (1831).

CURRY. (1) (Through the O. Fr. correier, from Late Lat.
conredare, to make ready, prepare; a later form of the French
is courroyer, and modern French is corroyer), to dress a horse by
rubbing down and grooming with a comb; to dress and prepare
leather already tanned. The currier pares off roughnesses and
inequalities, makes the leather soft and pliable, and gives it the
necessary surface and colour (see Leather) . The word " currier,"
though early confused in origin with " to curry," is derived from
the Late Lat. coriarius, a leather dresser, from corium, hide.
The phrase " to curry favour," to flatter or cajole, is a 16th
century corruption of " to curry favel," i.e. a chestnut horse.
This older phrase is an adaptation of an Old French proverbial
expression estriller fauvel, and is paralleled in German by the
similar den fahlen Hengst streichen. A chestnut or fallow horse
seems to have been taken as typical of deceit and trickery, at
least since the appearance of a French satirical beast romarfce
the Roman de fauvel (1310), the hero of which is a counterpart of
Reynard the Fox (q.v.).

(2) A name applied to a great variety of seasoned dishes,
especially those of Indian origin. The word is derived from the
Tamil kari, a sauce or relish for rice. In the East, where the
staple food of the people consists of a dish of rice, wh eaten cakes,
or some other cereal, some kind of relish is required to lend
attraction to this insipid food; and that is the special office of
curry. In India the following are employed as ingredients in
curries: anise, coriander, cumin, mustard and poppy seeds;
allspice, almonds, assafoetida, butter or ghee, cardamoms,
chillies, cinnamon, cloves, cocoa-nut and cocoanut milk and
oil, cream and curds, fenugreek, the tender unripe fruit of
Buchanania lancifolia, cheroonjie nuts (the produce of another
species, B. lalifolia), garlic and onions, ginger, lime-juice,
vinegar, the leaves of Bergera Koenigii (the curry-leaf tree),
mace, mangoes, nutmeg, pepper, saffron, salt, tamarinds and
turmeric.

The cumin and coriander seeds are generally used roasted.
The various materials are cleaned, dried, ground, sifted,
thoroughly mixed and bottled. In the East the spices are ground
freshly every day, which gives the Indian curry its superiority
in flavour over dishes prepared with the curry-powders of the
European market.

CURSOR, LUCIUS PAPIRIUS, Roman general, five times
consul and twice dictator. In 325 he was appointed dictator to
carry on the second Samnite War. His quarrel with Q. Fabius
Maximus Rullianus, his magister equitum, is well known. The
latter had engaged the enemy against the orders of Cursor, by
whom he was condemned to death, and only the intercession of
his father, the senate and the people, saved his life. Cursor
treated his soldiers with such harshness that they allowed
themselves to be defeated; but after he had regained their
good-will by more lenient treatment and lavish promises of booty,
they fought with enthusiasm and gained a complete victory.
After the disaster of the Caudine Forks, Cursor to some extent
wiped out the disgrace by compelling Luceria (which had re-
volted) to surrender. He delivered the Roman hostages who
were held in captivity in the town, recovered the standards
lost at Caudium, and made 7000 of the enemy pass under the
yoke. In 309, when the Samnites again rose, Cursor was
appointed dictator for the second time, and gained a decisive
victory at Longula, in honour of which he celebrated a magnifi-
cent triumph. Cursor's strictness was proverbial; he was
a man of immense bodily strength, while his bravery was

650

CURSOR MUNDI— -CURTEA DE ARGESH

beyond dispute. He was surnamed Cursor from his swiftness
of foot.

Livy viii., ix. ; Aurelius Victor, De viris illustribus, 31; Eutro-
pius ii. 8. 9. .

His son of the same name, also a distinguished general, com-
pleted the subjection of Samnium (272). He set up a sun-dial,
the first of its kind in Rome, in the temple of Quirinus.

Livy x. 39-47; Pliny, Nat. Hist., vii. 60. t

CURSOR MUNDI, an English poem in the Northern
dialect dating from the 13th century. It is a religious epic of
24,000 lines " over-running " the history of the world as related
in the Old and New Testaments. " Cursur o werld man aght
it call, For almast it over-rennes all." The author explains in
his prologue his reasons for undertaking the work. Men desire
to read old romances of Alexander, Julius Caesar, Greece, Troy,
Brut, Arthur, of Tristram, Sweet Ysoude and others. But better
than tales of love is the story of the Virgin who is man's best
lover, therefore in her honour he will write this book, founded on
the steadfast ground of the Holy Trinity. He writes in English
for the love of English people of merry England, so that those
who know no French may understand. The history is treated
under seven ages. The first four include the period from the
creation of the world to the successors of Solomon, the fifth deals
with Mary and the birth and childhood of Jesus, the sixth with
the lives of Christ and the chief apostles, and with the finding
of the holy cross, and the seventh with Doomsday. Four short
pOems follow, more in some MSS. The bulk of the poem is
written in rhyming couplets of short lines of four accents, and
maintains a fair level throughout. The narrative is enlivened
by many legends and much entertaining matter drawn from
various sources; and the numerous transcripts of it prove that
it was able to hold its own against profane romance.

The chief sources of the compilation have been identified by
Dr Haenisch. For the Old Testament history the author draws
largely from the Historia scholastica of Peter Comestor; for
the history of the Virgin he often translates literally from
Wace's Etablissement de la fete de la conception Notre Dame;
the parables of the king and four daughters, and of the castle of
Love and Grace, are taken from " Sent Robert bok " (1.9516),
that is, from the Chasteau d' Amour of Robert Grosseteste, bishop
of Lincoln; other sources are the apocryphal gospels of Matthew
and Nicodemus, a southern English poem on the Assumption
of Our Lady, attributed by the writer of Cursor mundi to
Edmund Rich of Pontigny, the Vulgate, the Legenda aurea
of Jacobus de Voragine, and the De vita et morte sanctorum
of Isidore of Seville. The original of the section on the in-
vention of the holy cross is still to seek. In its general plan
the work is similar to the Livre de sapience of Herman de
Valenciennes.

Of the author nothing is known. In the Cotton MS. Vespasian
(A III.) the name of the owner William Cosyn is given (for
particulars of this family, which is mentioned in Lincolnshire
records as early as 1276, see Dr H. Hupe in the E.E.T.S. ed.
of Cursor mundi, vol. i. p. 124*). The date of the book was
placed by Dr J. A.H. Murray ( The Dialect of the Southern Counties
of Scotland, 1873, p. 30) in the last quarter of the 13th century,
and the place of writing near Durham. Dr Hupe (loc. cit. p. 186 *)
gives good reasons for believing that the author was a Lincoln-
shire man, who wrote between 1260 and 1290, although the Cotton
MS. probably belongs to the late 14th century. In the Gbttingen
MS. there are lines (17099-17110) desiring the reader to pray
for John of Lindbergh, " that this bock gart dight," and cursing
anybody who shall steal it. Lindberg is probably Limber Magna,
near Ulceby, in north Lincolnshire. Dr Hupe hazards an
identification of the author with this John of Lindberg, who may
have been a member of the Cistercian Abbey of Lindberg; but
this is improbable.

Cursor mundi was edited for the Early English Text Society in
1874-1893 by Dr Richard Morris in parallel columns from four
MSS. : — Cotton Vespasian A III., British Museum; Fairfax MS. 14,
in the Bodleian library, Oxford; MS.-theol. 107 at Gottingen; and
MS. R. 3.8 in Trinity College, Cambridge. The edition includes a
" Preface " by the editor, " An Inquiry into the Sources of the Cursor

mundi " (1885), by Dr Haenisch, an essay " On the Filiation and the
Text of the MSS. of Cursor mundi " (1885), by Dr H. Hupe, " Cursor
Studies and Criticisms on the Dialects of its MSS." (1888), by Dr
Hupe and a glossary by Dr Max Kaluza.

CURTAIN, a screen of any textile material, running by means
of rings fixed to a rod or pole. Curtains are now used chiefly to
cover windows and doors, but for many centuries every bed of
importance was surrounded by them, and sometimes, as in France,
the space thus screened off was much larger than the actual bed
and was called the ruelle. The curtain is very ancient — indeed the
absence of glass and ill-fitting windows long made it a necessity.
Originally single curtains were used; it would appear that it
was not until the 17th century that they were employed in pairs.
Curtains are made in an infinite variety of materials and styles;
when placed over a door they are usually called portieres. In
fortification the " curtain " is that part of the enceinte which
lies between two bastions, towers, gates, &c.

The word comes into English through the O. Fr. cortine or
courtine from the Late Lat. cortina. According to Du Cange
(Clossarium, s.v. " Cortis ") this is a diminutive of corlis, an
enclosed space, a court. It is used in the various senses of the
English " curtain." Classical Latin had also a word cortina,
meaning a caldron or round kettle. It was very rarely applied
to round objects generally. In the Vulgate cortina is used of the
curtains of the tabernacle (Exodus xxvi). There is some
difficulty in connecting the classical and the Late Latin words.
The earliest use in English is, according to the New English
Dictionary, for the hangings of a bed.

CURTANA (a latinized form of the A.-Fr. curtein, from Lat.
curtus, shortened), the pointless sword of mercy, known also as
Edward the Confessor's sword, borne at the coronation of the
kings of England between the two pointed swords of temporal
and spiritual justice (see Regalia). ,_,_

CURTEA DE ARGESH (Rumanian, Curtea de Arges; also
written Curtea d' Argesh, Curtea d'Ardges, Argish and Ardjish),
the capital of the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated
on the right bank of the river Argesh, where it flows through
a valley of the lower Carpathians; and on the railway from
Pitesci to the Rothenthurm Pass. Pop. (1900) 4210. The city
is one of the oldest in Rumania. According to tradition it was
founded early in the 14th century by Prince Radu Negru,
succeeding Campulung as capital of Walachia. Hence its name
Curtea, " the court." It contains a few antique churches, and
was created a bishopric at the close of the 18th century.

The cathedral of Curtea de Argesh, by far the most famous
building in Rumania, stands in the grounds of a monastery,
1 5 m. N. of the city. It resembles a very large and elaborate
mausoleum, built in Byzantine style, with Moorish arabesques.
In shape it is oblong, with a many-sided annexe at the back.
In the centre rises a dome, fronted by two smaller cupolas;
while a secondary dome, broader and loftier than the central
one, springs from the annexe. Each summit is crowned by an
inverted pear-shaped stone, bearing a triple cross, emblematic
of the Trinity. The windows are mere slits; those of the tam-
bours, or cylinders, on which the cupolas rest, are curved, and
slant at an angle of 70°, as though the tambours were leaning
to one side. Between the pediment and the cornice a thick
corded moulding is carried round the main building. Above
this comes a row of circular shields, adorned with intricate
arabesques, while bands and wreaths of lilies are everywhere
scupltured on the windows, balconies, tambours and cornices,
adding lightness to the fabric. The whole is raised on a platform
7 ft. high, and encircled by a stone balustrade. Facing the main
entrance is a small open shrine, consisting of a cornice and
dome upheld by four pillars. The cathedral is faced with pale
grey limestone, easily chiselled, but hardening on exposure.
The interior is of brick, plastered and decorated with frescoes.
Close by stands a large royal palace, Moorish in style. The
archives of the cathedral were plundered by Magyars and
Moslems, but several inscriptions, Greek, Slav and Ruman, are
left. One tablet records that the founder was Prince Neagoe
Bassarab (1512-1521); another that Prince John Radu

CURTESY— CURTIS, G. T.

651

completed the work in 1526. A third describes the repairs exe-
cuted in 1681 by Prince Sherban Cantacuzino; a fourth, the
restoration, in 1804, by Joseph, the first bishop. Between 1875
and 1885 the cathedral was reconstructed; and in 1886 it was re-
consecrated. Its legends have inspired many Rumanian poets,
among them the celebrated V. Alexandri (1821-1890). One
tradition describes how Neagoe Bassarab, while a hostage in
Constantinople, designed a splendid mosque for the sultan,
returning to build the cathedral out of the surplus materials.
Another version makes him employ one Manole or Manoli as
architect. Manole^ being unable to finish the walls, the prince
threatened him and his assistant with death. At last Manole
suggested that they should follow the ancient custom of building
a living woman into the foundations; and that she who first
appeared on the following morning should be the victim. The
other masons warned their families, and Manole was forced to
sacrifice his own wife. Thus the cathedral was built except the
roof. So arrogant, however, did the masons become, that the
prince bade remove the scaffolding, and all, save Manole, perished
of hunger. He fell to the ground, and a spring of clear water,
which issued from the spot, is still called after him.

CURTESY (a variant of " courtesy," q.v.), in law, the life
interest which a husband has in certain events in the lands of
which his wife was in her lifetime actually seised for an estate
of inheritance. As to the historical origin of the custom and the
meaning of the word there is considerable doubt. It has been
said to be an interest peculiar to England and to Scotland,
hence called the "curtesy of England" and the "curtesy of
Scotland "; but this is erroneous, for it is found also in Germany
and France. The Mirroir des Justices ascribes it to Henry I.
K. E. Digby (Hist. Real Prop. chap, iii.) says that it is connected
with curia, and has reference either to the attendance of the
husband as tenant of the lands at the lord's court, or to mean
simply that the husband is acknowledged tenant by the courts
of England (tenens per legem Angliae). The requisites necessary
to make tenancy by the curtesy are: (1) a legal marriage;
(2) an estate in possession of which the wife must have been
actually seised; (3) issue born alive and during the mother's
existence, though it is immaterial whether the issue live or die,
or whether it is born before or after the wife's seisin; in the
case of gavelkind lands the husband has a right to curtesy,
whether there is issue born or not; but the curtesy extends
only to a moiety of the wife's lands and ceases if the husband
marries again. The issue must have been capable of inheriting
as heir to the wife, e.g. if a wife were seised of lands in tail male
the birth of a daughter would not entitle the husband to a
tenancy by curtesy; (4) the title to the tenancy vests only on
the death of the wife. The Married Women's Property Act 1882
has not affected the right of curtesy so far as relates to the wife's
undisposed-of realty (Hope v. Hope, 1892, 2 Ch. 336), and the
Settled Land Act 1884, s. 8, provides that for the purposes of the
Settled Land Act 1882 the estate of a tenant by curtesy is to be
deemed an estate arising under a settlement made by the wife..

See Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law; K. E. Digby, Hist.
Real Prop. ; Goodeve, Real Property.

CURTILAGE (Med. Lat. curtilagium, from curtile or cortile, a
court or yard, cf. " court "), the area of land which immediately
surrounds a dwelling-house and its yard and outbuildings.
In feudal times every castle with its dependent buildings was
protected by a surrounding wall, and all the land within the wall
was termed the curtilage; but the modern legal interpretation
of the word, i.e. what area is enclosed by the curtilage, depends
upon the circumstances of each individual case, such as the terms
of the grant or deed which passes the property, or upon what is
held to be a convenient amount of land for the occupation of
the house, &c. The importance of the word in modern law
depends on the fact that the curtilage marks the limit of the
premises in which housebreaking can be committed.

CURTIN, ANDREW GREGG (1817-1894), American political
leader, was born at Bellefonte, Centre county, Pennsylvania,
on the 22nd of April 1817, the son of a native of Ireland who was
a pioneer iron manufacturer in Pennsylvania. He graduated.

from the law department of Dickinson College in 1837, was
admitted to the bar in 1839, and successfully practised his
profession. Entering politics as a Whig, he was chairman of
the Whig state central committee in 1854, and from 1855 to
1858 was secretary of the commonwealth. In this capacity he
was also ex officio the superintendent of common schools, and
rendered valuable services to his state in perfecting and ex-
panding the free public school system, and in establishing state
normal schools. Upon the organization of the Republican party
he became one of its leaders in Pennsylvania, and in October
i860 was chosen governor of the state on its ticket, defeating
Henry D. Foster, the candidate upon whom the Douglas and
Breckinridge Democrats and the Constitutional Unionists had
united, by 32,000 votes, after a spirited campaign which was
watched with intense interest by the entire country as an index
of the result of the ensuing presidential election. During the
Civil War he was one of the closest and most constant advisers
of President Lincoln, and one of the most efficient, most energetic
and most patriotic of the " war governors " of the North.
Pennsylvania troops were the first to reach Washington after the
president's call, and from first to last the state, under Governor
Curtin's guidance, furnished 387,284 officers and men to the
Northern armies. One of his wisest and most praiseworthy acts
Was the organization of the famous " Pennsylvania Reserves,"
by means of which the state was always able to fill at once its
required quota after each successive call. In raising funds and
equipping and supplying troops the governor showed great
energy and resourcefulness, and his plans and organizations for
caring for the needy widows and children of Pennsylvania
soldiers killed in battle, and for aiding and removing to their
homes the sick and wounded were widely copied throughout the
North. He was re-elected governor in 1863 and served until
January 1867. He was United States minister to Russia from
1869 until 1872, when he returned to America and took part in
the Liberal Republican revolt against President U. S. Grant.
In 1872-1873 he was a member of the state' constitutional
convention. Subsequently he joined the Democratic party and
was a representative in Congress from 1881 to 1887. He died at
his birthplace, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October
1894.

See William H. Egle's Life and Times of Andrew Gregg Curtin
(Philadelphia, 1896), which contains chapters written by A. K.
McClure, Jno. Russell Young, Wayne McVeagh, Fitz John Porter
and others.

CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR (1812-1894), American lawyer,
legal writer and constitutional historian, was born in Watertown,
Massachusetts, on the 28th of November 181 2. He graduated
at Harvard in 1832, was admitted to the bar in 1836, and
practised in Worcester, Boston, New York and Washington,
appearing before the United States Supreme Court in many
important cases, including the Dred Scott case, in which he
argued the constitutional question for Scott, and the " legal
tender " cases. In Boston he was for many years the United
States commissioner, and in this capacity, despite the vigorous
protests of the abolitionists and his own opposition to slavery,
ordered the return to his owner of the famous fugitive slave,
Thomas Sims, in 1852. He was the nephew and close friend of
George Ticknor, the historian of Spanish literature, and his
association with his uncle was influential in developing his
scholarly tastes; while his other personal friendships with eminent
Bostonians during the period of conservative Whig ascendancy
in Massachusetts politics were of direct influence upon his
political opinions and published estimates. He is best known
as the author of A History of the Origin, Formation and Adoption
of the Constitution of the United States, with Notices of its principal
Framers (1854), republished, with many additions, as The
Constitutional History of the United States from their Declaration of
Independence to the Close of their Civil War (2 vols., 1889-1896).
This history, which had been watched in its earlier progress by
Daniel Webster, may be said to present the old Federalist or
" Webster- Whig " view of the formation and powers of the Con-
stitution; and it was natural that Curtis should follow it with

652

CURTIS, G. W.— CURTIUS, ERNST

a voluminous Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols., 1870), the most
valuable biography of that statesman. Both these works are
characterized by solidity and comprehensiveness rather than by
rhetorical attractiveness or literary perspective. In his later
years Mr Curtis, like so many of the followers of Webster,
turned towards the Democratic party; and he wrote, among
other works of minor importance, an exculpatory life of President
James Buchanan (2 vols., 1883) and two vindications of General
George B. McClellan's career (1886 and 1887). He died in New
York on the 28th of March 1894.

In addition to the works above mentioned he published: Digest of
the English and American Admiralty Decisions (1839); Rights and
Duties of Merchant Seamen (1841), which elicited the hearty praise
of Justice Joseph Story; Law of Patents (1849); Equity Precedents
(1850) ; Commentaries on the Jurisprudence, Practice and Peculiar
Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States (1854-1858); Creation
or Evolution: A Philosophical Inquiry (1887); and a novel, John
Chambers: A Tale of the Civil War in America (1889).

His brother, Benjamin Robbins Curtis (1809-1874), also
an eminent jurist, was born on the 4th of November 1809, in
Watertown, Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard in 1829,
studied law at Cambridge and at Northfield, Mass., where, after
his admission to the bar in 1832, he practised law for two years,
and then in Boston in 1834-1851. In 1851, being then a member
of the lower house of the Massachusetts legislature, he was on
the 22nd of September appointed to the Supreme Court of the
United States, where he gained his greatest fame in 1857 by his
dissenting opinion in the Dred Scott case, in which he argued
that the Missouri Compromise was constitutional, and that
negroes could become citizens. His argument was immediately
published as an anti-slavery document. On the 1st of September
1857 he resigned from the Supreme Court and resumed his private
practice. In 1868 he was one of the counsel for President
Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, and opened for the
defence in a remarkable two-days' speech. He died at Newport,
Rhode Island, on the 15th of September 1874. He prepared
Decisions of the Supreme Court (22 vols.) and a Digest of its
decisions down to 1854.

A Memoir of Benjamin Robbins Curtis, with Some of his Professional
and Miscellaneous Papers, edited by his son Benjamin R. Curtis,
was published at Boston in 1879, the Memoir being by George
Ticknor Curtis.

CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892), American man of
letters, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 24th of
February 1824, of old New England stock. His mother died
when he was two years old. At six he was sent with his elder
brother to school in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, where he
remained for five years. Then, his father having again married
happily, the boys were brought home to Providence, where they
stayed till, in 1839, their father removed to New York. Three
years later, Curtis, being allowed to determine for himself his
course of life, and being in sympathy with the spirit of the so-
called Transcendental movement, became a boarder at the com-
munity of Brook Farm. He was accompanied by his brother,
James Burrill Curtis, whose influence upon him was strong and
helpful. He remained there for two years, brought into stimulat-
ing and serviceable relations with many interesting men and
women. Then came two years, passed partly in New York,
partly in Concord in order mainly to be in the friendly neighbour-
hood of Emerson, and then followed four years spent in Europe,
Egypt and Syria.

Curtis returned from Europe in 1850, handsome, attractive,
accomplished, ambitious of literary distinction. He instantly
plunged into the whirl of life in New York, obtained a place on
the staff of the Tribune, entered the field as a popular lecturer,
set himself to work on a volume published in the spring of 185 1,
under the title of Nile Notes of a Howadji, and became a favourite
in society. He wrote much for Putnam's Magazine, of which he
was associate editor; and a number of volumes, composed of
essays written for that publication and for Harper's Monthly,
came in rapid succession from his pen. The chief of these were
the Potiphar Papers (1853), a satire on the fashionable society
of the day; and Prue and I (1856), a pleasantly sentimental,
fancifully tender and humorous study of life. In 1 8 s 5 he married

Miss Anna Shaw. ' Not long after his marriage he became, through
no fault of his own, deeply involved in debt owing to the failure
of Putnam's Magazine; and his high sense of honour compelled
him to devote the greater part of his earnings for many years to
the discharge of obligations for which he had become only by
accident responsible, and from which he might have freed himself
by legal process. In the period just preceding the Civil War
other interests became subordinate to those of national concern.
Curtis made his first important speech on the questions of the
day at Wesleyan University in 1856; he engaged actively in the
presidential campaign of that year, and was soon recognized not
only as an effective public speaker, but also as one of the ablest,
most high-minded, and most trustworthy leaders of public
opinion. In 1863 he became the political editor of Harper's
Weekly, and no other journal exercised during the war and after
it a more important part in shaping public opinion. His writing
was always clear, direct, forcible; his fairness of mind and sweet-
ness of temper were invincible. He never became a mere
partisan, and never failed to apply the test of moral principle
to political measures. From month to month he contributed
to Harper's Monthly, under the title of " The Easy Chair,"
brief essays on topics of social and literary interest, charming in
style, touched with delicate humour and instinct with generous
spirit. His service to the Republican party was such, that more
than once he was offered nominations to office of high distinction,
and might have been sent as minister to England; but he refused
all offers of the kind, feeling that he could render more essential
service to the country as editor and public speaker.

In 1871 he was appointed by President Grant chairman of the
commission to report on the reform of the civil service. The
report which he wrote was the foundation of every effort since
made for the purification and regulation of the service and for the
destruction of political patronage. From that time till his death
Curtis was the leader in this reform, and to his sound judgment,
his vigorous presentation of the evils of the corrupt prevailing
system, and his untiring efforts, the progress of the reform is
mainly due. He was president of the National Civil Service
Reform League and of the New York Civil Service Reform
Association. In 1884 he refused to support the nomination of
James G. Blaine as candidate for the presidency, and thus broke
with the Republican party, of which he had been one of the
founders and leaders. From that time he stood as the typical
independent in politics. In April 1892 he delivered at Baltimore
his eleventh annual address as president of the National Civil
Service Reform League, and in May he appeared for the last time
in public, to repeat in New York an admirable address on James
Russell Lowell, which he had first delivered in Brooklyn on the
22nd of the preceding February, the anniversary of Lowell's
birth. On the 3 1st of the following August he died. He was a man
of consistent virtue, whose face and figure corresponded with
the traits and stature of his soul. The grace and charm of his
manner were the expression of his nature. Of the Americans of
his time few were more widely beloved, and the respect in which
he was held was universal.

See George William Curtis, by Edward Cary, in the " American
Men of Letters " series (Boston, 1894), an excellent biography ; " An
Epistle to George William Curtis," by James Russell Lowell (1874-
1887), in Lowell's Poems; George William Curtis, a Commemorative
Address delivered before The Century Association, 17th December
1892, by Parke Godwin (New York, 1893) ; Orations and Addresses
by George William Curtis, edited by Charles Eliot Norton (•? vols.
New York, 1894). (C.E.N.)

CURTIUS, ERNST (1814-1896), German archaeologist and
historian, was born at Liibeck on the 2nd of September 18 14.
On completing his university studies he was chosen by C. A.
Brandis to accompany him on a journey to Greece for the
prosecution of archaeological researches. Curtius then became
Otf ried Midler's companion in his exploration of the Peloponnese,
and on Miiller's death in 1840 returned to Germany. In 1844 he
became an extraordinary professor at the university of Berlin,
and in the same year was appointed tutor to Prince Frederick
William (afterwards the Emperor Frederick III.) — a post which
he held till 1850. After holding a professorship at Gottingen and

CURTIUS, MARCUS— CURVE

653

andertaking a further journey to Greece in 1862, Curtius was
appointed (in 1863) ordinary professor at Berlin. In 1874 he
was sent to Athens by the German government, and concluded
an agreement by which the excavations at Olympia (q.v.) were
entrusted exclusively to Germany. Curtius died at Berlin on
the nth of July 1896. His best-known work fe his History of
Greece (1857-1867, 6th ed. 1887-1888; Eng. trans, by A. W.
Ward, 1868-1873). It presented in an attractive style what were
then the latest results of scholarly research, but was criticized as
wanting in erudition. It is now superseded (see Greece : History,
Ancient, § Bibliography) . His other writings are chiefly archaeo-
logical. The most important are: Die Akropolis von Alhen
(1844); Naxos (1846); Peloponnesos, einekistorisch-geographische
Beschreibung der Halbinsel (1851); Olympia (1852); Die lonier
vor der ionischen Wanderung (1855); Attische Studien (1862-
1865); Ephesos (1874); Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (1877,
&c); Olympia und Umgegend (edited by Curtius and F. Adler,
1882); Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich
veranstalteten Ausgrabung (with F. Adler, 1890-1898); Die
Stadtgeschichte von A then (1891); Gesammelte Abhandlungen
(1894). His collected speeches and lectures were published
under the title of Altertum und Gegenwart (5th ed., 1903 foil.),
to which a third volume was added under the title of Unter drei
Kaisern (2nd ed., 1895).

A full list of his writings will be found in L. Gurlitt, Erinnerungen
an Ernst Curtius (Berlin, 1902); see also article by O. Kern in
Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xlvii. (i9°3). t0 which may be added
Ernst Curtius. Ein Lebensbild in Briefen, by F. Curtius (1903) ; T.
Hodgkin, Ernest Curtius (1905).

His brother, Georg Curtius (1820-1885), philologist, was born
at Lubeck on the 16th of April 1820. After an education at
Bonn and Berlin he was for three years a schoolmaster in Dresden,
until (in 1845) he returned to Berlin University as privat-docent.
In 1849 he was placed in charge of the Philological Seminary
at Prague, and two years later was appointed professor of
classical philology in Prague University. In 1854 he removed
from Prague to a similar appointment at Kiel, and again in 1862
from Kiel to Leipzig. He died at Hermsdorf on the 12th of
August 1885. His philological theories exercised a widespread
influence. The more important of his publications are: Die
Sprachvergleichung in ihrem Verhdltniss zur classischen Philologie
(1845; Eng. trans, by F. H. Trithen, 1851); Sprachvergleichende
Beitrdge zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik (1846);
Grundziige der griechischen Etymologie (1858-1862, 5th ed.
1879); Das Verbum der griechischen Sprache (1873). The last
two works have been translated into English by A. S. Wilkins
and E. B. England. From 1878 till his death Curtius was general
editor of the Leipziger Studien zur classischen Philologie. His
Griechische Schulgrammatik, first published in 1852, has passed
through more than twenty editions, and has been edited in
English. In his last work, Zur Kritik der neuesten Sprachforschung
(1885), he attacks the views of the " new " school of philology.

Opuscula of Georg Curtius were edited after his death by E.
Windisch (Kleine Schriften von E. C, 1886-1887). For further
information consult articles by R. Meister in Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie, xlvii. (1903), and by E. Windisch in C. Bursian's Bio-
graphisches Jahrbuch fur Alterthumskunde (1886).

CURTIUS, MARCUS, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. It
is said that in 362 B.C. a deep gulf opened in the forum, which
the seers declared would never close until Rome's most valuable
possession was thrown into it. Then Curtius, a youth of noble
family, recognizing that nothing was more precious than a brave
citizen, leaped, fully armed and on horseback, into the chasm,
which immediately closed again. The spot was afterwards
covered by a marsh called the Lacus Curtius. Two other
explanations of the name Lacus Curtius are given: (1) a Sabine
general, Mettius (or Mettus) Curtius, hard pressed by the Romans
under Romulus, leaped into a swamp which covered the valley
afterwards occupied by the forum, and barely escaped with his
life; (2) in 445 B.C. the spot was struck by lightning, and en-
closed as sacred by the consul, Gaius Curtius. It was marked
by an altar which was removed to make room for the games in
celebration of Caesar's funeral (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xv. 77), but

restored by Augustus (cf. Ovid, Fasti, vi. 403), in whose time "
there was apparently nothing but a dry well. The altar seems to
have been restored early in the 4th century a.d. In April 1904,
on the N. side of the Via Sacra and 20 ft. N.W. of the Equus
Domitiani, remains of the buildings were discovered.

See Liyy i. 12, vii. 6 ; Dion Halic. ii. 42 ; Varro, De lingua Latina,
v. 148; Ch. Hiilsen, The Roman Forum (Eng. trans, of 2nd ed,,
J. B. Carter, 1906) ; O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der
Stadt Rom im Altertum, i. (1883), 334-338.

CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS, biographer of Alexander the
Great. Of his personal history nothing is known, nor can his
date be fixed with certainty. Modern authorities regard him
as a rhetorician who flourished during the reign of Claudius
(a.d. 41-54). His work (De Rebus gestis Alexandri Magni)
originally consisted of ten books, of which the first two are
entirely lost, and the remaining eight are incomplete. Although
the work is uncritical, and shows the author's ignorance, of
geography, chronology and military matters, it is written in
a picturesque style.

There are numerous editions : (text) T. Vogel(i889),P. H. Damste
(1897), E. Hedicke (1908); (with notes), T. Vogel (1885 and later),
M. Croiset (1885), H. W. Reich (1895), C. Lebaigue (1900), T. Stangl
(1902). There is an English translation by P. Pratt (1821). See
S. Dosson, Etude sur Quinte-Curce, sa vie, et ses ceuvres (1887) a valu-
able work; F. von Schwarz, Alexander des Grosseh Feldziige in
Turkestan (1893), a commentary on Arrian and Curtius based upon
the author's personal knowledge of the topography ; C. Wachsmuthj
Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895), p. 574, cf.
p. 567, note 2 ; Schwarz, " Curtius Rufus " No. 31 in Pauly-Wissowa
(1901).

CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot "), in Roman antiquities,
the epithet applied to the chair of office, sella curulis, used by
the " curule " or highest magistrates and also by the emperors.
This chair seems to have been originally placed in the magistrate's
chariot (hence the name). It was inlaid with ivory or in some
cases made of it, had curved legs but no back, and could be folded
up like a camp-stool. In English the word is used in the general
sense of " official." (See Consul, Praetor and Aedile.)

CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent), a word commonly meaning a
shape represented by a line bending continuously out of the
straight without making an angle, but only properly to be defined
in its geometrical sense in the terms set out below. This subject
is treated here from an historical point of view, for the purpose
of showing how the different leading ideas were successively
arrived at and developed.

1, A curve is a line, or continuous singly infinite system of
points. We consider in the first instance, and chiefly, a plane
curve described according to a law. Such a curve may be re-
garded geometrically as actually described, or kinematically
as in the course of description by the motion of a point; in the
former point of view, it is the locus of all the points which satisfy
a given condition; in the latter, it is the locus of a point moving
subject to a given condition. Thus the most simple and earliest
known curve, the circle, is the locus of all the points at a given
distance from a fixed centre, or else the locus of a point moving
so as to be always at a given distance from a fixed centre. (The
straight line and the point are not for the moment regarded as
curves.)

Next to the circle we have the conic sections, the invention
of them attributed to Plato (who lived 430-347 B.C.) ; the
original definition of them as the sections of a cone was by the
Greek geometers who studied them soon replaced by a proper
definition in piano like that for the circle, viz. a conic section
(or as we now say a " conic ") is the locus of a point such that its
distance from a given point, the focus, is in a given ratio to its
(perpendicular) distance from a given fine, the directrix; or it is
the locus of a point which moves so as always to satisfy the
foregoing condition. Similarly any other property might be
used as a definition; an ellipse is the locus of a point such that
the sum of its distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant,
&c, &c.

The Greek geometers invented other curves; in particular,
the conchoid (q.v.), which is the locus of a point such that its
distance from a given line, measured along the line drawn through

^54

CURVE

it to a fixed point, is constant; and the cissoid (q.v.), which is
the locus of a point such that its distance from a fixed point is
always equal to the intercept (on the line through the fixed
point) between a circle passing through the fixed point and the
tangent to the circle at the point opposite to the fixed point.
Obviously the number of such geometrical or kinematical
definitions is infinite. In a machine of any. kind, each point
describes a curve; a simple but important instance is the
" three-bar curve," or locus of a point in or rigidly connected
with a bar pivoted on to two other bars which rotate about
fixed centres respectively. Every curve thus arbitrarily defined
has its own properties; and there was not any principle of
classification.

2. Cartesian Co-ordinates. — The principle of classification first
presented itself in the Geometrie of Descartes (1637). The idea
was to represent any curve whatever by means of a relation
between the co-ordinates (x, y) of a point of the curve, or say to
represent the curve by means of its equation. (See Geometry:
Analytical.)

Any relation whatever between (x, y) determines a curve,
and conversely every curve whatever is determined by a relation
between (x, y).

Observe that the distinctive feature is in the exclusive use of
such determination of a curve by means of its equation. The
Greek geometers were perfectly familiar with the property of an
ellipse which in the Cartesian notation is a^/a 2 + y i /b 2 = 1, the
equation of the curve; but it was as one of a number of properties,
and in no wise selected out of the others for the characteristic
property of the curve.

3. Order of a Curve. — We obtain from the equation the notion
of an algebraical as opposed to a transcendental curve, viz.
an algebraical curve is a curve having an equation F(x, y)=o
where F(x, y) is a rational and integral function of the co-
ordinates (x, y); and in what follows we attend throughout
(unless the contrary is stated) only to such curves. The
equation is sometimes given, and may conveniently be used,
in an irrational form, but we always imagine it reduced to the
foregoing rational and integral form, and regard this as the
equation of the curve. And we have hence the notion of a curve
of a given order, viz. the order of the curve is equal to that of
the term or terms of highest order in the co-ordinates (x, y)
conjointly in the equation of the curve; for instance, xy — 1 =
is a curve of the second order.

It is to be noticed here that the axes of co-ordinates may be
any two lines at right angles to each other whatever; and that
the equation of a curve will be different according to the selection
of the axes of co-ordinates; but the order is independent of the
axes, and has a determinate value for any given curve.

We hence divide curves according to their order, viz. a curve
is of the first order, second order, third order, &c, according as
it is represented by an equation of the first order, ax-\-by-\-c = o,
or say (*$x, y, i)=o; or by an equation of the second order,
ax i -\-2hxy-\-by 2 +2fy-\-2gx-\-c = o, say (*$£, y, i) 2 = o; or by an
equation of the third order, &c; or what is the same thing,
according as the equation is linear, quadric, cubic, &c.

A curve of the first order is a right line; and conversely every
right line is a curve of the first order. A curve of the second
order is a conic, and is also called a quadric curve; and conversely
every conic is a curve of the second order or quadric curve. A
curve of the third order is called a cubic; one of the fourth
order a quartic; and so on.

A curve of the order m has for its equation (*$£, y, i) m =o;
and when the coefficients of the function are arbitrary, the curve
is said to be the general curve of the order m. The number of
coefficients is \im-\-\) (m+2); but there is no loss of generality
if the equation be divided by one coefficient so as to reduce the
coefficient of the corresponding term to unity, hence the number
of coefficients may be reckoned as ^(m-\-i) 0»+2) — 1, that is,
\m{m-\-i); and a curve of the order m may be made to satisfy
this number of conditions ; for example, to pass through \m{m-\-$)
points.

It is to be remarked that an equation may break up; thus a

quadric equation may be (ax+by+c) (a'x+b'y+c') =0, breaking
up into the two equations ax+by-\-c = o, a'x-\-b'y+c' = o, viz.
the original equation is satisfied if either of these is satisfied.
Each of these last equations represents a curve of the first order,
or right line; and the original equation represents this pair of
lines, viz. the pair of lines is considered as a quadric curve.
But it is an improper quadric curve; and in speaking of curves
of the second or any other given order, we frequently imply that
the curve is a proper curve represented by an equation which
does not break up.

4. Intersections of Curves. — The intersections of two curves
are obtained by combining their equations; viz. the elimination
from the two equations of y (or x) gives for x (or y) an equation
of a certain order, say the resultant equation; and then to each
value of x (or y) satisfying this equation there corresponds in
general a single value of y (or x), and consequently a single point
of intersection; the number of intersections is thus equal to the
order of the resultant equation in x (or y).

Supposing that the two curves are of the orders m, n, respec-
tively, then the order of the resultant equation is in general and
at most = ww ; in particular, if the curve of the order « is an
arbitrary line (n=i), then the order of the resultant equation
is = w; and the curve of the order m meets therefore the line in
m points. But the resultant equation may have all or any of its
roots imaginary, and it is thus not always that there are m real
intersections.

The notion of imaginary intersections, thus presenting itself,
through algebra, in geometry, must be accepted in geometry —
and it in fact plays an all-important part in modern geometry.
As in algebra we say that an equation of the mth order has
m roots, viz. we state this generally without in the first instance,
or it may be without ever, distinguishing whether these are real
or imaginary; so in geometry we say that a curve of the mth
order is met by an arbitrary line in m points, or rather we thus,
through algebra, obtain the proper geometrical definition of a
curve of the mth order, as a curve which is met by an arbitrary
line in m points (that is, of course, in m, and not more than m,
points).

The theorem of the m intersections has been stated in regard
to an arbitrary line; in fact, for particular lines the resultant
equation may be or appear to be of an order less than m; for
instance, taking m—2, if the hyperbola xy— 1=0 be cut by the
line y=/3, the resultant equation in * is /3#— 1=0, and there is
apparently only the intersection (x = i//3, y=/3); but the theorem
is, in fact, true for every line whatever: a curve of the order m
meets every line whatever in precisely m points. We have, in the
case just referred to, to take account of a point at infinity on the
line y=0; the two intersections are the point (#=i//3, y=/3),
and the point at infinity on the line y = )3.

It is, moreover, to be noticed that the points at infinity may
be all or any of them imaginary, and that the points of intersec-
tion, whether finite or at infinity, real or imaginary, may coincide
two or more of them together, and have to be counted accord-
ingly; to support the theorem in its universality, it is necessary
to take account of these various circumstances.

5. Line at Infinity.— The foregoing notion of a point at infinity
is a very important one in modern geometry; and we have also
to consider the paradoxical statement that in plane geometry,
or say as regards the plane, infinity is a right line. This admits
of an easy illustration in solid geometry. If with a given centre
of projection, by drawing from it lines to every point of a given
line, we project the given line on a given plane, the projection is
a line, i.e. this projection is the intersection of the given plane
with the plane through the centre and the given line. Say the
projection is always a line, then if the figure is such that the two
planes are parallel, the projection is the intersection of the given
plane by a parallel plane, or it is the system of points at infinity
on the given plane, that is, these points at infinity are regarded
as situate on a given line, the line infinity of the given plane. 1

1 In solid geometry infinity is a plane — its intersection with any
given plane being the right line which is the infinity of this given
plane.

CURVE

655

Reverting to the purely plane theory, infinity is a line, related
like any other right line to the curve, and thus intersecting it
in m points, real or imaginary, distinct or coincident.

Descartes in the Giomttrie defined and considered the re-
markable curves called after him the ovals of Descartes, or simply
Cartesians, which will be again referred to. The next important
work, founded on the Geometrie, was Sir Isaac Newton's Enutne-
ratio linearum tertii ordinis (1706), establishing a classification of
cubic curves founded chiefly on the nature of their infinite
branches, which was in some details completed by James Stirling
(1692-1770), Patrick Murdoch (d. 1774) and Gabriel Cramer;
the work also contains the remarkable theorem (to be again re-
ferred to), that there are five kinds of cubic curves giving by their
projections every cubic curve whatever. Various properties of
curves in general, and of cubic curves, are established in Colin
Maclaurin's memoir, "De linearum geometricarum proprietatibus
generalibus Tractatus " (posthumous, say 1 746, published in
the 6th edition of his Algebra). We have in it a particular kind
of correspondence of two points on a cubic curve, viz. two points
correspond to each other when the tangents at the two points
again meet the cubic in the same point.

6. Reciprocal Polars. Intersections of Circles. Duality.
Trilinear and Tangential Co-ordinates. — The Giometrie descriptive,
by Gaspard Monge, was written in the year 1704 or 1795 (7th
edition, Paris, 1847), and in it we have stated, in piano with
regard to the circle, and in three dimensions with regard to
a surface of the second order, the fundamental theorem of
reciprocal polars, viz. " Given a surface of the second order
and a circumscribed conic surface which touches it . . . then
if the conic surface moves so that its summit is always in the same
plane, the plane of the curve of contact passes always through
the same point." The theorem is here referred to partly on
account of its bearing on the theory of imaginaries in geometry.
It is in Charles Julian Brianchon's memoir " Sur les surfaces du
second degre " {Jour. Polyt. t. vi. 1806) shown how for any given
position 'of the summit the plane of contact is determined,
or reciprocally; say the plane XY is determined when the point
P is given, or reciprocally; and it is noticed that when P is
situate in the interior of the surface the plane XY does not cut
the surface; that is, we have a real plane XY intersecting the
surface in the imaginary curve of contact of the imaginary
circumscribed cone having for its summit a given real point P
inside the surface.

Stating the theorem in regard to a conic, we have a real point
P (called the pole) and a real line XY (called the polar), the line
joining the two (real or imaginary) points of contact of the (real
or imaginary) tangents drawn from the point to the conic; and
the theorem is that when the point describes a line the line
passes through a point, this line and point being polar and pole
to each other. The term "pole" was first used by Francois
Joseph Servois, and " polar " by Joseph Diez Gergonne (Gerg.
t. i. and iii., 1810-1813); and from the theorem we have the
method of reciprocal polars for the transformation of geometrical
theorems, used already by Brianchon (in the memoir above
referred to) for the demonstration of the theorem called by his
name, and in a similar manner by various writers in the earlier
volumes of Gergonne. We are here concerned with the method
less in itself than as leading to the general notion of duality.

Bearing in a somewhat similar manner also on the theory of
imaginaries in geometry (but the notion presents itself in a more
explicit form), there is the memoir by L. Gaultier, on the graphi-
cal construction of circles and spheres (Jour. Polyt. t. ix., 1813).
The well-known theorem as to radical axes may be stated as
follows. Consider two circles partially drawn so that it does not
appear whether the circles, if completed, would or would not
intersect in real points, say two arcs of circles; then we can,
by means of a third circle drawn so as to intersect in two real
points each of the two arcs, determine a right line, which, if
the complete circles intersect in two real points, passes through
the points, and which is on this account regarded as a line
passing through two (real or imaginary) points of intersection
of the two circles. The construction in fact is, join the two

points in which the third circle meets the first arc, and join also
the two points in which the third circle meets the second arc,
and from the point of intersection of the two joining lines, let
fall a perpendicular on the line joining the centre of the two
circles; this perpendicular (considered as an indefinite line) is
what Gaultier terms the "radical axis of the two circles";
it is a line determined by a real construction and itself always
real; and by what precedes it is the line joining two (real or
imaginary, as the case may be) intersections of the given circles.

The intersections which lie on the radical axis are two out of the
four intersections of the two circles. The question as to the
remaining two intersections did not present itself to Gaultier, but
it is answered in Jean Victor Poncelet's Traits des propriilts
projectives (1822), where we find (p. 49) the statement, " deux
circles places arbitrairement sur un plan . . . ont idealement
deux points imaginaires communs a. l'infini "; that is, a circle
qua curve of the second order is met by the line infinity in two
points; but, more than this, they are the same two points for
any circle whatever. The points in question have since been
called (it is believed first by Dr George Salmon) the circular points
at infinity, or they may be called the circular points; these are
also frequently spoken of as the points I, J; and we have thus
the circle characterized as a conic which passes through the two
circular points at infinity; the number of conditions thus im-
posed upon the conic is =2, and there remain three arbitrary
constants, which is the right number for the circle. Poncelet
throughout his work makes continual use of the foregoing theories
of imaginaries and infinity, and also of the before-mentioned
theory of reciprocal polars.

Poncelet's two memoirs Sur les centres des moyennes harmoniques
and Sur la theorie generate des polaires riciproques, although
presented to the Paris Academy in 1824, were only published
(Crelle, t. iii. and iv., 1828, 1829) subsequent to the memoir by
Gergonne, Considerations philosophiques sur les elimens de la
science de I'etendue (Gerg. t. xvi., 1825-1826). In this memoir
by Gergonne, the theory of duality is very clearly and explicitly
stated; for instance, we find " dans la geometrie plane, a. chaque
theoreme il en repond necessairement un autre qui s'en d£duit en
echangeant simplement entre eux les deux mots points et droites;
tandis que dans la geom6trie de l'espace ce sont les mots points
et plans qu'il faut echanger entre eux pour passer d'un theoreme
a. son correlatif "; and the plan is introduced of printing corre-
lative theorems, opposite to each other, in two columns. There
was a reclamation as to priority by Poncelet in the Bulletin
universel reprinted with remarks by Gergonne (Gerg. t. xix.,
1827), and followed by a short paper by Gergonne, Rectifications
de quelques theoremes, &°c, which is important as first introducing
the word class. We find in it explicitly the two correlative
definitions: " a plane curve is said to be of the mth degree
(order) when it has with a line tn real or ideal intersections," and
" a plane curve is said to be of the wth class when from any point
of its plane there can be drawn to it m real or ideal tangents."

It may be remarked that in Poncelet's memoir on reciprocal
polars, above referred to, we have the theorem that the number
of tangents from a point to a curve of the order m, or say the class
of the curve, is in general and at most =m(m- i), and that he
mentions that this number is subject to reduction when the curve
has double points or cusps.

The theorem of duality as regards plane figures may be
thus stated: two figures may correspond to each other in such
manner that to each point and line in either figure there corre-
spond in the other figure a line and point respectively. It is
to be understood that the theorem extends to all points or lines,
drawn or not drawn; thus if in the first figure there are any
number of points on a line drawn or not drawn, the corresponding
lines in the second figure, produced if necessary, must meet in
a point. And we thus see how the theorem extends to curves,
their points and tangents; if there is in the first figure a curve
of the order m, any line meets it in m points; and hence from the
corresponding point in the second figure there must be to the
corresponding curve m tangents; that is, the corresponding
curve must be of the class m.

6 5 6

CURVE

Trilinear co-ordinates (see Geometry: Analytical) were first
used by E. E. Bobillier in the memoir Essai sur un nouveau mode
de recherche des propriitSs de I'Uendue (Gerg. t. xviii., 1827-1828).
It is convenient to use these rather than Cartesian co-ordinates.
We represent a curve of the order m by an equation (*$*, y , z) m = o,
the function on the left hand being a homogeneous rational and
integral function of the order m of the three co-ordinates (x, y, z) ;
clearly the number of constants is the same as for the equation
(*$x, y, i) m = o in Cartesian co-ordinates.

The theorem of duality is considered and developed, but chiefly
in regard to its metrical applications, by Michel Chasles in the
Memoire de g&omUrie sur deux principes gineraux de la science,
la dualiti et I'homographie, which forms a sequel to the Apercu
historique sur V origine et le developpement des methodes en geometrie
(Mem. de Brux. t. xi., 1837).

We now come to Julius Pliicker; his " six equations " were
given in a short memoir in Crelle (1842) preceding his great work,
the Theorie der algebraischen Curven (1844). Pliicker first gave
a scientific dual definition of a curve, viz.; "A curve is a
locus generated by a point, and enveloped by a line — the point
moving continuously along the line, while the line rotates
continuously about the point " ; the point is a point (ineunt.)
of the curve, the line is a tangent of the curve. And, assuming
the above theory of geometrical imaginaries, a curve such that
m of its points are situate in an arbitrary line is said to be of the
order m; a curve such that n of its tangents pass through an
arbitrary point is said to be of the class n; as already appearing,
this notion of the order and class of a curve is, however, due to
Gergonne. Thus the line is a curve of the order 1 and class o;
and corresponding dually thereto, we have the point as a curve
of the order o and class 1.

Pliicker, moreover, imagined a system of line-co-ordinates
(tangential coordinates). (See Geometry: Analytical.) The
Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) and trilinear co-ordinates (x, y, z)
are point-co-ordinates for determining the position of a
point; the new co-ordinates, say (£, tj, f) are line-co-ordinates
for determining the position of a line. It is possible, and
(not so much for any application thereof as in order to
more fully establish the analogy between the two kinds of
co-ordinates) important, to give independent quantitative
definitions of the two kinds of co-ordinates; but we may also
derive the notion of line-co-ordinates from that of point-co-
ordinates ; viz. taking £x+7iy+t;z = o to be the equation of
a line, we say that (£, ij,-f) are the line-co-ordinates of this line.
A linear relation a%-\-br)-\-c$ = between these co-ordinate
determines a point, viz. the point whose point-co-ordinates are
(a, b, c); in fact, the equation in question a£+foj+cf = ex-
presses that the equation £x-\-r)y+lz = o, where (x, y, z) are
current point-co-ordinates, is satisfied on writing therein
x, y, z = a, b, c; or that the line in question passes through the
point {a, b, c). Thus (£, t\, f) are the line-co-ordinates of any line
whatever ; but when these, instead of being absolutely arbitrary,
are subject to the restriction a£-\-bri-\-c£ =0, this obliges the line
to pass through a point {a, b, c) ; and the last-mentioned equation
<*£+fo?+cf = is considered as the line-equation of this point.

A line has only a point-equation, and a point has only a line-
equation; but any other curve has a point-equation and also a
line-equation; the point-equation (*5#, y, z) m =o is the relation
which is satisfied by the point-co-ordinates (x, y, z) of each point
of the curve; and similarly the line-equation (*jj £, 77, f)"=o is
the relation which is satisfied by the line-co-ordinates (ij, 17, f)
of each line (tangent) of the curve.

There is in analytical geometry little occasion for any explicit
use of line-co-ordinates; but the theory is very important; it
serves to show that in demonstrating by point-co-ordinates any
purely descriptive theorem whatever, we demonstrate the cor-
relative theorem; that is, we do not demonstrate the one theorem,
and then (as by the method of reciprocal polars) deduce from it
the other, but we do at one and the same time demonstrate the
two theorems; our (x, y,z.) instead of meaning point-co-ordinates
may mean, line-co-ordinates, and the demonstration is then in
every step of it a demonstration of the correlative theorem.

Point-singu-
larities —

Line-singu-
larities —

i 1 '

J 3-

i

7. Singularities of a Curve. ■ .Pliicker' s Equations. — The above
dual generation explains the nature of the singularities of a plane
curve. The ordinary singularities, arranged according to a cross
division, are

Proper. Improper.

The stationary pcint, 2. The double point

cusp or spinode ; or node ;

The stationary tan- 4. The double tan-
gent or inflection ; gent;
arising as follows: — -

1. The cusp: the point as it travels along the line may come to

rest, and then reverse the direction of its motion.

3. The stationary tangent : the line may in the course of its

rotation come to rest, and then reverse the direction of its
rotation.

2. The node: the point may in the course of its motion come to

coincide with a former position of the point, the two positions
of the line not in general coinciding.

4. The double tangent: the line may in the course of its motion

come to coincide with a former position of the line, the tw6
positions of the point not in general coinciding. '

It may be remarked that we cannot with a real point and
line obtain the node with two imaginary tangents (conjugate or
isolated point or acnode) , nor again the real double tangent with
two imaginary points of contact; but this is of little consequence,
since in the general theory the distinction between real and
imaginary is not attended to.

The singularities (1) and (3) have been termed proper singu-
larities, and (2) and (4) improper; in each of the first-mentioned
cases there is a real singularity, or peculiarity in the motion;
in the other two cases there is not; in (2) there is not when the
point is first at the node, or when it is secondly at the node, any
peculiarity in the motion; the singularity consists in the point
coming twice into the same position; and so in (4) the singularity
is in the line coming twice into the same position. Moreover
(1) and (2) are, the former a proper singularity, and the latter
an improper singularity, as regards the motion of the point; and
similarly (3) and (4) are, the former a proper singularity, and the
latter an improper singularity, as regards the motion of the line.

But as regards the representation of a curve by an equation,
the case is very different.

First, if the equation be in point-co-ordinates, (3) and (4) are
in a sense not singularities at all. The curve (*J *, y, z) m = o,
or general curve of the order m, has double tangents and in-
flections; (2) presents itself as a singularity, for the equations
d t (*lx, y, z) m =o,d v (*lx, y, z) m = o, d 2 {*lx,y, z) m =o, implying
(* \x, y,z) m = o, are not in general satisfied by any values (a, h, c)
whatever of (*, y, z), but if such values exist, then the point
(a, b, c) is a node or double point; and (1) presents itself as a
further singularity or sub-case of (2), a cusp being a double point
for which the two tangents becomes coincident.

In line-co-ordinates all is reversed: — (1) and (2) are not singu-
larities ; (3) presents itself as a sub-case of (4).

The theory of compound singularities will be referred to farther
on.

In regard to the ordinary singularities, we have
m, the order,
n ,, class,

S ,, number of double points,
k ,, ,, cusps,

t ,, ,, double tangents,

1 ,, ,, inflections;

and this being so, Pliicker's '

(1) n—m (m — 1)— 28 — 3*,

(2) 1 =yn (m — 2)— 68 — 8*
'i = i«(m- 2) (m 2 — 9)-

+6Sk+%k(«-i),
OT = re(re — i)— 2t— 31,
K = 3n (n — 2)— 6t — 8i,
S = in(n — 2)(n 2 — '<))— (re 2 — re-
+fi(«-i).
It is easy to derive the further forms —

(7) t — k =3(«— m),

(8) 2(1- — 8) = (» — m) (n+m-

(9) |wt(w*-f-3)-8-2K =Jre(re+3)-T-2i,
(10) I (m — i, I (to-2) -S-k =i(n-i) (n— 2)— r— i,
(n, 12) w ! -2«-3(c =re 2 -2T-3 s , =m+n— ■

(3)

(4)
(5)
(6)

' six equations are

-(m 2 -m-6) (2S+3 K )+2«(a-i)

-6) (2t+3i)+2t(t-i)-|-6ti

-9)-

.CE»yjE

657

the whole system being equivalent to three equations only; and
it may be added that using a to denote the equal quantities
3»i+i and 3» +k everything may be expressed in terms of m,n,a.
We have

1=0— 3m,

25 = m 2 — m+8n— 3a.

2r=n 2 — n+&m — 3a. '■■'■

It is implied in Plucker's theorem that, m, n, S, k,'t, t signifying
as above in regard to any curve, then in regard to trie reciprocal
curve, n, m, t, 1, 5, k will have the same significations, viz. for the
reciprocal curve these letters denote respectively the order, class,
number of nodes, cusps, double tangent and inflections.

The expression f m(m-\-$)— 6— 2k is that of the number of the
disposable constants in a curve of the order m with 8 nodes and k
cusps (in fact that there shall be a node is I condition, a cusp 2
conditions) and the equation (9) thus expresses that the curve and
its reciprocal contain each of them the same number of disposable
constants. '

For a curve of the order m,. the expression \m{m — 1) — S— k is
termed the " deficiency " (as, to this more hereafter) ; the equation
(10) expresses therefore that the curve and its reciprocal have each
of them the same deficiency.

The relations m 2 — 25 — 3k— » 2 — 2r — 31, =»»+», present themselves
in the theory of envelopes, as will appear farther on.

With' regard to the demonstration of Plucker's equations it
is to be remarked that we are not able to write down the equation
in point-co-ordinates of a curve of the order m, having the given
numbers 5 and k of nodes and cusps. We can only use the general
equation {*\x, y, z)"» = 0, say for shortness u =0, of a curve of the
wth order, which equation, so long as the coefficients remain
arbitrary, represents a curve without nodes or cusps. Seeking
then, for this curve, the values, n, 1, r of the class, number of
inflections, and number of double tangents, — first, as regards .
the class, this is equal to the number of tangents which can be ■
drawn to the curve from an arbitrary point, or what is the same •
thing, it is equal to the number of the points of contact of these
tangents. The points of contact are found as the intersections ;
of the curve u—o by a curve depending oh the position of the
arbitrary point, and called the "first polar" of this point;
the order of the first polar is =m—i, and the number of interr
sections is thus —m(m— 1). But it can be shown, analytically
or geometrically, that if the given curve has a node, the first
polar passes through this node, which therefore counts as two
intersections, and that if the curve has a cusp, the first polar
passes through the cusp, touching the curve there, and hence
the cusp counts as three intersections. But, as is evident, the
node or cusp is not a point of contact of a proper tangent from the
arbitrary point; we have, therefore, for a node a diminution 2,
and for a cusp a diminution 3, in the number of the intersections;
and thus, for a curve with 5 nodes and a cusps^ there is a diminu-
tion 25+3/c, and the value of n is n~m (m— 1)^-28— 3*.

Secondly, as to the inflections, the process is a similar one; it
can be shown that the inflections are the intersections of the
curve by a derivative curve called (after Ludwig Otto Hesse
who first considered it) the Hessian, defined geometrically as
the locus of a point such that its conic polar (§8 below) in regard
to the curve breaks up into a pair of lines, and which has an
equation H = o, where H is the determinant formed with the
second differential coefficients of u in regard to the variables
(x, y, z); H=o is thus a curve of the order 3(#»— 2), and the
number of inflections is =3«j(«-2). But if the given curve
has a node, then not only the Hessian passes through the node,
but it has there a node the two branches at which touch re-
spectively the two branches of the curve; and the node thus
counts as six intersections; so if the curve has a cusp, then the
Hessian not only passes through the cusp, but it has there a cusp
through which it again passes, that is, there is a cuspidal branch
touching the cuspidal branch of the curve, and besides a simple
branch passing through the cusp, and hence the cusp counts as
eight intersections. The node or cusp is not an inflection, and we
have thus for a node a diminution 6, and for a cusp a diminution 8,
in the number of the intersections; hence for a curve with 5 nodes
and k cusps, the diminution is =6S-)-8k, and the number of;
inflections is 1 =3>»(w— 2) — 65 — 8k.

Thirdly, for the double tangents; the points of contact, of

these are obtained as the intersections of the curve by a curve
II — o, which has not as yet been geometrically defined, but which
is found analytically to be of the order (m— 2) (w 2 — 9); the
number of intersections is thus = m(«i— 2) {nfi—g); but if the
given curve has a node then there is a diminution = 4(m 2 — m— 6),
and if it -has a cusp then there is a diminution =6(w 2 —m— 6),
where, however, it is to be noticed that the factor (m?—m—6)
isift the case of a curve having only a node or only a cusp the
number of the tangents which can be drawn from the node or cusp
to the curve, and is used as denoting the number of these tangents,
and ceases to be the correct expression if the number of nodes
and cusps is greater than unity. Hence, in the case of a curve
which has 8, nodes and k cusps, the apparent diminution
2(w 2 — m— 6)(25+3<) is too great, and it has in fact to be
diminished by 2 {(25(5-i)+65K+fK(/c-i)}, or the half thereof is
4 for each pair of nodes, 6 for each combination of a node and
cusp, and o for each pair ; of cusps. We have thus finally an ex-
pression for 2T, =m (m— 2) (m 2 — 9) — &c; or dividing the whole
by 2, we have the expression for t given by the third of Plucker's
equations. :

Itiis obvious that we cannot by consideration of the equation
u — o in point-co-ordinates obtain the remaining three of Plucker's
equations; they, might be obtained in a precisely analogous
manner by means of the equation v — o in line-co-ordinates,but they
follow at once from the principle of duality, viz. they are obtained
by the mere interchange of m i S, k, with », t, (respectively.

,To complete Packer's theory it is necessary to take account
of compound singularities; it might be possible, but it is at any
rate difficult, to effect this by considering the curve as in course of
description by the point moving, along the rotating line; and it
seems easier to consider the compound singularity as arising
from the variation of an actually described curve with ordinary
singularities. The most simple case is when three double points
come into coincidence, thereby giving rise to a triple point;
and a somewhat more complicated one is when we have a cusp
of the second kind, or node-cugp arising from the coincidence
of a node, a cusp, an inflection, and a double tangent, as shown
ia the annexed figure, which represents the singularities as on the

point of coalescing. The general conclusion (see Cayley, Quart.
Math. Jour. t.vii., 1866, " On the higher singularities of plane
curves "; Collected Works, v. 520) is that every singularity
whatever may be considered as compounded of ordinary singu-
larities, say we have a singularity =5'-nodes, k' cusps, t' double
tangents arid 1' inflections. So that, in fact, Plucker's equations
properly understood apply to a curve with any singularities
whatever.
By means of Plucker's equations we may form a table —

m

n

S

K

T

1

1

-

-

O

i

-

-

2 '

2

3

6

9

1;

4

1

3

" 1

3

I

1

4

12

28

24

>>

10

1

16

18

i>

9

I

10

16

M

8

2

8

12

ft

7

1

I

4

10

„

6

2

1

8

)»

,6

3

O

4

6

M

5

2

I

2

4

" »J

4

1

2

1

2

11

3

3

1

6 5 8

CURVE

The table is arranged according to the value of to; and we have
w = o, n~i, the point; m=i, « = o, the line; to=2, n=2, the
conic; of to = 3, the cubic, there are three cases, the class being
6, 4 or 3, according as the curve is without singularities, or as it
has i node or i cusp; and so of to = 4, the quartic, there are ten
cases, where observe that in two of them the class is = 6, — the
reduction of class arising from two cusps or else from three nodes.
The ten cases may be also grouped together into four, according
as the number of nodes and cusps (5+k) is =o, i, 2 or 3.

The cases may be divided into sub-cases, by the consideration
of compound singularities; thus when w = 4, « = 6, 6 = 3, the
three nodes may be all distinct, which is the general case, or two
of them may unite together into the singularity called a tacnode,
or all three may unite together into a triple point or else into an
oscnode.

We may further consider the inflections and double tangents,
as well in general as in regard to cubic and quartic curves.

The expression for the number of inflections ^m(m - 2) for a
curve of the order to was obtained analytically by Pliicker,
but the theory was first given in a complete form by Hesse in
the two papers" tjber die Elimination, u.s.w.," and " tlber
die Wendepuncte der Gurven dritter Ordnung " (Crelle, t. xxviii.,
1844); in the latter of these the points of inflection are obtained
as the intersections of the curve w = o with the Hessian, or curve
A = o, where A is the determinant formed with the second derived
functions of u. We have in the Hessian the first instance of a
covariant of a ternary form. The whole theory of the inflections
of a cubic curve is discussed in a very interesting manner by
means of the canonical form of the equation x 3 +y 3 +z 3 +6/ryz = o;
and in particular a proof is given of Pliicker' s theorem that the
nine points of inflection of a cubic curve lie by threes in twelve
lines.

It may be noticed that the nine inflections of a cubic curve
represented by an equation with real coefficients are three real,
six imaginary; the three real inflections lie in a line, as was known
to Newton and Maclaurin. For an acnodal cubic the six
imaginery inflections disappear, and there remain three real
inflections lying in a line. For a crunodal cubic the six inflections
which disappear are two of them real, the other four imaginary,
and there remain two imaginary inflections and one real inflection.
For a cuspidal cubic the six imaginary inflections and two of the
real inflections disappear, and there remains one real inflection.

A quartic curve has 24 inflections; it was conjectured by
George Salmon, and has been verified by H. G. Zeuthen that at
most eight of these are real. ..

The expression \m(m- 2) (to 2 - 9) for the number of double
tangents of a curve of the order to was obtained by Pliicker only
as a consequence of his first, second, fourth and fifth equations.
An investigation by means of the curve II = 0, which by its inter-
sections with the given curve determines the points of contact of
the double tangents, is indicated by Cayley, " Recherches sur
l'elimination et la theorie des courbes " (Crelle, t. xxxiv., 1847;
Collected Works, vol. i. p. 337), and in part carried out by Hesse
in the memoir " tlber Curven dritter Ordnung " {Crelle, t.
xxxvi., 1848). A better process was indicated by Salmon in
the " Note on the Double Tangents to Plane Curves," Phil. Mag.,
1858; considering the to- 2 points in which any tangent to
the curve again meets the curve, he showed how to form the
equation of a curve of the order (w-2), giving by its inter-
section with the tangent the points in question; making the
tangent touch this curve of the order (to- 2), it will be a double
tangent of the original curve. See Cayley, " On the Double
Tangents of a Plane Curve " {Phil. Trans, t. cxlviii., 1859;
Collected Works, iv. 186), and O. Dersch {Math. Ann. t. vii.,
1874). The solution is still in so far incomplete that we have no
properties of the curve II = o, to distinguish one such curve from
the several other curves which pass through the points of contact
of the double tangents.

A quartic curve has 28 double tangents, their points of contact
determined as the intersections of the curve by a curve II =
of the order 14, the equation of which in a very elegant form was
first obtained by Hesse (1849). Investigations in regard to them

are given by Pliicker in the Theorie der algebraischen Curven,
and in two memoirs by Hesse and Jacob Steiner (Crelle, t. xlv.,
1855). in respect to the triads of double tangents which have their
points of contact on a conic and other like relations. It was
assumed by Pliicker that the number of real double tangents
might be 28, 16, 8, 4 or o, but Zeuthen has found that the last
case does not exist.

8. Invariants and Covariants. Polar Curves. — The Hessian A
has just been spoken of as a covariant of the form u; the notion
of invariants and covariants belongs rather to the form u than
to the curve « = o represented by means of this form; and the
theory may be very briefly referred to. A curve u — o may have
some invariantive property, viz. a property independent of
the particular axes of co-ordinates used in the representation
of the curve by its equation; for instance, the curve may have
a node, and in order to this, a relation, say A = o, must exist
between the coefficients of the equation; supposing the axes
of co-ordinates altered, so that the equation becomes V = o, and
writing A' = o for the relation between the new coefficients, then
the relations A = o, A' = o, as two different expressions of the
same geometrical property, must each of them imply the other;
this can only be the case when A, A' are functions differing
only by a constant factor, or say, when A is an invariant of u.
If, however, the geometrical property requires two or more rela-
tions between the coefficients, say A = o, B = o,&c, then we must
have between the new coefficients the like relations, A' = o, B' = o,
&c, and the two systems of equations must each of them imply
the other; when this is so, the system of equations, A = o, B=o,
&c, is said to be invariantive, but it does not follow that A, B,
&c, are of necessity invariants of u. Similarly, if we have a
curve U = o derived from the curve u = o in a manner independent
of the particular axes of co-ordinates, then from the transformed
equation u' = o deriving in like manner the curve U' = o, the
two equations U = o, U' = o must each of them imply the other;
and when this is so, U will be a covariant of u. The case is less
frequent, but it may arise, that there are covariant systems
U = o, V = o, &c, and U' = o, V' = o, &c, each implying the other,
but where the functions U, V, &c, are not of necessity covariants
of u.

; If we take a fixed point (*',y',z') and a curve «==o of order
m, and suppose the axes of reference altered, so that *', y' , 2'
are linearly transformed in the same way as the current x, y, z,

the curves \ x '^ c +y'g^+ z 'g- z ) r ^ = °, (r=i, 2, . . .m-i)have the

covariant property. They are the polar curves of the point with
regard to .-u—o.

The theory of the invariants and covariants of a ternary cubic
function w has been studied in detail, and brought into connexion
with the cubic curve w=o; but the theory of the invariants and
covariants for the next succeeding case, the ternary quartic
function, is still very incomplete.

9. Envelope of a Curve.— In further illustration of the Pluckerian
dual generation of a curve, we may consider the question of the
envelope of a variable curve. The notion is very probably older,
but it is at any rate to be found in Lagrange's Theorie des fonctions
analytiques (1798) ; it is there remarked that the equation obtained
by the elimination of the parameter a from an equation/ (x,y,a) = o
and the derived equation in respect to a is a curve, the envelope
of the series of curves represented by the equation / (x,y,a)=o
in question. To develop the theory, consider the curve corre-
sponding to any particular value of the parameter; this has
with the consecutive curve (or curve belonging to the consecutive
value of the parameter) a certain number of intersections and
of common tangents, which may be considered as the tangents
at the intersections; and the so-called envelope is the curve
which is at the same time generated by the points of intersection
and enveloped by the common tangents; we have thus a dual
generation. But the question needs to be further examined.
Suppose that in general the variable curve is of the order to with
5 nodes and k cusps, and therefore of the class n with r double
tangents and 1 inflections, to, n, 5, k, t, 1 being connected by the
Pluckerian equations, — the number of nodes or cusps may be

CURVE

659

greater for particular values of the parameter, but this is a
speciality which may be here disregarded. Considering the vari-
able curve corresponding to a given value of the parameter,
or say simply the variable curve, the consecutive curve has then
also 8 and /c nodes and cusps, consecutive to those of the variable
curve; and it is easy to see that among the intersections of the
two curves we have the nodes each counting twice, and the cusps
each counting three times; the number of the remaining inter-
sections is = m? — 2 8 — 3/c. Similarly among the common tangents
of the two curves we have the double tangents each counting
twice, and the stationary tangents each counting three times, and
the number of the remaining common tangents is = w 2 — 27— 31
( = m 2 — 28— 3/c, inasmuch as each of these numbers is as was
seen =m-\-n). At any one of the m 2 — 28— 3/c points the variable
curve and the consecutive curve have tangents distinct from yet
infinitesimally near to each other, and each of these two tangents
is also infinitesimally near to one of the « 2 — 27— 31 common
tangents of the two curves; whence, attending only to the
variable curve, and considering the consecutive curve as coming
into actual coincidence with it, the « 2 — 27-— 31 common tangents
are the tangents to the variable curve at the m 2 — 28— 3/c points
respectively, and the envelope is at the same time generated
by the m 2 — 28— 3/c points, and enveloped by the « 2 — 27—31
tangents; we have thus a dual generation of the envelope,
which only differs from Pliicker's dual generation, in that in place
of a single point and tangent we have the group of w 2 — 26— 3/c
points and « 2 — 27— 31 tangents.

The parameter which determines the variable curve may be
given as a point upon a given curve, or say as a parametric
point; that is, to the different positions of the parametric point
on the given curve correspond the different variable curves,
and the nature of the envelope will thus depend on that of the
given curve; we have thus the envelope as a derivative curve
of the given curve. Many well-known derivative curves present
themselves in this manner; thus the variable curve may be
the normal (or line at right angles to the tangent) at any point
of the given curve; the intersection of the consecutive normals
is the centre of curvature; and we have the evolute as at once
the locus of the centre of curvature and the envelope of the
normal. It may be added that the given curve is one of a series
of curves, each cutting the several normals at right angles. Any
one of these is a " parallel " of the given curve; and it can be
obtained as the envelope of a circle of constant radius having
its centre on the given curve. We have in like manner, as
derivatives of a given curve, the caustic, catacaustic or diacaustic
as the case may be, and the secondary caustic, or curve cutting
at right angles the reflected or refracted rays.

10. Forms of Real Curves. — We have in much that precedes
disregarded, or at least been indifferent to, reality; it is only thus
that the conception of a curve of the m-th order, as one which
is met by every right line in m points, is arrived at; and the curve
itself, and the line which cuts it, although both are tacitly
assumed to be real, may perfectly well be imaginary. For
real figures we have the general theorem that imaginary inter-
sections, &c, present themselves in conjugate pairs; hence, in
particular, that a curve of an even order is met by a line in an
even number (which may be =0) of points; a curve of an odd
order in an odd number of points, hence in one point at least;
it will be seen further on that the theorem may be generalized in
a remarkable manner. Again, when there is in question only
one pair of points or lines, these, if coincident, must be real;
thus, a line meets a cubic curve in three points, one of them
real, and other two real or imaginary; but if two of the inter-
sections coincide they must be real, and we have a line cutting
a cubic in one real point and touching it in another real point.
It may be remarked that this is a limit separating the two cases
where the intersections are all real, and where they are one real,
two imaginary.

Considering always real curves, we obtain the notion of a
branch; any portion capable of description by the continuous
motion of a point is a branch; and a curve consists of one or
more branches. Thus the curve of the first order or right line

consists of one branch; but in curves of the second order, or
conies, the ellipse and the parabola consist each of one branch, the
hyperbola of two branches. A branch is either re-entrant, or
it extends both ways to infinity, and in this case, we may regard
it as consisting of two legs {crura, Newton), each extending one
way to infinity, but without any definite separation. The branch,
whether re-entrant or infinite, may have a cusp or cusps, or it may
cut itself or another branch, thus having or giving rise to crunodes
or double points with distinct real tangents; an acnode, or
double point with imaginary tangents, is a branch by itself, —
it may be considered as an indefinitely small re-entrant branch.
A branch may have inflections and double tangents, or there
may be double tangents which touch two distinct branches;
there are also double tangents with imaginary points of contact,
which are thus lines having no visible connexion with the curve.
A re-entrant branch not cutting itself may be everywhere
convex, and it is then properly said to be an oval; but the term
oval may be used more generally for any re-entrant branch not
cutting itself; and we may thus speak of a once indented, twice
indented oval, &c. , or even of a cuspidate oval. Other descriptive
names for ovals and re-entrant branches cutting themselves
may be used when required; thus, in the last-mentioned case
a simple form is that of a figure of eight; such a form may break
up into two ovals or into a doubly indented oval or hour-glass.
A form which presents itself is when two ovals, one inside the
other, unite, so as to give rise to a crunode — in default of a better
name this may be called, after the curve of that name, a limagon
(q.v.). Names may also be used for the different forms of infinite
branches, but we have first to consider the distinction of hyper-
bolic and parabolic. The leg of an infinite branch may have at
the extremity a tangent; this is an asymptote of the curve,
and the leg is then hyperbolic; or the leg may tend to a fixed
direction, but so that the tangent goes further and further off
to infinity, and the leg is then parabolic; a branch may thus
be hyperbolic or parabolic as to its two legs; or it may be hyper-
bolic as to one leg and parabolic as to the other. The epithets
hyperbolic and parabolic are of course derived from the conic
hyperbola and parabola respectively. The nature of the two
kinds of branches is best understood by considering them as
projections, in the same way as we in effect consider the hyperbola
and the parabola as projections of the ellipse. If a line fl cut
an arc aa' at b, so that the two segments ab, ba' lie on opposite
sides of the line, then projecting the figure so that the line Q goes
off to infinity, the tangent at b is projected into the asymptote,
and the arc ab is projected into a hyperbolic leg touching the
asymptote at one extremity; the arc ba' will at the same time
be projected into a hyperbolic leg touching the same asymptote
at the other extremity (and on the opposite side), but so that the
two hyperbolic legs may or may not belong to one and the same
branch. And we thus see that the two hyperbolic legs belong
to a simple intersection of the curve by the line infinity. Next,
if the line U touch at b the arc aa' so that the two portions
ab, ba' lie on the same side of the line 0, then projecting the
figure as before, the tangent at b, that is, the line itself, is
projected to infinity; the arc ab is projected into a parabolic
leg, and at the same time the arc ba' is projected into a parabolic
leg, having at infinity the same direction as the other leg, but so
that the two legs may or may not belong to the same branch.
And we thus see that the two parabolic legs represent a contact
of the line infinity with the curve, — the point of contact being
of course the point at infinity determined by the common direc-
tion of the two legs. It will readily be understood how the like
considerations apply to other cases, — for instance, if the line
is a tangent at an inflection, passes through a crunode, or touches
one of the branches of a crunode, &c. ; thus, if the line passes
through a crunode we have pairs of hyperbolic legs belonging
to two parallel asymptotes. The foregoing considerations also
show (what is very important) how different branches are con-
nected together at infinity, and lead to the notion of a complete
branch or circuit.

The two legs of a hyperbolic branch may belong to different
asymptotes, and in this case we have the forms which Newton

66o

CURVE

calls inscribed, circumscribed, ambigene, &c; or they may
belong to the same asymptote, and in this case we have the
serpentine form, where the branch cuts the asymptote, so as
to touch it at its two extremities on opposite sides, or the
conchoidal form, where it touches the asymptote on the same
side. The two legs of a parabolic branch may converge to
ultimate parallelism, as in the conic parabola, or diverge to
ultimate parallelism, as in the semi-cubical parabola y^ — ofi, and
the branch is said to be convergent, or divergent, accordingly;
or they may tend to parallelism in opposite senses, as in the
cubical parabola y=x?. As mentioned with regard to a branch
generally, an infinite branch of any kind may have cusps, or,
by cutting itself or another branch, may have or give rise to a
crunode, &c.

ii. Classification of Cubic Curves. — We may now consider
the various forms of cubic curves as appearing by Newton's
Enumeratio, and by the figures belonging thereto. The species
are reckoned as 72, which are numbered accordingly 1 to 72;
but to these should be added io", 13", 22" and 22 6 . It is not
intended here to consider the division into species, nor even
completely that into genera, but only to explain the principle of
classification. It may be remarked generally that there are at
most three infinite branches, and that there may besides be a
re-entrant branch or oval.
The genera may be arranged as" follows: —
1,2,3,4 redundant hyperbolas

5,6 defective hyperbolas

7,8 parabolic hyperbolas
9 hyperbolisms of hyperbola

10 „ „ ellipse

11 „ „ parabola

12 trident curve

13 divergent parabolas

14 cubic parabola;

and thus arranged they correspond to the different relations
of the line infinity to the curve. First, if the three intersections
by the line infinity are all distinct, we have the hyperbolas; if
the points are real, the redundant hyperbolas, with three hyper-
bolic branches; but if only one of them is real, the defective
hyperbolas, with one hyperbolic branch. Secondly, if two of
the intersections'coincide, say if the line infinity meets the curve
in a onefold point and a twofold point, both of them real, then
there is always one asymptote: the line infinity may at the
twofold point touch the curve, and we have the parabolic
hyperbolas; or the twofold point may be a singular point, — viz.,
a crunode giving the hyperbolisms of the hyperbola; an acnode,
giving the hyperbolisms of the ellipse; or a cusp, giving the
hyperbolisms of the parabola. As regards the so-called hyper-
bolisms, observe that (besides the single asymptote) we have
in the case of those of the hyperbola two parallel asymptotes;
in the case of those of the ellipse the two parallel asymptotes
become imaginary, that is, they disappear; and in the case of
those of the parabola they become coincident, that is, there is
here an ordinary asymptote, and a special asymptote answering
to a cusp at infinity. Thirdly, the three intersections by the line
infinity may be coincident and real; or say we have a threefold
point: this may be an inflection, a crunode or a cusp, that is,
the line infinity may be a tangent at an inflection, and we have
the divergent parabolas; a tangent at a crunode to one branch,
and we have the trident curve; or lastly, a tangent at a cusp, and
we have the cubical parabola.

It is to be remarked that the classification mixes together
non-singular and singular curves, in fact, the five kinds presently
referred to: thus the hyperbolas and the divergent parabolas in T
elude curves of every kind, the separation being made in the
species; the hyperbolisms of the hyperbola and ellipse, and the
trident curve, are nodal; the hyperbolisms of the parabola, and
t.he cubical parabola, are cuspidal. The divergent parabolas
are of five species which respectively belong to and determine the
five kinds of cubic curves; Newton gives (in two short para-
graphs without any development) the remarkable theorem that
the five divergent parabolas by their shadows generate and
exhibit all the cubic curves.

The five divergent' parabolas are curves each of them sym-
metrical with regard to an axis. There are two non-singular
kinds,, the one with, the other without, an oval, but each of them
has an infinite (as Newton describes it) campaniform branch;
this cuts the axis at right, angles, being at first concave, but
ultimately convex, towards the axis, the two legs continually
tending to become at right angles to the axis. The oval may
unite itself with the infinite branch, or it may dwindle into a
point, and we have th« crunodal and the acnodal forms respec-
tively; or if simultaneously the oval dwindles into a point and
unites itself to the infinite branch, we have the cuspidal form.
(See Parabola.) Drawing a line to cut any one of these curves
and projecting the line to infinity, it would not be difficult to
show how the line should be drawn in order to obtain a curve
of any given species. We have herein a better principle of classi-
fication; considering cubic curves, in the first instance, according
to singularities, the curves are non-singular, nodal (viz. crunodal
or acnodal), or cuspidal; and we see further that there are two
kinds of non-singular curves, the complex and the simplex.
There is thus a complete division into the five kinds, the complex,
simplex, crunodal, acnodal and cuspidal. Each singular kind
presents itself as a limit separating two kinds of inferior singu-
larity; the cuspidal separates the crunodal and the acnodal, and
these last separate from each other the complex and the simplex.
The whole question is discussed very fully and ably by A. F.
Mobius in the memoir " Ueber die Grundformen der Linien
dritter Ordnung " (A bh. der K. Sachs. Ges. zu Leipzig, t. i., 1852).
The author considers, not only plane curves, but also cones, or,
what is almost the same thing, the spherical curves which are
their sections by a concentric sphere. Stated in regard to the
cone, we have there the fundamental theorem that there are two
different kinds of sheets; viz., the single sheet, not separated
into two parts by the vertex (an instance is afforded by the plane
considered as a cone of the first order generated by the motion
of a line about a' point), and the double or twin -pair sheet,
separated into two parts by the vertex (as in the cone of the
second order). And it then appears that there are two kinds
of non-singular cubic cones, viz. the simplex, consisting of a
single sheet, and the complex, consisting of a single sheet and a
twin-pair sheet; and we thence obtain (as for cubic curves)
the crunodal, the acnodal and the cuspidal kinds of cubic cones.
It may be mentioned that the single sheet is a sort of wavy form,
having upon it three lines of inflection, and which is met by any
plane through the vertex in one or in three lines; the twin -pair
sheet has no lines of inflection, and resembles in its form a cone
on an oval base;

In general a cone consists of one or more single or twin-pair
sheets, and if we consider the section of the cone by a plane,
the curve consists of one or more complete branches, or say
circuits, each of them the section of one sheet of the cone; thus,
a cone of the second order is one twin-pair sheet, and any section
of it is one circuit composed, it may be, of two branches. But
although we thus arrive by projection at the notion of a circuit,
it is not necessary to go out of the plane, and we may (with
Zeuthen, using the shorter term circuit for his complete branch)
define a circuit as any portion (of a curve) capable of description
by the continuous motion of a point, it being understood that
a passage through infinity is permitted. And we then say that
a curve consists of one or more circuits; thus the right line, or
curve of the first order, consists of one circuit; a curve of the
second order consists of one circuit; a cubic curve consists of one
circuit or else of two circuits.

A circuit is met by aiiy right line always in an even number,
or always in an odd number, of points, and it is said to be an even
circuit or an odd circuit accordingly; the right line is an odd
circuit, the conic an even circuit. And we ha ve then the theorem,
two odd circuits intersect in an odd number of points; an odd
and an even circuit, or two even circuits, in an even number
of points. An even circuit not cutting itself divides the plane
into two parts, the one called the internal part, incapable of
containing any odd circuit, the other called the external part,
capable of containing an odd circuit.

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661

We may now state in a more convenient form the fundamental
distinction of the kinds of cubic curve. A non-singular cubic is
simplex, consisting of one odd circuit, or it is complex, consisting
of one odd circuit and one even circuit. It may be added that
there are on the odd circuit three inflections, but on the even
circuit no inflection; it hence also appears that from any point
of the odd circuit there can be drawn to the odd circuit two tan-
gents, and to the even circuit (if any) two tangents, but that
from a point of the even circuit there cannot be drawn (either to
the odd or the even circuit) any real tangent; consequently,
in a simplex curve the number of tangents from any point is two ;
but in a complex curve the number is four, or none, — four if the
point is on the odd circuit, none if it is on the even circuit. It
at once appears from inspection of the figure of a non-singular
cubic curve, which is the odd and which the even circuit. The
singular kinds arise as before; in the crunodal and the cuspidal
kinds the whole curve is an odd circuit, but in an acnodal kind
the acnode must be regarded as an even circuit.

12. Quartic Curves. — The analogous question of the classifica-
tion of quartics (in particular non-singular quartics and nodal
quartics) is considered in Zeuthen's memoir " Sur les differentes
formes des courbes planes du quatrieme ordre " {Math. Ann.
t. vii., 1874). A non-singular quartic has only even circuits;
it has at most four circuits external to each other, or two circuits
one internal to the other, and in this last case the internal circuit
has no double tangents or inflections. A very remarkable
theorem is established as to the double tangents of such a quartic :
distinguishing as a double tangent of the first kind a real double
tangent which either twice touches the same circuit, or else
touches the curve in two imaginary points, the number of the
double tangents of the first kind of a non-singular quartic is
= 4; it follows that the quartic has at most 8 real inflections.
The forms of the non-singular quartics are very numerous, but
it is not necessary to go further into the question.

We may consider in relation to a curve, not only the line
infinity, but also the circular points at infinity; assuming the
curve to be real, these present themselves always conjointly;
thus a circle is a conic passing through the two circular points,
and is thereby distinguished from other conies. Similarly a
cubic through the two circular points is termed a circular cubic;
a quartic through the two points is termed a circular quartic,
and if it passes twice through each of them, that is, has each of
them for a node, it is termed a bicircular quartic. Such a quartic
is of course binodal (m = \, 5=2, k = o); it has not in general,
but it may have, a third node or a cusp. Or again, we may have
a quartic curve having a cusp at each of the circular points:
such a curve is a " Cartesian," it being a complete definition of
the Cartesian to say that it is a bicuspidal quartic curve (m = 4,
5 = o, k=2), having a cusp at each of the circular points. The
circular cubic and the bicircular quartic, together with the
Cartesian (being in one point of view a particular case thereof),
are interesting curves which have been much studied, generally,
and in reference to their focal properties.

13. Foci. — The points called foci presented themselves in the
theory of the conic, and were well known to the Greek geometers,
but the general notion of a focus was first established by Pliicker
(in the memoir " tlber solche Puncte die bei Curven einer
hoheren Ordnung den Brennpuncten der Kegelschnitte ent-
sprechen " (Crelle, t. x., 1833). We may from each of the circular
points draw tangents to a given curve; the intersection of two
such tangents (belonging of course to the two circular points
respectively) is a focus. There will be from each circular point
X tangents (X, a number depending on the class of the curve and
its relation to the line infinity and the circular points, = 2 for
the general conic, 1 for the parabola, 2 for a circular cubic, or
bicircular quartic, &c); the X tangents from the one circular
point and those from the other circular point intersect in X real
foci (viz. each of these is the only real point on each of the tangents
through it), and in X 2 -X imaginary foci; each pair of real foci
determines a pair of imaginary foci (the so-called antipoints
of the two real foci), and the JX(X-i) pairs of real foci thus
determine the X 2 -X imaginary foci. There are in some cases

points termed centres, or singular or multiple foci (the nomen-
clature is unsettled), which are the intersections of improper
tangents from the two circular points respectively; thus, in the
circular cubic, the tangents to the curve at the two circular
points respectively (or two imaginary asymptotes of the curve)
meet in a centre.

14. Distance and Angle. Curves described mechanically. — The
notions of distance and of lines at right angles are connected with
the circular points; and almost every construction of a curve
by means of lines of a determinate length, or at right angles
to each other, and (as such) mechanical constructions by means
of linkwork, give rise to curves passing the same definite number
of times through the two circular points respectively, or say to
circular curves, and in which the fixed centres of the construction
present themselves as ordinary, or as singular, foci. Thus the
general curve of three bar-motion (or locus of the vertex of a
triangle, the other two vertices whereof move on fixed circles)
is a tricircular sextic, having besides three nodes (w = 6,
5 = 3+3+3, = 9), and having the centres of the fixed circles each
for a singular focus; there is a third singular focus, and we have
thus the remarkable theorem (due to S. Roberts) of the triple
generation of the curve by means of the three several pairs of
singular foci.

Again, the normal, qua line at right angles to the tangent,
is connected with the circular points, and these accordingly
present themselves in the before-mentioned theories of evolutes
and parallel curves.

15. Theories of Correspondence. — We have several recent
theories which depend on the notion of correspondence: two
points whether in the same plane or in different planes, or on
the same curve or in different curves, may determine each other
in such wise that .to any given position of the first point there
correspond a positions of the second point, and to any given
position of the second point a positions of the first point; the
two points have then an (a, a) correspondence; and if a, a are
each = 1, then the two points have a (1, 1) or rational correspond-
ence. Connecting with each theory the author's name, the
theories in question are G. F. B. Riemann, the rational trans-
formation of a plane curve; Luigi Cremona, the rational trans-
formation of a plane; and Chasles, correspondence of points on
the same curve, and united points. The theory first referred to,
with the resulting notion of " Geschlecht," or deficiency, is more
than the other two an essential part of the theory of curves, but
they will all be considered.

Riemann's results are contained in the memoirs on " Abelian
Integrals," &c. (Crelle, t. liv., 1857), and we have next R. F. A.
Clebsch, " tjber die Singularitaten algebraischer Curven "
(Crelle, t. lxv., 1865), and Cayley, " On the Transformation of
Plane Curves" (Proc. Land. Math. Soc. t. i., 1865; Collected
Works, vol. vi. p. 1). The fundamental notion of the rational
transformation is as follows: —

Taking u, X, Y, Z to be rational and integral functions (X, Y, Z
all of the same order) of the co-ordinates (x, y, z), and u', X', Y', Z'
rational and integral functions (X', Y', Z', all of the same order) of
the co-ordinates (V, y', z'), we transform a given curve « = o, by the
equations of x' : y':z'=X: Y: Z, thereby obtaining a transformed
curve «'=o, and a converse set of equations x : y : z = X': Y': Z*;
viz. assuming that this is so, the point (*, y, z) on the curve w = o
and the point (*', y', z') on the curve w'=o will be points having a
(1,1) correspondence. To show how this is, observe that to a given
point (x, y, z) on the curve « = o there corresponds a single point
(x', y', z') determined by the equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z; from
these equations and the equation u — o eliminating x, y, z, we obtain
the equation m'=o of the transformed curve. To a given point
(x' t y', z') not on the curve u' =0 there corresponds, not a single point,
but the system of points (x, y, z) given by the equations x' : y'\ z' =
X : Y : Z, viz., regarding x', y', z' as constants (and to fix the ideas,
assuming that the curves X = 0, Y =0, Z = 0, have no common inter-
sections), these are the points of intersection of the curves X : Y : Z,
= x' : y' : z', but no one of these points is situate on the curve u = o.
If, however, the point (x 1 ', y', z') is situate on the curve w'=o, then
one point of the system of points in question is situate on the curve
m=o, that is, to a given point of the curve u' = o there corresponds
a single point of the curve « = o; and hence also this point must
be given by a system of equations such as x : y : z = X' : Y' : Z'.

It is an old and easily proved theorem that, for a curve of

662

CURVE

the order m, the number 5+k of nodes and cusps is at most
— \(m— i) (m— 2); for a given curve the deficiency of the actual
number of nodes and cusps below this maximum number, viz.
\{m— 1) (m — 2) — 5— k, is the " Geschlecht " or "deficiency,"
of the curve, say this is = D. When D = o, the curve is said to be
unicursal, when = 1, bicursal, and so on.

The general theorem is that two curves corresponding ration-
ally to each other have the same deficiency. [In particular
a curve and its reciprocal have this rational or (1, 1) correspond-
ence, and it has been already seen that a curve and its reciprocal
have the same deficiency.]

A curve of a given order can in general be rationally trans-
formed into a curve of a lower order; thus a curve of any order
for which D = o, that is, a unicursal curve, can be transformed
into a line; a curve of any order having the deficiency 1 or 2
can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D+2,
deficiency D; and a curve of any order deficience = or>3
can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D+3,
deficiency D.

Taking x' , y', z' as co-ordinates of a point of the transformed curve,
and in its equation writing x' : y' : z' = 1 : 8 : cj> we have <t> a certain
irrational function of 8, and the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z
of any point of the given curve can be expressed as proportional to
rational and integral functions of 8, (j>, that is, of 8 and a certain
irrational function of 0. ...

In particular if D =0, that is, if the given curve be unicursal, the
transformed curve is a line, j> is a mere linear function of 8, and
the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the unicursal
curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral
functions of 8; it is easy to see that for a given curve of the order
m, these functions of 8 must be of the same order m.

If D = i, then the transformed curve is a cubic; it can be shown
that in a cubic, the axes of co-ordinates being properly chosen, <f>
can be expressed as the square root of a quartic function of 8 ; and
the theorem is that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the bicursal
curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral
functions of 8, and of the square root of a quartic function of 8.

And so if D = 2, then the transformed curve is a nodal quartic;
<j> can be expressed as the square root of a sextic function of 8 and
the theorem is, that the co-ordinates x, y, z of a point of the tricursal
curve can be expressed as proportional to rational and integral
functions of 8, and of the square root of a sextic function of 8. But
D=3, we have no longer the like law, viz. is not expressible as
the square root of an octic function of 8.

Observe that the radical, square root of a quartic function,
is connected with the theory of elliptic functions, and the radical,
square root of a sextic function, with that of the first kind of
Abelian functions, but that the next kind of Abelian functions
does not depend on the radical, square root of an octic function.

It is a form of the theorem for the case D = i, that the co-
ordinates x, y, z of a point of the bicursal curve, or in particular
the co-ordinates of a point of the cubic, can be expressed as
proportional to rational and integral functions of the elliptic
functions sn«, cnw, dnw; in fact, taking the radical to be
Vi-S'.i-W, and writing 0=sn«, the radical becomes
= cnw, dn«; and we have expressions of the form in question.

It will be observed that the equations x' : y' :z' =X : Y : Z
before mentioned do not of themselves lead to the other system
of equations x : y : s=X' : Y' : Z', and thus that the theory does
not in anywise establish a (1, 1) correspondence between the
points (*, y, z) and (*', /, 2') of two planes or of the same
plane; this is the correspondence of Cremona's theory.

In this theory, given in the memoirs " Sulle trasformazioni geo-
metrche delle figure piani," Mem. di Bologna, t. ii. (1863) and t. v.
(1865), we have a system of equations x' : y' : z'=X : Y : Z which
does lead to a system x : y : z = X' : Y' : Z', where, as before, X, Y, Z
denote rational and integral functions, all of the same order, of the
co-ordinates x, y, z, and X', Y', Z' rational and integral functions, all
of the same order, of the co-ordinates x', y,' z', and there is thus a
(1, 1) correspondence given by these equations between the two
points (x, y, z) and (*', /, z'). To explain this, observe that starting
from the equations of x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z, to a given point (*, y, 2)
there corresponds one point {x', y' , z'), but that if « be the order of
the functions X, Y, Z, then to a given point x', y', z' there would, if
the curves X = o, Y = o, Z=o had no common intersections, corre-
spond re 2 points (x, y, z). If, however, the functions are such that
the curves X = o, Y=o, Z = o have'fe common intersections, then
among the k 2 points are included these k points, which are fixed
points independent of the point (*', /, z'); so that, disregarding

these fixed points, the number of points (x, y, z) corresponding to
the given point (x', y', z') is = n 2 — k; and in particular if k = ri i — 1,
then we have one corresponding point; and hence the original
system of equations x' : y' : z' = X : Y : Z must lead to the equivalent
system x : y : z =X' : Y' : Z' ; and in this system by the like reason-
ing the functions must be such that the curves X'=o, Y' = o, Z' = o
have »' 2 — 1 common intersections. The most simple example is
in the two systems of equations x' : y' :z' — yz :zx : xy and x :y : z =
y'z' : z'x' : x'y' ; where yz = o, zx = o, xy = o are conies (pairs of lines)
having three common intersections, and where obviously either
system of equations leads to the other system. In the case where
X, Y, Z are of an order exceeding 2 the required number n 2 — 1 of
common intersections can only occur by reason of common multiple
points on the three curves; and assuming that the curves X = o,
Y=o, Z = o have 01+12 + 03. .. +a„-i common intersections, where
the ai points are ordinary points, the 02 points are double points, the
03 points are triple points, &c, on each curve, we have the condition

OJ+402+903+... (»-l) 2 a„_i = » 2 -i;

but to this must be joined the condition

01+312+603... +J«(«-l)a„_i = !»(«+3)-2

(without which the transformation would be illusory) ; and the
conclusion is that 01, 02, . . . a n _i may be any numbers satisfying
these two equations. It may be added that the two equations
together give

02+303... +K»-i)(»-2)o»_i = §(«-!)(« -2),
which expresses that the curves X = o, Y = o, Z = o are unicursal.
The transformation may be applied to any curve u = o, which is
thus rationally transformed into a curve u'=o, by a rational trans-
formation such as is considered in Riemann's theory : hence the two
curves have the same deficiency.

Coming next to Chasles, the principle of correspondence is
established and used by him in a series of memoirs relating to the
conies which satisfy given conditions, and to other geometrical
questions, contained in the Comptes rendus, t. Iviii. (1864) et seq.
The theorem of united points in regard to points in a right line
was given in a paper, June- July 1864, and it was extended to
unicursal curves in a paper of the same series (March 1866), " Sur
les courbes planes ou a. double courbure dont les points peuvent
se determiner individuellement — application du principe de cor-
respondance dans la theorie de ces courbes."

The theorem is as follows: if in a unicursal curve two points
have an (o, /S) correspondence, then the number of united points
(or points each corresponding to itself) is=o+/3. In fact in a
unicursal curve the co-ordinates of a point are given as proportional
to rational and integral functions of a parameter, so that any point
of the curve is determined uniquely by means of this parameter;
that is, to each point of the curve corresponds one value of the
parameter, and to each value of the parameter one point on the
curve; and the (a, /S) correspondence between the two points is given
by an equation of the form (*$0, i) a ( 4>, i)P = o between their para-
meters 6 and ; at a united point <j> = 8, and the value of 8 is given by
an equation of the order o+/3. The extension to curves of any given
deficiency D was made in the memoir of Cayley, " On the corre-
spondence of two points on a curve," — Pore. Lond. Math. Soc. t. i.
(1866; Collected Works, vol. vi. p. 9), — viz. taking P, P' as the corre-
sponding points in an (a, a') correspondence on a curve of deficiency
D, and supposing that when P is given the corresponding points P'
are found as the intersections of the curve by a curve containing
the co-ordinates of P as parameters, and having with the given curve
k intersections at the point P, then the number of united points is
a = a + a'+2&D; and more generally, if the curve O intersect the
given curve in a set of points P' each p times, a set of points Q' each
q times, &c, in such manner that the points (P,P') the points (P, Q')
&c, are pairs of points corresponding to each other according to
distinct laws; then if (P, P') are points having an (a, a') correspond-
ence with a number = a of united points, (P-,Q') points havinga (/S, P')
correspondence with a number —b of united points, and so on, the
theorem is that we have

p(a- a- a')+q(b-0- F)+ . . .' = 2&D.

The principle of correspondence, or say rather the theorem of
united points, is a most powerful instrument of investigation,
which may be used in place of analysis for the determination of
the number of solutions of almost every geometrical problem.
We can by means of it investigate the class of a curve, number of
inflections, &c. — in fact, Pliicker's equations; but it is necessary
to take account of special solutions: thus, in one of the most
simple instances, in finding the class of a curve, the cusps present
themselves as special solutions.

Imagine a curve of order m, deficiency D, and let the corresponding
points P, P' be such that the line joining them passes through a given

CURVE

663

point 0; this is an (m — 1, m — 1) correspondence, and the value of k
is=i, hence the number of united points is =2m-2+2D; the
united points are the points of contact of the tangents from O and
(as special solutions) the cusps, and we have thus the relation
n+K = 2m — 2+2D; or, writing D = \{m — i)(m — 2) — S — k, this is
n = m(m — 1) — 2d — 3*, which is right.

The principle in its original form as applying to a right line was
used throughout by Chasles in the investigations on the number
of the conies which satisfy given conditions, and on the number
of solutions of very many other geometrical problems.

There is one application of the theory of the (a, a') correspond-
ence between two planes which it is proper to notice.

Imagine a curve, real or imaginary, represented by an equation
(involving, it may be, imaginary coefficients) between the Cartesian
co-ordinates u, u' ; then, writing u = x+iy, u' —x'-\-iy'; the equation
determines real values of (x, y), and of (x', y'), corresponding to
any given real values of (x', y') and (x, y) respectively ; that is, it
establishes a real correspondence (not of course a rational one)
between the points (x, y) and (x' , y') ; for example in the imaginary
circle « 2 +tt' 2 = (a+ii) 2 , the correspondence is given by the two
equations x 2 — y 2 +x' 2 — y' 2 = a 2 — b 2 , xy-\-x'y' = ab. We have thus a
means of geometrical representation for the portions, as well imagin-
ary as real, of any real or imaginary curve. Considerations such as
these have been used for determining the series of values of the inde-
pendent variable, and the irrational functions thereof in the theory
of Abelian integrals, but the theory seems to be worthy of further
investigation.

. 16. Systems Of Curves satisfying Conditions. — The researches
of Chasles (Comptes Rendus, t. lviii., 1864, et seq.) refer to the
conies which satisfy given conditions. There is an earlier paper
by J. P. E. Fauque de Jonquieres, " Theoremes generaux
concernant les courbes geometriques planes d'un ordre quel-
conque," Liouv. t. vi. (1861), which establishes the notion of a
system of curves (of any order) of the index N, viz. considering
the curves of the order n which satisfy %n(n-\- 3) — 1 conditions,
then the index N is the number of these curves which pass through
a given arbitrary point. But Chasles in the first of his papers
(February 1864), considering the conies which satisfy four
conditions, establishes the notion of the two characteristics
(p., v) of such a system of conies, viz. /x is the number of the conies
which pass through a given arbitrary point, and v is the number
of the conies which touch a given arbitrary line. And he gives the
theorem, a system of conies satisfying four conditions, and having
the characteristics (p., v) contains iv—fi line-pairs (that is, conies,
each of them a pair of lines), and 2/x— y point-pairs (that is,
conies, each of them a pair of points, — coniques infiniment
aplaties), which is a fundamental one in the theory. The char-
acteristics of the system can be determined when it is known
how many there are of these two kinds of degenerate conies in
the system, and how often each is to be counted. It was thus
that Zeuthen (in the paper Nyt Bydrag, " Contribution to the
Theory of Systems of Conies which satisfy four Conditions "
(Copenhagen, 1865), translated with an addition in the Nouvelles
Annates) solved the question of finding the characteristics of the
systems of conies which satisfy four conditions of contact with
a given curve or curves; and this led to the solution of the further
problem of finding the number of the conies which satisfy five
conditions of contact with a given curve or curves (Cayley,
Comptes Rendus, t. lxiii., 1866; Collected Works, vol. v. p. 542),
and " On the Curves which satisfy given Conditions " {Phil.
Trans, t. clviii., 1868; Collected Works, vol. vi. p. 191).

It may be remarked that although, as a process of investigation,
it is very convenient to seek for the characteristics of a system
of conies satisfying 4 conditions, yet what is really determined is
in every case the number of the conies which satisfy 5 conditions;
the characteristics of the system (4^) of the conies which pass
through i,p points are (5^), (4^, 1/), the number of the conies
which pass through 5 points, and which pass through 4 points and
touch 1 line: and so in other cases. Similarly as regards cubics,
or curves of any other order: a cubic depends on 9 constants, and
the elementary problems are to find the number of the cubics
(gp), (Sp, il), &c, which pass through 9 points, pass through 8
points and touch 1 line, &c. ; but it is in the investigation con-
venient to seek for the characteristics of the systems of cubics
(8/>), &c, which satisfy 8 instead of 9 conditions.

The elementary problems in regard to cubics are solved very
completely by S. Maillard in his These, Recherche des caracteristiques
des systemes ilimenlaires des courbes planes du troisieme ordre
(Paris, 1871). Thus, considering the several cases of a cubic

No. of consts.

1. With a given cusp 5

2. ,, cusp on given line 6

3. „ cusp , 7

4. ,, a given node 6

5. ,, node on given line 7

6. ,, node , . 8

7. non-singular 9

he determines in every case the characteristics Ox, v) of the
corresponding systems of cubics (4^), (3^, il), &c. The same
problems, or most of them, and also the elementary problems
in regard to quartics are solved by Zeuthen, who in the elaborate
memoir " Almindelige Egenskaber, &c," Danish Academy, t. x.
(1873), considers the problem in reference to curves of any order,
and applies his results to cubic and quartic curves.

The methods of Maillard and Zeuthen are substantially
identical; in each case the question considered is that of finding
the characteristics (p., v) of a system of curves by consideration of
the special or degenerate forms of the curves included in the
system. The quantities which have to be considered are very
numerous. Zeuthen in the case of curves of any given order
establishes between the characteristics p, v, and 18 other
quantities, in all 20 quantities, a set of 24 equations (equivalent
to 23 independent equations), involving(besides the 20 quantities)
other quantities relating to the various forms of the degenerate
curves, which supplementary terms he determines, partially for
curves of any order, but completely only for quartic curves.
It is the discussion and complete enumeration of the special
or degenerate forms of the curves, and of the supplementary
terms to which they give rise, that the great difficulty of the
question seems to consist; it would appear that the 24 equations
are a complete system, and that (subject to a proper determina-
tion of the supplementary terms) they contain the solution of
the general problem.

17. Degeneration of Curves. — The remarks which follow have
reference to the analytical theory of the degenerate curves which
present themselves in the foregoing problem of the curves which
satisfy given conditions.

A curve represented by an equation in point-co-ordinates may
break up: thus if Pi, P 2l ... be rational and integral functions of the
co-ordinates (x,y,z) of the orders m it mi. . . respectively, we have the
curve Pi al P 2 a2 . . . =0, of the order m, — aimi-f-a 2 m 2 + . . . , composed
of the curve Pi = o taken ai times, the curve P 2 = o taken a 2 times, &c.

Instead of the equation Pi al P 2 a2 ... = 0, we may start with an
equation « = o, where u is a function of the order m containing
a parameter 8, and for a particular value say = o, of the parameter
reducing itself to Pi al P 2 a2 . . . . Supposing indefinitely small, we
have what may be called the penultimate curve, and when — o the
ultimate curve. Regarding the ultimate curve as derived from a
given penultimate curve, we connect with the ultimate curve, and
consider as belonging to it, certain points called " summits " on
the component curves Pi = o, P 2 = o respectively; a summit 2 is
a point such that, drawing from an arbitrary point O the tangents
to the penultimate curve, we have OS as the limit of one of these
tangents. The ultimate curve together with its summits may be re-
garded as a degenerate form of the curve u = o. Observe that the
positions of the summits depend on the penultimate curve « = o,
viz. on the values of the coefficients in the terms multiplied by
0, 2 ,... ; they are thus in some measure arbitrary points as regards
the ultimate curve Pi al P 2 a2 ... =0.

It may be added that we have summits only on the component
curves Pi=o, of a multiplicity ai>i; the number of summits on
such a curve is in general = (ai 2 -ai)mi 2 . Thus assuming that the
penultimate curve is without nodes or cusps, the number of the
tangents to it is = m 2 — m, = (aiWi + a 2 tn 2 -f...) 2 — (ai7»i+a 2 ?re 2 -|- . ■ . ).
Taking Pi = o to have 5i nodes and ki cusps, and therefore its class
ni to be = Wi 2 — Wi— 281 — 3K1, &c, the expression for the number of
tangents to the penultimate curve is

= (ai 2 -ai) «i'+ (a 2 2 -a 2 )»z 2 2 + . . . + 2aia 2 raiW 2 -f-

+ Ol(» l -l-2Sl+3lC 1 ) + Os(»»2+2«2+3K2)+ • • •

where a term 2aia 2 mi?n 2 indicates tangents which are in the limit
the lines drawn to the intersections of the curves Pi = o, P 2 = o each
line 2<xia 2 times; a term ai(Mi+25i-|-3(ci) tangents which are in the

CURVILINEAR— CURZOLA

limit the proper tangents to Pi=o each aj times, the lines to its
nodes each 2ai times, and the lines to its cusps each 301 times;
the remainingterms (m 2 — aOW + W^ o 2 )m 2 2 + . . . indicate tangents
which are in the limit the lines drawn to the several summits, that is,
we have (ai 2 — ai)mi 2 summits on the curve Pi= o, &c.

There is, of course, a precisely similar theory as regards line-
co-ordinates; taking Hi, II2, &c, to be rational and integral func-
tions of the co-ordinates (£, r\, f) we connect with the ultimate curve
Ili'UIIa' 12 . _ .=0, and consider as belonging to it, certain lines, which
for the moment may be called " axes " tangents to the component
curves Ui = Oi, n 2 = o respectively. Considering an equation in
point-co-ordinates, we may have among the component curves right
lines, and if in order to put these in evidence we take the equation
to be LiT 1 . . Pi al ... =0, where Li = o is a right line, Pi = o a curve of
the second or any higher order, then the curve will contain as part
of itself summits not exhibited in this equation, but the correspond-
ing line-equation will be iA* 1 ...!^ 1 =0, where Ai=o, . ..are the
equations of the summits in question, IIi=o, &c., are the line-
equations corresponding to the several point-equations Pi = o, &c;
and this curve will contain as part of itself axes not exhibited by
this equation, but which are the lines Li = 0, ... of the equation in
point-co-ordinates.

18. Twisted, Curves. — In conclusion a little may be said as to
curves of double curvature, otherwise twisted curves or curves in
space. The analytical theory by Cartesian co-ordinates was first
considered by Alexis Claude CJairaut, Recherches sur les courbes
d double courbure (Paris, 1 73 1). Such a curve may be considered
as described by a point, moving in a line which at the same
time rotates about the point in a plane which at the same time
rotates about the line; the point is a point, the line a tangent,'
and the plane an osculating plane, of the curve; moreover the
line is a generating line, and the plane a tangent plane, of a
developable surface or torse, having the curve for its edge of
regression. Analogous to the order and class of a plane curve
we have the order, rank and class of the system (assumed to be
a geometrical one), viz. if an arbitrary plane contains m points,
an arbitrary line meets r lines, and an arbitrary point lies in
n planes, of the system, then m, r, n are the order, rank and
class respectively. The system has singularities, and there
exist between m, r, n and the numbers of the several singu-
larities equations analogous to Plucker's equations for a plane
curve.

It is a leading point in the theory that a curve in space cannot
in general be represented by means of two equations U=o, V=o;
the two equations represent surfaces, intersecting in a curve;
but there are curves which are not the complete intersection of
any two surfaces; thus we have the cubic in space, or skew
cubic, which is the residual intersection of two quadric surfaces
which have a line in common; the equations U=o, V=o of the
two quadric surfaces represent the cubic curve, not by itself, but
together with the line.

Authorities. — In addition to the copious authorities mentioned
in the text above, see Gabriel Cramer, Introduction & Vanalyse des
lignes courbes algebriques (Geneva, 1750). Bibliographical articles are
given in the Ency. der math. Wiss. Bd. iii. 2, 3 (Leipzig, 1902-1906) ;
H. C. F. von Mangoldt, " Anwendung der Differential- und Integral-
rechnung auf Kurven und Flachen," Bd. iii. 3 (1902) ; F. R. v. LiTien-
th'al, " Die auf einer Flache gezogenen Kurven," Bd. iii. 3 (1902) ;
G. W. Scheffers, " Besondere transcendente Kurven," Bd. iii. 3
(1903) ; H. G. Zeuthen, "Abzahlende M ethoden," Bd. iii. 2 (1906) ;
L. Berzolari, " Allgemeine Theorie der hoheren ebenen algebraischen
Kurven," Bd. iii. 2 (1906). Also A. Brill and M. Noether, " Die
Entwickelung der Theorie der algebraischen Funktionen in alterer
und neuerer Zeit " (Jahresb. der deutschen math, ver., 1894) ; E.
Kotter, " Die Entwickelung der synthetischen Geometrie " {Jahresb.
der -deutschen math, ver., 1898-1901); E. Pascal, Reperto rio di
matematiche superiori, ii. " Geometria " (Milan, 1900) ; H. Wieleitner,
Bibliographic der hoheren algebraischen Kurven fur den Zeitabschnitt
von 1890-1804 (Leipzig, 1905).

Text-books: — G. Salmon, A Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves
(Dublin, 1852, 3rd ed , 1879); translated into German by O. W.
Fiedler, Analytische Geometrie der hoheren ebenen Kurven (Leipzig,
2te Aufl., 1882); L. Cremona, Introduzione ad una teoria geometrica
delle curve piane (Bologna, 1861); J. H. K. Durege, Die ebenen
Kurven dritter Ordnung (Leipzig, 1871); R. F. A. Clebsch and
C. L. F. Lindemann, Vorlesungen iiber Geometrie, Band i. and h
(Leipzig, 1875-1876); H. Schroeter, Die Theorie der ebenen Kurven
dritter Ordnung (Leipzig, 1888); H. Andoyer, Lecons sur la theorie
des formes et la geometrie analytique superieure (Paris, 1900) ; Wie-
leitner, Theorie der ebenen algebraischen Kurven hoherer Ordnung
(Leipzig, 1905). (A. Ca.; E. B. El.)

CURVILINEAR, in architecture, that which is formed by
curved or flowing lines; the roofs over the domes and vaults
of the Byzantine churches were generally curvilinear. The term
is also given to the flowing tracery of the Decorated and the
Flamboyant styles.

CURWEN, HUGH (d. 1 568) , English ecclesiastic and statesman,
was a native of Westmorland, and was educated at Cambridge,
afterwards taking orders in the church. In May 1533 he ex-
pressed approval of Henry VIII. 's marriage with Anne Boleyn
in a sermon preached before the king. In 1541 he became dean
of Hereford, and in 1555 Queen Mary nominated him to the
archbishopric of Dublin, and in the same year he was appointed
lord chancellor of Ireland. He acted as one of the lords justices
during the absence from Ireland of the lord deputy, the earl of
Sussex, in 1557. On the accession of Elizabeth, Curwen at once
accommodated himself to the new conditions by declaring
himself a Protestant, and was continued in the office of lord
chancellor. He was accused by the archbishop of Armagh of
serious moral delinquency, and his recall was demanded both
by the primate and the bishop of Meath. In 1567 Curwen
resigned the see of Dublin and the office of lord chancellor,
and was appointed bishop of Oxford. He died on the 1st of
November 1568.

See John Strype, Life and Acts of Archbishop Parker (3 vols.,
Oxford, 1824), and Memorials of Thomas Cranmer (2 vols., Oxford,
1840) ; John D'Alton. Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin (Dublin,
1838).

CURWEN, JOHN (1816-1880), English Nonconformist minister
and founder of the Tonic Sol-Fa system of musical teaching,
was born at Heckmondwike, Yorkshire, of an old Cumberland
family. His father was a Nonconformist minister, and he himself
adopted this profession, which he practised till 1864, when he
gave it up in -order to devote himself to his new method of
musical nomenclature, designed to avoid the use of the stave with
its lines and spaces. He adapted it from that of Miss Sarah Ann
Glover (1 785-1867) of Norwich, whose Sol-Fa system was based
on the ancient gamut; but she omitted the constant recital of
the alphabetical names of each note and the arbitrary syllable
indicating key relationship, and also the recital of two or more
such syllables when the same note was common to as many keys
{e.g. " C, Fa, Ut," meaning that C is the subdominant of G and
the tonic of C) . The notes were represented by the initials of the
seven syllables, still in use in Italy and France as their names ■
but in the " Tonic Sol-Fa " the seven letters refer to key relation-
ship and not to pitch. Curwen was led to feel the importance
of a simple way of teaching how to sing by note by his experiences
among Sunday-school teachers. Apart from Miss Glover, the
same idea had been elaborated in France since J. J. Rousseau's
time, by Pierre Galin (1786-1821), Aime Paris (1798-1866)
and Emile Cheve (1804-1864), whose method of teaching how
to read at sight also depended on the principle of " tonic relation-
ship " being inculcated by the reference of every sound to its
tonic, by the use of a numeral notation. Curwen brought out his
Grammar of Vocal Music in 1843, and in 1853 started the Tonic
Sol-Fa Association; and in 1879, after some difficulties with
the education department the Tonic Sol-Fa College was opened.
Curwen also took to publishing, and brought out a periodical
called the Tonic Sol-fa Reporter, and in his later life was occupied
in directing the spreading organization of his system. He died
at Manchester on the 26th of May 1880. His son John Spencer
Curwen (b. 1847), who became principal of the Tonic Sol-Fa
College, published Memorials of J. Curwen in 1882. The Sol-Fa
system has been widely adopted for use in education, as an easily
teachable method in the reading of music at sight, but its more
ambitious aims, which are strenuously pushed, for providing a
superior method of musical notation generally, have not recom-
mended themselves to musicians at large.

CURZOLA (Serbo-Croatian Korcula or Karkar), an island
in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria; and
lying west of the Sabioncello promontory, from which it is
divided by a strait less than 2 m. wide. Its length is about 25 m.;
its average breadth, 4 m. Curzola {Korlula), the capital and

CURZON OF KEDLESTON— CUSANUS, NICOLAUS

66 5

principal port, is a fortified town on the east coast, and occupies
a rocky foreland almost surrounded by the sea. Besides the
interesting church (formerly a cathedral), dating from the 12th
or 13 th century, the loggia or council chambers, and the palace
of its former Venetian governors, it possesses the noble mansion
of the Arnieri, and other specimens of the domestic architecture
of the 15th and 16th centuries, together with the massive walls
and towers, erected in 1420, and the 15th-century Franciscan
monastery, with its beautiful Venetian Gothic cloister. The
main resources of the islanders are boat-building (for which
they are celebrated throughout the Adriatic), fishing and sea-
faring, the cultivation of the vine, corn and olives, and breeding
of mules. Pop. (1900) of island, 17,377; of capital (town and
commune), 6486. Prehistoric grave-mounds are common on
the hills of the interior, and in later times Curzola may have
been a Phoenician settlement. Its early history is very obscure,
but it was certainly colonized by Greeks from Cnidus. The
present name is a corruption of the Gr. Kkpicvpa MeXao'a, or
Lat. Corcyra Nigra, "Black Corcyra "; and is perhaps due
to the dark pines which still partly cover the island. In 998
Curzola first came under Venetian suzerainty. During the 1 2th
century it was ruled by Hungary and Genoa in turn, and enjoyed
a brief period of independence; but after 1255 its hereditary
counts again submitted to Venice. The Roman Catholic see of
Curzola, created in 1301, was only suppressed in 1806. Curzola
surrendered to the Hungarians in 1358, was purchased by Ragusa
(1413-1417), and finally declared itself subject to Venice in 1420.
In 1 57 1 it defended itself so gallantly against the Turks that
it obtained the designation fidelissima. From 1776 to 1797 it
succeeded Lesina as the main Venetian arsenal in this region.
During the Napoleonic wars it was ruled successively by Russians,
French and British, ultimately passing to Austria in 1815.

CURZON OF KEDLESTON, GEORGE NATHANIEL, ist
Baron (1859- ), English statesman, eldest son of the 4th
baron Scarsdale, rector of Kedleston, Derbyshire, was born on the
nth of January 1859, and was educated at Eton and Balliol
College, Oxford. At Oxford he was president of the Union, and
after a brilliant university career was elected a fellow of All Souls
College in 1883. He became assistant private secretary to Lord
Salisbury in 1885, and in 1886 entered parliament as member
for the Southport division of S.W. Lancashire. He was appointed
under secretary for India in 189 1- 189 2 and for foreign affairs
in 1895-1898. In the meantime he had travelled in Central Asia,
Persia, Afghanistan, the Pamirs, Siam, Indo-China and Korea,
and published several books describing central and eastern Asia
and the political problems connected with those regions. In 1895
he married Mary Victoria Leiter (d. 1906), daughter of a Chicago
millionaire. In January 1899 he was appointed governor-
general of India, where his extensive knowledge of Asiatic affairs
showed itself in the inception of a strong foreign policy, while he
took in hand the reform of every department of Indian admini-
stration. He was created an Irish peer on his appointment,
the creation taking this form, it was understood, in order that
he might remain free during his father's lifetime to re-enter the
House of Commons. Reaching India shortly after the sup-
pression of the frontier risings of 1897-98, he paid special
attention to the independent tribes of the north-west frontier,
inaugurated a new province called the North West Frontier
Province, and carried out a policy of conciliation mingled with
firmness of control. The only trouble on this frontier during
the period of his administration was the Mahsud Waziri campaign
of 1 901. Being mistrustful of Russian methods he exerted
himself to encourage British trade in Persia, paying a visit to
the Persian Gulf in 1903; while on the north-east frontier he
anticipated a possible Russian advance by the Tibet Mission of
1903, which rendered necessary the employment of military force
for the protection of the British envoys. The mission, which had
the ostensible support of China as suzerain of Tibet, penetrated
to Lhasa, where a treaty was signed in September 1904. In
pursuance of his reforming policy Lord Curzon appointed a
number of commissions to inquire into Indian education, irriga-
tion, police and other branches of administration, on whose

reports legislation was based during his second term of office as
viceroy. With a view to improving British relations with the
native chiefs and raising the character of their rule, he estab-
lished the Imperial Cadet corps, settled the question of Berar with
the nizam of Hyderabad, reduced the salt tax, and gave relief
to the smaller income-tax payers. Lord Curzon exhibited much
interest in the art and antiquities of India, and during his
viceroyalty took steps for the preservation and restoration of
many important monuments and buildings of historic interest.
In January 1903 he presided at the durbar held at Delhi in honour
of the coronation of King Edward VII. It was attended by all
the leading native princes and by large numbers of visitors from
Europe and America; and the magnificence of the spectacle
surpassed anything that had previously been witnessed even in
the gorgeous ceremonial of the East. On the expiration of his
first term of office, Lord Curzon was reappointed governor-
general. His second term of office was marked by the passing
of several acts founded on the recommendations of his previous
commissions, and by the partition of Bengal (1905), which roused
bitter opposition amongst the natives of that province. A differ-
ence of opinion with the commander-in-chief, Lord Kitchener,
regarding the position of the military member of council in
India, led to a controversy in which Lord Curzon failed to obtain
support from the home government. He resigned (1904) and
returned to England. In 1904 he was appointed lord warden
of the Cinque Ports; in the same year he was given the honorary
degree of D.C.L. by Oxford University, and in 1908 he was
elected chancellor of the university. In the latter year he was
elected a representative peer for Ireland, and thus relinquished
any idea of returning to the House of Commons. In 1909-1910
he took an active part in defending the House of Lords against
the Liberals. Lord Curzon's publications include Russia in
Central Asia (1889); Persia and the Persian Question (1892);
Problems of the Far East (1894; new ed., 1896).

See Caldwell Lipsett, Lord Curzon in India, 1898-190J (1906) ; and
C. J. O'Donnell, The Failure cf Lord Curzon (1903).

CUSANUS, NICOLAUS (Nicholas of Cusa) (1401-1464),
cardinal, theologian and scholar, was the son of a poor fisherman
named Krypffs or Krebs, and derived the name by which he is
known from the place of his birth, Kues or Cusa, on the Moselle,
in the archbishopric of Trier (Treves). In his youth he was
employed in the service of Count Ulrich of Manderscheid, who,
seeing in him evidence of exceptional ability, sent him to study
at the school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Deventer,
and afterwards at the university of Padua, where he took his
doctor's degree in law in his twenty-third year. Failing in his
first case he abandoned the legal profession, and resolved to
take holy orders. After filling several subordinate offices he
became archdeacon of Liege. He was a member of the council of
Basel, and dedicated to the assembled fathers a work entitled
De concordantia Catholica, in which he maintained the superiority
of councils over popes, and assailed the genuineness of the False
Decretals and the Donation of Constantine. A few years later,
however, he had reversed his position, and zealously defended the
supremacy of the pope. He was entrusted with various missions
in the interests of Catholic unity, the most important being to
Constantinople, to endeavour to bring about a union of the
Eastern and Western churches. From 1440 to 1447 he was
in Germany, acting as papal legate at the diets of 1441, 1442, 1445
and 1446. In 1448, in recognition of his services, Nicholas V.
raised him to the cardinalate; and in 1450 he was appointed
bishop of Brixen against the wish of Sigismund, archduke of
Austria, who opposed the reforms the new bishop sought to
introduce into the diocese. In 145 1 he was sent to Germany
and the Netherlands to check ecclesiastical abuses and bring
back the monastic life to the original rule of poverty, chastity
and obedience — a mission which he discharged with well-
tempered firmness. Soon afterwards his dispute with the arch-
duke Sigismund in his own diocese was brought to a point by his
claiming certain dues of the bishopric, which the temporal prince
had appropriated. Upon this the bishop was imprisoned by the
archduke, who, in his turn, was excommunicated by the pope.

666

CUSH— CUSHING, C.

These extreme measures were not persisted in; but the dispute
remained unsettled at the time of the' bishop's death, which
occurred at Lodi in Umbria on the nth of August 1464. In
1459 he had acted as governor of Rome during the absence of his
friend Pope Pius II. at the assembly of princes at Milan; and
he wrote his Crebratio Alcorani, a treatise against Mahom-
medanism, in support of the expedition against the Turks
proposed at that assembly. Some time before his death he had
founded a hospital in his native place for thirty-three poor
persons, the number being that of the years of the earthly life
of Christ. To this institution he left his valuable library.

Although one of the great leaders in the reform movement
of the 15th century, Nicholas of Cusa's interest for later times
lies in his philosophical much more than in his political or ecclesi-
astical activity. As in religion he is entitled to be called one of
the " Reformers before the Reformation," so in philosophy he
was one of those who broke with scholasticism while it was still
the orthodox system. In his principal work, De docta ignorantia
(1440), supplemented by De conjecturis libri duo published in
the same year, he maintains that all human knowledge is mere
conjecture, and that man's wisdom is to recognize his ignorance.
From scepticism he escapes by accepting the doctrine of the
mystics that God can be apprehended by intuition (inluitio,
speculatio), an exalted state of the intellect in which all limitations
disappear. God is the absolute maximum and also the absolute
minimum, who can be neither greater nor less than He is, and
who comprehends all that is or that can be (" deum esse omnia,
ut non possit esse aliud quam est "). Cusanus thus laid himself
open to the charge of pantheism, which did not fail to be brought
against him in his own day. His chief philosophical doctrine
was taken up and developed more than a hundred years later
by Giordano Bruno, who calls him the divine Cusanus. In
mathematical and physical science Cusanus was much in advance
of his age. In a tract, Reparatio Calendarii, presented to the
council of Basel, he proposed the reform of the calendar after
a method resembling that adopted by Gregory. In his De
Quadratures Circuit he professed to have solved the problem;
and in his Conjectura de novissimis diebus he prophesied that
the world would come to an end in 1734. Most noteworthy,
however, in this connexion is the fact that he anticipated
Copernicus by maintaining the theory of the rotation of the earth.

The works of Cusanus were published in a complete form by
Henri Petrie (1 vol. fol., Basel, 1565). See F. A. Scharpff's Der
Kardinal und Bischof Nikolaus von Cusa als Reformator in Kirche,
Reich, und Philos. des 75. Jahrhund. (Tubingen, 1871); J. M. Dux,
Der deutsche Kurd. Nicolaus von Cusa und die Kirche seiner Zeit
(Regensburg, 1848); R. Falckenberg, Grundziige d. Philos. d. Niko-
laus Cusanus (Breslau, 1880) and Aufgabe und Wesen d. Erkenntniss
bei Nikolaus von Kues (Breslau, 1880); T. Stumpf, Die politischen
Ideen des Nikolaus von Cues (Cologne, 1865) ; M. Glossner, Nikolaus
von Cusa und Marius Nizolius als Vorldufer der neueren Philo-
sophie (Miinster, 1891); F. Fiorentino, II Risorgimento filosofico nel
quattro cento (Naples, 1885); Axel Herrlin, Studier i Nicolaus af
Cues' Filosofi (Lund, 1892); H. Hoffding, Hist, of Mod. Phil. (Eng.
trans., 1900), bk. i. chap. x. ; F. J. Clemens, Giordano Bruno und
Nikolaus Cusanus (Bonn, 1847); R. Zimmermann, Der Card.
Nikolaus Cusanus als Vorldufer Leibnitzens (Vienna, 1852); J.
Ubinger, Philosophic des Nikolaus Cusanus (Wiirzburg, 1881); art.
by R. Schmid in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. s.v. "Cusanus"; see
also Mysticism.

CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, in the Bible, from whom seems to
have been derived the name of the " Land of Cush," commonly
rendered " Ethiopia " by the Septuagint and by the Vulgate.
The locality of the land of Cush has long been a much-vexed
question. Bochart maintained that it was exclusively in Arabia;
Schulthess and Gesenius held that it should be sought for nowhere
but in Africa (see Ethiopia). Others again, like Michaelis and
Rosenmiiller, have supposed that the name Cush was applied to
tracts of country both in Arabia and in Africa, but the defective
condition of the ancient knowledge of countries and peoples,
as also the probability of early migrations of " Cushite " tribes
(carrying with them their name), will account for the main facts.
The existence of an African Cush cannot reasonably be questioned,
though the term is employed in the Old Testament with some
latitude. The African Cush covers Upper Egypt, and extends

southwards from the first cataract (Syene, Ezek. xxix. 10).
That the term was also applied to parts of Arabia is evident from
Gen. x. 7, where Cush is the " father " of certain tribal and
ethnical designations, all of which point very clearly to Arabia,
with the very doubtful exception of Seba, which Josephus {Ant.
ii. 10. 2) identifies with Meroe. 1 Even in the 5th century a.d.
the Himyarites, in the south of Arabia, were styled by Syrian
writers Cushaeans and Ethiopians. Moreover, the Babylonian
inscriptions mention the Kashshi, an Elamite race, whose name
has been equated with the classical Kocrcratot, Ktcrcrioi, and it
has been held that this affords a more appropriate explanation
of Cush (perhaps rather Kash) , the ancestor of (the Babylonian)
Nimrod in Gen. x. 8. Although decisive evidence is lacking, it
seems extremely probable that several references to Cush in the
Old Testament cannot refer to Ethiopia, despite the likelihood
that considerable confusion existed in. the minds of early writers.
The Cushite invasion in 2 Chron. xiv. (see Asa) is intelligible if
the historical foundation for the story be a raid by Arabians,
but in xvi. 8 the inclusion of Libyans shows that the enemy was
subsequently supposed to be African. In several passages the
interpretation is bound up with that of Mizraim (q.v.), and
depends in general upon the question whether Ethiopia at a
given time enjoyed the prominence given to it.

On Num. xii. 1 see Jethro; and consult H. Winckler, Keil. u.
das alte Test., 3rd ed., p. 144 sq., and Im Kampfe um den alten Orient,
ii. pp. 36 seq., and the literature cited under Mizraim. (S. A. C.)

CUSHING, CALEB (1800-1879), American political leader
and lawyer, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 17 th
of January 1800. He graduated at Harvard in 181 7, was tutor
in mathematics there in 1820-1821, was admitted to practice
in the court of common pleas in December 1821, and began the
practice of law in Newburyport, Mass., in 1824. After serving,
as a Democratic-Republican, in the state house of representatives
in 1825, in the state senate in 1826, and in the house again in
1828, he spent two years, from 1829 to 1831, in Europe, again
served in the state house of representatives in 1833 and 1834,
and in the latter year was elected by the Whigs a representative
in Congress. He served in this body from 1835 until 1843, and
here the marked inconsistency which characterized his public
life became manifest; for when John Tyler had become president,
had been " read out " of the Whig party, and had vetoed Whig
measures (including a tariff bill), for which Cushing had voted,
Cushing first defended the vetoes and then voted again for the
bills. In 1843 President Tyler nominated him for secretary of
the treasury, but the senate refused to confirm him for this office.
He was, however, appointed later in the same year commissioner
of the United States to China, holding this position until 1845,
and in 1844 negotiating the first treaty between China and the
United States. In 1847, while again a representative in the
state legislature, he introduced a bill appropriating money for
the equipment of a regiment to serve in the Mexican War;
although the bill was defeated, he raised the necessary funds
privately, and served in Mexico first as colonel and afterwards
as brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1847 and again in 1848
the Democrats nominated him for governor of Massachusetts, but
on each occasion he was defeated at the polls. He was again a
representative in the state legislature in 185 1, became an associate
justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 1852, and during
the administration (1853-1857) of President Pierce, was attorney-
general of the United States. In 1858, 1859, 1862 and 1863 he
again served in the state house of representatives. In i860 he
presided over the National Democratic Convention which met
first at Charleston and later at Baltimore, until he joined those
who seceded from the regular convention; he then presided also
over the convention of the seceding delegates, who nominated
John C. Breckinridge for the presidency. During the Civil War,
however, he supported the National Administration. At the
Geneva conference for the settlement of the " Alabama " claims
in 1871-1872 he was one of the counsel for the United States.

1 For Seba, see Sabaeans, and cf. generally the commentaries
on Gen. x. 7. In Hab. iii. 7 Cushan (obviously a related form) is
parallel to Midian.

CUSHING, W. B.— CUSTARD APPLE

667

In 1873 President Grant nominated him for chief justice of the
United States, but in spite of his great learning and eminence
at the bar, his ante-war record and the feeling of distrust ex-
perienced by many members of the senate on account of his
inconsistency, aroused such vigorous opposition that his nomina-
tion was soon withdrawn. From 1874 to 1877 Cushing was
United States minister to Spain. He died at Newburyport,
Mass., on the 2nd of January 1879. He published History
and Present State' of the Town of Newburyport, Mass. (1826);
Review of the. late Revolution in France (1833); Reminiscences
of Spain (1833); Oration on the Growth and Territorial Pro-
gress of the United States (1839); Life and Public Services of
William H. Harrison (1840); and The Treaty of Washington

(1873)-
CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER (1842-1874), American naval

officer, was born in Delafield, Wisconsin, on the 4th of November
1842. He entered the Naval Academy from New York in 1857,
but resigned in March 1861. When, however, the Civil War
began, he volunteered into the navy, was rated acting master's
mate, and became a midshipman in October 1861, and alieutenant
in July 1862, serving in the North Atlantic blockading squadron.
The work of blockade, and of harassing the Confederates on the
coast and the rivers of the Atlantic seaboard, called for much
service in boats, and entailed a great deal of exposure. Cushing
was distinguished by his readiness to volunteer, his indefatig-
ability, and by his good fortune, the reward of vigilance and
intelligence. The feat by which he will be remembered was the
destruction of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " in the
Roanoke river on the 27th of October in 1864. The vessel had
done much damage to the Federal naval forces, and her destruc-
tion was greatly desired. She was at anchor surrounded by
baulks of timber, and a cordon of boats had been stationed to
row guard against an expected Federal attack. Lieutenant
Cushing undertook the attack on her with a steam launch carrying
a spar-torpedo and towing an armed cutter. He eluded the
Confederate lookout and reached the " Albemarle " unseen.
When close to he' was detected, but he had time to drive the
steam launch over the baulks and to explode thetorpedo against
the " Albemarle " with such success that a hole was made in her
and she sank. Cushing's own launch was destroyed. He and
the few men with him were compelled to take to the water;
one was killed, another was drowned, Cushing and one other
escaped, and the rest were captured. Cushing himself swam to
the swamps on the river bank, and after wading among them
for hours reached a Federal picket boat. For destroying the
" Albemarle " he was thanked by Congress and was promoted
to be lieutenant-commander. On the 15th of January 1865 he
took a conspicuous part in the land attack on the sea-front wall
of Fort Fisher. After the war he commanded the " Lancaster"
(1866-1867) and the " Maumee " (1868-1869) in the Asiatic
Squadron. In 1872 he was promoted commander at what was
an exceptionally early age, but he died on the 17th of December
1874 of brain fever. He had suffered extreme pain for years
before his death, and in fact broke down altogether under disease
contracted in the discharge of his duty.

CUSHION (from O. Fr. coisson, coussin; according to the
New English Did., from Lat. coxa, a hip; others say from Lat.
culcita, a quilt), a soft bag of some ornamental material, stuffed
with wool, hair, feathers, or even paper torn into fragments. It
may be used for sitting or kneeling upon, or to soften the hardness
or angularity of a chair or couch. It is a very ancient article
of furniture, the inventories of the contents of palaces and great
houses in the early middle ages constantly making mention of it.
It was then often of great size, covered with leather, and firm
enough to serve as a seat, but the steady tendency of all furniture
has been to grow smaller. It was, indeed, used as a seat, at all
events in France and Spain, at a very much later period, and in
Saint-Simon's time we find that at the Spanish court it was still
regarded as a peculiarly honourable substitute for a chair. In
France the right to kneel upon a cushion in church behind the
king was jealously guarded and strictly regulated, as we may
learn again from Saint-Simon. This type of cushion was called

a carreau or square. When seats were rude and hard the cushion
may have been* a necessity; it is now one of the minor luxuries
of life.

The term " cushion " is given in architecture to the sides of
the Ionic capital. It is also applied to an early and simple form
of the Romanesque capitals of Germany and England, which
consist of cubical masses, square at the top and rounded off at
the four corners, so as to reduce the lower diameter to a circle of
the same size as the shaft.

CUSHMAN, CHARLOTTE SAUNDERS (1816-1876), American
actress, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of July
1816. Her father, a West India merchant, left his family in
straitened circumstances, and Charlotte, who had a fine con-
tralto voice, went on the operatic stage. In 1 83 5 she successfully
appeared at the Tremont theatre as the countess Almaviva in
The Marriage of Figaro. But her singing voice failing her she
entered the drama, and played Lady Macbeth in the same year.
She then engaged herself as a stock actress, but was soon given
leading parts. In 1842 she managed and played in the Walnut
Street theatre in Philadelphia. She accompanied Macready on
an American tour, winning a great reputation in tragedy, and in
1845 and in 1854-1855 she fulfilled successful engagements in
London. She was a keen student, and acquired a large range of
classic roles. Her best parts were perhaps Lady Macbeth and
Queen Katherine, her most popular Meg Merrilies, in a dramatiza-
tion of Scott's Guy Mannering. Her figure was commanding
and her face expressive, and she was animated by a temperament
full of vigour and fire. These qualities enabled her to play with
success such male parts as Romeo and Cardinal Wolsey. During
her later years Miss Cushman worked hard as a dramatic reader,
in which capacity she was much appreciated. Her last appear-
ance on the stage took place on the 15th of May 1875, at the
Globe theatre, Boston, in which city she died on the 18th of
February 1876.

See Emma Stebbins's Charlotte Cushman, her Letters and Memories
of her Life (Boston, 1878) ; H. A. Clapp's Reminiscences of a Dramatic
Critic (Boston, 1902) ; and W. T. Price, A Life of Charlotte Cushman
(New York, 1894).

CUSP (Lat. cuspis, a spear, point) , a projecting point, or pointed
end. In architecture (Fr. feuille, Ital. cuspide, Ger. Knopf e),
a cusp is the point where the foliations of tracery intersect.
The earliest example of a plain cusp is probably that at Pytha-
goras school, at Cambridge, — of an ornamented cusp at Ely
cathedral, where a small roll, with a rosette at the end, is formed
at the termination of a cusp. In the later styles the terminations
of the cusps were more richly decorated; they also sometimes
terminate not only in leaves or foliages, but in rosettes, heads and
other fanciful ornaments. The term " feathering " is used of
the junction of the foliated cusps in window tracery, but is
usually restricted to those cases where it is ornamented with
foliage, &c.

CUSTARD 1 APPLE, a name applied to the fruit of various
species of the genus Anona, natural order Anonaceae. The
members of this genus are shrubs or small trees having alternate,
exstipulate leaves, and flowers with three small sepals, six petals
arranged in a double row and numerous stamens. The fruit
of A. reticulata, the common custard apple, or " bullock's heart "
of the West Indies, is dark brown in colour, *and marked with
depressions, which give it a quilted appearance; its pulp is
reddish-yellow, sweetish and very soft (whence the name);
the kernels of the seeds are said to be poisonous. The sour-sop
is the fruit of A . muricata, native of the West Indies. The plant,
which is a small tree, has become naturalized in some parts of
India where it is extensively cultivated, as elsewhere in the
tropics. It is covered with soft prickles, is of a light-greenish hue,
and has a peculiar but agreeable sour taste, and a scent resembling
that of black currants. The sweet-sop is produced by A . squa-
mosa, also a native of the West Indies and widely cultivated

1 The term " custard," now given to a dish made with eggs beaten
up with milk, &c, and either served in liquid form or baked to a
stiff consistency, originally denoted a kind of open pie. It represents
the older form " crustade," Fr. croustade, Ital. crostata, from crostare,
to encrust.

668

OUSTER— CUSTOM

in the tropics. It is known as the custard apple by Europeans
in India. It is an egg-shaped fruit, with a thick rind and luscious
pulp. An acrid principle, fatal to insects, is contained in its
seeds, leaves and unripe fruits, which, powdered and mixed with
the flour of gram (Cicer arietinum), are used to destroy vermin.
A. Cherimolia yield the Peruvian cherimoyer, which is held to
be a fruit of very superior flavour, and is much esteemed by the
Creoles. A. palustris, alligator apple, or cork- wood, a native
of South America and the West Indies, is valued for its wood,
which serves the same purposes as cork; the fruit, commonly
known as the alligator-apple, is not eaten, being reputed to con-
tain a dangerous narcotic principle.

CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (1839-187.6), American
cavalry soldier, was born in New Rumley, Harrison county,
Ohio, on the 5th of December 1839. He graduated from West
Point in 1861, and was at once sent to the theatre of war in
Virginia, joining his regiment on the battlefield of Bull Run.
Afterwards he served on the staff of General Kearny, and on that
of General W. F. Smith in the Peninsular Campaign. His daring
and energy, and in particular a spirited reconnaissance on the
Chickahominy river, brought him to the notice of General
McClellan, who made him an aide-de-camp on his own staff,
with the rank of captain. A few hours afterwards Custer
attacked a Confederate picket post and drove back the enemy.
He continued to serve with McClellan until the general was
relieved of his command, when Custer returned to duty with
his regiment as a lieutenant. Early in 1863 General Pleasonton
selected him as his aide-de-camp, and in June 1863 Custer was
promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers. He
distinguished himself at the head of the Michigan cavalry brigade
in the battle of Gettysburg, and frequently did good service in
the remaining operations of the campaign of 1863. When the
cavalry corps of the Army of the Potomac was reorganized
under Sheridan in 1864, Custer retained his command, and took
part in the various actions of the cavalry in the Wilderness and
Shenandoah campaigns. At the end of September 1864, he was
appointed to command a division, and on the 9th of October
fought, along with General Merritt, the brilliant cavalry action
called the battle of Woodstock. Soon afterwards he was made
brevet-major-general, U.S.V., having already won the brevets
of major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel U.S.A., for his services
at Gettysburg, Yellow Tavern and Winchester. His part in
the decisive battle of Cedar Creek (q.v.) was most conspicuous.
He served with Sheridan in the last great cavalry raid, won the
action of Waynesboro, and in the final campaign added to his
laurels by his conduct at Dinwiddie and Five Forks, and in
6ther operations. At the close of the war he received the brevets
of brigadier and major-general in the regular army, and was
promoted major-general of volunteers. In 1866 Custer was
made lieutenant-colonel of the 7th U.S. Cavalry, and took part
under General Hancock in the expedition against the Cheyenne
Indians, upon whom he inflicted a crushing defeat at Washita
river on the 27th of November 1868. In 1873 he was sent to
Dakota Territory to serve against the Sioux.

In 1876 an expedition, of which Custer and his regiment formed
part, was made against the Sioux and their allies. As the
advanced guard of the troops under General Terry, Custer's
force arrived at the junction of Big Horn and Little Big Horn
rivers, in what is now the state of Montana, on the night of
June 24; the main body was due to join him on the 26th.
Unfortunately, the presence of what was judged to be a small
isolated force of Indians was reported to the general. On the 25th,
dividing his regiment into three parties, he moved forward to
surround this force. But instead of meeting only a small force of
Indians, the 7th were promptly attacked by the full forces of
the enemy. The flanking columns maintained themselves with
difficulty until Terry came up. Custer and 264 men of the centre
column rode into the midst of the enemy and were slaughtered
to a man.

The general's wife, Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who accom-
panied him in many of his frontier expeditions, wrote Boots and
Saddles, Life with General Custer in Dakota (1885), Tenting on the

Plains (1887) and Following the Guidon (1891). General Custer
himself wrote My Life on the Plains (1874).

See F. Whittaker, Life of General George A. Custer (1876).

His brother Thomas Ward Custer (1845-1876), in spite of
his youth, fought in the early campaigns of the Civil War. Be-
coming aide-de-camp to General Custer, he accompanied him
throughout the latter part of the war, distinguishing himself
by his daring on all occasions, and winning successively the
brevets of captain, major and lieutenant-colonel, though he was
barely twenty years of age when the war ended. He was first
lieutenant in the 7th cavalry when he fell with his brother at the
Little Big Horn.

CUSTINE, ADAM PHILIPPE, Comte de (1740-1793), French
general, began his military career in the Seven Years' War.
He next served with distinction against the English in the War
of American Independence. In 1789 he was elected to the
states-general by the bailliage of Metz. In October 1791 he
again joined the army, with the rank of lieutenant-general and
became popular with the soldiers, amongst whom he was known
as " general moustache." General-in-chief of the army of the
Vosges, he took Spires, Worms, Mainz and Frankfort in September
and October 1792. He carried on the revolutionary propa-
ganda by proclamations, and levied heavy taxes on the nobility
and clergy. During the winter a Prussian army forced him to
evacuate Frankfort, re-cross the Rhine and fall back upon
Landau. He was accused of treason, defended by Robespierre,
and sent back to the army of the north. But he dared not take
the offensive, and did nothing to save Conde, which the Austrians
were besieging. Sent to Paris to justify himself, he was found
guilty by the Revolutionary Tribunal of having intrigued with
the enemies of the republic, and guillotined on the 28th of August
1793. (See French Revolutionary Wars.)

See A. Rambaud, Les Francais sur le Rhin (Paris, 1880) ; A.
Chuquet, Les Guerres de la Revolution (1886-1895; vol. vi. " L'Ex-
pedition de Custine ").

CUSTOM (from O. Fr. custume, costume or coustume; Low Lat.
costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo), in general, a habit or
practice. Thus a tradesman calls those who deal with him his
" customers," and the trade resulting as their " custom." The
word is also used for a toll or tax levied upon goods; there was
at one time a distinction between the tax on goods exported or
imported, termed magna custuma (the great custom), and that
on goods taken to market within the realm, termed parva
custuma (the little custom), but the word is now used in this
sense only in the plural, to signify the duties levied upon imported
goods. It is also used as a name for that department of the
public service which is employed in levying the duty.

In law, such long-continued usage as has by common consent
become a rule of conduct is termed custom. Jessel, M. R.
(Hamtnerton v. Honey, 24 W. R. 603), has defined it as " local
common law. It is common law because it is not statute law;
it is local law because it is the law of a particular place, as distin-
guished from the general common law. Local common law is
the law of the country (i.e. particular place) as it existed before
the time of legal memory." There has been much discussion
among jurists as to whether custom can properly be reckoned
a source of law (see Jurisprudence). As to the distinction
between prescription (which is a personal claim) and custom, see
Prescription. The adoption of local customs by the judiciary
has undoubtedly been the origin of a great portion of the English
common law. Blackstone divides custom into (1) general,
which is the common law properly so called, and (2) particular,
which affects only the inhabitants of particular districts. The
requisites necessary to make a particular custom good are:
(1) it must have been used so long that the memory of man
runneth not to the contrary; (2) it must have been continued,
and (3) enjoyed peaceably; (4) it must be reasonable, and (5)
certain; (6) it must be compulsory, and not left to the option
of every man whether he will use it or no; (7) it must be con-
sistent with other customs, for one custom cannot be set up in
opposition to another. Customs may be of various kinds, for
example, customs of merchants, customs of a certain district

CUSTOMARY FREEBOIX^CUTCH

669

(such as gavelkind and borough English), customs of a particular
manor, &c. The word custom is also generally employed for the
usage of a particular trade or market; for a trade, custom to be
established to the satisfaction of the law it must be a uniform
and universal practice so well defined and recognized that con-
tracting parties must be assumed to have had it in their minds
when they contracted (Russell, C. J., Fox-Bourne v. Vernon, 10
Times Rep. 649).

In the history of France the term " custom " was given to
those special usages of different districts, which had grown up
into a body of local law, as the '■ custom of Paris," the. " custom
of Normandy" (see France: Law and Institutions) .

CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD, in English law, a species of tenure
which may be described as a variety of copyhold. It is also
termed privileged copyhold or copyhold of frank tenure. It is
a tenure by copy of court roll, but not expressed to be at the
will of the lord. It is, in fact, only a superior kind of copyhold,
and the freehold is in the lord. It is subject to the general law
of copyholds, except where the law may be varied by the custom
of the particular manor. (See Copyhold.)

CUSTOM-HOUSE, the house or office appointed by a govern-
ment where the taxes or duties (if any) are collected upon the
importation arid exportation of commodities; where duties,
bounties or drawbacks payable or receivable upon exportation
or importation are paid or received, and where vessels are entered
and cleared. In the United Kingdom there is usually a custom-
house established at every port or harbour to which any consider-
able amount of shipping resorts, the officer in charge being called
" collector of customs "; in the minor ports the officer is usually
termed " superintendent of customs " or " principal coast
officer."

CUSTOMS DUTIES, the name given to taxeg on the import
and export of commodities. They rank among the most ancient;
as they continue to prevail as one of the most common modes, in
all countries, of levying revenue for public purposes. In an
insular country like the United Kingdom customs duties came
in process of time to be levied only or chiefly in the seaports, and
thus applied only to the foreign commerce, where they may be
brought under the control of fair and reasonable principles of
taxation. But this simplification of customs duties was only
reached by degrees; and during a long period special customs
were levied on goods passing between England and Scotland;
and the trade of Ireland with Great Britain and with foreign
countries was subjected to fiscal regulations which could not
now stand in the light of public reason. The taxes levied, on
warrant of some ancient grant or privilege, upon cattle or goods
at a bridge or a ferry or other point of passage from one county
or province to another, of which there are some lingering remains
even in the United Kingdom, and those levied at the gates of
cities on the produce of the immediate country — a not uncommon
form of municipal taxation on the European continent — are all
of the nature of customs dues. It is from the universality of this
practice that the English term " customs " appears to have been
derived.

See Taxation; Protection; Tariff.

CUSTOS ROTULORUM, the keeper of the English county
records, and by virtue of that office the, highest civil officer in
the county. The appointment until 1545 lay with the lord
chancellor, but is now exercised by the crown under the royal
sign-manual, and is usually held by a person of rank, most
frequently the lord-lieutenant of the county. He is one of the
justices of the peace. In practice the records are in the custody
of the clerk of the peace. This latter official was, until i888>,
appointed by the custos rotulorum, but since the passing of the
Local Government Act of that year, the appointment is made
by the standing joint-committee of the county council. Lambarde
described the custos rotulorum as a " man for the most part
especially picked out either for wisdom, countenance or credit."

CUSTOZZA, a village of Italy, in the province of Verona,
11 m. S.W. of Verona, famous as the scene of two battles between
the Austrians and the Italians in the struggle for Italian unity.
The first battle of Custozza was fought on the 23rd-2Sth of July

1848, the Austrians commanded by Field-Marshal Radetzky
being victorious over the Piedmontese army under King Charles
Albert. The second battle was fought on the 24th of June 1866,
and resulted in the complete victory of the Austrians under the
archduke Albert, over the Italian army of King Victor Emmanuel
I. (See Italian Wars, 1848-1870.)

CUSTRIN, or Kusxrin, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, a fortress of the first rank, at the confluence of the Oder
and Warthe, 18 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Oder and 51m. N.E.
of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,473 (including the garrison).
It consists of the town proper within the strong fortifications,
a suburb on the left bank of the Oder, and one on the right bank
of the Warthe. There are three Evangelical churches and one
Roman Catholic, and a handsome town hall. There are bridges
over both rivers. Ciistrin has some manufactories of potato-
meal, machinery, pianos, furniture, cigars, &c, and there is a
considerable river trade.

About 1250 a town was erected on the site of Ciistrin, where a
fishing village originally stood. From 1535 till 1571 it was the
residence of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Ciistrin, who died
without male heirs in 157 1. Ciistrin was the prison of Frederick
the Great when crown-prince, and the scene of the execution
of his friend Hans Hermann von Katte on the 6th of November

i73°-

■ CUTCH, or Kach, a native state of India within the Gujarat
division of Bombay* with an area of 7616 sq. m. It is a peninsular
tract of land, enclosed towards the W. by the eastern branch of
the Indus, on the S. by the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Cutch,
and on the N. and E. towards the interior, by the great northern
Runn, a salt morass or lake. The interior of Cutch is studded
with hills of considerable elevation, and a range of mountains
runs through it from east to west, many of them of the most
fantastic shapes, with large isolated masses of rock scattered
in all directions, The general appearance of Cutch is barren and
uninteresting. The greater part is a rock destitute of soil, and
presenting the wildest aspect; the ground is cold, poor and
sterile; and the whole face of the country bears marks of volcanic
action. From the violence of tyranny, and the rapine of a dis-
orderly banditti, by which this district long suffered, as well as
from shocks of earthquakes, the villages have a ruinous and dilapi-
dated appearance ; and, With the exception of a few fields in their
neighbourhood, the country presents a rocky and sandy waste,
with in many places scarcely a show of vegetation. Water is
scarce and brackish, and is chiefly found at the bottom of low
ranges of hills, which abound in some parts; and the inhabitants
of the extensive sandy tracts suffer greatly from the want of it.
Owing to the uncertainty of the periodical rains in Cutch, the
country is liable to severe famines, and it has suffered greatly
from plague.

The temperature of Cutch during the hot season is high, the
thermometer frequently rising to ioo° or 105° F.; and in the
months of April and May clouds of dust and sand, blown about
by hurricanes, envelop the houses, the glass windows scarcely
affording any protection. The influence of the monsoon is
greatly moderated before it reaches this region, and the rains
sometimes fail altogether. Bhuj, the capital of the state, is
situated inland, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills,
some of which approach within 3 or 4 m. of the city. The hill of
Bhuja, on which the fort is situated, rises to the height of 500 ft.
in the middle of the plain, and is detached from other high ground.
The residency is 4 m. distant in a westerly direction. There are
many mountain streams, but no navigable rivers. They contain
scarcely any water except in the rainy season, when they are
very full and rapid, and discharge themselves into the Runn,
all along the coast of which the wells and springs are more or
less impregnated with common salt and other saline ingredients.
Various causes have contributed to thin the population of this
country. In 1813 it was ravaged by a famine and pestilence,
which destroyed a great proportion of its inhabitants, — according
to some accounts, nearly one-half. This, joined to the tyranny
and violence of the government Until the year 1819, and sub-
sequently to a succession of unfavourable seasons, forced many

670

CUTCH, GULF OF— CUTCH, RUNN OF

»f the cultivators to remove to Sind and other countries. The
inhabitants numbered 488,022 in 1001, being a decrease of 13%
during the decade, due to the famines of 1899-1900. One-third
are Mahommedans and the remainder Hindus of various castes.
The Jareja Rajputs form a particular class, being the aristocracy
of the country; and all are more or less connected with the family
of the rao or prince. There are in Cutch about 200 of these Jareja
chiefs, who all claim their descent from a prince who reigned
in Sind about 1000 years ago. From him also the reigning
sovereign is lineally descended, and he is the liege lord of whom
all the chiefs or nobles hold their lands in feu, for services which
they or their ancestors had performed, or in virtue of their
relationship to the family. They are all termed the brotherhood
of the rao or Bhayad, and supposed to be his hereditary advisers,
and their possessions are divided among their male children.
To prevent the breaking down of their properties, the necessary
consequence of this law of inheritance, there is no doubt that
infanticide was common among them, and that it extended to
the male as well as the female progeny, but it has been put down
by the Infanticide Rules, which provide for the registration of
Jareja children. The Jarejas have a tradition that when they
entered Cutch they were Mahommedans, but that they after-
ward adopted the customs and religion of the Hindus. It is
certain, indeed, that they still retain many Mahommedan customs.
They take oaths equally on the Koran or on the Shastras; they
employ Mussulman books; they eat from their hands; the rao,
when he appears in public, alternately worships God in a Hindu
pagoda and a Mahommedan mosque; and he fits out annually
at Mandvi a ship for the conveyance of pilgrims to Mecca, who
are maintained during the voyage chiefly by the liberality of
the prince. The Mahommedans in Cutch are of the same
degenerate class as those usually found in the western parts of
India. The natives are in general of a stronger and stouter make,
and even handsomer, than those of western India; and the
wOmen of the higher classes are also handsome. The peasants are
described as intelligent, and the artizans are justly celebrated
for their ingenuity and mechanical skill. The palace at Mandvi,
and a tomb of one of their princes at Bhuj, are fair specimens
of their architectural skill. The estimated gross revenue is
£126,322. Theraare special manufactures of silver filigree-work
and embroidery. The maritime population supplies the best
sailors in India. There are cotton presses and ginning factories.
The country of Cutch was invaded about the 13th century
by a body of Mahommedans of the Summa tribe, who under
the guidance of five brothers emigrated from Sind, and who
gradually subdued or expelled the original inhabitants, consisting
of three distinct races. Cutch continued tranquil under their
sway for many years, until some family quarrel arose, in which
the chief of an elder branch of the tribe was murdered by a rival
brother. His son Khengayi fled to Ahmedabad to seek the assist-
ance of the viceroy, who reinstated him in the sovereignty of
Cutch, and Morvi in Kathiawar, and in the title of rao, about the
year 1 540. The succession continued in the same line from the
time of this prince until 1697, when a younger brother, Pragji,
murdered his elder brother and usurped the sovereignty. This
line of princes continued till 1760 without any remarkable event,
when, in the reign of Rao Ghodji, the country was invaded four
times by the Sinds, who wasted it with fire and sword. The
reign of this prince, as well as that of his son Rao Rayadan,
by whom he was succeeded in 1778, was marked by cruelty and
blood. The latter prince was dethroned, and, being in a state of
mental derangement, was during his lifetime confined by Fateh
Mahommed, a native of Sind, who continued, with a short interval
(in which the party of the legal heir, Bhaiji Bawa, gained the
ascendancy), to rule the country until his death in 18 13. It
was in the reign of Fateh Mahommed that a communication first
took place with the British government. During the contests
for the sovereignty between the usurper and the legal heir,
the leader of the royal party, Hansraj, the governor of Mandvi,
sought the aid of the British. But no closer connexion followed
at that time than an agreement for- the suppression of piracy,
or of inroads of troops to the eastward of the Runn or Gulf of

Cutch. But the gulf continued notwithstanding to swarm with
pirates, who were openly encouraged or connived at by the son
of Hansraj, who had succeeded his father, as well as by Fateh
Mahommed. The latter left several sons by different wives, who
were competitors for the vacant throne. Husain Miyan suc-
ceeded to a considerable portion of his father's property and
power. Jugjevan, a Brahman, the late minister of Fateh
Mahommed, also received a considerable share of influence;
and the hatred of these two factions was embittered by religious
animosities, the one being Hindu and the other Mahommedan.
The deceased rao had declared himself a Mahommedan, and
his adherents were preparing to inter his body in a magnificent
tomb, when the Jarejas and other Hindus seized the corpse and
consigned it to the flames, according to Hindu custom.

The administration of affairs was nominally in the hands of
Husain Miyan and his brother Ibrahim Miyan. Many sanguinary
broils now ensued, in the course of which Jugjevan was murdered,
and the executive authority was much weakened by the usurpa-
tions of the Arabs and other chiefs. In the meantime Ibrahim
Miyan was assassinated; and after various other scenes of
anarchy, the rao Bharmulji, son of Rao Rayadan, by general
consent, assumed the chief power. But his reign was one
continued series of the grossest enormities; his hostility to the
British became evident, and accordingly a force of 10,500 men
crossed the Runn in November 1815, and were within five miles
of Bhuj; the capital of the country, when a treaty was concluded,
by which the rao Bharmulji was confirmed in his title to the
throne, on agreeing, among other stipulations, to cede Anjar
and its dependencies in perpetuity to the British. He was,
however, so-far from fulfilling the terms of this treaty that it
was determined to depose him; and an army being sent against
him, he surrendered to the British, who made a provision for
his maintenance, and elevated his infant son Desalji II. to the
throne (1819).

In 1822 the relations subsisting between the ruler of Cutch
and the British were modified by a new treaty, under which the
territorial cessions made by the rao in 181 6 were restored in
consideration of an annual payment. The sum fixed was sub-
sequently thought too large, and in 1832 the arrears, amounting
to a considerable sum, were remitted, and all future payments
on this account relinquished. From that time the rao has paid
a subsidy of £13,000 per annum to the British for the maintenance
of the military force stationed within his dominions.

Rao Desalji II. did much to suppress infanticide, suttee and
the slave trade in his state. His successor Maharao Pragmalji
in recognition of his excellent administration was in 187 1 honoured
with the title of knight grand commander of the Star of India.
During his rule harbour works were built at Mandvi, an immense
reservoir for rain water in the Chadwa hills was constructed, and
many schools and colleges were endowed. In 1876 he was suc-
ceeded by Maharaja Rao Khengarji III., who was also a keen
advocate for education and especially the education of women.
He founded museums, libraries and schools, and inaugurated
scholarships and a fund from which deserving scholars desirous
of studying in England and America could obtain their expenses.

CUTCH, GULF OF, an inlet of the sea on the coast of western
India. It lies between the peninsula of Kathiawar and that of
Cutch, leading into the Runn of Cutch.

CUTCH, RUNN OF, or Rann of Kach, a salt morass on the
western coast of India in the native state of Cutch. From May
to October it is flooded with salt water and communicates, at
its greatest extent, with the Gulf of Cutch on the west and the
Gulf of Cambay on the east, these two gulfs being united during
the monsoon. It varies in breadth from five to eighty miles
across, and during the rains is nearly impassable for horsemen.
The total area of this immense morass is estimated at about
8000 sq. m., without including any portion of the Gulf of Cutch,
which is in parts so shallow as to resemble a marshy fen rather
than an arm of the sea. The Runn is said to be formed by the
overflow of the rivers Pharan, Luni, Banas and others, during the
monsoon; but in December it is quite dry, and in most places
hard, but in some moist and muddy. The soil is impregnated

CUTHBERT, ST— CUTLERY

671

with salt, and the Runn is an important source for the supply
of salt. The present condition of the Runn is probably the
result of some natural convulsion, but the exact method of its
formation is disputed. The wild ass is very common on the
borders of this lake, being seen in herds of 60 or 70 together.

CUTHBERT, SAINT (d. 687), bishop of Lindisfarne, was
probably a Northumbrian by birth. According to the extant
Lives he was led to take the monastic vows by a vision at the
death of bishop Aidan, and the date of his entry at Melrose
would be 651. At this time Eata was abbot there, and Boisel,
who is mentioned as his instructor, prior, in which office Cuthbert
succeeded him about 661, having previously spent some time
at the monastery of Ripon with Eata. Bede gives a glowing
picture of his missionary zeal at Melrose, but in 664 he was
transferred to act as prior at Lindisfarne. In 676 he became
an anchorite on the island of Fame, and it is said that he per-
formed miracles there. In 684 at the council of Twyford in
Northumberland, Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, prevailed
upon him to give up his solitary life and become a bishop. He
was consecrated at York in the following year as bishop of
Hexham, but afterwards he exchanged his see with Eata for
that of Lindisfarne. In 687 he retired to Fame, and died on the
island on the 20th of March 687, the same day as his friend
Hereberht, the anchorite of Derwentwater. He was buried in
the island of Lindisfarne, but his remains were afterwards
deposited at Chester-le-Street, and then at Durham.

Another Cuthbert was bishop of Hereford from 736 to about
740, and archbishop of Canterbury from the latter date until
his death in October 758.

There are several lives of St Cuthbert, the best of which is the
prose life by Bede, which is published in Bede's Opera, edited by
J. Stevenson (1841). See also C. Eyre, The History of St Cuthbert
(1887) ; and J. Raine, St Cuthbert (1828).

CUTLASS, the naval side-arm, a short cutting sword with a
slightly curved blade, and a solid basket-shaped guard (see
Sword). The word is derived from the Fr. coutelas, or coutelace,
a form of coutel, modern couteau, a knife, from Lat. cultellus,
diminutive of culter, a ploughshare, or cutting instrument. Two
variations appear in English: " curtelace," where the r represents
probably the / of the original Latin word, or is a further variant
of the second variation; and " curtelaxe," often spelled as two
words, " curtal axe," where the prefix curtal is confused with
various English words such as " curtan," " curtal " and " cur-
tail," which all mean " shortened," and are derived from the
Lat. curtus; the word thus wrongly derived has been supposed
to refer to some non-existent form of battle-axe. In every
case the weapon to which these various forms apply is a broad
cutting or slashing sword.

CUTLER, MANASSEH (1742-1823), American clergyman,
was born in Killingly, Connecticut, on the 13th of May 1742.
He graduated at Yale College in 1765, and after being a school
teacher and a merchant, and occasionally appearing in the
courts as a lawyer, he decided to enter the ministry, and from
177 1 until his death was pastor of the Congregational church at
what is now Hamilton, but until 1793 was a parish of Ipswich,
Massachusetts. During the War of Independence he was for
several months in 1776 chaplain to the regiment of Colonel
Ebenezer Francis, raised for the defence of Boston; and in
1778, as chaplain to the brigade of General Jonathan Titcomb
(1728-1817), he took part in General John Sullivan's expedition
to Rhode Island. Soon after his return from this expedition
he fitted himself for the practice of medicine, in order to supple-
ment the scanty income of a minister, and in 1782 he established
a private boarding school, which he conducted for about a
quarter of a century. In 1786 he became interested in the settle-
ment of western lands, and in the following year, as agent of the
Ohio Company (q.v.), which he had taken a prominent part in
organizing, he made a contract with Congress, whereby his
associates, former soldiers in the War of Independence, might
purchase, with the certificates of indebtedness issued to them
by the government for their services, '1,500,000 acres of land in
the region north of the Ohio at the mouth of the Muskingum

river, He also took a leading part in drafting the famous
Ordinance of 1 787 for the government of the Northwest Territory,
the instrument as it was finally presented to Congress by Nathan
Dane (1752-1835), a Massachusetts delegate, probably being
largely Cutler's work. From 1801 to 1805 he was a Federalist
representative in Congress. He died at Hamilton, Massachusetts,
on the 28th of July 1823. A versatile man, Cutler was one of
the early members of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and besides being proficient in the theology, law and
medicine of his day, conducted painstaking astronomical and
meteorological investigations, and was one of the first Americans
to make researches of a real scientific value in botany. In 1789
the degree of doctor of laws was conferred upon him by Yale.

See William P. and Julia P. Cutler, The Life, Journals, and Corre-
spondence of Manasseh Cutler (2 vols., Cincinnati, 1888); and an
article," The Ordinance of 1787 and Dr Manasseh Cutler," by W. F.
Poole, in vol. 122 of the North American Review.

CUTLERY (Fr. coutellerie, from the Lat. cultellus, a little knife),
a branch of industry which originally embraced the manufacture
of all cutting instruments of whatever form or material. The
progress of manufacturing industry has, however, detached
from it the fabrication of several kinds of edge-tools, saws and
similar implements, the manufacture of which is now regarded
as forming distinct branches of trade. On the other hand modern
cutlery includes a great number of articles which are not strictly
cutting instruments, but which, owing to their more or less
intimate relation to table or pocket cutlery, are classed with
such articles for convenience' sake. A steel table or carving fork,
for example, is an important article of cutlery, although it is not
a cutting tool.

The original cutting instruments used by the human race
consisted of fragments of flint, obsidian, or similar stones, rudely
flaked or chipped to a cutting edge; and of these tools numerous
remains yet exist. Stone knives and other tools must have
been employed for a long period by the prehistoric races of man-
kind, as their later productions show great perfection of form and
finish. In the Bronze period, which succeeded the Stone Age,
the cutlery of our ancestors was fabricated of that alloy. The
use of iron was introduced at a later but still remote period;
and it now, in the form of steel, is the staple article from which
cutlery is manufactured.

From the earliest period in English history the manufacture
of cutlery has been peculiarly associated with the town of
Sheffield, the prominence of which in this manufacture in his
own age is attested by Chaucer, who says of the miller of
Trumpington —

" A ShefTeld thwitel baar he in his hose."
That town still retains a practical monopoly of the ordinary
cutlery trade of Great Britain, and remains the chief centre of
the industry for the whole world. Its influence on methods of
production has also been widely extended; for instance, many
Sheffield workmen emigrated to the United States of America
to take part in the manufacture of pocket-knives when it was
started in Connecticut towards the middle of the 19th century.

The thwitel or whittle of Chaucer's time was a very poor rude
implement, consisting of a blade of bar steel fastened into a
wooden or horn handle. It was used for cutting food as well as
for the numerous miscellaneous duties which now fall to the
pocket-knife. To the whittle succeeded the Jack knife,— the
Jacques-de-Liege, or Jock-te-leg of the Scottish James VI., —
which formed the prototype of the modern clasp-knife, inasmuch
as the blade closed into a groove in the handle. About the begin-
ning of the 17th century, the pocket-knife with spring back was
introduced, and no marked improvement thereafter took place
till the early part of the 19th century. In 1624, two centuries
after the incorporation of the Cutlers' Company of London,
the cutlers of Hallamshire — the name of the district of which
Sheffield is the centre — were formed into a body corporate for
the protection of the " industry, labour, and reputation" of the
trade, which was being disgraced by the " deceitful and un-
workmanlike wares of various persons. ' ' The act of incorporation
specifies the manufacture of " knives, scissors, shears, sickles and

672

•CUTTACM'

1

other cutlery," and provides that all persons engage*! in the"
business shall "make the edge of all steel implements rriahu-
factured by them of steel, and steel only, and shall strike on their
wares such mark, and such only, as should be assigned to therri
by the officers of the said company." Notwithstanding these
regulations, and the pains and penalties attached to their infringe-
ment, the corporation was not very successful' in maintaining
the high character of Sheffield wares. Most manufacturers made
cutlery to the order of their customers, on which the name of
the retailer was stamped, and very inferior malleable or cast
iron blades went forth to the public with " London : made/*'
" best steel," and other falsehoods stamped on them to order.
The corporate mark and name of a few firms, among which
Joseph Rodgers & Sons stand foremost, are a guarantee of the
very highest excellence of material and finish; and such firms
decline to stamp any name or mark other than their own on their
manufactures. In foreign markets, however, the reputation
of such firms is much injured by impudent forgeries; and so far
was this system of fraud carried that inferior foreign work 1 was
forwarded to London to be transhipped and sent abroad osten-
sibly as English cutlery. To : protect the trade ag&inst frauds of
this class the Trades Mark Act of 1862 was passed chiefly at the
instigation of the Sheffield chamber of commerce:

The variety of materials which go to complete any single article
of cutlery is very considerable; and as the stock list of a cutler
embraces a vast number of articles different in form, properties
and uses, the cutlery manufacturer must have a practical
knowledge of a wide range of substances. The leading articles
of the trade include carving and table knives and forks, pocket or
clasp knives, razors, scissors, daggers, hunting knives and similar
articles, surgical knives and lancets* butchers' and shoemakers'
knives, gardeners' pruning-knives, &c. The blades or cutting
portions of a certain number of these articles are made of shear
steel, and for others crucible cast steel is employed. Sometimes
the cutting edge alone is of steel, backed or strengthened with
iron, to which it is welded. The tang, or part of the blade by
which it is fastened to the handles, and other non-cutting portions,
are also very often of iron. Brass, German silver^ silver, horn,
tortoise-shell, ivory, bone, mother-of-pearl, and numerous fancy
woods are all brought into requisition for handles and other parts
of cutlery, each demanding special treatment according to its
nature. The essential processes in making a piece of steel cutlery
are (1) forging, (2) hardening and tempering, (3) grinding, (4)
polishing, and (5) putting together the various pieces and finishing
the knife, the workmen who perform these last operations being
the only ones known in the trade as " cutlers."

The following outline of the stages in the manufacture of a
razor will serve to indicate the sequence of operations in making
an article which, though simple in form, demands the highest care
and skill. The first essential of a good razor is that it be made
of the finest quality of cast steel. The steel for razors is obtained
in bars the thickness of the back of the instrument. Taking such
a bar, the forger heats one end of it to the proper forging tempera-
ture, and then dexterously fashions it upon his anvil, giving it
roughly the required form, edge- and concavity. It is then
separated from the remainder of the bar, leaving only sufficient
metal to form the tang, if that is to be made of steel. The tang
of the " mould," as the blade in this condition is termed, is next
drawn out, and the whole " smithed " or beaten on the anvil to
compact the metal and improve the form and edge of the razor!
At this stage the razor is said to be " forged in the rough," and
so neatly can some workmen finish off this operation that a
shaving edge may be given to the blade by simple whetting.
The forged blade is next " shaped "i>y grinding on the dry stone;
this operation considerably reduces its weight, and removes the
oxidized scale, thereby allowing the hardening and tempering
to be done with certainty and proper effect. The shaped razor
is now returned to the forge, where the tang is file-cut and pierced
with the joint-hole, and into the blade is stamped either the name
and corporate mark of the maker, or any mark and name ordered
by the tradesman for whom the goods are being manufactured.
The hardening is accomplished by heating the blade to a cherry-

red heat arid suddenly quenchirigit in cold water, which leaves the
metal, excessively • hard and brittle. To bring it to the proper
temper for a razor, it is again heated till the metallic surface
assumes a straw colour, and after being plunged into water, it
is ready for the process Of wet grinding. The wet grinding is
done on stones which vary in diameter from i£ to 12 in. accowlmg
to the concavity of surface desired ("hollow-ground," "half
hollow-ground," &c). •" Lapping," which is the first stage in
polishing, is performed on a wheel of the same diameter as the wet-
grinding stone. The lap is built up of segments of wood having
the fibres' towards the periphery, and covered with a metallic alloy
of tin and lead. The lap is fed with a mixture of emery powder
and oil. "Glazing" and "polishing," which follow, are for
perfecting the polish on the surface of the razor, leather-covered
wheels with fine emery being used; and the work is finished off
with crocus. The finished blade is then riveted into the scales
or handle, Which may be of ivory, bone, horn or other material;
and when thereafter the razor is set on a hone it is ready for use!

The processes employed in making a table-knife do not differ
essentially from those required for a razor. Table-knife blades
are forged from shear -ahd'i other steels, and, if they are not in
one piece, a bit of ' malleable iron sufficient for the bolster or
shoulder and tang is welded to each, often by machinery,
especially in the case of the cheaper qualities. The bolster is
formed with the aid of a die and swage called " prints," and the
tang is drawn out. The tang is variously formed, according to
the method by which it is to be secured in the haft, and the various
processes of tempering, Wet grinding and polishing are pursued
as described above. Steel forks of an inferior quality are cast
and subsequently cleaned and polished; but the best quality
are forged from bar steel, and the prongs are cut or stamped out
of an extended flattened extremity called the mould or " mood."
In the United States of America machinery has been extensively
adopted for performing the various mechanical operations in
forging and fitting table cutlery, and in Sheffield it is employed
to a great ! extent in the manufacture of table and pocket knife
blades, scissors and razors. The cutler of the 18th century was
an artisan who forged and ground the blades and fitted them in
the hafts ready for sale; to-day the division of labour is carried
to an extreme degree. In the making of a common pocket-knife
with three blades not fewer than one hundred separate operations
are involved,; and these may be performed by as many workmen
composed of five distinct classes — the scale and spring makers
(the scale being the metal lining which is covered by the handle
proper), the blade forgers, the grinders, the cutters of the coverings
of ivoryy horn, &c, that form the handles, and the hafters or
cutlers proper; Grinders are divided into three classes— dry,
wet and mixed grinders, according as they work at dry or wet
stones. This branch of trade is, in Sheffield, conducted in distinct
establishments called " wheels," which are divided up into
separate apartments or " hulls," the dry grinding being as much
as possible separated from the wet grinding. Dry grinding,
such as is practised in the shaping of razors described above,
the " humping " or rounding of scissors, and other operations,
used to.be a process especially dangerous to health, lung diseases
being induced by the fine- dust of silica and steel with which the
atmosphere was loaded; but a great improvement has been
effected by resorting to wet grinding as much as possible, by
arranging: fans to remove the dust by suction, and by general
attention to sanitary conditions.

CUTTACK, a city and district of British India in the Orissa
division of Bengal. The city is situated at the head of the delta
of the Mahanadi. Pop. (1901) 51,364. It is the centre of the
Orissa canal system*, and an important station on the East Coast
railway from Madras to Calcutta. It contains the government
college, named after Mr Ravenshaw, a former commissioner;
a high school, a training school, a survey school, a medical school
and a law school. The city formed one of the five royal strong-
holds of ancient Orissa and was founded by a warlike Hindu
prince, Makar Kesari, who reigned from 953 to 961. Native
kings protected it from the rivers by a masonry embankment
several miles long, built of enormous blocks of hewn stone, and

CUTTLE-FISH

673

in some places 25 ft. high. A fortress defended the north-west
corner of the town, and was captured by the English from the
Mahrattas in October 1803. It is now abandoned as a place of
defence.

The District or Cuttack lies in the centre of Orissa, occupying
the deltas of the Mahanadi and Brahmani, together with a hilly
tract inland. Its area is 3654 sq. m. It consists of three physical
divisions: first, a marshy woodland strip along the coast, from
3 to 30 m. in breadth; second, an intermediate stretch of rice
plains; third, a broken hilly region, which forms the western
boundary of the district. The marshy strip along the coast is
covered with swamps and malaria-breeding jungles. Towards
the sea the solid land gives place to a vast network of streams
and creeks, whose sluggish waters are constantly depositing silt,
and forming morasses or quicksands. Cultivation does not
begin till the limits of this dismal region are passed. The inter-
mediate rice plains stretch inland for about 40 m. and occupy the
older part of the delta between the sea-coast strip and the hilly
frontier. They are intersected by three large rivers, the Baitarani,
Brahmani and Mahanadi. These issue in magnificent, streams
through three gorges in the frontier hills. The Cuttack delta
is divided into two great valleys, one of them lying between the
Baitarani and the Brahmani, the other between the Brahmani
and the Mahanadi. The rivers having, by the silt of ages,
gradually raised their beds, now run along high levels. During
floods they pour over their banks upon the surrounding valleys,
by a thousand channels which interlace and establish communica-
tion between the main streams. After numerous bifurcations
they find their way into the sea by three principal mouths.
Silt-banks and surf-washed bars render the entrance to these
rivers perilous. The best harbour in Cuttack district is at
False Point, on the north of the Mahanadi estuary. It consists
of an anchorage, land-locked by islands or sand-banks, and with
two fair channels navigable towards the land. The famine
commissioners in 1867 reported it to be the best harbour on the
coast of India from the Hugh to Bombay.

The intermediate tract is a region of rich cultivation, dotted
with great banyan trees, thickets of bamboos, exquisite palm
foliage and mango groves. The hilly frontier separates the
delta of British Orissa from the semi-independent tributary
states. It consists of a series of ranges, 10 to 15 m. in length,
running nearly due east and west, with densely-wooded slopes
and lovely valleys between. The timber, however, is small, and
is of little value except as fuel. The political character of these
three tracts is as distinct as are their natural features. The first
and third are still occupied by feudal chiefs, and have never
been subjected to a regular land-settlement, by either the
Mussulman or the British government. They pay a light fixed
tribute. The intermediate rice plains, known as the Mogholbandi,
from their having been regularly settled by the Mahommedans,
have yielded to the successive dynasties and conquerors of Orissa
almost the whole of the revenues derived from the province. The
deltaic portions are of course a dead level; and the highest hills
within the district in the western or frontier tract do not exceed
2500 ft. They are steep, and covered with jungle, but can be
climbed by men. The most interesting of them are the Assa
range, with its sandal trees and Buddhist remains; Udayagiri
(Sunrise-hill), with its colossal image of Buddha, sacred reservoir,
and ruins; and Assagiri, with its mosque of 1719. The Mahavi-
nayaka peak, visible from Cuttack, has been consecrated for
ages to Siva-worship by ascetics and pilgrims.

The population of the district in 1901 was 2,062,758, showing
an increase of 6% in the preceding decade. The aboriginal
tribes here, as elsewhere, cling to their mountains and jungles.
They chiefly consist of the Bhumij, Tala, Kol and Savara peoples,
the Savaras being by far the most numerous, numbering 14,775.
They are regarded by the orthodox Hindus as little better than the
beasts of the wildernesses which they inhabit. Miserably poor,
they subsist for the most part by selling firewood or other
products of their jungle; but a few of them have patches of
cultivated land, and many earn wages as day labourers to the
Hindus. They occupy, in fact, an intermediate stage of de-
vil. 22

gradation between the comparatively well-to-do tribes in the
tributary states (the stronghold and home of the race), and the
Pans, Bauris, Kandras and other semi-aboriginal peoples on
the lowlands, who rank as the basest castes of the Hindu com-
munity. The great bulk of the Indo-Aryan or Hindu population
consists of Uriyas, with a residue of immigrant Bengalis, Lala
Kayets from Behar and northern India, Telingas from the
Madra« coast, Mahrattas from central and western India, a few
Sikhs from the Punjab and Marwaris from Rajputana. The
Mahommedans are chiefly the descendants of the Pathans who
took refuge in Orissa after the subversion of their kingdom in
Bengal by the Moguls in the 16th century.

Rice forms the staple product of the district; its three chief
varieties are biali or early rice, sarad or winter rice, and dalua or
spring rice. The other cereal crops consist of mandua (a grass-like
plant producing a coarse grain resembling rice), wheat, barley,
and china, a rice-like cereal. Suan, another rice-like cereal, not
cultivated, grows spontaneously in the paddy fields. Pulses
of different sorts, oilseeds, fibres, sugar-cane, tobacco, spices and
vegetables also form crops of the district. The cultivators consist
of two classes — the resident husbandmen (thani) and the non-
resident or migratory husbandmen (pake).

The Orissa canal system, which lies mainly within Cuttack
district, is used both for irrigation and transport purposes. The
railway across the district towards Calcutta, a branch of the
Bengal-Nagpur system, was opened in 1899. Considerable
trade is carried on at the mouth of the rivers along the coast.

CUTTLE-FISH. The more familiar and conspicuous types of
the molluscan class Cephalopoda (q.v.) are popularly known in
English as cuttle-fish, squid, octopus and nautilus. The first
of these names (from the A.S. cudele) is applied more particularly
to the common Sepia (fig. 1), characterized by its internal cal-
careous shell, sometimes known as cuttle-bone, and its ink-sac,
the contents of which have been long in use as a pigment (sepia) .
The term squid is employed among fishermen for the ten-armed
Cephalopods in which the shell is represented by an uncalcified
flexible structure somewhat resembling a pen. Hence in Italian
a squid is called calamaio, from calamus a reed or pen, and in
English the similar term calamary is sometimes used. Like the
Sepia, squids also possess the ink-sac, whence they have some-
times been called pen and ink fish, and in German both Sepia
and squid and their allies are known as Tinten-fische. The squids
have generally softer and more watery tissues than the Sepia,
but the former term is not in general use, and the distinction
not generally understood. The term cuttle-fishes is sometimes
extended to include all the Cephalopoda, but as the peculiarities
of the remarkable shell of the true nautilus, and those of the shell-
less Octopoda are widely known, we shall consider the name here
as applying only to those forms which have ten arms, an ink-sac,
an internal shell-rudiment, and only one pair of gills in the mantle
cavity. Technically these form the sub-order Decapoda, of the
order Dibranchia.

The cuttle-fishes are characteristically swimming animals,
in contrast with the octopods, which creep about by means of
their suckers among the rocks, and lurk in holes. In Sepia the
integument is produced laterally into two muscular fins, rather
narrow and of uniform breadth running the whole length of the
body, but separated by a notch behind. There are four pairs of
short non-retractile arms surrounding the mouth, and furnished
with suckers on their oral surface, and between the third and
fourth of these arms on each side is a much longer tentacular
arm, which is usually kept entirely withdrawn into a pocket
of the skin. The mantle cavity is on the posterior side of the
body, which is the lower side in the swimming position, and the
funnel is a tube open at both ends and connected with the body
within the mouth of the mantle cavity. The mantle during life
performs regular respiratory movements by which water is
drawn into the cavity, passing between mantle and funnel, and
is expelled through the funnel. In swimming the short arms
are directed forwards, the fins undulate, and the motion is slow
and deliberate; but if the animal is threatened or alarmed it
swims suddenly and rapidly backwards by expelling water

674

CUTTLE-FISH

forcibly from the mantle cavity through the funnel, at the same
time expelling a cloud of ink from its ink-sac.

The Sepia feeds principally on Crustacea, and in aquaria has
been observed to pursue and capture prawns. The method in

Fig. i. — Sepia officinalis, L., about \ natural size, as seen when
dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the pouches
at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life when not
actually in use. a, Neck; b, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; c, the
eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long prehensile arms;
e, the eyes.

which it secures its prey has been carefully observed and de-
scribed by the present writer, who studied the living animal in
the aquarium of the biological laboratory at Plymouth. The
prawns support themselves on their long slender legs on con-
venient points of the rockwork, and the Sepia stalks them with
great caution and determination, the rapid play of its chromato-
phores giving evidence of its excitement. When it has arrived
within striking distance, the two tentacular arms are shot out
with great rapidity, and the prawn is seized between the two
expanded ends, drawn within the circle of short arms, and
devoured; unless, as sometimes happens, the prawn springs
away and the Sepia misses its aim.

Two species of Sepia occur in British and European waters,
including the Mediterranean, namely, S. elegans and 5. officinalis.
The usual length of the body is about 9 or 10 in. They live mostly
between ten and forty fathoms, coming into shallower water in
July and August to deposit their eggs, which are about as large
as black currants and of somewhat similar colour, and are con-
nected by elongated stalks into a cluster attached to the sea-
bottom. Other species occur in various parts of the world, e.g.
S. cultrata, which is common on the coasts of Australia. The
Sepiidae form the only family of cuttle-fishes in which the shell
is calcined. They belong to the tribe Myopsida, characterized
by the complete closure of the external corneal covering of the
eye outside the iris and the lens.

Sepiola and Rossia belong to another family of the Myopsida.
Both are British genera living in' shallow water, and entering
estuaries. The animals of both genera are small, not more than

2 or 3 in. in length, with the body rounded at the aboral end,
and the fins short and rounded, inserted in the middle of the
body length, instead of extending from end to end. Sepiola,
although it swims by means of its fins and funnel when active,
spends much of its time buried in the sand for concealment.
Rossia has similar habits. The shell is chitinous and shorter than
the body. In other genera of the Sepiolidae the shell is entirely
absent. Idiosepius is the smallest of the Cephalopoda, only 1-5
in. in length. It inhabits the Indian Ocean. The body
is elongated and the fins rudimentary. In the Sepiadariidae
also the shell is absent. The body is short and the mantle united
with the head dorsally. The two genera Sepiadarium and
Sepioloidea occur in the Pacific Ocean. The common squid
Loligo is the type of the only remaining family of the Myopsida.
In this species the shell is a well-developed chitinous pen or
gladius with a thickened axis narrowing to a point behind, but
bearing posteriorly a wide thin plate on each side. The shape
closely resembles that of a quill pen with the quill in front.
The fins are large and triangular, extending over rather more than
half of the length of the body aborally. The tentacular arms
are only partly retractile. The body is elongated and conical, and
reaches about a foot in length. The squid is gregarious, and forms
a favourite food of the larger fishes, especially of conger. All
the Myopsida are more or less littoral in habit, and the British
forms are familiar in consequence of their frequent capture in
the nets of fishermen. The shell, or " bone " as it is commonly
called, of the common Sepia frequently occurs in abundance on
the shore among the sea-weed and other refuse left by the tide.

The Oigopsida, or cuttle-fishes in which the corneal covering
of the eye is perforated, are on the whole more oceanic than
littoral, and many of the species are abyssal. Ommatostrephes
sagittatus is one of the forms that occurs off the British coasts,

Fig. 2. — A, Loligo vulgaris; a, arms; t, tentacles. B, Pen of the
same reduced in size. C, Side-view of one of the suckers, showing
the horny hooks surrounding the margin. D, View of the head
from in front, showing the arms (a), the tentacles (t), the mouth
(m), and the funnel (/).

especially the more northern, e.g. in the Firth of Forth. In
general appearance it resembles the common squid, but the fins
are broader and shorter, not extending to the middle of the body.

CUTTS OF GOWRAN

675

The shell is similar to that of Loligo, but ends aborally in a little
hollow cone. The suckers bear chitinous rings which are toothed
along the outer edge. The tentacular arms are rather short and
thick. Two specimens of allied species have been taken on
British coasts, one of which, captured off, Salcombe in Devon-
shire in 1892, had a body 66 cm. (22 in.) long, and tentacular
arms 64 cm. long,, or nearly the same length as the body. Most
of the species of Ommatostrephes are naturally gregarious and
oceanic, and occur in the open seas in all latitudes, swimming
near the surface and often leaping out of the water. They are
largely devoured by albatrosses and other marine birds, and by
Cetacea. They are used as bait in the Newfoundland cod fishery.

Some of the oceanic cuttle-fishes reach a very large size, and
the stories of these ocean monsters which are narrated by the
older writers, though to some extent exaggerated, are now known
to be founded on fact. The figure given by one author of a
gigantic Cephalopod rising from the surface of the ocean and
embracing with its arms a full-rigged ship does not accurately
represent an actual occurrence, but on the other hand there are
authentic instances on record of fishermen in small boats on the
banks of Newfoundland being in great peril in consequence of
large squids throwing their arms across their boats. In November
1874 a specimen was brought ashore at St John's, Newfoundland,
which had been caught in herring nets. Its body was 7 ft. long,
its fins 22 in. broad, and its tentacular arms 24 ft. long. Several
others have been recorded, taken in the same region, which were
as large or larger, the total length of the body and tentacles
together varying from 30 to 52 ft., and the estimated weight of
one of them being 1000 lb.

In April i87soneof theselarge squids occurredoff Boffin's Island
on the Irish coast. The crew of a curragh rowed out to it and
attacked it, cutting off two of its arms and its head. The shorter
arms measured 8 ft. in length and 1 5 in. in circumference ; the ten-
tacular arms are said to have been 30 ft. long. In the Natural
History Museum in London there is one of the shorter arms of a
specimen; this arm is 9 ft. in length and n in. in circumference,
and the total length of the specimen, including body and ten-
tacles, is stated to have been 40 ft. The maximum known length
of these giant squids is stated to be 18 metres or about 585 ft.
All these gigantic specimens belong, so far as at present known,
to one genus called Architeuthis, referred to the same family as
Ommatostrephes. They are the largest known invertebrates.

These huge cuttle-fishes as well as those of various other oceanic
species form the food of the cachalot or sperm whale, and
F. T. Bullen, in his Cruise of the Cachalot and other writings, has
graphically described contests which came under his own observa-
tion between the cachalot and its prey. The prince of Monaco in
his yacht the " Princess Alice " was fortunate enough to be able to
make a very complete scientific investigation in the case of one
specimen of the cachalot, which not only confirmed the most
important of Mr Bullen's statements, but added considerably
to our knowledge of oceanic cuttle-fishes. Off the Azores in July
1895 the prince in his yacht witnessed the killing of a cachalot
13-70 metres long (about 45 ft. 8 in.) by the crew of a whaler.
The anjmal in its death-agony vomited the contentsof its stomach,
most of which were carefully collected and preserved, and after-
wards examined by Professor Joubin. On the lips of the whale
were found impressions several centimetres wide which corre-
sponded exactly to the toothed suckers of the largest cuttle-fish
arms obtained from its stomach. The contents of the stomach
consisted entirely of cuttle-fish or parts of cuttle-fish, including
the giant Architeuthis, and among them was the body, without
the head, of a form new to science, distinguished by a condition
of the external surface which occurs in no other species of the
group. The surface of the skin was divided into small angular flat
projections like scales, arranged in a regular spiral like the scales
of a pine cone. From this character the new genus was called
Lepidoteuthis. The body, without the head, of the specimen
obtained was 86 cm. (nearly 3 ft.) in length.

The family Onychotcuthidae is remarkable for the formidable
chitinous hooks borne on the arms. These hooks are special
modifications of the toothed chitinous ring which covers the

sucker-rim in the Decapoda generally. The teeth of the ring are
often unequal in size, and in the Onychoteuthidae one tooth is
enormously developed. The maximum development occurs in
Veranya, found in the Mediterranean, where the suckers have
lost their function and are merely fleshy projections bearing
the hooks at their extremities. Onychoteuthis reaches a large
size, the length of the body without the arms being in one
specimen from the Pacific coast of America 8 ft. Figures of
this and several of the following genera are given in the article
Cephalopoda.

In the family Cheiroteuthidae many of the species occur at
abyssal depths of the ocean, and exhibit curious modifications
of structure. In Cheiroteuthis itself the tentacular arms are very
long and slender, and are not capable of retraction into pockets.
In several species of this genus the suckers are no longer organs of
adhesion, but are simple cups containing a network of filaments
resembling a fishing net. In Histioteuthis and Histiopsis, as in
some Octopods, the six dorsal arms are more or less completely
united by a web, which also probably serves for capturing fish.
In these two genera and in Calliteuthis the skin bears luminous
organs. Cheiroteuthis has been taken at 2600 fms., Calliteuthis
at 2200, Histiopsis at nearly 2000. Bathyteuthis, placed in the
same family as Ommatostrephes, has been taken at 1700 fms.

The Cranchiidae are remarkable for their small size, the
shortness of the ordinary arms, and the protuberance of the
eyes, which in Taonius are actually on the ends of stalk-like
outgrowths of the body. Cranchia is a deep-sea form taken at
1700 fms. Its body is pear-shaped, swollen posteriorly and
quite narrow at the neck.

Spirula is distinguished from all other existing Cephalopods
by the structure of its coiled shell, which in many respects re-
sembles those of the extinct Ammonites, and is not completely
internal. In the structure of the body the animal is a true cuttle-
fish in the sense in which the term is here used, having ten arms
and a perforated cornea. Three species are distinguished, and
their empty shells occur abundantly on the shores of the tropical
regions of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. In German
the shells are known from their shape as Posthornchen. They are
common on the shores of the Azores. But the animal has very
rarely been obtained; only a few specimens occur in museum
collections. One specimen was taken by the " Challenger " in
a deep-sea trawl, at a depth between 300 and 400 fathoms
off Banda Neira in the Molluccas. Dr Willemoes Suhm, in
describing the capture, stated that the specimen seemed to have
been in the stomach of a fish, as its surface was slightly digested,
and he thought it must have habits of concealment which usually
prevent its capture, and that it was secured on this occasion only
by the capture of the fish which had swallowed it. The fact that
the shells are washed ashore in such large numbers is not fully
explained. Possibly when freed from the animal the air in the
chambers of the shell causes it to float, and in that case it would
naturally be sooner or later washed ashore. (J T C )

CUTTS OF GOWRAN, JOHN CUTTS, Baron (1661-1707),
British soldier and author, came of an Essex family. After a
short university career at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, he came
into the enjoyment of the family estates, but evinced a decided
preference for the life of court and camp. The double ambition
for military and literary fame inspired his first work, which
appeared in 1685 under the name La Muse de cavalier, or An
Apology for such Gentlemen as make Poetry their Diversion not
their Business. The next year saw Cutts serving as a volunteer
under Charles of Lorraine in Hungary, and it is said that he was
the first to plant the imperialist standard on the walls at the
storm of Buda (July 1686). In 1687 he published a book of verse
entitled Poetical Exercises, and the following year we find him
serving as lieutenant-colonel in Holland. General Hugh Mackay
describes Cutts about this time as " pretty tall, lusty and well
shaped, an agreeable companion with abundance of wit, affable
and familiar, but too much seized with vanity and self-conceit."

Lieutenant-Colonel Cutts was one of William's companions in
the English revolution of 1688, and in 1690 he went in command
of a regiment of foot to the Irish war. He served with distinction

676 CUVIER

at the battle of the Boyne, and at the siege of Limerick (where he
was wounded), and King William created him Baron Cutts of
Gowran in the kingdom of Ireland. In 1691 he succeeded to the
command of the brigade of the prince of Hesse (wounded at
Aughrim), and on the surrender of Limerick was appointed
commandant of the town . Next year he served again in Flanders
as a brigadier, his brigade of Mackay's division being one of
those almost destroyed at Steinkirk. At this battle Cutts himself
was wounded. For some time after this, Lord Cutts was
lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight, but he returned to active
service in 1694, holding a command in the disastrous Brest
expedition. He was one of Carmarthen's companions in the
daring reconnaissance of Camaret Bay, and was soon afterwards
again wounded. He succeeded Talmash, the commander of the
expedition (who died of his wounds), as colonel of the Coldstream
Guards. Next year, after serving as a commissioner for settling
the bank of Antwerp, he distinguished himself once more at the
famous siege of Namur, winning for himself the name of " Sala-
mander " by his indifference to the heaviest fire. Henceforward
court service and war service alternated. He was deep in the
confidence of William III., and acted as a diplomatic agent in the
negotiations which ended in the peace of Ryswick. On the
occasion of the great fire in Whitehall (1698) Cutts, at the head of
the Coldstreams, earned afresh the honourable nickname of
" the Salamander." A little later we find Captain Richard Steele
acting as his private secretary. In 1702, now a major-general,
Cutts was serving under Marlborough in the opening campaign
of the War of the Spanish Succession, and at the siege of Venloo,
conspicuous as usual for romantic bravery, he led the stormers
at Fort Saint Michael. His enemies, and even the survivors of
the assault, were amazed at the success of a seemingly hare-
brained enterprise. Probably, however, Cutts, who was now
a veteran of great and varied experience, measured the factors of
success and failure better than his critics. It was on this occasion
that Swift lampooned the lieutenant-general in his Ode' to a
Salamander. He made the campaign of 1703 in Flanders, and
in 1704, after a visit to England, he rejoined Marlborough on
the banks of the Danube. At Blenheim he was third in command,
and it was his division that bore the brunt of the desperate fight-
ing at the village which gave its name to the battle.

Blenheim was Cutts's last battle. His remaining years were
spent at home, and, at the time of his death, he was the holder of
eight distinct political and military offices. He sat in five parlia-
ments for the county of Cambridge, and in Queen Anne's first
Parliament he was returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight,
for which he sat until the time of his death. He was twice
married, but left no issue.

CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC
DAGOBERT, Baron (1769-1832), French naturalist, was born
on the 23rd of August 1769 at Montbeliard, and was the son of
a retired officer on half-pay belonging to a Protestant family
which had emigrated from the Jura in consequence of religious
persecution. He early showed a bent towards the investigation
of natural phenomena, and was noted for his studious habits and
marvellous memory. After spending four years at the Academy
of Stuttgart, he accepted the position of tutor in the family of the
Comte d'Hericy, who was in the habit of spending the summer
near Fecamp. It thus came about that he made the acquaintance
of the agriculturist, A. H. Tessier, who was then living at Fecamp,
and who wrote strongly in favour of his protege to his friends in
Paris — with the result that Cuvier, after corresponding with the
well-known naturalist E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, was appointed
in 1795 assistant to the professor of comparative anatomy at
the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The National Institute was
founded in the same year and he was elected a member. In 1796
he began to lecture at the Ecole Centrale du Pantheon, and at
the opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first
palaeontological paper, which was subsequently published in
1800 under the title Mimoires sur les especes d 'elephants vivants
et fossiles. In 1798 was published his first separate work, the
Tableau elementaire de I'histoire naturelle des animaux, which
was an abridgment of his course of lectures at the Ecole du

Panth6on, and may be regarded as the foundation and first and
general statement of his natural classification of the animal
kingdom.

In 1799 he succeeded L. J. M. Daubenton as professor of
natural history in the College de France, and in the following
year he published the LeQons d'anatomie comparie, a classical
Work, in the production of which he was assisted by A. M. C.
Dumeril in the first two volumes, and by G. L. Duvernoy in
three later ones. In 1802 Cuvier became titular professor at
the Jardin des Plantes; and in the same year he was appointed
commissary of the Institute to accompany the inspectors-
general of public instruction. In this latter capacity he visited
the south of France; but he was in the early part of 1803 chosen
perpetual secretary of the National Institute in the department
of the physical and natural sciences, and he consequently
abandoned the appointment just mentioned and returned to
Paris.

He now devoted himself more especially to three lines of
inquiry — one dealing with the structure and classification of the
mollusca, the second with the comparative anatomy and syste-
matic arrangement of the fishes, and the third with fossil mammals
and reptiles primarily, and secondarily with the osteology of
living forms belonging to the same groups. His papers on the
mollusca began as early as 1792, but most of his memoirs on this
branch were published in the Annates du musium between 1802
and 1815; they were subsequently collected as Mimoires pour
servir a I'histoire et a I'anatomie des mollusques, published in
one volume at Paris in 18 17. In the department of fishes,
Cuvier's researches, begun in 1801, finally culminated in the
publication of the Histoire naturelle des poissons, which con-
tained descriptions of 5000 species of fishes, and was the joint
production of Cuvier and A. Valenciennes, its publication (so
far as the former was concerned) extending over the years
1828-1831. The department of palaeontology dealing with the
Mammalia may be said to have been- essentially created and
established by Cuvier. In this region of investigation he pub-
lished a long list of memoirs, partly relating to the bones of
extinct animals, and partly detailing the results of observations
on the skeletons of living animals specially examined with a
view of throwing light upon the structure and affinities of the
fossil forms. In the second category must be placed a number
of papers relating to the osteology of the Rhinoceros Indicus,
the tapir, Hyrax Capensis, the hippopotamus, the sloths, the
manatee, &c. In the former category must be classed an even
greater number of memoirs, dealing with the extinct mammals
of the Eocene beds of Montmartre, the fossil species of hippo-
potamus, the Didelphys gypsorum, the Megalonyx, the Mega-
therium, the cave-hyaena, the extinct species of rhinoceros, the
cave-bear, the mastodon, the extinct species of elephant, fossil
species of manatee and seals, fossil forms of crocodilians,
chelonians, fishes, birds, &c. The results of Cuvier's principal
palaeontological and geological investigations were ultimately
given to the world in the form of two separate works. One of
these is the celebrated Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de
quadrupedes, published in Paris in 181 2, with subsequent
editions in 1821 and 1825; and the other is his Discours sur les
revolutions de la surface du globe, published in Paris in 1825.

But none of his works attained a higher reputation than
his Regne animal distribuS d'apres son organisation, the first
edition of which appeared in four octavo volumes in 18 1.7, and
the second in five volumes in 1829-1830. In this classical
work Cuvier embodied the results of the whole of his previous
researches on the structure of living and fossil animals. The
whole of the work was his own, with the exception of the Insecta,
in which he was assisted by his friend P. A. Latreille.

Apart from his own original investigations in zoology and
palaeontology Cuvier carried out a vast amount of work as
perpetual secretary of the National Institute, and as an official
connected with public education generally; and much of this
work appeared ultimately in a published form. Thus, in 1808
he was placed by Napoleon upon the council of the Imperial
University, and in this capacity he presided (in the years 1809,

CUVILLES— CUYP

677

1811 and 1813) over commissions charged to examine the state
of the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond
the Alps and the Rhine which had been annexed to France/and
to report upon the means by which these could be affiliated
with the central university. Three separate reports on this
subject were published by him. In his capacity, again, of
perpetual secretary of the Institute, he not only prepared a
number of eloges historiques on deceased members of the Academy
of Sciences, but he was the author of a number of reports on the
history of the physical and natural sciences, the most important
of these being the Rapport historique sur le progres des sciences
physiques depuis 17 8g, published in 1810. Prior to the fall of
Napoleon (1814) he had been admitted to the council of state,
and his -position remained unaffected by the restoration of the
Bourbons. He was elected chancellor of the university, in
which capacity he acted as interim president of the council of
public instruction, whilst he also, as a Lutheran, superintended
the faculty of Protestant theology. In 1819 he was appointed
president of the committee of the interior, and retained the
office until his death. In 1826 he was made grand officer of the
Legion of Honour; and in 183 1 he was raised by Louis Philippe
to the rank of peer of France, and was subsequently appointed
president of the council of state. In the beginning of 1832 he
was nominated to the ministry of the interior, but on the 13th
of May he died in Paris after a brief illness.

See P. J. M. Flourens, Eloge historique de G. Cuvier, published as
an introduction to the Eloges historiques of Cuvier; Histoire des
travaux de Georges Cuvier (3rd ed., Paris, 1858); A. P. de Candolle,
" Mort de G. Cuvier," Bibliotheque universelle (1832, 59, p. 442);
C. L. Laurillard, " Cuvier," Biographie universelle, supp. vol. 61
(1836); Sarah Lee, Memoirs of Cuvier, translated into French by
T. Lacordaire (1833).

CUVILLES, FRANCOIS DE (1698-c. 1767); French architect
and engraver. He helped to carry the French rococo taste' to
Germany — he was summoned about 1720 to Cologne by the elector
James Clement; in 1738 he became architect to the elector of
Bavaria, and afterwards occupied the same position towards the
emperor Charles VII. His style, while essentially thin, is often
painfully elaborate and bizarre. He designed mirrors and
consoles, balustrades for staircases, ceilings and fireplaces, and
in furniture, beds and commodes especially. He also laid out
parks and gardens. He wrote several treatises on artistic and
decorative subjects, which were edited by his son, Francois
de Cuvilles the younger, who succeeded his father at the court
of Munich.

CUXHAVEN, or Kuxhaven, a seaport town of Germany,
belonging to the state of Hamburg, and situated at the extremity
of, the west side of the mouth of the Elbe, 71 m. by rail N.W.
from Hamburg. Pop. (1900) 6898. The harbour is good and
secure, and is much frequented by vessels delayed in the Elbe
by unfavourbale weather. A jiew harbour was made in 1891-
1896, having a depth of 265 ft., with a fore port 1000 ft. long by
800 ft. wide; and it is now the place of departure and arrival
of the mail steamers of the Hamburg-American Steamship
Company, who in 1901 transferred here a part of their permanent
staff. The port is free, i.e. outside the customs union (Zollverein) ,
the imports being principally coals, bricks and timber, and the
exports fish. There is a fishing fleet, for which a new harbour
was opened in 1892. Though lying on a bare strand, the town
is much frequented as a bathing place by Hamburgers. It is
strongly fortified, and there are a lighthouse, and lifeboat and pilot
stations. The town only dates from 1873, having been formed
by uniting the villages of Ritzebiittel and Cuxhaven, which had
belonged to Hamburg since 1394.

CUYABA, or Cuiaba, capital of the inland state of Matto
Grosso, Brazil, about 972 m. N.W. of Rio de Janeiro, on the
Cuyaba river near its discharge into the Sao Lourenco, the
principal Brazilian tributary of the Paraguay. Pop. (1890)
14,507; of the municipality, 17,815. The surrounding country
is thickly populated. Cuyaba has uninterrupted steamer com-
munication with Montevideo, about 2500 m. distant, but has
no land communication with the national capital, except by
telegraph. The climate is hot and malaria is prevalent. Cuyaba

was founded in 1719 by Paalista gold hunters, and its gold-
washings, now apparently exhausted, yielded rich results in
the 1 8th century. It is the see of a bishopric and headquarters
of an important military district, having an arsenal and military
barracks.

CUYAPO, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, 28 m. N.N.W. of San Isidro, the capital.
Pop. (1903) 16,292. Rice is grown here. In 1907 the town of
Nampicuan was formed from part of Cuyapo.

CUYP, the name of a Dutch family which produced two
generations of painters. The Cuyps were long settled at Dor-
drecht, in the neighbourhood of which they had a country hoUse,
where Albert Cuyp (the most famous) was born and bred.

The eldest member of the family who acquired fame was
Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, born it is said at Dordrecht in 1575,
and taught by Abraham Bloemaert of Utrecht. He is known
to have been alive in 1649, and the date of his death is obscure.
J. G. Cuyp's pictures are little known. But he produced portraits
in various forms, as busts and half-lengths thrown upon plain
backgrounds, or groups in rooms, landscapes and gardens.
Solid and clever as an imitator of nature in its ordinary garb, he
is always spirited, sometimes rough, but generally plain, and quite
as unconscious of the sparkle conspicuous in Frans Hals as in-
capable of the concentrated light-effects peculiar to Rembrandt.
In portrait busts, of which there are signed examples dated 1624,
1644, 1646 and 1649, in the museums of Berlin, Rotterdam,
Marseilles, Vienna and Metz, his treatment is honest, homely
and true; his touch and tone firm and natural. In portraying
children he is fond of introducing playthings and pets — a lamb,
a goat or a roedeer; and he reproduces animal life with realistic
care. In a family scene at the Amsterdam Museum we have
likenesses of men, women, boys and girls with a cottage and
park.- In the background is a coach with a pair of horses. These
examples alone give us a clue to the influences under which
Albert Cuyp grew up, and explain to some extent the direction
which his art took as he rose to manhood.

Albert Cuyp (1620-1691), the son of Jacob Gerritsz by
Grietche Dierichsdochter (Dierich's daughter), was born at
Dordrecht. He married in 1658 Cornelia Bosman, a rich widow,
by whom he had an only daughter. By right of his possessions
at Dordwyck, Cuyp was a vassal of the county of Holland, and
privileged to sit in the high court of the province. As a citizen
he was sufficiently well known to be placed on the list of those
from whom William III., stadtholder of the Netherlands, chose
the regency of Dordrecht in 1672. His death, and his burial on
the 7 th of November 1691 in the church of the Augustines of
Dordrecht, are historically proved. But otherwise the known
facts concerning his life are few. He seldom dates his pictures,
but it appears probable that he ceased to paint about 1675.
It has been said that Albert was the pupil of his father. The
scanty evidence of Dutch annalists to this effect seems confirmed
by a certain coincidence in the style and treatment of father and
son. That he was a pupil of van Goyen has been surmised on
the strength of the style of his early works. It has been likewise
stated that Albert was skilled, not only in the production of
portraits, landscapes and herds, but in the representation of
still life. His works are supposed to be divisible into such as
bear the distinctive marks C. or A. C. in cursive characters,
the letters A. C. in Roman capitals, and the name "A. Cuyp"
in full. A man of Cuyp's acknowledged talent may have been
versatile enough to paint in many different styles. But whether
he was as Versatile as some critics have thought is a question not
quite easy to answer. It is to be observed that pieces assigned
to Cuyp representing game, shell-fish and fruit, and inscribed
A. C. in Roman capitals (Rotterdam, Amsterdam and Berlin
museums), though cleverly executed, are not in touch or treat-
ment like other pictures of less dubious authenticity, signed either
with C. or A. C. or " A. Cuyp " in cursive letters. The panels
marked C. and A. C. in cursive are portraits or landscapes, with
herds, and interiors of stables or sheds, in which there are cows,
horses and poultry. The subjects and their handling are akin
to those which strike us in panels bearing the master's full

678

CUZA— CUZCO

signature, though characterized, as productions of an artist
in the first phase of his progress would naturally be, by tones
more uniform, touch more flat, and colour more deep than we find
in the delicate and subtle compositions of the painter's later
time. Generally speaking, the finished examples of Cuyp's
middle and final period all bear his full signature. They are all
remarkable for harmonies attained by certain combinations of
shade in gradations with colours in contraposition.

Albert Cuyp, a true child of the Netherlands, does not seem
to have wandered much beyond Rotterdam on the one hand or
Nijmwegen on the other. His scenery is that of the Meuse or
Rhine exclusively; and there is little variety to notice in his
views of water and meadows at Dordrecht, or the bolder undula-
tions of the Rhine banks east of it, except such as results from
diversity of effect due to change of weather or season or hour.
Cuyp is to the river and its banks what Willem Vandevelde is
to calm seas and Hobbema to woods. There is a poetry of effect,
an eternity of distance in his pictures, which no Dutchman ever
expressed in a similar way. His landscapes sparkle with silvery
sheen at early morning, they are bathed in warm or sultry haze
at noon, or glow with heat at eventide. Under all circumstances
they have a peculiar tinge of auburn which is Cuyp's and Cuyp's
alone. Burger truly says van Goyen is gray, Ruysdael is brown,
Hobbema olive, but Cuyp " is blond." The utmost delicacy may
be observed in Cuyp's manner of defining reflections of objects
in water, or of sight from water on ship's sides. He shows great
cleverness in throwing pale-yellow clouds against clear blue skies,
and merging yellow mists into olive-green vegetation. He is
also very artful in varying light and shade according to distance,
either by interchange of cloud-shadow and sun-gleam or by
gradation of tints. His horses and cattle are admirably drawn,
and they relieve each other quite as well if contrasted in black
and white and black and red, or varied in subtler shades of red
and brown. Rich weed-growth is expressed by light but marrowy
touch, suggestive of detail as well as of general form. The human
figure is given with homely realism in most cases, but frequently
with a charming elevation, when, as often occurs, the persons
represented are meant to be portraits. Whatever the theme may
be it remains impressed with the character and individuality of
Cuyp. Familiar subjects of the master's earlier period are
stables with cattle and horses (Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Peters-
burg and Brussels museums). Occasionally he painted portraits
in the bust form familiar to his father, one of which is dated 1649,
and exhibited in the National Gallery, London. More frequently
he produced likenesses of ladies and gentlemen on horseback,
in which the life and dress of the period and the forms of horses
are most vividly represented (Buckingham Palace, Bridgewater
Gallery, Louvre and Dresden Museum). Later on we find him
fondest of expansive scenery with meadows and cattle and flocks,
or rivers and barges in the foreground and distances showing
the towers and steeples of Dordrecht. Cuyp was more partial to
summer than to winter, to noon than to night, to calm than to
storm. But some of his best groups a're occasionally relieved
on dark and gusty cloud (Louvre and Robarts's collection). A
few capital pieces show us people sledging and skating or netting
ice-holes ( Yarborough, Neeld and B edf ord collections) . A lovely
" Night on the Banks of a River," in the Grosvenor collection,
reminds us that Cuyp's friend and contemporary was the painter
of moonlights, Aart van der Neer, to whom he was equal in the
production of these peculiar effects and superior in the throw
of figures. Sometimes Cuyp composed fancy subjects. His
" Orpheus charming the Beasts," in the Bute collection, is
judiciously arranged with the familiar domestic animals in the
foreground, and the wild ones, to which he is a comparative
stranger, thrown back into the distance. One of his rare gospel
subjects is " Philip baptizing the Eunuch " (Marchmont House,
Berwickshire) , described as a fine work by Waagen. The best and
most attractive of Cuyp's pieces are his Meuse and Rhine land-
scapes, with meadows, cattle, flocks and horsemen, and occasion-
ally with boats and barges. In these he brought together and
displayed — during his middle and final period— all the skill of
one who is at once a poet and a finished artist; grouping, tinting,

touch, harmony of light and shade, and true chords of colours
are all combined. Masterpieces of acknowledged beauty are the
" Riders with the Boy and Herdsman " in the National Gallery;
the Meuse, with Dordrecht in the distance, in three or four
varieties, in the Bridgewater, Grosvenor, Holford and Brownlow
collections; the " Huntsman " (Ashburton); " Herdsmen with
Cattle," belonging to the marquess of Bute; and the " Piper
with Cows," in the Louvre. The prices paid for Cuyp's pictures
in his own time were comparatively low. In 1 750, 30 florins was
considered to be the highest sum to which any one of his panels
was entitled. But in more recent times the value of the pictures
has naturally risen very largely. At the sale of the Clewer
collection at Christie's in 1876 a small " Hilly Landscape in
Morning Light " was sold for £5040, and a view on the Rhine,
with cows on a bank, for £3150. (J. A. C.)

John Smith's Catalogue raisonne of the Dutch and Flemish painters,
in 9 vols. (1840), enumerated 335 of Albert Cuyp's works, of which in
1877 Sir J. A. Crowe wrote in this encyclopaedia that " it would be
difficult now to find more than a third of them." In C. Hofstede
de Groot's Catalogue raisonnS, vol. ii. (1909), revising Smith's, the
number is extended to nearly 850, but he accepts too readily the
attributions of sale catalogues ; the work is, however, the best modern
authority on the painter.

CUZA (or Cotjza), ALEXANDER JOHN [Alexandra Joan]
(1820-1873), first prince of Rumania, was born on the 20th of
March 1820, at Galatz in Moldavia, and belonged to an ancient
boiar, or noble, family. He was educated at Jassy, Pavia,
Bologna and Athens; and, after a brief period of military service,
visited Paris from 1837 to 1840 for a further course of study.
In 1845 he married the daughter of another boiar, Elena Rosetti,
who in 1862 founded the Princess Elena refuge for orphans,
at Bucharest. Cuza was imprisoned by the Russian authorities
for taking part in the Rumanian revolution of 1848, but escaped
to Vienna. On his return, in 1850, he was appointed prefect of
Galatz. In 1857 he rejoined the army, and within a few months
rose to the rank of colonel. He became minister of war in 1858,
and represented Galatz in the Assembly which was elected in the
same year to nominate a prince for Moldavia. Cuza was a
prominent speaker in the critical debates which ensued when the
assembly met at Jassy, and strongly advocated the union of the
two Danubian principalities, Moldavia and Walachia. In default
of a foreign prince, he was himself elected prince of Moldavia
by the assembly at jassy (1 7th Jan. 1859) , and prince of Walachia
by the assembly at Bucharest (5th Feb.). He thus became ruler
of the united principalities, with the title Prince Alexander
John I. ; but as this union was forbidden by the congress of Paris
(18th Oct. 1858), his authority was not recognized by his suzerain,
the sultan of Turkey, until the 23rd of December 1861, when the
union of the principalities under the name of Rumania was
formally proclaimed. For a full account of Cuza's reign see
Rumania. The personal vices of the prince, and the drastic
and unconstitutional reforms which he imposed on all classes,
alienated his subjects, although many of these reforms proved to
be of lasting excellence. Financial distress supervened, and the
popular discontent culminated in revolution. At four o'clock
on the morning of the 22nd of February 1866, a band of military
conspirators broke into the palace, and compelled the prince to
sign his abdication. On the following day they conducted him
safely across the frontier. Prince Alexander spent the remainder
of his life chiefly in Paris, Vienna and Wiesbaden. He died at
Heidelberg on the 15th of May 1873.

CUZCO, an inland city of southern Peru, capital of an Andean
department of the same name, about 360 m. E.S.E. of Lima,
in lat. 13° 31' S., long. 73 03' W. The population, largely
composed of Indians and mestizos, was estimated at 30,000 in
1896, but according to the official estimate of 1906, it was then
about 25% less. The city stands at the head of a small valley,
11,380 ft. above sea-level, and is nearly enclosed by mountains of
considerable elevation. The valley itself is 9 m. in length and
extends S.E. to the valley of Vilcamayu. Overlooking the city
from the N. is the famous hill of Sacsahuaman, crowned by ruins
of the cyclopean fortress of the Incas and their predecessors,
and separated from adjacent heights by the deep ravines of two

CYANAMIDE— CYANIC ACID

679

streams, called the Huatenay and Rodadero. The principal
part of the city lies between these two streams, with its great
plaza in the centre. On the W. side of the Huatenay are two more
fine squares, called the Cabildo and San Francisco. The houses
of the city are built of stone, their walls commonly showing the
massive masonry of the Incas at the bottom, crowned with a light
modern superstructure roofed with red tiles. The streets cross
each other at right angles and afford fine vistas on every side.
The principal public buildings are the cathedral, which is classed
among the best in South America, the convent of San Domingo,
which partly occupies the site of the great Temple of the Sun of
the Incas, the cabildo or government-house, a university founded
in 159J5, a college of science and arts, a public library, hospital,
mint and museum of Incarial antiquities. Cuzco was made the
see of a bishopric soon after it was occupied by the Spaniards.
The Church has always exercised a dominating influence in this
region, and the city has many churches and religious establish-
ments. There are a number of small manufacturing industries in
Cuzco, including the manufacture of cotton and woollen fabrics,
leather, beer, embroidery and articles of gold and silver. Its
trade is not large, however, owing to the costs of transportation.
The climate is cool and bracing, and the products of the vicinity
include many of the temperate zone. A railway from Juliaca
(a station on the line from Mollendo to Puno) to Cuzco was virtu-
ally completed early in 1908. This railway gives Cuzco an
outlet to the coast, and also direct connexion with La Paz, the
Bolivian capital. A branch of the Callao & Oroya railway is
also projected southward to Cuzco, and reached Huancayo
in 1908. Cuzco was the capital of a remarkable empire
ruled by the Incas previous to the discovery of Peru, and
it was one of the largest and most civilized of the native
cities of the New World. It was captured by Pizarro in 1533,
and it is said that its size and the magnificence of its principal
edifices filled the Spaniards with surprise. It was for many years
an object of contention among the Spanish factions, but ulti-
mately the greater attractions of Lima and its own isolation
diminished its importance.

The department of Cuzco is the second largest in Peru, having
an area of 156,317 sq. m., and a population, according to a re-
duced official estimate of 1906, of only 328,980. It occupies
an extremely mountainous region on the frontier of Bolivia, E.
of the departments of Junin, Ayacucho and Apurimac, and
extends from Loreto on the N. to Puno and Arequipa on the S.
Its area, however, includes a large district E. of the Andes which
is claimed by Bolivia, and the settlement of the dispute may
materially diminish its size. The elevation of a large part of the
department gives it a temperate climate and permits the cultiva-
tion of cereals and other products of the temperate zone. Cattle
and sheep are produced in large numbers in some of the provinces,
while in others mining forms the chief industry. On the eastern
forested slopes and in the lower valleys tropical conditions pre-
vail. The population is chiefly composed of Indians who form
a sturdy, docile labouring class, but are in great part strongly
disinclined to accept the civilization of the dominant white race.

CYANAMIDE, NC-NH 2 , the amide of normal cyanic acid,
obtained by the action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride,
bromide or iodide, or by the desulphurization of thio-urea
with mercuric oxide; it is generally prepared by the latter
process. It forms white crystals, which melt at 40 C, and are
readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Heated above
its melting point it polymerizes to di-cyandiamide (CN 2 H 2 ) 2 ,
which at 150 C. is transformed into the polymer «-tri-cyantri-
amide or melamine (CN 2 H 2 ) 3 , the mass solidifying. Nascent
hydrogen reduces cyanamide to ammonia and methylamine.
It gives mono-metallic salts of the type NC-NHM when treated
with aqueous or alcoholic solutions of alkalis. Di-metallic
salts are obtained by heating cyanates alone, e.g. calcium, or
cyanides in a current of nitrogen, e.g. barium.

Calcium cyanamide has assumed importance in agriculture
since the discovery of its economic production in the electric
furnace, wherein calcium carbide takes up nitrogen from the
atmosphere to form the cyanamide with the simultaneous

liberation of carbon. It may also be produced by heating lime
or chalk with charcoal to 2000 in a current of air. The com-
mercial product (which is known in Germany as " Kalkstick-
stojf ") contains from 14 to 22 % of nitrogen, which is liberated
as ammonia when the substance is treated with water; to this
decomposition it owes its agricultural value. It appears that
with soils which are not rich in humus or not deficient in lime,
calcium cyanamide is almost as good, nitrogen for nitrogen,
as ammonium sulphate or sodium nitrate; but it is of doubtful
value with peaty soils or soils containing little lime, nor is it
usefully available as a top-dressing or for storing.

CYANIC ACID AND CYANATES. Cyanic acid, CN-OH,
was discovered by F. Wohler in 1824, and may be obtained by
distilling its polymeride, cyanuric acid, in a current of carbon
dioxide (F. Wohler and J. v. Liebig, Berzelius Jahresberichte,
1827, ir, p. 84), the vapours which distil over being condensed
in a freezing mixture. It is a very volatile liquid of strong acid
reaction, and is only stable below o° C. It has a smell resem-
bling that of acetic acid. At 0° C. it is rapidly converted into
a mixture of cyanuric acid, C3N3O3H3, and another polymer,
cyamelide (CNOH)x; this latter substance is a white amorphous
powder, insoluble in water. An aqueous solution of cyanic acid
is rapidly hydrolysed (above 0° C.) into a mixture of carbon
dioxide and ammonia. Cyanogen chloride, CNC1, may be
regarded as the chloride of cyanic acid. It may be prepared
by the action of chlorine on hydrocyanic acid or on mercury
cyanide. It is a very poisonous volatile liquid, which boils at
15-5° C. It polymerizes readily to cyanuric chloride, C3N3CI3.
Caustic alkalis hydrolyse it readily to the alkaline chloride and
cyanate.

The salts of cyanic acid are known as the cyanates, the
two most important being potassium cyanate (KOCN) and
ammonium cyanate (NH 4 OCN). Potassium cyanate may be
prepared by heating potassium cyanide with an oxidizing agent,
or by heating potassium ferrocyanide with manganese dioxide,
potassium carbonate or potassium dichromate (J. v. Liebig,
Ann., 1841, 38, p. 108; C. Lea, Jahresb., 1861, p. 789; L. Gatter-
mann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1224), the fused mass. being extracted
with boiling alcohol. It crystallizes in flat plates and is readily
soluble in cold water. It is a somewhat important reagent,
and has been used by Emil Fischer in various syntheses in
the uric acid group (see Purin). Ammonium cyanate possesses
considerable theoretical importance since the first synthetical
production of an organic from inorganic compounds was accom-
plished by warming its aqueous solution for some time, urea
being formed (F. Wohler, Berzelius Jahresberichte, 1828, 12,
p. 266). J. Walker and J. K. Wood (Jour. Chem. Soc, 1900, 77,
p. 24) prepared pure ammonium cyanate by the union of gaseous
ammonia and cyanic acid, special precautions being taken to
keep the temperature below the point at which the salt is trans-
formed into urea. It crystallizes in fine needles, which melt
suddenly at about 8o° C, then resolidify, and melt again at about
128 to 130 C. (this temperature being that of the melting point
of urea). Substituted ammonias were also made to combine
with cyanic acid, and it was found that the substituted am-
monium cyanates produced pass much more readily into the
corresponding ureas than ammonium cyanate itself. (On the
constitution of cyanic acid see F. D. Chattaway and J. M.
Wadmore, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1902, 81, p. 191.)

Esters of normal cyanic acid are not known, but those of
isocyanic acid (HN-CO) may be prepared by the action of
alkyl halides on silver cyanate, or by oxidizing the isonitriles
with mercuric oxide. They are volatile liquids which boil
without decomposition, and possess a nauseating smell. When
hydrolysed with caustic alkalis, they yield primary amines
(this reaction determines their constitution) . C2H5NCO + H 2 =
C 2 H 5 NH 2 + C0 2 . When heated with water they yield carbon
dioxide and symmetrical dialkyl ureas; with ammonia and
amines they form alkyl ureas; and with acid anhydrides they
yield tertiary amides.

Ethyl isocyanate, C 2 H 6 NCO, was first prepared by A. Wurtz
(Ann.chim., i854(3),42,p. 43)by distilling a mixture of potassium

68o

CYAMIDE— CYAXARES

ethyl sulphate and potassium cyanate. It is a colourless liquid
which boils at 6o° C.

Cyanuric acid, H3C3N3O3, was obtained by Wohler and Liebig
by heating urea, and by A. Wurtz by passing chlorine into
melting urea. It forms white efflorescent crystals. Treatment
with phosphorus pentachloride gives cyanuric chloride, C3N3CI3,
which is also formed by the combination of anhydrous chlorine
and prussic acid in the presence of sunlight. These substances
contain a ring of three carbon and three nitrogen atoms, i.e<
they are symmetrical triazines.

CYANIDE, in chemistry, a salt of prussic or hydrocyanic
acid, the name being more usually restricted to inorganic salts,
i.e. the salts of the metals, the , organic salts (or esters) being
termed nitriles. The preparation, properties, &c, of cyanides
are treated in the article Prussic Acid; reference should also
be made to the articles on the particular metals. The most
important cyanide commercially is potassium cyanide, which
receives application in the " cyanide process " of gold extraction
(see Gold). .

CYANITE, a native aluminium silicate, Al 2 Si0 5 , crystallizing
in the anorthic system. It has the same percentage chemi-
cal composition as andalusite and sillimanite, but differs from
these in its crystallographic and physical characters. P. Groth
writes the formula as a metasilicate (A10) 2 SiOs. The name
cyanite was given by A. G. Werner
in 1789, from Kvavos, blue, in allusion i
to the characteristic colour of the
mineral; the form kyanite is also in
common use, and the name disthene,.
proposed by R. J. Hapy in 1801, is
used by French writers' ,

Distinctly developed crystals with
terminal planes are rare, the mineral
being commonly found as lamellar
cleavage masses or long 1 blade-shaped
crystals embedded in crystalline rocks.
The colour is usually a pale sky-blue, but may be white, greenish
or yellowish; it varies in intensity in different bands, so that
the crystals usually present a more or less striped appearance.
There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the broad face m (100),
and a less perfect one parallel to t (oio) : the basal plane p (001),
oblique to the prism zone, is a gliding plane on which secondary
twinning is produced by pressure, giving rise to characteristic
horizontal striations on the cleavage face m. The accompanying
figure represents a crystal twinned on the plane m (100). A
negative biaxial optic figure is seen in convergent polarized
light through the cleavage plane m, the axial plane being inclined
at about 30° to the edge between m and t. A remarkable feature
of cyanite is the great difference in hardness on different faces
of the same crystal and in different directions on the same
face: on the face m in a direction parallel to the edge between
m and p the hardness is 7, whilst in a direction parallel to the
edge between m and / it is 4§. The name disthene, from 5is,
two, and odivos, strong, has reference to these differences in
hardness.

Analyses of cyanite often show the presence of a small amount
(usually less than 1 %) of ferric oxide and sometimes traces of
copper, and to these constituents the. bh»e or green colour of
the mineral is doubtless due. The mineral is infusible before
the blowpipe, and is not decomposed by acids. At a high
temperature, about 1350 C, it becomes transformed into
sillimanite, changing in specific gravity from 3-6 to 3-2.

Cyanite is a characteristic mineral of the metamorphie crystal-
line rocks— gneiss, schist, granulite and eclogite^-and is often
associated with garnet and staurolite. A typical occurrence
is in the white, fine-scaled paragonite-schist of Monte Campione,
near St Gotthard in Switzerland, where long transparent crystals
of a fine blue colour are abundant. In the gneiss of the Pfitscher
Tal near Sterzing in Tirol a white variety known as rhaetizite is
found. It occurs at several places in Scotland, for instance, at
Botriphnie in Banffshire, with muscovite in a quartz-vein.
Fine, specimens are found in mica-schist at Chesterfield in

Massachusetts, and at several other, localities in the United
States. It is found in the gold- washings of the southern Urals
and in the diamond-washings of Brazil. As minute crystal
fragments it is met with in many sands and sandstones.

When of sufficient transparency and depth of colour (deep
cornflower-blue) the mineral has a limited application as a
gem-stone; it is usually cut en cabochon. (L. J. S.)

CYANOGEN (Gr. nbavos, blue yevvav, to produce), C 2 N 2 ,
in chemistry, a gas composed of carbon and nitrogen. The
name was suggested by Prussian blue, the earliest known com-
pound of cyanogen.' It was first isolated in 181 5 by J. Gay-
Lussac, who obtained it by heating mercury or silver cyanide;
this discovery is of considerable historical importance, since it
recorded the isolation of a "compound radical." It may also
be prepared by heating ammonium oxalate; by passing induc-
tion sparks between carbon points in an atmosphere of nitrogen
(see H. von Wartenburg, Abs, J.C.S., 1907, i. p. 299), or by
the addition of a concentrated solution of potassium cyanide
to one of copper sulphate, the mixed solutions being then heated.
It also occurs in blast-furnace gases. When cyanogen is prepared
by heating mercuric cyanide, a residue known as para-cyanogen,
(CN)^ is left; this is to be regarded as a polymer of cyanogen.
It is a brownish amorphous solid, which is insoluble in water.
Cyanogen is a colourless gas, possessing a peculiar characteristic
smell, and is very poisonous. It burns with a purple flame,
forming carbon dioxide and nitrogen; and may be condensed
(by cooling to -2 5 C.) to a colourless liquid, and further to a
solid, which melts at -34-4° C. (M, Faraday, Ann., 1845, 56,
p. 158). It dissolves readily in water and the aqueous solution
decomposes on standing; a dark-brown flocculent precipitate of
azulmic acid, C4H5N5O, separating whilst ammonium oxalate,
urea and hydrocyanic acid are found in the solution. In many
respects it resembles chlorine in its chemical behaviour, a circum-
stance noted by Gay-Lussac; it combines directly with hydrogen
(at 500° to 550° C.) to form hydrocyanic acid, and with chlorine,
bromine, iodine and sulphur, to form cyanogen chloride, &c;
it also combines directly with zinc, cadmium and iron to. form
cyanides of these metals. It combines with sulphuretted
hydrogen, in. the presence of water, to form the compound
C 2 N 2 -H 2 S, and in the presence of alcohol, to form the compound
C 2 N 2 '2H 2 S. Concentrated hydrochloric acid' converts it into
oxamide. Potash solution converts it into a mixture of potassium
cyanide and cyanate. When heated with hydriodie acid (specific
gravity 1-96) it forms amino-acetic acid, and with tin and
hydrochloric acid it yields ethylene diamine.

CYAXARES (Pers. Uvakhshatra), king of Media, reigned
according to Herodotus (i. 107) forty years, about 624-584 B.C.
That he was the realiounder of the Median empire is proved by
the fact that in Darius's time a Median usurper, Fravartish,
pretended to be his offspring (Behistun inscr. 2. 43); but about
his history we know very little. Herodotus narrates (i. 103 ff .)
that he renewed the war against the Assyrians, in which his
father Phraortes had perished, but was, while he, besieged
Nineveh, attacked by a great Scythian army under Madyas,
son of Protothyes, which had come from the northern shores
of the Black Sea in pursuit of the Cimmerians. After their
victory over Cyaxares, the Scythians conquered and wasted
the whole of western Asia, and ruled twenty-eight years, till
at last they were made drunk and slain by Cyaxares at a banquet
(cf. another story about Cyaxares and a Scythian host in Herod.
i. 73). As we possess scarcely any contemporary documents
it is impossible to find out the real facts. But we know from
the prophecies of Jeremiah, and Zephaniah that Syria and Pales-
tine were really invaded by northern barbarians in 626 B.C.,
and i* is probable that this invasion was the principal cause of
the downfall of the Assyrian empire (see M^dia and Persia:
Ancient History).

After the destruction of the Scythians Cyaxares regained the,
supremacy, renewed his attack on Assyria, and in 606 B.C.
destroyed Nineveh and the other capitals of the empire (Herod,
i. 106; Berossus ap. Euseb. Chron. i. 29, 37, confirmed by a
stele of Nabonidus found in Babvlon: Scheil in Recueil de

CYBELE— CYCLAMEN

681

travaux, xviii. ; Messerschmidt, " Die Inschrift der Stele
Nabonaids," in Mitteilungen der vorderasialischen Gesellschaft,
i., 1896). According to Berossus he was allied with Nabopolassar
of Babylon, whose son Nebuchadrezzar married Amyitis, the
daughter of the Median king (who is wrongly called Astyages).
The countries north and east of the Tigris and the northern
part of Mesopotamia with the city of Harran (Carrhae) became
subject to the Medes. Armenia and Cappadocia were likewise
subdued; the attempt to advance farther into Asia Minor
led to a war with Alyattes of Lydia. The decisive battle, in
the sixth year, was interrupted by the famous solar eclipse on
the 28th of May 585 predicted by Thales. Syennesis of Cilicia
and Nebuchadrezzar (in Herodotus named Labynetus) of
Babylon interceded and effected a peace, by which the Halys
was fixed as frontier between the two empires, and Alyattes's
daughter married to Cyaxares's son Astyages (Herod, i. 74).
If Herodotus's dates are correct, Cyaxares died shortly after-
wards.

In a fragmentary letter from an Assyrian governor to King
Sargon (about 715 B.C.) about rebellions of Median chieftains,
a dynast Uvakshatar {i.e. Cyaxares) is mentioned as attacking
an Assyrian fortress (Kharkhar, in the chains of the Zagros).
Possibly he was an ancestor of the Median king. (Ed. M.)

CYBELE, or Cybebe (Gr. KvPtfa], Kvftrifiri), a goddess native
to Asia Minor and worshipped by most of the peoples of the
peninsula, was known to the Romans most commonly as the
Great Mother of the Gods (q.v.), or the Great Idaean Mother
of the Gods — Magna Deum Mater, Mater Deum Magna Idaea.
She was known by many other names, such as Mater Idaea,
Dindymene, Sipylene, derived from famous seats of worship,
and Mountain Mother, &c, in token of her character, but Cybele
is the name by which she is most frequently known in literature.
Her cult became centralized in Phrygia, had found its way into
Greece, where it never flourished greatly, as early as the latter
6th century B.C. , and was introduced at Rome in 204 B.C. Under
the Empire it attained to great importance, and was one of the
last pagan cults to die. Cybele was usually worshipped in
connexion with Attis (q.v.), as Aphrodite with Adonis, the two
being a duality interpreted by the philosophers as symbolic of
Mother Earth and her vegetation. (G. Sn.)

CYCLADES, a compact group of islands in the Greek Archi-
pelago, forming a cluster around the island of Syra (Syros), the
principal town of which, now officially known as Hermoupolis,
is the capital of a department. Population of the group (1907)
130,378. The islands, though seldom visited by foreigners, are
for the most part highly interesting and picturesque, notwith-
standing their somewhat barren appearance when viewed from
the sea; many of them bear traces of the feudal rule of Venetian
families in the middle ages, and their inhabitants in general
may be regarded as presenting the best type of the Greek race.
To the student of antiquity the most interesting are : Delos (q.v.),
one of the greatest centres of ancient religious, political and
commercial life, where an important series of researches has been
carried out by French archaeologists; Melos (q.v.), where, in
addition to various buildings of the Hellenic and Roman periods,
the large prehistoric stronghold of Phylakopi has been excavated
by members of the British school at Athens; and Thera (see
Santorin), the ancient capital of which has been explored by
Baron Hiller von Gaertringen. Thera is also of special interest
to geologists owing to its remarkable volcanic phenomena.
Naxos, the largest and most fertile island of the group, contains
the highest mountain in the Cyclades (Zia, 3290 ft.); the island
annually exp orts upwards of 2000 tons of emery, a state monopoly
the proceeds of which are now hypothecated to the foreign debt.
The oak woods of Ceos (Zea) and Ios furnish considerable supplies
of valonia. Kimolos, which is absolutely treeless, produces
fuller's-earth. The famous marble quarries of Paros have been
practically abandoned in modern times; the marble of Tenos
is now worked by a British syndicate. The mineral wealth of
the Cyclades has hitherto been much. neglected; iron ore is
exported from Seriphos, manganese and sulphur from Melos,
and volcanic cement (pozzolana) from Santorin. Other articles

of expoi't are wine, brandy, hides and tobacco. Cythnos, Melos
and other islands possess hot springs with therapeutic qualities.
The prosperity of Syra, formerly an important distributing
centre for the whole Levant, has been declining for several years.

Population (1907): — Syra 31,939 (communes, Hermoupolis
18,132, Mykonos 4589, Syra 9218); Andros 18,035 (Andros 8536,
Ami 2166, Gaurio 2897, Corthion 4436) ; Thera 19,597 (Thera 4226,
Egiale 1513, Amorgos 2627, Anaphe 579, Emporium 2172, Therasia
679, Ios 2090, Kafliste 3519, Oea 2192); Ceos 11,032 (Ceos 3817,
Dryopis 1628, Cythnos 1563, Seriphos 4024); Melos, 12,774 (Melos
4864, Adamas 529, Siphnos 3777, Kimolos 2015, Pholegandros 962,
Sikinos 627); Naxos 25,185 (Naxos 2064, Apiranthe 2421, Vivlos
4343, Coronis 3205, Marpessa 1313, Naoussa 1670, Paros 3586,
Tragea 4661, Hyrie 1922); Tenos 11,816 (Tenos 4697, Panorme
2658, Peree 2801, Sosthenion 1660). :

CYCLAMEN, in botany, a genus belonging to the natural order
Primulaceae, containing about ten species native in the mountains
of central 1 Europe and the Mediterranean region. C. europaeum
(Sow-bread) is found as an introduced plant in copses in Kent
and Sussex. The plants are low-growing herbs with large tuber-
ous rootstocks, from the surface of which spring a number of
broad, generally heart-shaped or kidney-shaped, long-stalked
leaves, which in cultivated forms are often beautifully marbled,
ribbed or splashed. The flowers are nodding, and white, pink,
lilac or crimson in colour. The corolla has a short tube and five
large reflexed lobes. After flowering the stalk becomes spirally
coiled, drawing the fruit down to the soil. Cyclamen is a favourite
winter and spring flowering plant. C. persicum is probably the
best known. It is a small-growing kind bearing medium-sized
leaves and numerous flowers. C. giganteum is a large, strong-
growing species; not quite so free flowering as C. persicum, but
in all other respects superior to it when well grown. C. papilio
differs in the fringed character of the petals. It has been obtained
by selection from C. persicum. There is also a very beautiful
crested race, probably derived from C. giganteum.

The plants are raised from seed, and, with good cultivation,
flower in fifteen to eighteen months from date of sowing. Seed
should be sown as soon as ripe, in July or August, in pots or pans,
filled up to 2\ in. of the rim with broken crocks for drainage. The
soil should consist of fibrous yellow loam, leaf-mould in flakes,
and coarse silver-sand, in equal parts. Sow the seed thinly —
j in. to \ in. apart — and cover with a very thin sprinkling of the
soil. Protect with a square of glass covered with a piece of brown
paper for shade, and place on a shelf in a warm greenhouse.
The soil should never be allowed to get dry.

When the seedlings appear, remove the covering, care being
taken that they do not suffer for want of shade, water or a moist
atmosphere. As soon as the third leaf appears, repot singly
into thumb-pots in slightly coarser soil, so that the crowns of the
little plants are just above the level of the soil. In December
transfer into a little richer soil, consisting of two parts fibrous
loam broken into small bits by hand and the fine particles
rejected, one part flaked leaf-mould, passed through a half-inch
sieve, half a part of plant ash from the burnt refuse heap and half
a part of coarse silver-sand. Keep through the winter in a moist
atmosphere at a temperature not below 50 Fahr., and as near
the glass as possible. In March they should be ready for their
next shift into 5-in. pots. The potting compost should be the
same as for the last shift, with the addition of half a part of well-
sweetened manure, such as a spent mushroom bed. Keep in a
warm moist atmosphere and shade from strong sunlight. In June
reraove to cold frames and stand them on inverted pots well clear
of one another. Slugs show a marked partiality for the succulent
young leaves and should be excluded by dusting round the
frames occasionally with newly slaked lime. The inverted pots
serve as traps. The frames may thus be frequently syringed
without keeping the plants unduly wet. Shade heavily from
direct sunlight, but afford as much diffused light as practicable.
Ventilate on all favourable occasions, and close the frames early
after copious syringing.

By the end of the month they will be ready for the final shift
into 7-in. pots, Much care must be used in handling them, the
leaves being large, tender and numerous. The soil is as for the
last potting. The frames should be kept close and heavily shaded

682

CYCLE— CYCLING

for a few days after potting; then gradually reduce shade and
increase ventilation. By the end of July the elegance of the
foliage alone should well repay the care bestowed on them.
From this time onwards very little shading will be needed, the
object of the cultivator being to harden the growth already made.
With the advent of cool weather in September, remove to flower-
ing quarters in a warm greenhouse. Flowering will begin in
November and will continue through the winter and spring.
The damping off of the flower-buds may occasionally prove
troublesome during winter. This may generally be traced to
checks, such as sudden changes in temperature, too low a tempera-
ture, careless watering, &c. During spring plants that are
flowering freely will require weak manure water about twice
a week.

Plants selected to bear seed should be set aside for that purpose,
and as soon as the capsules are found to be developing properly
they should be reduced to six or seven per plant, and all flower-
buds picked off as soon as they are large enough to handle.
The production of strong seeds is of the utmost importance.

Plants grown for market purposes, either for decoration or for
seed, are sown later than the above, are kept cooler, and during
summer receive more ventilation and less shade. This results in
the production of plants with much smaller and more erect leaves,
which travel well. They are flowered in spring and early summer.
The species grown for this purpose is C. persicum.

A few species are hardy in dry sheltered positions, such as
rockeries, under walls and old trees, provided the positions are
well drained. Such are C. europaeum, with reddish-purple
flowers in summer; C. hederifolium in autumn; and C. nea-
politanum, with large leaves marbled with silver and rosy-pink
flowers.

CYCLE (Gr. kvkSos, a circle), in astronomy, a period of time
at the end of which some aspect or relation of the heavenly bodies
recurs. The more important cycles are discussed in the articles
Calendar and Eclipse. In physics, the term is applied to a
series of operations which, performed upon a system, brings it
back to its original state; ." Carnot's Cycle " is an example (see
Thermodynamics). From the use of the word for any period
at the end of which the same events recur in the same order or
for any complete series of phenomena, it is used loosely of any
long period of time. The name 6 eirmos kwcXos, the epic
cycle, was given to the poems which complete the Homeric
account of the Trojan War (see below). It is this use which has
given rise to the application of the term " cycle " to a series of
prose or poetical romances which have for a centre one subject,
whether a person, as in the Alexander, Arthurian or Charlemagne
cycles, or an object, such as the ring of the Nibelungenlied.
In music " Song-cycle " (Ger. Liederkreis) is similarly used of
a series of songs written round one subject or set to poems by
the same author. Beethoven's An die feme Geliebte (Op. 98),
published in 1816, is the earliest instance. Schubert's Die schbne
Milllerin, Schumann's Dichterliebe and Brahms's Magelone-Lieder
are well-known instances.

Epic Cycle. — This is a collection or corpus of lays written about
776-580 B.C. by poets of the Ionian School, introductory or
complementary to the Homeric poems, dealing with the legends
of the Trojan and Theban wars. At a later date they were
ai ranged so as to form a continuous narrative (the Iliad and
the Odyssey included) , perhaps after certain alterations had been
made, to fill up gaps and remove inconsistencies and repetitions.
By whom, and when, they were so arranged, cannot be decided;
it is possible that it was the work of Zenodotus of Ephesus,
who had the care of the epic section of the Alexandrian library.
In order to furnish the general reader with a comprehensive
sketch of mythological history, Proclus — according to Welcker
and Valesius (Valois), not the neo-Platonist, but an unknown 2nd
or 3rd century grammarian, perhaps Eutychius Proclus of Sicca 1
in Africa, one of the tutors of Marcus Aurelius (see Proclus)
— compiled a prose summary (T pannarucii Xpi?OTOjud0eia)

1 An objection to this view is that according to the Augustan
historian Capitolinus (Antoninus, 2) Eutychius of Sicca was a Latin
not a Greek grammarian.

of the contents of the poems, to serve as a sort of primer to
Greek literature. Extracts from this are preserved in the Codex
Venetus of Homer and Photius (cod. 239), according to which
the epic cycle began with the union of Uranus and Ge and ended
with the death of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca at the hands
of his son Telegonus. • The cycle was in existence in his (Proclus's)
time, and was in request not so much for its artistic merit, as for
the " sequence of the events described in it." Further light is
thrown on the subject by pictorial representations, intended for
school use during the Roman imperial period, the most famous
of which is the Tabula Iliaca in the Capitoline museum.

The expression " epic cycle " in the sense of a poetical collec-
tion does not occur before the Christian era; the word kukXos
(" cycle," " circle ") is used of a special kind of short poem and
also of a prose abstract of mythological history; the adjective
has the general sense of " hackneyed," " conventional," and is
applied contemptuously (by Callimachus and Horace) to a
particular Alexandrian school of poetry.

The most important poems of the Trojan legendary cycle are
the Cypria of Stasinus (q.v.); the Aethiopis and Iliou Persis
(Sack of Troy) of Arctinus (q.v.); the Little Iliad of Lesches
(q.v.); the Nostioi Hagiasor Agias; the Telegonia of Eugammon.
To the Theban cycle belong: the Thebais or Expedition of
Amphiaraus and the Epigoni of Antimachus. The Oechalias
Halosis (capture of Oechalia) of Creophylus (q.v.); the Phocais
(or Minyas) of Prodicus; and the Danais of Cercops, although
belonging to the old Homeric epos, cannot with certainty be
included in the epic cycle. The names of the authors are in
several cases exceedingly doubtful.

Bibliography. — The standard work on the subject is F. G.
Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1865-1882); see also T. W. Allen,
" The Epic Cycle," in Classical Quarterly, Jan. and April 1908
(summary of sources and authorities) ; Wilamowitz-Mollendorff,
Homerische Untersuchungen (1884), who regards the traditional
names and personalities of the poets of the cycle with great scepti-
cism; D. B. Monro, Journal of Hellenic Studies, iv. (1883), appendix
to his edition of the Odyssey, xiii.-xxiv. (1900), and on the Codex
Venetus fragment of Proclus; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol.
(2nd ed., 1906), vol. i. ch. 2; J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians
(1909), pp. 2-8 on the epics as history ; articles by H. Flach in Ersch
and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopddie, and by E. Schwartz and
others in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie.

CYCLING, the clipped term now given comprehensively to
the sport or exercise of riding a bicycle (q.v.) or tricycle (q.v.).

Suggestions of vehicles having two or more wheels and propelled
by the muscular effort of the rider or riders are to be found in
very early times, even on the bas-reliefs of Egypt and
Babylon and the frescoes of Pompeii; but though
sporadic examples of such contrivances are recorded in the 17 th
and 1 8th centuries, it was apparently not till the beginning of
the 19th century that they were used to any considerable extent.
A " velocipede " invented by Blanchard and Magurier, and
described in the Journal de Paris on the 27th of July 1779,
differed little from the celerifere proposed by another Frenchman,
de Sivrac, in 1690; it consisted of a wooden bar rigidly connect-
ing two wheels placed one in front of the other, and was propelled
by the rider, seated astride the bar, pushing against the ground
with his feet. The next advance was made in the draisine of
Freiherr Karl Drais von Sauerbronn (1785-1851), described
in his Abbildung und Beschreibung seiner neu erfundenen Lauf-
maschine (Nuremberg, 1 8 1 7) . In this the front wheel was pivoted
on the frame so that it could be turned sideways by a handle,
thus serving to steer the machine (figs. 1 and 2). A similar
machine, the " celeripede," also with a movable front wheel,
is said to have been ridden by J. N. Niepce in Paris some years
before. In England the draisine achieved a great, though
temporary, vogue under various names, such as velocipede,
patent accelerator, bivector, bicipedes, pedestrian curricle
(patented by Dennis Johnson in 18 18), dandy horse, hobby horse,
&c, and for a time it was popular in America also. The pro-
pulsion of the draisine by pushing with the feet being alleged to
give rise to diseases of the legs, arrangements were soon suggested,
as by Louis Gompertz in England in 182 1, by which the front
wheel could be rotated by the hands with the aid of a system

History.

CYCLING

683

of gearing, but the idea of providing mechanical connexions
between the feet and the wheels was apparently not thought
of till later. Pedals with connecting rods working on the rear
axle are said to have been applied to a tricycle in 1834 by Kirk-

patrick McMillan, a Scottish
blacksmith of Keir, Dum-
friesshire, and to a draisine
by him in 1840, and by a
Scottish cooper, Gavin Dal-
zell, of Lesmahagow, Lan-
arkshire, about 1845. The
draisine thus fitted had
wooden wheels, with iron

Fig. i.— Gentleman's Hobby Horse. tires > the leading one about

30 in. in diameter and the
driving one about 40 in., and thus it formed the prototype,
though not the ancestor, of the modern rear-driven safety
bicycle.

For the next 20 years little was done, and then began the
evolution of the high " ordinary " bicycle with a large driving
wheel in front and a small trailing one behind. About 1865

Pierre Lallement in Paris
constructed a bicycle in
which the front wheel was
driven by pedals and
cranks attached directly
to its axle, but it is doubt-
ful whether the origin of
this idea must be attributed

Fig. 2— Lady's Hobby Horse. to h i m or to Ernest Mich-

aux,the son of his employer,
who was a carriage repairer. Lallement took his machine to
the United States, and in 1866 was granted a patent which had
an important influence on the subsequent course of the cycle
industry in that country. This machine, consisting of a wooden
frame supported on two wooden wheels (fig. 3), soon became

popular in England, as well
as in France and America,
and came to be called
bicycle (or bysicle) by those
who took it seriously and
" boneshaker " by those
who did not. Improve-
ments quickly followed,
chiefly in England, for in
America the popularity of
the machine was short-lived,
and in France the industry
was checked by the Franco-
German war. Rubber tires, in place of iron ones, appeared in
1868, and in two or three years were made very large, 2 in. or
more in width. Suspension wheels, with wire spokes in tension,
were seen at the Crystal Palace, London, on the " Phantom "
(fig. 4) of W. F. Reynolds and J. A. Mays in 1869, and early in

the same year the manu-
facture of bicycles, at
first for export to France,
was begun in England
by the Coventry Sewing
Machine Company, till
then makers of sewing
machines. There was a
rapid growth in the size
of the front wheel, which
in the boneshaker nor-
mally measured 36 or 38
in. in diameter, with a
corresponding shrinkage in the rear wheel (fig. 5), until by
1874, the date of the invention of the tangent wheel by
J. K. Starley 54-in. wheels were being made. The high
bicycle was now fairly established in form, and the changes
made in the subsequent 10 or 15 years during which it

•The Boneshaker, 1868.

Fig. 4.— The " Phantom," 1869.

Fig. 5. — Humber's " Spider," 1872.

retained its supremacy were chiefly in the details of construc-
tion, such as the adoption of steel tubing for the frames, the use
of hollow rims in the wheels and the application first of cone
and then of ball bearings to points of friction. The weight
of a 54-in. bicycle, which in 1874-1875 exceeded 50 or even 60 lb,
was thus reduced to well under 40 lb in machines intended for
use on ordinary roads,
and to not much over 20
lb in the case of racers.

The high " ordinary "
bicycle (fig. 6) gave un-
questionable pleasure to
many riders, and very
fast times were made
with it both on the road
and on the rac%ig path.
In 1882 H. L. Cortis rode
20 m. 300 yds. in one
hour, and in April 1884
Thomas Stevens started
from San Francisco to ride round the world, a feat which
he accomplished in December 1886. But it had various dis-
advantages. The vibration set up by the small back wheel was
very trying, and in spite of the size of the front one the rider had
to move his pedals at an uncomfortably rapid rate if he wished
to maintain a good speed. Moreover his seat was placed in such
a position that he was liable to be pitched over the handle-
bar if his wheel encountered a comparatively small obstacle.
Attempts were made to remedy these inconveniences in various
ways. From the early
'eighties much attention
was devoted to tricycles,
and these were produced
in innumerable designs,
whether for a single rider,
or for two in the form of
"sociables," in which the
riders sat side by side, or
of " tandems," in which
one sat behind the other.
But their weight, and
consequently the exertion
of propelling them, was Fig. 6. — Rudge Racing Ordinary, 1887
necessarily greater than

in the case of the bicycle, and by the end of the decade, the
demand for them had fallen off, though they are still made to a
certain extent, chiefly for carrying purposes. The two-track
dicycle (fig. 7), invented by E. C. F. Otto about 1879, in which
the rider balanced himself between two equal wheels placed
abreast, also failed to secure lasting success.

The improvement of the high bicycle was attempted in two
directions. On the one hand it was modified by placing the
rider farther back, his position " over his work " being ensured
by arranging the pedals immediately below him and connecting
them to the front wheel, which was
usually reduced in size, by levers
and cranks or by chain-gearing,
often with a multiplying action.
On the other, the rear wheel was
enlarged and made the driving
wheel. The " ' Xtraordinary "
(fig. 8), "Facile" (fig. 9) and
" Kangaroo " were examples of the
former kind, which were often
spoken of as " dwarf -safeties ";
but though a good many of them
were used about 1880 and following
years, both they and the "ordinary"
bicycle ultimately disappeared be-
fore machines of the second kind, which developed into the
modern rear-driven safety. There are numerous claimants
for the invention — or rather the reinvention — of this type,

Fig. 7 —Otto Dicycle, 1879.

684)

CYCEEING

Fig. 8

-Singers' " 'Xtraordinary,' ,
1879-

but it appears that the credit for its practical and commercial
introduction in substantially its present form is due to J. R.
Starley in England. His " Rover " (fig. 10), brought out late
in 1885, had two nearly equal wheels, the driving wheel 30 in.
in diameter and the steering 32 in.; and the rider sat so far back
that he could not be thrown forward over the handles. The

motion imparted by the
pedals to a sprocket wheel
mounted between the wheels
was transmitted by an end-
less chain to the rear wheel,
and by sufficiently increasing
the size of this sprocket
wheel the machine could be
made to travel as far or
farther than %e " ordinary "
for each complete: revolt
tion of the pedals. From
about 1890 the ■' safety "
monopolized the field. At
first "it was fitted with the narrow rubber tires customary at
the time, but these gave way to pneumatic tires, invented
in 1888 by J. B. Dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of Belfast, whose
idea, however, had been anticipated in the English patent taken
out by R. W. Thomson in 1845. The result was a great gain
in comfort, due to reduction of vibration, and a remarkable
increase of speed or, alternatively, decrease of exertion. Subse-
quent progress was mainly in the details of design and manu-
facture, tending to secure lightness combined with adequate
strength, and such was the success attained, by the application

of scientific principles and of
improved methods and materials
to the construction of the frames
and other parts, that while the
weight of the original " Rover ','
was about 50 lb, that of its
successors 20 years later with
28-in. wheels was reduced by
35 or 45%, or even 60% in the
case of racing machines. The
beginning of the 20th century
saw the introduction of two
innovations: one was the " free-wheel," a device which allows
the driving wheel to rotate independently of the chain and
pedals, so that the rider, controlling his speed with powerful
brakes, can " coast " down a hill using the stationary pedals as
foot-rests; and the other was the motor-cycle, in which a petrol-
engine relieves him, except at starting, from all personal exertion,
though at the cost of considerable vibration. A third contrivance,
which, however, was an idea of considerably older date, also
began to find favour about the same period in the shape of
two-speed and three-speed gears, enabling the rider at will to

alter the ratio between the
speed of revolution of his
pedals and of his driving
wheel, and thereby accommo-
date himself to the varying
gradients of the road he is
traversing .(see also Bicycle,
Tricycle and Tire).

The safety bicycle, with
Fig. 10.— Starley's" Rover," 1885. pneumat i c tireS; rendered

cycling universally popular, not merely as a pastime but as a con-
venient means of locomotion for everyday use. Made with a drop-
frame, it also enabled women to cycle without being confined to a
heavy tricycle or compelled toassume " rational dress." In con^
sequence there was an enormous expansion in the cycle industry.
In England the demand for machines had become so great by
1895 that the makers were unable to cope with it. Numbers
of new factories were started, small shops grew into large com-
panies, and the capital invested advanced by millions of pounds.
The makers who had devoted their mechanical skill to perfecting

Fig. 9.— The "Facile," 1879.

the.methods bf cyclferconstruction were swallowed up by company
promoters and adventurers, bent simply upon filling their own
pockets. The march Of mechanical invention and improvement
was arrested, and machines, instead of being built by mechanics
proud of their work, in many cases were merely put together
in the shortest possible time and in a few standard patterns.
For these the world clamoured, and for a year they could not
be produced fast enough. Then the demand fell off, the British
market became over-stocked, and as the British makers declined
to consider the wants of foreign customers, their store-rooms
remained crowded with machines that could not be sold. Specu-
lative finance, such as was exemplified in 1896 by the flotation
for £5*000,000 of the Dunlop tire company, which had been
started in 1889 with a capital of £25,000, had its natural effects.
There ensued widespread and continuing disorganization of the
trade, which had to be met by extensive reconstructions of
over-capitalized companies. English makers too had lost the
commanding international position they once enjoyed, when
they supplied almost the entire demand for bicycles in many
parts of the world, including the United States. In America
the manufacture of bicycles was not begun until about 1878,
when it was introduced by A. A. Pope (1 843-1 909), and even by
1890, the value of the products barely exceeded 25 million dollars,
while for several years later much of the steel tubing required
for bicycle manufacture continued to be imported from Great
Britain. The industry,, however, thanks to automatic machinery
and perfect organization, grew rapidly, and in i960 the value
of its products was nearly 32 million dollars. In the two years
1897 and 1898 the exports of cycles and cycle parts alone were
worth nearly 14 million dollars, though they fell off in subsequent
years, and English makers had to contend with an American
invasion, in addition to their domestic troubles. But the competi-
tion Vras short-lived. The American makers sent over machines
with single tube tires and wooden rims which did not secure
the approval of the British purchaser, and so they too lost
their hold. In the opening years of the 20th century the industry
in Great Britain gradually recovered itself. More attention
was paid to the production of cheap machines which were sound
and trustworthy, and sales were further stimulated by the
introduction of systems of deferred payments. In 1905 about
600,000 machines were made in Great Britain, and 47,604 were
exported, the total value of the home-market for cycles and their
parts being about 32 millions sterling, and of the export trade
about one million. In the same year the number of machines
imported was only 2345.

Cycle 1 tours were taken and cycle clubs established almost
as soon as the cycle appeared, the Pickwick Bicycle Club
in London, founded in 1870, being the oldest in the
world. The organization of these clubs is chiefly of clubs" 3
a social character, and a few possess well-appointed
club-houses. To a great extent they have been superseded by
the large touring organizations. The Cyclists' Touring Club,
organized in 1878 as the Bicycle Touring Club, has members
scattered through Europe, America and even the East. Many
other countries possess national clubs, as for instance the League
of American Wheelmen, founded in 1880, and the Touring Club
de France, founded in 1895, of whose objects cycling is only
one, though the chief. The aim of these national associations,
which have formed an international touring league, is the
promotion of cycle touring. To this end they publish road-
books, maps and journals; they recommend hotels, with fixed
tariffs, in their own and other countries; they appoint repre-
sentatives to aid their members when touring; and they have
succeeded in inducing most governments to allow their members
to travel freely across frontiers without paying duty on their
machines. In all countries they have erected warning-boards
at dangerous places; in France the best route is suggested by
a sign-post, and cyclists who meet with accidents in lonely
places find repair outfits provided for their free use. Another
important part of the work of these clubs, either directly or
indirectly, is the improvement of the roads. France has done
more for the cyclist than any other country, owing to the fact

CYCLOID

685

that she possesses the best roads, kept up to a certain extent
by the cycle tax, whereby the cyclist acquires a certain official
position and right; moreover cycles accompanied by their
owners are conveyed without extra charge on the railways, and
aid is given to the sport and pastime from public funds. In
Belgium the cycle has worked a veritable revolution in the
national life. The surface of the greater part of the country
being loose and sandy, the roads have been paved, and this
paving is so bad as to be impossible for light traffic. The cycle
tax has consequently been devoted, first, to the construction
of paths on which cyclists have equal rights with pedestrians,
and secondly to the replacing of the paving by macadam. In
this way alone cycling has proved of inestimable benefit to
Belgium and Luxembourg. In the United States measures
for securing good roads and side paths have been introduced in
various states, mainly at the instigation first of cyclists and
then of motorists, and in Great Britain the Roads Improvement
Association has worked for the same end.

Each country also possesses an organization for the govern-
ment of cycle racing; and although these unions, one object
of which — usually the main one — is the encouragement
of cycle racing and cycle legislation, boast an enormous
membership, their membership is often composed of clubs and not
individuals. Among the most important are the National Cyclists'
Union of England and the Union Velocipedique of France.
These bodies are also bound together by the International
Cyclists' Association, which is devoted mainly to the promotion
of racing and legislation connected with it all over the world.
The National Cyclists' Union, originally the Bicycle Union, which
was the parent body of all, formed in February 1878, was the
first to put up danger-boards, and also was early instrumental,
alone and with the C.T.C., in framing or suggesting laws for the
proper government and regulation of cycle traffic, notably in
establishing its position as a vehicle in securing universal rights,
in endeavouring, again in conjunction with the C.T.C., to increase
facilities for the carriage of cycles on the railways, in securing
the opening of parks, and in promoting many other equally
praiseworthy objects. For a number of years, however, it has
been more prominent as the ruling race-governing body. But
cycle racing has fallen upon evil days. At one time cycle racing
attracted a large number of spectators, but gradually it lost the
public favour, or rather was ignored by the public because it
became mainly an advertisement for cycle makers. The presence
of the man, directly or indirectly, in the employ of, or aided by a
maker, and the consequent mixing up of trade and sport, lowered
racingnot only in the public estimation, but in that of all genuine
amateurs. There have always been a few amateurs who have
raced for the love of the sport, but the greater number of
prominent racing men have raced for the benefit of a firm, so
much so that, at one time, an entire section of racing men were
classed as " makers' amateurs." They did not confine themselves
to the race track, but appropriated the public roads until they
became a danger and a nuisance, and road-racing finally was
abolished, though record rides, as they are called, are still indulged
in, being winked at by the police and by the cycling authorities.
The makers' amateurs at least rode to win and to make the best
time possible. But the scandal was so great that a system of
licensing riders was adopted by the N.C.U., and if this did not
effectively kill the sport, the introduction of waiting races did.
There probably is considerable skill in riding two-thirds of a race as
slowly as possible, and only hurrying the last part of the last lap,
but it does not amuse the public, who want to see a fast race as
well as a close finish. The introduction of pacing by multicycles
and motors next took from cycle racing what interest was left. A
motor race, in which the machines are run at top speed, is more
exciting than the spectacle of a motor being driven at a rate
which the cyclist can follow with the protection of a wind-shield.
In America this system of proving what cyclists can do with
racing machines was carried so far that in 1899 a board track was
laid down on the Long Island railway for about 2 m. between
the metals, and a cyclist named Murphy, followed a train, and
protected by enormous wind-shields, succeeded in covering a mile

in less than a minute in the autumn of 1900. Other cyclists have
devoted themselves, at the instigation of makers, to the riding
of 100 m. a day every day for a year. It would be difficult to
say what advantage there is in these trials and contests. They
are not convincing records, and only prove that some people
are willing to take great personal risks for the benefit of their
employers. E. Hale, during 1899-1900, covered 32,496 m. in
313 days. For many years also long-distance races, mostly of
six days' duration, have been promoted on covered tracks, and
though condemned by all cycling organizations, they find a great
deal of pecuniary support.

The cycle has also been taken up for military purposes. For
this idea the British army is indebted to Colonel A. R. Savile, who
in 1887 organized the first series of cycle manoeuvres
in England. Since then military cycling has undergone
a great development, not only in the country of its origin but in
most others.

Cycling has produced a literature of its own, both of the pastime
and of the trade. Owing to the enormous profits which, for several
years, were obtained by cycle makers, a trade press ... ^
appeared which simply lived by, and out of, its adver- era re "
tisers; and though each country has one or more genuine trade
journals, the large proportion of these sheets have been worth, in a
business aspect, as little practically as from a literary standpoint.
On the other hand a vast mass of practical and unpractical, scientific
and medical, historical and touring treatises and records have
appeared, but mostly of a rather ephemeral character.

CYCLOID (from Gr. kvkKos, circle, and etSos, form), in geometry,
the curve traced out by a point carried on a circle which rolls
along a straight line. The name cycloid is now restricted to the
curve described when the tracing-point is on the circumference
of the circle; if the point is either within or without the circle
the curves are generally termed trochoids, but they are also known
as the prolate and curtate cycloids respectively. The cycloid is
the simplest member of the class of curves known as roulettes.

No mention of the cycloid has been found in writings prior
to the 1 5th century. Francis Schooten {Commentary on Descartes)
assigns the invention of the curve to Rene Descartes and the first
publication on this subject after Descartes to Marin Mersenne.
Evangelista Torricelli, in the first regular dissertation on the
cycloid (De dimensione cycloidis, an appendix to his De dimen-
sione parabolae, 1644), states that his friend and tutor Galileo
discovered the curve about 1599. John Wallis discussed both
the history and properties of the curve in a tract De cycloide
published at Oxford in 1659. He there shows that the cycloid
was investigated by Carolus Bovillus about 1 500, and by Cardinal
Cusanus (Nicolaus de Cusa) as early as 1451. Honore Fabri
(Synopsis geometrica, 1669) treated of the curve and enumerated
many theorems concerning it. Many other mathematicians have
written on the cycloid — Blaise Pascal, W. G. Leibnitz, the
Bernoullis, Roger Cotes and others — and so assiduously was it
studied that it was sometimes named the " Helen of Geometers."
The determination of the area was the subject of many investiga-
tions and much controversy. Galileo attempted the evaluation
by weighing the curve against the generating circle; this rough
method gave only an approximate value, viz., a little less than
thrice the generating circle. Torricelli, by employing the
" method of indivisibles," deduced that the area was exactly
three times that of the generating circle; this result had been
previously established in 1640 in France by G. P. de Roberval,
but his investigation was unknown in Italy. Blaise Pascal
determined the area of the section made by any line parallel
to the base and the volumes and centres of gravity of the solids
generated by revolving the curve about its axis and base. Before
publishing his results he proposed these problems for public
competition in 1658 under the assumed name of Amos Detton-
ville. John Wallis in England, and A. la Louere in France,
accepted the challenge, but the former could only submit in-
correct solutions, while the latter failed completely. Having
established his priority, Pascal published his investigations,
which occasioned a great sensation among his contemporaries,
and Wallis was enabled to correct his methods. Sir Christopher
Wren, the famous architect, determined the length of the arc and

686

CYCLOMETER— CYCLOSTOMATA

its centre of gravity, and Pierre Fermat deduced the surface of
the spindle generated by its revolution. A famous period in the
history of the cycloid is marked by a bitter controversy which
sprang up between Descartes and Roberval. The evaluation
of the area of the curve had made Roberval famous in France,
but Descartes considered that the value of his investigation had
been grossly exaggerated; he declared the problem to be of
an elementary nature and submitted a short and simple solu-
tion. At the same time he challenged Roberval and Fermat
to construct the tangent; Roberval failed but Fermat suc-
ceeded. This problem was solved independently by Vicenzo
Viviani in Italy. The cartesian equation was first given by
Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz (Acta eruditorum, 1686) in the form
y = (2X — x i )\+j(2%— x 2 )%dx. Among other early writers on the
cycloid were Phillippe de Lahire (1640-1718) and Francois Nicole
(1683-1758).

The mechanical properties of the cycloid were investigated
by Christiaan Huygens, who proved the curve to be tauto-
chronous. His enquiries into evolutes enabled him to prove that
the evolute of a cycloid was an equal cycloid, and by utilizing
this property he constructed the isochronal pendulum generally
known as the cycloidal pendulum. In 1697 John Bernoulli
proposed the famous problem of the brachistochrone (see
Mechanics), and it was proved by Leibnitz, Newton and several
others that the cycloid was the required curve.

The method by which the cycloid is generated shows that it
consists of an infinite number of cusps placed along the fixed line
and separated by a constant distance equal to the circumference
of the rolling circle. The name cycloid is usually restricted to the
portion between two consecutive cusps (fig. 1 , curve a) ; the fixed

line LM is termed the base, and the
line PQ which divides the curve
symmetrically is the axis. The
co-ordinates of any point R on the
cycloid are expressible in the form
x = a(0+sin 8); y = a (1— cos 0),
where the co-ordinate axes are the
tangent at the vertex O and the
axis of the curve, a is the radius of
the generating circle, and 8 the
angle R'CO, where RR' is parallel to LM and C is the centre of the
circle in its symmetric position. Eliminating 8 between these two
relations the equation is obtained in the form x= (2ay— y 2 )i+a
vers- 1 yja. The clumsiness of the relation renders it practically
useless, and the two separate relations in terms of a single parameter
8 suffice for the deduction of most of the properties of the curve.
The length of any arc may be determined by geometrical considera-
tions or by the methods of the integral calculus. When measured
from the vertex the results may be expressed
in the forms 5 = 40 sin \8 and s = ^(8ay); the
total length of the curve is 80. The intrinsic
equation is s = ^a sin 4>, and the equation to the
evolute is s — ^a cos i/-, which proves the evolute
to be a similar cycloid placed as in fig. 2, in
which the curve QOP is the evolute and QPR
the original cycloid. The radius of curvature
at any point is readily deduced from the
intrinsic equation and has the value p = 4 cos §0, and is equal to
twice the normal which is 2a cos \8.

The trochoids were studied by Torricelli and F. van Schooten,
and more completely by John Wallis, who showed that they possessed
properties similar to those of the common cycloid. The cartesian
equation in terms similar to those used above is x = ad-\-b sin 8;
y = a — b cos 8, where a is the radius of the generating circle and b
the distance of the carried point from the centre of the circle. If
the point is without the circle, i.e. if a<b,
then the curve exhibits a succession of
nodes or loops (fig. 1, curve b); if within
the circle, i.e. if a> b, the curve has the
form shown in fig. 1, curve c.

The companion to the cycloid is a curve so
named on account of its similarity of con-
struction, form and equation to the common
cycloid. It is generated as follows : Let ABC be a circle having AB
for a diameter. Draw any line DE perpendicular to AB and meeting
the circle in E, and take a point P on DE such that the line DP = arc
BE ; then the locus of P is the companion to the cycloid. The curve
is shown in fig. 3. The cartesian equation, referred to the fixed
diameter and the tangent at B as axes may be expressed in the
forms x = a6, y = o(l— cos 8) and /y-a = a sin (x/a — Jx) ; the latter
form shows that the locus is the harmonic curve.

For epi- and hypo-cycloids and epi- and hypo-trochoids see
Epicycloid.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

References. — Geometrical constructions relating to the curves
above described are to be found in T. H. Eagles, Constructive Geometry
of Plane Curves. For the mechanical and analytical investigation,
reference may be made to articles Mechanics and Infinitesimal
Calculus. A historical bibliography of these curves is given in
Brocard, Notes de bibliographic des courbes geometriques (1897). See
also Moritz Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik (1894-1901).

CYCLOMETER (Gr. kvkKos , circle, and ixerpov, measure), an
instrument used especially by cyclists to determine the distance
they have traversed. In a common form a stud attached to one
spoke of the wheel engages with a toothed pinion and moves it on
one tooth at each revolution. The pinion is connected with a
train of clockwork, the gearing of which bears such a ratio to
the circumference of the wheel that the distance corresponding
to the number of times it has revolved is shown on a dial in miles
or other units.

CYCLONE (Gr. kvkX&v, whirling, from kukXos, a circle), an
atmospheric system where the pressure is lowest at the centre.
The winds in consequence tend to blow towards the centre, but
being diverted according to Ferrel's law they rotate spirally
inwards at the surface of the earth in a direction contrary to
the movement of the hands of a watch in the northern hemisphere,
and the reverse in the southern hemisphere. The whole system
has a motion of translation, being usually carried forward with
the great wind-drifts like eddies upon a swift stream. Thus their
direction of movement over the British Islands is usually from
S,W. to N.E., though they may remain stationary or move in
other directions. The strength of the winds depends upon the
atmospheric gradients. (See Meteorology.)

CYCLOPEAN MASONRY (from the Cyclopes, the supposed
builders of the walls of Mycenae), a term in architecture, used,
in conjunction with Pelasgic, to define the rude polygona!
construction employed by the Greeks and the Etruscans in the
walls of their cities. In the earliest examples they consist only
of huge masses of rock, of irregular shape, piled one on the other
and trusting to their great size and weight for cohesion; some-
times smaller pieces of rock filled up the interstices. The walls
and gates of Tiryns and Mycenae were thus constructed. Later,
these blocks were rudely shaped to fit one another. It is not
always possible to decide the period by the type of construction,
as this depended on the material; where stratified rocks could
be obtained, horizontal coursing might be adopted; in fact, there
are instances in Greece, where a later wall of cyclopean construc-
tion has been built over one with horizontal courses.

CYCLOPES (KvK\uires, the round-eyed, plural of Cyclops),
a type of beings variously described in Greek mythology. In
Homer they are gigantic cave-dwellers, cannibals having only
one eye, living a pastoral life in the far west (Sicily), ignorant of
law and order, fearing neither gods nor men. The most prominent
among them was Polyphemus. In Hesiod ( Theogony, 264) they are
the three sons of Uranus and Gaea — Brontes, Steropes and Arges,
—storm-gods belonging to the family of the Titans, who furnished
Zeus with thunder and lightning out of gratitude for his having
released them from Tartarus. They were slain by Apollo for
having forged the thunderbolt with which Zeus slew Asclepius.
Later legend transferred their abode to Mt Aetna, the Lipari
islands or Lemnos, where they assisted Hephaestus at his forge.
A third class of Cyclopes are the builders of the so-called " Cyclo-
pean " walls of Mycenae and Tiryns, giants with arms in their
belly, who were said to have been brought by Proetus from
Lycia to Argos, his original home (Pausanias ii. 16. 5; 25. 8).
Like the Curetes and Telchines they are mythical types of pre-
historic workmen and architects, and as such the objects of
worship.

The standard work on these and similar mythological characters
is M. Mayer, Die Giganten und Titanen (1887); see also A. Boltz,
Die Kyklopen (1885), who endeavours to show that they were an
historical people; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldkulte (1904); J.
E. Harrison, Myths of the Odyssey (1882); and article in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie (bibliography).

CYCLOSTOMATA, or Marsipobranchii, a group of fishes in-
cluding the ordinary lampreys and hagfish, and so called from
the wide permanently gaping mouth which is without the
hinged jaws characteristic of other vertebrates (Gnathostomata).

CYCLOSTOMATA

687

The class Cyclostomata consists of two orders, the Myxinoids
(or Hyperotreti) and the Petromyzontes (or Hyperoartii),
which, while showing sufficient resemblance in structure to
warrant their inclusion in the same class, are yet marked off by
such deep-seated differences as to indicate that they commenced
to diverge from one another far back in evolutionary time. The
order Myxinoids includes the hagfish (Myxine), common off the
eastern, and occurring also, though less commonly, off the western
coasts of the north Atlantic, and the genus Bdellostoma (also
known as Homea, Eptatretus, in part — Polistotrema), including
the " borers " of the western American coast, New Zealand and
the Cape of Good Hope. The order Petromyzontes includes
the widely distributed lampreys. The original genus Petromyzon
(which it is now customary to subdivide into a number of genera)
includes the large sea lamprey (P. marinus) of the north Atlantic
coasts and the two fresh-water lampreys of European streams
(P. fluviatilis and P. planeri, the latter of which is possibly only
a small-sized variety of the former species). In North America
nine or ten species of lampreys are known to occur, descriptions of
which are given by Jordan and Evermann (1). In the southern
hemisphere occur the two genera Mordacia (Chile, Tasmania)
and Geotria (Chile, Australia, New Zealand) (2).

The Cyclostomes are remarkable among vertebrates in that
they are semiparasitic in habit. The lampreys — except some of
the small fresh-water forms — attach themselves to other fishes
by their suctorial mouth and proceed to rasp off the flesh by
means of the horny teeth carried by the highly-developed tongue.
The Myxinoids have gone a step further and actually bore their
way right into the body of their prey, devouring all the soft
parts and leaving the skin behind as a mere shell, empty but for
the bones. Where the hagfish or borers are abundant, as in
certain localities off the east coast of Scotland and off the west
coast of California, they may do great damage to fisheries from
their habit of attacking fishes which are in difficulties through
being caught by a hook or in a net; the fish when drawn up
being frequently completely deprived of their flesh.

The Myxinoids retain the ancestral marine habitat, but the
lampreys have sought refuge from the struggle for existence
by taking to fresh water to a less or greater extent. Such
a form as Petromyzon marinus or Entosphenus tridentatus of
the west coast of America is what is known as anadromous in
habit, i.e. it takes refuge in fresh water during the breeding
season, ascending rivers like the salmon for the purpose of
spawning. Certain species of lampreys, on the other hand, have
completely deserted the sea and spend their whole lives in fresh-
water streams or lakes. The lake lampreys show a reminiscence
of their ancestral migratory habits in leaving lakes and ascending
streams in order to deposit their spawn.

Anatomy. — In structural features, the Cyclostomes show a
curious mixture of features which must be looked on as primitive
with others which are indicative of high specialization for their
peculiar mode of life. In general appearance they are " eel-like " :
they are elongated in shape and adapted for swimming in eel
fashion, i.e. the body is propelled forward by the backward
passage along it of waves of lateral flexure. There are, however,
certain conspicuous differences which at once serve to distin-
guish a Cyclostome from any other fishes of eel-like shape: —
(1) the circular permanently open mouth, (2) the absence of
all trace of paired limbs, (3) the absence of paired external nasal
openings, and (4) the presence on the roof or at the tip of the bead
of a conspicuous median opening — the pituitary opening.

It will be convenient, in describing the structural features of the
group, to take as a basis for the description the marine lamprey,
Petromyzon marinus. A marine lamprey is an eel-like creature
70 to 75 cm. in length. At the anterior end and situated somewhat
yentrally is the circular widely gaping mouth or buccal cavity, its
lining studded with sharply pointed thorn-like " teeth " and its edge
fringed with numerous sensory papillae. On the dorsal side of the
head is the conspicuous circular pituitary opening with prominent
lips, while on the sides are seen the eyes, and behind these a row of
somewhat rounded branchial openings or gill-clefts. At about the
beginning of the posterior fourth of the body, and in the midventral
line, is the anal opening, and immediately behind it is the prominent
papilla carrying the opening of the urogenital sinus. The hinder

portion of the body, in accordance with its function in locomotion,
is flattened from side to side, while its surface is increased by the
development of a median fin fold, divided, except in early stages
of development, into three portions, known as the first and second
dorsal fins and the caudal fin. The last mentioned is of the primitive
protocercal type. The whole surface of the body — which shows a
conspicuous dark marbling, especially dorsally, on a light ground-
is covered with highly glandular epidermis. An important feature
is the complete absence of all trace of the calcified placoid plates
which are so characteristic of the Elasmobranchii.

The Myxinoids differ from the lampreys in regard to several of
the above-mentioned characters. The edges of the mouth carry
tentacle-like barbels. The pituitary opening is close to the anterior
edge of the mouth opening instead of being right up on the dorsal
side of the head. The eyes are invisible, being greatly reduced and
sunk far below the surface, and in Myxine, though not in Bdellostoma,
the row of gill openings is represented by a single opening on each
side nearly in the midventral line and situated at about the end of
the first quarter of the body length. Ventrally the Myxinoid
possesses on each side of the body a row of remarkable epidermal
glands which can produce at will enormous quantities of glutinous
slime. This secretion, which, no doubt, is of much value as a pro-
tection from attack, is composed of very fine threads, formed by the
conversion of the protoplasm of certain cells of the epidermal
glands (" thread cells ") into an extremely fine, tightly coiled
filament, which becomes unwound when discharged to the exterior.

Pituitary Tube. — A remarkable peculiarity of the Cyclostomes
lies in the fact that the pituitary ingrowth of ectoderm does not,
as in other forms, become involved in the inpushing of ectoderm

From D. Starr Jordan, A Guide to the Study o] Fishes, by permission of
A. Constable & Co., Ltd.

Fig. i. — The Marine Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus, L.).

which forms the buccal cavity. On the contrary, it lies outside
the edge of the stomodaeum, and in the case of the lampreys active
growth takes place in the tissue between the pituitary and stomodaeal
ingrowths, so that the two openings come to be widely separated,
the pituitary opening being pushed back on to the dorsal side of the
head. The pituitary opening remains patent throughout life, as is
the case with Crossopterygians alone amongst Gnathostomata. In
Myxine a further remarkable peculiarity in regard to the hypophysis,
probably adaptive in nature, occurs, inasmuch as the pituitary
invagination develops an opening at its posterior end into the
pharynx.

Nervous System. — The anterior end of the nervous tube is enlarged
and differentiated to form a brain as in other Vertebrates, but this
brain in the lampreys at least shows remarkably primitive features.
The enlargement as compared with the spinal cord is seen to be com-
paratively slight : the brain is much elongated, and its various regions
lie in a straight line one behind the other: the roof of the brain
retains to a great extent the primitive epithelial condition. On each
side anteriorly there is present a comparatively large olfactory lobe,
and this is continued posteriorly into a small cerebral hemisphere.

The lampreys are amongst those vertebrates in which there is an
eye-like apparatus (3) connected with the roof of the thalamen-
cephalon. There grow out from the roof of the thalamencephalon
two processes, a posterior (the pineal process), and an anterior
(the parapineal process). The pineal process grows forwards so as to
overlie the parapineal process. Each of these projections from the
roof of the thalamencephalon dilates to form a vesicle, and each
vesicle shows certain eye-like characteristics, its deep wall forming
a " retina " and its superficial wall being clear and translucent
(" pellucida "). The retinal cells are packed in the case of the pineal
organ with opaque white pigment : similar pigment occurs in smaller
quantity in the parapineal organ. Definite sensory cells are also
present with rod-like structures projecting into the lumen of the
vesicle. Nerve fibres have been traced — from the pineal organ into
the posterior commissure and possibly into the right habenular
ganglion. As regards other parts of the brain, the chief point to note
is that the cerebellum is in a most rudimentary condition, forming
merely a slight transverse thickening of the hind-brain roof at its
anterior end. In Myxinoids the brain is much larger as compared
with the spinal cord, and it differs from that of the lampreys by
being relatively much shorter in an anteroposterior direction. A
remarkable negative feature lies in the complete absence of the
pineal and parapineal organs so conspicuous in the lampreys. The
olfactory organ of Cyclostomes is remarkable for two special char-
acteristics, firstly, that the two olfactory organs of other vertebrates
are here represented by a single median structure, and secondly,

688

CYCLOSTOMATA

that the olfactory organ becomes sunk down beneath the surface
through becoming involved in the ectodermal ingrowth which forms
the pituitary tube. As a further consequence in the case of the
lampreys the olfactory organ becomes transported to the roof of
the head along with the pituitary opening, which latter functions as
an external nostril. That the unpaired olfactory organ of existing
Cyclostomes has passed through, in their ancestors, a paired con-
dition such as exists in other vertebrates, is indicated by the fact
that it retains a pair of olfactory nerves.

The eyes in adult lampreys are of moderate size, while in the
Myxinoids they are greatly reduced — sunk beneath the skin (Bdello-
stoma) or even in amongst the muscles of the head {Myxine).- The
lens is completely absent, also the ocular muscles. The otocyst or
auditory organ is unique amongst craniate vertebrates in regard to
the semicircular canals. In the lampreys there are only two instead
of the normal three, while the Myxinoids have only one.

Alimentary Canal. — The widely gaping buccal funnel is morpho-
logically an inpushing of the outer skin, i.e. it is stomodaeal in nature.
The thorn-like teeth which stud its lining are formed simply by
cornification of the epidermal cells (4) like the provisional horny
teeth of a tadpole, and are not homologous with the true teeth of
ordinary vertebrates. As to whether they represent the remnant
of a once present system of epidermal scales, which may have
preceded the coating of placoid elements in the evolution of the
vertebrate, there is no evidence.

The pharyngeal region, closely associated with the respiratory
function, possesses, on each side, a series of gill-sacs (six in Myxine:
seven in Petromyzon, besides an anterior one which is laid down in
the embryo but disappears later: up to as many as fourteen in
Bdellostoma) opening on the one hand to the pharynx and on the
other to the exterior. In Bdellostoma and in the larva of Petromyzon

o/f.br^_ pit.

-pc.v.

l.J.V.

a.v.o.

Modified from T. J. Parker, Zootomy \ fig. 4, by permission of Macmiilan & Co., Ltd.

Fig. 2. — Median longitudinal section through anterior end of
Petromyzon.

a.v.o, Atrio-ventricular opening, oes, Oesophagus.

br, Brain. olf, Olfactory organ.

br.o. Internal opening of gill sac. pc, Pericardium.

d.a, Dorsal aorta. p.c.v, Leftpost.eriorcardinalvein.

d.c, Ductus cuvieri. pit, Pituitary tube.

h.v, Hepatic vein. V, Ventricle.

i.j:v, Inferior jugular vein. v, Velum.

N, Notochord.

the gill-sacs open directly from the pharynx to the exterior, but in
the adult lamprey and in Myxine the original relations are modified.
In Myxine, the external openings of the gill-sacs have migrated
backwards along the side of the body and become coincident at a
point slightly posterior to the last sac. It follows from this that each
sac is connected with the common aperture by a tube, longest in the
case of the first sac, shortest in the case of the last. In the adult
lamprey a different modification is found. Here the dorsal portion
of the pharynx has become nipped off as a narrow tube which
functions as an oesophagus from the larger ventral portion, which
forms an elongated saccular structure ending blindly at its hinder
end and having in its lateral wall the internal openings of the gill-
sacs.

Breathing. — The inspiratory current passes inwards by the mouth
opening in the larval lamprey, by the pituitary tube in Myxine,
while in the adult lamprey both expiration and inspiration takes
place through the external gill-openings. In the case of the lampreys
the elastic skeleton of the branchial region (see below) plays an
important part in respiration. The branchial region shows rhythmic
contraction through the agency of the transverse muscles — and
expansion, through the elasticity of the branchial skeleton — in the
adult lamprey. These rhythmic movements of the branchial region
cause successive inflow and outflow through the branchial openings.
In the larva, on the other hand, the respiratory current always passes
in one direction — backwards. This is helped by the presence of a
velar fold at the front end of the pharynx, which acts as a valve
opening only backwards, and to the presence of membranous flaps
projecting back from the anterior border of each gill-opening and
acting as valves which open only outwards.

Behind the pharynx comes the truly digestive part of the ali-
mentary canal in the form of a straight tube showing little differentia-
tion into special regions. The lining "of the intestine is increased in
area by an inwardly projecting fold, which is compared by some
morphologists with the spiral valve of certain other groups. In the

mature river lamprey the digestive tract becomes in great part
degenerate.

Coelomic Organs. — The chief point of interest about the splanchno-
coele or perivisceral cavity is that in the Myxinoids the adult shows
a persistent embryonic condition in that the pericardiac portion
never becomes isolated from the main body cavity.

The renal organs are of special interest in the Myxinoids from
their very simple character. The kidney duct is seen running along
the roof of the coelom on either side. Into the duct open short
segmentally arranged tubes, each possessing at its closed rounded
extremity a Malpighian body. Each of these short tubes is morpho-
logically a nephric tubule, which, however, in correlation with its
shortness, is without the turns and twists so characteristic of such
tubules generally. A further consequence of the short simple
character of the tubules is that they are quite separate from one
another, instead of being massed together to form a compact gland
such as the kidney is elsewhere. In Petromyzon the kidney has the
ordinary compact form, and here also the Malpighian bodies are
shut off from the splanchnocoele.

The ovary or testis is a large unpaired structure hanging from the
dorsal wall of the splanchnocoele and shedding its products into it ;
from the coelomic space the genital products pass into the urogenital
sinus— formed by the fusion of the kidney ducts at their hinder ends
— through a small opening, one at each side. This opening, which
leads directly from coelom into urogenital sinus, is known as the
genital pore. Its morphological significance is doubtful.

Skeleton. — The vertebral column of the lamprey is represented by
a persistent^ notochord surrounded by a thick sheath, which shows
no signs of invasion by cartilage cells or of segmentation. Resting
on the sheath are paired dorsal arch elements, more numerous than
the neuromuscular segments. In the tail region these are united
into a continuous band of cartilage on each side : similar cartilaginous
bands represent the ventral arch elements of the tail region. The
skeleton of the head region consists of a cartilaginous cranium, into
the formation of which enter typical parachordal and trabecular
elements, together with olfactory and auditory capsules. In addition,
to these, there are a number of other cartilaginous pieces present in
the head region, the homologies of which are doubtful.

Branchial Basket. — One of the most characteristic features of the
skeleton of the lamprey is the remarkable cartilaginous " branchial
basket," which supports the gill region. In an adult river lamprey
the basketwork consists on each side of a series of eight vertical half-
hoops of cartilage. The hoops of each side are connected together
dorsally by a pair of longitudinal bars, lying ventral to the noto-
chord, and ventrally by a similar pair of rods which are fused in the
middle line. Slender cartilaginous projections arise from the anterior
and posterior sides of the hoops, and certain of these meeting at their
ends form additional longitudinal bars connecting together successive
hoops. Connected with the basketwork posteriorly is a remarkable
cup-shaped cartilage, which supports the hind wall of the peri-
cardium. The series of cartilaginous half-hoops naturally suggest
the half-hoops of cartilage which form the skeleton of the visceral
arches in the Gnathostomata. They are, however, more superficial
in position, and this has led many to doubt their actual homology
with the cartilaginous visceral arches. Taking into account, how-
ever, our present knowledge of the development of the two sets of
structures, it seems on the whole probable that a true homology
exists and that the branchial basket of the lamprey represents
merely a set of visceral arches modified in accordance with the
peculiar breathing methods of the creature. In the Myxinoids the
branchial basket is reduced to a few vestigial masses of cartilage.

Vascular System. — The heart (5) of the lamprey consists of an
atrium and a single ventricle, the atrium on the left, the ventricle
on the right. Into the atrium, on its right side, and behind the
atrio-ventricular opening, there opens a nearly vertical chamber
usually termed the sinus venosus (see below), the opening guarded
by a pair of vertically placed valves. The ventricle passes anteriorly
into what is clearly the homologue of the conus arteriosus of other
forms. In its interior are present a pair of laterally placed longi-
tudinal ridges similar to the ridges which occur in other forms in
the conus. The opening from ventricle into conus is guarded by a

Eair of laterally placed pocket valves situated just within the
oundary of the ventricle.

The arterial system is of the ordinary piscine type. From the
heart there passes forwards a ventral aorta, split into two separate
vessels in its anterior half, and giving off on each side a series of
efferent vessels to the gill-sacs, one passing between each two gill-sacs
and an additional one to the front wall of the front sac and to the
posterior wall of the last. The blood is collected from the walls of
the gill-sacs by a series of efferent vessels which open into the dorsal
aorta. It is to be noted that the dorsal aorta retains the probably
primitive unpaired condition, except for a very short extent at its
anterior end, where it is split so as to form two short aortic roots.

Venous System. — The main venous channels are like those in other
fishes, though their connexion with the heart becomes modified in
the adult. The two posterior cardinals — with their continuations
forwards, the anterior cardinals — approach the median plane and
undergo fusion in the region of their opening into the two ductus
Cuvieri. The left ductus Cuvieri then atrophies so that all the blood
from the cardinals reaches the heart by way of the originally right

CYCLOSTYLE— CYLINDER

689

ductus CuvierL It is this right ductus Cuvieri which forms the dorsal
part of what is usually termed the sinus venosus. The inferior
jugular veins which return the blood from the ventral side of the
head also become replaced in the adult by a median unpaired vein
which opens posteriorly into the sinus venosus by what probably
represents the hinder end of the original right inferior jugular. It
is interesting to note that in Polypterus, one of the Crossopterygian
ganoids, there is a somewhat similar asymmetrical condition of
inferior jugulars and ductus Cuvieri.

Oviposition of Lamprey (6). — The lamprey chooses as spawning
ground a part of the stream with fairly rapid current and where the
bottom is composed of sand with scattered stones. By means of the
suctorial mouth, stones are removed from more or less circular area
so as to form a shallow excavation. The male and female frequently
work together at the task of preparing the nest. When oviposition
is about to take place, the male may be seen to suddenly attach
himself to the dorsal surface of the head of the female which holds
on to one of the stones at the upper margin of the nest. The uro-
genital opening of the male, with its specially prominent papilla, is
approximated to that of the female, and with a peculiar quivering
movement the eggs and sperms are emitted synchronously amidst
clouds of sand stirred up by the movements of the tail. The eggs
fertilized thus at the moment of exit are very sticky from their
coating of albumen, and become weighted down by adherent grains
of sand.

Development. — The development of the lamprey is of much
morphological importance from the archaic nature of the creature
and from the fact that the egg is comparatively small (about I mm.
in diameter), so that development is not greatly modified by a large
mass of yolk. It has been worked out so far only in the river lamprey
(7). Segmentation is complete and unequal. It, as well as the
process of gastrulation, agrees in its main features with the same

Chenomenon in Amia, Dipnoans and Urodele amphibians. The
lastopore persists as the anal opening of the adult. The mesoderm
arises in a manner closely comparable with that which occurs in
Amphioxus, the chief difference being that the mesoderm segments
are solid instead of hollow, except in the anterior head region,
where they are true hollow enterocoelic pouches. The rudiment of
the central nervous system has the form of a solid keel-like ingrowth
of ectoderm along the mid-dorsal line, which only secondarily becomes
hollowed out — just as happens in Teleostean fishes. The young
lamprey, after completing its embryonic development, passes three
or four years, in fact its whole life up to the time of sexual maturity,
in a prolonged larval condition in which its structure shows important
differences from that of the adult. This larval stage of the fresh-
water lamprey of Europe was long supposed to be a separate genus
of Cyclostomes and was called Ammocoetes. The Ammocoeles lives
in the mud and breathes and feeds by means of a current of water
produced by ciliary action, which carries Flagellates and other
microscopic organisms in through the mouth opening. Correlated
with this mode of feeding the buccal cavity is without the teeth
so characteristic of the adult. A number of complicated branched
sensory processes grow into and nearly occlude the cavity, forming
a kind of sieve with only narrow chinks through which the ingoing
current passes. The water passes out by the gill openings, which
in Ammocoetes open direct from pharynx to exterior. Certain
arrangements of the pharyngeal wall of Ammocoetes show a remark-
able resemblance to what is found in Amphioxus. The thyroid,
which in the adult is a complicated ductless gland, has in the young
Ammocoetes the form of a longitudinal groove of the ventral wall ot
the pharynx. This groove is lined by columnar cells, some carrying
cilia, others being glandular and secreting sticky slime. These gland
cells are arranged in four longitudinal bands. The thyroid is, in
fact, in this stage in a condition corresponding exactly with the
endostyle of Amphioxus. The agreement extends to function the
secretion, forming sticky threads which entangle food particles.
Anteriorly a pair of peripharyngeal bands pass dorsalwards, one on
each side, to bend back suprapharyngeal bands which are continued
to the hinder end of the pharynx. Here again the resemblance to
what occurs in Amphioxus is very close.

The Ammocoetes possesses a functional liver with bileduct, while
in the adult river lamprey the alimentary canal is degenerate.
It has no arch elements on its notochord. Its eyes are sunk beneath
the surface and nonfunctional, and they retain to a great extent an
embryonic character (8). There is a rapid process of metamorphosis
from the larval to the adult condition, the details of which are by
no means sufficiently known. After the metamorphosis the now
mature lamprey accomplishes the act of reproduction and then
apparently dies almost immediately. The development of the
Myxinoids is much less well known than that of the lampreys. As
regards the common hagfish (Myxine glulinosa), we are indeed still
in complete ignorance in regard to its developmental history in
spite of persistent efforts to obtain embryological material. It seems
probable that during the breeding period the hagfishes retire into
some particularly inaccessible habitat. Within the last few years,
however, abundant material illustrating the developmental history
of Bdellostoma (9) has been obtained off the Californian coast, and
this when fully worked out will give us a-good idea of the general
lines of Myxinoid development. The egg differs greatly from that
of the lampreys. It is — as is that of Myxine— of large size, richly

yolked and of a shortened-up sausage shape. It measures about
22 mm. by 8 mm. Surrounding the egg is a protective capsule of a
yellow horny appearance. At one end a cap-like portion of this
forms a detachable operculum, in the middle of which is a minute
opening, the micropyle. Each end of the capsule is prolonged into
a group of stiff processes with anchor-like expansions at their tips.
Segmentation is, as in other richly yolked eggs, incomplete, confined
to the germinal disk at the opercular pole. The central nervous
system in Bdellostoma develops by the overarching of medullary
folds, not out of a solid keel as is the case with the lampreys.

History in Time. — The softness of the skeletal tissues and the
absence of scales in Cyclostomata provide little opportunity for the
preservation of fossil remains of this group, and no known fossils
can be referred with certainty to the Cyclostomata. The Devonian
Palaeospondylus gunni has been regarded as a Cyclostome by some
authors, but this relationship is at the least doubtful. Other authors
have associated the Ostracoderms, the oldest known vertebrates,
with this group.

References. — 1. D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, Fishes of
North and Middle America (Washington, 1896), part i. p. 8; 2.
L. Plate, SB. Ges. Naturf. (Berlin, Jg. 1897), p. 137; 3. F.Studmcka
in Oppel's Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie der
Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1905), Tcil v. s. i. ; 4. E. Warren, Q. J. Micr. Sci.
xlv. (1902) p. 631; 5. L. Vialleton, Arch, d'anat. micr. T. vi. (1903)
p. 283; 6. H. A. Surface in D. S. Jordan's Fishes (1905), vol. i.
p. 494; 7. A. E. Shipley, Q. J. Micr. Sci. xxvii. (1887), W. B.
Scott, Journ. Morphol. i. (1887), C. Kupffer, Arch. mikr. Anat.
xxxv. (1890), A. Goette, Entwick. des Flussneunauges (Ham-
burg and Leipzig, 1890) ; 8. C. Kohl, in Bibliotheca zoologica,
Heft 13 (Cassel, 1892); 9. Bashford Dean in Kupffer's Festschrift
(Jena, 1899). (J. G. K.)

CYCLOSTYLE (Gr. k&k\os, a circle, and ctDXos, a column),
a term used in architecture. A structure composed of a circular
range of columns without a core is cyclostyiar; with a core the
range would be peristyle. This is the species of edifice called
by Vitruvius monopteral.

CYGNUS (" The Swan "), in astronomy, a constellation of the
northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.)
and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and fabled by the Greeks to be
the swan in the form of which Zeus seduced Leda. Ptolemy
catalogued 19 stars, Tycho Brahe 18, and Hevelius 47. In this
constellation /3 Cygni is a fine coloured double star, consisting
of a yellow star, magnitude 3, and a blue star, magnitude 55.
The fine double star, n Cygni, separated by Sir William Herschel
in 1779, has magnitudes 4 and 5; it has a companion, of magni-
tude 75, which, however, does not form part of the system.
A double star, 61 Cygni, of magnitudes 5-3 and 5-9, was the first
star whose distance was determined; its parallax is o"-39, and
it is therefore the nearest star in the northern hemisphere with
the exception of a Centauri. A regular variable, x Cygni, has
extreme magnitudes of 5 to 13-5, and its period is 406 days.
Nova Cygni is a " new " star discovered by Johann Schmidt
in 1876. There is also an extended nebula in the constellation.

CYLINDER (Gr. nvKivhpos, from icvKivoeiv, to roll). A
cylindrical surface, or briefly a cylinder, is the surface traced
out by a line, named the generatrix, which moves parallel to
itself and always passes through the circumference of a curve,
named the directrix; the name cylinder is also given to the solid
contained between such a surface and two parallel planes which
intersect a generatrix. A " right cylinder " is the solid traced
out by a rectangle which revolves about one of its sides, or the
curved surface of this solid; the surface may also be denned as
the locus of a line which passes through the circumference of a
circle, and is always perpendicular to the plane of the circle. If
the moving line be not perpendicular to the plane of the circle,
but moves parallel to itself, and always passes through the
circumference, it traces an " oblique cylinder." The " axis "
of a circular cylinder is the line joining the centres of two circular
sections; it is the line through the centre of the directrix parallel
to the generators. The characteristic property of all cylindrical
surfaces is that the tangent planes are parallel to the axis. They
are " developable " surfaces, i.e. they can be applied to a plane
surface without crinkling or tearing (see Sukface).

Any section of a cylinder which contains the axis is termed
a " principal section "; in the case of the solids this section is
a rectangle; in the case of the surfaces, two parallel straight lines.
A section of the right cylinder parallel to the base is obviously
a circle; any other section, excepting those limited by two

690

CYLBENE— CYNE WUDF

generators, is an ellipse. This last proposition may be stated'in
the form: — " The orthogonal projection of a circle is an ellipse ,";
and it permits the ready deduction of many properties of the
ellipse from the circle. The section of an oblique cylinder by a
plane perpendicular to the principal section, and inclined to the
axis at the same angle as the base, is named the " subcontrary
section," and is always a circle; any other section is an ellipse.

The mensuration of the cylinder was worked out by Archi-
medes, who showed that the volume of any cylinder was equal
to the product of the area of the base into the height of the solid,
and that the area of the curved surface was equal to that of a
rectangle having its sides equal to the circumference of the base,
and to the height of the solid. If the base be a circle of radius
r, and the height h, the volume is 7ir 2 A and the area of the curved
surface 2irrh. Archimedes also deduced relations between the
sphere (q.v.) and cone (q.v.) and the circumscribing cylinder.

The name " cylindroid " has been given to two different
surfaces. Thus it is a cylinder having equal and parallel elliptical
bases; i.e. the surface traced out by an- elhpse moving parallel
to itself so that every point passes along a straight line, or by a
line moving parallel to itself and always ; passing through the
circumference of a fixed ellipse. The name was also' given by
Arthur Cayley to the conoidal cubic surface which has, for its
equation z(x 2 +y 2 ) = 2tnxy; every point on this surface lies on
the line given by the intersection of the planes y — -x tan' 0,
z = m sin 20, for by eliminating we obtain the equation to the
surface.

CYLLENE (mod. Ziria), a mountain in Greece, in the N.E.
of Arcadia (7789 ft.). It was specially sacred to Hermes, who
was born in a cave on the mountain, and had a temple and an
ancient statue on its summit. The name Cyllene belongs also
to an ancient port town in Elis, and, owing to doubtful identifica-
tion with this, to a modern port at Glarentza, and also to some
mineral baths a little to the south of it.

CYMA (Gr. K.v;j.a, wave), in architecture, a moulding of double
curvature, concave at one end, convex at the other. When the
concave part is uppermost, it is called a cyma recta; but if the
convex portion is' at the top, it is called a cyma reverse When
the crowning moulding of an entablature is of the cyma form,
it is called a " cymatium."

CYMBALS (Fr. cymbales; Ger. Becken; Ital. piatti or cinelli),
a modern instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch,
whereas the small ancient cup-shaped cymbals sounded a definite
note. Cymbals consist of two thin round plates of an alloy con-
taining 8 parts of copper to two of tin, each having a handle-
strap set in the little knob surmounting the* centre of the plate.
The sound is obtained not by clashing them against each other,
but by rubbing their edges together by a sliding movement.
Sometimes a Weird effect is obtained by suspending one of the
cymbals by the strap and letting a drummer execute a roll upon
it as it swings; or by holding a cymbal in the left hand and
striking it with the soft stick of the bass drum, which produces
a sound akin to that of the tam-tam. All gradations of piano
and forte can be obtained on the cymbals. The composer
indicates his intention of letting the cymbals vibrate by " Let
them vibrate," and the contrary effect by ■" Damp the sound."
To stop the vibrations the performer presses the cymbals against
his chest, as soon as he has played a note. The duration of the
vibration is indicated by the value of the note placed upon the
staff; the name signifies nothing, since the pitch of the cymbals
is indefinite. . The instrument is played from the same part of
the score as the bass drum, unless otherwise indicated by senza
piatti, or piatti soli if the bass drum is to remain silent. Although
cymbals are not often required they form part of every orchestra ;
their chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing
weird, fantastic effects or adding military colour, and their
sTirill notes hold their own against a full orchestra playing
fortissimo. Cymbals are specially suited for suggesting frenzy,
fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the Venus music in Wagner's
Tannhauser and Grieg's Peer Gynt suite. Damping gives
a suggestion of impending evil or tragedy. The' timbre of the
ancient cymbals is entirely different, more like that of small

hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are
not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges,
and the note given out by them is higher in proportion as they
' are thicker and smaller. Berlioz in Romeo and Juliet scored
for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some ancient Pompeian
instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than

a crown piece), and tuned to

and

4*-

4?-

The origin of the cymbals must be referred to prehistoric times.
The ancient Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own. The
British Museum possesses two pairs, 5! in. in diameter, one of which
was found in the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred
musician; they are shown in the same case as the mummy, and
have been reproduced by Carl Engel. 1 Those used by the Assyrians
were both plate- and cup-shaped. The Greek cymbals were cup-
or bell-shaped, and are to be seen in the hands of fauns and satyrs
innumerable in sculptures and on painted vases. The word cymbal
is derived from k4ai/?7j (Lat. cymba), a hollow vessel, and KbnfiaKa =
small cymbals. During the middle ages the word cymbal was
applied to the Glockenspiel, or peal of small bells, and later to the
dulcimer, perhaps on account of the clear bell-like tone produced by
the hammers striking the wire strings. After the introduction or
invention of the keyed dulcimer or clavichord, and of the spinet,
the word clavicymbal was used in the Romance languages to denote
the varieties of spinet and harpsichord. Ancient cymbals are among
the instruments played by King David and his musicians in the gth-
century illuminated MS. known as the Bible of Charles the Bald in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. (K. S.)

CYNEGILS (d. 643), king of the West Saxons, succeeded his
uncle King Ceolwulf in 611. With his son Cwichelm (d. 636),
he defeated the advancing Britons at Banipton in Oxfordshire
in 614, and Cwichelm sought to arrest the growing power of
the Northumbrian king Eadwine by procuring his assassination;
the attempt, however, failed, and in 626 the West Saxons were
defeated in battle and forced to own Eadwine's supremacy..
Cynegils' next struggle was with Penda of Mercia, and here
again he was worsted, the battle being fought in 628 at Ciren-
, cester, and was probably compelled to surrender part of his
kingdom to Mercia. Cynegils was converted to Christianity
through the preaching of Birinus, and was baptized in 635 at:
Dorchester in Oxfordshire, where he founded a bishopric. He
was succeeded as king by his son Cenwalh.

CYNEWULF (d. 785), king of Wessex, succeeded to the throne
in 757 on the deposition of Sigeberht. He was constantly at
war with the Welsh. In 779 Offa of Mercia defeated him. and
took Bensington. In 785 he was surprised and killed, with all
his thegns present, at Marten, Wilts (Merantune), by Cyne-
heard, brother of the deposed Sigeberht.

See Earle and Plummer's edition of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
755. 779 (Oxford, 1892).

CYNEWULF, the only Old-English vernacular poet, known
by narhe, of whom any undisputed writings are extant. He is,
the author of four poems preserved in two MSS., the Exeter
Book and the Vercelli Book, both of the early nth century.
An epilogue to each poem contains the runic characters answering
to the letters c, y, n (e^ ,w, u, I, f. The runes are to be read as the
words that served as their names; these words enter into the
metre of the verse, and (except in one poem) are significant in
their context. The poems thus signed are the following. (1) A
meditation on The Ascension, which stands in the Exeter Book
between two similar poems on the Incarnation and the Last
Judgment. The three are commonly known as Cynewulf's
Christ, but the runic signature attests only the second. (2) A
version of the legend of the martyr St Juliana, also in the
Exeter Book. (3) Elene, in the Vercelli Book, on the story of
the empress Helena and the " Invention of the Cross." (4) A
short poem on The Fates of the Apostles, in the same MS. The
page containing the signature to this poem was first discovered
by Professor A. S.Napier in 1888, so that the piece is not included
in earlier enumerations of the poet's signed works.

In Juliana and Elene the name is spelt Cynewulf; in The

Ascension the form is Cynwulf. In The Fates of the Apostles

the page is defaced, but the spelling Cynwulf is almost certain,

1 The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, fig. 7*5; p. 227. ■

CYNICS

691

The. absence of the E in The Ascension can hardly be due to a
scribal omission, for the name of this letter (meaning " horse ")
would not suit the context; this was perhaps the motive for
,.the choice of the shorter form. The orthography (authenticated
as the poet's own by the nature of his device) has chronological
significance. If the poems had been written before 740, the
spelling would almost certainly have been Cyniwulf . If it were
safe to judge from the scanty extant evidence, we, should con-
clude that the form Cynwulf came in about 800; and presumably
the poet would not vary his accustomed signature until the new
form had become common. In Elene Cynewulf speaks of himself
as an old man; and the presence of the runic signature in the
four works suggests that they are not far apart in date. They
may therefore be referred provisionally to the beginning of the
9th century, any lower date being for linguistic and metrical
reasons improbable.

The MSS. of the poems are in the West-Saxon dialect, with
occasional peculiarities that indicate transcription from North-
umbrian or Mercian. Professor E. Sieyers's arguments for
a Northumbrian original have considerable weight; for the
Mercian theory no linguistic arguments have been adduced,
but it has been advocated on grounds of historical probability
which seem to be of little value.

Cynewulf's unquestioned poems show that he was a scholar,
familiar with Latin arid with religious literature, and they
display much metrical skill and felicity in the use of traditional
poetic language; but of the higher qualities of poetry they give
little evidence. There are pleasing passages in Elene, but the
clumsy and tasteless narration of the Latin original is faithfully
reproduced, and the added descriptions of battles and voyages
are strings of conventional phrases, with no real imagination.
In The Ascension the genuine religious fervour imparts a higher
tone to the poetry; the piece has real but not extraordinary
merit. Of the other two poems no critic has much to say in
praise. If Cynewulf is to be allowed high poetic rank, it must
be on the ground of his authorship of other works than those
which he has signed. At one time or other nearly the whole
body of extant Old English poetry (including Beowulf) has been
eonjecturally assigned to him. Some of the attributed works
show many striking resemblances in style and diction to his
authentic writings. But it is impossible to determine with
certainty how far the similarities may be due to imitation or to
the following of a Common tradition.

Until recently, it was commonly thought that Cynewulf's
authorship of the Riddles (q.v.) in the Exeter Book was beyond
dispute. ' The monodramatic lyric Wulf and Eadwacer, imagined
to be the first of these " Riddles, was in 1&57 interpreted by
Heinrich Leo as a charade on the name Cynewulf. This absurd
fancy was for about thirty years generally accepted as a fact,
but is now abandoned. Some of the Riddles have been shown
by Professor E. Sievers to be older than Cynewulf's time; that
he may have written some of the rest remains a bare possibility.

The similarity of tone in the three poems known as the Christ
affords some presumption of common authorship, which the
counter arguments that have been urged seem insufficient to
set aside. Both The Incarnation and The Last Judgment contain
many passages of remarkable power and beauty. It is unlikely
that the author regarded the three as forming one work. The
Christ is followed in. the MS. by two poems on Saint Guthlac,
the secQnd of which is generally; and with much probability,
assigned to Cynewulf. The first Guthlac poem is almost univer-
sally believed to'be by another hand. Cynewulf's celebration
of a midland saint is the strongest of the arguments that have
been urged against his Northumbrian origin; but this considera-
tion is insufficient to outweigh the probability derived from the
linguistic evidence.

Cynewulf's reputation can gain little by the attribution to
him of Guthlac, which is far inferior even to Juliana. Very
different would be the effect of the establishment of his much
disputed claim to Andreas, a picturesque version of the legend
of the Apostle Andrew. The poem abounds to an astonishing
extent in " Cynewulfian " phrases, but it is contended that these

are due to imitation. If the author of Andreas imitated Elene
and Juliana, he bettered his model. The question whether
Cynewulf may not have been the imitator has apparently never
been discussed. The poem (so far agreeing with The Fates of
the Apostles) copies the style of the old heroic poetry.

Cynewulf's authorship has been asserted by some scholars for
The Dream of the Rood, the noblest example of Old English
religious poetry. But an extract from this poem is carved on the
Ruth well Cross; and, notwithstanding the arguments of Prof.
A- S. Cook, the language of the inscription seems too early for
• Cynewulf's date. The similarities between the Dream and Elene
are therefore probably due to Cynewulf's acquaintance with the
older poem.

The only remaining attribution that deserves notice is that
of the Phoenix. The author of this fine poem was, like Cynewulf,
a scholar, and uses many: of his turns of expression, but he was
a.man of, greater genius than is shown in Cynewulf's signed
compositions.

Professor M. Trautmann, following J, Grimm and F. Dietrich,
would identify the poet with Cynewulf, bishop of Lindisfarne,
who died in 783. This speculation conflicts with the chronology
suggested in this article, and is destitute of evidence. Cynewulf
was indeed probably a Northumbrian churchman, but it is
unlikely that there were not many Northumbrian churchmen
bearing this common name; and as the bishop is not recorded
to have written anything, the identification is at best an un-
supported possibility. Professor A. S. Cook has suggested that
our Cynewulf may have teen the " Cynulf," priest of Dunwich,
whose name is among those appended to a decree of the council
of Clofesho in 803, and of whom nothing else is known. This
conjecture suits the probable date of Cynewulf, but otherwise
there is nothing in its favour.

For the older literature relating to Cynewulf, see R. Wiilker,
Grundriss der angelsachsischen Litteratur (1885). References to the
most important later discussions will be found in M. Trautmann,
Kynewulf, der Bischof und Dichter (1898), and the introductions and
notes to the editions of Cynewulf s Christ, by I. Gollancz (1892) and
A; S. Cook (1900). For the arguments for Cynewulf's authorship of
Andreas, see F. Ramhorst, Andreasund Cynewulf (1885). (H.Br.)

CYNICS, a small but influential school of ancient philosophers.
Their name is variously derived from the building in Athens
called Cynosarges, the earliest home of the school, and from the
Greek word for a dog (kvojv), in contemptuous allusion to the
uncouth and aggressive manners adopted by the members of
the school. Whichever of these explanations is correct, it is
noticeable that the Cynics agreed: in taking a dog as their common
badge or symbol (see Diogenes). From a popular conception
of the intellectual characteristics of the school comes the modern
sense of " cynic," implying a sneering disposition to disbelieve
in the goodness of human motives and a contemptuous feeling
of superiority.

As regards the members of the school, the separate articles
on Antisthenes, Crates, Diogenes and Demetrius contain
all biographical information. We are here concerned only to
examine the general principles of the school in its internal and
external relations as forming a definite philosophic unit. The
importance of these principles lies not only in their intrinsic
value as an ethical system, but also in the fact that they form
the link between Socrates and the Stoics, between the essentially
Greek philosophy of the 4th century B.C. and a system of thought
which has exercised a profound and far-reaching influence on
medieval and modern ethics. From the time of Socrates in
unbroken succession up to the reign of Hadrian, the school
was represented by men of strong individuality. The leading
earlier Cynics were Antisthenes, Diogenes: of Sinope, Crates of
Thebes, and Zeno; in the later Roman period, the chief names
are Demetrius (the friend of Seneca), Oenomaus and Demonax.
AH these men adhered steadfastly to the principles laid down. by
Antisthenes. .

Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed
the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure^ is
the end of existence. He was, therefore, in the forefront of that
intellectual revolution in the course of which speculation ceased

692

CYNOSURE— CYPERACEAE

to move in the realms of the physical * and focused itself upon
human reason in its application to the practical conduct of life.
" Virtue," says Socrates, " is knowledge ": in the ultimate
harmony of morality with reason is to be found the only true
existence of, man. Antisthenes adopted this principle in its
most literal sense, and proceeded to explain " knowledge " in
the narrowest terms of practical action and decision, excluding
from the conception everything except the problem of individual
will realizing itself in the sphere of ordinary existence. Just
as in logic the inevitable result was the purest nominalism, so in
ethics he was driven to individualism, to the denial of social
and national relations, to the exclusion of scientific study and
of almost all that the Greeks understood by education. This
individualism he and his followers carried to its logical conclusion.
The ordinary pleasures of life were for them not merely negligible
but positively harmful inasmuch as they interrupted the opera-
tion of the will. Wealth, popularity and power tend to dethrone
the authority of reason and to pervert the soul from the natural
to the artificial. Man exists for and in himself alone; his highest
end is self-knowledge and self-realization in conformity with the
dictates of his reason, apart altogether from the state and
society. For this end, disrepute and poverty are advantageous,
in so far as they drive back the man upon himself, increasing
his self-control and purifying his intellect from the dross of the
external. The good man (i.e. the wise man) wants nothing:
like the gods, he is avrapKrfi (self - sufficing) ; " let men gain
wisdom — or buy a rope "; he is a citizen of the world, not of a
particular country (cf . Diogenes Laertius vi. 1 1 \ibvr\v « 6p6^v
TokiTela.p elvai ri\v, kv Koaixq) .

It is not surprising that the pioneers of such a system were
criticized and ridiculed by their fellows, and this by no means
unjustly. We learn that Diogenes and Crates sought to
force their principles upon their fellows in an obtrusive,
tactless manner. The very essence of their philosophy was the
negati6n of the graces of social courtesy; it was impossible to
" return to nature " in the midst of a society clothed in the
accumulated artificiality of evolved convention without shocking
the ingrained sensibilities of its members. Nor is it unjust to
infer that the sense of opposition provoked some of the Cynics
to an overweening display of superiority. At the same time,
it is absurd to regard the eccentricities of a few as the character-
istics of the school, still more as a condemnation of the views
which they held.

In logic Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of the One
and the Many. A nominalist to the core, he held that definition
and predication are either false or tautological. Ideas do not
exist save for the consciousness which thinks them. " A horse,"
said Antisthenes, " I can see, but horsehood I cannot see."
Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity:
" a tree is a vegetable growth " is logically no more than " a
tree is a tree."

Cynicism appears to have had a considerable vogue in Rome
in the 1st and 2nd centuries a.d. Demetrius (g.v.) and Demonax
are highly eulogized by Seneca and Lucian respectively. It
is probable that these later Cynics adapted themselves somewhat
to the times in which they lived and avoided the crude extrava-
gance of Diogenes and others. But they undoubtedly maintained
the spirit of Antisthenes unimpaired and held an honourable
place in Roman thought. This very popularity had the effect
of attracting into their ranks charlatans of the worst type.
So that in Rome also Cynicism was partly the butt of the satirist
and partly the ideal of the thinker.

Disregarding all the accidental excrescences of the doctrine,
Cynicism must be regarded as a most valuable development
and as a real asset in the sum of ethical speculation. With all
its defective psychology, its barren logic, its immature technique,
it emphasized two great and necessary truths, firstly, the absolute
responsibility of the individual as the moral unit, and, secondly,
the autocracy of the will. These two principles are sufficient
ground for our gratitude to these " athletes of righteousness "
(as Epictetus calls them). Furthermore they are profoundly
1 See Ionian School of Philosophy.

important as the precursors of Stoicism. The closeness of the
connexion is illustrated by Juvenal's epigram that a Cynic
differed from a Stoic only by his cloak. Zeno was a pupil of
Crates, from whom he learned the moral worth of self-control
and indifference to sensual indulgence (see Stoics).

Finally it is necessary to point out two flaws in the Cynic
philosophy. In the first place, the content of the word " know-
ledge " is never properly developed. " Virtue is knowledge ";
knowledge of what? and how is that knowledge related to the
will? These questions were never properly answered by them.
Secondly they fell into the natural error of emphasizing the purely
animal side of the " nature," which was their ethical criterion.
Avoiding the artificial restraints of civilization, they were prone
to fall back into animalism pure and simple. Many of them
upheld the principle of community of wives (see Diogenes
Laertius vi. 11); some of them are said to have outraged the
dictates of public decency. It was left to the Stoics to separate
the wheat from the chaff, and to assign to the words " knowledge "
and " nature " a saner and more comprehensive meaning.

For relation of Cynicism to contemporary thought, compare
Cyrenaics, Megarian School. See also Asceticism.

See F. W. Mullach, Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum (Paris,
1867), ii. 261-438; H. Ritter and L. Preller, Hist. phil. Grace, et
Rom. ch. v.; histories of ancient philosophy, and specially Ed.
Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic Schools, Eng. trans., O. J. Reichel
(1868, 2nd ed. 1877) ; Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Eng. trans.,
vol. ii., G. G. Berry (1905); E. Caird, Evolution of Theology in the
Greek Philosophers (1904), ii. 44 seq., 55 seq., 62 seq.; arts. Stoics
and Socrates.

CYNOSURE (Lat. cynosura, Gr. Kvvcxrovpa, from kvvos,
genitive of kvoiv, a dog, and ovph, tail), the name given by the
Greeks and Romans to the constellation of the Little Bear, Ursa
Minor; the word is applied in English to the pole-star which
appears in that constellation, and hence to something bright
which, like a " guiding-star," draws all attention to it, as in
Milton's " cynosure of neighbouring eyes."

CYPERACEAE, in botany, a natural order of the monocotyle-
donous group of seed-bearing plants. They are grass-like herbs,
sometimes annual, but more often persist by means of an under-
ground stem from which spring erect solitary or clustered,
generally three-sided aerial stems, with leaves in three rows.
The minute flowers are arranged
in spikelets somewhat as in
grasses, and these again in larger
spike-like or panicled inflor-
escences. The flower has in rare
cases a perianth of six scale-like
leaves arranged in two whorls,
and thus conforming to the com-
mon monocotyledonous type of
flower. Generally the perianth is
represented by hairs, bristles or
similar developments, often in-
definite in number; in the two
largest genera, Cyperus, (fig. 1)
and Car ex (fig. 2), the flowers
are naked. In a few cases two
whorls of stamens are present,
with three members in each, but
generally only three are present;
the pistil consists of three or two
carpels, united to form an ovary
bearing a corresponding number
of styles and containing one
ovule. The flowers, which are
often unisexual, are wind-pollin-
ated. The fruit is one-seeded, with a tough, leathery or hard wall.
There are nearly 70 genera containing about 3000 species and
widely distributed throughout the earth, chiefly as marsh-plants.
In the arctic zone they form 10% of the flora; they will flourish in
soils rich in humus which are too acid to support grasses. The large
genus Cyperus contains about 400 species, chiefly in the warmer
parts of the earth; C. Papyrus is the Egyptian Papyrus. Care*,

Fig. 1. — Partial inflorescence
of Cyperus longus (Galingale),
slightly reduced. I.Spikeletof
same; 2, flower.

CY-PRES— CYPRESS

693

the largest genus of the order, the sedges, is widely distributed in
the temperate, alpine and arctic regions of both hemispheres,
and is represented by 60 species in Britain. Carex arenaria,
the sea-bent, grows on sand-dunes and helps to bind the sand

Fig. 2. — Carex riparia, the largest British sedge, from 3 to 5 ft. high. 1, Male flower
of Carex; 2, female flower of Carex; 3, seed of Carex, cut lengthwise.

with its long cord-like underground stem which branches
widely. Scirpus lacustris (fig. 3, 1) the true bulrush, occurs
in lakes, ditches and marshes; it has a spongy, green,
cylindrical stem, reaching nearly an inch in thickness
and 1 to 8 ft. high, which is usually leafless with a terminal
branched inflorescence. Eriophorum (fig. 3), cotton grass,

48

IP

FlG. 3. — Inflorescence of Cotton-grass {Eriophorum polystachion) ,
about § nat. size. I, Flower of true bulrush (Scirpus lacustris).

is represented in Britain by several species in boggy land; they
are small tufted herbs with cottony heads due to the numerous
hair-like bristles which take the place of the perianth and become
much elongated in the fruiting stage.

CY-PRES (A.-Fr. for " so near "), in English law, a principle
adopted by the court of chancery in- dealing with trusts for
charitable purposes. When the charitable purpose intended by a

testator cannot be carried into effect, the court will apply the
funds to some other purpose, as near the original as possible
(whence the name). For instance, a testator having left a fund
to be divided into four parts — one-fourth to be used for " the
redemption of British slaves in Turkey and
Barbary," and the other three-fourths for
various local charities — it was found that
there were no British slaves in Turkey or
Barbary, and as to that part of the gift
therefore the testator's purpose failed. In-
stead of allowing the portion of the fund
devoted to this impossible purpose to lapse
to the next of kin, the court devoted it to
the purposes specified for the rest of the
estate. This doctrine is only applied where
" a general intention of charity is manifest "
in the will, and not where one particular
object only was present to the mind of the
testator. Thus, a testator having left money
to be applied in building a church in a par-
ticular parish, and that having been found to
be impossible, the fund will not be applied
cy-pres, but will go to the next of kin.

In the United States, charitable trusts
have become more frequent as the wealth
of the country has progressed, and are regarded with in-
creasing favour by the courts. The cy-pris doctrine has
been either expressly or virtually applied to uphold them
in several of the states, and in some there has been legisla-
tion in the same direction. In others the doctrine has been
repudiated, e.g. in Michigan, Tennessee, Indiana and Virginia.
For many years the New York courts held that this doctrine
was not in force there, but in 1803 the legislature repealed the
provisions of the revised statutes on which these decisions rested
and restored the ancient law. Statutes passed in Pennsylvania
have established the doctrine there, and dissolved any doubt as to
its being in force in that state.

CYPRESS (Cupressus), in botany, a genus of fifteen species
belonging to the tribe Cupressineae, natural order Coniferae,
represented by evergreen aromatic trees and shrubs indigenous
to the south of Europe, western Asia, the Himalayas, China,
Japan, north-western and north-eastern America, California
and Mexico. The leaves of the cypresses are scale-like, over-
lapping and generally in four rows; the female catkins are round-
ish, and fewer than the male; the cones consist of from six to
ten peltate woody scales, which end in a curved point, and open
when the seeds are ripe; the seeds are numerous and winged.
All the species exude resin, but no turpentine.

C. sempervirens, the common cypress, has been well known
throughout the Mediterranean region since classic times; it may
have been introduced from western Asia where it is found wild.
It is a tapering, flame-shaped tree resembling the Lombardy
poplar; its branches are thickly covered with small, imbricated,
shining-green leaves; the male catkins are about 3 lines in length;
the cones are between 1 and if in. in diameter, sessile, and
generally in pairs, and are made up of large angular scales, slightly
convex exteriorly, and with a sharp point in the centre. In
Britain the tree grows to a height of 40 ft., in its native soil
to .70 or 90 ft. It thrives best on a dry, deep, sandy loam, on
airy sheltered sites at no great elevation above the sea. It was
introduced into Great Britain before the middle of the 16th
century. In the climate of the south of England its rate of
growth when young is between 1 and if ft. a year. The seeds
are sown in April, and come up in three or four weeks; the plants
require protection from frost during their first winter.

The timber of the cypress is hard, close-grained, of a fine
reddish hue, and very durable. Among the ancients it was in
request for poles, rafters, joists, and for the construction of wine-
presses, tables and musical instruments; and on that account
was so valuable that a plantation of cypresses was considered
a sufficient dowry for a daughter. Owing to its durability the
wood was employed for mummy cases, and images of the gods;

694

CYPRIAN

a statue of Jupiter carved out of cypress is stated by Pliny to have
existed 600 years without showing signs of decay. The cypress
doors of the ancient St Peter's at Rome, when removed by
Eugenius IV., were about 1100 years old, but nevertheless in a
state of perfect preservation. Laws were engraved on cypress by
the ancients, and objects of value were preserved in receptacles
made of it; thus Horace speaks of poems levi servanda cupresso.
The cypress, which grows no more when once cut down, was
regarded as a symbol of the dead, and perhaps for that reason
was sacred to Pluto; its branches were placed by the Greeks
and Romans on the funeral pyres and in the houses of their
departed friends. Its supposed ill-boding nature is alluded to in
Shakespeare's Henry VI., where Suffolk desires for his enemies
" their sweetest shade, a grove of cypress trees." The cypress
was the tree into which Cyparissus, a beautiful youth beloved
by Apollo, was transformed, that he might grieve to all time
(Ovid, Met. x. 3). In Turkish cemeteries the cypress —
" Dark tree, still sad when others' grief is fled,
The only constant mourner o'er the dead " —

is the most striking feature, the rule being to plant one for each
interment. The tree grows straight, or nearly so, and has a
gloomy and forbidding, but wonderfully stately aspect. With
advancing age its foliage becomes of a dark, almost black hue.
William Gilpin calls the cypress an architectural tree: " No Italian
scene," says he, " is perfect without its tall spiral form, appear-
ing as if it were but a part of the picturesquely disposed edifices
which rise from the middle ground against the distant landscape."
The cypress of Somma, in Lombardy, is believed to have been in
existence in the time of Julius Caesar; it is about 121 ft. in
height, and 23 ft. in circumference. Napoleon, in making the
road over the Simplon, deviated from the straight line in order to
leave it standing. The cypress, as the olive, is found everywhere
in the dry hollows and high eastern slopes of Corfu, of the scenery
of which it is characteristic. As an ornamental tree in Britain
the cypress is useful to break the outline formed by round-
headed low shrubs and trees. The berosh, or beroth, of the Hebrew
Scriptures, translated " fir " in the authorized. version, in 1 Kings
v. 8 and vi. 15, 2 Chron. ii. 8 and many other passages, is supposed
to signify the cypress.

The common or tall variety of C. sempervirens is known as
C. fastigiata; the other variety, C. horizontalis, which is little
planted in England, is distinguished by its horizontally spreading
branches, and its likeness to the cedar. The species C. torulosa
of North India, so called from its twisted bark, attains an altitude
of 150 ft.; its branches are erect or ascending, and grow so as
to form a perfect cone. In the Kulu and Ladakh country the
tree is sacred to the deities of the elements. It has been in-
troduced into England, but does not thrive where the winter
is severe. The wood, which in Indian temples is burnt as incense,
is yellowish-red, close-grained, tough, hard, readily worked,
durable, and equal in quality to that of the deodar. Another
species, C. lusitanica or glauca, the " cedar of Goa," is a hand-
some tree, 50 ft. in height when full-grown, with spreading
branches drooping at their extremities; it has been much
planted in Portugal, especially in the neighbourhood of Cintra.
Its origin is doubtful. It was well established in Portugal before
the middle of the 17th century, and has since been cultivated
generally in the south of Europe, but is nowhere believed to be
indigenous. The name " cedar of Goa " is misleading, as no
cypress is found wild anywhere near Goa. It was. cultivated in
England in the 17 th century, and the name C. lusitanica was
given by Philip Miller, the curator of the Chelsea Physick garden,
in 1768, in reference to its supposed Portuguese origin. Ex-
perience has shown this cypress to be too tender for British
climate generally, though good specimens are to be found in the
milder climate of the south and west of England and in Ireland.

The species G. Lawsoniana, the Port Orford cedar, a native
of south Oregon and north California, where it attains a height
of 100 ft., was introduced into Scotland in 1854; it is much
grown for ornamental purposes in Britain, a large number of
varieties of garden origin being distinguished by differences in
habit and by colour of foliage. Other California!! cypresses

are C. macrocarpa, the Monterey cypress, which is 60 ft. high
when mature, with a habit suggesting that of cedar of Lebanon,
and C. Joveniana and C. Macnabiana, smaller trees generally
from 20 to 30 ft. in height. C. funebris is a native of the north
of China, where it is planted near pagodas. C. nootkaensis, the
Nootka Soundcypressor Alaska cedar, was introduced into Britain
in 1850. It is a hardy species, reaching a height of from 80 to 100
ft. Several varieties are distinguished by habit and colour of
foliage. C, obtusa, a native of Japan, is a tall tree reaching 100 ft.
in height, and widely planted by the Japanese for its timber,
which is one of the best for interior construction. It is also
Cultivated by them as a decorative plant, in many forms, in-
cluding dwarf forms not exceeding a foot in height.

The " deciduous cypress," " swamp cypress '■ or '' bald
cypress," Taxodium distichum, is another member of the order
Coniferae (tribe Taxodineae), a native of the southern United
States and Mexico. It is a lofty tree reaching a height of 170 ft.
or more, with a massive trunk 10 to 15 ft. or more in diameter,
growing in or near water or on low-lying land which is subject
to periodical flooding. The lower part of the trunk bears huge
buttresses, each of which ends in a long branching far-spreading
root, from the branches of which spring the peculiar knees which
rise above the level of the water. The knees are of a soft spongy
texture and act as breathing organs, supplying the roots with air,
which they would otherwise be unable to obtain when submerged.
The stout horizontally spreading branches give a cedar-like
appearance; the foliage is light and feathery; the leaves and the
slender shoots which bear them fall in the autumn. The cones,
about the size of a small walnut, bear spirally arranged im-
bricated scales which subtend the three-angled winged seeds.
The wood is light, soft, straight-grained and easily worked;
it is very durable in contact with the soil, and is used for
railway-ties, posts, fencing and for construction. The deciduous
cypress was one of the first American trees introduced into
England; it is described by John Parkinson in his Herbal of
1 640. It thrives only near water or where the soil is permanently
moist.

CYPRIAN, SAINT [Caecilius Cyprianus, called Thascius]
(c. 200-258), bishop of Carthage, one of the most illustrious in
the early history of the church, and one of the most notable of
its early martyrs, was born about the year 200, probably at
Carthage. He was of patrician family, wealthy, highly educated,
and for some time occupied as a teacher of rhetoric at Carthage.
Of an enthusiastic temperament, accomplished in classical litera-
ture, he seems while a pagan to have courted discussion with
the converts to Christianity. , Confident in his own powers, he
entered ardently into what was no doubt the great question
of the time at 1 - Carthage as elsewhere. He sought to vanquish,
but was himself vanquished by, the new religious force which
was making such rapid inroads on the decaying paganism of
the Roman empire. Caecilianus (or Caecilius), a presbyter of
Carthage, is supposed to have been the instrument of his con-
version, which seems to have taken place about 246.

Cyprian carried all his natural enthusiasm and brilliant powers
into his new profession. He devoted his wealth to the relief of
the poor and other pious uses; and so, according to his deacon
Pontius, who wrote a diffuse and vague account of his " life and
passion," " realized two benefits: the contempt of the world's
ambition, and the observance of that mercy which God has pre-
ferred to sacrifice." The result of his charity and activity as a
Christian convert was his unanimous call by the Christian
people to the head of the church in Carthage, at the end of 248
or beginning of 249. The time was one of fierce persecution
directed against the Christians, and the bishop of Carthage
became a prominent object of attack. During the persecution of
Decius (250-251) Cyprian was exposed to imminent danger, and
was compelled for a time to seek safety in retreat. Under
Gallus, the successor of Decius, the persecution was relaxed, and
Cyprian returned to Carthage. Here he held several Councils
for the discussion of the affairs of the church, especially for
grave questions as to the rebaptism of heretics, and the re-
admission into the church of the lapsi, or those who had fallen

CYPRINODONTS— CYPRUS

695

away through fear during the heat of the persecution. Cyprian,
although inspired by lofty notions of the prerogatives of the
church, and inclined to severity of opinion towards heretics, and
especially heretical dissentients from the belief in the divine
authorship of the episcopal order and the unity of Christendom,
was leniently disposed towards those who had temporarily fallen
from the faith. He set himself in opposition to, Novatian, a
presbyter of Rome, who advocated their permanent exclusion
from the church; and it was his influence which guided the
tolerant measures of the Carthaginian synods on the subject.
While in this question he went hand in hand with Cornelius,
bishop of Rome, his strict attitude in the matter of baptism
by heretics brought him into serious conflict with the Roman
bishop Stephen. It would almost have come to a rupture, since
both parties held firmly to their , standpoint, had not a new
persecution arisen under the emperor Valerian, which threw
all internal quarrels into the background in face of the common
danger. Stephen became a martyr in August 257. Cyprian
was at first banished to Curubis in Africa Proconsularis. But
soon he was recalled, taken into custody, and finally condemned
to death. He was beheaded on the 14th of September 258, the
first African bishop to obtain the martyr's crown.

All Cyprian's literary works were written in connexion with
his episcopal office; almost all his treatises and many of his
letters have the character of pastoral epistles, and their form
occasionally betrays the fact that they were intended as addresses.
These writings bear the mark of a clear mind and a moderate and
gentle spirit. Cyprian had none of that character which makes
the reading of Tertullian, whom he himself called his magister,
so interesting and piquant, but he possessed other qualities which
Tertullian lacked, especially the art of presenting his thoughts
in simple, smooth and clear language, yet in a style which is not
wanting in warmth and persuasive power. Like Tertullian,
and often in imitation of him, Cyprian took certain apologetic,
dogmatic and pastoral themes as subjects of his treatises. By
far the best known of these is the treatise De catholicae ecclesiae
unilate, called forth in a.d. 251 by the schism at Carthage, but
particularly by the Novatian schism at Rome. In this is pro-
claimed the doctrine of the one church founded upon the apostle
Peter, whose " tangible bond is her one united episcopate,
an apostleship universal yet only one — the authority of every
bishop perfect in itself and independent, yet not forming with
all the others a mere agglomeration of powers, but being a tenure
upon a totality like that of a shareholder in some joint property."

Attention must also be called to the treatise Ad Donatum
(De gratia dei), in which the new life after regeneration with its
moral effects is set forth in a pure and clear light, as contrasted
with the night of heathendom and its moral degradation, which
were known to the author from personal experience. The
numerous Letters of Cyprian are not only an important source
for the history of church life and of ecclesiastical law, on account
of their rich and manifold contents, but in large part they are
important monuments of the literary activity of their author,
since, not infrequently, they are in the form of treatises upon the
topic in question. Of the eighty-two letters in the present
collection, sixty-six were written by Cyprian. In the great
majority of cases the chronology of their composition, as far as
the year is concerned, presents no difficulties; more precise
assignments are mainly conjectural. In the editions of the works
of Cyprian a number of treatises are printed which, certainly or
probably, were not written by him, and have therefore usually
been described as pseudo-Cyprianic. Several of them, e.g. the
treatise on dice (De aleatoribus) , have attracted the attention
of scholars, who are never weary of the attempt to determine
the identity of the author, unfortunately hitherto without much
success.

The best, though by no means faultless, edition of Cyprian's works
is that of W. von Hartel in the Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum
(3 vols., Vienna, 1868-1871). There is an English translation in the
Library of the Ante-Nicene Fathers. The most complete monograph
is that by Archbishop E. W. Benson, Cyprian, his Life, his Times,
his Work (London, 1897). See also J. A. Faulkner, Cyprian the
Churchman (Cincinnati and New York, 1906).

CYPRINODONTS. In spite of their name, the small fishes
called Cyprinodonts are in no way related to the Cyprinids,
or carp family, but are near allies of the pike, characterized
by a flat head with protractile mouth beset with cardiform,
villiform, or compressed, bi- or tri-cuspid teeth, generally large
scales, and the absence of a well-developed lateral line. About
two hundred species are known, mostly inhabitants of the fresh
and brackish waters of America; only about thirty are known
from the old world (south Europe, south Asia, China and Japan,
and Africa) . Several forms occur in the Oligocene and Miocene
beds of Europe. Many species are ovo-viviparous, and from
their small size and lively behaviour they are much appreciated
as aquarium fishes.

In many species the sexes are dissimilar, the female being
larger and less brilliantly coloured, with smaller fins; the anal
fin of the male may be modified into an intromit tent organ by
means of which internal fertilization takes place, the ova develop-
ing in a sort of uterus. In the remarkable genus Anableps,
from Central and South America, the strongly projecting eyes
are divided by a horizontal band of the conjunctiva into an
upper part adapted for vision in the air, and a lower for vision
in the water, and the pupil is also divided into two parts by a
constriction.

The latest monograph of these fishes is by S. Garman in Mem. Mus.
Comp. Zool. xix. (1895).

The Amblyopsidae, which include the remarkable blind cave
fishes of North America (Mammoth cave and others), are nearly
related to the Cyprinodontidae, and like many of them ovo-
viviparous. Chologaster, from the lowland streams and swamps
of the south Atlantic states, has the eyes well developed and
the body is coloured. Amblyopsis and Typhlichthys, which are
evidently derived from Chologaster, or from forms closely related
to it, but living in complete darkness, have the eyes rudimentary
and more or less concealed under the skin, and the body is
colourless.

See F. W. Putnam, Atner. Nat. (1872), p. 6, and P. Boston Soc^
xvii. (1875), p. 222 ; and C. H. Eigenmann, Archiv.fur Entwickelungs-
mechanik der Organismen, viii. (1899), p. 545. (G. A. B.)

CYPRUS, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean,
nominally in the dominion of Turkey, but under British adminis-
tration, situated in the easternmost basin of that sea, at roughly
equal distance from the coasts of Asia Minor to the north and
of Syria to the east. The headland of Cape Kormakiti in Cyprus
is distant 44 m. from Cape Anamur in Asia Minor, and its north-
east point, Cape St Andrea, is 69 m. from Latakieh in Syria;
It lies between 34 33' and 35° 41' N., and between 32° 20' and
34 35' E., so that it is situated in almost exactly the same
latitude as Crete. Its greatest length is about 141 m., from
Cape Drepano in the west to Cape St Andrea in the north-east,
and its greatest breadth, from Cape Gata in the south to Cape
Kormakiti in the north, reaches 60 m.; while it retains an
average width of from 35 to 50 m. through the greater part of
its extent, but narrows suddenly to less than 10 m. about 34 E.,
and from thence sends out a long narrow tongue of land towards
the E.N.E. for a distance of 46 m., terminating in Cape St Andrea.
The coast-line measures 486 m. Cyprus is the largest island in
the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. In 1885 a trigono-
metrical survey and a map on the scale of 1 in. to 1 m. were
made by Captain (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, R.E., who
worked out the area of the island at 3584 sq. m., or a little more
than the area of Norfolk and Suffolk.

Mountains. — Great part of the island is occupied by two
mountain ranges, both of which have a general direction from
west to east. Of these the most extensive, as well as the most
lofty, is that which fills up almost the whole southern portion
of the island, and is generally designated by modern geographers
as Mount Olympus, though that name appears to have been
applied by the ancients only to one particular peak. The highest
summit is known at the present day as Mount Troodos, and
attains an elevation of 6406 ft. It sends down subordinate
ranges or spurs, of considerable altitude, on all sides, one of which
extends to Cape Arnauti (the ancient Acamas). which forms the

696

CYPRUS

north-west extremity of the island, while others descend on both
sides quite to the northern and southern coasts. On the south-
eastern slope are governmental and military summer quarters.
The main range is continued eastward by the lofty summits
known as Mount Adelphi (5305ft.), Papoutsa(5i24)andMachaira

m { o 1 r f c.t'T? n

B.V.IC. Lang. E- ?

CAN

"of Greenwich

Reference to Districts

1. Famagusta

2. Kyrenia

3. Larnaca

4. Limasol
&. Nicosia
6. Papho

or Chionia (4674), until it ends in the somewhat isolated peak
called Santa Croce (Stavrovouni or Oros Stavro), the Hill of the
Holy Cross (2260 ft.). This mountain, designated by Strabo
Mount Olympus, is a conspicuous object from Larnaca, from
which it is only 12 m. distant, and is well known from being
frequented as a place of pilgrimage. The northern range of
mountains begins at Cape Kormakiti (the ancient Crommyon)
and is continued from thence in an unbroken ridge to the eastern
extremity of the island, Cape St Andrea, a distance of more than
100 m. It is not known by any collective name; its western
part is called the Kyrenia mountains, while the remainder has
the name of Carpas. It is inferior in elevation to the southern
range, its highest summit (Buffavento) attaining only 3135 ft.,
while in the eastern portion the elevation rarely exceeds 2000 ft.
But it is remarkable for its continuous and unbroken character —
consisting throughout of a narrow but rugged and rocky ridge,
descending abruptly to the south into the great plain of Lefkosia,
and to the north to a narrow plain bordering the coast.

The Mesaoria. — Between the two mountain ranges lies a
broad plain, extending across the island from the bay of Fama-
gusta to that of Morphou on the west, a distance of nearly 60 m.,
with a breadth varying from 10 to 20 m. Itisknownby the name
of the Mesaoria or Messaria, and is watered by a number of
intermittent streams from the mountains on either hand. The
chief streams are the Pedias and .the Yalias, which follow roughly
parallel courses eastward. The greater part of the plain is open
and uncultivated, and presents nothing but barren downs;
but corn is grown in considerable quantities in the northern
portions of it, and there is no doubt that the whole is readily
susceptible of cultivation. It is remarkable that Cyprus was
celebrated in antiquity for its forests, which not only clothed the
whole of its mountain ranges, but covered the entire central
plain with a dense mass, so that it was with difficulty that the
land could be cleared for cultivation. At the present day the
whole plain of the Mesaoria is naturally bare and treeless, and
it is only the loftiest and central summits of Mount Olympus
that still retain their covering of pine woods. The disappearance
of the forests (which has in a measure been artificially remedied)
naturally affected the rivers, which are mostly mere torrents,
dry in summer. Even the Pedias (ancient Pediaeus) does not
reach the sea in summer, and its stagnant waters form unhealthy
marshes. In the marshy localities malarial fever occurs but is
rarely (in modern times) of a severe type. The mean annual
temperature in Cyprus is about 69° F. (mean maximum 7 8°,
and minimum 57 ). The mean annual rainfall is about 19 ins.
October to March is the cool, wet season. Earthquakes are not
uncommon.

Geology. — Cyprus lies in the continuation of the folded belt of the
Anti-taurus. The northern coast range is formed by the oldest rocks
in the island, consisting chiefly of limestones and marbles with
occasional masses of igneous rock. These are supposed to be of
Cretaceous age, but no fossils have been found in them. On both
sides the range is flanked by sandstones and shales (the Kythraean
series), supposed to be of Upper Eocene age; and similar rocks
occur around the southern mountain mass. The Oligocene consists
of grey and white marls (known as the Idalian series), which are
distributed all over the island and attain their greatest development
on the south side of the Troodos. All these rocks have been folded,
and take part in the formation of the mountains. The great igneous
masses of Troodos, &c., consisting of diabase, basalt and serpentine,,
are of later date. Pliocene and later beds cover the central plain
and occur at intervals along the coast. The Pliocene is of marine
origin, and rests unconformably upon all the older beds, including
the Post-oligocene igneous rocks, thus proving that the final folding
and the last volcanic outbursts were approximately of Miocene age.
The caves of the Kyrenian range contain a Pleistocene mammalian
fauna.

Population. — The population of Cyprus in 1901 was 237,022,
an increase of 27,736 since 1891 and of 51,392 since 1881. The
people are mainly Greeks and Turks. About 22% of the
population are Moslems; nearly all the remainder are Christians
of the Orthodox Greek Church. The Moslem religious courts,
presided over by cadis, are strictly confined to jurisdiction in
religious cases affecting the Mahommedan population. The
island is divided into the six districts of Famagusta, Kyrenia,
Larnaca, Limasol, Nicosia and Papho. The chief towns are
Nicosia (pop. 14,752), the capital, in the north central part of
the island, Limasol (8298) and Larnaca (7964) on the south-
eastern coast. The other capitals of districts are Famagusta
on the east coast, Kyrenia on the north, and Ktima, capital of
Papho, on the south-west. Kyrenia, a small port, has a castle
built about the beginning of the 13th century, and notable,
through the troubled history of the island, as never having been
captured.

Agriculture, cVc — The most important species of the few
trees that remain in the island are the Aleppo pine, the Pinus
laricio, cypress, cedar, carob, olive and Quercus alnifolia. Recent
additions are the eucalyptus, casuarina, Pinus pinea and
ailanthus. Some protection has been afforded to existing
plantations, and some attempt made to extend their area; but
the progress in both directions is slow. Agriculture is the chief
industry in the island, in spite of various disabilities. The soil
is extremely fertile, and, with a fair rainfall, say 13 in., between
November and April, yields magnificent crops, but the improve-
ments in agriculture are scarcely satisfactory. The methods and
appliances used are extremely primitive, and inveterate prejudice
debars the average peasant from the use of new implements,
fresh seed, er manure; he generally cares nothing for the rotation
of crops, or for the cleanliness of his land. Modern improvements
and the use of imported machinery have, however, been adopted
by some. A director of agriculture was appointed in 1896, and
leaflets are issued pointing out improvements within the means
of the villager, and how to deal with plant diseases and insect
pests. The products of the soil include grain, fruit, including
carob, olive, mulberry, cotton, vegetables and oil seeds. Vine-
yards occupy a considerable area, and the native wines are pure
and strong, but not always palatable. The native practice of
conveying wine in tarred skins was deleterious to its flavour, and
is now for the most part abolished. A company has exploited
and improved the industry. Large sums have been expended on
the destruction of locusts; they are now practically harmless,
but live locusts are diligently collected every year, a reward
being paid by the government for their destruction. Under the
superintendence of an officer lent by the government of Madras,
two great works of irrigation, from the lack of which agriculture
had seriously suffered, were undertaken in 1898 and 1899.
The smaller includes a reservoir at Syncrasi (Famagusta), with
a catchment of 27 sq. m. and a capacity of 70,000,000 cub. ft.
It reclaims 360 acres, and was estimated to irrigate 4320. The
larger scheme includes three large reservoirs in the Mesaoria
to hold up and temporarily store the flood waters of the Pedias
and Yalias rivers. The estimate premised a cost of £50,000, the

CYPRUS

697

irrigation of 42,000 acres, and the reclamation of 10,000. These
works were completed respectively in 1899 and 1901.

The rearing of live stock is of no little importance. A com-
mittee exists " for the improvement of the breeds of Cyprus
stock "; stallions of Arab blood have been imported, and
prizes are offered for the best donkeys. Cattle, sheep, mules and
donkeys are sent in large numbers to Egypt. Cyprus mules
have found favour in war in the Crimea, India, Uganda, Eritrea
and Egypt. The sea fisheries are not important, with the
exception of the sponge fishery, which is under the protection
of the administration. The manufactures of the island are
insignificant.

Minerals. — Next to its forests, which long supplied the Greek
monarchs of Egypt with timber for their fleets, Cyprus was
celebrated among the ancients for its mineral wealth, especially
for its mines of copper, which were worked from a very early
period, and continued to enjoy such reputation among both
Greeks and Romans that the modern name for the metal is
derived from the term of Aes Cyprium or Cuprium by which
it was known to the latter. According to Strabo the most
valuable mines were worked at a place called Tamasus, in the
centre of the island, on the northern slopes of Mount Olympus,
but their exact site has not been identified. An attempt to work
copper towards the close of the 19th century was a failure,
but some prospecting was subsequently carried on. Besides
copper, according to Strabo, the island produced considerable
quantities of silver; and Pliny records it as producing various
kinds of precious stones, among which he mentions diamonds
and emeralds, but these were doubtless nothing more than rock
crystal and beryl. Salt, which was in ancient times one of the
productions for which the island was noted, is still made in large
quantities, and there are extensive salt works in the neighbour-
hood of Larnaca and Limasol, where there are practically
inexhaustible salt lakes. Rock crystal and asbestos are still
found in the district of Paphos. Gypsum is exported unburnt
from the Carpas, and as plaster of Paris from Limasol and
Larnaca. Statuary marble has been found on the slopes of
BufEavento in the northern range. Excellent building stone
exists throughout the island.

Commerce. — A disability against the trade of Cyprus has
been the want of natural harbours, the ports possessing only
open roadsteads; though early in the 20th century the con-
struction of a satisfactory commercial harbour was undertaken
at Famagusta, and there is a small harbour at Kyrenia. Trade
is carried on principally from the ports already indicated among
the chief towns. The various agricultural products, cattle and
mules, cheese, wines and spirits, silk cocoons and gypsum make
up the bulk of the exports. Barley and wheat, carobs and raisins
may be specially indicated among the agricultural exports. The
annual value of exports and of imports (which are of a general
character) may be set down as about £300,000 each. Good
roads are maintained connecting the more important towns,
and when the harbour at Famagusta was undertaken the con-
struction ofa railway from that port to Nicosia was also put
in hand. The Eastern Telegraph Co. maintains a cable from
Alexandria (Egypt) to Larnaca, and the greater part of the lines
on the island. The Imperial Ottoman Telegraph Co. has also
some lines. The British sovereign is the current gold coin, the
unit of the bronze and silver coinage being the piastre {i\ penny).
Turkish weights and measures are used. The oke, equalling
2-8 lb avoirdupois, and the donum, about \ of an acre, are the
chief units.

Constitution and Government. — Under a convention signed at
Constantinople on the 4th of June 1878, Great Britain engaged
to join the sultan of Turkey in defending his Asiatic possessions
(in certain contingencies) against Russia, and the sultan, " in
order to enable England to make necessary provision for execut-
ing her engagement," consented to assign the island of Cyprus
to be occupied and administered by England. The British flag
was hoisted on the 12th of June, and the conditions of the
occupation were explained in an annex to the convention, dated
the 1st of July. An order in council of the 14th of September,

modified so far as related to legislation by another of the 30th
of November, regulated the government of the island. The
administration was placed in the hands of a high commissioner
with the usual powers of a colonial governor. Executive and
legislative councils were established; and in each of the six
districts into which, for administrative and legal purposes, the
island was divided, a commissioner was appointed to represent
the government. The executive council consists of the high
commissioner, the chief secretary, the king's advocate, the
senior officer in charge of the troops, and the receiver-general,
with, as " additional " members, two Christians and one Mussul-
man. The legislative council consists of six non-elected members,
being office-holders, and twelve elected members, three being
chosen by the Moslems and nine by the non-Moslem inhabitants.
British subjects and foreigners, who have resided five years in
Cyprus, can exercise the franchise as well as Ottoman subjects.
The qualification otherwise is the payment of any of the taxes
classed as Vergi Taxes (see below). The courts in existence
at the time of the occupation were superseded by the following,
constituted by an order in council dated the 30th of November
1882: — (1) a supreme court of criminal and civil appeal; (2)
six assize courts; (3) six district courts; (4) six magistrates'
courts; and (5) village courts. Actions are divided, according
to the nationality of the defendant, into " Ottoman " and
"Foreign"; in the latter, the president of the court alone
exercises jurisdiction as a rule, so also in criminal cases against
foreigners. The law administered is that contained in the
Ottoman codes, modified by ordinances passed by the legislative
council.

Finance. — The principal sources of revenue are : —
(1) Vergi taxes, or taxes on house and land property, and trade
profits and incomes (not including salaries) ; (2) military exemption
tax, payable by Moslems and Christians alike, but not by foreigners,
of 2s. 6d. a head on males between 18 and 60 years of age ; (3) tithes.
All tithes have been abolished, except those on cereals, carobs, silk
cocoons.'and, in the form of 10% ad valorem export duties, those
on cotton, linseed, aniseed and raisins (all other export duties
and a fishing tax have been abolished) ; (4) sheep, goat, and pig
tax; (5) an excise on wine, spirits and tobacco; (6) import duties;
(7) stamps, court fees, royalties, licenses, &c. ; (8) salt monopoly.
Foreigners are liable to all the above taxes except the military
exemption tax. The annual sum of £92,800, payable to Turkey as
the average excess (according to the years 1 873-1 878) of revenue over
expenditure, but really appropriated to the interest on the British
guaranteed loan of 1 855, is a heavy burden. But if not lightened,
taxation is at least better apportioned than formerly.

Instruction. — A general system of grants in aid of elementary
schools was established in 1882. There are some 300 connected with
the Greek Orthodox Church, and 160 elementary Moslem schools.
Aid is also given to a few Armenian and Maronite schools. Among
other schools are a Moslem high school (maintained entirely by
government) , a training college at Nicosia for teachers in the Orthodox
Church schools, Greek high schools at Larnaca and Limasol, an
English school for boys and a girls' school at Nicosia. By a law of
1895 separate boards of education for Moslem and Greek Christian
schools were established, and in each district there are separate
committees, presided over by the commissioner. An institution
worthy of special notice is the home and farm for lepers near
Nicosia, accommodating over a hundred inmates.

History and Archaeology down to the Roman
Occupation

The Stone Age has left but few traces in Cyprus; no sites
have been found and even single implements are very rare.
The "megalithic" monuments of Agia Phaneromeni 1 and
Hala Sultan Teke near Larnaca may perhaps be early, like
the Palestinian cromlechs; but the vaulted chamber of Agia
Katrina near Enkomi seems to be Mycenaean or later; and the
perforated monoliths at Ktima seem to belong to oil presses
of uncertain but probably not prehistoric date.

The Bronze Age, on the other hand, is of peculiar importance
in an area which, like Cyprus, was one of the chief early sources
of copper. Its remains have been carefully studied both on

X M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Arch. Zeitung (1881), p. 311, pi. xviii.
The principal publications respecting this and all sites and phases
of culture mentioned in this section are collected in Myres and
Ohnefalsch-Riehter, Cyprus Museum Catalogue (Oxford, 1899), pp.
1-35-

6 9 8

CYPRUS

settlement sites at Leondari Vouno and Kalopsida, and in tombs
in more than thirty places, notably at Agia Paraskevi, Psem-
matismeno, Alambra, Episkopi and Enkomi. Throughout this
period, which began probably before 3000 B.C. and ended about
1000 B.C., Cyprus evidently maintained a large population, and
an art and culture distinct from those of Egypt, Syria and
Cilicia. The Cypriote temper, however, lacks originality; at
all periods it has accepted foreign innovations slowly, and
discarded them even more reluctantly. The island owes its
importance, therefore, mainly to its copious supply of a few
raw materials, notably copper and timber. Objects of Cypriote
manufacture are found but rarely on sites abroad; in the later
Bronze Age, however, they occur in Egypt and South Palestine,
and as far afield as Thera (Santorin), Athens and Troy (Hissarlik).

The Bronze Age culture of Cyprus falls into three main stages.
In the first, the implements are rather of copper than of bronze,
tin being absent or in small quantities (2 to 3%); the types
are common to Syria and Asia Minor as far as the Hellespont,
and resemble also the earliest forms in the Aegean and in central
Europe; the pottery is all hand-made, with a red burnished
surface, gourd-like and often fantastic forms, and simple geo-
metrical patterns incised; zoomorphic art is very rare, and
imported objects are unknown. In the second stage, implements
of true bronze (9 to 10% tin) become common; painted pottery
of buff clay with dull black geometrical patterns appears along-
side the red- ware; and foreign imports occur, such as Egyptian
blue-glazed beads (Xllth-XIIIth Dynasty, 2500-2000 B.C.), 1
and cylindrical Asiatic seals (one of Sargon I., 2000 B.C.). 2

In the third stage, Aegean colonists introduced the Mycenaean
(late Minoan) culture and industries; with new types of weapons,
wheel-made pottery, and a naturalistic art which rapidly becomes
conventional; gold and ivory are abundant, and glass and
enamels are known. Extended intercourse with Syria, Palestine
and Egypt brought other types of pottery, jewelry, &c. (especially
scarabs of XVIIIth and XlXth Dynasties, 1600-1200 B.C.),
which were freely copied on the spot. There is, however, nothing
in this period which can be ascribed to specifically " Phoenician "
influence; the only traces of writing are in a variety of the
Aegean script. The magnificent tombs from Enkomi and
Episkopi illustrate the wealth and advancement of Cyprus at
this time. 3

It is in this third stage that Cyprus first appears in history,
under the name Asi, as a conquest of Tethmosis (Thothmes)
III. of Egypt (XVIIIth Dynasty, c. 1500 B.C.), 4 yielding tribute
of chariots, horses, copper, blue-stone and other products. It
was still in Egyptian hands under Seti I., and under Rameses
III. a list of Cypriote towns seems to include among others
the names of Salamis, Citium, Soli, Idalium, Cerynia (Kyrenia),
and Curium. Another Egyptian dependency, Alasia, has by
some been identified with Cyprus or a part of it (but may perhaps
be in North Syria). It sent copper, oil, horses and cattle, ivory
and timber; under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. it exported
timber and imported silver; it included a town Sikra, traded with
Byblus in North Syria, and was exposed to piratical raids of
Lykki (PLycians).

The decline of Egypt under the XXth Dynasty, and the
contemporary fall of the Aegean sea-power, left Cyprus isolated
and defenceless, and the Early Iron Age which succeeds is a
period of obscurity and relapse. Iron, which occurs rarely, and
almost exclusively for ornaments, in a few .tombs at Enkomi,
suddenly superseded bronze for tools and weapons, and its intro-
duction was accompanied, as in the Aegean, by economic, and
probably by political changes, which broke up the high civiliza-
tion of the Mycenaean colonies, and reduced them to poverty,

1 Myres, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xvii. p. 146.

2 Sayce, Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch. v. pp. 441-444. The exact
provenance of these cylinders is not known, but there is every reason
to believe that they were found in Cyprus.

3 British Museum, Excavations in Cyprus (London, 1900). The
official publication stands alone in referring these tombs to the
Hellenic period (800-600 B.C.).

4 E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern (Munich, 1903), i. pp. 1-3
(all the Egyptian evidence).

isolation and comparative barbarism. It is significant that the
first iron swords in Cyprus are of a type characteristic of the
lands bordering the Adriatic. Gold and even silver become
rare; 6 foreign imports almost cease; engraved cylinders and
scarabs are replaced by conical and pyramidal seals like those
of Asia Minor, and dress-pins by brooches (fibulae) like those of
south-eastern Europe. Representative art languishes, except
a few childish terra-cottas; decorative art becomes once more
purely geometrical, but shows only slight affinity with the con-
temporary geometrical art of the Aegean.

Lingering thus in Cyprus (as also in some islands of the Aegean)
Mycenaean traditions came into contact with new oriental
influences from the Syrian coast; and these were felt in Cyprus
somewhat earlier than in the West. But there is at present no
clear proof of Phoenician or other Semitic activity in Cyprus
until the last years of the 8th century.

No reference to Cyprus has been foundinBabylonian or Assyrian
records before the reign of Sargon II. (end of 8th century B.C.),
and the occasional discovery of Mesopotamian cylinders of early
date in Cyprus is no proof of direct intercourse. 6 Isaiah (xxiii. 1,
12), writing about this time, describes Kittim (a name derived
from Citium, q.v.) as a port of call for merchantmen homeward
bound for Tyre, and as a shelter for Tyrian refugees; but the
Hebrew geographers of this and the next century classify Kittim,
together with other coast-lands and islands, under the heading
Javan, " Ionian " (q.v.), and consequently reckoned it as pre-
dominantly Greek.

Sargon's campaigns in north Syria, Cilicia and south-east
Asia Minor (721-71 1) provoked first attacks, then an embassy
and submission in 709, from seven kings of Yatnana (the Assyrian
name for Cyprus) ; and an inscription of Sargon himself, found
at Citium, proves an Assyrian protectorate, and records tribute
of gold, silver and various timbers. These kings probably
represent that " sea-power of Cyprus " which precedes that of
Phoenicia in the Greek " List of Thalassocracies " preserved
by Eusebius. Under Sennacherib's rule, Yatnana figures (as
in Isaiah) as the refuge of a disloyal Sidonian in 702; but in
668 ten kings of Cypriote cities joined Assur-bani-pal's expedi-
tion to Egypt; most of them bear recognizable Greek names,
e.g. Pylagoras of Chytroi, Eteandros of Paphos, Onasagoras 1 of
Ledroi. They are gazetted with twelve other " kings of the
Hatti " (S.E. Asia Minor). Citium, the principal Phoenician
state, does not appear by name; but is usually recognized in
the list under its Phoenician title -Karti-hadasti, " new town." ■-,,

Thus before the middle of the 7 th century Cyprus reappears
in history divided among at least ten cities, of which some are
certainly Greek, and one at least certainly Phoenician: with
this,' Greek tradition agrees. 7 The Greek colonists traced their
descent, at Curium, from Argos; at Lapathus, from Lacorua;
at Paphos, from Arcadia; at Salamis, from the Attic island of
that name; and at Soli, also from Attica. The settlements at
Paphos and Salamis, and probably at Curium, were believed
to date from, the period of the Trojan War, i.e. from the. 13th
century, and the latter part of the Mycenaean age; the name
of Teucer, the legendary founder of Salamis, probably is a
reminiscence of the piratical Tikkara who harried the Egyptian
coast under Rameses III. (c. 1200 B.C.), and the discovery of
late Mycenaean settlements on these sites, and also at Lapathus,
suggests that these legends rest upon history. The Greek
dialect of Cyprus points in the same direction; it shows marked
resemblances with that of Arcadia, and forms with it a " South
Achaean " or " South Aeolic " group, related to the " Northern
Aeolic " of Thessaly and other parts of north Greece. 8 Further

5 A. J. Evans, Journ. Anihrop. Inst, pcxx. p. 199 iff. ; J. Naue,
Die vorromischen Schwerter (Munich, 1903), p. 25.

6 E. Oberhummer, I.e. p. 5 ff. (all the Assyrian and biblical
evidence).

7 W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841) (all the Greek traditions).

8 Moriz Schmidt, Z. f. vergl. Sprachw. (i860), p. 290 ff., 361 ff.;
H. W. Smith, Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc, xviii. (1887) ; R. Meister,
Zum eleischen, arkadischen u. kyprischen Dialekte (Leipzig, I890);
O. Hoffmann, Die griechischen Dialekte, i. (Gottingen, 1891); C,
D. Cobham, Bibliography of Cyprus, pp. 40-45. :-.:')

CYPRUS

6 99

evidence of continuity comes from the peculiar Cypriote script, a
syllabary related to the linear scripts of Crete and the south
Aegean, and traceable in Cyprus to the Mycenaean age. 1 It
remained in regular use until the 4th century; before that
time the Greek alphabet occurs in Cyprus only in a few inscrip-
tions erected for visitors. 2 In Citium and Idalium, on the other
hand, a Phoenician dialect and alphabet were in use from
the time of Sargon onward. 3 Sargon's inscription at Citium is
cuneiform. 4

The culture and art of Cyprus in this Graeco-Phoenician
period are well represented by remains from Citium, Idalium,
Tamassus, Amathus and Curium; the earlier phases are best
represented round Lapathus, Soli, Paphos and Citium; the
later Hellenization, at Amathus and Marion-Arsinoe. Three
distinct foreign influences may be distinguished: they originate
in Egypt, in Assyria, and in the Aegean. The first two pre-
dominate earlier, and gradually recede before the last-named.
Their effects are best seen in sculpture and in metal work, though
it remains doubtful whether the best examples of the latter were
made in Cyprus or on the mainland. Among a great series of
engraved silver bowls, 5 found mostly in Cyprus, but also as far
off as Nineveh, Olympia, Caere and Praeneste, some examples
show almost unmixed imitation of Egyptian scenes and devices;
in others, Assyrian types are introduced among the Egyptian
in senseless confusion; in others, both traditions are merged
in a mixed art, which betrays a return to naturalism and a new
sense of style, like that of the Idaean bronzes in Crete. 6 From
its intermediate position between the art of Phoenicia and its
western colonies (so far as this is known) and the earliest Hellenic
art in the Aegean, this style has been called Graeco-Phoenician.
The same sequence of phases is represented in sculpture by the
votive statues from the sanctuaries of Aphrodite at Dali and of
Apollo at Voni and Frangissa; and by examples from other
sites in the Cesnola collection; in painting by a rare class of
naively polychromic vases; and in both by the elaborately
coloured terra-cotta figures from the " Toumba " site at Salamis.
Gem-engraving and jewelry follow similar lines; pottery -pain ting
for the most part remains geometrical throughout, with crude
survivals of Mycenaean curvilinear forms. Those Aegean in-
fluences, however, which had been predominant in the later
Bronze Age, and had never wholly ceased, revived, as Hellenism
matured and spread, and slowly repelled the mixed Phoenician
orientalism. Imported vases from the Aegean, of the " Dipylon,"
" proto-Corinthian " and " Rhodian " fabrics, occur rarely,
and were imitated by the native potters; and early in the 6th
century appears the specific influence of Ionia, and still more
of Naucratis in the Egyptian delta. For the failure of Assyria
in Egypt in 668-664, and the revival of Egypt as a phil-Hellene
state under the XXVIth Dynasty, admitted strong Graeco-
Egyptian influences in industry and art, and led about 560 B.C.
to the political conquest of Cyprus by Amasis (Ahmosi) II.; 7
once again Cypriote timber maintained a foreign sea-power in
the Levant.

The annexation of Egypt by Cambyses of Persia in 525 B.C.

•G. Smith, Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch. i. 129 ff.; Moritz Schmidt,
Monatsb. k. Ak. Wiss. (Berlin, 1874), pp. 614-615; Sammlung kypr.
Inschriften (Jena, 1876) ; W. Deecke, Ursprung der kypr. Sylben-
schrift (Strassburg, 1877); cf. Deecke-Collitz, Samml. d. gr. Dialekt-
inschriften, i. (Gottingen, 1884); cf. C. D. Cobham, I.e. On its
Aegean origin, A. J. Evans, " Cretan Pictographs " (1895), Journ.
Hell. Studies, xiv., cf. xvii. ; British Museum, Exc. in Cypr. (London,
1900), p. 27.

2 British Museum, Exc. in Cypr. (London, 1900), p. 95 (Ionic
inscriptions of 5th century from Amathus).

3 M. de Vogue, Melanges d'archeologie orientate (Paris, 1869);
J: Euting, Silzb. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1887), pp. 115 ff.; Ph. Berger,
C. R. Acad. Inscr. (1887), pp. 155 ff., 187 ff., 203 ff. Cf. Corpus Inscr.
Semit. (Paris, 1881), ii. 35 ff.

* E. Schrader, Abh. d. k. preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1881).

5 G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Histoire de Vart dans I'antiquite, iii.
(Paris, 1885), interpret these and most other Cypriote materials
without reserve as " Phoenician."

6 F. Halbherr and P. Orsi, Antichita dell' antro di Zeus Ideo in
Greta (Rome, 1888). Cf. H. Brunn, Griechische Kunstgeschichte
(Munich, 1893), i. 90 ff.

' Herod, ii. 182; see also Egypt: History (Dyn. XXVI.).

was preceded by the voluntary surrender of Cyprus, which
formed part of Darius's " fifth satrapy." 8 The Greek cities,
faring ill under Persia, and organized by Onesilaus of Salamis,
joined the Ionic revolt in 500 B.C.; 9 but the Phoenician states,
Citium and Amathus, remained loyal to Persia; the rising
was soon put down; in 480 Cyprus furnished no less than 150
ships to the fleet of Xerxes; 10 and in spite of the repeated
attempts of the Delian League to " liberate " the island, it
remained subject to Persia during the 5th century. 11 The occasion
of the siege of Idalium by Persians (which is commemorated
in an important Cypriote inscription) is unknown. 12 Throughout
this period, however, Athens and other Greek states maintained
a brisk trade in copper, sending vases and other manufactures
in return, and bringing Cyprus at last into full contact with
Hellenism. But the Greek cities retained monarchical govern-
ment throughout, and both the domestic art and the principal
religious cults remained almost unaltered. The coins of the
Greek dynasts and autonomous towns are struck on a variable
standard with a stater of 170 to 180 grs. 13 The principal Greek
cities were now Salamis, Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Kyrenia
and Khytri. Phoenicians held Citium and Amathus on the
south coast between Salamis and Curium, also Tamassus and
Idalium in the interior; but the last named was little more
than a sanctuary town, like Paphos. At the end of the 5th
century a fresh Salaminian League was formed by Evagoras
(q.v.), who became king in 410, aided the Athenian Conon
after the fall of Athens in 404, and revolted openly from Persia
in 386, after the peace of Antalcidas. 14 Athens again sent help,
but as before the Phoenician states supported Persia; the
Greeks were divided by feuds, and in 380 the attempt failed;
Evagoras was assassinated in 374, and his son Nicocles died soon
after. After the victory of Alexander the Great at Issus in 333
B.C. all the states of Cyprus welcomed him, and sent timber and
ships for his siege of Tyre in 332.

After Alexander's death in 323 B.C. Cyprus, coveted still for
its copper and timber, passed, after several rapid changes, to
Ptolemy I., king of Egypt. Then in 306 B.C. Demetrius Polior-
cetes of Macedon overran the whole island, besieged Salamis,
and utterly defeated there the Egyptian fleet. Ptolemy, however,
recovered it in 295 B.C. Under Ptolemaic rule Cyprus has little
history. Usually it was governed by a viceroy of the royal line,
but it gained a brief independence under Ptolemy Lathyrus
(107-89 B.C.), and under a brother of Ptolemy Auletes in 58 B.C.
The great sanctuaries of Paphos and Idalium, and the public
buildings of Salamis, which were wholly remodelled in this
period, have produced but few works of art; the sculpture
from local shrines at Voni and Vitsada, and the frescoed tomb-
stones from Amathus, only show how incapable the Cypriotes
still were of utilizing Hellenistic models; a rare and beautiful
class of terra-cottas like those of Myrina may be of Cypriote
fabric, but their style is wholly of the Aegean. It is in this
period that we first hear of Jewish settlements, 16 which later
become very populous.

In 58 B.C. Rome, which had made large unsecured loans to
Ptolemy Auletes, sent M. Porcius Cato to annex the island,
nominally because its king had connived at piracy, really because
its revenues and the treasures of Paphos were coveted to finance
a corn law of P. Clodius. 16 Under Rome Cyprus was at first
appended to the province of Cilicia; after Actium (31 B.C.) it
became a separate province, which remained in the hands of
Augustus and was governed by a legatus Caesaris pro praetore
as long as danger was feared from the East. 17 No monuments

8 Herod, iii. 19. 91 ;"see also Persia: History.

9 Herod, v. 108, 113, 115.

10 Herod, vii. 90. " Thuc. i. 94, 1 12.

12 M. Schmidt, Die Inschrift von Idalion (Jena, 1874).
18 G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus (London, 1904)
Earlier literature in Cobham, I.e. p. 39.

14 H. F. Talbot, Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch. v. 447 ff. (translation).
For Evagoras and the place of Cyprus in later Greek history, see
G. Grote, History of Greece (Index, s.v.), and W. H. Engel, Kypros
(Berlin, 1841).

15 I Mace. xv. 23. 16 Livy, Epit. 104; Cic. pro Sestio, 26, 57.
17 Dio Cass. liii. 12 ; Strabo 683, 840.

700

CYPRUS

remain of this period. In 22 B.C., however, it was transferred to
the senate, 1 so that Sergius Paulus, who was governor in a.d. 46,
is rightly called avduraros (proconsul). 2 Of Paulus no coins
are known, but an inscription exists. 3 Other proconsuls are
Julius Cordus and L. Annius Bassus who succeeded him in a.d.
52. * The copper mines, which were still of great importance,
were farmed at one time by Herod the Great. 5 The persecution
of Christians on the mainland after the death of Stephen drove
converts as far as Cyprus; and soon after converted Cypriote
Jews, such as Mnason (an " original convert " ) and Joses the
Levite (better known as Barnabas), were preaching in Antioch.
The latter revisited Cyprus twice, first with Paul on hiss " first
journey" in a.d. 46, and later with Mark. 6 In 116-11? the
Jews of Cyprus, with those of Egypt and Cyrene, revolted,
massacred 240,0100 persons, and destroyed a large part of Salamis.
Hadrian, afterwards emperor, suppressed them, and expelled
all Jews from Cyprus.

For the culture of the Roman period there is abundant evidence
from Salamis and Paphos, and from tombs everywhere, for the
glass vessels which almost wholly supersede pottery are much
sought for their (quite accidental) iridescence; not much else
is found that is either characteristic or noteworthy; and little
attention has been paid to the sequence of style.

The Christian church of Cyprus was divided into thirteen
bishoprics. It was made autonomous in the 5th century, in
recognition of the supposed discovery of the original of St
Matthew's Gospel in a " tomb of Barnabas " which is still shown
• at Salamis. The patriarch has therefore the title jua/capuoTarcs
and the right to sign his name in red ink. A council of Cyprus,
summoned by Theophilus of Alexandria in a.d. 401, prohibited
the reading of the works of Origen (see Cyprus, Church of).

Of the Byzantine period little remains but the ruins of the
castles of St Hilarion, Buffavento and Kantara; and a magnifi-
cent series of gold ornaments and silver plate, found near Kyrenia
in 1883 and 1897 respectively. Christian tombs usually contain
nothing of value.

The Frank conquest is represented by the " Crusaders' Tower "
at Koiossi, and the church of St Nicholas at Nicosia; and,
later, by masterpieces of a French Gothic style, such as
the church (mosque) of St Sophia, and other churches at
Nicosia; the cathedral (mosque) and others at Famagusta (q.v. ),
and the monastery at Bella Pais; as well as by domestic
architecture at Nicosia; and by forts at Kyrenia, Limasol and
elsewhere.

The Turks and British have added little, and destroyed much,
converting churches into mosques and grain-stores, and quarrying
walls and buildings at Famagusta.

History of Excavation. — Practically all the archaeological
discoveries above detailed have been made since 1877. A few
chance finds of vases, inscriptions and coins; of a hoard of
silver bowls at Dali (anc. Iiaiium)'' in 185 1; and of a bronze
tablet with Phoenician and Cypriote bilingual inscriptions, 8
also at Dali, and about the same time, had raised questions of
great interest as to the art and the language of the ancient
inhabitants. T. B. Sandwith, British consul 1865-1869, had
laid the foundations of a sound knowledge of Cypriote pottery; 9
his successor R. H. Lang (1870-1872) had excavated a sanctuary
of Aphrodite at Dali ; 10 and at the time of the publication of the
oth ed. of the Ency. Brit., 11 General Louis P. di Cesnola (q.v.),
American consul, was already exploring ancient sites, and
opening tombs, in all parts of the island, though his results were
not published till 1877." But though his vast collection, now

1 Dio Cass. liv. 4; Strabo 685. 2 Acts xiii. 7.

3 D. G. Hogarth, Devia Cypria, pp. 114 ff. and app.

4 Corp. Inscr. Lat. 2631-2632.

6 Jos. Ant. 16. 4, 5; 19. 26, 28.

6 Acts iv. 36, xi. 19, 20, xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 16.

7 De Longperier, Athenaum francais (1853), pp. 413 ff. ; Musee
Napoleon, pis. x. xi.

8 De Luynes, Numismatique et inscriptions chypriotes (1852).

9 Archaeologia, xlv. (1877), PP- 127-142. v :

10 Trans. Roy. Soc. Literature, 2nd sen xi. (1878), pp. 30 ff.

11 Article " Cyprus " ad. fin.

12 Cyprus: its Cities, Tombs and Temples (London, 1877).

in the Metropolitan Museum of New York, remains the largest
series of Cypriote antiquities in the world, the accounts which
have been given of its origin are so inadequate, and have provoked
so much controversy, 13 that its scientific value is small, and a
large part of subsequent excavation has necessarily been directed
to solving the problems suggested by its practically isolated
specimens. From 1876 to 1878 Major Alexander P. di Cesnola
continued his brother's work, but the large collection which he
exhibited in London in 1880 was dispersed soon afterwards. 14

On the British occupation of Cyprus in 1878, the Ottoman
law of 1874 in regard to antiquities was retained in force. Ex-
cavation is permitted under government supervision, and the
finds are apportioned in thirds, between the excavator, the
landowner (who is usually bought out by the former), and the
government. The government thirds lie neglected in a " Cyprus
Museum " maintained at Nicosia by voluntary subscription.
There is no staff, and no effective supervision of ancient sites or
monuments. A catalogue of the collections was published by
the Oxford University Press in 1899. 15

Since 1878 more than seventy distinct excavations have
been made in Cyprus, of which the following are the most im-
portant. In 1879 the British government used the acropolis of
Citium (Larnaca) to fill up the ancient harbour; and from the
destruction a few Phoenician inscriptions and a proto-Ionic
capital were saved. In 1882 tombs were opened by G. Hake
at Salamis and Curium for the South Kensington Museum, but
no scientific record was made. In 1883 the Cyprus Museum
was founded by .private enterprise, and on its behalf Max
Ohnefalsch-Richter, who had already made trial diggings for
Sir Charles Newton and the British Museum, excavated sanctu-
aries at Voni and Kythrea (Chytri), and opened tombs on some
other sites. 16

In 1885 Dr F. Dummler opened tombs at Dali, Alambra
and elsewhere, and laid the foundations of knowledge of the
Bronze Age and Early Iron Age; 17 and Richter, on behalf of
officials and private individuals, excavated parts of Frangissa
(Tamassus), Episkopi and Dali. 18

In the same year, 1885, and in 1886, a syndicate opened many
tombs at P61i-tis-Khrysochou (Marium, Arsinoe), and sold the
contents by auction in Paris. From Richter's notes of this
excavation, Dr P. Herrmann compiled the first scientific account
of Graeco-Phoenician and Hellenistic Cyprus. 19 In 1886 also
M. le vicomte E. de^astillon de St Victor opened rich Graeco-
Phoenician tombs at Episkopi, the contents of which are in the
Louvre. 20

The successes of 1885-1886 led to the foundation of the Cyprus
Exploration Fund, on behalf of which (1) in 1888 the sanctuary
of Aphrodite at Paphos (Kouklia) was excavated by Messrs
E. Gardner, M. R. James, D. G. Hogarth and R. Elsey Smith ; !1
(2) in 1889-1890 more tombs were opened at Poli by Messrs
J. A. R. Munro and H. A. Tubbs; 22 (3) in 1890-1891 extensive
trials were made at Salamis, by the same ; a (4) minor sites were
examined at Leondari Vouno (1888), 24 Amargetti (1888), 26 and
Limniti (1889) ; 26 (5) in 1888 Hogarth made a surface-survey
of the Karpass promontory; 27 and finally, (6) in 1894 the balance
was expended by J. L. Myres in a series of trials, to settle special

13 See Cobham, An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus (4th ed.,
Nicosia, 1900), Appendix, " Cesnola Controversy," p. 54.

14 The Lawrence-Cesnola Collection (London, 1881); Salaminia,
id. 1882.

15 Myres and Ohnefalsch-Richter, A Catalogue of the Cyprus
Museum, with a Chronicle of Excavations since the British Occupation,
and Introductory Notes on Cypriote Archaeology (Oxford, 1899).

18 Mitt. d. arch. Inst. ii. (Athens, 1881).

17 Mitt. d. arch. Inst. vi. (Athens, 1886) ; Bemerkungen z. Sit,
Kunsthandwerk, &c, ii. " Der kypr. geometrische Stil " (Halle,
1888).

18 Summarized in Cyprus, the Bible and Homer (London and Berlin,

1893)-

19 Das Graberfeld von Marion (Berlin, 1888).

20 Archives des missions scientifiques, xvii. (Paris, 1891).

21 Journal of Hellenic Studies, ix. (London, 1888).
» Id. xi. (1890); xii. (1891). » Id. xii. (1891).
24 Id. ix. (1888). 26 Id. ix. '1888).

M Id. xi. (1890). 27 Devia Cypria (Oxford, 1889).

CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

701

points, at Agia Paraskevi, Kalopsida and Larnaca. 1 In 1894
also Dr Richter excavated round Idalium and Tamassus for the
Prussian government: the results, unpublished up to 1902, are
in the Berlin Museum. 2 Finally, a legacy from Miss Emma
T. Turner enabled the British Museum to open numerous tombs,
by contract, of the Graeco-Phoenician age, in 1894, at Palaeo-
Lemesso {Amathus); and of the Mycenaean age, in 1894-1895
at Episkopi, in 1895-1896 at Enkomi (near Salamis), and in
1897-1899 on small sites between Larnaca and Limasol. 3

For ancient Oriental references to Cyprus see E. Oberhummer,
Die Insel Cypern, i. (Munich, 1903); for classical references, W. H.
Engel, Kypros (2 vols., Berlin, 1841) ; for culture and art, G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans Vantiquite, vol. iii. " Phenicie
et Cypre " (Paris, 1885) ; L. P. di Cesnola, A Descriptive Atlas of the
Cesnola Collection of Cypr. Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York (3 vols., Boston, U.S.A., 1884-1886) ; M. Ohnefalsch-
Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer (2 vols., London and Berlin,
1893); J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus Museum
Catalogue (Oxford, 1899). The principal publications on special
topics are given in the footnotes. For Cypriote coins see also Numis-
matics. See further the general bibliography below. (J. L. M.)

Modern History

After the division of the Roman empire Cyprus naturally
passed, with all the neighbouring countries, into the hands of
the Eastern or Byzantine emperors, to whom it continued
subject, with brief intervals, for more than seven centuries.
Until 644 the island was exceedingly prosperous, but in that
year began the period of Arab invasions, which continued
intermittently until 975. At the outset the Arabs under the
caliph Othman made themselves masters of the island, and
destroyed the city of Salamis, which until that time had con-
tinued to be the capital. The island was recovered by the
Greek emperors and, though again conquered by the Arabs in
the reign of Harun al-Rashid (802), it was finally restored to
the Byzantine empire under Nicephorus Phocas. Its princes
became practically independent, and tyrannized the island,
until in 1191 Isaac Comnenus provoked the wrath of Richard I.,
king of England, by wantonly ill-treating his crusaders. He
thereupon wrested the island from Isaac, whom he took captive.
He then sold Cyprus to the Knights Templars, who presently
resold it to Guy de Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem.

Guy ruled from 11 92 till his death in n 94; his brother
Amaury took the title of king, and from this time Cyprus was
governed for nearly three centuries by a succession of kings of
the same dynasty, who introduced into the island the feudal
system and other institutions of western Europe. During the
later part of this period, indeed, the Genoese made themselves
masters of Famagusta — which had risen in place of Salamis
to be the chief commercial city in the island — and retained
possession of it for a considerable time (1376-1464); but it was
recovered by King James II., and the whole island was reunited
under his rule. His marriage with Caterina Cornaro, a Venetian
lady of rank, was designed to secure the support of the powerful
republic of Venice, but had the effect after a few years, in con-
sequence of his own death and that of his son James III., of
transferring the sovereignty of the island to his new allies.
Caterina, feeling herself unable to contend alone with the increas-
ing power of the Turks, was induced to abdicate the sovereign
power in favour of the Venetian republic, which at once entered
into full possession of the island (1489).

The Venetians retained their acquisition for eighty-two years,
notwithstanding the neighbourhood of the Turks. Cyprus was
now harshly governed by a lieutenant, and the condition of
the natives, who had been much oppressed under the Lusignan
dynasty, became worse. In 1570 the Turks, under Selim II.,
made a serious attempt to conquer the island, in which they
landed an army of 60,000 men. The greater part of the island
was reduced with little difficulty; Nicosia, the capital, was
taken after a siege of 45 days, and 20,000 of its inhabitants
put to the sword. Famagusta alone made a gallant and pro-

1 J.H.S. xvii. (1897).
* Summarized in Cyprus Museum Catalogue (Oxford, 1899).
3 Excavations in Cyprus (London, 1900).

tracted resistance, and did not capitulate till after a siege of
nearly a year's duration (August 1 57 1 ) . The terms of the capitula-
tion were shamefully violated by the Turks, who put to death
the governor Marcantonio Bragadino with cruel torments.
From that time Cyprus was under Turkish administration until
the agreement with Great Britain in 1878. Its history during
that period is almost a blank. A serious insurrection broke out
in 1764, but was speedily suppressed; and a few similar incidents
are the only evidence of the Turkish oppression of the Christian
population of the island, and the. consequent stagnation of its
trade.

Authorities. — An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus, by C. D.
Cobham (4th ed., Nicosia, 1900), registers over 700 works which
deal with Cyprus. A Handbook of Cyprus, by Sir J. T. Hutchinson
and C. D. Cobham (London), treats the island briefly from every
standpoint. See also E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern (Munich,
1903 et seq.), a comprehensive work. The most interesting travels
may be found under the names of Felix Faber, Evagatorium (Stutt-
gart, 1843) ;de Villamont, Voyages (Arras, 1598); van Kootwyck,
Cotovici itinerarium (Antwerp, 1619); R. Pococke, Description of
the East (London, 1743); A. Drummond, Travels (London, 1754);
E. D. Clarke, Travels (London, 1812) ; Sir S. Baker, Cyprus in 1879
(London, 1879) ; W. H. Mallock, In an Enchanted Island (London,
1879). The geology of the island has been handled by A. Gaudry,
Giologie de Vile de Chypre (Paris, 1862) ; C. V. Bellamy, Notes on the
Geology of Cyprus, to accompany a Geological Map of Cyprus (London,
1905) ; C. V. Bellamy and A. J. Jukes-Brown, Geology of Cyprus
(Plymouth, 1905). Its natural history by F. Unger and T. Kotschy,
Die Insel Cypern (Wien, 1865). Numismatics by the Due de
Luynes, Numismatique et inscriptions Cypriotes (Paris, 1852);
R. H. Lang, Numism. Chronicle, vol. xi. (1871); J. P. Six, Rev. num.
pp. 249-374 (Paris, 1883); and E. Babelon, Monnaies grecques
(Paris, 1893). The coins of medieval date have been described by
P. Lambros, Monnaies inSdites (Athens, 1876) ; and G. Scblumberger,
Num. de I'orient latin (Paris, 1878). Inscriptions in the Cypriote
character have been collected by M. Schmidt, Sammlung (Jena,
1876); and W. Deecke, Die griechisch-kyprischen Inschriften
(Gottingen, 1883); in Phoenician in the C.I. P. (Paris, 1881).
J. Meursius, Cyprus (Amsterdam, 1675), marshals the classical
authorities; and W. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841), gives a good
summary of the ancient history of the island. For the Phoenician
element, see F. Movers, Die Phonizier (Bonn and Berlin, 1841-
1856). L. Comte de Mas Latrie published between 1852 and 1861 one
volume of History (1191-1291), and two of most precious documents
in illustration of the reigns of the Lusignan kings. Fra Stefano
Lusignano, Chorograffia di Cipro (Bologna, I573),and Bp. Stubbs,
Two Lectures (Oxford, 1878), are useful for the same period; and
perhaps a score of contemporary pamphlets — the best of them by
N. Martinengo, Relatione di tutto il successo di Famagosta (Venezia,
1572), and A. Calepio (in Lusignan's Chorograffia) — preserve details
of the famous sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta. G. Mariti, Viaggi
(Lucca, 1769; Eng. trans. C. D. Cobham, 2nd ed., 1909), and
Cyprianos, History (Venice, 1768), are the best authorities of Cyprus
under Turkish rule. Medieval tombs and their inscriptions are
recorded and illustrated in T. J. Chamberlayne, Lacrimae nicossienses
(Paris, 1894); and C. Enlart's volumes, L'Art gothique et la Re-
naissance en Chypre (Paris, 1899), deal with medieval architecture.
For Cypriote pottery in Athens and Constantinople, see G. Nicole,
Bulletin de I'Institut Genevois, xxxvii.

CYPRUS, CHURCH OF. The Church of Cyprus is in com-
munion and in doctrinal agreement with the other Orthodox
Churches of the East (see Orthodox Eastern Church), but is
independent and subject to no patriarch. This position it has
always claimed (see, however, W. Bright, Notes on the Canons,
on Ephesus 8). At any rate, its independence " by ancient
custom " was recognized, as against the claims of the patriarch
of Antioch, by the council of Ephesus, a.d. 431, by an edict
of the emperor Zeno (to whom the church had sent a cogent
argument on its own behalf, the alleged body of its reputed
founder St Barnabas, then just discovered at Salamis), and by
the Trullan Council in 692. Attempts have been made subse^
quently by the patriarchs of Antioch to claim authority over it,
the last as recently as 1600; but they came to nothing. And
excepting for the period during which Cyprus was in the hands
of the Lusignans and the Venetian Republic (1193-1571), the
Church has never lost its independence. It receives the holy
ointment (/xvpou) from without, till i860 from Antioch and
subsequently from Constantinople, but this is a matter of courtesy
and not of right. Of old there were some twenty sees in the
island. The bishop of the capital, Salamis or Constantia, was
constituted metropolitan by Zeno, with the title " archbishop

foz

CYPSELUS— CYRENAICA

of all Cyprus," enlarged subsequently into "archbishop of
Justiniana Nova and of all Cyprus," after an enforced expatria-
tion to Justinianopolis in 688. Zeno also gave : him the unique
privileges of wearing and signing his name in the imperial purple,
&c, which are still preserved. A Latin hierarchy was set up :
in 1196 (an archbishop at Nicosia with suffragans at Limasol,
Paphos and Famagusta), and the Greek bishops were made
to minister to their flocks in subjection to it. The sees were
forcibly reduced to four, the archbishopric was ostensibly
abolished, and the bishops were compelled to do homage and
swear fealty to the Latin Church. This bondage ceased at the
conquest of the island by the Turks : the Latin hierarchy
disappeared (the cathedral at Nicosia is now used as a mosque),
and the native church emerged into comparative freedom.
In 1821, it is true, all the bishops and many of their flock were
put to death by way of discouraging sympathies with the Greeks;
but successors were soon consecrated, by bishops sent from
Antioch at the request of. the patriarch of Constantinople, and
on the whole the Church has prospered. The bishops-elect
required the bcrat of the sultan; but having received this, they
enjoyed no little civil importance. Since 1878 the berat has not
been given, and the bishops are less influential. The suppressed
sees have never been restored, but the four which survive (now
known as Nicosia, Paphos, Kition and Kyrenia) are of metro-
politan rank, so that the archbishop, whose headquarters, first
at Salamis, then at Famagusta, are now at Nicosia, is a primate
amongst metropolitans. There are several monasteries dating
from the nth Century and onwards; also an archiepiscopal
school at Nicosia, founded in 181 2 and raised to the status of a
" gymnasion " in 1893 ; and a high school for girls.

Authorities. — Ph. Georgiou, ElS^crm 'laropucaX vepl rfjs 'EkkXi)(t£os
tt}s KvTrpov (Athens, 1875); K. Kouriokurineos (Archbishop of
Cyprus), "laTopta xpow^oyMV T v* vi\aov Kvirpov (Venice, 1788); de
Mas Latrie, Histoire de I' tie de Chypre sous les princes de la maison
de Lusignan (Paris, 1852 f.) ; H. T. F. Duckworth, The Church of
Cyprus (London, 1900) ; J. Hackett, History of the Orthodox Church of
Cyprus (1901). ' (W. E. Co.)

CYPSELTJS, tyrant of Corinth (c. 657-627 B.C.), was the son
of Aeetion and Labda, daughter of Amphion, a member of the
ruling family, the Bacchiadae. He is said to have derived his
name from the fact that when the Bacchiadae, warned that he
would prove their ruin, sent emissaries to kill him in his cradle,
his mother saved him by concealing him in a chest (Gr.Kut/'eXij).
The story was, of course, a subsequent invention. When he
was grown up, Cypselus, encouraged by an oracle, drove out the
Bacchiadae, and made himself master of Corinth. It is stated
that he first ingratiated himself with the people by his liberal
conduct when Polemarch, in which capacity he had to exact
the fines imposed by the law. In the words of Aristotle he
made his way through demagogy to tyranny. Herodotus, in
the spirit of 5th-century Greeks, which conventionally regarded
the tyrants as selfish despots, says he ruled harshly, but he is
generally represented as mild, beneficent and so popular as to
be able to dispense with a bodyguard, the usual attribute of a
tyrannis. He pursued an energetic commercial and colonial
policy (see Corinth), and thus laid the foundations of Corinthian
prosperity. He may well be compared with the Athenian Pei si-
stratus in these respects. He laid out the large sums thus derived
on the construction of buildings and works of art. At the same
time he wisely strove to gain the. goodwill of the powerful priest-
hoods of the great sanctuaries of Delphi and Olympia. At
Delphi he built' a treasure-house for Corinthian votive offerings;
at Olympia he dedicated a colossal statue of Zeus and the famous
" chest of Cypselus," supposed to be identical with the chest
of the legend, of which Pausanias (v. 17- 1.9) has given an elaborate
description. It was of cedar-wood, gold and ivory, and on it
were represented the chief incidents in Greek (especially Corin-
thian) mythology and legend. Cypselus was succeeded by his
son Periander.

See Corinth: History; histories of Greece; Herodotus v. 92 ;
Aristotle, Politics, 1310 b, 1315 b; P. Knapp, Die Kypseliden und die
Kypseloslade (Tubingen, 1888); L. Preller, Ausgewdhlte Aufsdtze
(1864) ; H. Stuart Jones, in Journ. Hell. Stud. (1894), 30 foil'.

CYRANO DE BERGERAC, SAVINIEN (1620-1655), French
romance-writer and dramatist, son of Abel de Cyrano, seigneur
de Mauvieres et de Bergerac, was born in Paris on the 6th of
March 1619-1620. He received his first education from a
country priest, and had for a fellow ; pupil his friend and future
biographer, Henri Lebret. He then proceeded to Paris to the
college de Beauvais, where he had for master Jean Grangier,
whom he afterwards ridiculed in his comedy Le Pedant joui
(1654). At the age of nineteen he entered a corps of the guards,
serving in the campaigns of 1639 and 1640,: and began the
series of exploits that were to make of him a veritable hero of
romance. The story of his adventure single-handed against a
hundred enemies is vouched for by Lebret as the simple truth.
After two years of this life Cyrano left the service and returned
to Paris' to pursue literature, producing tragedies cast in the
orthodox classical mode. He was, however, as a pupil of Gassendi,
suspected of thinking too freely, and in the Mort d' Agrippine
(1654) his enemies even found blasphemy. The most interesting
section of his work is that which embraces the two romances
L' Histoire comique des Hats du soleil (1662) and L' Histoire
comique des etats de la lune (1656?). Cyrano's ingenious mixture
of science and romance has furnished a model for many subse-
quent writers, among them Swift and E. A. Poe. It is impossible
to determine whether he adopted his fanciful style in the hope
of safely conveying ideas that might be regarded as unorthodox,
or whether he simply found in romance writing a relaxation from
the serious study of physics. Cyrano spent a stormy existence
in Paris and was involved in many duels, and in quarrels with the
comedian Montfleury, with Scarron and others. He entered
the household of the due d'Arpajon as secretary in 1653. In
the next year he was injured by the fall of a piece of timber,
as he entered his patron's house. Arpajon, perhaps alarmed
by his reputation as a free-thinker, desired him to leave, and he
found refuge with friends in Paris. During the illness which
followed his accident, he is said to have been reconciled with
the Church, and he died in September 1655. '

M. Edmond Rostand's romantic play of Cyrano de Bergerac (1897)
revived interest in the author of the Histoires comiques. A modern
edition of his CEuvres (2 vols.), by P. L. Jacob (Paul Lacroix),
appeared in 1858, with the preface by H. Lebret originally prefixed
to the Histoire comique des etats de la lune (1656?). For an interesting
■ analysis of the romances see Garnet Smith in the Cornhill for July
1898. See also P. A. Brun, Savinien de Cyrano Bergerac (1394).
'Other studies of Cyrano are those of Charles Nodier (1841), F.
Merilhpn (Perigueux, 1856), Fourgeaud-Lagreze (in Le Perigord
litteraire, 1875) and of Theophile Gautier, in his Grotesques:

CYRENAICA, in ancient geography, a district of the N.
African coast, lying between the Syrtis Major and Marmarica,
the western limit being Arae Philaenorum, and the eastern a
vague line drawn inland from the head of the gulf of Platea
(Bomba). On the south the limit was undefined, but understood
to be the margin of the desert, some distance north of the oasis
of Augila (Aujila). ' The northern half of this district, which
alone was fertile, was known as Pentapolis from its possession
of five considerable cities (1) Hesperides-Berenice (Bengazi),
(2) Barca (Merj), (3) Cyrene (Ain Shahat-Grenna), (4) Apollonia
(Marsa Susa), (5) Teucheira-Arsinoe (Tocra). In later times
two more towns rose to importance, Ptolemais (Tolmeita) and
Darnis^Zarine (Derna). These all lay on the coast, with the
exception of Barca and Cyrene, which were situated on the high-
land now called Jebel Akhdar, a few miles inland. Cyrene was
the first city to arise, being founded among Libyan barbarians
by Aristotle of Thera (later called Battus) in the middle of the
7th century B.C. (see Cyrene). For about 500 years this district
enjoyed great prosperity, owing partly to its natural products,
but more to its trade with interior Africa.

Under the Ptolemies, the inland cities declined in comparison
with the maritime ones, and the Cyrenaica began to feel the
commercial competition of Egypt and Carthage, whence easier
roads lead into the continent. After all N. Africa had passed
to Rome, and Cyrenaica itself, bequeathed by Apion, the last
Ptolemaic sovereign, was become (in combination with Crete)
a Roman province (after 96 B.C.), this competition told' more
severely than ever, and the Greek colonists, grown weaker, found

CYRENAICS

7°3

themselves less able to hold their own against the Libyan popula-
tion. A great revolt of the Jewish settlers in the time of Trajan
settled the fate of Cyrene and Barca; the former is mentioned by
Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century a.d. as " urbs deserta,"
and Synesius, a native, describes it in the following century
as a vast ruin at the mercy of the nomads. Long before this
its most famous article of export, the silphium plant, a repre-
sentation of which was the chief coin-type of Cyrene, had come
to an end. This plant, credited with wonderful medicinal and
aromatic properties, has not been certainly identified with any
existing species. The similar Thapsia garganica (Arab. Arias),
which now grows freely in Cyrenaica, though it has medicinal
properties, has not those ascribed to silphium. Henceforward
till the Arab invasion (a.d. 641) Apollonia was the chief city,
with Berenice and Ptolemais next in order. After the conquest
by Amr ibn el-' Asi, inland Cyrenaica regained some importance,
lying as it did on the direct route between Alexandria and
Kairawan, and Barca became its chief place. But with the
substitution of Ottoman for Arab empire, resulting in the virtual
independence of both Egypt and Tripoli, the district lying
between them relapsed to anarchy. This state of things con-
tinued even after Mahmud II. had resumed direct control over
Tripoli (1835), and in the middle of the 19th century Cyrenaica
was still so free of the Turks that Sheik Ali bin-Senussi chose
it as the headquarters of his nascent dervish order. All over
the district were built Senussi convents (zawia), which still
exist and have much influence, although the headquarters of
the order were withdrawn about the year 1855 to Jarabub,
and in 1895 to Kufra, still farther into the heart of Africa. In
1875 the district, till then a sanjak of the vilayet of Tripoli,
was made to depend directly on the Ministry of the Interior at
Constantinople; and the Senussites soon ceased to be de facto
rulers of Cyrenaica. Their preserves have now been still further
encroached upon by a number of Cretan Moslem refugees (1901-
1902). This is not the first effort made by Turkey to colonize
Cyrenaica. In 1869 Ali Riza Pasha of Tripoli tried to induce
settlers to go to Bomba and Tobruk; and in 1888 an abortive
effort was made to introduce Kurds. To protect the Cretans
the Ottoman government has extended the civil administration
and created several small garrisoned posts. The district is
accordingly safer for Europeans than it was; but these still
find themselves ill received. The Ottoman officials discourage
travel in the interior, partly from fear of the Senussites, partly
from suspicions, excited by the lively interest manifested by
Italy in Cyrenaica.

At the present day we understand by Cyrenaica a somewhat
larger district than of old, and include ancient Marmarica up
to the head of the gulf of Solium (Catabathmus Magnus). The
whole area is about 30,000 sq. m., and has some 250,000 in-
habitants, inclusive of nomads. Projecting like a bastion into
the Mediterranean at a very central point, Cyrenaica seems
intended to play a commercial part; but it does not do so to
any extent because of (1) lack of natural harbours, Bengazi
and Derna having only open and dangerous roads (this is partly
due to coastal subsidence; ancient ports have sunk); (2) the
difficulty of the desert routes behind it, wells being singularly
deficient in this part of the Sahara. The ivory and feather
caravans from Wadai and Borku have latterly deserted it
altogether. Consequently Cyrenaica is still in a very backward
and barbarous state and largely given up to nomad Arabs.
There are only two towns, Bengazi and Derna, and not half a
dozen settlements beside, worthy to be called villages. In
many districts the Senussi convents supply the only settled
element, and the local Bedouins largely belong to the Order.
There are no roads in the province, and very little internal com-
munication and trade; but a wireless telegraphic system has
been installed in communication with Rhodes: and there is a
landline from Bengazi to Tripoli.

Geologically and structurally Cyrenaica is a mass of Miocene
limestone tilted up steeply from the Mediterranean and falling
inland by a gentle descent to sea-level again at the line of depres-
sion, which runs from the gulf of Sidra through Aujila to Siwa.

This mass is divided into two blocks, the higher being the
western Jebel Akhdar, on which Cyrene was built (about 1800
ft.): the lower j the eastern Jebel el-Akabah, the ancient Mar-
maric highlands (700 ft.). There is no continuous littoral plain,
the longest strip running from the recess of the Syrtis round
past Bengazi to Tolmeita. ' Thereafter, except for deltaic patches
at Marsa Susa and Derna, the shore is all precipitous. Jebel
Akhdar, being without •" faults," has no deep internal valleys,
and presents the appearance of downs: but its seaward face is
Very deeply eroded, and deep circular sinkings (swallow-holes)
are common. There is much forest on its northward slopes,
and good red earth on the higher parts, which bears abundant
crops of barley, much desired by European maltsters. Plenty
of springs issue on the highlands, and wide expanses of grassy
country dotted with trees like an English park are met with.
Here the Bedouins (mostly Beni Hassa) pasture flocks and
herds, amounting to several million head. The climate is
temperate and the rainfall usually adequate, but one year in
five is expected to be droughty. The southward slopes fall
through ever-thinning pasture lands to sheer desert about 80 m.
inland. Jebel el-Akabah is much more barren than Jebel
Akhdar, and the desert Comes right down to the sea in Marmarica,
whose few inhabitants are more concerned with salt-collecting
and sponge fishing than - with agriculture. They have, however,
the only good ports on the whole coast, Bomba and Tobruk.
Much might be made of Cyrenaica by judicious colonization.
All kinds of trees grow well, from the date palm to the oak;
and there are over 200,000 wild olives in the country. The
conditions in general are very like those of central Italy, and
there is ample room for hew settlers.

Bibliography. — (1) Ancient Cyrenaica: J. P. Thrige, Historia
Cyrenes (1819) ; O. Ritter, Erdkunde, i. (1822); A. F. Gottschick,
Gesch. der Grundung und Bliite deskell. Staates in Kyrenaika (1858).

(2) Modern Cyrenaica: Paul Lucas, Voyage (1712); T. Shaw,
Travels and Observations (1738); J. Bruce, Travels (1790); P. della
Cella, Viaggio da Tripoli, &c. (1819); G. F. Lyon, Narrative of
Travels (1821); A. Cervelli, in Recueil de voyages, pub. by Soc. de
Geog., ii. (1825); J. R. Pacho, Relation d'un voyage (1827);. F. W.
Beechey, Proceedings of Expedition to explore N. Coast of Africa
(1828); H. Barth, Wanderungen, &c. (1849); V. de Bourville,
Rapport (1850); J. Hamilton, Wanderings in N. Africa (1856);
R. M. Smith and E. A. PorCher, Hist, of Discoveries (1864); -G.
Rohlfs, Von Tripoli nach Alexandrien (1871).; G. Haimann,. La
Cirenaica (1882); M. Camperio, Una Gita in Cirenaica (1881);
H. Duveyrier, " La Confr. musulmane de Sidi Moh. Ben Ali es-
Senousi " (Bull. soc. geog., 1884); H. W. Blundell in Geog. Journ. v.
(1895) and Annual Brit. Sch. at Athens, ii. (1895) ; D. G. Hogarth in
Monthly Review (Jan. 1904) ; G. Hildebrand,. Cyrenaika, &c. (1904) ;
G. de Martino, Cirene e Cartagine (1908).

(3) Maps: The best are that by P. Carlo, to illustrate Camperio
and Haimahn's Report, in Petermann's Mitth. (1881); and Sheet
No. 2 of Carte de I'Afrique (Service geog. de l'armee, 1892).

(D. G. H.)

CYRENAICS, a Greek school of philosophy, so called from
Cyrene, the birthplace of the founder, Aristippus (q.v.). It was
one Of the two earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one
side only of the Socratic teaching (cf. Cynics). Socrates,
although he held that virtue was the only human good, admitted
to a certain extent the importance of its utilitarian side, making
happiness at least a subsidiary end of moral action (see Ethics).
Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made it the
prime factor in existence, denying to virtue any intrinsic value.
Logic and physical science they held to be useless, for all know-
ledge is immediate sensation (see Protagoras). These sensations
are motions (KLvrjo-us) which (1) are purely subjective, and (2)
are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are
violent, tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual,
' and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective
knowledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion
alike of knowledge and of conduct. " Our modes of being
affected (ird^Tj) alone are knowable." Thus Cyrenaicism goes
beyond the critical scepticism of the Sophists and deduces a
single, universal aim for all men, namely pleasure. Furthermore,
all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows (1) that
past and future pleasure have ho" real existence for us, 1 and (2)
that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind, but

7°4

CYRENE

only of intensity. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures
of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinc-
tion and said that bodily pleasures as being more simple and
more intense are to be preferred. Momentary pleasure (jiovd-
Xpovos ySovri), preferably of a carnal kind, is the only good for
man. Yet Aristippus was compelled to admit that some actions
which give immediate pleasure entail more than their equivalent
of pain. This fact was to him the basis of the conventional
distinction of right and wrong, and in this sense he held that
regard should be paid to law and custom. It is of the utmost
importance that this development of Cyrenaic hedonism should
be fully realized. To overlook the Cyrenaic recognition of
social obligation and the hedonistic value of altruistic emotion
is a very common expedient of those who are opposed to all
hedonistic theories of life. Like many of the leading modern
utilitarians, they combined with their psychological distrust
of popular judgments of right and wrong, and their firm convic-
tion that all such distinctions are based solely on law and con-
vention, the equally unwavering principle that the wise man
who would pursue pleasure logically must abstain from that
which is usually denominated " wrong " or " unjust." This
idea, which occupies a prominent position in systems like those
of Bentham, Volney, and even Paley, was evidently of prime
importance at all events to the later Cyrenaics.

Developing from this is a new point of practical importance
to the hedonism of the Cyrenaics. Aristippus, both in theory
and in practice, insisted that true pleasure belongs only to him
who is self-controlled and master of himself. The truly happy
man must have <j>pbvri<?is (prudence), which alone can save
him from falling a prey to mere passion. Thus, in the end,
Aristippus, the founder of the purest hedonism in the history
of thought, comes very near not only to the Cynics, but to the
more cultured hedonism of Epicurus and modern thinkers.
Theodorus, held even more strongly that passing pleasure may
be a delusion, and that permanent tranquillity is a truer end of
conduct. Hegesias denied the possibility of real pleasure and
advocated suicide as ensuring at least the absence of pain.
Anniceris, in whose thought the school reached its highest
perfection, declared that true pleasure consists sometimes in
self-sacrifice and that sympathy in enjoyment is a real source
of happiness. Other members of the school were Arete, wife
of Aristippus, Aristiopus the younger (her son), Bio and
Euhemerus.

The Cyrenaic ideal was, of course, utterly alien to Christianity,
and, in general, subsequent thinkers found it an ideal of hopeless
pessimism. Yet in modern times it has found expression in
many ethical and literary works, and it is common also in other
ancient non-Hellenic literature. There are quatrains in the
Rubdiydt of Omar Khayyam and pessimistic verses in Ecclesiastes
which might have been uttered by Aristippus . (" Then I com-
mended mirth, because a man hath no better thing than to eat and
to drink and to be merry; for that shall abide with him of his
labour the days of his life which God giveth him under the sun ").
So in Byron and Heine, and, in a sense, in Walter Pater (Marius
the Epicurean), there is the same tendency to seek relief from
the intellectual cul-de-sac in frankly aesthetic satisfaction. Thus
Cyrenaicism did not entirely vanish with its absorption in
Epicureanism.

See Hedonism, Epicurus; histories of philosophy by Zeller,
Windelband, Ueberweg; H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics and
Outlines of the History of Ethics; J. Watson, Hedonistic Theories
(1895); James Seth, Ethical Principles, c. i. (A), (1898); A. Wendt,
De philosophia Cyrenaica (1841); H. von Stein, De philosophia
Cyrenaica (1855); T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., vol. ii.
bk. iv., ad fin., 1905) ; Beare, Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition;
G. van Lyng, Om den Kyrenaiske skole (Christiania, 1868) ; and
general ethical text-books.

CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna], the original capital of
ancient Cyrenaica (q.v.) and one of the greatest of Greek colonies.
The Theraean story of its foundation, as told by Herodotus,
runs thus. Battus (whose true Greek name seems to have been
Aristoteles), a native of Thera (Santorin), itself a Laconian
colony, was bidden by the Delphic oracle, if he wished to put

an end to domestic dissensions, to lead a portion of the citizens
to Libya and build a city in a " place between waters." (For
other stories see Battus.) By this he understood an island,
and therefore established his followers on the barren islet of
Platea in the gulf of Bomba. The colony being unsuccessful
made further application to the oracle and was bidden to transfer
itself to the mainland. The Libyan barbarians reported that a
fertile and well-watered district lay to the west and were induced
to act as guides. They brought the Greeks through forests to
high ground from various points of which issued springs, and
Battus, recognizing " a place between waters," began to build.
This was in the middle of the 7th century B.C.

The result was Cyrene, so called (it was said) from a local
nymph, who has been shown by Studniczka to have been a
Nature goddess, like the Greek Artemis. The point first occupied
was probably the hill above the " Apollo " fountain on the west;
and there was erected the fortress-palace of the Battiadae,
who continued to rule the colony for eight generations. The
neighbouring Libyans were conciliated and given a position
similar to that of Laconian perioeci, and intermarriage between
them and Greeks became so frequent that the colony rapidly
assumed a somewhat hybrid character, and while being one of
the centres of Hellenic culture, showed barbarian characteristics
of violence and luxury. Battus I. reigned c. 630 to 590 B.C.
and was succeeded by his son Arcesilaus (c. 590-574) of whom
nothing is known. The kings henceforth bore alternately the
names Battus and Arcesilaus, of which the first is said to be
simply the native Libyan word for "king": the latter is, of
course, Greek. This fact suggests that some compromise with
the natives had been come to, resulting, perhaps, in an alternation
of the supreme office. Under Battus II. (570 B.C.?) a fresh
band of settlers was invited from Greece, and the colony tended
to become henceforth more maritime and democratic. Its
port, Apollonia (Marsa Susa), now rose to importance: and a
Second (winter) port was created at Naustathmos (Marsa Hilal)
about 15 m. E. behind a sheltering cape. Fine roads were cut
through the rock connecting these harbours with the capital.
Trouble followed, however, with the Libyans, who saw them-
selves robbed in favour of the new settlers, and they called in
Egyptian help; but the force sent by Apries was defeated
near the spring Theste, and presently Amasis of Egypt made
peace and took a Battiad princess to wife. Under Arcesilaus II.
(c. 560-550) domestic dissensions and Libyan revolt led to the
founding of a rival inland city, Barca, and a severe defeat and
massacre. These misfortunes, coupled with the fact that Battus
III. was thought to have disgraced the house by his lameness,
prompted the Cyrenaeans to send to Delphi for more advice, and
as a result Demonax of Mantinea arrived as arbitrator and
framed a constitution limiting the monarchy and dividing the
citizens tribally according to the date of their settlement and
their place of origin. Further attempts of the Battiadae (e.g.
of Pheretima, wife of Battus III., and Arcesilaus his son) to
annul this constitution, and bitter family dissensions, brought
about a Persian invasion and finally the extinction of the dynasty
about 450 B.C. A republic of more or less Spartan type succeeded,
but it was often interrupted by tyrannies; and having made
submission by embassy to Alexander in 331, Cyrene passed
under Ptolemaic domination ten years later. From this epoch
dates a decline which was due to economic causes (see Cyrenaica)
and to the Ptolemaic policy of favouring easily controlled
harbour-towns rather than an inland place like Cyrene, whose
ancient factions still continued to give trouble under the earlier
Ptolemies. Apollonia and Berenice gradually superseded Cyrene
and Barca respectively, being more in touch with Greece and
less exposed to the hostile nomad Libyans, who increased in
boldness and power: but Cyrene continued to be a great city
after it had passed to Rome (96 B.C.), and up to the reign of
Trajan, when a Jewish revolt and the repressive measures taken
by the imperial government dealt it an irreparable blow. Ere
Christianity became the religion of the empire, it was largely
a ruin, and henceforward to the epoch of Arab conquest (a.d.
64 1 ) its Greek life gradually deserted it for Apollonia. At its

CYRIL

70S

acme Cyrene is said to have had over 100,000 inhabitants. It
was noted among the ancients for its intellectual life. Its
medical school was famous, and it numbered among its celebrities
Callimachus the poet, Carneades, the founder of the New Academy
at Athens, Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates and the founder of the
so-called Cyrenaics (q.v.), Eratosthenes the polyhistor, and
Synesius, one of the most elegant of the ancient Christian writers.

The first account of the site in modern times seems to be
that of M. le Maire, who was French consul at Tripoli from
1703 to 1708, and twice visited Cyrene. Paul Lucas was there
in 1710, and again in 1723, and Dr Thomas Shaw in 1738; an
Italian, Dr A. Cervelli, who was there in 181 2, furnished some
information to the Societe de Geographie of Paris; and P.
Delia Cella published an account of his visit, made in 181 7.
In 1821-1822 important explorations were made by Lieutenant
F. W. Beechey, R.N. ; and he was almost immediately followed
by a French artist, M. J. R. Pacho, whose pencil preserved a
number of interesting monuments that have since disappeared.
L. Delaporte, French consul at Tangier, and Vattier de Bourville
come next in order of time. H. Barth, the famous African
traveller, published an account of his investigations in his
Wanderungen durch die Kiislenldnder des Mittelmeers, 1849,
and James Hamilton, who was there in 1851, described the place
in his Wanderings in N. Africa. In 1861 excavations were made
on behalf of the British Museum by Lieuts. R. Murdoch Smith,
R.E., and E. A. Porcher, R.N., the results of which are detailed
in their valuable Discoveries in Cyrene (London, 1864). Since
that date, owing to the increase of Senussi influence, and the
consequent fears of the Ottoman authorities, the site has been
very seldom visited. The Italians, M. Camperio and G. Haimann,
leading commercial missions, were there in the eighties, and Mr
H. W. Blundell succeeded with a special firman and a strong
escort in reaching the place in 1895, but had trouble with the
local Senussi Arabs. The prohibition of travel became thereafter
more stringent, and it has only been overcome by a party from
Mr A. V. Armour's yacht " Utowana,'' which marched up from
Marsa Susa in April 1904, and stayed one night. They found
some fifty families of Cretan refugees established at Ain Shahat
and a mudir with a small guard on the spot: but no inhabited
houses, except the Senussi convent and the mudiria. Cretans
and Arabs live in the ancient rock-tombs. An Italian senator,
Chev. G. de Martino, with two Italian residents at Derna, passed
through the place in r907, and found it in Bedouin hands.

The site lies on the crest of the highland of Jebel Akhdar
(about 1800 ft.) and 10 m. from the sea. The ground slopes
very gradually south, and being entirely denuded of trees,
makes good corn land. The northward slope falls more steeply
in a succession of shelves, covered here and there with forest.
Ravines surround the site on three sides, and there are at least
four springs in its area, of which one, having great volume,
has been at all times the attraction and focus of the place.
This is the so-called " Fount of Apollo," which issues from a
tunnel artificially enlarged, and once faced with a portico.
The acropolis was immediately above this on the W., and the
main entrance of the city, through which came the sacred pro-
cessions, passed it. The remains of Cyrene itself are enclosed
by a wall having a circuit of about 4 m., of which little remains
but the foundations and fragments of two towers; but tombs
and isolated structures extend far outside this area. The local
Arabs say it takes them six camel-hours to go from one end to
the other of the ruins, which they call generally " Grenna "
(i.e. Kyrenna). Within the city itself not very much is now
to be seen. Below the Apollo fountain on the N. lie a great
theatre and the substructures of the main temple of Apollo,
both included now in the Senussi convent garden. Above the
fountain and by the main road is a smaller theatre. On the
E., upon the crown of the plateau, are the sites on which Smith
and Porcher placed temples of Bacchus, Venus and Augustus,
but they are marked only by rubbish heaps. Remains of a
large Byzantine church and a much ruined stadium lie to S.E.
On the S. are immense covered tanks of Roman date, with remains
of the aqueducts which supplied them. On the W. a fine
vii. 23

fragment of a tower, the fortifications of the acropolis, and a
pedestal sculptured on four sides in good 3rd century style, are
the only things worth seeing. The Cretan occupation is fast
obliterating other traces. The great spectacle, however, which
distinguishes the site of Cyrene, is provided by its cemeteries,
which for extent, variety and preservation are unparalleled
in the classic lands. There is one along each of the approaches
to the main gates, but the largest and most splendid lies by the
Apollonian road which winds by easy curves up the northern
buttresses of the plateau. Here the sepulchres rise in tiers one
above the other along fully a mile of the way. The most im-
portant have pillared facades, Doric, Ionic, and even a hybrid
mixture of both orders. Within, they open out either into
large halls, leading one out of another with graves in recesses
and pits in the floor; or into rock corridors lined with loculi,
disposed one above another like pigeon holes. Most of the wall
paintings, seen by Beechey and Pacho, have perished or become
black with the smoke of troglodytes' fires; but one tomb below
the road at about the middle of the cemetery still retains its
decoration comparatively fresh, and seems to be that specially
described by Smith and Porcher. The scenes are agonistic,
i.e. represent funeral games, in which both white and black
persons take part, the latter doubtless Libyan perioeci: but all
wear Greek garments. Several tombs are inscribed and on some
external paintings are still faintly visible. The commonest
type of grave is a simple pit covered by a gabled lid. These
occur by hundreds. But not all the .-epulchres are rock-cut:
altar tombs and other forms of heroa are found built upon
plinths of rock. All visible tombs have long ago been violated,
but it is probable that there are others still virgin under the
talus of the hill side. To discover these and determine the
topography of the city, excavation is urgently needed.

Many historical and artistic questions concerning Cyrene
remain unsettled, but since the discoveries made in Laconia in
1908, the much disputed " Cyrenaic ware " has been ascribed
to Sparta. A good deal of Cyrenaic sculpture, all of compara-
tively late date, was sent to the British Museum by Smith and
Porcher. Nothing has yet been found on the site belonging to
the great age of the city's independence, the fine vases sent to
the British Museum in 1864, by Mr G. Dennis, having been
discovered not there, but near Berenice (Bengazi). The latter
site, with Ptolemais and Apollonia, has supplied most of the
antiquities found latterly in Cyrenaica.

See authorities for Cyrenaica, and F. Studniczka, Kyrene, eine
alt-griechische Gottin (1890). (D. G. H.)

CYRIL (c. 315-386), bishop of Jerusalem, where he was prob-
ably born, was ordained a presbyter in 345, and had the instruc-
tion of the catechumens entrusted to him. In 3 50 he was elevated
to the see of Jerusalem, and became deeply involved in the
dogmatic controversies of his time. His metropolitan, Acacius
of Caesarea, inclined to Arianism, while Cyril strongly espoused
the Nicene creed and was, in consequence, deposed for a time.
On the death of the emperor Constantine he was restored; but
on the accession of Valens, an Arian emperor, he had once
more to resign his post till the accession of Theodosius permitted
him to return finally in peace in 379. He attended the second
oecumenical council held at Constantinople in 381, where he was
received with grateful acclamations for his sufferings in defence
of orthodoxy. Cyril was even more conspicuous as a pastor than
as a controversialist, and this is seen in his one important work —
his twenty-three addresses to catechumens delivered in a.d. 348.
The first eighteen of these were meant for candidates for baptism;
they deal with general topics like repentance and faith, and
then expound in detail the baptismal creed of the Jerusalem
church. The remaining five addresses were spoken to the
newly-baptized in Easter week and explain the mysteries and
ritual of baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist. These
lectures are said to be " the first example of a popular compend
of religion," and are particularly interesting for the insight
which they give us both into the creed-forms of the early church
and the various ceremonies of initiation constituting baptism
in the 4th century. The evidence which Cyril supplies as to the

706

CYRIL— CYRUS

Jerusalem use is supplemented by the S. Silviae peregrinatio,
dating from about a generation later. Other tracts and homilies
have been ascribed to Cyril of Jerusalem, but they are of doubtful

genuineness.

Editions. — A. A. Touttee (Paris, 1720); W. C. Reischl and J.
Rupp (Munich, 1 848-1 860) ; Migne, Patrol. Graeca. xxxiii. Transla-
tion: Catecheses ("Oxford Library of Fathers," vol. ii.). See
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. (Forster); Delacroix, St C. de Jems.,
sa vie et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1865).

CYRIL (376-444), bishop of Alexandria, a more distinguished
father of the church than his namesake of Jerusalem, was born
in 376, and died in 444. Becoming patriarch of Alexandria
about 412, he soon made himself known by the violence of his
zeal against Jews, pagans and heretics or supposed heretics
alike. He had hardly entered upon his office when he closed
all the churches of the Novatians and seized their ecclesiastical
effects. He assailed the Jewish synagogues with an armed
force, drove the Jews in thousands from the city, and exposed
their houses and property to pillage. The prefect of Egypt,
Orestes, who endeavoured to withstand his furious zeal, was in
turn denounced himself, and had difficulty in maintaining his
ground against the fury of the Christian multitude. It was
during one of the violent commotions kindled by the strifes
of these parties in Alexandria that the illustrious Hypatia,
famed for her beauty and her eloquent advocacy of the Neo-
Platonic philosophy in opposition to Christianity, was murdered.
Her murder has been attributed to the direct instigation of the
patriarch himself; but this charge is held to be baseless by others,
although there can be no doubt that " the perpetrators were
officers of his church," and undoubtedly drew encouragement
from his own violent proceedings. Hypatia was a friend of
Orestes, and the hostility that existed betwixt the prefect and
the patriarch overflowed towards her, and undoubtedly led to her
destruction.

But Cyril's violence was not merely confined to those who
might be considered enemies of the church. He inherited from
Theophilus, his uncle and predecessor in the see of Alexandria,
a strong aversion to John Chrysostom, the noble bishop of
Constantinople, and even after his death opposed' for a time
all attempts to remove the unjust sentence of condemnation
which had been passed upon him. Afterwards he so far yielded
to remonstrances as to allow the name of Chrysostom to appear
in the list of distinguished martyrs and bishops mentioned in
the prayers of his church. These names were inserted in what
were called " diptychs " (8'nnvxa. veKpuw), or two-leaved tablets
preserved in the churches — a usage which the Greek Church
has continued to this day.

Cyril thus represents — though he differs largely from his
predecessors — the tendencies dominant at Alexandria in the
5th century, and their antagonism to the Antiochene school.
The story of his opposition to Nestorius at the council of Ephesus
in 431 is told elsewhere (see Nestorius). He himself incurred
the charge of heresy from the oriental bishops. Satisfied,
however, with the deprivation and exile of his opponent, he
returned to Alexandria in triumph as the great champion of
the faith, and thence continued, by the " unscrupulous use of
all the means at his command," the theological strife for years.
He was a bitter opponent of the great Antiochene expositor and
apologist Theodoret.

Altogether Cyril presents a character not only unamiable,
but singularly deficient in the graces of the Christian life. His
style of writing is as objectionable as his character and spirit.
Yet he takes high rank as a dogmatic theologian, and those who
seek precise and rigid definitions of orthodox belief conjoined
with tenacity of conviction find him indispensable. In addition
to his Twelve Anathematistns and the defence of the same, he
wrote five other books against Nestorius, Thesaurus — a treatise
in dialogue form on the Trinity, a book On the Right Way and
another On the Incarnation. In other fields — mystical, exegetical
and apologetical— he was equally prolific and forceful. He wrote
a tract " On worshipping in spirit and in truth " to defend a
spiritual interpretation of the Mosaic law, several commentaries,
festival-orations, and a reply to the emperor Julian's attack

on the church. His letters are valuable sources to the student
of the Nestorian controversy.

Literature. — The collected edition of J. Aubert (Paris, 1638)
formed the basis of Migne's reprint in vols. 68-77 of the Pair.
Graec. Many of the writings, have been edited separately (see
bibliography in Herzog-Hauck). For an account of his career and
position in the history of dogma, see A. Harnack, vols. iii. and iv.
passim; O. Bardenhewer's Patrologie (Freiburg, 1894), pp. 335-343;
R. L. Ottley's Doctrine of the Incarnation, ii. 80 ff . ; A. Largent's
Etudes d'hist. eccles.; St Cyrille d'Alexandrie et le concile d'Hphese
(Paris, 1892). See also Charles Kingsley's romance Hypatia.

CYRIL (827-869), apostle of the Slavs, amongst whom he
worked in conjunction with his elder brother Methodius (q.v.).
Tradition says that while in the Khazar country (where he
combated Jewish and Mahommedan influence) he found at
Kherson the remains of Clement of Rome, which he bore with
him wherever he went, finally depositing them at Rome in 867.
His name is associated with the invention of the modified
(Cyrillic) form of the Greek alphabet, which largely superseded
the ancient Slavonic characters.

CYRILLIC, the alphabet used by the Orthodox Slavs. It
is modelled on the Greek Liturgical Uncial of the 9th century,
and its invention is traditionally, though in all probability
wrongly, ascribed to the Greek missionary Cyril (d. 869). For
an account of its origin and development, with a table of its
letters, see Slavs.

CYRILLUS, Greek jurist of the 5th century, was professor
in the ancient law college of Berytus, and one of the founders
of the oecumenical school of jurists (ttjs oiKovntvys SiSdaxaXot)
which preceded the succession of Anastasius to the Eastern
empire (a.d. 491), and paved the way for Justinian's legislation.
His reputation as a teacher of law was very great; and from
the fragments of his works which have been preserved it may
be inferred that his merit as a teacher consisted in his going
direct to the ancient sources of law, and in interpreting the best
writers, such as the commentary of Ulpian on the edict and the
Responsa Papiniani. He wrote a treatise on definitions (inronvrifia
rwv 8e4>w'i.Tcov) , in which, according to a statement of his con-
temporary Patricius, the subject of contracts was treated with
superior precision and great method, and which has supplied
the materials for many important scholia appended to the first
and second titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica. He is
generally styled " the great," to distinguish him from a more
modern jurist of the same name, who lived after the reign of
Justinian, and who compiled an epitome of the Digest.

CYRTO-STYLE (Gr. Kvpros, convex, and crrOXos, column),
in architecture, a circular projecting portico with columns;
like those of the transept entrances of St Paul's cathedral and
the western entrance of St Mary-le-Strand, London.

CYRUS (Gr. KOpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr.
Koresh), the Latinized form of a Persian name borne by two
prominent members of the Achaemenid house.

1. Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian empire,
was the son of Cambyses I. His family belonged to the clan of
the Achaemenidae — in the inscription on the pillars and columns
of the palace of Pasargadae (Murghab) he says: " I am Cyrus
the king, the Achaemenid " — the principal clan ((jiprp-prj) of the
Persian tribe of the Pasargadae (q.v.). But in his proclamation
to the Babylonians (V.R. 35; Sir H. Rawlinson, Journal of the
R. ' Asiat. Soc, n.s., xii., 1880; Schrader, Keilinschriftliche
Bibliothek, iii. 2, 120 ff.; Hagen, in Delitzsch and Haupt,
Beitrage zur Assyriologie, ii., 1894, where the chronicle of
Nabonidus is also published anew with a much improved transla-
tion) he calls his ancestors, Teispes, Cyrus I. and Cambyses I.,
" kings of Anshan," and the same title is given to him in the
inscriptions and in the chronicle of Nabonidus of Babylon
before his victory over Astyages. Anshan is a district of Elam
or Susiana, the exact position of which is still subject to much 1
discussion. As we know from Jeremiah xlix. 34 ff. (cf. Ezekiel
xxxii. 24 ff.) that the Elamites suffered a heavy defeat in 596 B.C.,
it is very probable that the Pasargadian dynast Teispes con-
quered Anshan in this year. Modern authors have often supposed
that Cyrus and his ancestors were in reality Elamites; but this

CYRUS

707

is contrary to all tradition, and there can be no doubt that
Cyrus was a genuine Persian and a true believer in the Zoroastrian
religion. In Herodotus vii. 11 the genealogy of Cyrus is given
in exactly the same way as in the proclamation of Cyrus himself;
Teispes is called here the son of the eponym Achaemenes.

The Pasargadian kings of Anshan were vassals of the Median
empire. Their kingdom cannot have been of large extent, as
Nabonidus in a contemporary inscription (Cylinder from Abu
Habba, VR. 64, Schrader, Keilinschriftl. Bibliothek, iii. 2, 96),
where he mentions his rebellion against Astyages, calls Cyrus
" king of Anshan, his {i.e. Astyages') small servant (vassal)."
From this inscription we learn that the rebellion of Cyrus (who
seems to have become king in 558 B.C., as Herod, i. 214 gives
him a reign of 29 years) began in 553 B.C., and from the annals
that in 550 Astyages marched against Cyrus, but was defeated;
his troops revolted against him, he was taken prisoner, and
Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The relation of
Ctesias (preserved by Nic. Dam. fr. 66; Anaximenes of Lamp-
sacus in Steph. Byz. s.v. Haaa.pya.5cu, Strabo xv. p. 729; Polyaen.
vii. 6. 1,9, 45. 2) that Cyrus was three times beaten by Astyages
and that the decisive battle took place in the mountains of
Pasargadae, is certainly in the main historical although
Herodotus (i. 127 ff.) only mentions the treason of the Median
general Harpagus and the defeat and captivity of Astyages.
In the rebellion the Persian tribes of the Maraphians and Maspians
joined the Pasargadae (Herod, i. 125), while the other tribes
appear not to have acknowledged Cyrus till after his victory
(see Persis). From then he calls himself " king of the Persians."

The history of Cyrus very soon became involved and quite
overgrown with legends. Herodotus (i. 95) tells us that he
knew four different traditions about him. One makes him the
son of Mandane, a daughter of Astyages (originally evidently
by a god), who is exposed in the mountains by his grandfather
on account of an oracle, but suckled by a dog (a sacred animal
of the Iranians) and educated by a shepherd; i.e. the myth
which we know from the stories of Oedipus, Perseus, Telephus,
Pelias and Neleus, Romulus, Sargon of Agade, Moses, the Indian
hero Krishna, and many others, has been transferred to the
founder of the Persian empire. At the same time, the rule of
Cyrus and the Persians is legitimated by his family connexion
with Astyages. This account is partly preserved in Justin i. 4.
10 (probably from Charon of Lampsacus) and in Aelian, Var.
Hist. xiv. 42, and alluded to by Herodotus i. 95 and 122. The
second account, which Herodotus follows, is a rationalized
version of the first, where the dog is changed into a woman (the
wife of the shepherd) named Spako (bitch). In the later part
of his story Herodotus is dependent on the family traditions
of Harpagus, whose treason is justified by the cruelty with which
Astyages had treated him (the story of Atreus and Thyestes is
transferred to them). Harpagus afterwards stood in high
favour with Cyrus, and commanded the army which subdued
the coasts of Asia Minor; his family seems to have been settled
in Lycia. In a third version, preserved from Ctesias in Nicolaus
Damasc. p. 66 (cf. Dinon ap. Athen. xiv. 633 C), Cyrus is the son
of a poor Mardian bandit Atradates (the Mardians are a nomadic
Persian tribe, Herod, i. 125), who comes as a voluntary slave to
the court of Astyages, and finds favour with the king. A
Chaldaean sage prophesies to him his future greatness, and
another Persian slave, Oebares, becomes his associate. He
flies to Persia, evades the pursuers whom Astyages sends after
him, and begins the rebellion. After the victory Oebares kills
Astyages against the will of Cyrus, and afterwards kills himself
to evade the wrath of Cyrus. Parts of this story are preserved
also in Strabo xv. p. 729, and Justin i. 6. 1-3; 7. 1; cf. Ctesias ap.
Photium 2-7; many traces of it were afterwards transferred
to the story of Ardashir I. (q.v.) , the founder of the Sassanid
empire. With this version Ctesias and Nicolaus have connected
another, in which Cyrus is the son of a Persian shepherd who
lives at Pasargadae, and fights the decisive battle at this place.
The didactic novel of Xenophon, the Cyropaedia, is a free inven-
tion adapted to the purposes of the" author, based upon the
account of Herodotus and occasionally influenced by Ctesias,

without any independent traditional element. The accounl
of Aeschylus, Pers. 765 ff., is a mixture of Greek traditions with
a few oriental elements; here the first king is Medos (the Median
empire); his nameless son is succeeded by Cyrus, a blessed
ruler, beloved by the gods, who gave peace to all his friends and
conquered Lydia, Phrygia, Ionia. Then comes his nameless
son, then Mardos (i.e. Smerdis, to whom the name of the Mardians
is transferred) who is killed by Artaphrenes (i.e. Artaphernes,
Herod, iii. 78, one of the associates of Darius), then Maraphis
(eponym of the Maraphian tribe), then another Artaphrenes,
then Darius.

The principal events of the later history of Cyrus are in the
main correctly stated by Herodotus, although his account
contains many legendary traditions. The short excerpt from
Ctesias, which Photius has preserved, contains useful information,
although we must always mistrust him. Of great value are a
short notice in the fragments of Berossus and another in the Old
Testament. The original sources are very scanty, besides the
cylinder containing his proclamation to the Babylonians we
possess only a great many dated private documents from Babylon.
These serve to fix the chronology, which is here as every-
where quite in accordance with the dates of the canon of
Ptolemy.

Soon after the conquest of the Median empire, Cyrus was
attacked by a coalition of the other powers of the East, Babylon,
Egypt and Lydia, joined by Sparta, the greatest military power
of Greece. In the spring of 546 Croesus of Lydia began the attack
and advanced into Cappadocia, while the other powers were
still gathering their troops. But Cyrus anticipated them; he
defeated Croesus and followed him to his capital. In the autumn
of 546 Sardis was taken and the Lydian kingdom became a
province of the Persians. The famous story of Herodotus, that
the conqueror condemned Croesus to the stake, from which he
was saved by the intervention of the gods, is quite inconsistent
with the Persian religion (see Croesus).

During the next years the Persian army under Harpagus
suppressed a rebellion of the Lydians under Pactyas, and sub-
jugated the Ionian cities, the Carians and the Lycians (when
the town Xanthus resisted to the utmost). The king of Cilicia
(Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the Persian supremacy.
Why the war with Babylon, which had become inevitable, was
delayed until 539, we do not know. Here too Cyrus in a single
campaign destroyed a mighty state. The army of Nabonidus
was defeated; Babylon itself attempted no resistance, but
surrendered on the 16th Tishri (10th of October) 539, to the
Persian general Gobryas (Gaubaruva, see the chronicle of the
reign of Nabonidus; the name Gobryas is preserved also by
Xenophon, Cyrop. vii. 4. 24); it is possible that the Chaldaean
priests, who were hostile to Nabonidus, betrayed the town.
In a proclamation issued after his victory Cyrus guarantees
life and property to all the inhabitants and designates himself
as the favourite of Marduk, the great local god (Bel, Bel-Merodak)
of Babel. It is very odd that modarn authors have con-
sidered this proclamation as inconsistent with the Zoroastrian
creed.

From the beginning of 538 Cyrus dates his years as " king
of Babylon and king of the countries " (i.e. of the world). With
the capital, the Babylonian provinces in Syria fell to the Persians;
in 538 Cyrus granted to the Jews, whom Nebuchadrezzar had
transported to Babylonia, the return to Palestine and the
rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple (see Jews, § 19). It is
probable that Cyrus had fought more than one war against the
peoples of eastern Iran; according to Ctesias he had, before the
war with Croesus, defeated the Bactrians and the Sacae (in
Ferghana; their king Amorges is the eponym of the Amyrgian
Sacae, Herod, vii. 64, called by Darius Haumavarka); and the
historians of Alexander mention a march through Gedrosia,
where he lost his whole army but seven men (Arrian vi. 24. 2 ;
Strabo xv. 722), a tribe Ariaspae on the Etymandros (in Sijistan),
who, on account of the support which they gave him against
the Scythians, were called Euergetae (Arrian iii. 27. 4; Diod.
xvii. 81; Curt. vii. 3. 1), and a town Cyropolis, founded by him

/

o8

CYSTOFLAGELLATA

on the Jaxartes (Arrian iv. 2. 3; Curt. vii. 6. 16; Strabo xi.
517, called Cyreskhata by Ptolem. vi. 12. 5). In 530, having
appointed his son Cambyses king of Babel, he set out for a new
expedition against the East. In this war he was killed (Herod.)
or mortally wounded (Ctesias). According to Herodotus he
attacked the Massagetae beyond the Jaxartes; according to
Ctesias, the Derbices, a very barbarous tribe (cf. Strabo xi. 520;
Aelian, Var. Hist. iv. 1) on the border of the Caspian, near the
Hyrcanians (Strabo xi. 514; Steph. Byz.; Curt. vii. 2. 7;
Dion. Perieg. 734 ff.; Pomp. Mela iii. 5), -or on the Oxus (Plin.
vi. 48; Ptolem. vi. 10. 2; Tab. Peuting.). Berossus (ap. Euseb.
Chron. i. 29) simply says that he fell against the Dahae, i.e. the
nomads of the Turanian desert. His death occurred in 528 B.C.,
as we have a Babylonian tablet from the Adar of the tenth year
of Cyrus, i.e. February 528; for in Babylon the first year of
Cyrus began in the spring of 538.

In his native district Cyrus had built a city with a palace,
called after his tribe Pasargadae (now Murghab), and here he
was buried (see Pasargadae). In a short time he, the petty
prince of an almost unknown tribe, had founded a mighty
empire, which extended from the Indus and Jaxartes to the
Aegaean and the borders of Egypt. This result shows that Cyrus
must have been a great warrior and statesman. Nor is his
character without nobility. He excels in the humanity with
which he treated the vanquished. He destroyed no town nor
did he put the captive kings to death; in Babylonia he behaved
like a constitutional monarch; by the Persians his memory
was cherished as " the father of the people " (Herod, iii. 80),
and the Greek tradition preserved by Aeschylus (cf. above)
shows that his greatness was acknowledged also by his enemies.
He therefore deserves the homage which Xenophon paid to him
in choosing him as hero for his didactic novel.

2. Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II. and Parysatis,
was born after the accession of his father in 424. When, after
the victories of Alcibiades, Darius II. decided to continue the
war against Athens and give strong support to the Spartans,
he sent in 408 the young prince into Asia Minor, as satrap of
Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, and commander
of the Persian troops, " which gather into the field of Castolos "
(Xen. Hell. i. 4. 3; Anab. i. 9. 7), i.e. of the army of the district
of Asia Minor. He gave strenuous support to the Spartans;
evidently he had already then formed the design, in which he
was supported by his mother, of gaining the throne for himself
after the death of his father; he pretended to have stronger
claims to it than his elder brother Artaxerxes, who was not born
in the purple. For this plan he hoped to gain the assistance of
Sparta. In the Spartan general Lysander he found a man who
was willing to help him, as Lysander himself hoped to become
absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian prince. So
Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the Pelopon-
nesian War, but denied them to his successor Callicratidas; by
exerting his influence in Sparta, he brought it about that after
the battle of Arginusae Lysander was sent out a second time
as the real commander (though under a nominal chief) of the
Spartan fleet in 405 (Xen. Hell. ii. 1. 14). At the same time
Darius fell ill and called his son to his deathbed; Cyrus handed
over all his treasures to Lysander and went to Susa. After the
accession of Artaxerxes' II. in 404, Tissaphernes denounced the
plans of Cyrus against his brother (cf. Plut. Artax. 3); but by
the intercession of Parysatis he was pardoned and sent back
to his satrapy. Meanwhile Lysander had gained the battle of
Aegospotami and Sparta was supreme in the Greek world.
Cyrus managed very cleverly to gather a large army by beginning
a quarrel with Tissaphernes; satrap of Caria, about the Ionian
towns; he also pretended to prepare an expedition against the
Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in the Taurus, which was never
obedient to the Empire. Although the dominant position of
Lysander had been broken in 403 by King Pausanias, the Spartan
government gave him all the support which was possible without
going into open war against the king; it caused a partisan of
Lysander, Clearchus, condemned to death on account of atrocious
crimes which he had committed as governor of Byzantium,

to gather an army of mercenaries on the Thracian Chersonesus,
and in Thessaly Menon of Pharsalus, head of a party which
was connected with Sparta, collected another army.

In the spring of 401 Cyrus united all his forces and advanced
from Sardis, without announcing the object of his expedition.
By dexterous management and large promises he overcame
the scruples of the Greek troops against the length and danger
of the war; a Spartan fleet of thirty-five triremes sent to Cilicia
opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and conveyed to
him a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Cheirisophus.
The king had only been warned at the last moment by Tissa-
phernes and gathered an army in all haste; Cyrus advanced
into Babylonia, before he met with an enemy. Here ensued,
in October 401, the battle of Cunaxa. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek
hoplites and 2500 peltasts, and besides an Asiatic army under
the command of Ariaeus, for which Xenophon gives the absurd
number of 100,000 men; the army of Artaxerxes he puts down
at 900,000. These numbers only show that he, although an
eyewitness, has no idea of large numbers; in reality the army
of Cyrus may at the very utmost have consisted of 30,000, that
of Artaxerxes of 40,000 men. Cyrus saw that the decision
depended on the fate of the king; he therefore wanted Clearchus,
the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against
Artaxerxes. But Clearchus, a tactician of the old school, dis-
obeyed. The left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes
avoided a serious conflict with the Greeks; Cyrus in the centre
threw himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain in a desperate
struggle. Afterwards Artaxerxes pretended to have killed the
rebel himself, with the result that Parysatis took cruel vengeance
upon the slayer of her favourite son. The Persian troops dared
not attack the Greeks, but decoyed them into the interior,
beyond the Tigris, and tried to annihilate them by treachery.
But after their commanders had been taken prisoners the Greeks
forced their way to the Black Sea. By this achievement they
had demonstrated the internal weakness of the Persian empire
and the absolute superiority of the Greek arms.

The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks is told by
Xenophon in his Anabasis (where he tries to veil the actual participa-
tion of the Spartans). Another account, probably from Sophaenetus
of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus, and is preserved in Diodor.
xiv. 19 ff. Further information is contained in the excerpts from
Ctesias by Photius; cf. also Plutarch's life of Artaxerxes. The
character of Cyrus is highly praised by the ancients, especially by
Xenophon (cf. also his Occonomics, c. iv.) ; and certainly he was
much superior to his weak brother in energy and as a general and
statesman. If he had ascended the throne he might have regenerated
the empire for a while, whereas it utterly decayed under the rule of
Artaxerxes II. (See also Persia: Ancient History.) (Ed. M.)

CYSTOFLAGELLATA (so named by E. Haeckel), a group
of Mastigophorous Protozoa, distinguished from Flagellata by
their large size (0-15 — 1-5 mm.), and their branched endoplasm,
recalling that of Trachelitis among Infusoria, within a firm
ectosarc bounded by a strong cuticle. Nutrition is holozoic,
a deep groove leading down to a mouth and pharynx. A long
fine flagellum arises from the pharynx in Noctiluca (E. Suriray)
Leptodiscus and (R. Hertwig); and in the former genus, a
second flagellum, thick, long and transversely striated, rises
farther out, in the groove; this was likened by E. R. Lankester
to a proboscis, whence his name of Rhynchoflagellata, which
we discard as unnecessary and posterior to Haeckel's. Noctiluca
has thus the form of an apple with a long stalk. Leptodiscus
(R. Hertwig) has the form of a medusa without a proboscis —
it is menisciform with the thin contractile margin produced
inwards like a velum on the concave side, while the mouth is on
the convex surface and the single flagellum springs from a blind
tube on the same surface. Craspedotella (C. A. Kofoid), the
third genus, is still more medusiform, with a broad velum, and
the mouth in a convex central protrusion of the roof of the bell;
and a thick flagellum springs from a blind tube on the convex
surface. All three genera are pelagic and phosphorescent,
this property being seated in the ectoplasm; Noctiluca miliaris
is indeed the chief source of the phosphorescence of our summer
seas. O. Butschli, like other writers, regards the Cystoflagellates
as closely allied to the Dinoflagellates, the small flagellum

CYSTOLITH— CYTISINE

709

corresponding to the longitudinal, the large flagellum to the
transverse flagellum of that group.

The reproduction of Noctiluca has been fairly made out;
in the adult state it divides by fission down the oral groove;
as a preliminary the external differentiations disappear, and the
nucleus divides by modified mitosis; then the external organs
are regenerated. Under circumstances not well made out,

After E. Ray Lankester, Ency. Bril., 9th ed.

Cystoflagellate Protozoa.

I and 2, Young stages of
Noctiluca miliaris.

a, the big flagellum; the
unlettered filament be-
comes the oral flagellum
of the adult,
n, nucleus.

s, the so-called spine (super-
ficial ridge of the adult).
3 and 4, Two stages in the
fission of Noctiluca miliaris,
Suriray.

n, nucleus.
N, food-particles.
/, muscular flagellum.
5. Noctiluca miliaris, viewed
from the aboral side (after
Allman, Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci.,
1872).

a, entrance to atrium or
flagellar fossa ( = longi-
tudinal groove of Dino-
flagellata).

c, superficial ridge.

d, big flagellum ( = flagel-

lum of transverse groove
of Dinoflagellata).
h, nucleus.

6. Noctiluca miliaris, acted
upon by iodine solution, showing
the protoplasm shrunk away
from the structureless pellicle.

o=entrance to atrium.

7. Lateral view of Noctiluca
miliaris.

a, entrance to atrium.

b, atrium.

c, superficial ridge.

d, big flagellum.

e = mouth and gullet, in
which is seen Krohn's
oral flagellum (=the
chief nagelium, or
flagellum of the longi-
tudinal groove of Dino-
flagellata).

/, broad process of proto-
plasm extending from
the superficial ridge c
to the central proto-
plasm.

g, duplicature of pellicle in
connexion with super-
ficial ridge.

h, nucleus.

conjugation between two adults takes place by their fusion
commencing at the oral region; flagella and pharynx disappear
and the nuclei fuse, while the cytoplasts condense into a sphere.
The nucleus undergoes broad division, the young nuclei pass
to the surface, which becomes imperfectly divided by grooves
into as many rounded prominences as there are nuclei (up to
128 or 256); and these become constricted off from the residual
useless cytoplasm as zoospores with two unequal flagella, which
were at first regarded as Dinoflagellates, of which they have

the form (figs. 5, 6). The metamorphosis of these has not yet
been observed.

Literature. — E. Suriray, Magazin de zoologie, 1836; G. J.
Allman, Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science, n.s. xiL, 1872;
L. Cienkowsky, " Zoospore formation in Noctiluca," Archivf. mikro-
skopische Anatomie, vii., 1871 ; R. Hertwig, " Leptodiscus," Jenaische
Zeitschrift, xi., 1877; C. Ischikawa, Journal of the College of Science
(Tokyo, 1894), xii., 1899; F. Doflein, " Conjugation of Noctiluca,"
Zoologische Jahrbucher, Anatomie, xiv., 1900; C. A. Kofoid," Craspe-
dotella," in Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xlvi., 1905; O. Butschli,
" Mastigophora," in Protozoa (Braun's Thierreich, vol. i., Protozoa)
(1883-1887). (M. Ha.)

CYSTOLITH (Gr. kvcttis, cavity, andXI0os, stone), a botanical
term for the inorganic concretions, usually of calcium carbonate,
formed in a cellulose matrix in special cells, generally in the
leaf of plants of certain families, e. g. Ficus elastica, the india-
rubber plant.

CYTHERA (mod. Cerigo, but still officially known as Cythera),
one of the Ionian islands, situated not less than 150 m. from
Zante, but only about 8 m. from Cape Malea on the southern
coast of Greece. Its length from N. to S. is nearly 20 m., and
its greatest breadth about 12; its area is 114 sq. m. The surface
is rocky and broken, but streams abound, and there are various
parts of considerable fertility. Two caves, of imposing dimenr
sions, and adorned with stalactites of great beauty, are the most
notable among its natural peculiarities; one is situated at the
seaward end of the glen of the Mylopotamus, and the other,
named Santa Sophia, about two hours' ride from Capsali
(Kapsali). Less of the ground is cultivated and more of it is in
pasture land than in any other of the seven islands. Some wine
and corn are produced, and the quality of the olive oil is good.
The honey is still highly prized, as it was in remote antiquity;
and a considerable quantity of cheese is manufactured from the ,
milk of the goat. Salt, flax, cotton and currants are also
mentioned among the produce. The people are industrious,
and many of them seek employment as labourers in the Morea
and Asia Minor. Owing to emigration, the population appears
to be steadily diminishing, and is now only about 6000, or less
than half what it was in 1857. Unfortunately the island has
hardly a regular harbour on any part of the coast; from its
situation at the meeting, as it were, of seas, the currents in the
neighbourhood are strong, and storms are very frequent. The
best anchorage is at San Nicolo, at the middle of the eastern
side of the island. The principal village is Capsali, a place of
about 1500 inhabitants, at the southern extremity, with a bishop,
and several convents and churches; the lesser hamlets are
Modari, Potamo and San Nicolo.

There are comparatively few traces of antiquity, and the
identification of the ancient cities has been disputed. The
capital, which bore the same name as the island, was at Paleo-
Kastro, about 3 m. from the present port of Avlemona. In the
church of St Kosmas are preserved some of the archaic Doric
columns of the famous temple of Aphrodite of Cythera, whose
worship had been introduced from Syria, and ultimately spread
over Greece. According to the accepted story, it was here that
the goddess first landed when she emerged from the sea. At a
very early date Cythera was the seat of a Phoenician settlement,
established in connexion with the purple fishery of the neighbour-
ing coast; it is said that it was therefore called Porphyris
(cf. Pliny iv. 18, 19). For a time dependent on Argos, it became
afterwards an important possession of the Spartans, who annually
despatched a governor named the Cytherodices. In the Pelo-
ponnesian war, Nicias occupied the island, but in 421 it was
recovered by Sparta. Its modern history has been very much
the same as that of the other Ionian islands; but it was subject
to Venice for a much shorter period— from 171 7 to 1797.

See the works referred to under Cephalonia, and also Weil, in
Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst, zu Athen (1880), pp. 224-243.

CYTISINE (Ulexin, Sophorin), C11H14N2O, an alkaloid dis-
covered in 1818 by J. B. Chevreul in the seeds of laburnum
(Cytisus Laburnum) and isolated by A. Husemann and W.
Marme in 1865 (Zeit.f. Chemie, 1865, i.p. 161). It is also found
in the seeds of furze (Ulex europaeus), Sophora tormentosa, and
Euchresta horsfieldii. It is extracted from the seeds by an

'7'io

CYTOLOGY

alcoholic solution of acetic acid, and forms large crystals which
melt at 153° C, and are easily soluble in water, alcohol and
chloroform. It is a secondary and tertiary di-acid base, and is
strongly alkaline in its reaction. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes
it to oxycytisine, CnH 14 N 2 02, chromic acid to an acid, C11H9NO3,
and potassium permanganate to oxalic acid and ammonia. It
acts as a violent poison.

See further, P. C. Plugge, Arch, der Pharm. (1891), 229, p. 48 et
seq.; A;- Partheil, Ber. (1890), 23, p. 3201, Arch, der Pharm. (1892),
230, p. 448; M. Freund and A. Friedmann, Ber. (1901), 34, p. 615;
and J, Herzig and H. Meyer, Monats. f. Chem. (1897), 18, p. 379.

CYTOLOGY (from kvtos, a hollow vessel, and X670S, science),'
the scientific study of the " cells " or living units of protoplasm
(q.v.), of which plants and animals are composed. All the higher, 1
and the great majority of the lower, plants and animals are
composed of a vast number of these vital units or "cells." In
the case of many microscopic forms, however, the entire organism,!
plant or animal, consists throughout life of a single cell. Familiar
examples of these " unicellular " forms are Bacteria and Diatoms
among the plants, and Foraminifera and Infusoria among the
animals. In all cases, however, whether the cell-unit lives freely
as a unicellular organism or forms an integral part of a multi-j
cellular individual, it exhibits in itself all the phenomena char-
acteristic of living things. Each cell assimilates food material,,
whether this is obtained by its own activity, as in the majority
Of the protozoa, or is brought, as it were, to its own door by the
blood stream, as in the higher Metazoa, and builds this food
material into its own substance, a process accompanied by
respiration and excretion and resulting in growth. Each cell
exhibits in greater or less degree "irritability," or the power of
responding, to stimuli; and finally each cell, at some time in its
life, is capable of reproduction. It is evident therefore that in
the multicellular forms all the complex manifestations of life
are but the outcome of the co-ordinated activities of the con-
stituent cells. The latter are indeed, as Virchow has termed
them, " vital units." It is therefore in these vital units that the
explanation of vital phenomena must be sought (see Physi-
ology); As Verworn 1 said, " It is to the cell that the study of
every bodily function sooner or later drives us. In the muscle
cell lies the problem of the heart beat and that of muscular
contraction; in the gland cell reside the causes of secretion;
in the epithelial cell, in the white blood corpuscle, lies the problem
of the absorption of food, and the secrets of the mind are hidden
in the ganglion cell." So also the problems of development and
inheritance have shown themselves to be cell problems, while
the study of disease has produced a " cellular pathology."
The most important problems awaiting solution in biology are
cell problems.

Historical. — The cell-theory ranks with the evolution theory
in the far-reaching influence it has exerted on the growth of
modern biology; and although almost entirely a product of
the 19th century, the history of its development gives place, in
point of interest, to that of no other general conception. The
cell-theory — in a form, however, very different from that in
which we now know it — was originally suggested by the study
of plant structure; and the first steps to the formulation, many
years later, of a definite cell-theory, were made as early as the
later part of the 17th century by Robert Hooke, Marcello
Malpighi and Nehemiah Grew. Hooke(i665) noted and described
the vesicular nature of cork and similar vegetable substances,
and designated, the cavities by the term " cells." A few years
later Malpighi (1674) and Grew (1682), still of course working
with the low power lenses alone available at that time, gavea
more detailed description of the finer structure of plant tissue.
They showed that it consisted in part of little cell-like cavities,
provided with firm cell-walls and filled with fluid, and in part
of long tube-like vessels. A long time passed before the next
important step forward was made by C. L. Treviranus, 2 who,
working on the growing parts of young plants, showed that the
tubes and vessels of Malpighi and Grew arose from cells by the

1 Allgemeine Physiologie, p. 53 (1895).
2 Vom inwendigen Bau der Gewdchse (1806).

latter becoming elongated and attached end to end, the inter-
vening walls breaking down; a conclusion afterwards confirmed
by Hugo von Mohl (1830). It was not, however, until the
appearance of Matthias Jakob Schleiden's paper Beilrdge zur
Phylogenesis (1838) that we have a really comprehensive treat-
ment of the cell, and the formulation of a definite cell-theory
for plants. It is to the wealth of correlated observations and
to the philosophic breadth of the conclusions in this paper that
the subsequent rapid progress in cytology is undoubtedly to be
attributed. Schleiden in this paper attempted to solve the
problem of the mode of origin of cells. The nucleus (vide infra)
of the cell had already been discovered by Robert Brown (1831),
who, however, failed to realize its importance. Schleiden
utilized Brown's discovery, and although his theory of phyto-
genesis is based on erroneous observations, yet the great import-
ance which he rightly attached to the nucleus as a cell-structure
made it possible to extend the cell-theory to animal tissues also.
We may indeed date the birth of animal cytology from Schleiden's
short but epoch-making paper. Comparisons between plant
and animal tissues had already been made by several workers,
among others by Johannes Miiller (1835), and by F. G. J. Henle
and J. E. Eurkinje (1837). But the first real step to a com-
prehensive cell- theory to include animal tissues was made by
Theodor Schwann. This author, stimulated by Schleiden's
work, published in 1839 a series .of Mikroskopische Untersuchungen
iiber die. Ubereinstimmung in der Structur und dem Wachstum der
Tiere und Pfianztn. This epoch-making work ranks with
that of Schleiden in its stimulating influence on biological
research, and in spite of' the greater technical difficulties in the
way, raised animal cytology at one blow to the position already,
and so laboriously, acquired by plant cytology. In the animal
cell it is the nucleus and not the cell-wall that is most con-
spicuous 1 , and it is largely to the importance which Schwann,
following the example of Schleiden, attached to this structure
as a cell constituent, that the success and far-reaching influence of
his work is due.' Another feature determining the success of
Schwann's work was his selection of embryonic tissue as material
for investigation. He showed that in the embryo the cells all
closely resemble one another; only becoming later converted
into the tissue elements— nerve cells, muscle cells and so forth —
as development proceeded; just as a similar mode of investiga-
tion had enabled Treviranus to trace the origin from typical cells
of the vascular tissue in plants more than 30 years previously.
And just as Treviranus showed that there was a union of cells
to form the vessels in plants, so Schwann now showed that a union
of cells frequently occurred in the formation of animal tissues.

So great was the stimulus given to cytological research by
the work of Schleiden and Schwann that these authors are often
referred to as the founders of the cell-theory. Their theory,
however, differed very greatly from that of the present time.
Not only did they suppose new cells to arise by a sort of " crystal-
lization " from a formative " mother liquor " or " cytoblastema "
(vide infra), but they both defined the cell as a " vesicle " provided
with a firm cell-wall and with fluid contents. The cell-wall was
regarded as the essential cell-structure, which by its own peculiar
properties controlled the cell-processes. The work of Schleiden
and Schwann marks the close of the first period in the history
of the cell-theory— the period dominated by the cell-wall. The
subsequent history is marked by the gradual recognition of the
importance of the cell-contents. Schleiden had noticed in the
plant cell a finely granular substance which he termed " plant
slime " (Pflanzenschleim) . In 1846 Hugo von Mohl applied to
this substance the term " protoplasm " ; a term already used
by Purkinje six years previously for the formative substance of
young animal embryos. Mohl showed that the young plant cell
was at first completely filled by the protoplasm, and that only
later, by the gradual accumulation of vacuoles in the interior,
did this substance come to form a thin layer on the inner surface
of the cell-wall. Mohl also described the spontaneous movement
of the protoplasm, a phenomenon already noted by Schleiden
for his plant slime, and originally discovered by Bonaventura
Cofti in 1772 for the cells of Chara, and rediscovered in 1807

CYTOLOGY

711

by Treviranus. Not only was attention thus gradually directed
to the importance of the cell-contents, but observations were not
lacking, even in the plant kingdom, tending to weaken the
importance hitherto attached to the cell- wall. Among these may
be mentioned Gohn's observation that in the reproduction of
Algal forms the protoplasm contracts away from the cell-wall
and escapes as a nakdd " swarm spore." Similarly in the animal
kingdom instances began to be noted in which no membrane
appeared to.be present (Kolliker, 1845; Bischoff, 1842), and for
some time it was hotly debated whether these structures could
be regarded as true cells. As a result of the resemblance between
the streaming movements in these apparently naked cells (e.g.
lymphocytes) and those seen in plant cells, R. Remak was led
(1852-1853) to apply Mohl's term " protoplasm " to the sub-
stance of these animal cells also. SimilarlyMax Schultze (1863)
and H. A. de Bary (1859), as a result of the study of unicellular
animals, came to the conclusion that the substance of these
organisms, originally termed " Sarcode " by F. Dujardin, was
identical with that of the plant and animal cell. Numerous
workers now began to realize the subordinate position of the
cell-wall (e.g. Nageli, Alexander Braun, Leydig, Kolliker, Cohn,
de Bary, &c), but it is to Max Schultze above all that the credit
is due for having laid the foundation of the modern conception
of the cell — a conception often referred to as the proto-plasmic-
theory in opposition to the cell- theory of Schleiden and
Schwann. Max Schultze showed that one and the same
substance, protoplasm, occurred in unicellular forms and in the
higher plants and animals; that in plants this substance,
though usually enclosed within a cell membrane, was sometimes
naked (e.g. swarm spores), while in many animal tissues and
in many of the unicellular forms the cell-membrane was always
absent. He therefore concluded that in all cases the cell-mem-
brane was unessential, and he redefined the " cell " of Schleiden
and Schwann as " a small mass of protoplasm endowed with the
attributes of life" (1861). In the same year the physiologist
Briicke maintained that the complexity of vital phenomena
necessitated the assumption for the cell-protoplasm itself of a
complex structure, only invisible because of the limitations of our
methods of observation. The cell in fact was to be regarded as
being itself an " elementary organism." By this time too it was
realized that the formation of cells de novo, postulated by
Schleiden's theory of " phytogenesis," did not occur. Cells
only arose by the division of pre-existing cells,— as Virchow
neatly expressed it in his since famous aphorism, omnis cellula
e cellula. It was, however, many years before the details of
this " cell-division " were laid bare (see Cell-Division below).

General Morphology of the Cell.— In its simplest form the cell
is a more or less spherical mass of viscid, translucent and granular
protoplasm. In addition to the living protoplasm there is
present in the cell food-material in various stages of assimila-
tion, which usually presents the appearance of fine granules or
spherules suspended in the more or less alveolar or reticular
mesh- work of the living protoplasm. In addition there may
be more or less obvious accumulations of waste material, pig-
ment, oil drops, &c. — products of the cell's metabolic activity.
All these relatively passive inclusions 1 are distinguished from
the living protoplasm by the term " metaplasm " (Hanstein),
or " paraplasm " (Kupffer), although in practice no very sharp
distinction can be drawn between them. The cell is frequently,
but by no means always, bounded by a cell-wall of greater or less
thickness. In plants this cell-wall consists of cellulose, a sub-
stance closely allied to starch; in animals only very rarely is
this the case. Usually the cell-wall, when this is present, is a
product of the cell's secretive activity; sometimes, however,
it appears to be formed by an actual conversion of the surface
layer of the protoplasm, and retains the power of growth by
" intussusception " like the rest of the protoplasm. Even when
a limiting membrane is present, however, evidence is steadily
accumulating to show that the cell is not an isolated physiological
unit, but that, in the vast majority of cases, there is a proto-

1 The Chromoplastids of the vegetable cell come under a different
category of cell-inclusions; see Plants: Cytology.

plasmic continuity between the cells of the organism. This
continuity, which is effected by fine protoplasmic threads
("cell-bridges") piercing the cell-wall and bridging the inter-
cellular spaces when these are present, is to be regarded as the
morphological expression of the physiological interdependence
of the various — often widely separated- — tissues of the body. 2
It is probable that it is the specialization of this primitive
condition which has produced the cell-elements of the nervous
system. In many cases the cell-connexions are so extensive as
to obliterate cell-boundaries. A good example of such a " syn-
cytial " tissue is provided by the heart muscle of Vertebrates
and the intestinal musculature of Insects (Webber). 3

In all multicellular, and in the great majority of unicellular,
organisms the protoplasm of the cell-unit is differentiated into
two very distinct regions, — a more or less central region, the
nucleus, and a peripheral region (usually much more exten-
sive), the cell-body or cytoplasm. This universal morpho-
logical differentiation of the cell-protoplasm is accompanied by
corresponding chemical differences, and is the expression of a
physiological division of labour of fundamental importance.
In some of the simpler unicellular organisms, e.g. Tetramitus,
the differentiated protoplasm is not segregated. Such forms
are said to have a " distributed " nucleus, and among the
Protozoa correspond to Haeckel's "Protista." It is probable
that among plants the Bacteria and Cyanophyceae have a
similar distributed nucleus. In all the higher forms, however,
the segregation is well marked, and a "nuclear membrane"
separates the substance of the nucleus, or ■■" karyoplasm " 4
from the surrounding "cytoplasm." Within the nuclear
membrane the karyoplasm is differentiated into two very
distinct portions, a clear fluid portion, the " karyolymph," and
a firmer portion in the form of a coarser or finer " nuclear
reticulum." This latter is again composed of two parts, the
" linin reticulum," 5 and, embedded in the latter and often
,; irregularly aggregated at its nodal points, a granular substance,
the "chromatin," 6 the latter being the essential constituent
of the nucleus. In addition to the chromatin there may be
present in the nucleus one or more, usually spherical, and as yet
somewhat enigmatical bodies, the " nucleoli." In addition to
the nucleus and cytoplasm, a third body, the " centrosome,"
has often been considered as a constant cell-structure. It is
: a minute granule, usually lying in the cytoplasm not far from
the nucleus, and plays an important part in cell-division and
fertilization (see below). ■

Cell-differentiation. — Both among unicellular and multi-
cellular individuals the cell assumes the most varied forms and
performs the most diverse functions. In all cases, however,
whether we examine the free-living shapeless and slowly creeping
Amoeba, or the striped muscle cell or spermatozoon of the
Metazoa (fig. 1, b and c), the constant recurrence of cytoplasm
and nucleus show that we have to deal in each case with a cell.
': The variation in the form and structure of the cell is an expression
. of that universal economic law of nature, " division of labour,"
. with its almost invariable accompanying " morphological
differentiation "; the earliest and most fundamental example
being in the differentiation of the cell-protoplasm into cytoplasm
and nucleus. In multicellular individuals the division of labour
to which the structural complexity of the organism is due is
between the individual cell-units, some cells developing one
* Cf . Pfeffer's classical experiments on the physiological significance
of cell-continuity in plant tissues (Uber den Einfluss des Zellkerns
auf die Bildung der Zellhaut, 1896). The recent work in physiology
on the influence substances secreted by certain tissues and circulating
, in the blood-stream exert upon other and widely different tissues,
should not be lost sight of in this connexion.

3 The influence this protoplasmic continuity may have upon our
conception of the cell as a unit of organization is referred to below
(Present Position of the Cell-theory).

4 A term (from Kapvov, kernel) suggested by Flemming to. replace
Strasburger's hybrid term " nucleoplasm " (1882). The earlier
workers, e.g. Leydig, Schultze, Briicke, de Bary, &c, restricted the
term protoplasm to the cell-body — the " Cytoplasm " of Strasburger,
an example still followed by O. Hertwig.

6 From linum, a thread, Schwarz, 1887. ■

6 From xp&M", colour, Flemming, 1879.

712

CYTOLOGY

aspect, some another, of their vital attributes. Thus one cell
specializes in, say, secretion, another in contractility, another
in receiving and carrying stimuli, and so forth, so that we have
the gland cell, the muscle cell, and the nerve cell, each appropri-
ately grouped with its fellows to constitute the particular tissue
or organ — gland, muscle or brain — which has for its function
that of its constituent cells. In unicellular animals we also
find division of labour and its accompanying morphological
differentiation, but here there is no subdivision of the protoplasm
of the organism into the semi-autonomous units which so greatly
facilitate division of labour in the Metazoa; instead, division
of labour must be between different regions of protoplasm in
the single cell. The sharply defined character of this regional
differentiation in the Protozoa, and the surprising structural
complexity it may produce, sufficiently clearly show that although
multicellular structure has greatly facilitated regional differentia-
tion in the Metazoa, it is by no means essential to this process
(see below, Present Position of the Cell-theory).

It is not within the scope of this article to attempt a compre-
hensive review of the variety in structural complexity to which
this division of labour among the cells of the Metazoan and the
regional differentiation of the cell-bodies of the Protozoa has
given rise. Some indication of the wealth of variety may be
best given by taking a general survey of cell-modifications,
grouped according to the cell-attributes the expression of which
they facilitate.

(a) Structural Complexity facilitating Movement. — One of
the most striking, and hence earliest described, of the funda-
mental attributes of protoplasm is its power of spontaneous
movement. This is seen in the walled cell of plant tissue and in

and 6 from Schafer's Essentials of Histology, by permission of Longmans, Green & Co.
Fig. I. — Types of Cells, o, Fat-cell enclosing a huge fat-globule.

b, Part of a Mammalian " striated

c. Spermatozoa of mouse and bird.

muscle-cell (diagrammatic).

the naked cell-body of Amoeba. In the latter case the streaming
movements of the naked protoplasm are accompanied by the
formation of " pseudopodia," and result in the highly charac-
teristic " amoeboid " creeping movement of this and similar
organisms (e.g. lymph corpuscles of the blood). 1 In these
examples the whole protoplasm participates in the movement, —
there has been no division of labour, and there is, therefore, no
visible morphological differentiation. In many cells, movement
(either of the entire body or of the surrounding medium) is by
means of slender whip-like processes of the protoplasm flagella
or cilia. These represent modified pseudopodia, and in the
formation of the motile gametes of some of the lower forms,
e.g. Myxomycetes (de Bary, 1859), Rhizopods (R. Hertwig, 1874),
&c, the actual conversion of a pseudopodium into a flagellum
can be witnessed. These vibratile processes may be either one
or few in number, and are then large in size and move independ-
ently of one another; or they may be very numerous, covering
the free surface of the cell (fig. 2, a); they are then very small
and move strictly in unison. In the former case they are termed
" flagella," in the latter " cilia." In some cases the flagellum
is accompanied by an undulating membrane (e.g. Trypanosoma
among the protozoa and in many spermatozoa), and it may be
situated either at the front end (Euglena) or hind end (sper-
matozoa) of the body during motion. The cilia may form a

1 The formation of pseudopodia and accompanying changes in
form of Amoeba were observed as early as 1755 by Raesel von
Rosenhof, who named it on this account the " little Proteus."

uniform coating to the free surface of the cell, as in ciliated
epithelium (fig. 2, a) and many infusoria, or the cilia may be
variously modified and restricted to special regions of the body,
e.g. the " undulating membrane " of the peristomial region
in many infusoria, the swimming combs of the Ctenophora (q.v.),

From A. Gurwitsch, Morphologic und Biologic ier Zelle, by permission of Gustav
Fischer. .

Fig. 2. — Types of Cells, a, Ciliated epithelial cells. (After
Heidenhain.) b. Mucus-secreting " goblet "-cells. (After Gur-
witsch.)

and the flame cells of the Platyelmia (q.v.). In one group of
infusoria (Hypotricha), the cilia, " cirri," have attained a high
degree of differentiation, and reach a considerable size. Both
cilia and flagella spring directly from the cell-protoplasm, piercing
the cell-membrane, when this is present. At the point where
they become continuous with the cell-body there is usually a
deeply staining " basal granule." In some cases the flagella
are in direct connexion with the centrosome (see below, Cell-
division), e.g. Trypanosoma and spermatozoa, in some cases even
while the centrosome is functioning in mitosis (e.g. insect
spermatogenesis, Henneguy 2 and Meves 3 (fig. 3).

In the ability of Amoeba to contract into a spherical mass, and
in the presence in its protoplasm of the contractile vacuole,
we see another type of spontaneous movement — contractility — :
of the protoplasm. In the " musculo-epithelial " cells of Hydra,

From O. Hertwig, Allgcmeine Biologic, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 3. — Spermatocytes of Bombyx mori, showing the precocious
appearance of the spermatozoon flagellum and its relation to the
centrosome. (After Henneguy.)

the elongated basal portion of the cell alone possesses this
contractility. In the higher Metazoa the whole cell — muscle
cell — is specialized for contractility, and shows, as a result of
its specialization, a distinct fibrillation. This fibrillation is
foreshadowed in the contractile regions of many Protozoa, e.g.

8 " Sur les rapports des cils vibratiles avec les centrosomes,"
Archives d'anatomie microscopique (1898).

s " tlber Zentralkorper in mannlichen Geschlechtszellen von
Schmetterlingen " (Anat. Anz. Bd. xiv., 1897). Cf. also the papers
of Lenhossek (Vber Flimmerzellen, 1898), Karl Peter (Das Zentrum
fur die Flimm-und Giesselbewegung, 1899) and Verworn (Studien sur
Physiologie der Flimmerbewegung., 1899).

CYTOLOGY

7i3

in the cirri of hypotrichous Infusoria, the tentacle of Noctiluca,
and the myophane layer of Gregarines. In the quickly contract-
ing muscle cell of Vertebrates and insects, further specialization
has produced a structure of considerable complexity (fig. 1, b).
Here also the cell is fibrillated, but the fibrillae (sarco-styles)
are much more distinct, and are segmented in a manner which
gives to the entire cell a " cross striated " appearance. Since
quick movement is usually (but not always) associated with
voluntary control, these striated muscle cells are often termed
" voluntary " muscle fibres. The great increase in length of
these cells is accompanied by the fragmentation of the origin-
ally single nucleus.

(6) Cell-modification in Relation to Secretion. — Just as the
complex movements considered above were the result of a
great development of the power of spontaneous movement
possessed by all protoplasm, so cell-secretion is the result of a
development of the metabolic processes underlying all vital
phenomena. But whereas specialization of the protoplasm
for movement resulted in a very obvious morphological com-
plexity, specialization for secretion results in molecular com-
plexity, and only rarely and indirectly results in morphological
differentiation. Usually indeed the specialization is only
rendered evident by the appearance of the formed secretion,
e.g. mucus-secreting epithelial cells (fig. 2, b), the ovarian ovum
and the fat cell (fig. 1, a). In some cases a distinct fibrillation
of the cytoplasm accompanies or precedes the appearance of
the cell-secretion (Mathews, pancreas cell of Amphibia). In
many cases the internal secretion is no mere accumulation,
e.g. the internal skeleton of the Radiolaria, and the nematocysts
of the Coelentera. Frequently in animal tissues the cell-secretions
are accumulated in the intercellular spaces, and result in the
formation of the various " connective tissues," all of which are
characterized by the immense amount of intercellular substance,
e.g. fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone. Cell-modifications
facilitating the general metabolism, but not necessarily indicating
specialized secretion, also occur, e.g. the " gullet " of many
Protozoa, the suctorial tubules of the Acinetaria, and the " nutri-
tive processes " of the ovarian ova in many Lepidoptera. Men-
tion may be made here of the network or canal system of the
cytoplasm, described for many cells by Golgi, Holgren and
others. An enigmatical structure, the " yolk-nuCleus " of many
ova, has been frequently regarded as a structure of considerable
metabolic importance, e.g. Bambeke (1898) for Pholcus. 1

Striking modifications resulting from specialization in secretion
are frequently presented by the nucleus. In many secreting

Fig. 4. — Types of Nuclei.

From Prof. E. B. Wilson's The Cell in Development and Inheritance, by permission
of the author and of the Macmillan Co., New York.

a, Permanent spireme-nuclei in cells from the intestinal epithelium
of a dipterous larva, Ptychoptera. (After van Gehuchten.)

From Korschelt and Heider, Lehrbuch der verg. Entivieklungsgcschichte der
wirbeUosen Tiere, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

b, Branched nucleus of the " nutritive " cell, from a portion of an
ovarial tube of Forficula auricularia.

cells this structure is extensively branched, e.g. many gland
cells and ovarian nutritive cells of insects (fig. 4, b). In some
cases the nucleus of the gland cell contains a persistent spireme
thread (fig. 4, a); while almost all actively secreting cells

1 Cf.; however, the present writer's interpretation of this structure
in the oocyte of Antedon. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. (1906), B. 249.

are characterized by the possession of large or numerous
nucleoli.

(c) Specialization for the Reception and Conduction of Stimuli. —
One of the most striking of the fundamental attributes of living
protoplasm is its " irritability," that is to say, its power of
responding to external impressions, " stimuli," by movement,
which, both in kind and intensity, is wholly independent of the
amount of energy expended by the stimulus. The stimulus
conveyed by the nerve fibre to the muscle is out of all proportion

From Schafer's Essentials of Histology, by permission of Longmans, Green & Co.
Fig. 5. — Nervous and Sensory Cells.
A and B, Ganglion cells from the cerebral cortex; in A the only
slightly branched axon may extend the whole length of the spinal
cord. (After Schafer.)

C, Body of a ganglion-cell showing " Nissl's granules."

D, Sensory cells from olfactory epithelium. (After Schultze.)

E, Diagrammatic representation of the sensory epithelium of
retina (rod and cone layer). (After Schwalbe.)

to the amount of work it may cause the muscle to do. Although
protoplasmic irritability is thus incapable of a simple mechanical
explanation, science has rejected the assumption of a special
" vital force," and interprets protoplasmic response as being
a long series of chemico-physical changes, 2 initiated, but only
initiated, by the original stimulus; the latter thus standing in
the same relation to the response it produces as the pull on the
trigger to the propulsion of the rifle bullet. The function of
receiving stimuli from the outer world, originally possessed to
a greater or less extent by all cells, has, in the Metazoa, been
relegated to one class of cells, the sensory cells 3 (fig. 5, D and E).
Another class of cells — the " ganglion cells " or " neurones "
(fig. 5, A and B), are concerned with the conduction of the
stimuli so received. The contractile elements in the Metazoa
are thus dependent for their stimuli on the nervous elements —
the sensory cells and neurones.

Origin of Cells. — In the preceding sections we have considered
the structure of the cell in relation to the fundamental attributes
of cell-metabolism, irritability, and movement. We have how

s Claude Bernard expressed the same conclusion in 1885. Reject-
ing both the view that vital phenomena were identical with chemico-
physical phenomena, and that which regarded them as totally
distinct, he suggested a third point of view: " l'dtement ultime du
phfinomene est physique; ['arrangement est vital."

' Many forms of response to stimulus involve no visible specializa-
tion, e.g. positive and negative heliotropism, chemiotropism, geo-
tropism, &c, seen more especially in plants, but occurring also in the
animal kingdom.

714

CYTOL'OGY

to consider the cell in relation to yet another vital attribute, that
of reproduction. Just as we now know Lhat the phenomena
of assimilation, respiration, excretion, response, movement and
so forth, characteristic of living things, are but the co-ordinated
expressions of the corresponding activities of the constituent
cells, so we now know that the reproduction of the organism is,
in its ultimate analysis, a cell-process. Our knowledge of the
essential fact that cells only arise by the division of pre-existing
cells', now a fundamental axiom of biology, and of the details
of this process, have been acquired during recent years by the
strenuous efforts of numerous workers. 1 Matthias Jakob
Schleiden (1838) supposed that in plants the new cell, arose from
the parent cell by a sort of " crystallizing " process from the cell
fluid or " cytoblastema "; the nucleolus appearing: first, then
the nucleus, and finally the cell-body. Theodor Schwann (1839)
extended Schleiden's theory to animal tissues, with this yet
greater error, that new cells might arise, not only within the
mother cell as Schleiden had supposed, but also in the inter-
cellular substance so common in animal tissues (to which he also
gave the term " cytoblastema ").' By 1846, however, the
botanists, thanks mainly to the efforts of Hugo: von Mohl
and Nageli, recognized as a general law that cells only arise by
the division of a pre-existing cell. But it was long before the
universal application of this law was recognized by zoologists;
the delay being largely due to pathological phenomena. The work
of Kolliker (1844-1845), Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1841-1847),
and Remak (1852-1855), however, finally enabled Virchow in
1858 to: maintain the law of the genetic continuity of cells in the
since famojis aphorism omnis cellula e cellula. At this time,
however, nothing was known of the details of cell-division,- —
one school (Reichert, L. Auerbach, and the majority of the
botanists) maintaining that the nucleus disappeared prior to
cell-division, the '. other school (von Baer, Remak, Leydig,
Haectel, &c.) . maintaining that it took a leading part in the
process. It is not until the appearance of Anton Schneider's
work in 1873, followed by those of Fol, Auerbach, Strasburger
ani|_aaany others, that we begin to gain an insight into the
process. In 1882 W. Flemming was able to extend Virchow's
aphorism to the nucleus also: omnis nucleus e nucleo.

Outline of Cell-division. — There are two very distinct methods
of cell-division. The more general and also more complicated
method is accompanied by the formation of a complex fibrillar
mechanism, and was on this account termed " mitosis " (jutros,
a, thread) by W. Flemming (1882), and " karyokinesis " (itapvov,
nut, nucleus, and Kivqais, change, movement) by W. Schleicher
(1878). The other method, "amitosis," or direct division, is
unaccompanied by any visible mechanism and is of relatively
exceptional occurrence. In the more usual method of cell-
division, or " mitosis," we can distinguish two distinct but
{parallel processes, the one undergone by the chromatin and
resulting in the " chromatic figure," the other usually only
concerning the cytoplasm and resulting in the " achromatic
figure." 2

We will consider the chromatin changes first. The chromatin
granules lose their scattered arrangement on the nuclear
reticulum, and become instead arranged in a linear series to
form a coiled and deeply staining "spireme thread" 3 (fig. 6, a).
As the thread contracts, its granular origin becomes less evident,
and at the same time the coils become fewer in number; the
" close " spireme of earlier stages becomes the " loose " spireme
of later stages. ■ As the spireme thread contracts, it segments
into a number of short, and usually U-shaped, segments — the
"chromosomes" (Waldeyer, 1888). The number of these
chromosomes is always constant for the cells of any given species
of plant or animal, but varies greatly in number in different

1 Prominent among these are: Schleiden (1873), Fol (1873-1877),
Auerbach (1874), Butschli (1876), Strasburger (1875-1888), O.
■Hertwig (1875-1890), R. Hertwig (1875-1877); Flemming (1879-
1891), van Beneden (1883-1887), Rabl (1889), Boveri (18&7-1903).

2 This distinction between the chromatic and achromatic portions
of the mitotic figure is due to Flemming.

'The genesis of the spireme thread was first described by E. G.
Balbiani in 1876.

species. Thus in the parasitic worm Ascaris megaiocephala,
var. univalens, there are only two. In the crustacean Arteniia
Bauer found 168, while in the amphibian Salamandra maculata,
as also in the lily, the number is 24. While these changes have
been proceeding in the nucleus, changes in the cytoplasm have
resulted in the formation of the achromatic figure. These
cytoplasmic changes are initiated by the division into two of a
minute body, the " centrosome," originally discovered by P. J.
van Beneden in 1883, 4 and usually lying not far from the
nucleus (fig. 6, a). The daughter centrosomes separate from
one another, travelling to opposite poles of the nucleus. At
the same time radiations extend out into the cytoplasm from
the centrosomes, and, as the nuclear membrane disappears,
invade the nuclear area (fig. 7, a). Some of the fibrillae in the
latter region become attached to the chromosomes and are

b

a; b and c from Prof. E. B. Wilson's The Cell in Development and Inheritance, by
permissionof the author and the Macmillan Co., New York; d from A. Gurwitsch,
Morphologic u. Biologic der Zelle, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 6. — Diagram of Nuclear Division, a, Spireme stage; 6,
Spindle formed; c, Spindle complete; equatorial plate formed;
d, Division completed.

termed "mantle fibres-"; others become continuous from one
centrosome to the other and constitute the " spindle fibres."
The remaining radiations at the two poles of the spindle are the
" astral rays." (The details of the formation of the achromatic
figure vary considerably, some indication of this is given in the
next section in connexion. with the question of the origin of the
mitotic mechanism.) The chromosomes now arrange themselves
in the " equatorial plate " of the spindle and each splits longi-
tudinally into two 6 (fig. 6, b and c). The sister chromosomes
now pass to opposite poles of the spindle (fig. 6, d), and there,
returning to the " resting " condition, constitute the daughter
nuclei. Division of the cell follows, usually, in animals, by
simple constriction. Both Theodor Boveri and van Beneden,
in their papers of 1887, regarded the centrosome as initiating,
not only the division of the cell-body but that of the chromatin
also; Beneden even suggested that the pull of the mantle fibres
caused the division of the chromatin in the equatorial plate.
W. Pfitzner in 1882 was the first to show that the splitting of the
chromosomes in the equatorial plate was only the reappearance
of a split in the spireme thread and was due to a corresponding
; 4 " Recherchps sur la maturation de l'ceuf, la feeondation et la
division cellulaire " (Archives de biologie, vol. iv.).

6 First discovered by Flemming in 1879 and confirmed by Retzius
in 1881. , .

CYTOLOGY

7*$

division into two of each of the chromatin granules. In the
spermatogenic cells of Ascaris, A. Brauer has shown that the
chromatin granules divide while still scattered over the nuclear
reticulum and before either the formation of a spireme thread
or the division of the centrosome. In many other cases the
reverse of this condition occurs, the centrosome dividing long
before there is any indication of division in the nucleus (e.g.
salamander spermatogenic cells, Meves, &c). We must there-
fore, with Boveri and Brauer, regard the division of the chromatin
in mitosis as a distinct reproductive act on the part of the
chromatin granules, the chromosomes being merely aggregates
(temporary or permanent, vide infra) of these self-propagating
units.

For convenience of description it is usual to recognize four
periods in mitosis : (i.) Prophase, (ii.) Metaphase, (iii.) Arfaphase,
and (iv.) Telophase (Strasburger, 1884). The prophase covers
all changes up to the completion of the mitotic figure. The
metaphase is the parting of the sister chromosomes in the
equatorial plate; their passage to opposite poles of the spindle
constitutes the anaphase; and their reconstruction to form
the resting daughter nuclei, the telophase.

The Achromatic Figure. — The mode of origin of the achro-
matic figure varies greatly. In some cases a distinct and con-
tinuous spindle, the " central spindle " of F. Hermann, is visible
from the very first separation of the daughter centrosomes
(e.g. salamander spermatogenic cell) 1 (fig. 7, b). In other

Fig. 7. — Centrosomes.

From Prof. E. B. Wilson's The Cell in Development and Inheritance, by permission
of the author and of The Macmillan Co., New York.

a, Leucocyte from a Salamander, showing permanent aster and
centrosome.

From A. Gurwitsch, Mbrphologie u. Biologie der Zelle, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

b, Sperm-mother cell of Salamandra maculata, showing Hermann's
" central spindle."

cases the rays only invade the nuclear area and become con-
tinuous in the equatorial plane after the centrosomes have
assumed their definitive positions at the two poles of the nucleus,
and may even appear to indent the disappearing nuclear mem-
brane as they invade the nuclear area. 2 In the salamander
testis cell (fig. 7, b), and in many other cases, the whole of the
achromatic figure is obviously of cytoplasmic origin. In many
cases, however, it equally obviously arises within the nucleus, 3
while in yet other cases 4 the spindle fibres are of mixed origin.
The question, therefore, of the cytoplasmic or nuclear origin of
the achromatic figure, at one time regarded as of considerable
importance, is wholly immaterial. Various elaborate theories
have been propounded to explain the mechanism of the mitotic
figure. H. Fol (1873) regarded the centrosomes as centres of
attractive forces, and compared the mitotic figure to the lines
of force in the magnetic field, a comparison made by numerous
subsequent workers. E. Klein's hypotheses of two opposing

1 The discovery by Hermann of the central spindle first clearly
showed that' two kinds of fibres must be recognized in the mitotic
figure. Those of the central spindle correspond to the continuous
spindle fibres of Flemming (1891) and Strasburger (1884), and the
mantle fibres, i.e. half-spindle or Polstrahlen, of van Beneden (1887)
and Boveri (1 889-1 890),

2 Planter, Watase, GrifTen and others.

' e.g. Euglypha (Schewiakoff, 1888), Infusoria (R. Hertwig, 1898)
So also Korschelt for Ophryotrocha, and many other cases.
4 e.g. Bauer, spermatogenic cells of Ascaris univalens.

' systems of contractile fibrillae, elaborated by van Beriedeh
(1883, 1887) and accepted by Boveri (1888), >was still further,
extended by R. Heidenhain in relation, to the leucocytes of the
salamander, in which there is a permanent centrosome and
astral rays to which the contractile movements of the cell appear
. to be due 6 (fig. 7, a): Hermann on the other hand confined the:
contractility to the astral and mantle fibres; while L. Druner
regarded the spindle as exerting a pushing force, for not only
do the interzonal spindle fibres elongate during the anaphase,
but they were often at this period contorted, while on the other
hand astral rays may be entirely absent (e.g. Infusoria), and in
some cases the spindle pole may be caused to project at the
surface of the cell. The futility of these attempted mechanical
explanations of mitosis is sufficiently clearly shown, not only by
the contradictory nature of the explanations themselves, but
by the fact that, in amitosis, nuclear and cytoplasmic division
occur without any fibrillar mechanism whatever.

Centrosome. 6 — This minute body was first detected at the
spindle poles by Flemming in 1875, and independently by P. J.
van Beneden in 1876. The important part played by the
centrosome in fertilization, 7 first described by van Beneden
and Theodor Boveri in their papers of 1887-1888, together with
. the behaviour of this structure in mitosis, led these authors
to regard the centrosome not only as the dynamic centre of the :
cell but as a permanent cell-organ, which, like the nucleus,
passed by division from one cell-generation to the next. This
conclusion appeared to receive considerable support from the
recognition of the centrosome in various kinds of resting cells,?
and especially from the relation this structure frequently shows •
to the locomotor apparatus of the cell (e.g. its position in the.
centre of the radiating fibrillae in the contractile lymph and
pigment cells, and its relation to the vibratile flagellum in
spermatozoa and some protozoa, e.g. Trypanosoma). 9 In'
almost all cases the centrosome of the resting cell, when this!
can be detected, lies in the cytoplasm, and is often already
divided in preparation for the next mitotic division (e.g. spermato-
genic cells of the salamander; Meves). In some cases, however,
it resides in, or arises from, the nucleus (Brauer; spermatogenesis
of Ascaris, var. univalens). This indifferent nuclear or cyto-
plasmic position for the centrosome is paralleled by the attraction
sphere or homologue of the centrosome in many Protozoa.
Thus in many forms, e.g. Euglena (Keuten), it lies within the.
nucleus, while in other forms, e.g. Noctiluca (Ishikawa, 1894,:
1898; Calkins, 1898) and Paramoeba (F. Schaudinn, 1896), it:
lies in the cytoplasm, while in Tetramitus it coexists with a •
"distributed" nucleus. In the Heliozoa conditions are ex-
ceptionally interesting; not only is the centrosome — here resem-
bling in appearance that of the higher forms — permanently visible
and extranuclear, lying at the centre of the radiations character-
istic of these forms, but there is the strongest possible evidence ;
for its formation de novo. For Schaudinn has shown in Acantho-
cystis that, in the formation of the swarm, spores, the nucleus
divides amitotically, the centrosome remaining visible and'
unchanged 'at the centre of the radiating processes. Yet a
centrosome appears later in the nucleus of the swarm spores
and migrates into the cytoplasm. The experiments of T. H.
Morgan and E. B. Wilson, in which numerous centrosomes and
asters (" cytasters ") are caused to appear in unfertilized sea-
urchin eggs by a brief immersion in a 13 % solution of magnesium

6 Cf. also Watase, Solger and Zimmermann.

• This term is due to Boveri (Zellensludien, ii., 1888, p. 68; Jen.
Zeit. xxii.), but it was intended by him to include the region of
modified cytoplasm or " centrosphere " often enclosing the centro
some proper, i.e. " centriole " of Boveri.

7 For outline of fertilization see article Reproduction.

8 e.g. lymph and various epithelial and connective tissue cells of
salamander larva (Flemming, 1 89 1 ;. Heidenhain, 1892); pigment
cells of fishes (Solger, 189 1); red blood corpuscles (Heidenhain,
Eisen, 1897) ; and numerous other cases.

'For an interesting development of this subject see Watase (1894).
This author not only identifies the centrosome with the structures
seen in lymph cells, &c, but compares it to the basal granules of
ciliated cells and to the varicose swellings on the sarcostyles of striped
muscle cells !

716

CYTOLOGY

chloride in sea-water, 1 as also the possibility in many cases that
even in normal fertilization the cleavage centrosomes may arise
de novo, 1 make it no longer possible to regard the centrosome as
a permanent cell-structure.

Significance of Mitosis. — Whatever may be the nature of
the chemico-physical changes occurring during cell-division,
of which the achromatic spindle and astral rays are the visible
expression, it is certain that the whole of this complicated
process has for its function, not the division of the chromatin,
for that has already occurred on the spireme thread or even
earlier, but the distribution of the divided chromatin granules
to the two daughter nuclei. It is indeed usually assumed that
the mitotic mechanism is not merely for the distribution, but for
the equal distribution, of the sister granules to the two daughter
nuclei. The conspicuous part the chromatin is seen to play in
the whole mechanism of heredity — in maturation, fertilization
and development — indicating as it does that the chromatin
is the chief, if not the only, bearer of the specific qualities of
the organism, sufficiently clearly emphasizes the importance of
the equal distribution of this substance between the daughter
cells at successive cell-divisions. There are, however, serious
objections to the interpretation of mitosis as an adaptation to
ensure this equal distribution of the chromatin. Not only does
the occurrence of amitosis show that the mitotic mechanism is not
essential for either nuclear or cytoplasmic division, but direct
division may occur* in the life-history of the germ cells, the
very point at which it should not occur had mitosis the signifi-
cance usually attached to it. On the other hand, the most
elaborate mitosis occurs in cell-tissues (e.g. skin of salamander
larva) which can take no possible share in the reproduction
of the species. Moreover, we have no reason for supposing that
the division of the chromatin in amitosis is not as meristic, and
its subsequent distribution as equal, as is so visibly the case
in mitosis. 4 It is necessary, therefore, to seek for some other
explanation of the elaborate mechanism of mitosis than that
which assumes it necessary for the equal distribution of the
divided chromatin granules. The present writer believes the
true explanation to be found in that great economic law of
nature, " division of labour." The same economy which,
.working under the control of natural selection, has produced
the complexly differentiated tissues of the higher metazoa,
which has led to the sexual differentiation between the con-
jugating gametes and thus to the sexual differentiation of the
parents, has resulted in the production of mitosis. Only here
the economy finds expression in division of labour, not in space,
but in time. The work of the self-propagating chromatin
granules is so ordered that periods of undisturbed metabolic
activity alternate with periods of reproductive activity. The
brief space of time occupied by the latter process has necessitated
a more elaborate specialization of the forces — whatever their
nature — controlling cell-division; a specialization which has
resulted, just as a similar specialization in so many other cases
has resulted, in a visible differentiation of the cell-protoplasm.
This explanation is in harmony with the occurrence of typical
mitosis in active tissue cells on the one hand, and of amitosis
in the relatively quiescent primary germ cells on the other.

Individuality of the Chromosomes. — The most striking feature
in the behaviour of the chromatin in mitosis is its resolution,
at each division, into a — for any particular species — constant
number of chromosomes. This constant recurrence of the
specific number of chromosomes at every cell-division is capable

1 The force of this evidence is admitted by Boveri himself. Meves,
however, maintains the possibility that the numerous centrosomes
appearing in the egg arise by the rapid fragmentation of a centrosome
already present.

* Cf . especially the behaviour of the centrosomes in the fertiliza-
tion of the egg of Pleurophyllidia (MacFarland, 1897) and that of
Cerebratulus (Coe, 1901). Not only may the sperm centrosomes
totally disappear before reaching the egg-nucleus, but in the latter
type the definitive centrosomes appear while the last traces of the
sperm asters are still visible.

* e.g. Meves ; Spermatagonia of Salamandra.

4 Cf. especially the artificial production of amitosis in Spirogyra;
W. Pfeffer, 1899.

of explanation in two radically different ways. One explanation
assumes for the organism a specific peculiarity determining the
segmentation of the spireme thread into a definite number of
segments (Delage, 1899 and 1901).* The other regards chromo-
somes as independent units of the cell, retaining their identity
between successive cell-divisions. The latter " Individualists
Hypothese " was originally put forward by Theodor Boveri in
1887 as a result of C. Rabl's observation (1885) that in epidermal
cells of the salamander larva the chromosomes reappear in the
mitosis of the daughter cells with the same arrangement as
they possessed in the prophase of the mother cell — the angles
of the U-shaped chromosomes being all directed towards one
pole (Rabl's " Poleseite ") of the nucleus. In the formation of
the "resting" nucleus, the chromatin, becoming metabolically
active, flows out on to the linin reticulum, all trace of the chromo-
somes being for the time lost. In Ascaris, Boveri (1888) obtained
similar but still more striking results. The thickened ends of
the four elongated chromosomes cause projections on the nuclear
surface throughout the resting period, and the ends of the
reappearing chromosomes always coincided with these protuber-
ances; cf. also Sutton (1902) on locust spermatagonia. Moreover,
the arrangement of the chromosomes must follow one of three
well-marked groupings, and this is determined for each individual
in the cleavage spindle of the egg and maintained throughout
later development (fig. 8).

In the same worm (var. univalens) Boveri (1888 and 1899)
found that occasional abnormalities in maturation resulted in

From Boveri's Ergebnisse H. d. Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des
Zellkerns, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 8. — Preparation for Mitosis, a. Nucleus of " i blastomere "
of Ascaris megalocephala bivalens in resting condition; b and c,
nuclei from sister 5 blastomeres in preparation for mitosis.

the suppression of the first polar body and the inclusion of its
chromosomes in the second maturation spindle; the egg-nucleus
at the time of fertilization thus having two chromosomes instead
of one, while the spermatozoon nucleus has only one. Three
chromosomes instead of two reappear in subsequent divisions.
Boveri's " Individualists Hypothese " received striking support
from the work of Herla (1893), L. R. Zoja (1895) and O. zur
Strassen (1898). Herla and Zoja showed that if the egg of A scaris
megalocephala (var. bivalens), which possesses two chromosomes,
be fertilized with the spermatozoon of var. univalens, in which
the germ cell has only one chromosome and that smaller than
either of the two in the other variety, three chromosomes
reappear, two large and one small, in the cleavage divisions of
the resulting hybrid embryo. Zur Strassen's observations on the
giant embryos of Ascaris also support Boveri's theory. These
embryos arise by the fusion of eggs, either before or after fertiliza-
tion. The number of chromosomes in the subsequent cleavage-
figures is proportional to the number of nuclei that have fused
together. Similar results are given by Boveri's (1893-1895)
and T. H. Morgan's (1895) experiments on the fertilization of
enucleated sea-urchin egg-fragments; all the nuclei of the
resulting embryo having only half the number of chromosomes
characteristic of the species {e.g. in Echinus 9 instead of 18).
All the above facts point to the conclusion that, as Boveri
expressed it in his Grundgesetz der Zahlenkonstanz (1888),
" the number of chromosomes arising from a resting nucleus
is solely dependent on the number which originally entered into
its composition." 6

6 Cf. Boveri, 1904, p. 13. (For Boveri's criticism of Delage's
views, cf. Boveri, 1901 and 1902.)

6 It should, however, be noted that the assumption that a particular
group of characters remains always associated in a particular
chromosome is one that is very difficult to reconcile with the mode
of inheritance of Mendelian pairs of characters in the case of organisms
with a relatively small chromosome number.

CYTOLOGY

717

Boveri's Law of Proportional Nuclear Growth. — The chromatin
in the nucleus is exactly halved at every cell-division. As the
bulk of the chromatin remains constant from one cell-generation
to another, it must double its bulk between successive divisions.
That this proportional growth of the chromatin is dependent
solely on the chromatin mass, and not on that of the cell, is very
clearly indicated by cases where the normal chromatin mass
has been artificially increased or reduced, 1 the chromatin in
either case doubling its bulk between successive cell-divisions,
and neither the mass of the chromatin nor the number of the
chromosomes undergoing any readjustment. By double or
partial fertilization, different regions in the same embryo may
show nuclei of different sizes (Boveri). We must therefore
distinguish in the cell between " young " and " adult " chro-
matin. In other words the chromatin must be regarded as being
composed of individual units, each with a definite constant
structure and maximum growth (Boveri, 1904). This conclusion
is strongly suggested, not only by the evidence in favour of the
individuality of the chromosomes considered above, but also by
the independent reproductive activity of the chromatin granules
in the prophase of mitosis.

Differentiation among the Chromosomes. — If we grant the
assumption of a persistent individuality for the chromosomes,
then it becomes possible to consider whether in one and the same
nucleus these structures may not take varying parts in controlling
the cell's activity in development and in inheritance. Such a
differentiation among the chromosomes would be due to in-
dependent ancestry rather than to the economy resulting from
a division of labour; nevertheless a division of labour of a sort
would be the result of this gradual divergence of the chromo-
somes from one another, and we might therefore expect that, in
some cases at least, a morphological would accompany the
physiological differentiation. Examples of such a morphological
differentiation do indeed occur in the " accessory " chromosomes
first described by H. Henking (1891) for the spermatogonia of
Pyrrhocoris, and since described for numerous other insects,

From Boveri's Ergebnisse «. d. Konstitulitm der chromatischen Substanz des
Zellkerns, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 9. — Preparation for Mitosis, a, Spermatogonium of Brachystola
magna with resting nucleus; 6, Same with prophase for mitosis.
(After Sutton.)

Arachnids and Myriapods. W. Sutton's work on the spermato-
genesis of Brachystola magna is of especial interest in this con-
nexion. Not only does the "accessory chromosome" in this
insect form a resting nucleus independent, and obviously physio-
logically differentiated from that formed from the remaining
chromosomes (fig. 9, a), but the latter are themselves
differentiated by size, there being one pair of chromosomes of
each size (fig. 9^ b), a point of considerable interest when we
remember that half the chromosomes in each cell are necessarily
derived from each parent. 3

Although this morphological differentiation among the
chromosomes is undoubtedly to be regarded as indicating a
corresponding physiological differentiation, it by no means

1 Boveri (1902), " Fertilization of enucleated Echinus-egg frag-
ments," and M. Boveri (1903); by shaking the egg shortly after
fertilization the sperm centrosome is prevented from dividing, and
a monaster instead of a diaster results, the divided chromosomes
remaining in the one nucleus.

' Cf . especially in this connexion Hacker's paper fiber die Schicksale
der elterlichen und grosselterlichen Kernanteile (1902).

follows that the latter need always, or even generally, be accom-
panied by the former. Since, however, the specific characters
of the organism must be due to the combined activity of all
the chromosomes, any physiological differentiation among the
latter should result in abnormal development if the full com-
plement of chromosomes be not present. 3 Boveri, 4 utilizing
Herbst's method 5 for separating echinoderm blastomeres, has
interpreted in this manner the abnormal development which
H. Driesch 6 found almost invariably to follow the double
fertilization of the sea-urchin egg. In such eggs the first cleavage
spindle is four-poled. The chromosomes are half again as
numerous as in normally fertilized eggs (54 instead of 36), but
each is only divided once, so that in the distribution of the
resulting 108 chromosomes the four daughter nuclei receive
each only 27 instead of 36 (assuming the distribution to be fairly
equal, which is by no means usually the case in four-poled
mitosis). Driesch had already (1900) shown that any one of
the first four blastomeres of a normally fertilized egg will, if
isolated, develop normally. Boveri found that in the case of
the doubly fertilized egg the isolated " f " blastomeres develop
very variously, a variability only to be accounted for by their
varying chromosome equipment. Occasionally a three-poled
instead of a four-poled figure resulted from double fertilization.
In such cases Driesch found, as we should expect from Boveri's
interpretation, that the percentage of approximately normal
larvae was considerably greater; for not only would the chances
of an equal distribution of the chromosomes be much greater,
but the number received by each of the three daughter cells
would approximate to, or even equal, the normal.

Reduction. — In all the Metazoa the prevailing, and in the
higher forms the only, method of reproduction is by the union
(conjugation) of two " sexually " differentiated germ-cells or
" gametes "; a small motile " microgamete " or spermatozoon
and a large yolk-laden " macrogamete " or ovum (see Repro-
duction) . This differentiation between the germ-cells is another
example of the advantages of division of labour; for while the
onus of bringing about the union of the germ-cells is thrown
entirely on the spermatozoon, the egg devotes itself to the
accumulation of food-material (yolk) for the subsequent use
of the developing embryo. Far more yolk is thus secreted than
would be possible by the combined efforts of both the germ-cells
had each of these at the same time to preserve its motility. The
fundamental physiological difference which this division of
labour has produced in the germ-cells is reflected on to, the
general metabolism of the parents and underlies the sexual
differentiation of the latter. 7 Beyond this, however, sexual
differentiation does not go. The two germ nuclei which enter into
the formation of the first mitotic figure of the developing egg
are not only physiologically equivalent, but, at the time of their
union in the egg, are usually morphologically identical. 8 The
essence of fertilization is, therefore, the union of two germ nuclei
only differing from one another in that they are derived from
separate individuals. 9 Since the number of chromosomes
appearing in mitosis is solely dependent on the number which

3 Each nucleus contains a duplicate set of chromosomes, the one
of maternal, the other of paternal origin, and either of these sets
alone suffices for development. This is clearly shown by the ex-
periments of Loeb (1899) and Wilson (1901) on the artificial partheno-
genesis of the sea-urchin egg; and those of O. Hertwig (1889 and
1895), Delage (1899) and Winkler (1901), on the fertilization of
enucleated Echinoderm eggs (Merogony] Delage). The fact that in
some forms, e.g. Ascaris megalocephala var. univalens, only one
chromosome is derived from each parent, originally led Boveri to
conclude that all chromosomes must necessarily be physiologically
equivalent.

4 liber mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns
(1902).

6 Uber das Auseinandergehen von Furchungs- und Gewebezellen in
kalkfreien Medium (1900).

6 ' Entwicklungsmechanische Studien V." (Zeit. fiir wiss. Z00L,
Bd. lv., 1892).

7 See Geddes and Thomson, Sex, esp. pp. 127, 137 and 139.

8 The equivalence of the germ nuclei in development is shown by
the experiments on the fertilization of enucleated eggs and artificial
parthenogenesis already referred to.

9 O. Hertwig, 1873; but esp. van Beneden, 1883.

718

CYTOLOGY

originally entered into the composition of the nucleus (Boveri's
Law of Chromosome-Constancy), it follows that, in the mitotic
figures of the developing embryo, the chromosomes will be half
maternal, half paternal in origin ; 1 the germ nuclei thus
necessarily possessing only half the number of chromosomes
characteristic of the ordinary tissue cells of species, i.e. the
somatic number. 2 The manner in which this " reduction " in
the number of chromosomes in the germ-cells is brought about,
and the significance to be attached to the process, constitute
the most hotly debated questions in cytology. In all the metazoa
the phenomenon of reduction is associated with the two last and,
usually, rapidly succeeding " maturation " divisions by which
the definitive germ-cells — ova or spermatozoa — are produced. 3

Assuming the persistent individuality of the chromosomes,
then there are only three conceivable methods by which this
numerical reduction can be brought about (Boveri, 1904, p. 60).
(1) One-half the chromosomes degenerate. (2) The chromosomes
are distributed entire, half to one daughter cell, half to the other
(reducing division of Weismann, 1887). (3) The chromosomes
fuse in pairs (Conjugation of the Chromosomes, Boveri, 1892).
The first possibility — that of an actual degeneration of a part of
the chromatin originally suggested by van Beneden and adopted
by August Weismann, Boveri and others, has been long
abandoned, and a steadily increasing bulk of evidence is tending
to prove the general, if not universal, occurrence of the second
method — the distribution between the daughter cells of un-
divided chromosomes. The occurrence of such a " reducing
division " was postulated on theoretical grounds by Weismann
(1887) 4 and by Boveri (1888); by the former as a result of his
adoption of de Vries's hypothesis of self-propagating and qualita-
tively varying units for the chromatin; by the latter in relation
to his theory of chromosome individuality. The actual occurrence
of this reducing division was first demonstrated by Henking
(1891) for Pyrrhocoris, and afterwards by Hacker, vom Rath
and many others, but especially by Ruckert (1894) for Cyclops
(fig. 10). In this latter type the chromatin of the oocyte, as
this prepares for the first maturation division, resolves itself
into 1 2 (instead of 24) longitudinally split chromosomes (fig. 10, a).
As these continue to thicken and contract a transverse fission
appears (fig. 10, c). This is to be regarded as a belated segmenta-
tion of the spireme thread, and shows that the reduction so far
is only a "pseudo-reduction" (Ruckert), the chromosomes
being really all present but temporally united in pairs, i.e.
"bivalent" (Hacker). A striking confirmation of this inter-
pretation is provided by Korschelt's description of reduction
in the annelid Ophryotrocha. In this type the full somatic number
of split chromosomes (here only four) appears, and these
secondarily associate end to end in pairs, thus forming split
" diads " {i.e. tetrads), in every way similar to those described
by Ruckert for Cyclops. In the latter type, at the first matura-
tion division, the sister diads are separated from one another,
an " equating " division thus taking place. At the second
division the diads are resolved into their constituent parts, and
the " univalent " chromosomes are distributed to the daughter

1 Hacker, " Uber die Selbststandigkeit der vaterlichen und
miitterlichen Kernbestandteile," Arch.f. mikr. Anat. Bd. xlvi. (1896).

2 First discovered by van Beneden (1883, 1887) for the egg of
Ascaris.

3 In the case of the egg the whole of the yolk stored by the
" oocyte " (cell-generation immediately preceding the maturation
divisions) is handed on to only one of the four resulting cells — an
obvious economy. The three yolkless cells are necessarily function-
less — abortive ova — and are known as the " polar bodies " (Hertwig).
In spermatogenesis the maturation divisions, though bearing the
same relation to reduction as in oogenesis (Platner, 1889 ; O. Hertwig,
1890), give rise to four functional germ-cells. The explanation of
sexual differentiation given above, and that of polar body formation
given here, render it needless to do more than mention the theories
of Mimot (1877), van Beneden (1883) and others, by which "matura-
tion " was regarded as removing the " male " element from the
otherwise " hermaphrodite " egg.

' Weismann postulated a transverse division of the chromosomes,
not a distribution of entire chromosomes; but the result as far as
the reduction in the number of hereditary qualities goes is the same.
The inability of the mitotic mechanism to effect the transverse
division of unsplit chromosomes is pointed out by Boveri (1904).

cells (reducing division). A similar process has since been
described for numerous other types {e.g. various arthropods,
Hacker, 1895-1898; vom Rath, 1895; and by Sutton for
Brachystola, 190 2- 1903). In Ophryotrocha, as in Pyrrhocoris
(Henking), Anasa (Paulmeir), Peripatus (Montgomery), &c,

6

Entwicklungsgeschichte d.

From Korschelt and Heider's Lehrbuch d. ver
wirbellosen Tiere, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 10. — Maturation Divisions, a-d, Formation of the tetrads in
Cyclops. (After Ruckert.) e, 1st maturation division; separation
of the bivalent sister chromosomes. /, 2nd maturation division;
distribution of the univalent chromosomes.

reduction occurs at the first maturation division ("pre-reduction"
of Korschelt and Heider, 1900), instead of at the second division
(post-reduction) as in most Copepods and Orthoptera. In
many cases the tetrads (i.e. split chromosomes associated in
pairs) have the form of rings, the genesis of which was first
clearly determined by vom Rath (1892) in the mole cricket
Gryllotalpa (fig. n). In this form the sister diads remain united

b c

From Prof. E. B. Wilson's The Cell in Development and Inheritance, by permission
of the author and of the Macmillan Co., N. Y.

Fig. 11. — Maturation Divisions. Origin of the tetrads by ring
formation in the spermatogenesis of the mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa)
(vom Rath), a, Primary spermatocyte with six split, bivalent
chromosomes, b and c, Split has opened out. d, Concentration of
the chromatin has made visible the belated transverse division.
e and /, Grouping of the completed tetrads in the equatorial plate
of the first maturation division.

by their ends but widely separate in the middle (fig. 11,6). As
in Cyclops, the belated transverse segmentation appears as the
condensation of the chromatin proceeds (fig. 11, d), but the
symmetrical tetrads which this process here produces make
it impossible to determine at which of the two divisions reduction
is effected. An essentially similar ring formation occurs in

CYTOLOGY

719

Enchaeta and Calanus (vom Rath) , and in the Copepods Hetero-
cope and Diaptomus (Riickert), and in other types. 1

All the above cases, in which the reduction is effected by
the distribution of entire chromosomes at one or other of the
maturation divisions, may be grouped together as " pseudo-
mitotic " (Hacker, and Korschelt & Heider). In sharp
contrast to the pseudomitotic method is the " Eumitotic "
method, in which the chromosomes are longitudinally divided
at both divisions. Such a method not only robs the process of
any " reducing " value in Weismann's sense, but is in serious
conflict with the chromosome-individuality hypothesis. Never-
theless it is in this sense that Boveri (1881) and van Beneden
(1883-1887) described the maturation of the egg, and at a later
period Brauer (1893) that of the spermatozoon, in Ascaris. In
each case the tetrads are formed by the double longitudinal
splitting of the chromosomes, the latter appearing in the prophase
in the reduced number. Not only was the eumitotic method
of Ascaris the first method to be described, but the descriptions
are fully equal in point of clearness to that of Hertwig for the
pseudomitotic maturation of Cyclops. 2 A similar eumitotic
maturation has been described for other types also, e.g. Sagitta
arid the Heteropods, but nowhere more frequently than in the
Vertebrates among animals and the Phanerogams among plants.
In these two latter groups the chromosomes of the reducing
division only rarely have a ring form comparable to that seen
in Gryllotalpa, &c. When such rings do occur their genesis is very
obscure, and at no time do they present the appearance of
" tetrads." It is the characteristic appearance these looped
chromosomes give to the first maturation division in many
Vertebrates, and especially in the Amphibia (fig. 12), that
originally led Hemming (1887) to term this type of mitosis

b c

From O. Hertwig, AUgemeine Biologic, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 12. — Heterotypical Mitosis. (Schematic, after Flemming.)

" heterotypical " ; the second division, lacking this peculiar
appearance, being distinguished as " homotypical." Until
quite recently these looped chromosomes of the heterotypical
mitosis of Vertebrates (and plants) were described as arising
by the opening out of longitudinally split chromosomes, exactly
as this occurs in the early prophase of the maturation divisions
in such types as Gryllotalpa, Diaptomus, &c. In the heterotype
mitosis, however, no transverse segmentation appears, and the
halves of the rings, as they separate in the first division, show
an obvious longitudinal split in preparation for the second
division. 3 Both divisions were thus interpreted as equating
divisions. 4 The more recent works of Farmer and Moore (1903-
1905), Montgomery (1903, Amphibia), and (for plants) Stras-
burger (1903-1904) have shown, however, that even for the
higher plants and animals, a reducing division in Weismann's
sense occurs in an essentially similar manner to that so con-
vincingly described by Riickert, vom Rath and others, for

1 For an exhaustive account of reduction in Invertebrates see
Korschelt and Heider, Entwicklungsgeschichte, Allgem. Teil li.
(Jena, 1903).

2 Nevertheless the possibility of a pseudomitotic interpretation of
maturation in Ascaris also has been maintained by O. Hertwig
(1890), p. 277, Carnoy and Boveri (1904).

3 The partial or even complete reconstruction of the nucleus
between the heterotype and homotype division in Vertebrates makes
it difficult to determine the identity of the split seen in the anaphase
of the heterotype with that reappearing in the prophase of the
homotype.

4 e.g. Moore, 1895 (Scyllium) ; Flemming, 1897; Carnoy and
Lebrun, 1899 {Amphibia); McGregor, 1899; Lenhossek, 1898

' (mammals), and many others. So also for plants: Strasburger
and Mottier, 1897; Dixon, 1896; Sargant, 1896-1897; Farmer and
Moore, 1895; Gregoire, 1899; Guignard, 1899, &c.

Invertebrate types. For the chromosomes of the heterotype
mitosis arise by the looping round, not opening out, of the
bivalent chromosomes. The first division is thus a reducing
division, while the split appearing in the anaphase of the hetero-
type and presumably reappearing in the prophase of the homo-
type is the original split of the spireme thread.

The widespread, if not universal, formation of tetrads, i.e.
the temporary union in pairs of split chromosomes, in reduction,
and the relation this latter process always bears to two rapidly
succeeding maturation divisions — those completing the gameto-
genic cycle in animals and terminating the sporophytic generation
in plants, — has received a suggestive explanation at the hands
of Boveri (1904). The growth of the chromatin is an indispens-
able prelude to its reproduction (Boveri's Law of Proportional
Growth). The chromatin is therefore incapable of undergoing
reproductive fission in two successive mitotic divisions when
these are not separated by a resting (i.e. growth) period. In
addition to this, the " bipolar " condition of the adult chromo-
somes, which determines its mode of attachment to mantle
fibres from both poles of the spindle, is not possessed by the
unripe chromatin. The undivided, i.e. unripe, chromosomes are
therefore incapable of utilizing the mitotic mechanism for
such a transverse fission as Weismann originally postulated.
The difficulty is, however, at once overcome if the unripe chromo-
somes are associated in pairs in the equatorial plate, for the
bivalent chromosomes so produced are bipolar just as are the
adult {i.e. split) chromosomes in the ordinary and homotype
mitosis. 5

Synapsis (avvimruv, to fuse together). — During the prophase
of the reducing or heterotype divisions the whole of the chromatin
becomes temporarily massed together at one pole of the nucleus
(Moore, 1896, for Elasmobranchs). Montgomery (1901) has
suggested that this is to facilitate the temporary union in pairs,
or " conjugation " of homologous paternal and maternal chromo-
somes. In Ascaris megalocephala var. univalens, where the
somatic number is only two, the association must necessarily
be between homologous chromosomes. The assumption that this
" selective pairing " of equivalent chromosomes is universal
is supported by the behaviour of the " Heterochromosomes "
(Montgomery) of the Hemiptera. These chromosomes, dis-
tinguished by their size, are paired before, and single after, the
" pseudoreduction " has taken place. Even more convincing
is Sutton's account of reduction in Brachystola already referred
to. 6 Boveri (1904) has suggested that this temporary association
of the chromosomes — presumably facilitated by the synapsis —
has a much deeper meaning than to ensure their correct dis-
tribution between the daughter nuclei in the heterotype mitosis;
the associated chromosomes exchanging material in a manner
analogous to conjugation in Paramoecium?

Present Position of the Cell-theory. — Since the time of
Schleiden and Schwann a wealth of evidence has accumulated
in support of the " cell-theory " — the theory which regards the
cell as the unit of organic structure. " The organism consists

6 H. Henking (1899), T. Montgomery (1898) and F. C. Paulmeir
(1899) describe the diverging bivalent halves of the tetrad as being
united each by two fibres with the corresponding spindle pole. At
the next division, at which the diad is resolved into its constituent
univalent chromosomes, the daughter chromosomes are attached to
the spindle pole each by only one fibre; the two fibres now passing
to opposite poles of the spindle being the same fibres which, in the
preceding mitosis, were attached to one and the same pole.

6 Reference may be here made to Rosenberg's description (1904)
of the heterotype mitosis in Drosera hybrids. In the one parent
(D. rotundifolia) the somatic number is 20, in the other {D. longifolia)
10; while the hybrid itself has a somatic number of 30. The
reduced number in the hybrid, however, is not 15 but 20. Of these
10 are large and 10 small, the latter presumably representing the
supernumerary, and hence unpaired, chromosomes of the D. rotundi-
folia parent.

7 In their 1905 paper J. B. Farmer and J. E. S. Moore describe
two successive synaptic stages {e.g. Elasmobranchs), the first during
the contraction of the spireme thread, the second during the looping
up of the bivalent segments. (In this paper the authors suggest the
term " Meiosis " or " Meiotic phase " for the nuclear changes
accompanying the two maturation divisions in plants and animals
(neioio-Ls, reduction).

J20

CYTOLOGY— CYZICUS

morphologically, of cells, and subsists, physiologically, by means
of the ' reciprocal action ' of the cells," — this was the cell stand-
point of Schleiden and Schwann, and it is no exaggeration to say
that this same conception has dominated the cell-theory almost
to the present day. 1 The frequently striking correlation between
cell-division and cell-differentiation in development has caused
this process to be regarded as dependent on cell-division, while
a wholly exaggerated importance has been attached to the
distinction between "unicellular" and "multicellular" organ-
isms — between " intercellular " and " intracellular " organs.
The influence of the " cells " upon one another, the subordination
of the cell's growth, division and differentiation, to the require-
ments of the whole organism — seen in normal growth, but
nowhere more strikingly than in development and regeneration, —
is, however, very difficult of explanation in terms of the cell-
theory as this was, until quite recently, generally understood.
The very elaborate regional differentiation of the protoplasm
often seen in the Protozoa sufficiently indicate that multi-
cellular structure is no essential condition for complex regional
differentiation. That the regional differentiation of the proto-
plasm in the Metazoa should usually correspond with cell-limits
is scarcely surprising. Nor is it to be wondered at that, with so
convenient a mechanism for segregation to hand as cell-division,
the progressive differentiation seen during development should
often appear to go hand in hand with this process. In recent
years, however, evidence has been steadily accumulating to show
that this association between cell-division and regional dif-
ferentiation of the protoplasm in development is a casual one —
as casual, and as natural, as the correspondence between cell
limits and regional differentiation in the formed tissues. The
fact that the regional differentiation may be foreshadowed in the
egg before cleavage begins, 2 — that as Driesch has shown, the
mode of cleavage may be artificially altered without affecting
the ultimate organization of the embryo, — and many other
similar observations, tend to emphasize the importance of the
" organism " standpoint (C. O. Whitman, 1903, p. 642) in
contradistinction to the widely prevalent "cell" standpoint.
The occurrence of syncytial organs and organisms, and the
increasing frequency with which protoplasmic continuity is
being demonstrated between all kinds of cells, are facts tending
in the same direction. In the plant kingdom the growth of the
mass has been recognized as the primary factor in development; 3
die Pflanse bildet Zellen, nicht die Zelle bildet Pflanzen (de Bary).
For the animal kingdom this " Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory
of Development " has been maintained amongst others by
Whitman, 4 and by Adam Sedgwick. 5 The latter author,
mainly as the result of work on the development of Peripatus
and of Elasmobranch embryos, regards the developing embryo
as a continuous protoplasmic reticulum, for the nuclei of which
the limiting epithelial layers constitute as it were a breeding
ground. Differentiation is a regional specialization of this
nucleated meshwork, and is not to be regarded as the result of
the proliferation and subsequent specialization of cells pre-
destined by cleavage for this end.

. It is possible to suggest a mechanico-physical explanation of
multicellular structure which will deprive the cell of much of its
assumed significance as a unit of organization. The fact that
surface area becomes relatively less extensive as bulk increases
would alone set a limit to the size of " unicellular " organisms;
for not only is there a constant reaction between nucleus and
cytoplasm through the nuclear membrane, but the surface of
the cell serves both for the intake of food and the elimination of
waste material. In addition to the limit thus imposed upon the
cytoplasmic area which can be effectually controlled by the
nucleus, and the necessity for a minimum surface area to the
protoplasmic mass, the advantages of the more or less complete

1 Whitman, Jour. Morph., 1903.

'This "Precocious segregation" (Lankester, 1877) is well seen
in the eggs of many Ctenophorae, Annelids, Gastropods and Nema-
todes. See the papers by Lillie (1901), Conklin (1902), &c., and
especially Wilson on " Dentalium," Journ. of Exp. Zool., No. I, 1904.

* Hofmeister, de Bary, Sachs, &c. ' * Loc. oil.

6 Quart. Journ. Micro. Science, 1894, vol. xxxvii.

subdivision of the living substance into — as far as their meta-
bolism is concerned — semi-autonomous units, is indicated by
the mechanical support derived from the specialized cell walls
and turgescent cells of the plant, and the intercellular secretions
of the animal tissues. It is more than possible that these two
conditions — i.e. surface area for diffusion, and mechanical
support — are alone responsible for the origin of multicellular
structure, and that the sharply defined character this now so
generally possesses has been secondarily acquired as a result
of the facilities it undoubtedly offers for regional specialization
in the protoplasmic mass.

Bibliography. — The special literature of cytology has grown to
large dimensions. The following, are the more important text-
books and papers of general interest: E. B. Wilson, The Cell in
Development and Inheritance (2nd ed., 1900); A. Gurwitsch,
Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle (Jena, 1904); O. Hertwig, Allge-
meine Biologie (Jena, 1906); Korschelt and Heider, Lehrbuch der
vergl. Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Tiere, Allgem. Teil,
"The Germ Cells and Experimental Embryology" (Jena, 1903);
Whitman, " The Inadequacy of the Cell Theory of Development,"
Journ. Morph. viii., 1893; Adam Sedgwick, "On the Inadequacy
of the Cellular Theory of Development," Quart. Journ. Micro.
Science, xxxvii. ; G. C. Bourne, " A Criticism of the Cell Theory "
(an answer to Sedgwick's paper), Quart. Journ. Micro. Science,
xxxviii.; Th. Boveri, " Befruchtung," Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse
der Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch. Bd. i. (1892), Das Problem der
Befruchtung (Jena, 1902), Ergebnisse iiber die Konstitution der
chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns (Jena, 1904) ; J. Riickert, " Die
Chromatinreduktion bei der Reifung der Sexualzellen," Merkel-
Bonnets Ergebnisse, Bd. iii. (1894) ; V. Hacker, " Die Reifungs-
erscheinungen," Ergebn. Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch. Bd. viii. (1898) ;
F. Meves, " Zellteilung," Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse, Bd. viii. (1898,
1899); W. Waldeyer, "Die Geschlechtszellen," in O. Hertwig's
Handbuch der vergleich. u. experiment. Entwicklungslehre d. Wirbeltiere
(1901,1903). (G. C. C.)

CYZICENUS, the architectural term given by Vitruvius to
the large hall, used by the Greeks, which faced the north, with
a prospect towards the gardens; the windows of this hall
opened down to the ground, so that the green verdure could be
seen by those lying on the couches.

CYZICUS, an ancient town of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated
on the shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh
(Arctonnesus), which is said to have been originally an island
in the Sea of Marmora, and to have been artificially connected
with the mainland in historic times. It was, according to tradi-
tion, occupied by Thessalian settlers at the coming of the
Argonauts, and in 756 B.C. the town was founded by Greeks
from Miletus. Owing to its advantageous position it speedily
acquired commercial importance, and the gold staters of Cyzicus
were a staple currency in the ancient world till they were super-
seded by those of Philip of Macedon. During the Peloponnesian
War (431-404 B.C.) Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and
Lacedaemonians alternately, and at the peace of Antalcidas
(387 B.C.), like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over
to Persia. The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely
connected with that of the dynasts of Pergamum, with whose
extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus
was held for the Romans against Mithradates in 74 B.C. till the
siege was raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded
by an extension of territory and other privileges. Still a
flourishing centre in Imperial times, the place appears to have
been ruined by a series of earthquakes — the last in a.d. 1063 —
and the population was transferred to Artaki at least as early
as the 13 th century, when the peninsula was occupied by the
Crusaders. The site is now known as Bal-Kiz (IlaXaio Kvfiras?)
and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. The
principal extant ruins are: — the walls, which are traceable for
nearly their whole extent, a picturesque amphitheatre intersected
by a stream, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian.
Of this magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven
wonders of the ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still
stood erect in 1444. These have since been carried away piece-
meal for building purposes by the Turks.

See J. Marquardt, Cyzicus (Berlin, 1830) ; G. Perrot, Exploration
de la Galatie (Paris, 1862); F. W. Hasluck and A. E. Henderson in
Journal of Hellenic Studies (1904), 135-143. (F. W. Ha.)

CZARNIECKI— CZARTORYSKI, A. G.

721

CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN (1599-1665), Polish general, learnt
the science of war under Stanislaw Koniecpolski in the Prussian
campaigns against Gustavus Adolphus (1626-1629), and under
Wladislaus IV. in the Muscovite campaign of 1633. On the 15th
of April 1648 he was one of the many noble Polish prisoners who
fell into the hands of Chmielnicki at the battle of " Yellow
Waters," and was sent in chains to the Crimea, whence he was
ransomed in 1649. He took an active part in all the subsequent
wars with the Cossacks and received more disfiguring wounds
than any other commander. When Charles X. of Sweden in-
vaded Poland in 1655, Czarniecki distinguished himself by his
heroic defence of Cracow, which he only surrendered under the
most honourable conditions. His energy and ability as a leader
of guerillas hampered Charles X. at every step, and though
frequently worsted he from time to time inflicted serious defeats
upon the Swedes, notably at Jaroslaw and at Kozienice in 1656.
Under his direction the popular rising against the invader ulti-
mately proved triumphant. It was he who brought King John
Casimir back from exile and enabled him to regain his lost
kingdom. It was against his advice that the great battle of
Warsaw was fought, and his subsequent strategy neutralized
the ill effects of that national disaster. On the retirement of
the Swedes from Cracow and Warsaw, and the conclusion of the
treaty of Copenhagen with the Danes, he commanded the army
corps sent to drive the troops of Charles X. out of Jutland and
greatly contributed to the ultimate success of the Allies. On
the conclusion of the Peace of Oliva, which adjusted the long
outstanding differences between Poland and Sweden, Czarniecki
was transferred to the eastern frontier where the war with
Muscovy was still raging. In the campaign of 1660 he won the
victories of Polonka and Lachowicza and penetrated to the heart
of the enemy's country. The diet of 1661 publicly thanked him
for his services; the king heaped honours and riches upon him,
and in 1665 he was appointed acting commander-in-chief of
Poland, but died a few days after receiving this supreme
distinction. By his wife Sophia Kobierzycka he left two
daughters. Czarniecki is rightly regarded as one of the most
famous of heroic Poland's great captains, and to him belongs
the chief merit of extricating her from the difficulties which
threatened to overwhelm her during the disastrous reign of
John Casimir. Czarniecki raised partisan-warfare to the dignity
of a science, and by his ubiquity and tenacity demoralized and
exhausted the regular armies to which he was generally opposed.

See Ludwik Jenike, Stephen Czarniecki (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1891);
Michal Dymitr Krajewski, History of Stephen Czarniecki (Pol.),
(Cracow, 1859).

CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE, Prince (1770-1861),
Polish statesman, was the son of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski
and Isabella Fleming. After a careful education at home by
eminent specialists, mostly Frenchmen, 1 he first went abroad
in 1786. At Gotha he heard Goethe read his Iphigenie auf
Tauris, and made the acquaintance of the dignified Herder and
" fat little Wieland." In 1789 he visited England with his
mother, and was present at the trial of Warren Hastings. On a
second visit in 1793 he made many acquaintances among the
English aristocracy and studied the English constitution. In
the interval between these visits he fought for his country
during the war of the second partition, and would subsequently
have served under Kosciuszko also had he not been arrested on
his way to Poland at Brussels by the Austrian government.
After the third, partition the estates of the Czartoryskis were
confiscated, and in May 1795 Adam and his younger brother
Constantine were summoned to St Petersburg; later in the year
they were commanded to enter the Russian service, Adam
becoming an officer in the horse, and Constantine in the foot
guards. Catherine was so favourably impressed by the youths
that she restored them part of their estates, and in the beginning
of 1796 made them gentlemen in waiting. Adam had already
met the grand duke Alexander at a ball at the princess Golitsuin's,
and the youths at once conceived a strong " intellectual friend-
ship " for each other. On the accession of the emperor Paul,

1 Among them was the famous democrat Dupont de Nemours.

Czartoryski was appointed adjutant to Alexander, now Cesarevich,
and was permitted to revisit his Polish estates for three months.
At this time the tone of the Russian court was extremely liberal,
humanitarian enthusiasts like Peter Volkonsky and Nikolai
Novosiltsov possessing great influence.

Throughout the reign of Paul, Czartoryski was in high favour
and on terms of the closest intimacy with the emperor, who in
December 1798 appointed him ambassador to the court of
Sardinia. On reaching Italy Czartoryski found that the monarch
to whom he was accredited was a king without a kingdom, so
that the outcome of his first diplomatic mission was a pleasant
tour through Italy to Naples, the acquisition of the Italian
language, and a careful exploration of the antiquities of Rome.
In the spring of 1801 the new emperor Alexander summoned his
friend back to St Petersburg. Czartoryski found the tsar still
suffering from remorse at his father's assassination, and incapable
of doing anything but talk religion and politics to a small circle
of private friends. To all remonstrances he only replied " There's
plenty of time." The senate did most of the current business;
Peter Vasilevich Zavadovsky, a pupil of the Jesuits, was minister
of education. Alexander appointed Czartoryski curator of the
academy of Vilna (April 3, 1803) that he might give full play
to his advanced ideas. He was unable, however, to give much
attention to education, for from the beginning of 1804, as
adjunct of foreign affairs, he had the practical control of Russian
diplomacy. His first act was to protest energetically against
the murder of the due d'Enghien (March 20, 1804), and insist
on an immediate rupture with France. On the 7th of June the
French minister Hedouville quitted St Petersburg; and on the
nth of August a note dictated by Czartoryski to Alexander
was sent to the Russian minister in London, urging the formation
of an anti-French coalition. It was Czartoryski also who framed
the Convention of the 6th of November 1804, whereby Russia
agreed to put 115,000 and Austria 235,000 men in the field
against Napoleon. Finally, on the nth of April 1805 he signed
an offensive-defensive alliance with England. But his most
striking ministerial act was a memorial written in 1805, but
otherwise undated, which aimed at transforming the whole map
of Europe. In brief it amounted to this. Austria and Prussia
were to divide Germany between them. Russia was to acquire
the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus with
Constantinople, and Corfu. Austria was to have Bosnia,
Wallachia and Ragusa. Montenegro, enlarged by Mostar and
the Ionian Islands, was to form a separate state. England and
Russia together were to maintain the equilibrium of the world.
In return for their acquisitions in Germany, Austria and Prussia
were to consent to the erection of an autonomous Polish state
extending from Danzig to the sources of the Vistula, under the
protection of Russia. Fantastic as it was in some particulars,
this project was partly realized 2 in more recent times, and it
presented the best guarantee for the independent existence of
Poland which had never been able to govern itself. But in
the meantime Austria had come to an understanding with
England as to subsidies, and war had begun.

In 1805 Czartoryski accompanied Alexander both to Berlin
and Olmiitz as chief minister. He regarded the Berlin visit as a
blunder, chiefly owing to his profound distrust of Prussia;
but Alexander ignored his representations, and in February
1807 he lost favour and was superseded by Andrei Eberhard
Budberg. But though no longer a minister Czartoryski continued
to enjoy Alexander's confidence in private, and in 1810 the
emperor candidly admitted to Czartoryski that his policy in
1805 had been erroneous and he had not made a proper use of his
opportunities. The same year Czartoryski quitted St Petersburg
for ever; but the personal relations between him and Alexander
were never better. The friends met again at Kalisch shortly
before the signature of the Russo-Prussian alliance of the
20th of February 1813, and Czartoryski was in the emperor's
suite at Paris in 1814, and rendered his sovereign material
services at the congress of Vienna.

On the erection of the congressional kingdom of Poland

! e.g. Austria obtained Bosnia, and Montenegro has been enlarged.

72 2

CZARTORYSKI, F. M.— CZECH

every one thought that Czartoryski, who more than any other
man had prepared the way for it, would be its first governor-
general, but he was content with the title of senator-palatine
and a share in the administration. In 1817 the prince married
Anna Sapiezanko, the wedding leading to a duel with his rival
Pac. On the death of his father in 1823 he retired to his ancestral
castle at Pulawy; but the Revolution of 1830 brought him back
to public life. As president of the provisional government he
summoned (Dec. 18th, 1830) the Diet of 1831, and after the
termination of Chlopicki's dictatorship was elected chief of
the supreme council by 121 out of 138 votes (January 30th).
On the 1 6th of September his disapproval of the popular excesses
at Warsaw caused him to quit the government after sacrificing
half his fortune to the national cause; but it must be admitted
that throughout the insurrection he did not act up to his great
reputation. Yet the energy of the sexagenarian statesman was
wonderful. On the 23rd of August he joined Girolano
Ramorino's army-corps as a volunteer, and subsequently formed
a confederation of the three southern provinces of Kalisch,
Sandomir and Cracow. At the end of the war he emigrated to
France, where he resided during the last thirty years of his life.
He died at his country residence at Montfermeil, near Meaux,
on the 15th of July 1861. He left two sons, Witold (1824-
1865), and Wladyslaus (1828-1894), and a daughter Isabella,
who married Jan Dzialynski in 1857. The principal works of
Czartoryski are Essai sur la diplomatic (Marseilles, 1830);
Life of J. U. Niemcewiez (Pol). (Paris, i860); Alexander T. et
Czartoryski: correspondance . . . et conversations (1801-1823)
(Paris, 1865) ; Memoires et correspondance avec Alex. I., with
preface by C. de Mazade, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); an English
translation Memoirs of Czartoryski, &c, edited by A. Gielguch,
with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and
conversations with Palmerston in 1832 (2 vols., London, 1888).

See Bronislaw Zaleski, Life of Adam Czartoryski (Pol.) (Paris,
1881); Lubomir Gadou, Prince Adam Czartoryski (Pol.) (Cracow,
1892); Ludovik Debicki, Pulawy, vol. iv.; Lubomir Gadon, Prince
Adam Czartoryski during the Insurrection of November (Pol.) (Cracow,
1900). (R. N. B.)

CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL, Prince (1696-1775),
Polish statesman, was born in 1696. Of small means and no
position, he owed his elevation in the world to extraordinary
ability, directed by an energetic but patriotic ambition. After
a careful education on the best French models, which he com-
pleted at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to the
court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming,
the leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of
Lithuania and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the
many Polish nobles who, when Augustus II. was seriously ill
at Bialy vostok in 1727, signed the secret declaration guaranteeing
the Polish succession to his son; but this did not prevent him
from repudiating his obligations when Stanislaus Leszczynski
was placed upon the throne by the influence of France in 1733-
When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735 Czartoryski voted for
Augustus III. (of Saxony), who gladly employed him and his
family to counteract the influence of the irreconcilable Potokis.
For the next forty years Czartoryski was certainly the leading
Polish statesman. In foreign affairs he was the first to favour
an alliance with Russia, Austria and England, as opposed to
France and Prussia— a system difficult to sustain and not always
beneficial to Poland or Saxony. In Poland Czartoryski was at
the head of the party of reform. His palace was the place where
the most promising young gentlemen of the day were educated
and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in the
great work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal
prerogative and the abolition of the liberum veto, an abuse that
made any durable improvement impossible. These patriotic
endeavours made the Czartoryskis very unpopular with the
ignorant szlachta, but for many years they had the firm and
constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Briihl
succeeded Fleming.

Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he
was entrusted with the great seal of Lithuania;. but, after that

date the influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden,
whereupon Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political
opponents at home and foreign support both in England and
Russia. In 1755 he sent his nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski
to St Petersburg as Saxon minister, a mission which failed
completely. Czartoryski's philo-Russian policy had by this
time estranged Briihl, but he frustrated all the plans of the
Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762.
In 1763 he went a step farther and proposed the dethronement
of Augustus III., who died the same year. During the ensuing
interregnum the prince chancellor laboured night and day at
the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the constitution, and it
was with displeasure that he saw his incompetent nephew
Stanislaus finally elected king in 1765. But though disgusted
with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all
hope of the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued
to hold office till the last; and as chancellor of Lithuania he
sealed all the partition treaties. He died in the full possession
of his faculties and was considered by the Russian minister
Repnin " the soundest head in the kingdom." It is a mistake,
however, to regard Czartoryski as the sole reforming statesman
of his day, and despite his great services there were occasions
when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. His
foreign policy, moreover, was very vacillating, and he changed
his " system " more frequently perhaps than any contemporary
diplomatist. But when all is said he must remain one of the
noblest names in Polish history.

See the Correspondence of Czartoryski in the Collections of the
Russian Historical Society, vols. 7, 10, 13, 48, 51, 67 (St Petersburg,
1890, &c.) ; Wladyslaw Tadeusz Kisielewski, Reforms of the Czar-
torysccy (Pol.) (Sambor, 1 880) ; Adalbert Roepell, Poten um die
Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts (Gotha, 1876); Jacques Victor
Albert de Broglie, Le Secret du roi (Paris, 1878) ; Antoni Waliszewki,
The Potoccy and the Czartorysccy (Pol.) ; Carl Heinrich Heyking, vIms
polens und Kurlands letzten Tagen (Berlin, 1897) ; Ludwik Denbicki,
Pulawy (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1887-1888). (R. N. B.)

CZECH (in Bohemian, Cech), a name which signifies an
inhabitant of Cechy, the native designation of Bohemia. The
Czechs belong to the Slavic race, and according to the usually
accepted division they form, together with the Poles and the
almost extinct Lusatians, the group of the Western Slavs.
Speaking generally, it can be said that the Czechs inhabit a large
part of Bohemia, a yet larger part of Moravia, parts of Silesia—
both Austrian and Prussian — and extensive districts in northern
Hungary. In the 19th century the Czechs of Hungary — much
to their own detriment— developed a written language that differs
slightly from that used in Bohemia, but as regards their race they
are identical with the Bohemians and Moravians. Beyond the
borders of this continuous territory there are many Czechs in
Lower Austria. Vienna in particular has a large and increasing
Czech population. There are also numerous Czechs in Russia,
particularly Volhynia, in the United States — where a large num-
ber of newspapers and periodicals are published in the Czech
language — and in London. Though the statistics are very
uncertain and untrustworthy, it can be stated that the Czechs
number about eight millions.

The period at which the Czechs settled in Bohemia is very
uncertain; all theories, indeed, with regard to the advent of the
Slavs in northern and eastern Europe are merely conjectural.
It was formerly generally accepted as a fact that all Bohemia
was originally inhabited by Celtic tribes, who were succeeded
by the Germanic Marcomanni, and later by the Slavic Czechs.
According to a very ancient tradition reproduced in the book of
Gosmas, the earliest Bohemian chronicler, the Czechs arrived in
Bohemia led by their eponymous chief Cechus, and first settled
on the Rip Hill (Georgberg) near Roudnice. It is a strange proof
of the intense obscurity of the earliest Bohemian history that
Cosmas, writing at the beginning of the 12th century, is already
unaware of the existence of pre-Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia
It is historically certain that the Czechs inhabited parts of
Bohemia as early as the 6th century. In the absence of all
historical evidence, modern Czech scholars have endeavoured
by other means to throw some light on the earliest period of the

CZECH

723

Czechs. By craniological studies and a thorough examination
of the fields where the dead were burnt (in Czech zdrove pole),
still found in some parts of Bohemia, they have arrived at the
conclusion that parts of the country were inhabited by Czechs,
or at least by Slavs, long before the Christian era, perhaps about
the year 500 B.C.

It is certain that the Slavs at the time when they first appeared
in history had a common language, known as the ancient Slavic
(praslovansky) language. When in the course of time the Slavs
occupied various countries, which were often widely apart,
different dialects arose among them, many of which were
influenced by the language of the neighbouring non-Slavic
populations. Thus the Czech language from an early period
absorbed many German words. It is probable that the develop-
ment of the Czech language as an independent one, was very
gradual. Existent documents, such as the hymn to St Wenceslas,
which belongs to the second half of the 10th century, are written
partly in old-Slavic, partly in Czech. When the Slavs first
occupied Bohemia, they were probably divided into several
tribes, of which the Czechs, who inhabited Prague and the
country surrounding it, were the most powerful. It is probable
that these smaller tribes were only gradually subdued by the
Czechs and that some of them had previously to their absorp-
tion adopted special dialects. The Netolice, Lucane, Psovane,
Sedlcane appear to have been among the more important tribes
who were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Czechs,
and it may be conjectured that their language for a time differed
slightly from that of their conquerors. The Czech language has,
like all Slavic ones, a strong tendency to develop dialects;
this was the case at the time of its first appearance as an inde-
pendent language, and has to a certain extent continued up to
the present day. The dialects of Moravia and the northern
districts of Hungary still show variations from the generally
accepted forms of the Czech language, though since the founda-
tion of the Czech university of Prague this — at least among the
educated classes — is no longer 'true to the same extent as it
formerly was. The Czech language at the time of its formation
naturally remained closest to those other Slav-speaking countries
which were geographically its neighbours, the Poles and the
Lusatians, and it may be said that this is still the case. The
Czech language at the time when in the 12th and 13th centuries
it first appears as a separate and distinct one, differed consider-
ably from that of the present day. Ancient Czech had several
diphthongs, such as: ia, ie, iu, uo and au, that are unknown to
the present language. The letter " / " had a threefold sound,
and besides the letters b, p, m, v, the softer forms b', p', tri , v',
were also in existence. The letter g (as in other Slavic languages)
was often used where modern Czechs employ the letter h.
Ancient Bohemian had three numbers, the singular, plural and
dual; of the dual only scant vestiges remain in modern Czech.

Once it had obtained its independence, the Czech language
developed rapidly, and the philosophical and theological writings
of Thomas of Stitny (1331-1401) proved that it could already
be used even for dealing with the most abstract subjects, though
Stitny- was blamed by the monks for not writing in Latin, as
was then customary. The Czech language is greatly indebted
also to John Hus, whose best and most original works were
written in the language of his country. Hus showed great
interest in the orthography and grammar of his language, and
has devoted an interesting treatise entitled " Orihographia
bohemica " to it. ' As already mentioned, the Czech language
had sprung from diverse dialects, and Hus endeavoured to
establish uniformity. To the Bohemian reformer is also due
the system of so-called diacritic marks — such as c, u, y — which
with some modifications are still in use. 1 The Latin characters
which were in the earliest times, as again at the present day,
used when writing Czech, are quite unable to reproduce some
sounds peculiar to Slavic languages. This was remedied by the
introduction of these marks, and Hus's system of orthography
became known as the diacritic one. The Bohemian reformer,

1 For the pronunciation of these see the footnote at the beginning
of the article Bohemia.

zealous for the purity of the language of his country, often in his
sermons inveighed quaintly and vehemently against those who
defiled the Czech language by introducing numerous " German-
isms." A century later the Czech language was largely indebted
to the then recently founded community of the Bohemian (or
as they were also often called, Moravian) brethren. A member
of the community. Brother John Blakoslav, wrote in 1571 a
Grammatika Ceskd, that still has considerable philological interest.
It contains a full account of the construction of the Czech
language, based on Latin grammar, with which the writer was
thoroughly acquainted. Divines belonging to the same com-
munity also at the end of the 16th century published at Kralice
in Moravia a complete Czech version of the Old and New Testa-
ments. Together with the Labyrint Sv£ta (Labyrinth of the
World) of Komensky (Comenius), who was also a member of
the brotherhood, it can be considered a model of the Czech
language in the period immediately preceding its downfall.

The Czechs have always enthusiastically upheld the language
of their country. In ancient Czech, indeed, the same word
jazyk denotes both " nation " and " language." As late as in
1608 a decree of the estates of Bohemia declared that Czech was
the only official and recognized state-language, and that all who
wished to acquire citizenship in the country should be obliged
to acquire the knowledge of it. While all patriots thus supported
the national language, it was greatly disliked by the absolutists
who were opposed to the ancient free constitution of Bohemia,
as well as by all who favoured the Church of Rome. The over-
throw of Bohemian independence at the battle of the White
Mountain (1620) was therefore shortly followed by the decline
of the Czech language. All Czech writings which could be found
were destroyed by the Austrian authorities as being tainted with
heresy, while no new books written in Czech appeared, except
occasional prayer-books and almanacs. For these scanty
writings the German so-called " Schwabach " characters were
used, and this custom only ceased in the middle of the 19th
century. The Czech language, for some time entirely excluded
from the schools, all but ceased to be written, and its revival
at the beginning of the 19th century was almost a resurrection.

The first originator of the movement, Joseph Dobrovsky or
Doubravsky- (1753-1829) seems himself, at least at the beginning
of his life, to have considered it impossible that Czech should
again become a widely-spoken language, and one whose literature
could successfully compete with that of larger countries. Yet
it was the works of this "patriarch of Slavic philology" which
first drew the public attention to the half -forgotten Czech
language. Dobrovsky's work was afterwards continued by
Kolar, Jungmann, Palacky, Safafek, and many others, and Czech
literature has, both as regards its value and its extension,
reached a height that in the middle of the 19th century would
have appeared incredible.

. Though met by constant opposition on the part of the Austrian
authorities, the Czechs have succeeded in re-establishing the
use of their language in many of the lower and middle schools of
Bohemia and Moravia, and the foundation of a Czech university
at Prague (1882-1884) has of course contributed very largely
to the ever-increasing expansion of the Czech language. The
national language has at all times appeared to the Bohemians
as the palladium of their nationality and independence, and the
movement in favour of the revival of the Czech language
necessarily became a political one, as soon as circumstances
permitted. The friends of the national language at the beginning
of the 19th century were generally known as the vlastenci
(patriots), but when in 1848 representatives of many parts of
Austria met at Vienna, the deputies of Bohemia — with the
exception of the Germans — formed what was called the national
or Czech party. Parliamentary government did not at that
period long survive, and at the end of the year 1851 absolutism
had been re-established. In i860 a new attempt to establish
constitutional government in Austria was made, and repre-
sentatives of the Czech party appeared at the provincial diet
of Prague and the central parliament at Vienna. The Czech
party endeavoured to obtain the re-establishment of the ancient

724

CZENSTOCHOWA— CZERNY

Bohemian constitution, but, allied as they were with a large
part of the Bohemian nobility, it was their policy to maintain
a somewhat conservative attitude. After having absented
themselves for a considerable time from the parliament of
Vienna, the legality of which they denied, the Czech deputies
reappeared in Vienna in 1879, and, together with the repre-
sentatives of the Bohemian nobility, formed there what was
known as the Cesky Klub.

While the Czechs for a time continued united at Vienna, a
schism among them had some time previously occurred at
Prague. Dissatisfied with the policy of the Czechs, a new party
had been formed in Bohemia which affected more advanced
views and became known as the " Young Czech " party. The
more conservative Czechs were henceforth known as the " Old
Czechs." The " Young Czechs," when the party first became
independent in 1872, had thirty-five representatives in the diet
of Prague, but at the elections of 1874 their number was reduced
to seven. They continued, however, to gain in strength, and
obtained for a long time a large majority in the diet, while the
Old Czech party for a considerable period almost disappeared.
In Vienna also the Old Czech party gradually lost ground. Its
leader Dr Rieger, indeed, obtained for the Czechs certain con-
cessions which, underrated at the time, have since proved by no
means valueless. The decision of the Old Czech party to take
part at a conference in Vienna under the presidency of Count
Taafe — then Austrian prime-minister — which was to settle the
national differences in Bohemia, caused its complete downfall.
The proposals of the Vienna conference were rejected with
indignation, and the Old Czechs, having become very unpopular,
for a time ceased to contest the elections for the legislative
assemblies of Prague and Vienna. The victorious Young Czechs,
however, soon proved themselves very unskilful politicians.
After very unsuccessfully assuming for a short time an attitude
of intransigeant opposition, they soon became subservient to
the government of Vienna to an extent which the Old Czechs
had never ventured. Dr Kramaf, in particular, as leader of
the Young Czech party, supported the foreign policy of Austria
even when its tendency was most hostile to the interests of
Bohemia. The Vienna government has, in recent years, as
regards internal affairs, also adopted a policy very unfavourable
to the Czech race. Even the continuance of some of the con-
cessions formerly obtained by the Old Czechs has become doubt-
ful. At the elections to the diet of Prague which took place in
March 1908, the Young Czechs lost many seats to the Old
Czechs, while the Agrarians, Clericals and Radicals were also
successful.

See J. Dobrovsk^, Geschichte der bohmischen Sprache (1818), and
Lehrgebdude der bohmischen Sprache (1819); J. Blahoslav, Gram-
matika Ceskd, printed from MS. (1867); Lippert, Social Geschichte
Bohmens (1896); Gebauer, Slovnik Starocesky (Dictionary of the
ancient Czech language, 1903) ; I. Herzer, Bohmisch-deutsches
Worterbuch (Prague, 1901, &c.); Coufal and Zaba, Slovnik Cesko-'
latinsky' a Latinsko-lesk^ (Prague, 1904, &c), and Historicka Uluonice
Jazyka ieskeha (Historical grammar of the Czech language, 1904) ;
Morfill, Grammar of the Bohemian or Cech Language (1899) ; Bourlier,
Les Tchiques (1897). (L-)

CZENSTOCHOWA, or Chenstokhov, a town of Russian
Poland, in the government of Piotrkow, on the left bank of the
Warta (Warthe), 143 ffi. S.W. of Warsaw, on the railway between
that city and Cracow. Pop. (1900) 53,650. Here is a celebrated
monastery crowning the steep eminence called Yaznagora or
Klarenberg. It was founded by King Vladislaus of the house of
Jagiello and was at one time fabulously wealthy. In 1430 it
was attacked and plundered by the Hussites; in 1655, and again
in 1705, it bravely resisted the Swedes; but in 1772 it was forced
to capitulate to the Russians, and in 1793 to the Prussians.
The fortifications, which had been built from 1500 onwards,
were razed in 18 13. This monastery, which is occupied by
monks of the order of Paul the Hermit, contains over the altar
in its church a painted image of the Virgin, traditionally believed
to have been painted by St Luke,, and visited annually by
throngs (400,000) of pilgrims from all over Russia, eastern
Prussia and other neighbouring regions. The inhabitants of

the town manufacture cotton, cloth and paper, and do a lively
business in rosaries, images, scapularies and so forth.

CZERNOWITZ (Rum. Cernautzi), the capital of the Austrian
duchy of Bukovina, 420 m. E. of Vienna and 164 m. S.E. of
Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 69,619. It is picturesquely
situated on a height above the right bank of the river Pruth,
which is crossed here by two bridges, of which one is a railway
bridge. Czernowitz is a clean, pleasant town of recent date,
and is the seat of the Greek Orthodox archbishop or metropolitan
of Bukovina. The principal buildings include the Greek
Orthodox cathedral, finished in 1864 after the model of the
church of St Isaac at St Petersburg; the Armenian church, in
a mixed Gothic and Renaissance style, consecrated in 1875;
a handsome new Jesuit church, and a new synagogue in Moorish
style, built in 1877. The most conspicuous building of the town
is the Episcopal palace, in Byzantine style, built in 1864-1875,
which is adorned with a high tower and possesses a magnificent
reception hall. In one of the public squares stands the Austrian
monument, executed by Pekary and erected in 1875 to com-
memorate the centenary of Austria's possession of Bukovina.
It consists of a marble statue of Austria erected on a pedestal
of green Carpathian sandstone. The Francis Joseph University,
also opened in 1875, had 50 lecturers and over 500 students in
1 90 1. The language of instruction is German, and it possesses
three faculties: theology, law and philosophy. The industry is
not very developed and consists chiefly in corn-milling and
brewing. An active trade is carried on in agricultural produce,
wood, wool, cattle and spirits. Czernowitz has a mixed popula-
tion, which consists of Germans, Ruthenians, Rumanians, Poles,
Jews, Armenians and Gypsies. The town presents, therefore,
a cosmopolitan and on market days a very varied appearance,
when side by side with people turned out in the latest fashions
from Paris or Vienna, we meet peasants of various nationalities,
attired in their national costume, intermingled with very scantily-
clad Gypsies.

On the opposite bank of the Pruth, at a very little distance to
the N., is situated the town of Sadagora (pop. 4512, mostly Jews),
where a famous cattle fair takes place every year.

Czernowitz was at the time of the Austrian occupation (1775)
an unimportant village. It was created a town in 1 786, and at the
beginning of the 19th century it numbered only 5000 inhabitants.

CZERNY, KARL (1791-1857), Austrian pianist and composer,
was born at Vienna on the 21st of February 1791. His father,
who was a teacher of the piano, trained him for that instrument
from an early age with such success that he performed in public
at the age of nine, and commenced his own career as a teacher
at fourteen. He was brought under the notice of Beethoven,
and was his pupil in the sense in which the great master had
pupils. It is perhaps his greatest claim to distinction as a
performer that he was selected to be the first to play Beethoven's
celebrated Emperor concerto in public. He soon became the
most popular teacher of his instrument in a capital which
abounded in pianists of the first rank. Among his pupils he
numbered Liszt, Theodor Dohler (1814-1843) and many others
who afterwards became famous. As a composer he was prolific
to an astonishing degree, considering the other demands on his
time. His works, which included every class of composition,
numbered 849 at the time of his death. Comparatively few of
them possess high merit, and none is the production of genius.
He had considerable skill in devising variations for the piano
of the display type, and in this and other ways helped to develop
the executive power which in the modern school of pianoforte
playing seems to have reached the limits of the possible. His
various books of exercises, elementary and advanced, of which
the best known are the £tudes de la vilociU, have probably had
a wider circulation than any other works of their class. To
the theory of music he contributed a translation of Reicha's
Trait6 de composition, and a work entitled Umriss der ganzen
Musikgeschichte. Czerny died on the 15th of July 1857 at
Vienna. Having no family, he left his fortune, which was
considerable, to the Vienna Conservatorium and various bene-
volent institutions.

D— DACCA

7*5

DThe fourth letter in the English alphabet occupies the
Same position in the Latin, Greek and Phoenician
alphabets, which represent the preceding stages in its
history. The Phoenician name Daleth is represented
by the Greek Delta. In form D has varied throughout its career
comparatively little. In the earliest Phoenician it is <3 with
slight variations; in most Greek dialects A which has been
adopted as the Greek literary form, but in others as e.g. the
earliest Attic fr or ^. The form with the rounded back, which
has passed from Latin into the languages of western Europe,
was borrowed from the Greeks of S.W. Italy, but is widely
spread also amongst the peoples of the Peloponnese and of
northern Greece. It arises from a form like t> when the sides
which meet to the right are written or engraved at one stroke.
From a very early period one side of the triangle was often
prolonged, thus producing a form ^ which is characteristic of

Aramaic from 800 B.C. In Greek this was avoided because of
the likelihood of its confusion with 9, the oldest form of the
symbol for r, but in the alphabets of Italy — which were borrowed
from Etruscan — this confusion actually takes place. Etruscan
had no sound corresponding to the symbol D (in inscriptions
written from right to left, a ), and hence used it as a by-form
for Q, the symbol for r. The Oscans and Umbrians took it over
in this value, but having the sound d they used for it the symbol
for r (9 in Umbrian, 8 in Oscati).

The sound which D represents is the voiced dental correspond-
ing to the unvoiced t. The English d, however, is not a true
dental, but is really pronounced by placing the tongue against
the sockets of the teeth, not the teeth themselves. It thus
differs from the d of French and German, and in phonetic ter-
minology is called an alveolar. In the languages of India where
both true dentals and alveolars are found, the English d is
represented by the alveolar symbol (transliterated d). Etymo-
logically in genuine English words d represents in most cases
dh of the original Indo-European language, but in some cases
an original /. In many languages d develops an aspirate after it,
and this dh becomes then a voiced spirant (8) , the initial sound
of there and that. This has occurred widely in Semitic, and is
found also in languages like modern Greek, where 5, except after
v, is always spirant, Sev { — not) being pronounced like English
then. As the mouth position for / differs from that for d only by
the breath being allowed to escape past one or both sides of
the tongue, confusion has arisen in many languages between
d and /, the best-known being cases like the Latin lacrima as
compared with the Greek SaK-pv. The English tear and the
forms of other languages show that d and not / is the more
original sound. Between vowels in the ancient Umbrian d
passed into a sound which was transliterated in the Latin
alphabet by rs; this was probably a sibilant r, like the Bohemian
f. In many languages it is unvoiced at the end of words, thus
becoming almost or altogether identical with t. As an abbrevia-
tion it is used in Latin for the praenomen Decimus, and under
the empire for the title Divus of certain deceased emperors.
As a Roman numeral (=500) it is only the half of the old symbol
(D ( = 1000); this was itself the old form of the Greek <j>, which
was useless in Latin as that language had no sound identical
with the Greek <j>. (P. Gi.)

DACCA, a city of British India, giving its name to a district
and division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It was made the
capital of that province on its creation in October 1905. The
city is 254 m. N.E. by E. of Calcutta, on an old channel of the
Ganges. Railway station, 10 m. from the terminus of the river
steamers at Narayanganj. The area is about 8 sq. m. The
.population in 1901 was 90,542. The ruins of the English factory,
St Thomas's church, and the houses of the European residents
lie along the river banks. Of the old fort erected by Islam
Khan, who in 1608 was appointed nawab of Bengal, and removed

his capital from Rajmahal to Dacca, no vestige remains; but
the jail is built on a portion of its site. The principal Mahom-
medan public buildings, erected by subsequent governors and
now in ruins, are the Katra and the Lal-bagh palace — the
former built by Sultan Mahommed Shuja in 1645, in front of the
chauk or market place. Its extensive front faced the river,
and had a lofty central gateway, flanked by smaller entrances,
and by two octagonal towers rising to some height above the
body of the building. The Lal-bagh palace was commenced by
Azam Shah, the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb. It origin-
ally stood close to the Buriganga river; but the channel has
shifted its course, and there is now an intervening space covered
with trees between it and the river. The walls on the western
side, and the terrace and battlement towards the river, are of a
considerable height, and present a commanding aspect from the
water. These outworks, with a few gateways, the audience hall
and the baths, were the only parts of the building that survived
in 1840. Since then their dilapidation has rapidly advanced;
but even in ruin they show the extensive and magnificent scale
on which this princely residence was originally designed. It
appears never to have been completed; and when Jean Baptiste
Ta vernier visited Dacca (c. 1666), the nawab was residing in a
temporary wooden building in its court. The English factory
was built about that year. The central part of the old factory
continued to be used as a court-house till the 19th century, but
owing to its ruinous state it was pulled down in 1829 or 1830;
in 1840 the only portion that remained was the outward wall.
The French and Dutch factories were taken possession of by
the English in the years 1778 and 1781 respectively. In the
mutiny of 1857 two companies of the 73rd Native Infantry
which were stationed in the town joined in the revolt, but were
overpowered by a small European force and dispersed. The
city still shows some signs of its former magnificence. The
famous manufacture of fine muslins is almost extinct, but the
carving of shells, carried on from ancient times, is an important
industry in the city. There are a Government college, a collegiate
school and an unaided Hindu college. There is a large settlement
of mixed Portuguese descent, known as Feringhis. Many of the
public buildings, including the college, suffered severely from the
earthquake of the 12th of June 1897; and great damage was
done by tornadoes in April of 1888 and 1902.

The district of Dacca comprises an area of 2782 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 2,649,522, showing an increase of 11%
in the decade. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided
into two sections by the Dhaleswari river. The northern part,
again intersected by the Lakshmia river, contains the city of
Dacca, and as a rule lies well above flood-level.

Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of
which are navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats
of four tons burthen. Among them are the Meghna, the Ganges
or Padma, the Lakshmia, a branch of the Brahmaputra, the
Jamuna, or main stream of the Brahmaputra, the Mendi-Khali,
a large branch of the Meghna, the Dhaleswari, an offshoot of the
Jamuna, the Ghazi-khali and the Buriganga. The soil is com-
posed of red ferruginous kankar, with a stratum of clay in the
more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of vegetable mould,
or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the Lakshmia
is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 m.
north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur
jungle, stretching into Mymensingh district. These hills, how-
ever, are mere mounds of from 20 to 40 ft. high, composed of
red soil containing a considerable quantity of iron ore; and the
whole tract is for the most part unproductive. Towards the
city the fed soil is intersected by creeks and morasses, whose
margins yield crops, of rice, mustard and til seed; while to the
east of the town, a broad, alluvial, well-cultivated plain reaches
as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari and Lakshmia rivers.
The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswari is the most

726

DACE— DAGIA

fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich alluvial
soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 ft. of
water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so
as to raise them above the flood-level.

The wild animals found in the district comprise a few tigers,
leopards and wild elephants, deer, wild pig, porcupines, jackals,
foxes, hares, otters, &c. The green monkey is very common;
porpoises abound in the large rivers. The manufactures consist
of weaving, embroidery, gold and silver work, shell-carving and
pottery. The weaving industry and the manufacture of fine
Dacca muslins have greatly fallen off, owing to the competition
of European piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were
formerly manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during
many years was made from English twist, country thread being
used only for the finest muslins. It is said that, in the time of
the emperor Jahangir, a piece of muslin, 15 ft. by 3, could be
manufactured, weighing only 900 grains, its value being £40.
In 1840 the finest cloth that could be made of the above dimen-
sions weighed about 1600 grains, and was worth £10. Since then
the manufacture has still further decayed, and the finer kinds are
not now made at all except to order. The district is traversed
by a line of the Eastern Bengal railway, but most of the traffic
is still conducted by water. It is a centre of the jute trade.

The division of Dacca occupies the delta of the Brahmaputra,
where it joins the main stream of the Ganges. It consists of the
four districts of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge.
Its area is 15,837 sq. m. Its population in 1901 was 10,793,988.

DACE, Dare, or Dart (Leuciscus vulgaris, or L. dobula), a
freshwater fish belonging to the family Cyprinidae. It is an
inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the
Alps, but it is most abundant in those of France and Germany.
It prefers clear streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and
deep, still water, keeping close to the bottom in winter but
disporting itself near the surface in the sunshine of summer.
It is preyed upon by the larger predaceous fishes of fresh waters,
and owing to its silvery appearance is a favourite bait in pike-
fishing. The dace is a lively, active fish, of gregarious habits,
and exceedingly prolific, depositing its eggs in May, and June
at the roots of aquatic plants or in the gravelly beds of the
streams it frequents. Its flesh is wholesome, but is not held in
much estimation. In appearance it closely resembles the roach,
usually attaining a length of 8 or 9 in., with the head and back
of a dusky blue colour and the sides of a shining silvery aspect,
with numerous dark lines running along the course of the scales.
The ventral and anal fins are white, tinged with pale red,; and
the dorsal, pectoral and caudal tipped with black. The dace
feeds on worms, insects, insect-larvae, and also on vegetable
matter. It is abundant in many of the streams of the south of
England, but is unknown in Scotland and Ireland. In America
the name of dace is also applied to members of other genera of
the family; the " horned dace " (Semnotilus atromaculatus) is a
well-known variety.

DACH, SIMON (1605-1659), German lyrical poet, was born
at Memel in East Prussia on the 29th of July 1605. Although
brought up in humble circumstances, he received a careful
education in the classical schools of Konigsberg, Wittenberg
and Magdeburg, and entered the university of Konigsberg in
1626 as a student of theology and philosophy. After taking his
degree, he was appointed in 1633 Kollaborator (teacher) and in
1636 co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in that city.
In 1639 he received the chair of poetry at the university of
Konigsberg, which he occupied until his death on the 15th of
April 1659. In Konigsberg he entered into close relations with
Heinrich Albert (1604-1651), Robert Roberthin (1600-1648)
and Sibylla Schwarz (1621-1638), and with them formed the
so-called Konigsberger Dictergruppe. He sang the praises of the
house of the electors of Brandenburg in a collection of poems
entitled Kurbrandenburgische Rose, Adler, Lowe und Scepter
(1661), and also produced many occasional poems, several of
which became popular; the most famous of them is Anke von
Thar aw bss, de my gefollt (rendered by Herder into modern
German as Annchen von Tharau), composed in 1637 in honour

of the marriage of a friend. Among his hymns, many of which
are of great beauty, are the following: Ich binja, Herr, in deiner
Macht, Ich bin bei Gott in Gnaden durch Christi Blut und Tod,
and O, wie selig seid ihr boch, ihr Frommen,

Editions of.Dach's poems have been published by W. Miiller
(1823), by H. Osterley (for the Stuttgart Literarischer Verein, 1876) ;
also selections by the same editor (1876), and in Kursjfchnef's
Deutsche Nationalliteratur (1883). See especially the introductions
to Osterley's editions; also H. Stiehler, Simon Dach, sein heben
und seine ausgewdhlte Dichtungen (1896).

DACIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Daci, a large
district of central Europe, bounded on the N. by the Carpathians,
on the S. by the Danube, on the W. by the Pathissus (Theiss),
on the E. by the Tyras (Dniester), thus corresponding in the main
to the modern Rumania and Transylvania. Towards the west
it may originally have extended as far as the Danube where it
runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz) , while on the other
hand Ptolemy puts its eastern boundary as far back as the
Hierasus (Sereth). The inhabitants of this district were a
Thracian stock, originally called AS01, a name which after
the 4th century B.C. gave place to Aaxoi. Of the other
Thracian tribes the Getae (q.v.) were most akin to them in'
language and manners; by the Greeks the Dacians were usually
called Getae, by the Romans Daci. Acios and Tkra (Davus,
Geta) were common as names of slaves in Attic comedy and in
the adaptations of Plautus and Terence.

The Dacians had attained a considerable degree of civilization
when they first became known to the Romans. They believed
in the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely
a change of country (/ieTouafeotfcu.). Their chief priest held
a prominent position as the representative of the deity upon
earth; he was the king's chief adviser and his decisions were
accepted as final. They were divided into two classes — an;
aristocracy and a proletariate. The first alone had the right to
cover their heads and wore a felt hat (hence tarabostesei=
7riXo06pot, pileati); they formed a privileged class, and were
the predecessors of the Rumanian boyars. The second class,
who comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and
artisans, wore their hair long (kojutjtcu, capillati). They dwelt
in wooden huts surrounded by palisades, but in later times,
aided by Roman architects, built walled strongholds and conical
stone towers. Their chief occupations were agriculture and
cattle breeding; horses were mainly used as draught animals.
They also worked the gold and silver mines of Transylvania,
and carried on a considerable outside trade, as is shown by the
number of foreign coins found in the country,

A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the
beginning of the 2nd century B.C. under a king Qroles. Conflicts
with the Bastarnae and the Romans (11 2-109, 74), against
whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, had greatly
weakened the resources of the Dacians. Under Burbista (Boere-
bista), a contemporary of Caesar, who thoroughly reorganized
the army and raised the moral standard of the people, the limits
of the kingdom were extended; the Bastarnae and Boii were
conquered, and even Greek towns (Olbia, Apollonia) on the
Euxine fell into his hands. Indeed the Dacians appeared so
formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against
them, which was prevented by his death. About the same
time Burbista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into
four (or five) parts under separate rulers. One of these was
Cotiso, whose daughter Augustus is said to have desired to marry
and to whom he betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia.
He is well known from the line in Horace (" Occidit Daci Coti-
sonis agmen," Odes, hi. 8. 18), which, as the ode was written
on the 1st of March 29, probably refers to the campaign of Marcus
Crassus (30-28), not to that of Cornelius Lentulus, who was not
consul till 18. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus,
according to whom, they were compelled to recognize the Roman
supremacy. But they were by no means subdued, and in later
1 times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube
and ravaging the province of Moesia. From a.d. 85 tq 89 the
Dacians were engaged in two wars with the Romans, under Duras-
or Diurpaneus, and the great Decebalus, who ruled from 86-87

DACIER

727

to 107. After two severe reverses, the Romans, under Tettius
Julianus, gained a signal advantage, but were obliged to make
peace owing to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni.
Decebalus restored the arms he had taken and some of the
prisoners and received the crown from Domitian's hands,
an apparent acknowledgment of Roman suzerainty. But the
Dacians were really left independent, as is shown by the fact that
Domitian agreed to purchase immunity from further Dacian in-
roads by the payment of an annual tribute.

To put an end to this disgraceful arrangement, Trajan resolved
to crush the Dacians once and for all. The result of his first
campaign (101-102) was the occupation of the Dacian capital
Sarmizegethusa (Varhely) and the surrounding country; of the
second (105-107), the suicide of Decebalus, the conquest of
the whole kingdom and its conversion into a Roman province.
The history of the war is given in Dio Cassius, but the best
commentary upon it is the famous column of Trajan. According
to Marquardt, the boundaries of the province were the Tibiscus
(Temes) on the W., the Carpathians on the N., the Tyras on the
E., and the Danube on the S., but Brandis (in Pauly-Wissowa's
Realencyclopddie) maintains that it did not extend farther
eastwards than the river Olt (Aluta) — the country beyond
belonging to lower Moesia — and not so far as the Theiss west-
wards, being thus limited to Transylvania and. Little Walachia.
It was under a governor of praetorian rank, and the legio xiii.
gemina with numerous auxiliaries had their fixed quarters in
the province. To make up for the ravages caused by the recent
wars colonists were imported to cultivate the land and work
the mines, and the old inhabitants gradually returned. Forts
were built as a protection against the incursions of the surround-
ing barbarians, and three great military roads were constructed
to unite the chief towns, while a fourth, named after Trajan,
traversed the Carpathians and entered Transylvania by the
Roteturm pass. The two chief towns were Sarmizegethusa
(afterwards Ulpia Trajana) and Apulum (Karlsburg). With the
religion the Dacians also adopted the language of the conquerors,
and, modem Rumanian is full of Latin words easily recognizable.

In 129, under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into Dacia Superior
and Inferior, the former comprising Transylvania, the latter
Little Walachia, with procurators, probably both under the
same praetorian legate (according to Brandis, the procurator
of Dacia inferior was independent, but see A. Domaszewski
in Rheinisches Museum, xlviii., 1893). Marcus Aurelius re-
divided it into three (tres Daciae) : Porolissensis, from the chief
town Porolissum (near Mojrad), Apulensis from Apulum and
Maluensis (site unknown) . The tres Daciae formed a commune
in so far that they had a common capital, Sarmizegethusa, and
a common diet, which discussed provincial affairs, formulated
complaints and adjusted the incidence of taxation; but in
other respects they were practically independent provinces,
each under an ordinary procurator, subordinate to a governor
of consular rank.

The Roman hold on the country was, however, still pre-
carious. Indeed it is said that Hadrian, conscious of the difficulty
of retaining it, had contemplated its abandonment and was
only deterred by consideration for the safety of the numerous
Roman settlers. Under Gallienus (256), the Goths crossed the
Carpathians and drove the Romans from Dacia, with the excep-
tion of a few fortified places between the Temes and the Danube.
No details of the event are recorded, and the chief argument
in support of the statement in Ruf(i)us Festus that " under the
Emperor Gallienus Dacia was lost " is the sudden cessation of
Roman inscriptions and coins in the country after 2 56. Aurelian
(270-275) withdrew the troops altogether and settled the Roman
colonists on the south of the Danube, in Moesia, where he created
the province Dacia Aurefiani. This was subsequently divided
into Dacia Ripensis on the Danube, with capital Ratiaria (Arcar
in Bosnia), and Dacia Mediterranea, with capital Sardica (Sofia,
the capital of Bulgaria), the latter again being subdivided into
Dardania and Dacia Mediterranea.

See J. D. F. Neigebaur, Dacien aus den Uberresten des klassischen
Alterthums, (Kronstadt, 1851) ; C. Gooss, Studien zur Geographic und
G'eschichte des trdjanischen Daciens (Hermannstadt, 1874); E. R.

Rosier, Dacier und Romanen (Vienna, 1866), and Romdnische Studien
(Leipzig, 1871); J. Jung, Rbmer und Romanen in den Donaulandern
(Innsbruck, 1877), Die romanischen Landschaften des romischen
Reiches (1881), and Fasten der Provinz Dacien (1894); W. Toma-
schek, " Die alten Thraker," in Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der
Wissenschaften, exxviii. (Vienna, 1893); J. Marquardt, Romische
Staatsverwaltung, i. (1881), p. 308; T. Mommsen in Corpus Inscrip-
tionum Latinarum, iii. 160, and Provinces of Roman Empire
(Eng. trans., 1886); C. G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclo-
padie, iv.pt. 2 (1901) ; W. Miller, The Balkans in " The Story of the
Nations," vol. 44; on the boundaries of the Roman province of
Dacia, see T. Hodgkin and F. Haverfield in English Historical
Review, ii. 100, 734. (See also Vlachs.)

DACIER, ANDRE (1651-1722), French classical scholar, was
born at Castres in upper Languedoc, on the 6th of April 165 1.
His father, a Protestant advocate, sent him first to the academy
of Puy Laurens, and afterwards to Saumur to study under
Tanneguy Lefevre. On the death of Lefevre in 1672, Dacier re-
moved to Paris, and was appointed one of the editors of the
Delphin series of the classics. In 1683 he marriedAnne Lefevre,
the daughter of his old tutor (see below). In 1695 he was elected
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and also of the French
Academy; not long after, as payment for his share in the
"medallic" history of the king's reign, he was, appointed keeper
of the library of the Louvre, He died two years after his wife,
on the 1 8th of September 1722., The most important of his
works were his editions of Pompeius Festus and Verrius Flaccus,
and his translations of Horace (with notes), Aristotle's Poetics,
the Electro, and Oedipus Coloneus of Sophocles, Epictetus,
Hippocrates and Plutarch's, Lives.

His wife, Anne Lefevre (1654-1720),, French scholar and
translator from the classics, was born at Saumur, probably in
March 1654. On her father's death in 1672 she removed to
Paris, carrying with her part of an edition of Callimachus,
which she afterwards published. This was so well received that
she was engaged as one of the editors of the Delphin series of
classical authors, in which she edited Floras, Dictys Cretensis,
Aurelius Victor and Eutropius. In 1681 appeared her prose
version of Anacreon and Sappho, and in the next few years she
published prose versions of Terence and some of the plays of
Plautus and Aristophanes. In 1684 she and her husband
retired to Castres, with the object of devoting themselves to
theological studies. In 1685 the result was announced in the
conversion to Roman Catholicism of both M. and Mme Dacier,
who were rewarded with a pension by the king. , In 1699 appeared
the prose translation of the Iliad (followed nine years later by a
similar translation of the Odyssey), which gained for her the
position she occupies in French literature. The appearance of
this version, which made Homer known for the first time to
many French men of letters, and among others to A. Houdart
de la Motte, gave rise to a famous literary controversy. In 17 14
la Motte published a poetical version of the Iliad, abridged and
altered to suit his own taste, together with a Discours sur Homere,
stajting the reasons why Homer failed to satisfy his critical taste.
Mme Dacier replied in the same year in her work, Des causes de
la corruption du goAt. La Motte carried on the discussion with
light gaiety and badinage, and had the happiness of seeing his
views supported by the abbe Jean Terrasson, who in 1715
produced. two volumes entitled Dissertation critique sur Flliade,
in which he maintained that science and philosophy, and especi-
ally the science and philosophy of Descartes, had so developed
the human mind that the poets of the 18th century were im-
measurably superior to, those of ancient Greece. In the same
year Pere C. Buffier published Homere en arbitrage, in which he
concluded that both parties were really agreed on the essential
point— that Homer was one of the greatest geniuses the world
had seen, and that, as a whole, no other poem, could be preferred
to his; and, soon after (on the 5th of April 17 16), in the house
of M. de Valincourt, Mme Dacier and la Motte met at supper,
and drank together to the health of Homer. Nothing of import-
ance marks the rest of Mme Dacier's life. She died at the
Louvre, on the 17th of August 1720.

See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol; ix.; J. F. Bodin,
Recherches historigues sur la villede Saumur (^813-1814),;, P. J.
Burette, tloge de Mme Dacier (172 1); Memoires de Mme de Sta'el

728

DACITE— DAFYDD AB GWILYM

(1755); E. Egger, L'Hellenisme en France, ii. (1869); Memoires
de Saint-Simon, iii. ; R. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens
et des modernes (1856).

DACITE (from Dacia, mod. Transylvania), in petrology, vol-
canic rocks which may be considered a quartz-bearing variety
of andesite. Like the latter they consist for the most part of
plagioclase felspar with biotite, hornblende, augite or enstatite,
and have generally a porphyritic structure, but they contain also
quartz as rounded, corroded phenocrysts, or as an element of
the ground-mass. Their felspar ranges from oligoclase to
andesite and labradorite, and is often very zonal; sanidine
occurs also in some dacites, and when abundant gives rise to
rocks which form transitions to the rhyolites. The biotite is
brown; the hornblende brown or greenish brown; the augite
usually green. The ground-mass of these rocks is often micro-
crystalline, with a web of minute felspars mixed with interstitial
grains of quartz; but in many dacites it is largely vitreous,
while in others it is felsitic or cryptocrystalline. In the hand
specimen many of the hornblende and biotite dacites are grey
or pale brown and yellow rocks with white felspars, and black
crystals of biotite and hornblende. Other dacites, especially
augite- and enstatite-dacites, are darker coloured. The rocks
of this group occur in Hungary, Alnieria (Spain), Argyllshire
and other parts of Scotland, New Zealand, the Andes, Martinique,
Nevada and other districts of western North America, Greece,
&c. They are mostly associated with andesites and trachytes,
and form lava flows, dikes, and in some cases massive intrusions
in the centres of old volcanoes. Among continental petro-
graphers the older dacites (Carboniferous, &c.) are often known
as "porphy rites." (J. S.F.)

DACOIT, a term used in India for a robber belonging to an
armed gang. The word is derived from the Hindustani dakait,
and being current in Bengal got into the Indian penal code.
By law, to constitute dacoity, there must be five or more in the
gang committing the crime. In the time of the Thugs (q.v.) a
special police department Was created in India to deal with
thuggy and dacoity (thagi and dakaiti), which exists down to the
present day. In Burma also the word dacoit came to be applied
in a special sense to the armed gangs, which maintained a state
of guerilla warfare for several years after the defeat of the king
and his army. (See Burmese Wars.)

DA COSTA, ISAAK (1798-1860), Dutch poet and theologian,
was born at Amsterdam on the 14th of January 1798. His
father was a Jew of Portuguese descent, and claimed kindred
with the celebrated Uriel D'Acosta. An early acquaintance
with Bilderdijk had a strong influence over the boy both in
poetry and in theology. He studied at Amsterdam, and after-
wards at Leiden, where he took his doctor's degree in law in
1818, and in literature in 1821. In i8i4he wrote De Verlossing
van Nederland, a patriotic poem, which placed him in line with
the contemporary national romantic poets in Germany and in
France. His Poezy (2 vols., 1821-1822) revealed his emancipa-
tion from the Bilderdijk tradition, and the oriental colouring of
his poems, his hymn to Lamartine, and his translation of part of
Byron's Cain, establish his claim to be considered as the earliest
of the Dutch romantic poets. In 1822 he became a convert to
Christianity, and immediately afterwards asserted himself as a
champion of orthodoxy and an assailant of latitudinarianism in
his Bezwaren tegen den Geest der Eeuw (1823). He took a lively
interest in missions to the Jews, and towards the close of his
life was a director of the seminary established in Amsterdam in
connexion with the mission of the Free Church of Scotland. He
died at Amsterdam on the 28th of April i860. Da Costa ranked
first among the poets of Holland after the death of Bilderdijk.
His principal poetical works were: Alphonsiis I. (1818), a
tragedy; Poezy (Leiden, 1821); God melons (1826); Festliederh
(1828); Vijf-en-twinlig jaren (1840); Hagar (1852); De Slag
bij Nieupoort (1857). He also translated The Persians (1816)
and the Prometheus (1818) of Aeschylus, and edited the poetical
works of Bilderdijk in sixteen volumes, the last volume being an
account of the poet. He was the author of a number of theologi-
cal works, chiefly in connexion with the criticism of the gospels.

His complete poetical works were edited by J. P. Hasebroek
(3 vols., Haarlem, 1 861-1862). See G. Groen van Prinsterer, Srieven
van Mr I. da Costa, 1 830-1 840 (1872), and J. ten Brink, Gesehie-
denis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX' Eeuw (vol. i.,
1888), which contains a complete bibliography of his works.

DACTYL (from Gr. baxrvKos, a finger), in prosody, a long
syllable followed by two short(see Verse).

DAEDALUS, a mythical Greek architect and sculptor, who
figures largely in the early legends of Crete and of Athens. He
was said to have built the labyrinth for Minos, to have made
a wooden cow for Pasiphae and to have fashioned a bronze
man who repelled the Argonauts. Falling under the displeasure
of Minos, he fashioned wings for himself and his son Icarus, and
escaped to Sicily. These legends seem primarily to belong to
Crete; and the Athenian element in them which connected
Daedalus with the royal house of Erechtheus is a later fabrica-
tion. To Daedalus the Greeks of the historic age were in the
habit of attributing buildings, and statues the origin of which
was lost in the past, and which had no inscription belonging to
them. In a later verse in the Iliad (date, 7th or 6th century),
Daedalus is mentioned as the maker of a dancing-place for
Ariadne in Crete; and such a dancing-place has been discovered
by A. J. Evans, in the Minoan palace of Cnossus. Diodorus
Siculus says that he executed various works in Sicily for King
Cocalus. In many cities of Greece there were rude wooden
statues,, said to be by him. Later critics, judging from their
own notions of the natural course of development in art,
ascribed to Daedalus such improvements as separating the legs
of statues and opening their eyes. In fact the name Daedalus is
a mere symbol, standing for a particular phase of early Greek
art, when wood was the chief material, and other substances
were let into it for variety.

This Daedalus must not be confused with Daedalus of Sicyon,
a great sculptor of the early part of the 4th century B.C., none of
whose works is extant. (P. G.)

DAFFODIL, the common name of a group of plants of the
genus Narcissus, and natural order Amaryllidaceae. (See generally
under Narcissus.) The common daffodil, N. Pseudo-narcissus,
is common in woods and thickets in most parts of the N. of
Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves are five or six in
number, are about a foot in length and an inch in breadth, and
have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 18 in. long,
and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, yellow,
scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft into
six lobes, and a central bell-shaped nectary, which is crisped at
the margin. They appear early in the year, or, as Shakespeare
says, " come before the swallow dares, and take the winds of
March with beauty." The stamens are shorter than the cup,
the anthers oblong and converging; the ovary is globose, and
has three furrows; the seeds are roundish and black. Many
new varieties of the flower have recently been cultivated in
gardens. The bulbs are large and orbicular, and have a blackish
coat; they, as well as the flowers, are reputed to be emetic in
properties, The Peruvian daffodil and the sea daffodil are
species of the genus Ismene. (For derivation see Asphodel.)

DAFYDD AB GWILYM (c. 1340-c. 1400), son of Gwilym Gam
and Ardudful Fychan, greatest of the medieval Welsh poets,
was born at Bro Gynin, Cardiganshire, about the year 1340.
Educated by a scholarly uncle, Llewelyn ab Gwilym Fychan
of Emlyn, he became steward to his kinsman, Ivor Hael of
Maesaleg, Monmouthshire, who also appointed him instructor
to his daughter. The latter arrangement leading to an attach-
ment between tutor and pupil, the girl was banished to a convent
in Anglesey, whither the poet followed her, taking service in an
adjacent monastery, but on returning to Maesaleg he was per-
mitted to retain his stewardship. He was elected chief bard
of Glamorgan and became household bard to Ivor Hael. At
Rhosyr in North Wales he met Morfudd Lawgam, to whom he
addressed 147 amatory odes. In consequence of attempting
to elope with this lady, Dafydd ab Gwilym, being unable to pay
the fine demanded by her husband, was imprisoned. Liberated
by the goodwill of his friends, he went back to Maesaleg, and
after the death of his patron, retired to his birthplace, Bro Gynin.

DAGGER— DAGHESTAN

729

Tradition states that he was a man of noble appearance, and
his poems bear evidence of high mental culture. He was ac-
quainted with the works of Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Horace,
and was also a student of Italian literature. Especially remark-
able as a poet of nature in an age when more warlike themes
were chosen by his contemporaries, his poems entitled " The
Lark," "The Wind" and "The Mist" are amongst his finest
efforts. He has been called the Petrarch, the Ovid, and (by
George Borrow) the Horace of Wales. His poems were almost
all written in the cywydd form: a short ode not divided into
stanzas, each line having the same number of syllables. The
poet died about the year 1400, and according to tradition was
buried in the graveyard of the monastery of Strata Florida, in
Cardiganshire.
See also under Celt; Celtic Literature, iv. Welsh.
DAGGER, a hand weapon with a short blade. The derivation
is obscure (cf. Fr. dague and Ger. Degen), but the word is related
to dag, a long pointed jag such as would be made in deeply nicking
the edge of a garment. The war knife in various forms and under
many names has of course been in use in all ages and amongst
all races. But the dagger as generally understood was not a
short sword, but a special stabbing weapon which could be used
along with the sword. The distinction is often difficult to estab-
lish in a given case owing to the variations in the length of the
weapon. The principal medieval dagger was the misiricorde,
which from the end of the 12th century was used, in all countries
in which chivalry flourished, to penetrate the joints of the
armour of an unhorsed adversary (hence Ger. Panzerbrecher,
armour-breaker). It was so called either because the threat
of it caused the vanquished to surrender " at mercy," or from
its use in giving what was called the coup de grdce. From about
1330 till the end of the succeeding century, in many knightly
effigies it is often represented as attached on the right side by
a cord or a chain to the sword-belt. This weapon and its sheath
were often elaborately adorned. It was customary to secure
it from accidental loss by a guard-chain fastened to the breast-
armour Occasionally the misericorde was fixed to the body-
armour by a staple; or, more rarely, it was connected with a
gypciere or pouch. The misericorde may be called a poniard.
The distinction between the dagger and the poniard is arbitrary,
and in ordinary language the latter is taken as being the shorter
and as having less resemblance to a short sword or cutlass. A
weapon, with a longer blade than the misericorde, was habitually
worn by civilians, including judges, during the middle ages;
such weapons bore the name of anlace (from annulus, as it was
fastened by a ring), basilarde or langue de bceuf, the last from
the broad ox-tongue shape of the blade. This had often a small
knife fixed on the scabbard, like a Highland officer's dirk of the
present day. By nobles and knights the dagger or poniard
was worn when they had exchanged their armour for the costume
of peace. It is recorded besides that when they appeared at
a tournament and on some other occasions, ladies at that time
wore daggers depending, with their gypcieres, from their girdles.
Thus, writing of the year 1348, Knighton speaks of certain ladies
who were present at jousts as " habentes cultellos, quos daggerios
vulgariter dicunt, in powchiis desuper impositis." A longer and
heavier dagger with a broad blade (Italian) is called cinquedea.
The Scottish " dirk " was a long dagger, and survives in name
in the dirk worn by midshipmen of the royal navy, and in fact
in that worn by officers of Highland regiments. In the 15th
and 1 6th centuries the infantry soldiers (Swiss or landsknecht)
carried a heavy poniard or dagger. This and the earlier Spanish
dagger with a thumb-ring were distinctively the weapons of
professional soldiers. The rise of duelling produced another
type, called the main gauche, which was a parrying weapon
and often had a toothed edge on which the adversary's sword was
caught and broken. One form of this dagger had a blade which
expanded into a triple fork on pressing a spring; this served
the same purpose. The satellites of the Vehmgericht had a
similar weapon, in order, it is suggested, that their acts should
be done in the name of the Trinity. The smaller poniards are
generally called " stilettos." Much ingenuity and skill have been

lavished on the adornment of daggers, and in rendering the
blades more capable of inflicting severe wounds. Daggers also
were sometimes made to poison as well as to wound. Of oriental
daggers may be mentioned the Malay " crease " or " kris," which
has a long waxed blade; the Gurkha " kukri," a short curved
knife, broadest and heaviest towards the point; and the Hindu
" khuttar," which has a flat triangular-shaped blade, and a hilt
of H-shape, the cross-bar forming the grip and the sides the guard.
DAGHESTAN, a province of Russia, Transcaucasia, occupying
the triangular space between the Andi ridge, the south-east
division of the main Caucasus range, and the Caspian Sea. It
has the province of Terek on the N.W.,the government of Tiflis
on the S.W., and that of Baku on the S.E. With the exception
of a narrow strip along the sea-coast and a small district in the
N., it is entirely mountainous. Area, 11,332 sq. m. The snow-
clad Andi ridge, belonging to the system of transverse upheavals
which cross the Caucasus, branches off the latter at Borbalo
Peak (10,175 ft.), and reaches its highest altitudes in Tebulos-
mta (14,775 ft.) and Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.). It is encircled on
the N. by a lower outer ridge, the Karadagh, through which the
rivers cut their way. This ridge is thickly clothed with forests,
chiefly beech. The Boz-dagh and another ridge run between
the four Koisu rivers, the head-streams of the Sulak, which flows
into the Caspian. The next most important stream, out of the
great number which course down the flanks of the Caucasus and
terminate in the Caspian, is the Samur. The most notable feature
of the province is, however, according to 0. W. H. Abich (Sur la
structure et la giologie du Daghestan, 1862), the successive folds
of Jurassic limestones and slates, all nearly parallel to the
Caucasus, which form lofty, narrow plateaus. Many of the
peaks upon them rise higher than 12,000 ft., and the passes lie
at altitudes of 11,000 ft. in the interior and 9000 ft. towards
the Caspian. Towards the Caspian, especially between Petrovsk
and the river Sulak, the Cretaceous system is well represented,
and upon its rocks rest marls, shales, and sandstones of the
Eocene period. The country is altogether difficult of access,
and only one military route leads up from the river Terek, while
every one of the eleven passes known across the Caucasus is a
mere bridle-path. The climate is severe on the plateaus, hot
towards the Caspian, and dry everywhere. The average tem-
peratures are — year 51 , January 26 , July 73° at Temir-khan-
shura (42 49' N.; alt. 1510 ft.). The annual rainfall varies
from 17 to 21 in. The population, estimated at 605,100 in 1906,
numbered 587,326 in 1897, of whom only 5000 were Russians.
They consist chiefly of mountaineers known as Lesghians {i.e.
158,550 Avars, 121,375 Darghis, 94,506 Kurins), a race closely
akin to the Circassians, intermingled towards the Caspian Sea
with Tatars and Georgians. There are also sprinklings of Jews
and Persians. The highlands of Daghestan were for many years
the stronghold of the Circassians in their struggle against Russia,
especially under the leadership of Shamyl, whose last stand was
made on the steep mountain fastness of Gunib, 74 m. S. of Temir-
khan-shura, in 1859. The difficulty of communication between
the valleys has resulted in the growth of a great number of
dialects. Avarian is a sort of inter-tribal tongue, while Lakh or
Kazi-kumukh, Kurin, Darghi-kaitakh, Andi, and Tabasaran are
some of the more important dialects, each subdivided into sub-
dialects. The mountaineers breed some cattle and sheep, and
cultivate small fields on the mountain-sides. In the littoral
districts excellent crops of cereals, cotton, fruit, wine and tobacco
are obtained with the aid of irrigation. Silkworms are bred.
The mountaineers excel also in a variety of petty trades. Sulphur,
salt and copper are the most important of the minerals. A rail-
way line to connect the North Caucasian line (Rostov to Petrovsk)
with the Transcaucasian line (Batum to Baku) has been built
along the Caspian shore from Petrovsk, through the " gate " or
pass of Derbent, to Baku. The province is divided into nine
districts — Temir-khan-shura, Avar, Andi, Gunib, Dargo, Kazi-
kumukh, Kaitago-Tabasaran, Kurin, and Samur. The only
towns are Temir-khan-shura (pop. 9208 in 1897), the capital of
the government, Derbent (14,821) and Petrovsk (9806), the last
two both on the Caspian.

73°

DAGO--DAGUERRE

See G. Radde, " Aus den Daghestanischen Hpchalpen," in Peter-
manns Mitteilungen, Erganzungsheft, No. 85, 1887, and, with E.
Kdnig, " Der Nordfuss des Daghestan," in Petermantis Mitteil.,
Erganzungsheft, No. 117, 1895. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

DAGO, a name given somewhat contemptuously to Spanish,
Portuguese and Italian sailors, as " Dutchman " is similarly
applied to Germans and Scandinavians as well as to natives of
Holland. In America the word is generally confined to the
poorer class of Italian immigrants. In the South Wales mining
districts the casual labourers, who are only engaged when work
is plentiful, are so called. The word is apparently a corruption
of the common Spanish and Portuguese Christian name " Diego."

DAGOBERT I. (d. 639), king of the Franks, was the son of
Clotaire II. In 623 his father established him as king of the
region east of the Ardennes, and in 626 revived for him the
ancient kingdom of Austrasia, minus Aquitaine and Provence.
As Dagobert was yet but a child, he was placed under the
authority of the mayor of the palace, Pippin, and Arnulf,
bishop of Metz. At the death of Clotaire II. in 629, Dagobert
wished to re-establish unity in the Frankish realm, and in 629
and 630 made expeditions into Neustria and Burgundy, where
he succeeded in securing the recognition of his authority. In
Aquitaine he gave his brother Charibert the administration of.
the counties of Toulouse, Cahors, Agen, Perigueux, andSaintes;
but at Charibert 's death in 632 Dagobert became sole ruler of the
whole of the Frankish territories south of the Loire. Under him
the Merovingian monarchy attained its culminating point. He
restored to the royal domain the lands that had been usurped 1 by
the great nobles and by the church; he maintained at Paris a
luxurious, though, from the example he himself set, a disorderly
court; he was a patron of the arts, and delighted in the exquisite
craftsmanship of his treasurer, the goldsmith St Eloi. His
authority was recognized through the length and breadth of the
realm. The duke of the Basques came to his court to swear
fidelity, and at his villa at Clichy the chief of the Bretons of
Domnone promised obedience. He intervened in the affairs of
the Visigoths of Spain and the Lombards of Italy, and was heard
with deference. Indeed, as a sovereign, Dagobert was reckoned
superior to the other barbarian kings. He entered into relations
with the eastern empire, and swore a " perpetual peace " with the
emperor Heraclius; and it is probable that the two sovereigns
took common measures against the Slav and Bulgarian tribes,:
which ravaged in turn the Byzantine state and the German
territories subject to the Franks. Dagobert protected the
church and placed illustrious prelates at the head of the bishoprics
— Eloi (Eligius) at Noyon, Ouen (Audoenus) at Rouen, and
Didier (Desiderius) at Cahors. His reign is also marked by the
creation of numerous monasteries and by renewed missionary
activity in Flanders and among the Basques. ■ He died on the
19th of January 639, and was buried at St Denis. After his death
the Frankish monarchy was again divided. In 634 he had been
obliged to give the Austrasians a special king in the person of
his eldest son Sigebert, and at the birth of a second son, Clovis,
in 635, the Neustrians had immediately claimed him as king.
Thus the unification of the realm, which Dagobert had re-
established with so much pains, was annulled.

See the Chronicon of Fredegarius; " Gesta Dagoberti I. regis Fran-
corum " in Mon. Germ. hist. Script, rer. Meroving. vol. ii. edited by
B. Krusch; J. H. Albers, Konig Dagobert in Gesch., Legende, uhd
Sage (2nd ed., Kaiserslautern, 1884); E. Vacandard, Vie de Saint
Ouen, evique de Rouen (Paris, 1901) ; and H. E. Bonnell, Die Anfdnge
des karqling. Hauses (Berlin, 1866). (C. Pf.)

DAGON, a god of the Philistines who had temples at Ashdod
(1 Sam. v. 1), and Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21, 23); the former was
destroyed by Jonathan, the brother of Judas the . Maccabee
(1 Mace. x. 84; 148 B.C.). But Dagon was more than a mere
local deity; there was a place called Beth-Dagon in Judah
(Josh. xv. 41), another on the borders of Asher (ib. xix. 27), and
a third underlies the modern Bet Dejan, south-east of Nablus.
Dagon was in all probability an old Canaanite deity; it appears
in the name of the Canaanite Dagantakala as early as the 15th
century, and is possibly to be identified with the Babylonian god
Dagan. Little is known of his cult (Judg. xvi. 23 seq.), although
as the male counterpart of Ashtoreth (see Astarte) his worship

would scarcely differ from that of the Baalim (see Baai). The
name Dagon seems to come from dag "fish," and that his idol
was half-man- half -fish is possible from the ichthyomorphic
representations found upon coins of Ascalon and Arvad, and
from the fact that Berossus speaks of an Assyrian merman-god.

The true meaning of the name is doubtful. In 1 Sam. v. 4, Thenius
and Wellhausen, followed by Robertson Smith and others, read
"only his fish-part (dago) was left to him "; against this, see the
comm. of H. P. Smith and Budde. The identification: of Dagon
with the Babylonian Dagan is doubted by G. F. Moore (Encyc.Bib.,
col. 985), and that of the latter with Odacon and Ea-Oannes is
questionable. Philo Byblius (Miiller^ Fr. Hist. Gra.ec. in. 567 seq.)
makes Dagon the inventor of corn and the plough, whence he was
called Zeus 'Apdrpios. This points to a natural though possibly late
etymology from the Hebrew and Phoenician dagan " corn." It is
not improbable that, at least in later times, Dagon had in place of, or
in addition to, his old character, that of the god who presided over
agriculture; for in the last days of paganism, as we learn from
Marcus Diaconus in the Life of Porphyry of Gaza (§ 19); the great
god of Gaza, now known as Marna (our Lord), was regarded as the
god of rains and invoked against famine. That Marna was lineally
descended from Dagon is probable in every way, and it is therefore
interesting to note that he gave oracles, that he had a circular temple,
where he was sometimes worshipped by human sacrifices, that there
were wells in the sacred circuit, and that there was also a place
of adoration to him situated, as was usual, outside the town.
Certain " marmora " in the temple, which might not be, approached,
especially by women, may perhaps be connected with the threshold
which the priests of Dagon would not touch with their feet (1 Sam.
v. 5, Zeph. i. 9). See further, the comm. on the Old Testament
passages, Moore (loc. cit.), and Lagrange, Relig. semit. p. 131 seq.

DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDE (1789-1851), French,
painter and physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype, was bom at
Cormeilles, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, and died on the
12th of July 1851 at Petit-Brie-sur-Marne, near Paris. He was
at first occupied as an inland revenue officer, but soon took to
scene-painting for the opera. He assisted Pierre Prevost (1764-
1823) in the execution of panoramic views of Rome, Naples,
London, Jerusalem, and Athens, and subsequently (July 11,
1822)^ in conjunction with Bouton, he opened at Paris the
Diorama (Sis, double; opana, view), an exhibition of pictorial
views, the effect of which was heightened by changes in the light
thrown upon them. An establishment similar to that at Paris
was opened by Daguerre in Regent's Park, London. On the 3rd
of March 1839 the Diorama, together with the work on which
Daguerre was then engaged, was destroyed by fire. This reverse
of fortune was soon, however, more than compensated for by
the distinction he achieved as the inventor of the daguerreotype
phonographic process. J. Nicephore Niepce, who since 1814
had been seeking a means of obtaining permanent pictures by
the action of sunlight, learned in 1826 that Daguerre was similarly
occupied. In 1829 he communicated to Daguerre particulars of
his method of fixing the images produced in the camera lucida by
making use of metallic plates coated with a composition pf
asphalt and oil of lavender; this, where acted on by the light,
remained undissolved when the plate was plunged into a mixture
of petroleum and oil of lavender, and the development of the
image was effected by the action of acids and other chemical
reagents on the exposed surface of the plate. The two investi:
gators laboured together in the production of their " heliographic
pictures " from 1829 until the death of Niepce in 1833. Daguerre,
continuing his experiments, discovered eventually the process
connected with his name. This, as he described it, consists of
five operations: — the polishing of the silver plate; the coating of
the plate with iodide of silver by submitting it for about 20
minutes to the action of iodine vapour; the projection of the
image of the object upon the golden-coloured iodized surface,
the development of the latent image by means of the vapour o(
mercury; and, lastly, the fixing of the picture by immersing
the plate in a. solution of sodium " hyposulphite " (sodium
thiosulphate). On the 9th of January 1839, at a meeting of the
Academy of Sciences, Arago dwelt on the importance of the
discovery of the daguerreotype; and, in consequence of the
representations made by him and Gay Lussac to the French
government, Daguerre was on the 15th of June appointed an
officer of the Legion of Honour. On the same day a bill was
presented to the chambers, according to the provisions of which

DAGUPAN— DAHLCtREN, J. A,

73 1

Daguerre and the heir of Niepce were to receive annuities of
6000 and 4000 francs respectively, on the condition that their
process should be made known to the Academy. The bill having
been approved at the meetings of the two chambers on the 9th
of July and on the 2nd of August, Daguerre's process, together
with his system of transparent and opaque painting, was pub-
lished by the government, and soon became generally known
(see Photography).

Daguerre's Historique et description des procedSs du daguerreotype
el du diorama (Paris, 1839) passed through several editions, and
was translated into English. Besides this he wrote an octavo work,
entitled Nouveau mcyen de preparer la couche sensible des plaques
destinies & recevoir les images photographiques (Paris, 1844).

DAGUPAN, a town and the most important commercial centre
of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a
branch; of the Agno river near its entrance into the Gulf of
Lingayen, 120 m. by rail N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 20,357.
It is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway. Dagupan has a
healthy climate. It is the chief point of exportation for a very
rich province, which produces sugar, indigo, Indian corn, copra,
and especially rice. There are several rice mills here. Salt is an
important export, being manufactured in salt water swamps and
marshes throughout the province of Pangasinan (whose name,
from asin, " salt," means " the place where salt is produced ■").
In these marshes grows the nipa palm, from which a liquor is
distilled— there are a number of small distilleries here. Dagupan
has a small shipyard in which sailing vessels and steam launches
are constructed. The principal language is Pangasinan.

DAHABEAH (also spelt dahabiya, dahabiyeh, dahabeeyah,
&c), an Arabic word (variously derived from dahab, gold, and
dahqb, one of the forms of the verb to go) for a native passenger
boat used on the Nile. The typical form is that of a barge-like
house : boat provided with sails, resembling the painted galleys
represented on the tombs of the Pharaohs. Similar state barges
were used by the Mahommedan rulers of Egypt, and from the
circumstance that these vessels were ornamented with gilding is
attributed the usual derivation of the name from gold. Before
the introduction of steamers dahabeahs were generally used by
travellers ascending the Nile, and they are still the favourite
means of travelling for the leisured and wealthy classes. The
modern dahabeah is often made of iron, draws about 2 ft. of
water, and is provided with one very large and one small sail.
According to size it provides accommodation for from two to a
dozen passengers. Steam dahabeahs are also built to meet the
requirements of tourists.

DAHL, HANS (1840- ), Norwegian painter, was born at
Hardanger. After being in the Swedish army he studied art at
Karlsruhe and at Diisseldorf , being a notable painter of landscape
and genre. His work has considerable humour, but his colouring
is hard and rather crude. In 1889 he settled in Berlin. His
pictures are very popular in Norway.

DAHL, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1778-1857), Norwegian lands-
cape painter, was born in Bergen. He formed his style without
much tuition, remaining at Bergen till, he was twenty-four,
when he left for the better field of Copenhagen, and ultimately
settled in Dresden in 1818. He is usually included in the German
school, although he was thus close on forty years of age when he
finally tdbk up his abode in Dresden, where he was quickly
received into the Academy and became professor. German
landscape^painting was not greatly advanced at that time, and
Dahl contributed to improve it. He continued to reside in
Dresden, though he travelled into Tirol and in Italy, painting
many pictures, one of his best being that of the " Outbreak of
Vesuvius, 1820." He was fond of extraordinary effects, as seen
in his " Winter at Munich," and his " Dresden by Moonlight;"
also the "Haven of Copenhagen," and the " Schloss of Fried-
richsburg," under the same condition. At Dresden may be seen
many of his works, notably a large picture called " Norway,"
and a " Storm at Sea." He was received into several academic
bodies, and had the orders of Wasa and St Olaf sent him by the
king of Norway and Sweden.

DAHL, MICHAEL (1656-1743), Swedish portrait painter, was
born at Stockholm. He received his first professional education

from Ernst Klocke, who had a respectable position in that
northern town, which, however, Dahl left in his twenty-second
year. His first destination was England, where he did not long
remain, but crossed over to Paris, and made his way at last to
Rome, there taking up his abode for a considerable time, painting
the portraits of Queen Christina and other celebrities. In 1688
he returned to England, and became for some years a dangerous
rival to Kneller. He died in London. His portraits still exist
in many houses, but his name is not always preserved with them.
Nagler (Kiinstler -Lexicon) says those at Hampton Court and at
Petworth contest the palm with those of the better known and
vastly more employed painter.

DAHL (or DALE), VLADIMIR IVANOVICH (1802-1872),
Russian author and philologist, was born of Scandinavian parent-
age in 1802, and received his education at the naval cadets' in-
stitution at St Petersburg. He joined the Black Sea fleet in 1819;
but at a later date he entered the military service, and was thus
engaged in the Polish campaign of 1831, and in the expedition
against Khiva. He was afterwards appointed to a medical post
in one of the government hospitals at St Petersburg, and was
ultimately transferred to a situation in the civil service. The
latter years of his life were spent at Moscow, and he died there on
November 3 (October 22), 1872. Under the name of Kossack
Lugansky he obtained considerable fame by his stories of Russian
life: — The Dream and the Waking, A Story of Misery, Happiness,
and Truth, The Door-Keeper (Dvernik), The Officer's Valet
(Denshchik). His greatest work, however, was a Dictionary of
the Living Russian Tongue (Tolkovyi Slovar Zhivago Velikorus-
skago Yasika), which appeared in four volumes between 1861
and 1866, and is of the most essential service to the student of
the popular literature and folk-lore of Russia. It was based on
the results of his own investigations throughout the various
provinces of Russia,— investigations which had furnished him
with no fewer than 4000 popular tales and upwards of 30,000
proverbs. Among his other publications may be mentioned
Bemerkungen zu Zimmermann's Entwurf des Kriegstheaters
Russlands gegen Khiwa, published in German at Orenburg, and a
Handbook of Botany (Moscow, 1849).

A collected edition of his works appeared at St Petersburg in
8 volumes, 1 860-1 86 1.

DAHLBERG (Dahlbekgh), ERIK JOHANSEN, COUNT (1625-
1703), Swedish soldier and engineer, was born at Stockholm.
His early studies took the direction of the science of fortification,
and as an engineer officer he saw service in the latter years of the
Thirty Years' War, arid in Poland. As adjutant-general and
engineer adviser to Charles X. (Gustavus), he had a great share
in the famous crossing of the frozen Belts, and at the sieges of
Copenhagen and Kronborg he directed the engineers. In spite
of these, distinguished services, Dahlberg remained an obscure
lieutenant-colonel for many years. His patriotism, however,
proved superior to the tempting offers Charles II. of England
made to induce him to enter the British service, though, in that
age of professional soldiering, there was nothing in the offer that
a man of honour could not accept. At last his talents were
recognized, and in 1676 he became director-general of fortifica-
tions. In the wars of the next twenty-five years Dahlberg again
rendered distinguished service, alike in attack (as at Helsingborg
in 1677, and Dunamunde in 1700) and defence (as in the two
sieges of Riga in 1 700) :■ and his work in repairing the fortresses
of his own country, not less important, earned for him the title
of the " Vauban of Sweden." He was also the founder of the
Swedish engineer corps. He retired as field-marshal in 1 702, and
died the following year.

Erik Dahlberg was responsible for the fine collection of
drawings called Sueci'a antiqua et hodierna (Stockholm, 1660-
1716; 2nd edition, 1856; 3rd edition, 1864-1865), and assisted
Pufendorf in his Histoire de Charles X Gustave. He wrote a
memoir of his life (to be found in Svenska Bibliotek, 1757) and an
account of the campaigns of Charles X. (ed. Lundblad, Stockholm,
1823).

DAHLGREN, JOHN ADOLF (1809-1870), admiral in the U.S.
navy, was the son of the Swedish consul at Philadelphia, Pennsyl-

732

DAHLGREN, K. F.— DAHLMANN

vania, and was born in that rity on the 13 th of November 1809.
He entered the United States navy in 1826, and saw some service
in the Civil War in command of the South Atlantic blockading
squadron. But he was chiefly notable as a scientific officer.
His knowledge of mathematics caused him to be employed on
the coast survey in 1834. In 1837 his eyesight threatened to
fail, he retired in 1838-1842, and in 1847 he was transferred
to the ordnance department. In this post he applied himself
to the improvement of the guns of the U.S. navy. He was the
inventor of the smooth bore gun which bore his name, but was
from its shape familiarly known as " the soda water bottle."
It was used in the Civil War, and for several years afterwards in
the United States navy. Dahlgren's guns were first mounted
in a vessel named the " Experiment," which cruised under his
command from 1857 till 1859. They were " the first practical
application of results obtained by experimental determinations
of pressure at different points along the bore, by Colonel Bom-
ford's tests— that is by boring holes in the walls of the gun,
through which the pressure acts upon other bodies, such as
pistol balls, pistons, &c." (Cf. article by J. M. Brooke in
Hamersley's Naval Encyclopaedia.) When the Civil War broke
out, he was on ordnance duty in the Washington navy yard,
and he was one of the three officers who did not resign from
confederate sympathies. His rank at the time was commander,
and the command could only by held by a captain. President
Lincoln insisted on retaining Commander Dahlgren, and he was
qualified to keep the post by special act of Congress. He became
post-captain in 1862 and rear-admiral in 1863. He commanded
the Washington navy yard when he died on the 1 2th of July 1870.
A memoir of Admiral Dahlgren by his widow was published at
Boston in 1882. (D. H.)

DAHLGREN, KARL FREDRIK (1791-1844), Swedish poet,
was born at Stensbruk in Ostergotland on the 20th of June 1791.
At a time when literary partisanship ran high in Sweden, and the
writers divided themselves into " Goths " and " Phosphorists,"
Dahlgren made himself indispensable to the Phosphorists by his
polemical activity. In the mock-heroic poem of Markalls
somnlbsa natter (Markall's Sleepless Nights), in which the Phos-
phorists ridiculed the academician Per Adam Wallmark and
others, Dahlgren, who was a genuine humorist, took a prominent
part. In 1825 he published Babels Torn (The Tower of Babel) , a
satire, and a comedy, Argus in Qlympen; and in 1828 two
volumes of poems. In 1829 he was appointed to an ecclesiastical
post in Stockholm, which he held until his death. In a series of
odes and dithyrambic pieces, entitled Mollbergs Epistlar (1819,
1820), he strove to emulate the wonderful lyric genius of K. M.
Bellman, of whom he was a student and follower. From 1825 to
1827 he edited a critical journal entitled Kometen (The Comet),
and in company with Almqvist he founded the Manhems-
forbund, a short-lived society of agricultural socialists. In 1834
he collected his poems in one volume; and in 1837 appeared his
last book, Angbats-Sanger (Steamboat Songs). On the 1st of
May 1844 he died at Stockholm. Dahlgren is one of the best
humorous writers that Sweden has produced; but he was perhaps
at his best in realistic and idyllic description. His little poem of
Zephyr and the Girl, which is to be found in every selection from
Swedish poetry, is a good example of his sensuous and ornamented
style.

His works were collected and published after his death by A. J.
Arwidsson (5 vols., Stockholm, 1847-1852),

DAHLIA, a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order
Comppsitae, so called after Dr Dahl, a pupil of Linnaeus. The
genus contains about nine species indigenous in the high sandy
plains of Mexico. The dahlia was first introduced into Britain
from Spain in 1789 by the marchioness of Bute. The species was
probably D. variabilis, whence by far the majority of the forms
now common have originated. The flowers, at the time of the
first introduction of the plant, were single, with a yellow disk
and dull scarlet rays; under cultivation since the beginning of
the 19th century in France and England, flowers of numerous
brilliant hues have been produced. The flower has been modified
also from a flat to a globular shape, and the arrangement of the

florets has been rendered quite distinct in the ranunculus and
anemone-like kinds. The ordinary natural height of the dahlia
is about 7 or 8 ft., but one. of the dwarf races grows to only 18 in.
With changes in the flower, changes in the shape of the seed
have been brought about by cultivation; varieties of the plant
have been produced which require more moisture than others;
and the period of flowering has been made considerably earlier.
In 1808 dahlias were described as flowering from September to
November, but some of the dwarf varieties at present grown are
in full blossom in the middle of June.

The large number of varieties may be classed as under the
following heads: (1) Single dahlias. These have been derived
from D. coccinea; they have a disk of tubular florets surrounded
by the large showy ray florets. (2) Show dahlias, large and double
with flowers self-coloured or pale-coloured and edged or tipped
with a darker colour. (3) Fancy dahlias, resembling the show
but having the florets striped or tipped with a second tint. (4)
Bouquet or Pompon dahlias, with much smaller double flowers
of various colours. (5) Cactus dahlias, derived from D. Juarezi, a
form which has given rise to a beautiful race with pointed starry
flowers. (6) Paeony-flowered dahlias, a new but not pretty race,
with large floppy heads, broad florets and several disk florets in
centre.

New varieties are procured from seed, which should be sown in
pots or pans towards the end of March, and placed in a hotbed or
propagating pit, the young plants being pricked off into pots or
boxes, and gradually hardened off for planting out in June; they
will flower the same season if the summer is a genial one. The
older varieties are propagated by dividing the large tuberous
roots, in doing which care must be taken to leave an eye to each
portion of tuber, otherwise it will not grow. Rare varieties are
sometimes grafted on the roots of others. The best and most
general mode of propagation is by cuttings, to obtain which, the
old tubers are placed in heat in February, and as the young
shoots, which rise freely from them, attain the height of 3 in.,
they are taken off with a heel, and planted singly in small pots
fiDed with fine sandy soil, and plunged in a moderate heat. They
root speedily, and are then transferred to larger pots in light rich
soil, and their growth encouraged until the planting-Out season
arrives, about the middle of June north of the Thames.

Dahlias succeed best in an open situation, and in rich deep
loam, but there is scarcely any garden soil in which they will not
thrive, if it is manured. For the production of fine show flowers
the ground must be deeply trenched, and well manured annually.
The branches as well as the blossoms require a considerable but
judicious amount of thinning; they also need shading in some
cases. The plants should be protected from cold winds, and
when Watered the whole of the foliage should be wetted. They
may stand singly like common border flowers, but have the most
imposing appearance when seen in masses arranged according to
their height. Florists usually devote a plot of ground to them,
and plant them in lines 5 to 10 ft. apart. This is done about the
beginning of June, sheltering them if necessary from late frosts
by inverted pots or in some other convenient way. Old roots
often throw up a multitude of stems, which render thinning
necessary. As the plants increase in height, they are furnished
with strong stakes, to secure them from high winds. Dahlias
flower on till they are interrupted by frost in autumn. The roots
are then taken up, dried, and stored in a cellar, or some other
place where they may be secure from frost and moisture. Ear-
wigs are very destructive, eating out the young buds and florets.
Small flower-pots half filled with dry moss and inverted on stakes
placed among the branches, form a useful trap.

DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1785-1860), German
historian and politician, was born on the 13th of May 1785;
he came of an old Hansearic family of Wismar, which then
belonged to Sweden. His father, who was the burgomaster of
the town, intended him to study theology, but his bent was
towards classical philology, and this he studied from 1802 to
1806 at the universities of Copenhagen and Halle, and again at
Copenhagen. After finishing his studies, he translated some of
the Greek tragic poets, and the Clouds of Aristophanes. But he

DAHLSTJERNA

'33

was also interested in modern literature and philosophy; and
the troubles of the times, of which he had personal experience,
aroused in him, as in so many of his contemporaries, a strong
feeling of German patriotism, though throughout his life he was
always proud of his connexion with Scandinavia, and Gustavus
Adolphus was his particular hero. In 1809, on the news of the
outbreak of war in Austria, Dahlmann, together with the poet
Heinrich von Kleist, whom he had met in Dresden, went to
Bohemia, and was afterwards with the Imperial army, up till
the battle of Aspern, with the somewhat vague object of trying
to convert the Austrian war into a German one. This hope was
shattered by the defeat of Wagram. He now decided to try his
fortunes in Denmark, where he had influential relations. After
taking his doctor's degree at Wittenberg (1810) he qualified at
Copenhagen in 1811, with an essay on the origins of the ancient
theatre, as a lecturer on ancient literature and history, on which
he delivered lectures in Latin. His influential friends soon
brought him further advancement. As early as 181 2 he was
summoned to Kiel, as successor to the historian Dietrich Her-
mann Hegewisch (1746-1812). This appointment was in two
respects a decisive moment in his career; on the one hand it
made him give his whole attention to a subject for which he
was admirably suited, but to which he had so far given only a
secondary interest; and on the other hand, it threw him into
politics.

In 1815 he obtained, in addition to his professorate, the
position of secretary to the perpetual deputation of the estates of
Schleswig-Holstein. In this capacity he began, by means of
memoirs or of articles in the Kieler Blatter, which he founded
himself, to appear as an able and zealous champion of the
half -forgotten rights of the Elbe duchies, as against Denmark,
and of their close connexion with Germany. It was he upon
whom the Danes afterwards threw the blame of having invented
the Schleswig-Holstein question; certainly his activites form
an important link in the chain of events which eventually led
to the solution of 1864. So far as this interest affected himself,
the chief profit lay in the fact that it deepened his conception
of the state, and directed it to more practical ends. Whereas
at that time mere speculation dominated both the French
Liberalism of the school of Rotteck, and Karl Ludwig von
Haller's Romanticist doctrine of the Christian state, Dahl-
mann took as his premisses the circumstances as he found them,
and evolved the new out of the old by a quiet process of develop-
ment. Moreover, in the inevitable conflict with the Danish
crown his upright point of view and his German patriotism were
further confirmed. After his transference to Gottingen in 1829
he had the opportunity of working in the same spirit. As
confidant of the duke of Cambridge, he was allowed to take a
share in framing the Hanoverian constitution of 1833, which
remodelled the old aristocratic government in a direction which
had become inevitable since the July revolution in Paris; and
when in 1837 the new king Ernest Augustus declared the con-
stitution invalid, it was Dahlmann who inspired the famous
protest of the seven professors of Gottingen. He was deprived
of his position and banished, but he had the satisfaction of
knowing that German national feeling received a mighty impulse
from his courageous action, while public subscriptions prevented
him from material cares.

After he had lived for several years in Leipzig and Jena, King
Frederick William IV. appointed him in October 1842 to a
professorship at Bonn. The years that followed were those of
his highest celebrity. His Politik (1835) had already made him
a great name as a writer; he now published his Danische
Geschichte (1840-1843), a historical work of the first rank; and
this was soon followed by histories of the English and French
revolutions, which, though of less scientific value, exercised a
decisive influence upon public opinion by their open advocacy
of the system of constitutional monarchy. As a teacher too he
was much beloved. Though no orator, and in spite of a person-
ality not particularly amiable or winning, he produced a profound
impression upon young men by the pregnancy of his expression,
a consistent logical method of thought based on Kant and by

the manliness of his character. When the revolution of 1848
broke out, the " father of German nationality," as the pro-
visional government at Milan called him, found himself the centre
of universal interest. Both Mecklenburg and Prussia offered
him in vain the post of envoy to the diet of the confederation.
Naturally, too, he was elected to the national assembly at
Frankfort, and took a leading part in the constitutional com-
mittees appointed first by the diet, then by the parliament. His
object was to make Germany as far as possible a united constitu-
tional monarchy, with the exclusion of the whole of Austria, or
at least, of its non-German parts. Prussia was to provide the
emperor, but at the same time— and in this lay the doctrinaire
weakness of the system — was to give up its separate existence,
consecrated by history, in the same way as the other states.
When, therefore, Frederick William IV., without showing any
anxiety to bind himself by the conditions laid down at Frankfort,
concluded with Denmark the seven months' truce of Malmo
(26th August 1848), Dahlmann proposed that the national
parliament should refuse to recognize the truce, with the express
intention of clearing up once for all the relations of the parlia-
ment with the court of Berlin. The motion was passed by a
small majority (September 5th); but the members of Dahl-
mann's party were just those who voted against it, and it was
they who on the 17th of September reversed the previous vote
and passed a resolution accepting the truce, after Dahlmann had
failed to form a ministry on the basis of the resolution of the 5th,
owing to his objection to the Radicals. Dahlmann afterwards
described this as the decisive turning-point in the fate of the
parliament. He did not, however, at once give up all hope.
Though he took but little active part in parliamentary debates,
he was very active on commissions and in party conferences,
and it was largely owing to him that a German constitution was
at last evolved, and that Frederick William IV. was elected
hereditary emperor (28th of March 1849). He was accordingly
one of the deputation which offered the crown to the king in
Berlin. The king's refusal was less of a surprise to him than to
most of his colleagues. He counted on being able to compel
recognition of the constitution by the moral pressure of the
consent of the people. It was only when the attitude of the
Radicals made it clear to him that this course would lead to a
revolution, that he decided, after a long struggle, to retire from
the national parliament (21st May). He was still, however, one
of the chief promoters of the well-known conference of the
imperial party at Gotha, the proceedings of which were not,
however, satisfactory to him; and he took part in the sessions
of the first Prussian chamber (1840-1850) and of the parliament
of Erfurt (1850). But finally, convinced that for the moment
all efforts towards the unity of Germany were unavailing, he
retired from political life, though often pressed to stand for
election, and again took up his work of teaching at Bonn. His
last years were, however, saddened by illness, bereavement and
continual friction with his colleagues. His death took place on
the 5th of December i860, following on an apoplectic fit. He was
a man whose personality had contributed to the progress of the
world, and whose teaching was to continue to exercise a far-
reaching influence on the development of German affairs.

His chief works were: — Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte
nach der Folge der Begebenheiten geordnet (1830, 7th edition of
Dahlmann- Waitz, Quellenkunde, Leipzig, 1906); Politik, auf
den Grund und das Mass der gegebenen Zustdnde zuriickgefuhrt
(1 vol., 1835); Geschichte Danemarks (3 vols., 1840- 1843);
Geschichte der englischen Revolution (1844); Geschichte der
franzosischen Revolution (1845).

See A. Springer, Friedreich Christoph Dahlmann (2 vols., 1870-
1872) ; and H. v. Treitschke, Histor. und polit. Aufsdtze, i. 365
et seq. (F. Lu.)

DAHLSTJERNA, GUNNO (1661-1709), Swedish poet, whose
original surname was Eurelius, was born on the 7th of September
1661 in the parish of Ohr in Dalsland, where his father was
rector. He entered the university of Upsala in 1677, and after
gaining his degree entered the government office of land-survey-
ing. He was sent in 1681 on professional business to Livonia,

734

DAHN— DAHOMEY

then under Swedish rule. A dissertation read at Leipzig in 1687
brought him the offer of a professorial chair in the university,
which he refused. Returning to Sweden he executed commis-
sions ip land-surveying directed by King Charles XI., and in
1699 he became head of the whole department. In 1702 he was
ennobled under the name of Dahlstjerna. He wandered over
the whole of the coast of the Baltic, Livonia, Rugen and
Pomerania, preparing maps which still exist in the office of
public land-surveying in Stockholm. His death, which took
place in Pomerania on his forty-eighth birthday, 7 th of September
1709, is said to have been hastened by the disastrous news of
the battle of Poltava. Dahlstjerna's patriotism was touching
in its pathos and intensity, and during his long periods of pro-
fessional exile he comforted himself by the composition of songs
to his beloved Sweden. His genius was most irregular, but at
his best he easily surpasses all the Swedish poets of his time. :
His best-known original work is Kungaskald (Stettin, 1697), an
elegy on the death of Charles XI. It is written in alexandrines,
arranged in oitava rima. The poem is pompous and allegorical,
but there are passages full of melody and high thoughts.
Dahlstjerna was a reformer in language, and it has been well;
said by Atterbom that in this poem "he treats the Swedish:
speech just as dictatorially as Charles XL and Charles XII.
treated the Swedish nation." In 1690 was printed at Stettin 1
his paraphrase of the Pastor Fido of Guarini. His most popular
work is his Gotha kdmpavisa om Konungen och Herr Peder (The
Goth's Battle Song, concerning the King and Master Peter;
Stockholm, 1701). The King is Charles XII. and Master Peter
is the tsar of Russia. This spirited ballad lived almost until our
own days on the lips of the people as a folk-song.

The works of Dahlstjerna have been collected by P. Hanselli, in
the Samlade Vilterhetsarbeten af svenska Forfattare frdn Stjernhjelm
till Dalin (Upsala, 1856, &c).

DAHN, JULIUS SOPHUS FELIX (1834- ), German his-
torian, jurist and poet, was born on the 9th of February 1834 in
Hamburg, where his father, Friedrich Dahn -(1811-1889), was a
leading actor at the city theatre. His mother, Constance Dahn,
nSe Le Gay, was a noted actress. In 1834 the family moved to
Munich, where the parents took leading roles in the classical
German drama, until they retired from the stage: the mother
in 1865 and the father in 1878. Felix Dahn studied law and
philosophy in Munich and Berlin from 1849 to 1853. His first
works were in jurisprudence, Uber die Wirkung der Klagver-
jakrung bei Obligationen. (Munich, 1855), and Studien zur Ge-
schichte der germanischen Gottesurteile (Munich, 1857). In 1857 he;
became docent in German law at Munich university, and in 1862
professor-extraordinary, but in 1863 was called to Wiirzburg to;
a full professorship. In 1872 he removed to the university of
Konigsberg, and in 1888 settled at Breslau, becoming rector of,
the university in 1895. Meanwhile in addition to many legal
works of high standing, he had begun the publication of that
long series of histories and historical romances which has made
his name a household word in Germany. The great history of
the German migrations, Die Konige der Germanen, Bande i.-vi.
(Munich and Wiirzburg, 1861-1870), Bande viL-xi. (Leipzig,
1 894- 1 908), was a masterly study in constitutional ■ history as
we.ll as a literary work of high merit, which carries the narrative ;
down to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. In his
Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Volker (Berlin,
1 881-1890), Dahn went a step farther back still, but here as in
his Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit (Gotha, 1883-1888), a wealth of
picturesque detail has been worked over and resolved into history
with such imaginative insight and critical skill as to make real
and present the indistinct beginnings of German society. To-
gether with these larger works Dahn wrote many monographs
and studies upon primitive German society. Many of his essays
were collected in a series of six volumes entitled Bausteine
(Berlin, 1879-1884). Not less important than his histories are
the historical romances, the best-known of which, Ein Kampf
urn Rom, in four volumes (Leipzig, 1876), which has gone through
many later editions, was also the first of the series: Others are
Odhins Trost (Leipzig, 1880); Die Kreuzfahrer (Leipzig, 1884);

Odhins Roche (Leipzig, 1891); Julian der Abtrilnnige (Leipzig,
1894), and one of the most popular, Biszum Tode getreu (Leipzig,
1887). The list is too long to be given in full, yet almost all are
well-known. Parallel with this great production of learned and
imaginative works, Dahn published some twenty small volumes
of poetry. The most notable of these are the epics of the early
German period. His wife Therese, ne'e Freiin von Droste-
Hiilshoff , was joint-author with him of W alkali, Germanische
Gbtter und Heldensagen (Leipzig, 1898).

A collected edition of his works of fiction, both in prose and verse,
has reached twenty-one volumes (Leipzig, 1898), and a new edition
was published in 1901. Dahn also published four volumes of
memoirs, Erinnerungen (Leipzig, 1890-1895)..

DAHOMEY (Fr. Dahome), a country of West Africa, formerly
an independent kingdom, now a French colony. Dahomey is
bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, E. by Nigeria (British), N.
and N. W. by the French possessions on the middle Niger, and W.
by the German colony of Togoland. The French colony extends
far north of the limits of the ancient kingdom of the same name.
With a coast-line of only 75 m. (i° 38' E. to 2 46' 55" E.), the
area of the colony is about 40,000 sq. m., and the population over
1,000,000. As far as 9 ° N. the width of the colony is no greater
than the coast-line. From this point, the colony broadens out both
eastward and westward, attaining a maximum width of 200 m.
It includes the western part of Borgu (q.v.), and reaches the Niger
at a spot a little above Mo. Its greatest length N. to S. is 430 m.

Physical Features. -^-The littoral, part of the old Slave Coast
(see Guinea), is very low, sandy and obstructed by a bar.
Behind the seashore is a line of lagoons, where small steamers
can ply; east to west they are those of Porto Novo (or Lake
Nokue), Whydah and Grand Popo. The Weme (300 m. long),
known in its upper course as the Ofe, the most important river
running south, drains the colony from the Bariba country to
Porto Novo, entering the lagoon so named. The Zu is a western
affluent of the Weme. Farther west is the Kuffu (150 m. long),
which, before entering the Whydah lagoon, broadens out into a
lake or lagoon called Aheme, 20 m. long by 5 m, broad. The Makru
and Kergigoto, each of which has various affluents, flow north-
east to the Niger, which in the part of its course forming the
north-east frontier of the colony is only navigable for small
vessels and that with great difficulty (see Niger) .

For some 50 m. inland the country is flat, and, after the first
mile or two of sandy waste is passed, covered with dense vegeta-
tion. At this distance (50 m.) from the coast is a great swamp
known as the Lama Marsh. It extends east to west some 25 m.
and north to south 6 to 9 m. North of the swamp the land rises
by regular stages to about 1650 ft., the high plateau falling again
to the basin of the Niger. In the north-west a range of hills
known as the Atacora forms a watershed between the basins
of the Weme, the Niger and the Volta. A large part of the interior
consists of undulating country, rather barren, with occasional
patches of forest. The forests contain the baobab, the coco-nut
palm and the oil palm. The fauna resembles that of other
parts of the West Coast, but the larger wild animals, such as the
elephant and hippopotamus, are rare. The lion is found in the
regions bordering the Niger. Some kinds of antelopes are
common; the buffalo has disappeared.

Climate. — The climate of the coast regions is very hot and
moist. Four seasons are well marked: the harmattan or long
dry season, from the 1st December to the 15th March; the
season of the great rains, from the 15th March to the 15th
July; the short dry season, from the 15th July to the 15th
September; and the "little rains," from the 15th September
to the 1st December. Near the sea the average temperature is
about 80° F. The harmattan prevails for several days in suc-
cession, and alternates with winds from the south and south-
west. During its continuance the thermometer falls about 10°,
there is not the slightest moisture in the atmosphere, vegetation
dries up or droops, the skin parches and peels, and all woodwork
is liable to warp and crack with a loud report. Tornadoes occur
occasionally. During nine months of the year the climate is
tempered by a sea-breeze, which is felt as far inland as Abomey

DAHOMEY

735

(60 m.). It generally begins in the morning, and in the summer
it often increases to a stiff gale at sundown. In the interior
there are but two seasons: the dry season (November to May)
and the rainy season (June to October). The rains are more
scanty and diminish considerably in the northern regions.

Inhabitants. ^-The inhabitants of the coast region are of pure
negro stock. The Dahomeyans (Dahomi), who inhabit the
central part of the colony, form one of eighteen closely-allied
clans occupying the country between the Volta and Porto Novo,
and from their common tongue known as the Ewe-speaking
tribes. In their own tongue Dahomeyans are called Fon or
Fawin. They are tall and well-formed, proud, reserved in
demeanour, polite in their intercourse with strangers, warlike
and keen traders. The Mina, who occupy the district of the
Popos, are noted for their skill as surf-men, which has gained for
them the title of the Krumen of Dahomey. Porto Novo is in-
habited by a tribe called Nago, which has an admixture of
Yoruba blood and speaks a Yoruba dialect. The Nago are a
peaceful tribe and even keener traders than the Dahomi. In
Whydah and other coast towns are many mulattos, speaking
Portuguese and bearing high-sounding Portuguese names. In
the north the inhabitants — Mahi, Bariba, Gurmai, — are also of
Negro stock, but scarcely so civilized as the coast tribes. Settled
among them are communities of Fula and Hausas. There are
many converts to Islam in the northern districts, but the Mahi
and Dahomeyans proper are nearly all fetish worshippers.

Chief Towns. — The chief port and the seat of government is
Kotonu, the starting-point of a railway to the Niger. An iron
pier, which extends well beyond the surf, affords facilities for
shipping. Kotonu was originally a small village which served as
the seaport of Porto Novo and was burnt to the ground in 1890.
It has consequently the advantage of being a town laid out by
Europeans on a definite plan. Situated on the beach between
the sea and the lagoon of Porto Novo, the soil consists of heavy
sand. Good hard roads have been made. Owing to an almost
continuous, cool, westerly sea-breeze, Kotonu is, in comparison
with the other coast towns, decidedly healthy for white men.
Porto Novo (pop. about 50,000), the former French headquarters
and chief business centre, is on the northern side of the lagoon
of the same name and 20 m. north-east of Kotonu by water.
The town has had many names, and that by which it is known
to Europeans was given by the Portuguese in the 17th century.
It contains numerous churches and mosques, public buildings
and merchants' residences. Whydah, 23 m. west of Kotonu,
is an old and formerly thickly-populated town. Its population
is now about 15,000. It is built on the north bank of the coast
lagoon about 2 m. from the sea. There is no harbour at the
beach, and landing is effected in boats made expressly to pass
through the surf, here particularly heavy. Whydah, during the
period of the slave-trade, was divided into five quarters: the
English, French, Portuguese, Brazilian and native. The three
first quarters once had formidable forts, of which the French
fort alone survives. In consequence of the thousands of orange
and citron trees which adorn it, Whydah is called " the garden
of Dahomey." West of Whydah, on the coast and near the
frontier of Togoland, is the trading town of Grand Popo. Inland
in Dahomey proper are Abomey (q.v.), the ancient capital, Allada,
Kana (formerly the country residence and burial-place of the
kings of Dahomey) and Dogba. In the hinterland are Carnot-
ville (a town of French creation), Nikki and Paraku, Borgu
towns, and Garu, on the right bank of the Niger near the British
frontier, the terminus of the railway from the coast.

Agriculture and Trade. — The agriculture, trade and commerce
of Dahomey proper are essentially different from that of the
hinterland (Haut Dahome). The soil of Dahomey proper is
naturally fertile and is capable of being highly cultivated. It
consists of a rich clay of a deep red colour. Finely-powdered
quartz and yellow mica are met with, denoting the deposit of
disintegrated granite from the interior. The principal product
is palm-oil, which is made in large quantities throughout the
country. The district of Toffo is particularly noted for its oil-
palm orchards. Palm-wine is also made, but the manufacture

is discouraged as the process destroys the tree. Next to palm-oil
the principal vegetable products are maize, guinea-corn, cassava^
yams, sweet potatoes, plantains, coco-nuts, oranges, limes and
the African apple, which grows almost wild. The country also
produces ground-nuts, kola-nuts, pine-apples, guavas, spices of
all kinds, ginger, okros [Hibiscus), sugar-cane, onions, tomatoes
and papaws. Plantations of rubber trees and vines have been :
made. Cattle, sheep, goats and fowls are scarce. There is a
large fishing industry in the lagoons. Round the villages, and
here and there in the forest, clearings are met with, cultivated
in places, but agriculture is in a backward condition. In the
grassy uplands of the interior cattle and horses thrive, and
cotton of a fairly good quality is grown by the inhabitants
for their own use. The prosperity of the country depends chiefly
on the export of palm-oil and palm-kernels. Copra, kola-nuts,
rubber and dried fish are also exported, the fish going to Lagos.
The adulteration of the palm-kernels by the natives, which
became a serious menace to trade, was partially checked (1900-
1903) by measures taken to ensure the inspection of the kernels
before shipment. Trade is mainly with Germany and Great
Britain, a large proportion of the cargo passing through the
British port of Lagos. Only some 25 % of the commerce is
with France. Cotton goods (chiefly from Great Britain),
machinery and metals, alcohol (from Germany) and tobacco are
the chief imports. The volume of trade, which had increased
from £701,000 in 1898 to £1,230,000 in 1902, declined in 1903 to
£826,000 in consequence of the failure of rain, this causing a
decrease in the production of palm-oil and kernels. In 1904 the
total rose to £873,399. In 1905 the figure was £734,667, and in
1907 £853,051. By the Anglo-French Convention of 1898 the
imposition of differential duties on goods of British origin was
forbidden for a period of thirty years from that date.

Communications. — The Dahomey railway from Kotonu to the
Niger is of metre gauge (3-28 ft.). Work was begun in 1900, and
in 1902 the main line was completed to Toffo, a distance of 55 m.
Some difficulty was then encountered in crossing the Lama
Marsh, but by the end of 1905 the railway had been carried
through Abomey to Pauignan, 120 m. from Kotonu. In 1907
the rails had reached Paraku, 150 m. farther north. A branch
' railway from the main line serves the western part of the colony.
It goes via Whydah to Segborue on Lake Aheme. Besides the
railways, tramway lines exist in various parts. of Dahomey. One,
28 m. long, runs from Porto Novo through the market-town of
Adjara to Sakete, close to the British frontier in the direction
of Lagos. This .line serves a belt of country rich in oil-palms.
Kotonu is a regular port of call for steamers from Europe to the.
West Coast, and there is also regular steamship communication
along the lagoons between Porto Novo and Lagos. There is a
steamboat service between Porto Novo and Kotonu. A telegraph
line connects Kotonu with Abomey, the Niger and Senegal. ,

Administration. — -The colony is administered by a lieutenant-
governor, assisted by a council composed of official and unofficial
members. The colony is divided into territories annexed,
territories protected, and " territories of political action," but
for administrative purposes the division is into "circles" or
provinces. Over each circle is an administrator with extensive
powers. Except in the annexed territories the native states are
maintained under French supervision, and native laws and
customs, as far as possible, retained. Natives, however, may
place themselves under the jurisdiction of the French law. Such
natives are known as " Assimilfis." In general the adminis-
trative system is the same as that for all the colonies of French
West Africa (q.v.). The chief source. of revenue is the customs,
while the capitation tax contributes most to the local budget.

History. — The kingdom of Dahomey, like those of Benin and
Ashanti, is an instance of a purely negro and pagan state,
endowed with a highly organized government, and possessing
a certain amount of indigenous civilization and culture. Its
history begins about the commencement of the 17th century.
At that period the country now known as Dahomey was included
in the extensive kingdom of Allada or Ardrah, of which the
capital was the present town of Allada, on the road from Whydah

73^

DAHOMEY

to Abomey. Allada became dismembered on the death of a
reigning sovereign, and three separate kingdoms were constituted
under his three sons. One state was formed by one brother
round the old capital of Allada, and retained the name of Allada
or Ardrah; another brother migrated to the east and formed
a state known under the name of Porto Novo; while the third
brother, Takudonu, travelled northwards, and after some
vicissitudes established the kingdom of Dahomey. The word
Dahomey means " in Danh's belly," and is explained by the
following legend which, says Sir Richard Burton, " is known
(1864) to everybody in the kingdom." Takudonu having settled
in a town called Uhwawe encroached on the land of a neighbouring
chief named Danh (the snake). Takudonu wearied Danh by
perpetual demands for land, and the chief one day exclaimed in
anger " soon thou wilt build in my belly." So it came to pass.
Takudonu slew Danh and over his grave built himself a palace
which was called Dahomey, a name thenceforth adopted by
the new king's followers. About 1724-1728 Dahomey, having
become a powerful state, invaded and conquered successively
Allada and Whydah. The Whydahs made several attempts to
recover their freedom, but without success; while on the other
hand the Dahomeyans failed in all their expeditions against
Grand Popo, a town founded by refugee Whydahs on a lagoon
to the west. It is related that the repulses they met with in that
quarter led to the order that no Dahomeyan warrior was to enter
a canoe. • Porto Novo at the beginning of the 19th century
became tributary to Dahomey.

Such was the state of affairs at the accession of King Gezo
about the year 1818. This monarch, who reigned forty years,
raised the power of Dahomey to its highest pitch, extending
greatly the border of his kingdom to the north. He boasted of
having first organized the Amazons, a force of women to whom
he attributed his successes. The Amazons, however, were state
soldiery long before Gezo's reign, and what that monarch really
did was to reorganize and strengthen the force.

In 1851 Gezo attacked Abeokuta in the Yoruba country and
the centre of the Egba power, but was beaten back. In the
same year the king signed a commercial treaty with France, in
which Gezo also undertook to preserve " the integrity of the
territory belonging to the French fort " at Whydah. The fort
referred to was one built in the 17th century, and in 1842 made
over to a French mercantile house. England, Portugal arid
Brazil also had " forts " at Whydah — all in a ruinous condition
and ungarrisoned. But when in 1852 England, to prevent the
slave-trade, blockaded the Dahomeyan coast, energetic protests
were made by Portugal and France, based on the existence of
these " forts." In 1858 Gezo died. He had greatly reduced
the custom of human sacrifice, and left instructions that after
his death there was to be no general sacrifice of the palace
women.

Gezo was succeeded by his son Glegle (or Gelele) , whose attacks
on neighbouring states, persecution of native Christians, and
encouragement of the slave-trade involved him in difficulties
with Great Britain and with France. It was, said Earl Russell,
foreign secretary, to check " the aggressive spirit of the king of
Dahomey " that England in 1861 annexed the island of Lagos.
Nevertheless in the following year Glegle captured Ishagga and
in 1864 unsuccessfully attacked Abeokuta, both towns in the
Lagos hinterland. In 1863 Commander Wilmot, R.N., and in
1864 Sir Richard Burton (the explorer and orientalist) were
sent on missions to the king, but their efforts to induce the
Dahomeyans to give up human sacrifices, slave-trading, &c.
met with no success. In 1863, however, a step was taken by
France which was the counterpart of the British annexation of
Lagos. In that year the kingdom of Porto Novo accepted a
French protectorate, and an Anglo-French agreement of 1864
fixed its boundaries. This protectorate was soon afterwards
abandoned by Napoleon III., but was re-established in 1882.
At this period the rivalry of European powers for possessions in
Africa was becoming acute, and German agents appeared on
the Dahomeyan coast. However, by an arrangement concluded
in 1885, the German protectorate in Guinea was confined to

Togo, save for the town of Little Popo at the western end of the
lagoon of Grand Popo. In January 1886 Portugal — in virtue
of her ancient rights at Whydah — announced that she had
assumed a protectorate over the Dahomeyan coast, but she was
induced by France to withdraw her protectorate in December
1887. Finally, the last international difficulty in the way of
France was removed by the Anglo-French agreement of 1889,
whereby Kotonu was surrendered by Great Britain. France
claimed rights at Kotonu in virtue of treaties concluded with
Glegle in 1868 and 1878, but the chiefs of the town had placed
themselves under the protection of the British at Lagos.

With the arrangements between the European powers the
Dahomeyans had little to do, and in 1889, the year in which the
Anglo-French agreement was signed, trouble arose between
Glegle and the French. The Dahomeyans were the more con-
fident, as through German and other merchants at Whydah they
were well supplied with modern arms and ammunition. Glegle
claimed the right to collect the customs at Kotonu, and to depose
the king of Porto Novo, and proceeded to raid the territory of
that potentate (his brother). A French mission sent to Abomey
failed to come to an agreement with the Dahomeyans, who
attributed the misunderstandings to the fact that there was no
longer a king in France! G16gle died on the 28th of December
1889, two days after the French mission had left his capital.
He was succeeded by his son Behanzin. A French force was
landed at Kotonu, and severe fighting followed in which the
Amazons played a conspicuous part. In October 1890 a treaty
was signed which secured to France Porto Novo and Kotonu,
and to the king of Dahomey an annual pension of £800. It was
unlikely that peace on such terms would prove lasting, and
Behanzin's slave-raiding expeditions led in 1892 to a new war
with France. General A. A. Dodds was placed in command of a
strong force of Europeans and Senegalese, and after a sharp
campaign during September and October completely defeated
the Dahomeyan troops. Behanzin set fire to Abomey (entered
by the French troops on the 17th of November) and fled north.
Pursued by the enemy, abandoned by his people, he surrendered
unconditionally on the 25th of January 1894, and was deported
to Martinique, being transferred in 1906 to Algeria, where he
died on the 10th of December of the same year.

Thus ended the independent existence of Dahomey. The
French divided the kingdom in two — Abomey and Allada—
placing on the throne of Abomey a brother of the exiled monarch.
Chief among the causes which led to the collapse of the
Dahomeyan kingdom was the system which devoted the flower
of its womanhood to the profession of arms.

Whydah and the adjacent territory was annexed to France by
General Dodds on the 3rd of December 1892, and the rest of
Dahomey placed under a French protectorate at the same time.
The prince who had been made king of Abomey was found
intriguing against the French, and in 1900 was exiled by them
to the Congo, and with him disappeared the last vestige of
Dahomeyan sovereignty.

Dahomey conquered, the French at once set to work to secure
as much of the hinterland as possible. On the north they pene-
trated to the Niger, on the east they entered Borgu (a country
claimed by the Royal Niger Company for Great Britain), on the
west they overlapped the territory claimed by Germany as the
hinterland of Togo. The struggle with Great Britain and Ger-
many for supremacy in this region forms one of the most in-
teresting chapters in the story of the partition of Africa. In the
result France succeeded in securing a junction between Dahomey
and her other possessions in West Africa, but failed to secure any
part of the Niger navigable from the sea (see Africa: History,
and Nigeria). A Franco-German convention of 1897 settled
the boundary on the west, and the Anglo-French convention of
the 14th of June 1898 defined the frontier on the east. In 1899,
on the disintegration of the French Sudan, the districts of Fada
N'Gurma and Say, lying north of Borgu, were added to Dahomey,
but in 1907 they were transferred to Upper Senegal-Niger, with
which colony they are closely connected both geographically and
ethnographically. From 1894 onward the French devoted great

DAILLE— DAIRY

737

attention to the development of the material resources of the
country.

The " Customs. "—Reference has already been made to the
Dahomey " Customs," which gave the country an infamous
notoriety. The " Customs " appear to date from the middle of
the 17th century, and were of two kinds: the grand Customs
performed on the death of a king; and the minor Customs,
held twice a year. The horrors of these saturnalia of bloodshed
were attributable not to a love of cruelty but to filial piety.
Upon the death of a king human victims were sacrificed at his
grave to supply him with wives, attendants, &c. in the spirit
world. The grand Customs surpassed the annual rites in splen-
dour and bloodshed. At those held in 1791 during January,
February and March, it is stated that no fewer than 500 men,
women and children were put to death. The minor Customs
were first heard cf in Europe in the early years of the 18th
century. They formed continuations of the grand Customs,
and " periodically supplied the departed monarch with fresh
attendants in the shadowy world." The actual slaughter was
preluded by dancing, feasting, speechmaking and elaborate
ceremonial. The victims, chiefly prisoners of war, were dressed
in calico shirts decorated round the neck and down the sleeves
with red bindings, and with a crimson patch on the left breast,
and wore long white night-caps with spirals of blue ribbon sewn
on. Some of them, tied in baskets, were at one stage of the
proceedings taken to the top of a high platform, together with
an alligator, a cat and a hawk in similar baskets, and paraded on
the heads of the Amazons. The king then made a speech ex-
plaining that the victims were sent to testify to his greatness in
spirit-land, the men and the animals each to their kind. They
were then hurled down into the middle of a surging crowd of
natives, and butchered. At another stage of the festival human
sacrifices were offered at the shrine of the king's ancestors, and
the blood was sprinkled on their graves. This was known as
Zan Nyanyana or " evil night," the king going in procession with
his wives and officials and himself executing the doomed. These
semi-public massacres formed only a part of the slaughter, for
many women, eunuchs and others within the palace were done
to death privately. The skulls were used to adorn the palace
walls, and the king's sleeping-chamber was paved with the heads
of his enemies. The skulls of the conquered kings were turned
into royal drinking cups, their conversion to this use being
esteemed an honour. Sir Richard Burton insists (A Mission to
Gelele, King of Dahome) that the horrors of these rites were
greatly exaggerated. For instance, the story that the king
floated a canoe in a tank of human blood was, he writes, quite
untrue. He denies, too, that the victims were tortured, and
affirms that on the contrary they were treated humanely, and,
in many cases, even acquiesced in their fate. It seems that
cannibalism was a sequel of the Customs, the bodies of the
slaughtered being roasted and devoured smoking hot. On the
death of the king the wives, after the most extravagant demon-
strations of grief, broke and destroyed everything within
their reach, and attacked and murdered each other, the uproar
continuing until order was restored by the new sovereign.

Amazonian Army. — The training of women as soldiers was
the most singular Dahomeyan institution. About one-fourth of
the whole female population were said to be " married to the
fetich," many even before their birth, and the remainder were
entirely at the disposal of the king. The most favoured were
selected as his own wives or enlisted into the regiments of
Amazons, and then the chief men were liberally supplied. Of
the female captives the most promising were drafted into the
ranks as soldiers, and the rest became Amazonian camp followers
and slaves in the royal households. These female levies formed
the flower of the Dahomeyan army. They were marshalled in
regiments, each with its distinctive uniform and badges, and they
took the post of honour in all battles. Their number has been
variously stated. Sir R. F. Burton, in 1862, who saw the army
marching out of Kana on an expedition, computed the whole
force of female troops at 2500, of whom one- third were unarmed
or only half-armed. Their weapons were blunderbusses, flint

vii. 24

muskets, and bows and arrows. A later writer estimated the
number of Amazons at 1000, and the male soldiers at 10,000.
The system of warfare was one of surprise. The army marched
out, and, when within a few days' journey of the town to be
attacked, silence was enjoined and no fires permitted. The
regular highways were avoided, and the advance was by a road
specially cut through the bush. The town was surrounded at
night, and just before daybreak a rush was made and every soul
captured if possible; none were killed except in self-defence, as
the first object was to capture, not to kill. The season usually
selected for expeditions was from January to March, or immedi-
ately after the annual " Customs." The Amazons were carefully
trained, and the king was in the habit of holding "autumn
manoeuvres " for the benefit of foreigners. Many Europeans
have witnessed a mimic assault, and agree in ascribing a marvel-
lous power of endurance to the women. Lines of thorny acacia
were piled up one behind the other to represent defences, and at
a given signal the Amazons, barefooted and without any special
protection, charged and disappeared from sight. Presently they
emerged within the lines torn and bleeding, but apparently
insensible to pain, and the parade closed with a march past, each
warrior leading a pretended captive bound with a rope.

Bibliography. — Notre Colonie de Dahomey, by G. Francois
(Paris, 1906), and Le Dahomey (1909), an official publication, deal
with topography, ethnography and economics; L. Brunet and L.
Giethlen, Dohomey et dependances (Paris, 1900); Edouard Foa, Le
Dahomey (Paris, 1895). Religion, laws and language are specially
dealt with in Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast, by A. B.
Ellis (London, 1890), and in La Cote des Esclaves et le Dahomey, by
P. Bouche (Paris, 1885). Much historical matter, with particular
notices of the Amazons and the " Customs, ' ' is contained in A Mission
to Gelele, by Sir R. Burton (London, 1864). The story of the French
conquest is told in Campagne du Dahomey, by Jules Poirier (Paris,
1895). The standard authority on the early history is The History
of Dahomey, by Archibald Dalzel (sometime governor of the English
fort at Whydah) (London, 1793). The annual Reports issued by the
British, Foreign, and French Colonial Offices may be consulted, and
the Bibliographic raisonnee des outrages concernant le Dahomey,
by A. Pawlowski (Paris, 1895), is a useful guide to the literature of
the country to that date. A Carte du Dahomey, by A. Meunier,
(3 sheets, scale 1 : 500,000), was published in Paris, 1907.

DAILLi (Dallaetjs), JEAN (1594-1670), French Protestant
divine, was born at Chatellerault and educated at Poitiers and
Saumur. From 1612 to 1621 he was tutor to two of the grand-
sons of Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du Plessis Marly. Ordained
to the ministry in 1623, he was for some time private chaplain
to Du Plessis Mornay, whose memoirs he subsequently wrote.
In 1625 Daille was appointed minister of the church of Saumur,
and in 1626 was chosen by the Paris consistory to be minister
of the church of Charenton. Of his works, which are principally
controversial, the best known is the treatise Du vrai emploi des
Peres (1631), translated into English by Thomas Smith under
the title A Treatise concerning the right use of the Fathers (1651).
The work attacks those who made the authority of the Father*
conclusive on matters of faith and practice. Daille contenas
that the text of the Fathers is often corrupt, and that even
when it is correct their reasoning is often illogical. In his
Sermons on the Philippians and Colossians, Daille vindicated
his claim to rank as a great preacher as well as an able contro-
versialist. He was president of the last national synod held
in France, which met at Loudun in 1659 (H. M. Baird, The
Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1895, i.
pp. 412 ff.), when, as in the Apologie des Synodes d'Alen(on
et de Charenton (1655), he defended the Universalism of Moses
Amyraut. He wrote also Apologie pour les Uglises Riformies
and La Foy fondie sur les Saintes JEcritures. His life was written
by his son Adrien, who retired to Zurich at the revocation of the
edict of Nantes.

DAIRY and DAIRY-FARMING (from the Mid. Eng. deieris,
from dey, a maid-servant, particularly one about a farm; cf.
Norw. deia, as in bu-deia, a maid in charge of live-stock, and in
other compounds; thus " dairy " means that part of the farm
buildings where the " dey " works). Milk, either in its natural
state, or in the form of butter and cheese, is an article of diet so
useful, wholesome and palatable, that dairy management, which

738

DAIRY

includes all that; concerns its production and treatment, con-
stitutes a most important branch of husbandry. The physical
conditions of the different countries of the world have determined
in each case the most suitable animal for dairy purposes. The
Laplander obtains his supplies of milk from his rein-deer, the
roving Tatar from his mares, and the Bedouin of the desert
from his camels. In the temperate regions of the earth many
pastoral tribes subsist mainly upon the milk of the sheep. In
some rocky, regions the goat is invaluable as a milk-yielder; and
the buffalo is equally so amid the swamps and jungles of tropical
climates. The milking of ewes was once a common practice in
Great Britain; but it has fallen into disuse because-of its hurtful
effects upon the flock. A few milch asses and goats are here
and there kept for the benefit of infants or invalids; but with
these exceptions the cow is the only animal now used for dairy
purposes. ,

No branch of agriculture underwent greater changes during
the closing quarter of the iath century thari dairy-farming;
within the period named, indeed, the dairying industry may be
said to have been revolutionized. The two great factors in this
modification were the introduction about the year 1880 of the
centrifugal cream-separator, whereby the old slow system of
raising cream jn pans was dispensed with, and the invention
some ten years later of a quick and easy method of ascertaining
the fat content of samples of milk without haying to resort to
the tedious processes of chemical analysis. About the year 1875
the agriculturists of the United Kingdom, influenced by various
economic causes, began to turn their thoughts more intently in
the direction of dairy-farming, and to the increased production
of milk and cream, butter and cheese. On the 24th of October
1876 was held the first London dairy show, under the auspices
of a committee of agriculturists, and it has been followed by a
similar show in every subsequent year. The official report of the
pioneer show stated that " there was a much larger attendance
and a greater amount of enthusiasm in the movement than even
the most Sanguine of its promoters anticipated." On the day
flamed Professor J. Prince Sheldon read at the show a paper on
the dairying industry, and proposed the formation of a society
to be called the British Dairy Farmers' Association. This was
unanimously agreed to, and thus was founded an organization
which has since been closely identified with the development of
the dairying industry of the United Kingdom. In its earlier
publications the Association was wont to reproduce from House-
hold Words the following tribute to the cow: —

" If civilized people were ever to lapse into the worship of animals,
the Cow would certainly be their chief goddess. What a fountain
of blessings is the Cow! She is the mother of beef, the source of
butter, the original cause of cheese, to say nothing of shoe-horns,
hair-combs and upper leather. A gentle, amiable, ever-yielding
creature, who has no joy in her family affairs which she does not
share with man. We rob her of her children that we may rob her
of her mjlk, and we only care for her when the robbing, may be
perpetrated." ,

The association has, directly or indirectly, brought about
many valuable reforms and improvements in dairying. Its
I/Oadon shows have provided, year after year, a variety of
object-lessons in cheese, in butter and in dairy equipment. In
order to demonstrate to producers what is the ideal to aim at,
there is nothing more effective than a competitive exhibition of
products, and the approach to uniform excellence of character
in cheese and butter of whatever kinds is most obvious to those
who remember what these products were like at the first two or
three dairy shows. Simultaneously there has been a no less
marked advance in the mechanical aids to dairying, including,
in particular, the centrifugal cream-separator, the crude germ
of which was first brought before the public at the international
dairy show held at Hamburg in the spring of 1877. The associa-
tion in good time set the example, now beneficially followed in
many parts of Great Britain, of providing means, for technical
instruction in the making of cheese and butter, by the establish-
ment of a dairy school in the Vale of Aylesbury, subsequently
removing it to new and excellent premises at Reading, where
it is known as the British Dairy Institute. The initiation of

butter-making contests at the annual dairy shows stimulated
the competitive instinct of dairy workers, and afforded the
public useful object-lessons; in more recent years milking
competitions have been added. Milking trials and butter tests
of cows conducted at the dairy shows have afforded results of
much practical value. Many of the larger agricultural societies
have found it expedient to include in their annual shows a work-
ing dairy, wherein butter-making contests are held and public
demonstrations are given.

What are regarded as the dairy breeds of cattle is illustrated
by the prize schedule of the annual London dairy show, in which
sections are provided for cows and heifers of the Shorthorn,
Jersey, Guernsey, Red Polled, Ayrshire, Kerry and Dexter
breeds (see Cattle). A miscellaneous class is also provided,
the entries in which are mostly cross-breds. There are likewise
classes for Shorthorn bulls, Jersey bulls, and bulls of any other
pure breed, but it is- stipulated that all bulls must be of proved
descent from dams that have won prizes in the milking trials or
butter tests of the British Dairy Farmers' Association or other
high-class agricultural society. The importance Of securing
dairy characters in the sire is thus recognized, and it is notified
that, as the object of the bull classes is to encourage the breeding
of bulls for dairy purposes, the prizes are to be given solely to
animals exhibited in good stock-getting condition. '

Milk and Butter Tests

The award of prizes in connexion with milking trials cannot
be determined simply by the quantity of milk yielded in a given
period, say twenty-four hours. Other matters must obviously
be taken into consideration, such as the quality of the milk and
the time that has elapsed since the birth of the last calf. With
regard to the former point, for example, it is quite possible for
one cow to give more milk than another, but for the milk of the
second cow to include the larger quantity of butter-fat. The
awards are therefore determined by the total number of points
obtained according; to the following scheme: —

One point for every ten days since calving (deducting the first
forty days), with a maximum of fourteen points.

One point for every pound of milk, taking the average of two
days' yield.

Twenty points for every pound of butter-fat produced.

Four points for every pound of " solids other than fat."
; Deductions.— -Ten points each time the fat is below 3 %.

Ten points each time the solids other than fat fall below 8-5%.

This method of award is at present the best that can be devised,
but it is possible that, as experience accumulates, some rearrange-
ment of the points may be found to be desirable. Omitting
many of the details, Table I. shows some of the results in the
case of Shorthorn arid Jersey prize cows. The days " in milk "
denote in each case the number of days that have elapsed since

Table I. — Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Milking Trials,
London Dairy Show, iqoo.

Cow.

Age.

In
Milk.

Milk

per
Day.

Fat.

Other
Solids.

Total
Points.

Years.

Days.

lb

%

. ,'■%

No.

Shorthorns eligible

for Herd-Book — .

Heroine III.

6

61

52-4

3-7

8-3

91 '5

Musical . .•:

, 7

16

45-2

3.2

9-3

90-8

Lady Rosedale

8 :

48

47-8

3-5

90

88-7:

Shorthorns not eli-

gible for Herd-

Book- —

Granny .

9

33

70-2

3'5

8-9

1 44 • I-

Cherry ■,...

9

103

55-5

4-0,

8-9

127-1

Chance

6

23

6o-o

3:6

8-9

124-6

Jerseys — >

Sultane 14th

12

256

41-7

4.9

9-4

112

Queen Bess

> ; '7i

136

39-4

4-8

9-0

101

Gloaming IV.

7-.

156

30-5

67

9-5

94-9

calving; and if the one day's yield of milk is desired in gallons,
it can be obtained approximately 1 by dividing the weight in
''" 1 A gallon ot milk weighs 10-3 lb, so that very little error is in-
volved in converting pounds to gallons by dividing the number of
pounds by IQ. , , . ;

DAIRY

739

pounds by 10: thus, the Shorthorn cow Heroine III. gave 52.4 lb,
or 5.24 gallons, of milk per day. The table is incidentally of
interest as showing how superior as milch kine are the un-
registered or non-pedigree Shorthorns — which are typical of
the great majority of dairy cows in the United Kingdom — as
compared with the pedigree animals entered, or eligible for entry,
in Coates's Herd-Book. The evening's milk, it should be added,
is nearly always richer in fat than the morning's, but the per-
centages in the table relate to the entire day's milk.

The milking trials are based upon a chemical test, as it is
necessary to determine the percentage of fat and of solids other
than fat in each sample of milk. The butter test, on the other
hand, is a churn test, as the cream has to be separated from
the milk and churned. The following is the scale of points
used at the London dairy show in making awards in butter

tests:—

One point for every ounce of butter; one point for every com-
pleted ten days since calving, deducting the first forty days. Maxi-
mum allowance for period of lactation, 12 points.

Fractions of ounces of butter, and incomplete periods of less than
ten days, to be worked out in decimals and added to the total
points.

In the case of cows obtaining the same number of points, the
prize to be awarded to the cow that has been the longest time in
milk.

No prize or certificate to be given in the case of :—

(a) Cows under five years old failing to obtain 28 points.

(b) Cows five years old and over failing to obtain 32 points.
The manner in which butter tests are decided will be rendered

clear by a study of Table II. It is seen that whilst the much
larger Shorthorn cows— having a bigger frame to maintain
and consuming more food — gave both more milk and more
Table II. — Prize Shorthorn and Jersey Cows in the Butter Tests, London Dairy Show, 1900.

tests conducted by the English Jersey Cattle Society over the
period of fourteen years 1886 to 1899 inclusive. 'These tests
were carried out year after year at half a dozen different shows,
and the results are classified in Table III. according to the age
of the animals. The average time in milk is measured by the
number of days since calving, and the milk and butter yields
are those for the day of twenty-four hours. The last column
shows the " butter ratio." This number is lower in the case
of the Jerseys than in that of the general run of dairy cows.
The average results from the total of 1023 cows of the various
ages are: — One day's milk, 32 lb 2j oz., equal to about 3 gallons
or 12 quarts; one day's butter, 1 lb iof oz.; butter ratio,
19-13 or about 16 pints of milk to 1 lb of butter. Individual
yields are sometimes extraordinarily high. Thus at the Tring
show in 1899 the three leading Jersey cows gave the following
results: — .

Cow.

Age.

Live-
Weight.

In Milk.

Butter.

Butter
Ratio.

Sundew 4th
Madeira 5th
Em .

Years.
8

-" 7
7

lb

929
1060

' 864 :

Days.

77
107

44

lb oz.
3 6|

2 155

3 4*

lb

15-10
16-14
13-32

Points

In

Milk

Milk to

Points

for

Total

Cows.

Age.

Milk.

per
Day.

Butter.

1 lb
Butter.

for
Butter.

Lacta-
tion.

Points.

Years.

Days.

lb oz.

lb oz.

lb

No.

■ No.

No.

Shorthorns—

1st

9

104

55 2

2 51

23-67

37-25

6-40

43-65

2nd

9

34

72 7

2 10}

27-11

42-75

42-75

3rd . .

7

33

58 5

2 7i

23-47

39-75

39-75

Jerseys — '

1st

7

157

29 10

2 2\

13-83

34-25

11-70

45-95

2nd

4

103

33 IO

2 3

15-37

35-oo

6-30

41-30 :

3rd

12

257

40 13

I 12

23-32

28-00

12-00

40-00

butter in the day of twenty-four hours, the Jersey milk was
much the richer in fat. In the case of the first-prize Jersey
the " butter ratio," as it is termed, was excellent, as only 13-83 lb
of milk were required to yield 1 lb of butter; in the case of the
second-prize Shorthorn, practically twice this quantity (or
27-11 lb) was needed. Moreover, if the days in milk are taken
into account, the difference in favour of the Jersey is seen to
be 123 days.

The butter-yielding capacity of the choicest class of butter
cows, the Jerseys, is amply illustrated in the results of the butter

Table III.— Summary of the English Jersey Cattle Society's
Butter Tests, Fourteen Years, 1886-1899.

Quantity

Average

Average

Average

Milk to

Cows' Ages:

Time in

Milk

Butter

1 lb

Milk.

Yield.

Yield.

Butter.

Years.

• No.

Days.

lb oz.

lb oz.

lb

1 to 2 .

2

34

15 2

13

18-43

2 „ 3 •

57 ■

73

24 I5l

1 51

18-74

3 .. 4 •

108

77

29 Hi

1 10

18-42

4 .. 5 •

165

72

32 5i

I ni

19-01

5 „ 6 .

188

80

32 I5l

I 12

18-76

6 „ 7 •

189

89

34 7f

I 13

1892

7 ...8 .

139

84

33 ni

I I3l

18-40

8 „ 9 ■ •

7i

82

33 61

I 12

19-03

9 ,, 10 .

42

92

32 6|

i 1 1 i

18-95

10 ,, 11 .

31

88

35 4

I 141

18-60

11 ,, 12 .

15

89

37 . 1

I 13*

1996

12 „ 13 .

13

95

34 ii

1 iol

20-56

13 ■'., 14 •

3

' 54

42 .ii

2 l|

19-85

The eight prize- winning Jerseys on this occasion, with an
average weight of 916 lb and an average of 117 days in milk,
yielded an average of 2 lb 9 oz! of butter per cow in the twenty-
four hours, the butter ratio working out at 16-69. At the Tring
show of 1900 a Shorthorn cow Cherry gave as much as 4 lb 45 oz.
of butter in twenty -four hours; she had been in milk 41 days,
and her butter ratio worked out at 15-79,
which is unusually good for a big cow.

In the six years 1895 to 1900 inclusive
285 cows of the Shorthorn, Jersey, Guernsey
and Red Polled breeds were subjected to
butter tests at the London dairy show, and
the general results are summarized in
Table IV.

Although cows in the showyard may
perhaps be somewhat upset by their
unusual surroundings, and thus not yield
so well as at home, yet the average results
of these butter-test trials over a number of
years are borne out by the private trials that
have taken place in various herds. The trials have, moreover,
brought into prominence the peculiarities of different breeds,
such as: (a) that the Shorthorns, Red Polls and Kerries, being
cattle whose milk contains small fat globules, are better for
milk than the Jerseys and Guernseys, whose milk is richer,

Table IV. — Average Butter Yields and Butter Ratios at the London
Dairy Show, Six Years, 1895-1900.

No. of

In

Milk to 1 lb

Breed.

Cows.

Milk.

Butter.

Butter.

Days.

lb oz.

lb

Shorthorn .

106

50

1 11

28-81

Jersey

126

99

1 ioi

19-15

Guernsey .

23

72

1 94

21-86

Red Polled . .

30

60

1 4i.

30-29

containing larger-sized fat globules, and is therefore more
profitable for converting into butter; (b) that the weights of
the animals, and consequently the proportionate food, must
be taken into account in estimating the cost of the dairy
produce; (c) that the influence of the stage reached in the
period of lactation is much more marked in some breeds than in
others.

An instructive example of the milk -yielding capacity of Jersey
cows is afforded in the carefully kept records of Lord Rothschild's
herd at Tring Park, Herts. Overleaf are given the figures for
four years, the gallons being calculated at the rate of ro ft> of
milk to the gallon.

74© DAIRY

In 1897, 30 cows averaged 6396 lb, or 640 gallons per cow.
In 1898, 29 „ „ 6209 „ 621 „ „

In 1899, 37 .. .. 6430 „ 643

In 1900, 39 „ „ 6136 „ 614

The average over the four years works out at about 630 gallons
per cow per annum.

Cows of larger type will give more milk than the Jerseys,
but" it is less rich in fat. The milk record for the year 1900
of the herd of Red Polled cattle belonging to Mr Garrett Taylor,
Whitlingham, Norfolk, affords a good example. The cows in
the herd, which had before 1900 produced one or more calves,
and in 1900 added another to the list, being in full profit the
greater part of the year, numbered 82. Their total yield was
531,950 lb of milk, or an average of 6365 lb — equivalent to
about 636 gallons — per cow. In 1899 the average yield of 96
cows was 6283 lb or 628 gallons; in 1898 the average yield of
75 cows was 6473 lb or 647 gallons. Of cows which dropped
a first calf in the autumn of 1899, one of them — Lemon — milked
continuously for 462 days, yielding a total of 7166 lb of milk,
being still in milk when the herd year closed on the 27th of
December. Similar cases were those of Nora, which gave 9066 lb
of milk in 455 days; Doris, 8138 lb in 462 days; Brisk, 9248 lb
in 469 days; Delia, 8806 lb in 434 days, drying 28 days before
the year ended; and Lottie, 6327 lb in 394 days, also drying
28 days before the year ended; these were all cows with their
first calf. Eight cows in the herd gave milk on every day of
the 52 weeks, and 30 others had their milk recorded on 300 days
or more. Three heifers which produced a first calf before the
nth of April 1900, averaged in the year 4569 lb of milk, or
about 456 gallons. In 1900 three cows, Eyke Jessie, Kathleen
and Doss, each gave over 10,000 lb, or 1000 gallons of milk;
four cows gave from 9000 lb to 10,000 lb, two from 8000 lb to
0000 lb, 17 from 7000 lb to 8000 lb, 19 from 6000 lb to 7000 lb,
30 from 5000 fi> to 6000 lb, and 16 from 4000 lb to 5000 lb.
The practice, long followed at Whitlingham, of developing
the milk-yielding habit by milking a young cow so long as she
gives even a small quantity of milk daily, is well supported by
the figures denoting the results.

Though milking trials and butter tests are not usually available
to the ordinary dairy farmer in the management of his herd,
it is, on the other hand, a simple matter for him to keep what
is known as a milk register. By a milk register is meant a record
of the quantity of milk yielded by a cow. In other words, it
is a quantitative estimation of the milk the cow gives. It affords
no information as to the quality of the milk or as to its butter-
yielding or cheese-yielding capacity. Nevertheless, by its aid
the milk-producing capacity of a cow can be ascertained exactly,
and her character in this respect can be expressed by means of
figures about which there need be no equivocation. A greater
or less degree of exactness can be secured, according to the
greater or less frequency with which the register is taken. Even
a weekly register would give a fair idea as to the milk yields of a
cow, and would be extremely valuable as compared with no
register at all.

The practice of taking the milk register, as followed in a well-
known dairy, may be briefly described. The cows are always
milked in the stalls, and during summer they are brought in
twice a day for this purpose. After each cow is milked, the
pail containing the whole of her milk is hung on a spring balance
suspended in a convenient position, and from the gross weight
indicated there is detlucted the already known weight of the
pail. 1 The difference, which represents the weight of milk, is
recorded in a book suitably ruled. This book when open presents
a view of one week's records. In the left-hand column are the
names of the cows; on the right of this are fourteen columns,
two of which receive the morning and evening record of each
cow. In a final column on the right appears the week's total
yield for each cow; and space is also allowed for any remarks.

1 A portable milk-weighing appliance is made in which the weight

of the pail is included, and an indicator shows on a dial the exact

« weight in pounds and ounces, and likewise the volume in gallons and

pints, of the milk in the pail. When the pail is empty the indicator

of course points to zero.

Fractions of a pound are not entered, but 18 lb 12 oz. would
be recorded as 19 lb, whereas 21 lb 5 oz. would appear as 21 lb,
so that a fraction of over half a pound is considered as a whole
pound, and a fraction of under half a pound is ignored. By
dividing the pounds by 10 the yield in gallons is readily ascer-
tained.

Every dairy farmer has some idea, as to each of his cows,
whether she is a good, a bad or an indifferent milker, but such
knowledge is at best only vague. By the simple means indicated
the character of each cow as a milk-producer is slowly but surely
recorded in a manner which is at once exact and definite. Such
a record is particularly valuable to the farmer, in that it shows
to him the relative milk-yielding capacities of his cows, and thus
enables him gradually to weed out the naturally poor milkers
and replace them by better ones. It also guides him in regulating
the supply of food according to the yield of milk. The register
will, in fact, indicate unerringly which are the best milk-yielding
cows in the dairy, and which therefore are, with the milking
capacity in view, the best to breed from.

The simplicity and inexpensiveness of the milk register must
not be overlooked. These are features which should commend
it especially to the notice of small dairy farmers, for with a
moderate number of cows it is particularly easy to introduce
the register. But even with a large dairy it will be found that,
as soon as the system has got fairly established, the additional
time and trouble involved will sink into insignificance when
compared with the benefits which accrue.

The importance of ascertaining not only the quantity but also,
the quality of milk is aptly illustrated in the case of two cows at
the Tring show, 1900. The one cow gave in 24 hours 4$ gallons
of milk, which at 7d. per gallon would work out at about 2s. 7d. ;
she made 2 lb 12 oz. of butter, which at is. 4d. per lb would
bring in 3s. 8d.; consequently by selling the milk the owner
lost about is. id. per day. The second cow gave 5 J gallons of
milk, which would work out at 3s. id.; she made 1 lb 12 oz.
of butter, which would only be worth 2s. 4d., so that by convert-
ing the milk into butter the owner lost 9d. per day.

The colour of milk is to some extent an indication of its quality
— the deeper the colour the better the quality. The colour de-
pends upon the size of the fat globules, a deep yellowish colour
indicating large globules of fat. When the globules are of large
size the milk will churn more readily, and the butter is better
both in quality and in colour.

The following fifty dairy rules relating to the milking and
general management of cows, and to the care of milk and dairy
utensils, were drawn up on behalf of, and published by, the
United States department of agriculture at Washington. They
are given here with a few merely verbal alterations : —

The Owner and his Helpers

1. Read current dairy literature and keep posted on new ideas.

2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle,
their attendants, the cow-house, the dairy and all
utensils.

3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed
to a contagious disease, must remain away from the cows
and the milk.

The Cow-House

4. Keep dairy cattle in a shed or building by themselves. It is
preferable to have no cellar below and no storage loft
above.

5. Cow-houses should be well ventilated, lighted and drained;
should have tight floors and walls, and be plainly con-
structed.

6. Never use musty or dirty litter.

7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the cow-house for any
length of time. Store the manure under cover outside the
cow-house, and remove it to a distance as often as practicable.

8. Whitewash the cow-house once or twice a year; use gypsum in
the manure gutters daily.

9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking; if fodder is
dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed.

10. Clean and thoroughly air the cow-house before milking; in hot

weather sprinkle the floor.
n. Keep the cow-house and dairy room in good condition, and then

insist that the dairy, factory or place where the milk goes

be kept equally well.

DAIRY

741

The Cows

12. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled

veterinarian.

13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected of being

in bad health, and reject her milk. Never add an animal to
the herd until it is ascertained to be free from disease, especi-
ally tuberculosis.

14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the

way to the place of milking or feeding.

15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud

talking or unnecessary disturbance; do not expose them to
cold or storms.

16. Do not change the feed suddenly.

17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed-stuffs; in no

case should decomposed or mouldy material be used.

18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and always pure;

fresh, but not too cold.

19. Salt should always be accessible to the cows.

20. Do not allow any strong-flavoured food, like garlic, cabbages

and turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after milking.

21. Clean the entire skin of the cow daily. If hair in the region of

the udder is not easily kept clean, it should be clipped.

22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calving, nor for

three to five days afterwards.

Milking

23. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use

tobacco while milking; he should wash and dry his hands
just before milking.

24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used only when

milking and kept in a clean place at other times.

25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before milking

and wipe them with a clean damp cloth or sponge.

26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly and thoroughly. Cows do not like

unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking at exactly the
same hour every morning and evening, and milk the cows in
the same order.

27. Throw away (but not on the floor— better in the gutter) the

first two or three streams from each teat; this milk is very
watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest.

28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy or
unnatural in appearance, the whole should be rejected.

Milk with dry hands; never let the hands come in contact with

the milk.
Do not allow dogs, cats or loafers to be around at milking time.
If any accident occurs by which a pail, full or partly full, of milk

becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by straining, but

reject all this milk and rinse the pail.
Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and take a sample

morning and night, at least once a week, for testing by the

fat test.

29.

30.
3»-

32

Care of Milk

33

Remove the milk of every cow at once from the cow-house to a
clean dry room, where the air is pure and sweet. Do not
allow cans to remain in the cow-house while they are being
filled with milk.

34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or

layer of cotton as soon as it is drawn.

35. Cool the milk as soon as strained — to 45 ° F. if the milk is for

shipment, or to 60° if for home use or delivery to a factory.

36. Never close a can containing warm milk.

37. If the cover is -left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito

netting should be used to keep out insects.

38. If milk is stored, it should be kept in tanks of fresh cold water

(renewed as often as the temperature increases to any material

extent), in a clean, dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to

remove cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often

enough to prevent the forming of a thick cream layer.
Keep the night milk under shelter so that rain cannot get into

the cans. In warm weather keep it in a tank of fresh cold

water.
Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been cooled.
Do not allow the milk to freeze.
In no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent

its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the only preventives

needed.
All milk should be in good condition when delivered at a creamery

or a cheesery. This may make it necessary to deliver twice

a day during the hottest weather.
When cans are hauled far they should be full, and carried in a

spring waggon.
In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a waggon, with

a clean wet blanket or canvas.

The Utensils
46. Milk utensils for farm use should be made of metal and have all
joints smoothly soldered. Never allow them to become rusty
or rough inside.

39

40
42.

43

44.

45-

47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the cans used

for delivering milk. When this is unavoidable, insist that
the skim milk or whey tank be kept clean.

48. Cans used for the return of skim milk or whey should be emptied,

scalded and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm.

49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in

warm water; next clean inside and out with a brush and
hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; then
rinse and, lastly, sterilize by boiling water or steam. Use
pure water only.

50. After cleaning, keep utensils inverted in pure air, and sun if

possible, until wanted for use.

Food and Milk Production

In their comprehensive paper relating to the feeding of animals
published in 1895, Lawes and Gilbert discussed amongst other
questions that of milk production, and directed attention to
the great difference in the demands made on the food — on the
one hand for the production of meat (that is, of animal increase),
and on the other for the production of milk. Not only, however,
do cows of different breeds yield different quantities of milk,
and milk of characteristically different composition, but in-
dividual animals of the same breed have very different milk-
yielding capacity; and whatever the capacity of a cow may
be, she has a maximum yield at one period of her lactation,
which is followed by a gradual decline. Hence, in comparing
the amounts of constituents stored up in the fattening increase
of an ox with the amounts of the same constituents removed
in the milk of a cow, it is necessary to assume a wide range of
difference in the yield of milk. Accordingly, Table V. shows the

Table V. — Comparison of the Constituents of Food carried off in
Milk, and in the Fattening Increase of Oxen.

Non-

Nitro-

Nitro-
genous
Sub-
stance

Min-

Total

[1 Gallon = 10-33 ft]

genous
Sub-

Fat.

eral
Mat-

Solid
Mat-

stance.

not Fat
(Sugar).

ter.

ter.

In Milk per Week.

If:—

lb

lb

lb

lb

ft

4 quarts per head per day

2-64

2-53

3-33

o-54

904

6 11 >> 1.

3-96

3-8o

4.99

o-8i

I3-56

8

5-28

506

6-66

1-08

18-08

10

1 M

,

6-6o

6-33

8-32

1-35

22-60

12

1 i»

t

7-92

7-59

9.99

1-62

27-12

14

t »»

1

9-24

8-86

11-65

1-89

31-64

16

t 11

,

10-56

10-12

13-32

2-16

36-16

18

t 11

1

n-88

"•39

14-98

2-43

40-68

20

t 11

1

13-20

12-65

16-65

2-70

45-20

In Increase in Live-Weight per \

?eek. — Oxen.

If 10 lb increase .

o-75

6-35

0-15

7-25

If 15 lb increase .

i-i3

9-53

0-22

10-88

amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat, of non-nitrogenous
substance not fat, of mineral matter, and of total solid matter,
carried off in the weekly yield of milk of a cow, on the alternative
assumptions of a production of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 or 20
quarts per head per day. For comparison, there are given at the
foot of the table the amounts of nitrogenous substance, of fat,
of mineral matter, and of total solid matter, in the weekly
increase in live-weight of a fattening ox of an average weight
of 1000 lb — on the assumption of a weekly increase, first, of
10 lb, and, secondly, of 15 lb. The estimates of the amounts
of constituents in the milk are based on the assumption that
it will contain 12-5% of total solids — consisting of 3-65 albu-
minoids, 3-50 butter-fat, 4-60 sugar and 0-75 of mineral matter.
The estimates of the constituents in the fattening increase of
oxen are founded on determinations made at Rothamsted.

With regard to the very wide range of yield of milk per head
per day which the figures in the following table assume, it may
be remarked that it is by no means impossible that the same
animal might yield the largest amount, namely, 20 quarts, or
5 gallons, per day near the beginning, and only 4 quarts, or

DAIRY

i gallon, or even less, towards the end of her period Of lactation.
At the same time, an entire herd of, for example, Shorthorns
or Ayrshires, of fairly average quality, well fed, and including
animals at various periods of lactation, should not yield an
average of less than 8 quarts, or 2 gallons, and would seldom
exceed 10 quarts, or 2§ gallons, per head per day the year round.

For the sake of illustration, an average yield of milk of 10
quarts, equal 25 gallons, or between 25 and 26 lb per head per
day, may be assumed, and the amount of constituents in the
weekly yield at this rate may be compared with that in the
weekly increase of the fattening ox at the higher rate assumed
in the table, namely, 15 lb per 1000 lb live- weight, or 1-5%
per week. It is seen that whilst of the nitrogenous substance
of the food the amount stored up in the fattening increase of
an ox would be only 1-13 lb, the amount carried off as such in
the milk would be 6-6 lb, or nearly six times as much. Of
mineral matter, again, whilst the fattening increase would only
require about 0-22 lb, the milk would Carry off 1-35 lb, or again
about six times as much. Of fat, however, whilst the fattening
increase would contain 0-53 lb, the milk would contain only
6- 33 lb, or only about two- thirds as much. On the other hand,
whilst the fattening increase contains no other non-nitrogenous
substance than fat, the milk would carry off 8-32 lb in the form
of milk-sugar. This amount of milk-sugar, reckoned as fat,
would 1 correspond approximately to the difference between the
fat in 'the milk and' that in the fattening increase.

It is evident, then, that the drain upon the food is very much
greater for the production of milk than for that of meat. This
is especially the case in the important item of nitrogenous
substance; and if, as is frequently assumed, the butter-fat
of the milk is at any rate largely derived from the nitrogenous
substance of the food, so far as it is so at least about two parts cf
such substance would be required to produce one of fat. On
such an assumption, therefore, the drain upon the nitrogenous
substance of the food would be very much greater than that
indicated in the table as existing as nitrogenous substance in
the milk. To this point further reference will be made presently.

Attention may next be directed to the amounts of food, and
of certain of its constituents, consumed for the production of
a given amount of milk. This point is illustrated in Table VI.,
which shows the constituents consumed per 1000 lb live- weight

Table VI. — Constituents consumed per 1000 lb Live-Weight per Day,
for Sustenance and for Milk-Production. The Rothamsted Herd
of 30 Cows, Spring 1884. ' .

Total
Dry
Sub-.

stance.

Digestible.

Nitro-
genous

Sub-
stance.

Non-Nitrq-

genous
Substance
(as Starch).

Total
Nitro-
genous
and Non-
Nitro-
genous
Substance.

3-1 lb Cotton cake
2-7 lb Bran .
2-8 ft Hay-chaff .
5-6 ft Oat-straw-
chaff ....
62-8 ft Mangel .

Total.
Required for sus-
tenance .

Available for milk.
In 23 '3 ft milk.

Excess in food

ft

2-76
2-33
2;34

4-64
7:85.

ft

1-07
o-33
015

0-08

I-OI

ft

1-50

1-09

2-21

5-73

ft

2-57. .
1 -42

1-33

2-29; .

$•74

1992

■ 2-64*
o-57

11-71*
7-40

H-35

7-97

2-07
0-85

4-3i

3-02

6-38

3-87 .

1-22 ;

1-29

'2-51

Per 1000 ft Live-Weight.

, Wolff .

ft
2 4

ft

2-5

. ,ft

I2-5f

ft
15:4

* Albuminoid ratio, i-4*4.
t Exclusive of 0-4 fat; albuminoid ratio, 1-5-4.

per day in the case of the Rothamsted herd of 30 cows in the
spring of 1884. On the left hand are shown the actual amounts
of the different foods consumed per 1000 lb live- weight per day;
and in the respective columns are recorded — first the amounts of
total dry substance which the foods contained, and then the
amounts of digestible nitrogenous, digestible non-nitrogenous
(reckoned as starch), and digestible total organic substance
which the different foods would, supply; these being calculated
according to Lawes and Gilbert's own estimates of the percentage
composition of the foods, and to Wolff's estimates of the pro-
portion of the several constituents which would be digestible.

The first column shows that the amount of total dry substance
of food actually consumed by the herd, per 1006 lb live-weight
per day, was scarcely 20 lb, whilst Wolff's 1 estimated require-
ment, as stated at the foot of the table, is 24 lb. But his ration
would doubtless consist to a greater extent of hay and straw-
chaff, containing a larger proportion of indigestible and effete
woody fibre. The figures show, indeed that the Rothamsted
ration supplied, though nearly the same, even a somewhat less
amount of total digestible constituents than Wolff's.

Of digestible nitrogen substance the food supplied 2-64 lb
per day, whilst the amount estimated to be required for susten-
ance merely is 0-57 lb; leaving, therefore, 2-07 lb available
for milk production. The 23-3 lb of milk yielded per ioco lb
live- weight per day would, however, contain only 0-85 lb; and
there would thus remain an apparent excess of 1-22 lb of digest;
ible nitrogenous substance in the food supplied. But against the
amount of 2-64 lb actually consumed, Wolff's estimate of the"
amount required for sustenance and for milk-production is
2- 5 lb, or but little less than the amount actually consumed at
Rothamsted. On the assumption that the expenditure of
nitrogenous substance in the production of milk is only in the
formation of the nitrogenous substances of the milk, there would
appear to have been a considerable excess given in the food:
But Wolff's estimate assumes no excess of supply, and that the
whole is utilized; the fact being that he supposes the butter-fat
of the milk to have been derived largely, if not wholly, from the
albuminoids of the food.

It has been shown that although it is possible that some of
the fat of a fattening animal may be produced from the albu-
minoids of the food, certainly the greater part of it, if not the
whole, is derived from the carbohydrates. But the physiological
conditions of the production of milk are so different from those
for the production of fattening increase, that it is not admissible
to judge of the sources of the fat of the one from what may
be established in regard to the other. It has been assumed,
however, by those who maintain that the fat of the fattening
animal is formed from albuminoids, that the fat of milk must
be formed in the same way. Disallowing the legitimacy of such
a deduction, there do, nevertheless, seem to be reasons for sup-
posing that the fat of milk may, at any rate in large proportion,
be derived from albuminoids.

; Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may in
a sense be said to be little more than ah accumulation of reserve

; material from excess of food, milk is, a special product, of a
special gland, for a special normal exigency of the animal.
Further, whilst common experience shows that the herbivorous
animal becomes the more fat the more, within certain limits, its

j food is rich in carbohydrates, it points to the conclusion that both
the yield of milk and its richness in butter are more connected
with a liberal supply of the nitrogenous Constituents in the food.

. Obviously, so far as this is the case, it may be only that thereby
more active change in the system, and therefore greater activity
of the special function , is maintained. The evidence at command
is, at any rate, not inconsistent with the, supposition that a good
deal of the fat of milk may have its source in the breaking up
of albuminoids, but direct evidence on the point is still wanting;
and supposing such breaking up to take place in the gland, the
question arises — What becomes of the by-products? Assuming,
however, that such change does take place, the amount of nitro-
genous substance supplied to the Rothamsted cows would be less
1 Landw. Futterungslehre, 5te Aufl., 1888, p. 249,

DAIRY

'H3

in excess of the direct requirement for milk-production than the
figures in the table would indicate, if; indeed, in excess at all.

The figures in the column of Table VI. relating to the estimated
amount of digestible non-nitrogenous substance reckoned as
starch show that the quantity actually consumed was :i 1-71 lb,
whilst the amount estimated by Wolff to be required was 12-5 lb,
besides 0-4 lb of fat. The figures further show that, deducting
7-4 lb for sustenance from the quantity actually consumed, there
would remain 4-31 ft> available for milk-production, whilst only
about 3-02 lb would be required supposing that both the fat
of the milk and the sugar had been derived from the carbo-
hydrates of the food; and, according to this calculation, there
would still be an excess in the daily food of 1-20 It). It is to be
borne in mind, however, that estimates of the requirement for
mere sustenance are mainly founded on the results of experiments
in which the animals are allowed only such a limited amount
of food as will maintain them without either loss or gain when at
rest. But physiological considerations point to the conclusion
that the expenditure, independently of loss or gain, will be the
greater the more liberal the ration, and hence it is probable
that the real excess, if any, over that required for sustenance
and milk-production would be less than that indicated in the
table, which is calculated on the assumption of a fixed require-
ment for sustenance for a given live-weight of the animal.
Supposing that there really was any material excess of either
the nitrogenous or the non-nitrogenous constituents supplied
over the requirement for sustenance and milk-production,
the question arises — 'Whether, or to what extent, it conduced
to increase in live-weight of the animals, or whether it was in
part, or wholly, voided, and so wasted.

As regards the influence of the period of the year, with its
characteristic changes of food, on the quantity and composition
of the milk, the first column of the second division of Table VII.
shows the average yield of milk per head per day of the Rotham-
sted herd, averaging about 42 cows, almost exclusively Short-
horns, in each month of the year, over six years, 1884 to 1889

It should, be stated that the Rothamsted cows had cake
throughout the year; at first 4 lb per head per day, but after-
wards graduated according to the^ yield of ;milk, on the basis
of 4 lb for a yield of 28 lb of milk, the result being that then
the amount given averaged more per head per day during the
grazing .period, but less earlier and later in the year. Bran,
hay and straw-chaff, and roots (generally mangel), were also
given when the animals were not turned out to grass. The
general plan was, therefore, to give cake alone in addition when
the cows were turned out to grass, but some other dry food,
and roots, when entirely in the shed during the winter and early
spring months.

Referring to the column showing the average yield of milk
per head per day each month over the six years, it will be seen
that during the six months January, February, September,
October, November and December the average yield was
sometimes below 20 lb, and on the average only about 21 lb
of milk per head per day; whilst over the other six months
it averaged 27-63 lb, and over May and June more than 31 lb,
perhead per day. That is to say, the quantity of milk yielded
was considerably greater during the grazing period than: when
the animals had more dry food, and roots instead of grass. <
■ Next, referring to the particulars of composition, according
to Dr Vieth's results, which may well be considered as typical
for the different periods of. the year, it is seen that the specific
gravity of the milk was only average, or lower than average,
during the grazing period, but rather higher in the earlier and
later months of the year. The percentage of total solids was
rather lower than the average at the beginning of the year,
lowest during the chief grazing months, but considerably higher
in the later months of the year, when the animals were kept in
the shed and received more dry food. The percentage of butter-
fat follows very closely that of the total solids, being the lowest
during the best grazing months, but considerably higher- than
the average during the last four or five months of the year, when
more dry food was given. The percentage of ^solids not fat was

Table VII.— Percentage Composition of Milk each Month of the Year; also 1 Average Yield of considerably the lowest during the later
■ Milk, and of Constituents, per Head per Day each Month, according to Rothamsted Dairy ■ months of the glazing period, but average,

or higher than average, during the earlier
and later months of> the year. It may be
observed that, according to the average
percentages given in the tabled a gallon
of milk will contain more of both
total solids and of butter-fat in the' later
months of the year; that is, when there
is less grass and more dry food given.

Turning to the last three columns of the
table, it is seen that although, as has
been shown, the percentage of the several
constituents in the milk is lower during
the grazing months, the actual amounts
contained in the quantity of milk yielded
per head are distinctly greater during
those months. Thus, the amount of butter-
fat yielded per head per day is. above the
average of .the year from April to Sep-
tember inclusive; the amounts of solids
hot fat are over average from April to
August inclusive; and the amounts of
total. solids yielded are average, or over
average, from April to August inclusive.;
i From the foregoing results it is evident
that the quantity of milk yielded per head is very much the
greater during the grazing months of the year, but that the
percentage composition of the milk is lower during that period

not according to direct analytical determinations made' at •] of hjgjier yield, and considerably higher during the months of

Rothamsted, but according to the results of more than 14,000

analyses made, under the superintendence of Dr Vieth, in the

laboratory of the Aylesbury Dairy Company in 1884; x the

samples analysed representing the milk from a great many

different farrris in each niorith.

■' 1 The Analyst, April 1885, vol. x. p. 67. ' '^ ■■■'"-

. Records.

Average

Composit

Month

ion of Milk each
1884.

Rothamsted Dairy.

Estimated Quantity -,.,

(Dr Vieth— 14,

235 analy

ses.)

Average

; of Constituents in . ,
Milk per Head per

Yield

Specific

Butter-

Solids
not

Total

of Milk
per Head

Dayeacfh Month. '

'■'''

Solids

'

Gravity.

Fat.

Fat.

Solids.

per Day,
6 Years.

Butter-'
Fat.

not

Fat.

Total
Solids.

%

%

% ■ ■

ft

lb

■lb .

lb

January

1-0325

3-55

9-34

. 12-89

20-31*

0-72

1-90

2.- 62

February .

1-0325

3-53

9-24

12-77

22-81

o-8o

2-II

29I

March .

1-0323

3-50

9-22

12-72

24-19

0-85

'■2-23

3-o8

April . .

1-0323

^3-43

9-22

12-65

26-50

■ 0-91

2-44

3-35

May. .

1-0324

3-34

9-30.

12-64

3I-3I

i'05

2-91

3-96

June.

1-0323

3-3i

9-19

12-50

30-81 ■

; ,1-02 ■

2-83

3-85

July . . .

i-03!9

3-47

9-13

12-60

28-00

o-97

2-56

3/53 '

August .

1-0318

3 : «7

9-08

12-95

25-00

o-97

2-27

3-24

September .

1-0321

4-u

9-17

13-28

22-94

"■ 0-94

2-II

3-05

October

1-0324

4-26

9-27

13-53

21-00

, 0-89

1-95

■ 2-84 ■

November .

1 -0324

4-36

929

13-65

19-19

0-84

■•• 1-78 •

2-62

December .
Mean .

1-0326

4-10

9-29

13-39

I93 1

o-79

1-79

2-58

1-0323

374

9-22

12-96

24-28

0-90

... 2-24

3-I 4 :

* Average over five years only, as the records did not commence until February 1884.

inclusive ; and the succeeding columns show that amounts 1 of
butter-fat, of solids not fat, and of total solids in the average
yield per head per day in each month of the year/calculated^

more exclusively dry-food feeding. Nevertheless, owing to the
much greater quantity of milk yielded' during the grazing
months, the actual quantity of constituents yielded per cow is
greater during those months than during the months of higher
percentage composition, but lower yield of milk per head, it
may be added that a careful consideration of the number* of

744

DAIRY

newly-calved cows brought into the herd each month shows
that the results as above stated were perfectly distinct,
independently of any influence of the period of lactation of the
different individuals of the herd.

The few results which have been brought forward in relation
to milk-production are admittedly quite insufficient adequately
to illustrate the influence of variation in the quantity and com-
position of the food on the quantity and composition of the
milk yielded. Indeed, owing to the intrinsic difficulties of
experimenting on such a subject, involving so many elements of
variation, any results obtained have to be interpreted with much
care and reservation. Nevertheless, it may be taken as clearly
indicated that, within certain limits, high feeding, and especially
high nitrogenous feeding, does increase both the yield and the
richness of the milk. 1 But it is evident that when high feeding
is pushed beyond a comparatively limited range, the tendency
is to increase the weight of the animal — that is, to favour the
development of the individual, rather than to enhance the
activity of the functions connected with the reproductive system.
This is, of course, a disadvantage when the object is to maintain
the milk-yielding condition of the animal; but when a cow is
to be fattened off it will be otherwise.

It has been stated that, early in the period of six years in which
the Rothamsted results that have been quoted were obtained,
the amount of oil-cake given was graduated according to the
yield of milk of each individual cow; as it seemed unreasonable
that an animal yielding, say, only 4 quarts per day, should
receive, beside the home foods, as much cake as one yielding
several times the quantity. The obvious inference is, that any
excess of food beyond that required for sustenance and milk-
production would tend to increase the weight of the animal,
which, according to the circumstances, may or may not be
desirable.

It may be observed that direct experiments at Rotham&ted
confirm the view, arrived at by common experience, that roots,
and especially mangel, have a favourable effect on the flow of
milk. Further, the Rothamsted experiments have shown that
a higher percentage of butter-fat, of other solids, and of total
solids, was obtained with mangel than with silage as the suc-
culent food. The yield of milk was, however, in a much greater
degree increased by grazing than by any other change in the
food; and at Rothamsted the influence of roots comes next
in order to that of grass, though far behind it, in this respect.
But with grazing, as has been shown, the percentage composition
of the milk is considerably reduced; though, owing to the greatly
increased quantity yielded, the amount of soil-constituents
removed in the milk when cows are grazing may nevertheless
be greater per head per day than under any other conditions.
Lastly, it has been clearly illustrated how very much greater
is the demand upon the food, especially for nitrogenous and for
mineral constituents, in the production of milk than in that of
iattening increase.

1 The evidence on this point taken by the Committee on Milk and
Cream Regulations in 1900 is somewhat conflicting. The report
states that an impression commonly prevails that the quality of milk
is more or less determined by the nature and composition of the food
which the cow receives. One witness said that farmers who produce
milk for sale feed differently from what they do if they are producing
for butter. Another stated that most of the statistics which go to
show that food has no effect on milk fail, because the experiments are
not carried far enough to counterbalance that peculiarity of the
animal first to utilize the food for itself before utilizing it for the
milk. A witness who kept a herd of 100 milking cows expressed the
opinion that improvement in the quality of milk can be effected by
feeding, though not to any large extent. On the other hand, it was
maintained that the fat percentage in the milk of a cow cannot be
raised by any manner or method of feeding. It is possible that in the
case of cows very poorly fed the addition of rich food would alter the
composition of their milk, but if the cows are well-fed to begin with,
this would not be so. The proprietor of a herd of 500 milking cows
did not think that feeding affected the quality of milk from ordinarily
well-kept animals. An experimenter found that the result of resort-
ing to rather poor feeding was that the first effect was produced upon
the weight of the cow and not upon the milk; the animal began to
get thin, losing its weight, though there was not very much effect
upon the quality of the milk.

Manurial Value of Food consumed in the
Production 02 Milk

In any attempt to estimate the average value of the manure
derived from the consumption of food for the production of
milk, the difficulty arising from the very wide variation in the
amount of milk yielded by different cows, or by the same cow
at different periods of her lactation, is increased by the inadequate
character of information concerning the difference in the amount
of the food actually consumed by the animal coincidently
with the production of such different amounts of milk. But
although information is lacking for correlating, with numerical
accuracy, the great difference in milk-yield of individual cows
with the coincident differences in consumption to produce it,
it may be considered as satisfactorily established that more food
is consumed by a herd of cows to produce a fair yield of milk,
of say 10 or 12 quarts per head per day, than by an equal live-
weight of oxen fed to produce fattening increase. In the cases
supposed it may, for practical purposes, be assumed that the
cows would consume about one-fourth more food than the
oxen. Accordingly, in the Rothamsted estimates of the value
of the manure obtained on the consumption of food for the
production of milk, it is assumed that one-fourth more will be con-
sumed by 1000 lb live-weight of cows than by the same weight
of oxen; but the estimates of the amounts of the constituents of
the food removed in the milk, or remaining for manure, are never-
theless reckoned per ton of each kind of food consumed, as in the
case of those relating to feeding for the production of fattening
increase. It may be added that the calculations of the amounts of
the constituents in the milk are based on the same average compo-
sition of milk as is adopted in the construction of Table V. Thus
the nitrogen is taken at 0-579 ( = 3-65 nitrogenous substance) %,
the phosphoric acid at 0-2175%, and the potash at 0-1875%
in the milk. > , ' '

Table VIII. shows in detail the estimate of the amount of
nitrogen in one, ton of each food, and in the milk produced from
its consumption, on the assumption of an average yield of 10
quarts per head per day; also the amount remaining for manure,
the amount of ammonia corresponding to the nitrogen, and the
value of the ammonia at 4d. per lb. Similar particulars are also
given in relation to the phosphoric acid and the potash consumed
in the food, removed in the milk, and remaining for manure, &c.
This table will serve as a sufficient illustration of the mode of
estimating the total or original value of the manure, derived
from the consumption of the different foods for the production
of milk in the case supposed; that is, assuming an average
yield of a herd of 10 quarts per head per day.

In Table IX. are given the results of similar detailed calcula-
tions of the total or original manure-value (as in Table VIII.
for 10 quarts), on the alternative assumptions of a yield of 6, 8,
12 or 14 quarts per head per day. For comparison there is
also given, in the first column, the estimate of the total or original
manure-value when the foods are consumed for the production
of fattening increase.

So much for the plan and results of the estimations of total
or original manure-value of the different foods, that is, deducting
only the constituents removed in the milk, and reckoning the
remainder at the prices at which they can be purchased in
artificial manures. With a view to direct application to practice,
however, it is necessary to estimate the unexhausted manure-value
of the different foods, or what may be called their compensation-
value, after they have been used for a series of years by the
outgoing tenant and he has realized a certain portion of the
manure-value in his increased crops. In the calculations for this
purpose the rule is to deduct one-half of the original manure-value
of the food used the last year, and one-third of the remainder
each year to the eighth, in the case of all the more concentrated
foods and of the roots — in fact, of all the foods in the list ex-
cepting the hays and the straws. For these, which contain
larger amounts of indigestible matter, and the constituents of
which will be more slowly available to crops, two-thirds of the
original manure-value is deducted for the last year, and only

DAIRY

745

Table VIII. — Estimates of the Total or Original Manure- Value of Cattle Foods after Consumption by Cows for the Production of Milk.
Valuation on the assumption of an average production by a herd of 10 quarts of milk per head per day.

Nos.

Description
of Food.

Linseed

Linseed cake

Decorticated
cotton cake

Palm-nut
cake

Undecorti-
cated cot-
ton cake .

Cocoa-nut
cake

Rape cake

Peas
Beans
Lentils
Tares (seed)

Maize

Wheat

Malt

Barley

Oats

Rice meal

Locust beans

Nitrogen.

In
I Ton

of
Food.

lb

80-64

106-40

147-84

56-00

84-00

76-16
109-76

80-64
89-60
94-08
94-08

In
Milk
from
1 Ton

of
Food.

lb
25-04
20-86

19-27

17-86

15-66

15-66
12-50

Malt coombs
Fine pollard
Coarse pol
lard
Bran

Clover hay
Meadow hay

Pea straw .
Oat straw .
Wheat straw
Barley straw
Bean straw

Potatoes .

Carrots

Parsnips .

Mangel wur-
zels

Swedish
turnips

Yellow tur-
nips

White tur-
nips

38-08
40-32
38-08
36-96
44-80
42-56
26-88

87-36
54-88

56-00
56-00

53-76
33-6o

22-40

II-20

10-08

8-96

20-16

5-6o
4.48
4-93

4-93
5-60
4.48
4-03

17-86
17-86
17-86
17-86

In Manure.

Total
remain-
ing for
Manure.

lb

55-6o
85-54

128-57
38-14

68-34

60-50
97-26

I7-38
17-38
17-86
17-38
16-68
16-68
13-90

15-66
16-68

15-66
13-90

8-94
8-36

7-83
6-95
5-98
5-46
5-68

2-07
1-46
1-67

1-32
1-14

o-93
0-84

62-78

71-74
76-22
76-22

Nitro-
gen
equal
Am-
monia.

lb

67-52
103-87

156-13
46-31

82-99

73-47
118-11

Value
of Am-
monia
at 4d.
per lb.

Phosphoric Acid.

20-70
22-94

20-22
19-58
28-12

25-88
12-98

71-70
38-20

40-34
42-10

44-82
25-24

14-57
4-25
4-10

3-5°
14-48

3-53
302
3-26

3-61

4-46

3-55

3-19

76-24
87-12
9256
92-56

25-H
27-86

24-55
23-78

34-15
31-43
15-76

87-07
46-39

48-99
51-12

54-43
30-65

17-69
5-16
4-98
4-25

17-58

4-29
3-67
3-96

4-38

5-42

4-31

3-87

£ s. d.
126

1 14 7

2 12 1
o 15 5

146
1 19 4

1 5 5
190
1 10 10
1 10 10

8

9
8

7
11
10

5

In
1 Ton

of
Food.

lb
34-5°
44-80

69-44

26-88

44-80

3I-36
56-00

19-04
24-64
16-80
17-92

190
o 15 6

o 16
o 17

o 18
o 10

5 11
1 9
1 8

1 5
5 10

o 1 5
o 1 3
014

1 6
1 10

o 1 5
o 1 3

13-44
19-04
17-92
1 6- 80
,13-44
13-44)

In

Milk
from

1 Ton
of

Food.

lb
9-34
7-79

7-18
6-68

5-85

5-85
4-69

In Manure.

Total
remain-
ing for
Manure.

6-68
6-68
6-68
6-68

44-80
64-96

78-40
80-64

12-77
8-96

7-84
5-38
5-38
4-03
6-72

3-36

2-02
4-26

1-57
1-34

d-34)

650
6-50
6-68
6-50
6-24
6-24
5-19

5-85
6-24

5-85
5-19

3-35
310

2-91
2-60
2-23
2-04
214

0-78

o-54
063

0-49

0-44

o-34
0-31

lb
25-16
37-01

62-26

20-20

38-95

25-51
5I-3I

12-36
17-96

IO-I2
11-24

6-94

12-54

11-24

10-30

7-20

7-20

38-95
58-72

72-55
75-45

Value
at 2d.
per lb

s. d.

4 2

6 2

10 5

3 4

6 6

4 3

8 7

2
3 o

1 8
1 10

Potash.

In
1 Ton

of
Food.

lb
30-69
3136

44-80

11-20

44-80
44-80

33-6o

In

Milk
from
1 Ton

of
Food.

In Manure.

1 21-50
29-12
15-68
17-92

1 2

2 1

1 10

1 9
1 2
1 2

6 6
9 9

9-42
5-86

4-93

2-78

3-15
1-99
4-58

2-58
1-48
3-63

1-08

0-90

i-oo

o-8i

o 10
o 6
o 6
o 4
o 9

o 5

o 3

o 7

2

O 2

O 2

O 2

8-29

11-87
11-20
12-32
II-20

(8-29)

44-80
32-70

33-6o
32-48

33-6o
35-84

22-40
22-40
17-92
22-40
22-40

12-32
6-27
8-o6

8-96
4-93
(4-93)
6-72

lb

8-02

6-71

6-22

5-73

5-o7

5-07
4-09

5-73
5-73
5-73
5-73

5-56
5-56
5-73
5-56
5-40
5-40
4-42

5-07
5-40

5-07
4-42

2-94
2-62

2-46
2-29
1-96
1-80
i-8o

o-66

o-49
0-49

0-49

o-33

o-33

o-33

Total
remain-
ing for
Manure

lb
22-67
24-65

38-58

5-47

39-73

39-73
29-51

Value

at

lid.

per lb.

15-77

23-39

9-95

12-19

2-73
631

5-47
6-76
5-8o
2-89

39-73
27-30

28-53
28-06

30-66
33-22

19-94

20-11
I5-96

20-60
20-60

n-66

5-78
7-57

8-47
4-60
(4-6o)
6-39

s. d.

2 10

3 1

4 10
o 8

5 o

5 o

3 8

Total or
Original
Manure-
Value
per Ton
of Food

con-
sumed.

2 o
2 11

1 3
1 6

o 4
o 9
o 8
o 10
o 9
o 4

5 o

3 5

3 7

3 6

3 10

4 2

1 5
o 9

11

1 1

o 7

o 7
o 10

I s- d

1 9 6

2 3 10

3 7 4

19 5

1 19 2

1 13 9

2 11 7

196
1 14 11

1 13 9
1 14 2

o 9
o 12
o 10
o 10
o 13

O 12

2 6

I 8 8

12

13

1 3 7
o 15 5

3 3
023

O 2 10

2 9

2 7

2 2

2 3

one-fifth from year to year to the eighth year back. The results
of the estimates of compensation-value so made are given for the
five yields of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 quarts of milk per head per day
respectively in Lawes and Gilbert's paper 1 on the valuation
of the manures obtained by the consumption of foods for the
production of milk, which may be consulted for fuller details.
It must, however, be borne in mind that when cows are fed in
sheds or yards the manure is generally liable to greater losses
than is the case with fattening oxen. The manure of the cow
contains much more water in proportion to solid matter than
that of the ox. Water will, besides, frequently be used for
washing, and it may be that a good deal of the manure is washed
into drains and lost. In the event, therefore, of a claim for
compensation, the management and disposal of the manure
requires the attention of the valuer. Indeed, the varying
circumstances that will arise in practice must be carefully
considered. Bearing these in mind, the estimates may be
accepted as at any rate the best approximation to the truth
1 Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc, 1898.

that existing knowledge provides; and they should be found
sufficient for the requirements of practical use. Obviously they
will be more directly applicable in the case of cows feeding en-
tirely on the foods enumerated in the list, and not depending
largely on grass; but, even when the animals are partially
grass-fed, the value of the manure derived from the additional
dry food or roots may be estimated according to the scale given.

Cheese and Cheese-Making
For generations, perhaps for centuries, the question has been
discussed as to why there should be so large a proportion of bad
and inferior cheese and so small a proportion of really good cheese
made in farmhouses throughout the land. That the result is
not wholly due to skill and care or to the absence of these qualities
on the part of the dairymaid may now be taken for granted.
Instances might be quoted in which the most painstaking of
dairymaids, in the cleanest of dairies, have failed to produce
cheese of even second-rate quality and character, and yet others
in which excellent cheese has been made under commonplace

74 6

DAIRY

conditions as to skill and equipment, and with not much regard
to cleanliness in the dairy. The explanation of what was so
long a mystery has been found in the domain of ferments^; It
is now. known that whilst various micro-organisms, which in
many dairies have free access to the milk, have ruined an in-
calculable: quantity of cheese— and of butter also — neither cheese
nor butter of first-rate quality can be made without the aid
of lactic acid bacilli. As an illustrative case, mention may be
made of that of two most painstaking dairymaids who had tried
in vain to make good cheese from the freshest of milk in the

organism;; (2) this organism abounds in , all samples of sour
milk and sour whey; (3) the use of a whey starter is attended
with results equal in every respect to thosie obtained from a
milk-starter. It is well within the power of any dairyman to
prepare what is practically a pure culture of the same bacterium
as 'is supplied from the laboratory. Moreover, the sour- whey
starter used by some of the successful cheese-makers before the
introduction of the American system is in effect a pure culture,
from which it follows that these men had, by empirical methods,
attained the same end as that to which bacteriological research
subsequently led. Wherever a starter is

Table IX— Comparison of the Estimates of Total or Original Manure-Value when Foods are „.„,.,.„„. t w .... *f. „ ■ „,n,, rP . nrarHmlrv
■ onsumed for the Production of Fattening Increase, with those when the Food is consumed nece ssary, tne use 01 a culture practically

by Cows giving different Yields of Milk.

Total or Original

Manure- Value per Ton of Food

consumed —

that is, only deducting the Constituents -in Fattening

Nos.

' Description

Increase or in Milk. ;

For the

of Food.

: Produc-

For the Production of Milk, supposing the Yield

tion of
Fattening

per Head per Day to be as under —

'

Increase

6 qts.

8 qts.

Id qts.

12 qt

s.

' 14 qts.

£ s. d.

£ s.

d.

£ B. d.

£ s. dv

£ s.

d.

£ s. d.

1

Linseed .

1 19' 2

1 14

7

I 12

1 96

I ; 7

1

1, 4 5

, 2 ;

Linseed cake

2 11 11

2 8

1

260

2 3 10

2; 1

9

1 19 8'

3

Decorticated

cotton cake

3 14 9

3 11

2

392

3 7. 4

3 5

4

33 4

' : 4

Palm-nut cake .

164

1 3

2

I 14

19 5

17

9

15 11

5

Undecorticated

cotton cake

2 5 3

2 2

4

2 O 8

1 19 2

1 17

6

1 15 11

6

Cocoa-nut cake •

1 19 10

1 16

11

1 15 3

1 13 9

t 12

3

1 10 6

7
8

Rape cake
Peas

2 16 5

1 14

2

2 12 II;

211 7

2 10

4

291

1 16 5

1 13

1

III 2

1 9 6

1, 7

8

i; 5 9

9

Beans '.

2 1 11

1 18

7

I 16 IO

1 14 11

1 13

1

1 11 4

' 10

Lentils ; ; .

208

r 17

5

115 7

1 13 9

I iI2

2

1 10 r

11
, 12 <

Tares (seed)
Maize .

2 1 1

1 17

11

I 16 ■

1 14 2

; I ] 12

6

1 id 7

0,16 7

13

4

11 7,

9 ;ii

0: 8

i

0; 6 5

13

Wheat

18 11

15

8

' 13 11

•0 12 1

6 10

5

088

14

Malt

17 7

14

5

12 7

10 8

9

071

15

Barley

17 2

14

012 3:

10 6

8

8

6 II

16

Oats

19 9

16

8

15

013 4

11

7

'0 9 10

17

Rice meal .

(0 18 6)

15

5

13 9

12

10

5

087

18

'. J 9

Locust beans
Malt coombs

267

2 3

9

2 2 0!

2 'o-6

1 18

11

1 17 4

20

Fine pollard

1 15 2

1 12

1 10 5;

1 8 "8

1 6

11

15 3

21

Coarse pollard .

I 18 !

1 15

2

1 13 6

1 12

1 10

5

189

22

23'

Bran

Clover hay . .

I 18 6

1 *5

11

1 14 6

1 13 i

1 11

8

1 10 3

1 7

1 5

5

14 5

I 3 : 7

■•1.2

8

1 1 8

24
25

Meadow hay
Pea straw : .

18 7

17

16 31

15; S

014

5

013 7

12 2

10

9

010

093

8

5

o, 7 8

26

Oat straw .

o75

6

2

5 5

04.9

.0. 4

03 3

. 27

Wheat straw

6 6

5

5

4 10

42

3

6

030

, 28

Barley straw

065

5

6

4 10

044

0: 3

9

032

29

3° -

Bean straw
Potatoes .

11 5

10

4

099

9 2

8

7

080

04 1

3

9

036

o33

3

1

2 11

31

Carrots

029

2

6

024

023

2

1

I 11

32

Parsnips .,

036

3

3

31

2 10

o 2

8

027

. 33

Mangel wurzels .

032

3

2 10

029

2

7

025

34

. Swedish turnips .

2 11

2

9

028

027

2

5

023

35

Yellow turnips .

(0 2 6)

2

4

023

22

2

1

020

3&

White turnips .

027

'2

5

24

2 3

62

2

20

cleanest of dairies in North Lancashire. Advice to resort to
the use of the ferment was acted upon, and the result was a
revelation and a transformation, excellent prize-winning cheese
being made from that time forward. By- the addition of a
" starter," in the form of a small quantity of sour milk, whey
or buttermilk, in an advanced stage of fermentation, the develop-
ment of acidity in the main body of milk is accelerated. It
has been ascertained that the starter is practically a culture
of bacteria, which, if desired, may be obtained as a pure culture.
Professor J. R. Campbell, as the result of experiments on pure
cultures for Cheddar cheese-making, states 1 that (1) first-class
Cheddar cheese can be made by using pure cultures of a lactic
1 Trans. Highl. and Agric. Soc. Scot., 1899.

pure is imperative, whether such culture
be obtained from the laboratory or pre-
pared by; what may be; called the " home-
made starter." Pure' cultures may be
bought for a few shillings in the open
market.

The factory-made cheese of Canada,
the United States and Australasia, which
is so largely imported into the United
Kingdom, is all of the Cheddar type. The
factory system has made no headway in
the original home of the Cheddar cheese
in the west of England. The system was
thus described in .the Journal .of the
British Dairy Farmers' Association in
1889 by Mr R. J. Drummond:—

" In the year 1885 I was engaged as cheese
instructor by the Ayrshire Dairy Associa-
tion, to teach the Canadian system of
Cheddar cheese-making. I commenced
operations under many difficulties, being a
total stranger to both the people and the
country, and with this, the quantities of
milk were very fnuch less than I had been
in the habit of handling. Instead of having
the milk from 500 to 1000 cows, we had to
operate with the milk from 25 to not over
60 cows.

" The system of cheese-making commonly
practised in the county of Ayr at that time
Was what .is commonly known as the Joseph
Harding or English Cheddar system, which
differs from the Canadian system in many
details, and in one particular is essentially
different, namely, the manner in which the
necessary acidity in the milk is produced.
In the old method a certain quantity of
sour whey was added to the milk each day
before adding the rennet, and I have no
doubt in my own mind that this whey was
often added when the milk was already acid
enough, and the consequence was a spoiled
cheese.

" Another objection to this system of
adding sour whey was, should the stuff be
out of condition one day, the same trouble
was inoculated with the milk from day to
day, and the result was sure to be great
unevenness in the quality of the cheese.
The utensils commonly in use were very
different to anything I had ever seen before;
instead of the oblong cheese vat with double
casings, as is used by the best makers at
the present time, a tub, sometimes of tin
and sometimes of wood, from 4 to 7 ft. in diameter by about
30 in. deep, was universally in use. Instead of being able to heat
the milk with warm water or steam, as is commonly done now, a
large can of a capacity of from 20 to 30 gallons was filled with cold
milk and placed in a common hot-water boiler, and heated sufficiently
to bring the whole body of the milk in the tub to the desired tem-
perature for adding the rennet. I found that many mistakes were
made in the quantity of rennet used, as scarcely any two makers
used the same quantity to a given quantity of milk. Instead of
having a graduated measure for measuring the rennet, a common
tea-cup was used for this purpose, and I have found in some dairies
as low as 3 oz. of rennet was used to 100 gallons of milk, where in
others as high as 6| oz. was used to the same quantity. This of itself
would cause a difference in the quality of the cheese.

" Coagulation and breaking completed, the second heating was
effected by dipping the whey from the curd into the can already

DAIRY

747

mentioned, and heated to a temperature of 140 F., and returned
to, the curd, and thus the process was carried on till the desired
temperature was reached. This mode of heating I considered
very laborious and at the same time very unsatisfactory, as it is
impossible to distribute the heat as evenly through the curd in this
way as by heating either with hot water or steam. The other general
features of the method do not differ from our own very materially,
with the exception that in the old method the curd was allowed to
mature in the bottom of the tub, where at the same stage we remove
the curd from the vat to what we call a curd-cooler, made with a
sparred bottom, so as to allow the whey to separate from the curd
during the maturing. or ripening process; In regard to the quality
of cheese on the one method compared with the other, I think that
there was some cheese just as fine made in the old way as anything
we can possibly make in the new, with one exception, and that is,
that the cheese made according to the old method will not toast-
instead of the casein melting down with the butter-fat, the two
become separated, which is very much objected to by the consumer
— and, with this, want of uniformity through the whole dairy. This
is a very short and imperfect description of how the cheese was made
at the time I came into Ayrshire; and I will now give a short de-
scription of the system that has been taught by myself for the past
four years, and has been the means of bringing this county so
prominently to the front as one of the best cheese-making counties
in Britain.

"Our duty in this system of cheese-making begins the night
before, in having. the milk properly set and cooled according to the
temperature of the atmosphere, so as to arrive at a given heat the
next morning. Our object in this is to secure, at the time we wish
to begin work in the morning, that degree of acidity or ripeness
essential to the success of the whole operation. We cannot give any
definite guide to makers how, or in what quantities, to set their milk,
as the whole thing depends on the good judgment of the operator.
If he finds that his milk works best at a temperature of 68° F. in
the morning, his study the night before should tend toward such a
result, and he will soon learn by experience how best to manage
the; milk in his own individual dairy. I have found in some dairies
that the milk worked quite fast enough at a temperature of 64 ° in
the morning, where in others the milk set in the same way would be
very much out of condition by being too sweet, causing hours of
delay before matured enough to add the rennet. Great care should
be taken at this point, making sure that the milk is properly matured
before the rennet is added, as impatience at this stage often causes
hours of delay in the making of a cheese. I advise taking about
six hours from the time the rennet is added till the curd is ready for
salting, which means a six-hours' process; if much longer than this,
I have found by experience that it is impossible to obtain the best
results. The cream should always be removed from the night's milk
in the morning and heated to a temperature of about 84 before
returning it to the vat. To do this properly and with safety, the
cream should be heated by adding about two-thirds of warm milk
as it comes from the cow to one-third of cream, and passed through
the ordinary milk-strainers. If colouring matter is used, it should be
added fifteen to twenty minutes before the rennet, so as to become
thoroughly mingled with the milk before coagulation takes place.

'.' We use from 4 to 4J oz. of Hansen's rennet extract to each
100 gallons of milk, at a temperature of 86° in spring and 84 in
summer, or sufficient to coagulate milk firm enough to cut in about
forty minutes when in a proper condition. In cutting, great care
should be taken not to bruise the curd. I cut lengthwise, then
across with perpendicular knife, then with horizontal knife the
same way of the perpendicular, leaving the curd in small cubes
about the size of ordinary peas. Stirring with the hands should
begin immediately after cutting, and continue for ten to fifteen
minutes prior to the application of heat. At this stage we use a
rake instead of the hands for stirring the curd during the heating
process, which lasts about one hour from the time of beginning until
the desired temperature of ioo° or 102 is reached. After heating,
the curd should be stirred another twenty minutes, so as to become
properly firm before allowing it to settle. We like the curd to lie
in the whey fully one hour after allowing it to settle before it is
ready for drawing the whey, which is regulated altogether by the
condition of the milk at the time the rennet is added. At the first
indication of acid, the whey should be removed as quickly as possible.
I think at this point lies the greatest secret of cheese-making — to
know when to draw the whey.

' ' I depend entirely on the hot-iron test at this stage, as I consider
it the most accurate and reliable guide known to determine when
the proper acidity has been developed. To apply this test, take a
piece of steel bar about 18 in. long by 1 in. wide and J in. thick, and
heat to a black heat; if the iron is too hot, it will burn the curd;
if too cold, it will not stick; consequently it is a very simple matter
to determine the proper heat. Take a small quantity of the card
from the vat arid compress it tightly in the hand, so as to expel all
the whey; press the curd against the iron, and when acid enough
it will draw fine silky threads i in. long. At this stage the Curd
should be removed to the curd-cooler as quickly as possible, and
stirred till dry enough to allow it to mat, which generally takes from
five to eight minutes. The curd is now allowed to stand in one end
of the cooler for thirty minutes, when it is cut into pieces from 6 to

8 in. square and turned, and soon every half-hour until it is fit for
milling. After removing the whey, a new acid makes its appearance
in the body of the curd, which seems to depend for its development
upon the action of the air, and the presence of which experience has
shown to be an essential element in the making of a cheese. This
acid- should be allowed to develop properly before the addition of
salt. To determine when the curd is ready for salting, the hot-iron
test is again resorted to; and when the curd will draw fine silky
threads i| in. long, and at the same time have a soft velvety feel
when pressed in the hand, the butter-fat will not separate with the
whey from the curd. I generally advise using 1 lb of salt to 50 lb of
curd, more or less, according to the condition of the curd. After
salting, we let the curd lie fifteen minutes, so as to allow the salt to
be thoroughly dissolved before pressing.

" In the pressing, care should be taken not to press the curd too
severely at first, as you are apt to lose some of the butter-fat, and
with this I do not think that the whey will come away so freely by
heavy pressing at first, We advise three days' pressing before
cheese is taken to the curing- room. All cheese should have a bath
in water at a temperature of 120 next morning after being made,
so as to form a good skin to prevent cracking or chipping. The
temperature of the curing-room should be kept as near 60° as
possible at all seasons of the year, and I think if a eood plan to
ventilate while heating."

With regard to the hot-iron test for acidity, Mr F. J. Lloyd,
in describing his investigations on behalf of the Bath and West
of England Society, states that cheese-makers have long known
that in both the manufacture and the ripening of cheese the
acidity produced— known to the chemist as " lactic acid "—
materially influences the results obtained, and that amongst
other drawbacks to the test referred to is the uncertainty of the
temperature of the iron itself. He gives an, account, 1 however,
of a chemical method involving the use of a standard solution
of an alkali (soda), and of a substance termed an " indicator "
(phenolphthalein), which changes colour according to whether
a solution is acid or alkaline. The apparatus used with these
reagents is called the acidimeter. The two stages in the manu-
facture of a Cheddar cheese most difficult to determine empiri-
cally are— (1) when to stop stirring and to draw the whey, and
(2) when to grind the curd. The introduction of the acidimeter
has done away with these difficulties; and though the use of
this apparatus is not actually a condition essential to the manu-
facture of a good cheese, it is to many makers a necessity and to
all an advantage. By its use the cheese-maker can determine
the acidity of the whey, and so decide when to draw the latter
off, and will thus secure not only the proper development of
acidity in the subsequent changes of cheese-making, but also
materially diminish the time which the cheese takes to make.
Furthermore, it has been proved that the acidity of the 'whey
which drains from the curd when in the cooler is a sufficiently
accurate guide to the condition of the curd before grinding;
and by securing uniformity in this acidity the maker will also
ensure uniformity in the quality and ripening properties of the
cheese. Speaking generally, the acidity of the liquid from
the press should never fall below o-8o% nor rise above 1-20%,
and, the nearer it can be kept to, i-oo% the better. Simul-
taneously, of course, strict attention must be paid to temperature,
time and every other factor which can be accurately determined.
Analyses of large numbers of Cheddar cheeses manufactured
in every month of the cheese-making season show the average
composition of ripe specimens to be — 'Water, 35-58%; fat,
31-33; casein, 29-12; mineral matter or ash, 3-97. It has been
maintained that in the ripening of Cheddar cheese fat is formed
out of the. curd, but a comparison of analyses of ripe cheeses
with analyses' of the curd from which the cheeses were made
affords no evidence that this is the case. •

The quantity of milk required to make 1 lb of Cheddar cheese
may be learnt from Table X-, which shows the results obtained
at the cheese school of the Bath and West of England: Society
in the 1 two- seasons of 1899 al, d 1900. The cheese was sold at an
average age, of ten to twelve weeks. In 1899 a total of 21,226
gallons of milk yielded 20,537 lb of saleable cheese, and in 1900,
31,808 gallons yielded 29,631 lb. In the two years together
53,028 gallons yielded 50,168 lb, which is equivalent to i-oj
gallon of milk to 1 lb of cheese. For practical purposes it may

1 Report on Cheddar Cheese-Making, London, 1899.

748

DAIRY

be taken that one gallon, or slightly over 10 lb. of milk, yields
i lb of pressed cheese. The prices obtained are added as a matter
of interest.

Cheshire cheese is largely made in the county from which it
takes its name, and in adjoining districts. It is extensively
consumed in Manchester and Liverpool, and other parts of the
densely populated county of Lancaster.

Table X. — Quantities of Milk employed and of Cheese produced in the Manu-
facture of Cheddar Cheese.

When Made.

Milk.

Green
Cheese.

Saleable
Cheese.

Shrinkage.

Price.

galls.

lb

lb

per cwt.

April 1899 .
May .

3077

3100

2924

6 per cent.

60s.

4462

4502

4257

6J lb per cwt.

63s.

June .
July .

4316

4434

4141

7 lb 6 oz. per cwt.

70s.

3699

3785

3545

7 lb 2 oz. per cwt.

74s.

August

2495

2539

2353

8 lb 3 oz. per cwt.

74s.

Sept. and Oct.

3171

3583

3317

8 lb 5 oz. per cwt.

74s.

April 1900 .
May .

3651

3505

3292

6 per cent.

63s.

6027

6048

5577

^\ per cent.

64s.

Tune .

July and Aug.

5960

5889

5466

7 1 per cent.

68s.

7227

7'77

6630

7 \ per cent.

66s.

Sept. and Oct.

8943

9635

8666

10 per cent.

66s.

The following is a description of the making of Cheshire
cheese: —

The evening's milk is set apart until the following morning, when
the cream is skimmed off. The latter is poured into a pan which
has been heated by being placed in the boiling water of a boiler.
The new milk obtained early in the morning is poured into the vessel
containing the previous evening's milk with the warmed cream,
and the temperature of the mixture is brought to about 75° F.
Into the vessel is introduced a piece of rennet, which has been kept
in warm water since the preceding evening, and in which a little
Spanish annatto {\ oz. is enough for a cheese of 60 lb) is dissolved.
(Marigolds, boiled in milk, are occasionally used for colouring cheese,
to which they likewise impart a pleasant flavour. In winter, carrots
scraped and boiled in milk, and afterwards strained, will produce
a richer colour; but they should be used with moderation, on
account of their taste.) The whole is now stirred together, and
covered up warm for about an hour, or until it becomes curdled;
it is then turned over with a bowl and broken very small. After
standing a little time, the whey is drawn from it, and as soon as
the curd becomes somewhat more solid it is cut into slices and turned
over repeatedly, the better to press out the whey.

The curd is then removed from the tub, broken by hand or cut
by a curd-breaker into small pieces, and put into a cheese vat,
where it is strongly pressed both by hand and with weights, in order
to extract the remaining whey. After this it is transferred to
another vat, or into the same if it has in the meantime been well
scalded, where a similar process of breaking and expressing is
repeated, until all the whey is forced from it. The cheese is now
turned into a third vat, previously warmed, with a cloth beneath
it, and a thin loop of binder put round the upper edge of the cheese
and within the sides of the vat, the cheese itself being previously
enclosed in a clean cloth, and its edges placed within the vat, before
transfer to the cheese-oven. These various processes occupy about
six hours, and eight more are requisite for pressing the cheese, under
a weight of 14 or 15 cwt. The cheese during that time should be
twice turned in the vat. Holes are bored in the vat which contains
the cheese, and also in the cover of it, to facilitate the extraction of
every drop of whey. The pressure being continued, the cheese is
at length taken from the vat as a firm and solid mass.

On the following morning and evening it must be again turned
and pressed ; and also on the third day, about the middle of which
it should be removed to the salting-chamber, where the outside is
well rubbed with salt, and a cloth binder passed round it which is
not turned over the upper surface. The cheese is then placed in
brine extending half-way up in a salting-tub, and the upper surface
is thickly covered with salt. Here it -emains for nearly a week,
being turned twice in the day. It is then left to dry for two or three
days, during Which period it is turned once — being well salted at
each turning — and cleaned every day. When taken from the brine
it is put on the salting benches, with a wooden girth round itof
nearly the thickness of the cheese, where it stands a few days, during
which time it is again salted and turned every day. It is next
washed and dried; and after remaining on the drying benches
about seven days, it is once more washed in warm water with a brush,
and wiped dry. In a couple of hours after this it is rubbed all over
with sweet whey butter, which operation is afterwards frequently
repeated; and, lastly, it is deposited in the cheese- or store-room —
which should be moderately warm and sheltered from the access of
air, lest the cheese should crack— and turned every day, until it has
become sufficiently hard and firm. These cheeses require to be kept
a considerable time.

As a matter of fact, there are three different modes of cheese-
making followed in Cheshire, known as the early ripening, themedium
ripening and the late ripening processes. There is also a method
which produces a cheese that is permeated with " green mould "
when ripe, called " Stilton Cheshire "; this, however, is confined to
limited districts in the county. The early ripening method is generally
followed in the spring of the year, until the middle or end of April;
the medium process, from that time till late autumn, or until early in
June, when the late ripening process is adopted and followed until the
end of September, changing again to the medium process
as the season advances. The late ripening process is not
found to be suitable for spring or late autumn make.
There is a decided difference between these several
methods of making. In the early ripening system a
larger quantity of rennet is used, more acidity is devel-
oped, and less pressure employed than in the other
processes. In the medium ripening process a moderate
amount of acidity is developed, to cause the natural
drainage of the whey from the curd when under press.
In the late ripening system, on the other hand, the
development of acidity is prevented as far as possible,
and the whey is got out of the curd by breaking down
finer, usin^ more heat, and skewering when under press.
In the Stilton Cheshire process a larger quantity of
rennet is used, and less pressure is employed, than in the
medium or late ripening systems.

It is hardly possible to enunciate any general rules for
themakingof Stilton cheese, which differs from Cheddar
and Cheshire in that it is not subjected to pressure. Mr J. Marshall
Dugdale, in 1899, made a visit of inspection to the chief Leicester-
shire dairies where this cheese is produced, but in his report 1 he
stated that every Stilton cheese-maker worked on his own lines,
and that at no two dairies did he find the details all carried out
in the same manner. There is a fair degree of uniformity up to
the point when the curd is ladled into the straining-cloths, but
at this stage, and in the treatment of the curd before salting,
diversity sets in, several different methods being in successful
use. Most of the cheese is made from two curds, the highly acid
curd from the morning's milk being being mixed with the compara-
tively sweet curd from the evening's milk . Opinion varies widely
as to the degree of tightening of the straining-cloths. No test for
acidity appears to be used, the amount of acidity being judged
by the taste, feel and smell of the curd. When the desired degree
of acidity has developed, the curd is broken by hand to pieces
the size of small walnuts, pnd salt is added at the rate of about
1 oz. to 4 lb of dry curd, or 1 oz. to 35 lb of wet curd, care being
taken not to get the curd pasty. If a maker has learnt how to
rennet the milk properly, and how to secure the right amount of
acidity at the time of hooping — that is, when the broken and
salted curd is put into the wooden hoops which give the cheese
its shape — he has acquired probably two of the most important
details necessary to success. It was formerly the custom to add
cream to the milk used for making Stilton cheese, but the more
general practice now is to employ new milk alone, which yields a
product apparently as excellent and mellow as that from enriched
milk.

As a cheese matures or becomes fit for consumption, not only
is there produced the characteristic flavour peculiar to the type
of cheese concerned, but with all varieties, independently of the
quality of flavours developed, a profound physical transforma-
tion of the casein occurs. In the course of this change the firm
elastic curd " breaks down " — that is, bc„jmes plastic, whilst
chemically the insoluble casein is converted into various soluble
decomposition products. These ripening phenomena — the pro-
duction of flavour and the breaking down of the casein (that is,
the formation of proper texture) — used to be regarded as different
phases of the same process. As subsequently shown, however,
these changes are not necessarily so closely correlated. The
theories formerly advanced as explanatory of the ripening
changes in cheese were suggestive rather than based upon ex-
perimental data, and it is only since 1896 that careful scientific
studies of the problem have been made. Of the two existing
theories, the one, which is essentially European, ascribes the
ripening changes wholly to the action of living organisms — the
bacteria present in the cheese. The other, which had its origin

1 " The Practice of Stilton Cheese-Making," Journ. Roy. Agric.
Soc, 1899.

DAIRY

749

in the United States, asserts that there are digestive enzymes —
that is, unorganized or soluble ferments — inherent in the milk
itself that render the casein soluble. The supporters of the
bacterial theory are ranged in two classes. The one, led by
Duclaux, regards the breaking down of the casein as due to the
action of liquefying bacteria (Tyrothrix forms). On the other
hand, von Freudenreich has ascribed these changes to the lactic-
acid type of bacteria, which develop so luxuriantly in hard cheese
like Cheddar.

With regard to the American theory, and in view of the
important practical results obtained by Babcock and Russell at
the Wisconsin experiment station, the following account 1 of
their work is of interest, especially as the subject is of high
practical importance. In 1897 they announced the discovery of
an inherent enzyme in milk, which they named galactose, and
which has the power of digesting the casein of milk, and producing
chemical decomposition products similar to those that normally
occur in ripened cheese. The theory has been advanced by them
that this enzyme is an important factor in the ripening changes;
and as in their experiments bacterial action was excluded by the
use of anaesthetic agents, they conclude that, so far as the
breaking down of the casein is concerned, bacteria are not
essential to this process. In formulating a theory of cheese-
ripening, they have further pointed out the necessity of con-
sidering the action of rennet extract as a factor concerned in
the curing changes. They have shown that the addition of
increased quantities of rennet extract materially hastens the
rate of ripening, and that this is due to the pepsin which is
present in all commercial rennet extracts. They find it easily
possible to differentiate between the proteolytic action — that is,
the decomposing of proteids — of pepsin and galactase, in that
the first-named enzyme is incapable of producing decomposition
products lower than the peptones precipitated by tannin. They
have shown that the increased solubility — the ripening changes
— of the casein in cheese made with rennet is attributable solely
to the products peculiar to peptic digestion. The addition of
rennet extract or pepsin to fresh milk does not produce this
change, unless the acidity of the milk is allowed to develop to a
point which experience has shown to be the best adapted to the
making of Cheddar cheese. The rationale of the empirical process
of ripening the milk before the addition of the rennet is thus
explained. In studying the properties of galactase it was further
found that this enzyme, as well as those present in rennet extract,
is operative at very low temperatures, even below freezing-point.
When cheese made in the normal manner was kept at tempera-
tures ranging from 25° to 45° F. for periods averaging from eight
to eighteen months, it was found that the texture of the product
simulated that of a perfectly ripened cheese, but that such cheese
developed a very mild flavour in comparison with the normally-
cured product. Subsequent storage at somewhat higher tempera-
tures gives to such cheese a flavour the intensity of which is
determined by the duration of storage. This indicates that the
breaking down of the casein and the production of the flavour
peculiar to cheese are in a way independent of each other, and
may be independently controlled — a point of great economic
importance in commercial practice. Although it is generally
believed that cheese ripened at low temperatures is apt to develop
a more or less bitter flavour, the flavours in the cases described
were found to be practically perfect. Under these conditions of
curing, bacterial activity is inoperative, and these experiments
are held to furnish an independent proof of the enzyme theory.

Not only are these investigations of interest from the scientific
standpoint, as throwing light on the obscure processes of cheese-
curing, but from a practical point of view they open up a new
field for commercial exploitation. The inability to control the
temperature in the ordinary factory curing-room results in serious
losses, on account of the poor and uneven quality of the product,
and the consumption of cheese has been greatly lessened thereby.
These conditions may all be avoided by this low-temperature
curing process, and it is not improbable that the cheese industry
may undergo important changes in methods of treatment. With
1 Experiment Station Record, xii. 9 (Washington, 1901).

the introduction of cold-storage curing, and the necessity of
constructing centralized plant for this purpose, the cheese
industry may perhaps come to be differentiated into the manu-
facture of the product in factories of relatively cheap construc-
tion, and the curing or ripening of the cheese in central curing
stations. In this way not only would the losses which occur
under present practices be obviated, but the improvement in
the quality of the cured product would be more than sufficient
to cover the cost of cold-storage curing.

The characteristics of typical specimens'of the different kinds
of English cheese may be briefly described. Cheddar cheese
possesses the aroma and flavour of a nut — the so-called " nutty "
flavour. It should melt in the mouth, and taste neither sweet
nor acid. It is of flaky texture, neither hard nor crumbly, and is
firm to the touch. It is early-ripening and, if not too much acid
is developed in the making, long-keeping. Before all others it
is a cosmopolitan cheese. Some cheeses are "plain," that is,
they possess the natural paleness of the curd, but many are
coloured with annatto — a practice that might be dispensed with.
The average weight of a Cheddar cheese is about 70 lb. Stilton
cheese is popularly but erroneously supposed to be commonly
made from morning's whole milk with evening's cream added,
and to be a " double-cream " cheese. The texture is waxy, and
a blue-green mould permeates the mass if well ripened; the
flavour is suggestive of decay. The average weight of a Stilton
is 15 ft). Cheshire cheese has a fairly firm and uniform texture,
neither flaky on the one hand nor waxy on the other ; is of
somewhat sharp and piquant flavour when fully ripe; and is
often — at eighteen months old, when a well-made Cheshire
cheese is at its best — permeated with a blue-green mould, which,
as in the case of Stilton cheese, contributes a characteristic
flavour which is much appreciated. Cheshire cheese is, like
Cheddar, sometimes highly-coloured, but the practice is quite
unnecessary; the weight is about 55 lb. Gloucester cheese has
a firm, somewhat soapy, texture and sweet flavour. Double
Gloucester differs from single Gloucester only in size, the former
usually weighing 26 to 30 lb, and the latter 13 to 15 lb. Leicester
cheese is somewhat loose in texture, and mellow and moist when
nicely ripened. Its flavour is " clean," sweet and mild, and its
aroma pleasant. To those who prefer a mild flavour in cheese, a
perfect Leicester is perhaps the most attractive of all the so-
called "hard" cheese; the average weight of such a cheese is
about 3 s lb. Derby cheese in its best forms is much like Leicester,
being " clean " in flavour and mellow. It is sometimes rather
flaky in texture, and is slow-ripening and long-keeping if made
on the old lines; the average weight is 25 lb. Lancashire cheese,
when well made and ripe, is loose in texture and is mellow; it
has a piquant flavour. As a rule it ripens early and does not
keep long. Dorset cheese — sometimes called " blue vinny " (or
veiny) — is of firm texture, blue-moulded, and rather sharp-
flavoured when fully ripe ; it has local popularity and the best
makes are rather like Stilton. Wensleydale cheese, a local pro-
duct in North Yorkshire, is of fairly firm texture and mild flavour,
and may almost be spread with a knife when ripe; the finest
makes are equal to the best Stilton. Cotherstone cheese, also a
Yorkshire product, is very much like Stilton and commonly
preferable to it. The blue-green mould develops, and the cheese
is fairly mellow and moist, whereas many Stiltons are hard and
dry. Wiltshire cheese, in the form of " Wilts truckles," may be
described as small Cheddars, the weight being usually about
16 lb. Caerphilly cheese is a thin, flat product, having the ap-
pearance of an undersized single Gloucester and weighing about
8 lb; it has no very marked characteristics, but enters largely
into local consumption amongst the mining population of
Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. Soft cheese of various
kinds is made in many localities, beyond which its reputation
scarcely extends. One of the oldest and best, somewhat resem-
bling Camembert when well ripened, is the little " Slipcote,"
made on a small scale in the county of Rutland; it is a soft,
mellow, moist cheese, its coat slipping off readily when the cheese
is at its best for eating — hence the name. Cream cheese is like-
wise made in many districts, but nowhere to a great extent. A

>75°

DAIRY

good cream cheese is fairly firm but mellow^ with a slightly acid
yet very attractive flavour. It is the simplest of all cheese to
make— cream poured into a perforated box lined with loose
muslin practically makes itself into cheese in a few days' time,
and is usually ripe in a week. ,

In France the pressed varieties of cheese with hard rinds
include Gruyere, Cantal, Roquefort and Port Salut. The first-
named, a pale-yellow cheese full of holes of varying size, is made
in Switzerland and in the Jura Mountains district in the east of
France; whilst Cantal cheese, which is of lower quality, is a
product of the midland districts and is made barrel-shape.
Roquefort cheese is made from the milk of ewes, which are kept
chiefly as dairy animals in the department of Aveyron, and the
cheese is cured in the natural mountain caves at the village of
Roquefort. It is a small, rather soft, white cheese, abundantly
veined with a greenish-blue mould and weighs between 4 and
5 lb. The Port Salut is quite a modern cheese, which originated
in the abbey of that name in Mayenne; it is a thin, flat cheese
of characteristic, and not unattractive odour and flavour. The
best known of the soft unpressed cheeses are Brie, Camembert
and Coulommiers, whilst Pont 1'Eveque, Livarot and other
varieties are also made. After being shaped in moulds of various
forms, these cheeses are laid on straw mats to cure, and when
fit to eat they possess about the same consistency as butter.
The Neufchatel, Gervais and Bondon cheeses are soft varieties
intended to be eaten quite fresh, like cream cheese.

Of the varieties of cheese made in Switzerland, the best known
is the Emmenthaler, which is about the size of a cart-wheel, and
has a weight varying from 150 to 300, lb. It is full of small
holes of almost uniform size and very regularly distributed. In
colour and flavour it is the same as Gruyere. The Edam and
Gouda are the common cheeses of Holland. The Edam is
spherical in shape, weighs from 3 to 4 lb, and is usually dyed
crimson on the outside. The Gouda is a flat cheese with convex
edges and is of any weight up to 20 lb. Of the two, the Edam
has the finer flavour. Limburger is the leading German cheese,
whilst other varieties are the Backstein and Munster; ah are
strong-smelling. Parmesan cheese is an Italian product, round
and flat, about 5 in. thick, weighing from 60 to 80 lb and
possessed of fine flavour. Gorgonzola cheese, so called from, the
Italian town of that name near Milan, is made in the Cheddar
shape and weighs from 20 to 40 lb. When ripe it is permeated
by a blue mould, and resembles in flavour, appearance and
consistency a rich old Stilton.

For descriptions of all the named varieties of cheese, see Bulletin
105 of the Bureau of A nimal Industry (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington), issued 27th of June 1908, compiled by C. F. Doane
and H. W. Lawson.

Butter and Butter-Making

As with cheese, so with butter, large quantities of the latter
have been inferior not because the cream was poor in quality,
but because the wrong kinds of bacteria had taken possession of
the atmosphere in hundreds of dairies. The greatest if not the
latest novelty in dairying in the last decade of the 19th century
was the isolation of lactic acid bacilli, their cultivation in a
suitable medium, and their employment in cream preparatory
to churning. Used thus in butter-making, an excellent product
results, provided cleanliness be scrupulously maintained. The
culture repeats itself in the buttermilk, which in turn may be
used again with marked success. Much fine butter, indeed, was
made long before the bearing of bacteriological 'Science upon the
practice of dairying was recognized — made by using acid butter-
milk from a previous churning.

fii Denmark, which is, for its size, the greatest butter-produc-
ing country in the world, most of the butter is made with the aid
of "starters," or artificial cultures which are employed in
ripening the cream. Though the butter made by such cultures
shows. little if any superiority over a good sample made from
cream ripened in the ordinary way — that is, by keeping the
cream at a fairly high temperature until it is ready for churning,
when it must be cooled — it is claimed that the use of these
cultures enables the butter-makers of Denmark to secure a much

greater uniformity in the quality of their produce than would be
possible if they depended upon the ripening of the cream through
the influence of bacteria taken up in the usual way from the air.

Butter-making is an altogether simpler process than cheese-
making, but success demands strict attention to sound principles,
the observance of thorough cleanliness in every stage of the
work, and the intelligent use of the thermometer. The following
rules for butter-making, issued by the Royal Agricultural Society
sufficiently indicate the nature of the operation: —

Prepare churn, butter-worker, wooden-hands and sieve as
follows :— (1) Rinse with cold water. (2) Scald with boiling water.
(3) Rub thoroughly with salt. (4) Rinse with cold water.

Always use a correct thermometer.

The cream, when in the churn, to be at a temperature of 56 to
58 ° F. in summer and 60 " to 62 ° F. in winter. The churn should never
be more than half full. Churn at number of revolutions suggested
by maker of churn, ff none are given, churn at 40 to 45 revolutions
per minute. Always churn slowly at first.

Ventilate the churn freely and frequently during churning, until
no air rushes out when the vent is opened.

Stop churning immediately the butter comes. This can be ascer-
tained by the sound ; if in doubt, look.

The butter should now be like grains of mustard seed. Pour in
a small quantity of cold water (1 pint of water to 2 quarts of cream)
to harden the grains, and give a few more turns to the churn gently.
, Draw off the buttermilk, giving plenty of time for draining. Use
a straining-cloth placed over the hair-sieve, so as to prevent any
loss, and wash the butter in the churn with plenty of cold water:
then draw off the water, and repeat the process until the water
comes off quite clear.

To brine butter, make a strong brine, 2 to 3 lb of salt to 1 gallon
of water. Place straining-cloth over mouth of churn, pour in brine,
put lid on churn, turn sharply half a dozen times, and leave for 10
to 15 minutes. Then lift the butter out of the churn into sieve, turn
butter out on worker, leave it a few minutes to drain, and work
gently till all superfluous moisture is pressed out.

To drysalt butter, place butter on worker, let it drain 10 to 15
minutes, then work gently till all the butter comes together. Place
it on the scales and weigh ; then weight salt, for slight salting, | oz. ;
medium, J oz. ; heavy salting, f oz. to the ftp of butter. Roll butter
out. on worker and carefully sprinkle salt over the surface, a little
at a time; roll up and repeat till all the salt is used.

Never touch the butter with your hands.

Well-made butter is firm and not greasy. It possesses a
characteristic texture or " grain," in virtue of which it cuts
clean with a knife and breaks with a granular fracture, like that
of cast-iron. Theoretically, butter should consist of little else
than fat, but in practice this degree of perfection is never attained.
Usually the fat ranges from 83 to 88 %, whilst water is present
to the extent of from 16 to 15 %} There will also be from 0-2
to Q-8% of milk-sugar, and from 0-5 to o-8% of casein. It is
the casein which is the objectionable ingredient, and the presence
of which is usually the cause of rancidity. In badly- washed
or badly-worked butter, from which the buttermilk has not
been properly removed, the proportion of casein or curd left
in the product may be considerable, and such butter has only
inferior keeping qualities. At the same time, the mistake may
be made of overworking or of overwashing the butter, thereby
depriving it of the delicacy of flavour which is one of its chief
attractions as an article of consumption if eaten fresh. The
object of washing with brine is that the small quantity of salt
thus introduced shall act as a preservative and develop the
flavour. Streaky butter may be due either to curd left in by
imperfect washing, or to an uneven distribution of the salt.

Equipment of the Dairy

The improved form of milking-pail shown in fig. 1 has rests
or brackets, which the milker when seated on his stool places
on his knees; he thus bears the weight on his thighs, and is
entirely relieved of the strain involved in gripping the can
between the knees. The milk sieve or strainer (fig. 2) is used
to remove cow-hairs and any other mechanical impurity that
may have fallen into the milk. A double straining surface
is provided, the second being of very fine gauze placed vertically,
so that the pressure of the milk does not force the dirt through ;
the strainer is easily washed. The cheese tub Or vat receives

1 Market butter . is sometimes deliberately over-weighted with
water, and a fraudulent profit is obtained by selling this extra
moisture at the price of butter.

DAIRY

75i

the milk for cheese-making. The rectangular form shown
in fig. 3 is a Cheshire cheese-vat, for steam. The inner vat'is
of tinned steel, and the outer is of iron and is fitted with pipes

FlG. I.— Milkirig-Pail.

Fig. 2.— Milk Sieve.

Fig. 3. — Rectangular Cheese- Vat.

for steam supply. Round cheese-tubs (fig. 4) are made of strong
sheets of steel, double tinned to render them lasting. They
are fitted with a strong bottom hoop and bands round the sides,

Fig. 4.— Cheese-Tub.

and can be double-jacketed for steam-heating if required. Cu rd-
knives (fig. 5) are used for cutting the coagulated mass into

cubes in order to liber-
ate the whey. They are
made of fine steel, with
sharp edges; there are
also wire curd-breakers.
The object of the curd-
mill (fig. 6) is to grind
consolidated curd into
small pieces, prepara-
tory to salting and vat-
ting; two spiked rollers
work up to spiked
breasts. Hoops, into
which the curd is

Fig. 5. — Curd-Knives.

placed in order to acquire the shape of the cheese, are of
wood or steel, the former being made of well-seasoned oak
with iron bands (fig. 7), the latter of tinned steel. The cheese
is more easily removed from the steel hoops and they are readily
cleaned. The cheese-press (fig. 8) is used only for hard or
" pressed " cheese, such as Cheddar. The arrangement is such

that the pressure is continuous; in the case of soft cheese the
curd is merely placed in moulds (figs, t) and 10) of the required
shape, and then taken cut to ripen; no pressure being applied.

The cheese-room is fitted
with easily-turned shelves,
on which newly - made
" pressed " cheeses are laid
to ripen. . ./"""'.•'

In the butter dairy, when
the centrifugal separator is
not used, milk is " set," for
cream-raising in the milk-
pan (fig. 11), a shallow
vessel of white porcelain.

Fig. 6.— Curd-Mill.

Fig. 7 — Hoop for Flat Cheese,

tinned steel or enamelled iron. The skimming-dish or skimmer
(fig. 12), made of tin, is for collecting the cream from the surface of

F1G.9.— Cheese-Moula(Gervais).

Fig. 10. — Cheese-Mould
(Pont.l'Eveque).

Fig. 8. — Cheese-Press. *

Fig. it: — Milk*Pan.

the milk, whence it is transferred to the cream-crock (fig. 13), in
which vessel the cream remains from one to three days, till it
is required for churning. .-•.-*':

Many different kinds of
churns are in use, and
vary much in size, shape 1
and fittings; the one
illustrated , in fig. 14
is a very good type of
diaphragm churn. The
butter-scoop (fig. 15) is
of wood and is some-
times perforated; it is
used fortaking the butter
out of the churn. The
butter^worker (fig. 16)
is employed for consoli-
dating newly - churned
butter, pressing out
superfluous water and
mixing in salt. More extended use, however, is now being made;
of the " Delaiteuse " butter dryer, a centrifugal machine that'
rapidly extracts the moisture from the butter, and renders the

Fig. 12. — Skimmer.

752

DAIRY

butter-worker unnecessary, whilst the butter produced has a
better grain. Scotch hands (fig. 17), made of boxwood, are used
for the lifting, moulding and pressing of butter.

In the centrifugal cream-separator the new milk is allowed
to flow into a bowl, which is caused to rotate on its own axis

several thousand times per
minute. The heavier portion
which makes up the watery part
of the milk flies to the outer cir-
cumference of the bowl, whilst
the lighter particles of butter-fat
are forced to travel in an inner
zone. By a simple mechanical
arrangement the separated milk
is forced out at one tube and
the cream at another, and they
are collected in distinct vessels.
Separators are made of all sizes,
from small machines dealing
with 10 or 20 up to 100 gallons
an hour, and worked by hand (fig. 18), to large machines
separating 150 to 440 gallons an hour, and worked by horse,
steam or other power (fig. 19). Separation is found to be
most effective at temperatures ranging in different machines

Fig. 13. — Cream-Crock.

y

Fig. 14. — Churn.

from 8o° to 98 F., though as high a temperature as 150° is
sometimes employed. The most efficient separators remove
nearly the whole of the butter-fat, the quantity of fat left in
the separated milk falling in some cases to as low as o-i.
When cream is raised by the deep-setting method, from 0-2

to 0-4% of fat is left in
the skim-milk; by the
shallow-setting method
from 0-3 to 0-5% of

Fig. 15— Butter-Scoop. the fat is left behind.

As a rule, therefore,
" separated " milk is much poorer in fat than ordinary " skim "
milk left by the cream-raising method in deep or shallow vessels.
The first continuous working separator was the invention of
Dr de Laval. The more recent invention by Baron von Bechtol-
sheim of what are known as the Alfa discs, which are placed along
the centre of the bowl of the separator, has much increased the
separating capacity of the machines without adding to the
power required. This has been "of great assistance to dairy
farmers by lessening the cost of the manufacture of butter, and

thus enabling a large additional number of factories to be
established in different parts of the world, particularly in Ireland,
where these disc machines are very extensively used.
The pasteurizer — so named after the French chemist Pasteur

Tig. 17.— Scotch
Hands.

Fig. 16. — Butter- Worker.

— affords a means whereby at the outset the milk is maintained
at a temperature of 170 to 180 F. for a period of eight or ten
minutes. The object of this is to destroy
the tubercle bacillus, if it should happen
to exist in the milk, whilst incidentally
the bacilli associated with several other
diseases communicable through the
medium of milk would also be killed if
they were present. Discordant results
have been recorded by experimenters
who have attempted to kill tubercle
bacilli in milk by heating the latter in
open vessels, thereby permitting the
formation of a scum or " scalded layer "
capable of protecting the tubercle bacilli,
and enabling them to resist a higher
temperature than otherwise would be
fatal to them. At a temperature not much above 150° F.
milk begins to acquire the cooked flavour which is objection-
able to many palates, whilst its
" body " is so modified as to lessen
its suitability for creaming pur-
poses. Three factors really enter
into effective pasteurization of milk,
namely (1) the temperature to which
the milk is raised, (2) the length of
time it is kept at that temperature,
(3) the maintenance of a condition
of mechanical agitation to prevent
the formation of " scalded layer."
Within limits, what a higher tem-
perature will accomplish if main-
tained for a very short time may
be effected by a lower temperature
continued over a longer period.
The investigation of the problem
forms the subject of a paper 1 in
the 17th Annual Report of the
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1900. The following are
the results of the experiments:—
1. An exposure of tuberculous milk
in a tightly closed commercial pas-
teurizer for a period of ten minutes _ ,
destroyed in every case the tubercle bacillus, as determined by the in-
oculation of such heated milk into susceptible animals li ke guinea-pigs.

1 " Thermal Death-Point of Tubercle Bacilli, and Relation of same
to Commercial Pasteurization of Milk," by H. L. Russell and E. G.
Hastings.

18. — Hand-Separator.

DAIRY

753

z. Where milk is exposed under conditions that would enable a
pellicle or membrane to form on the surface, the tubercle organism
is able to resist the action of heat at 140 F. (5o° C.) for considerably
longer periods of time.

3. Efficient pasteurization can be more readily accomplished in a

Fig. 19. — Power Separator.

closed receptacle such as is most frequently used in the commercial
treatment of milk, than where the milk is heated in open bottles or
open vats.

4. It is recommended, in order thoroughly to pasteurize milk so
as to destroy any tubercle bacilli which it may contain, without in any

Fig. 20. — Refrigerator and Can.

way injuring its creaming properties or consistency, to heat the same
in closed pasteurizers for a period of not less than twenty minutes
at 140 F.

Under these conditions one may be certain that disease bacteria

Fig. 21. — Cylindrical Cooler or
Refrigerator.

such as the tubercle bacillus will be destroyed without the milk or
cream being injured in any way. For over a year this new standard
has been in constant use in the Wisconsin University Creamery,
and the results, from a purely practical point of view, reported a
year earlier by Farrington and Russell, 1 have been abundantly
confirmed.

Dairy engineers have solved the problem as to how large
bodies of milk may be pasteurized, the difficulty of raising many
hundreds or thousands of
gallons of milk up to the
required temperature, and
maintaining it at that heat
for a period of twenty
minutes, having been suc-
cessfully dealt with. The
plant usually employed
provides for the thorough
filtration of the milk as it
comes in from the farms,
its rapid heating in a
closed receiver and under
mechanical agitation up to
the desired temperature,
its maintenance thereat
for the requisite time, and
finally its sudden reduc-
tion to the temperature of cold water through the agency of a
refrigerator, to be next noticed.

Refrigerators are used for reducing the temperature of milk
to that of cold water, whereby its keeping properties are en-
hanced. The milk flows down the outside of the metal refrigerator
(fig. 20), which is corrugated in order to provide a larger cooling
surface, whilst cold water circulates through the interior of the
refrigerator. The conical vessel into which the milk is represented
as flowing from the refrigerator in fig. 20 is absurdly called a
" milk-churn," whereas milk-can is a much more appropriate
name. For very large quantities of milk, such as flow from
a pasteurizing plant, cylindrical refrigerators (fig. 21), made
of tinned copper, are available; the cold water circulates inside,
and the milk, flowing down the outside in a very thin sheet,
is rapidly cooled from a temperature of 140° F. or higher to i°
above the temperature of the water.

The fat test for milk was originally devised by Dr S. M.
Babcock, of the Wisconsin, U.S.A., experiment station. It
combines the principle of centrifugal force with simple chemical
action. Besides the machine itself and its graduated glass
vessels, the only require-
ments are sulphuric acid
of standard strength and
warm water. The
machines — often termed
butyrometers— are com-
monly made to hold from
two up to two dozen
testers. After the tubes
or testers have been
charged, they are put in
the apparatus, which is
rapidly rotated as shown
(fig. 22) ; in a few minutes
the test is complete, and
with properly graduated
vessels the percentage of
fat can be read off at a
glance. The butyrometer
is extremely useful, alike
for measuring periodi-
cally the fat-producing capacity of individual cows in a herd,
for rapidly ascertaining the percentage of fat in milk delivered
to factories and paying for such milk on the basis of quality,
and for determining the richness in fat of milk supplied for the
urban milk trade. Any intelligent person can soon learn to
1 16th Rept. Wis. Agric. Expt. Station, 1899, p. 129.

Fig. 22. — Butyrometer.

754

DAIRY

work the apparatus, but its efficiency is of course dependent
upon the accuracy of the measuring vessels. To ensure this the
board of agriculture have made arrangements with the National
Physical Laboratory, Old Deer Park, Richmond, Surrey, to
verify at a small fee the pipettes, measuring-glasses, and test-
bottles used in connexion with the centrifugal butyrometer,
which in recent years has been improved by Dr N. Gerber of
Zurich.

Dairy Factories

In connexion with co-operative cheese-making the merit of
having founded the first " cheesery " or cheese factory is generally
credited to Jesse Williams, who lived near Rome, Oneida county,
N.Y. The system, therefore, was of American origin. Williams
was a skilled cheese-maker, and the produce of his dairy sold
so freely, at prices over the average, that he increased his output
of cheese by adding to his own supply of milk other quantities
which he obtained from his neighbours. His example was
so widely followed that by the year 1866 there had been estab-
lished close upon 500 cheese factories in New York state alone.
In 1870 two co-operative cheeseries were at work in England,
one in the town of Derby and one at Longford in the same
county. There are now thousands of cheeseries in the United
States and Canada, and also many " creameries," or butter
factories, for the making of high-class butter.

The first creamery was that of Alanson Slaughter, and it was
built near Wallkill, Orange county, N.Y., in 1861, or ten years
later than the first cheese factory; it dealt daily with the milk
of 375 cows. Cheeseries and creameries would almost certainly
have become more numerous than they are in England but for
the rapidly expanding urban trade in country milk. The develop-
ment of each, indeed, has been contemporaneous since 187 1,
and they are found to work well in conjunction one with the other
— that is to say, a factory is useful for converting surplus milk
into cheese or butter when the milk trade is overstocked, whilst
the trade affords a convenient avenue for the sale of milk when-
ever this may happen to be preferable to the making of cheese or
butter. Extensive dealers in milk arrange for its conversion into
cheese or butter, as the case may be, at such times as the milk
market needs relief, and in this way a cheesery serves as a sort of
economic safety-valve to the milk trade. The same cannot
always be said of creameries, because the machine-skimmed
milk of some of these establishments has been far too much
used to the prejudice of the legitimate milk trade in urban
districts. Be this as it may, the operations of cheeseries and
creameries in conjunction with the milk trade have led to the
diminution of home dairying. A rapidly increasing population
has maintained, and probably increased, its consumption of milk,
which has obviously diminished the farmhouse production of
cheese, and also of butter. The foreign competitor has been less
successful with cheese than with butter, for he is unable to
produce an article qualified to compete with the best that is
made in Great Britain. In the case of butter, on the other hand,
the imported article, though not ever surpassing the best home-
made, is on the average much better, especially as regards
uniformity of quality. Colonial and foreign producers, however,
send into the British markets as a rule only the best of their
butter, as they are aware that their inferior grades would but
injure the reputation their products have acquired.

There are no official statistics concerning dairy factories in
Great Britain, and such figures relating to Ireland were issued
for the first time in 1001. The number of dairy factories in
Ireland in 1900 was returned at 506, comprising 333 in Munster,
92 in Ulster, 52 in Leinster and 29 in Connaught. Of the total
number of factories, 495 received milk only, 9 milk and cream
and 2 cream only. As to ownership, 219 were joint-stock con-
cerns, 190 were maintained by co-operative farmers and 97 were
proprietary. In the year ended 30th September 1900 these
factories used up nearly 121 million gallons of milk, namely, 94
in Munster, 14 in Ulster, 7 in Leinster and 6 in Connaught.
The number of centrifugal cream-separators in the factories was
985, of which 889 were worked by steam, 79 by water, 9 by
horse-power and 8 by hand-power. The number of hands

permanently employed was 3653, made up of 976 in Munster,
279 in Leinster, 278 in Ulster and 120 in Connaught. The year's
output was returned at 401,490 cwt. of butter, 439 cwt. of cheese
(made from whole milk) and 46,253 gallons of cream. In most
cases the skim-milk is returned to the farmers. A return of the
number of separators used in private establishments gave a total
of 899, comprising 693 in Munster, 157 in Leinster, 39 in Ulster
and 10 in Connaught. In factories and private establishments
together as many as 1884 separators were thus accounted for.
Much of the factory butter would be sent into the markets of
Great Britain, though some would no doubt be retained for local
consumption. A great improvement in the quality of Irish
butter has recently been noticeable in the exhibits entered at the
London dairy show.

Adulteration of Dairy Produce 1

The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, which came into opera-
tion on the 1st of January 1900, contains several sections relating
to the trade in dairy produce in the United Kingdom. Section 1
imposes penalties in the case of the importation of produce in-
sufficiently marked, such as (a) margarine or margarine-cheese,
except in passages conspicuously marked " Margarine " or
" Margarine-cheese "; (b) adulterated or impoverished butter
(other than margarine) or adulterated or impoverished milk or
cream, except in packages or cans conspicuously marked with
a name or description indicating that the butter or milk or
cream has been so treated; (c) condensed separated or skimmed
milk, except in tins or other receptacles which bear a label
whereon the words " machine-skimmed milk " or " skimmed
milk " are printed in large and legible type. For the purposes
of this section an article of food is deemed to be adulterated or
impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance, or
if any part of it has been abstracted, so as in either case to affect
injuriously its quality, substance, or nature; provided that an
article of food shall not be deemed to be adulterated by reason
only of the addition of any preservative or colouring matter of
such a nature and in such quantity as not to render the article
injurious to health. Section 7 provides that every occupier of
a manufactory of margarine or margarine-cheese, and every
wholesale dealer in such substances, shall keep a register showing
the quantity and destination of each consignment of such sub-
stances sent out from his manufactory or place of business, and
this register shall be open to the inspection of any officer of the
board of agriculture. Any such officer shall have power to enter
at all reasonable times any such manufactory, and to inspect any
process of manufacture therein, and to take samples for analysis .
Section 8 is of much practical importance, as it limits the quantity
of butter-fat which may be contained in margarine; it states
that it shall be unlawful to manufacture, sell, expose for sale
or import any margarine the fat of which contains more than
10% of butter-fat, and every person who manufactures, sells,
exposes for sale or imports any margarine which contains more
than that percentage shall be guilty of an offence under the
Margarine Act 1887. For the purposes of the act margarine-
cheese is defined as " any substance, whether compound or
otherwise, which is prepared in imitation of cheese, and which
contains fat not derived from milk "; whilst cheese is defined as
" the substance usually known as cheese, containing no fat
derived otherwise than from milk." The so-called " filled "
cheese of American origin, in which the butter-fat of the milk is
partially or wholly replaced by some other fat, would come under
the head of " margarine-cheese." In making such cheese a cheap
form of fat, usually of animal origin, but sometimes vegetable,
is added to and incorporated with the skim-milk, and thus takes
the place previously occupied by the genuine butter-fat. The
act is regarded by some as defective in that it does not prohibit
the artificial colouring of margarine to imitate butter.

In connexion with this act a departmental committee was

appointed in 1900 " to inquire and report as to what regulations,

if any, may with advantage be made by the board of agriculture

under section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for

1 See also the article Adulteration.

DAIRY

755

determining what deficiency in any of the normal constituents
of genuine milk or cream, or what addition of extraneous matter
or proportion of water, in any sample of milk (including con-
densed milk) or cream, shall for the purposes of the Sale of Food
and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, raise a presumption, until the
contrary is proved, that the milk or cream is not genuine."
Much evidence of the highest interest to dairy-farmers was taken,
and subsequently published as a Blue-Book (Cd. 484). The
report of the committee (Cd. 491) included the following "recom-
mendations," which were signed by all the members excepting
one : —

I. That regulations upder section 4 of the Food and Drugs Act
1899 be made by the board of agriculture with respect
to milk (including condensed milk) and cream.
II. (a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, sepa-
rated or condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which on
being dried at ioo° C. do not amount to 12 % a presump-
tion shall be raised, until the contrary is proved, that the
milk is deficient in the normal constituents of genuine milk.

(b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or con-
densed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than
12 %, and in which the amount of milk-fat is less than
3-25 %, shall be deemed to be deficient in milk-fat as to
raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that it
has been mixed with separated milk or water, 'or that some
portion of its normal content of milk-fat has been removed.
In calculating the percentage amount of deficiency of fat
the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit
of 3-25 % of milk-fat.

(c) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or con-
densed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than
12 %, and in which the amount of non-fatty milk-solids
is less than 8-5 %, shall be deemed to be so deficient in
normal constituents as to raise a presumption, until the
contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water.
In calculating the percentage amount of admixed water
the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit
of 8-5 % of non-fatty milk-solids, and shall further take
into account the extent to which the milk-fat may exceed

3- 2 5 %•

III. That the artificial thickening of cream by any addition of

gelatin or other substance shall raise a presumption that
the cream is not genuine.

IV. That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-

solids are less than 9 % shall be deemed to be so deficient
in normal constituents as to raise a presumption, until
the contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water.
V. That any condensed milk (other than that labelled ' ' machine-
skimmed milk " or "skimmed milk," in conformity with
section n of the Food and Drugs Act 1899) in which
either the amount of milk-fat is less than 10%, or the
amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 25 %, shall
be deemed to be so deficient in some of the normal con-
stituents of milk as to raise a presumption, until the con-
trary is proved, that it is not genuine.

The committee further submitted the following expressions of
opinion on points raised before them in evidence: —

(a) That it is desirable to call the attention of those engaged

in the administration of the Food and Drugs Acts to the
necessity of adopting effective measures to prevent any
addition of water, separated or condensed milk, or other
extraneous matter, for the purpose of reducing the quality
of genuine milk to any limits fixed by regulation of the
board of agriculture.

(b) That it is desirable that steps should be taken with the view

of identifying or " ear-marking " separated milk by the
addition of some suitable and innocuous substance, and by
the adoption of procedure similar to that provided by
section 7 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899, in regard to
margarine.

(c) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable,

the procedure adopted in collecting, forwarding, and retain-
ing pending examination, samples of milk (including con-
densed milk) and cream under the Food and Drugs Acts
should be uniform.

(d) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable,

the methods of analysis used in the examination of samples
of milk (including condensed milk) or cream taken under
the Food and Drugs Acts should be uniform.

(e) That it is desirable in the case of condensed milk (other than

that labelled " machine-skimmed milk " or " skimmed milk,"
in conformity with section n of the Food and Drugs Act
1899) that the label should state the amount of dilution
required to make the proportion of milk-fat equal to that
found in uncondensed milk containing not less than 3-25%
of milk-fat.

(/) That it is desirable in the case of condensed whole milk to
limit, and in the case of condensed machine-skimmed milk
to exclude, the addition of sugar.

(g) That the official standardizing of the measuring vessels com-
mercially used in the testing of milk is desirable.

In the minority report, signed by Mr Geo. Barham, the most
important clauses are the following: —

(a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated
or condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than
11-75%, and in which, during the months of July to February
inclusive, the amount of milk-fat is less than 3 %, and in the case
of any milk which during the months of March to June inclusive
shall fall below the above-named limit for total solids, and at the
same time shall contain less than 2-75% of fat, it shall be deemed
that such milk is so deficient in its normal constituent of fat as to
raise a presumption, for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs
Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine.

(b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed
milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than 11-75%, and in
which the amount of non-fatty solids is less than 8-5 %, shall be
deemed to be so deficient in its normal constituents as to raise a
presumption, for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts
1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine. In calculating the amount of the deficiency the analyst
shall take into account the extent to which the milk-fat exceeds the
limits above named.

(c) That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-
solids are less than 8-75 % shall be deemed to be so deficient in its
normal constituents as to raise a presumption, for the purpose of
the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary
is proved, that the milk is not genuine.

Much controversy arose out of the publication of these reports,
the opinion most freely expressed being that the standard recom-
mended in the majority report was too high. The difficulty of
the problem is illustrated by, for example, the diverse legal
standards for milk that prevail in the United States, where the
prescribed percentage of fat in fresh cows' milk ranges from 2-5
in Rhode Island to 3-5 in Georgia and Minnesota, and 3-7 (in the
winter months) in Massachusetts, and the prescribed total solids
range from 12 in several states (11-5 in Ohio during May and
June) up to 13 in others. Standards are recognized in twenty-
one of the states, but the remaining states have no laws
prescribing standards for dairy products. That the public dis-
cussion of the reports of the committee was effective is shown by
the following regulations which appeared in the London Gazette
on the 6th of August 1901, and fixed the limit of fat at 3%:—

The board of agriculture, in exercise of the powers conferred
on them by section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, do
hereby make the following regulations : —

1. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed,
or separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3 % of milk-fat,
it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs
Acts 1 875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-fat, or the
addition thereto of water.

2. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or
separated or condensed milk) contains less than 8-5 % of milk-solids
other than milk-fat, it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale
of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved,
that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the abstraction there-
from of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the addition thereto of
water.

3. Where a sample of skimmed or separated milk (not being
condensed milk) contains less than 9% of milk-solids, it shall be
presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875
to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine,
by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-solids other than
milk-fat, or the addition thereto of water.

4. These regulations shall extend to Great Britain.

5. These regulations shall come into operation on the 1st of
September 1901.

6. These regulations may be cited as the Sale of Milk Regulations
1901.

In July 1901 another departmental committee was appointed
by the board of agriculture to inquire and report as to what
regulations, if any, might with advantage be made under section
4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for determining what
deficiency in any of the normal constituents of butter, or what
addition of extraneous matter, or proportion of water in any
sample of butter should, for the purpose of the Sale of Food and
Drugs Acts, raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved,

756

DAIRY

that the butter is not genuine. As bearing upon this point
reference may be made to a report of the dairy division of the
United States department of agriculture on experimental exports
of butter, in the appendix to which are recorded the results of the
analyses of many samples of butter of varied origin. First, as to
American butters, 19 samples were analysed in Wisconsin, 17 in
Iowa, s in Minnesota and 2 in Vermont, at the respective ex-
periment stations of the states named. The amount of moisture
throughout was low, and the quantity of fat correspondingly
high. In no case was there more than 15 % of water, and only 4
samples contained more than 14%. On the other hand, n
samples had less than 10%, the lowest being a pasteurized butter
from Ames, Iowa, with only 6-72% of water. The average
amount of water in the total 43 samples was 11-24%. The fat
varies almost inversely as the water, small quantities of curd and
ash having to be allowed for. The largest quantity of fat was
01-23% in the sample containing only 6-72% of water. The
lowest proportion of fat was 80-18%, whilst the average of all
the samples shows 85-9%, which is regarded as a good market
standard. The curd varied from 0-55 to 1-7 %, with an average
of 0-98. This small amount indicates superior keeping qualities.
Theoretically there should be no curd present, but this degree of
perfection is never attained in practice. It was desired to have
the butter contain about 25% of salt, but the quantity of ash
in the 43 samples ranged from 0-83 to 4-79%, the average being
i-88. Analyses made at Washington of butters other than
American showed a general average of 13-22% of water over
28 samples representing 14 countries. The lowest were 10-25%
in a Canadian butter and 10-38 in an Australian sample. The
highest was 19-1 % in an Irish butter, which also contained the
remarkably large quantity of 8-28% of salt. Three samples of
Danish butter contained 12-65, 14-27 and 15-14% respectively
of water. French and Italian unsalted butter included, the
former 15-46 and the latter 14-41% of water, and yet appeared
to be unusually dry. In 7 samples of Irish butters the percent-
ages of water ranged from 11-48 to 19-1. Of the 28 foreign
butters 15 were found to contain preservatives. All 5 samples
from Australia, the 2 from France, the single ones from Italy,
New Zealand, Argentina, and England, and 4 out of the 7 from
Ireland, contained boric acid.

The Milk Trade

The term " milk trade " has come to signify the great traffic in
country milk for the supply of dwellers in urban districts. Prior
to i860 this traffic was comparatively small or in its infancy.
Thirty years earlier it could not have been brought into existence,
for it is an outcome of the great network of railways which was
spread over the face of the country in the latter half of the 19th
century. It affords an instructive illustration of the process of
commercial evolution which has been fostered by the vast
increase of urban population within the period indicated. It
is a tribute to the spirit of sanitary reform which — as an example
in one special direction — has brought about the disestablishment
of urban cow-sheds and the consequent demand for milk pro-
duced in the shires. London, in fact, is now being regularly
supplied with fresh milk from places anywhere within 150 m.,
and the milk traffic on the railways, not only to London but to
other great centres, is an important item. A factor in the
development of the milk trade must no doubt be sought in the
outbreak of cattle plague in 1865, for it was then that the dairy-
men of the metropolis were compelled to seek milk all over
England, and the capillary refrigerator being invented soon
after, the production of milk has remained ever since in the hands
of dairymen living mainly at a distance from the towns supplied.

This great change in country dairying, involving the continuous
export of enormous quantities of milk from the farms, has been
accompanied by subsidiary changes in the management of dairy-
farms, and has necessitated the extensive purchase of feeding-
stuffs for the production of milk, especially in winter-time. It
is probable that, in this way, a gradual improvement of the soil
on such farms has been effected, and the corn-growing soils of
distant countries are adding to the store of fertility of soils in the

British Isles. Country roads, exposed to the wear and
tear of a comparatively new traffic, are lively at morn and
eve with the rattle of vehicles conveying fresh milk from the
farms to the railway stations. Most of these changes were
brought about within the limits of the last third of the 19th
century.

In the case of London the daily supply of a perishable article
such as milk, which must be delivered to the consumer within a
few hours of its production, to a population of five millions, is an
undertaking of very great magnitude, especially when it is con-
sidered that only a comparatively minute proportion of the
supply is produced in the metropolitan»area itself. To meet the
demand of the London consumer some 5000 dairies proper exist,
as well as a large number of businesses where milk is sold in
conjunction with other commodities. It has been computed
that some 12,000 traders are engaged in the business of milk-
selling in the metropolis, and the number of persons employed in
its distribution, &c, cannot be fewer than 25,000. The amount
of capital involved is very great, and it may be mentioned that
the paid-up capital of six of the principal distributing and retail
dairy companies amounts to upwards of one million sterling.
The most significant feature in connexion with the milk-supply of
the metropolis at the beginning of the 20th century is the gradual
extinction of the town " cowkeeper " — the retailer who produces
the milk he sells. The facilities afforded by the railway com-
panies, the favourable rates which have been secured for the
transport of milk, and the more enlightened methods of its treat-
ment after production, have made it possible for milk produced
under more favourable conditions to be brought from consider-
able distances and delivered to the retailer at a price lower than
that at which it has been possible to produce it in the metropolis
itself. As a result, the number of milk cows in the county of
London diminished from 10,000 in 1889 to 5144 in 1900, the
latter, on an estimated production of 700 gallons per cow — the
average production of stall-fed town cows — representing a yearly
milk yield of 3,600,000 gallons. How small a proportion this is of
the total supply will be gathered from the fact that the annual
quantity of milk delivered in London on the Great Western line
amounts to some 11,000,000 gallons, whilst the London & North-
western railway delivers 9,000,000, and the Midland railway at
St Pancras 5,000,000, and at others of its London stations
about 1,000,000, making 6,000,000 in all. The London & South-
western railway brings upwards of 8,000,000 gallons to London,
a quantity of 7,500,000 gallons is carried by the Great Northern
railway, and the Great Eastern railway is responsible for
7,000,000. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway de-
livers 1,000,000 gallons, and the South-Eastern & Chatham and
the London & Tilbury railways carry approximately 1,000,000
gallons between them. A large quantity of milk is also carried
in by local lines from farms in the vicinity of London and
delivered at the local stations, and a quantity is also brought
by the Great Central railway. In addition to this, milk is taken
into London by carts from farms in the neighbourhood of the
metropolis. A computation of the total milk-supply of the
metropolis reveals a quantity approximating to 60,000,000
gallons per annum, or rather more than a million gallons per
week, which, taking 500 gallons as the average yearly production
of the cows contributing to this supply, represents the yield of at
least 1 20,000 cows. The growth of the supply of country milk to
London may be judged from the figures given by Mr George
Barham, chairman of the Express Dairy Co. Ltd., in an article on
" The Milk Trade " contributed to Professor Sheldon's work on
The Farm and Dairy. The quantities carried by the respective
railways in 1889 are therein stated in gallons as: — Great Western,
9,000,000; London & North-Western, 7,000,000; Midland,
7,000,000; London & South-Western, 6,000,000; Great
Northern, 3,000,000; Great Eastern, 3,000,000; the southern
lines, 2,000,000. The increase, therefore, on these lines amounted
to no less than 13,500,000 gallons per annum, or 36%. The
diminished production in the metropolis itself amounted approxi-
mately only to 3,000,000 gallons, and it follows, therefore, that
the consumption largely increased.

DAIRY

757

Previously to 1864 it was only possible to bring milk into
London from short distances, but the introduction of the re-
frigerator has enabled milk to be brought from places as far
removed from the metropolis as North Staffordshire, and it has
even been received from Scotland. Practically the whole of
the milk supplied to the metropolis is produced in England.
Attempts have been made to introduce foreign milk, and in
1898 a company was formed to promote the sale of fresh milk
from Normandy, but the enterprise did not succeed. The trade
subsequently showed signs of reviving, owing probably to the
increased cost of the home produced article, and during the
winter season of 1900-1901 the largest quantity received into
the kingdom in one week amounted to 10,000 gallons. Of recent
years a large demand has sprung up for sterilized milk in bottles,
and a considerable trade is also done in humanized milk, which
is a milk preparation approximating in its chemical composition
to human milk.

Estimating the average yield of milk of each country cow at
500 gallons per annum, and assuming an average of 28 cows to
each farm, as many as 4300 farmers are engaged in supplying
London with milk; allotting ten cows to each milker, it needs
12 battalions of 1000 men each for this work alone. Some 3500
horses are required to convey the milk from the farms to the
country railway stations. The chief sources of supply are in the
counties of Derby, Stafford, Leicester, Northampton, Notts,
Warwick, Bucks, Oxford, Gloucester, Berks, Wilts, Hants,
Dorset, Essex, and Cambridge. It is not entirely owing to the
railways that London's enormous supply of milk has been
rendered possible, for the milk must still have been produced in
the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis had not the
method of reducing the temperature of the product by means of
the refrigerator been devised. There are probably 5700 horses
engaged in the delivery of milk in London, and more people are
employed in this work than in milking the cows. One of the
great difficulties the London dairyman has to contend with, and
a cause of frequent anxiety to him, is associated with the rise
and fall of the thermometer, for a movement to the extent of ten
degrees one way or the other may diminish or increase the supply
in an inverse ratio to the demand. Thus, at periods of extreme
cold, the cows shrink in their yield of milk, while from the same
cause the Londoner is demanding more, in an extra cup of coffee,
&c. Again, at periods of extreme heat, which has the same effect
on the cow's production as extreme cold, the customer also
demands an increased quantity of milk. Ten degrees fall of
temperature in the summer will result in a lessened demand and
an enlarged supply — to such an extent, indeed, that a single
firm has been known to have had returned by its carriers some
600 gallons in one day. In such cases the cream separator is
capable of rendering invaluable assistance. To make cheese in I

London in large quantities and at uncertain intervals has been
found to be impracticable, while to set for cream a great bulk of
milk is almost equally so. But now a considerable portion of
what would otherwise be lost is saved by passing the milk
through separators, and churning the cream into butter.

Previously to the enormous development of the urban trade in
country milk, dairy farms were in the main self-sustaining in the
matter of manures and feeding-stuffs, and the cropping of arable
land was governed by routine. To-day, on the contrary, many
dairy farms are run at high pressure by the help of purchased
materials, — corn, cake, and manure, — and the land is cropped
regardless of routine and independent of courses. Such crops,
moreover, are grown — white straw crops, green crops, roo.t crops
— as are deemed likely to be most needed at the time when they
are ready. Green crops, — " soiling " crops, as they are termed
in North America, — consisting largely of vetches or tares (held
up by stalks of oat plants grown amongst them), cabbages, and
in some districts green maize, are used to supplement the failing
grass-lands at the fall of the year, and root crops, especially
mangel, are advantageously grown for the same purpose. For
winter feeding the farm is made to yield what it will in the shape
of meadow and clover hay, and of course root crops of the several
kinds. This provision is supplemented by the purchase of, for
example, brewers' grains as a bulky food, and of oilcake and corn
of many sorts as concentrated food.

British Output, Imports and Exports or Dairy
Produce

Whilst the quantity of imported butter and cheese consumed
in the United Kingdom from year to year can be arrived at
with a tolerable degree of accuracy, it is more difficult to form
an estimate of the amounts of these articles annually produced
at home. Various attempts have, however, from time to time
been made by competent authorities to arrive approximately
at the annual output of milk, butter and cheese in the United
Kingdom, and the results are given by Messrs W. Weddel & Co.
in their annual Dairy Produce Review. Table XL shows the
estimates for each of the ten years 1890 to 1899, the numbers
in the second column of " cows and heifers in milk or in calf "
being identical with those officially recorded in the agricultural
returns. In thus estimating the quantity of milk, butter and
cheese produced within the United Kingdom, the " average
milking life " of a cow is taken to be four years, from which it
follows that on the average one-fourth of the total herd has to
be renewed every year by heifers with their first calf. This
leaves 75% of the total herd giving milk throughout the year.
Each cow of this 75% is estimated as yielding 49 cwt., or
531 gallons of milk annually. It is assumed that 15% of the
total milk yield is used for the calf, 32% utilized for butter-

Table XI. — Estimated Annual Production of Milk, Butter and Cheese in the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended

31st December 1899.

Year
ended
Decem-
ber 31

Cows and Heifers

in Milk or in
Calf on 4th June.

Cows
per
1000

of
Popu-
lation.

Cows and

Heifers giving

Milk all the

year round ;

say 75 % of

Total.

Influence of
Season. Per-
centage above
or below the
Average of
previous
10 Years.

Estimated Total

Quantity of
Milk produced

in the 52 Weeks,
by 75 % of the
Total Herd, at
49 cwt. or 531

gallons per Cow.

Estimated Total

Quantity of

Butter produced

in the 52 Weeks,

taking 32 % of

the Total Milk

to yield 80 lb

of Butter per

Ton of Milk.

Estimated Total

Quantity of

Cheese produced

in the 52 Weeks,

taking 20 % of

the Total Milk

to yield 220 lb

of Cheese per

Ton of Milk.

1890
1891
1892

1893
1894

1895
1896
1897
1898
1899

10 Years'
A verage

No.
31956,220
4."7,707
4,120,451

4.014.055
3,925,486

3.937,59°
3,958,762
3,984,167
4,035,501
4,133,249

No.

105-5
108-9
108-1
104-4

I0I-2

100-5

1000

99-7

IOO-O

101-9

No.
2,967,165
3,088,281

3,090,339
3,010,542

2,944.H5
2,953,193
2,969,387
2,988,126
3,025,526
3,099,937

%•
+3-0
Average.
-5-6
-90
+6-3
-3-5
-4-0

+3-i
+3-2

-3-5

Tons.
7,487,640
7,566,288

7,H7,337
6,712,004
7.667,505
6,982,087

6,983,999
7,547,856
7,645,105
7,329,027

Tons.
85,572
86,472
81,684

76,709
87,628
79,652
79.817
86,261

87.372
83,760

Tons.
147,078
148,624
HO,394
131,843
150,611

137,148
130,000
148,260

150,171
130,020

4,018,318

103.0

• 3,013,660

-0.7

7,906,874

83,992

141,412

75 8

DAIRY

making, 20% for cheese-making, and the remaining 33%
consumed in the household as fresh milk. A ton of milk is
estimated to produce 80 lb of butter or 220 lb of cheese. A
gallon of milk weighs 10-33 ^ ( I0 i &)• The probable effects
of each season upon the production have been taken into con-
sideration in making these estimates, and it will be noticed that
owing to the terrible drought of 1893 a reduction of 9% is
made from the average. Accepting these estimates with due
reservation, 1 it is seen that the annual production of milk varied
in the decade to the extent of nearly a million tons, the exact
difference between the maximum of 7,667,505 tons in 1894
and the minimum of 6,712,004 tons in 1893 being 955,501 tons.
The decennial averages are 7,906,874 tons of milk, 83,992 tons
of butter, and 141,412 tons of cheese.

Table XII. furnishes an estimate of the total consumption of
butter in the United Kingdom in each of the years 1891 to 1900.
Whilst the estimated home production did not vary greatly from
year to year, the imports from colonial and foreign sources under-
went almost continuous increase. The ten years' average indicates
37-6% home-made, 7-3% imported colonial, and 55-1% imported
foreign butter. But whereas at the beginning of the decade the
proportions were 45-4% home-made, 1-5% colonial, and 53-2%
foreign, at the end of the percentages were 32-8, 14-7 and 52-5
respectively. It thus appears that whilst the United Kingdom was
able in 1891 to furnish nearly half of its requirements (45-4%), by
1900 it was unable to supply more than one-third (32-8%).

The rapid headway which colonial butter has made in British
markets is shown by the fact that for the five years ended 30th of

Table XII. — Estimated Home Production and Imports of Butter
into the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June
1900.

Year ended
30th June.

Home

Production,

estimated.

Imported
Colonial.

Imported
Foreign.

Total.

1891
1892

1893
1894

1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900

Tons.
84,961
86,022
84,078
79,196
82,168
83,640
79,734
83,039
87,326
83,760

Tons.
2,883

6,323

9,408

15,550

17,807

12,949
18,111

17,732
22,443
37,534

Tons.

99,598
101,796
105,712

107,534
116,730

133,249
138,800
141,426
142,193
133,957

Tons.
187,442
194,141
199,198
202,280
216,705
229,838
236,645

242,197
251,962

255,251

10 Y

Averc

•tars'
ige

83,392

16,074

122,099

221,565

June 1900 the import had grown from 12,949 tons to 37,534 tons
per annum, or an increase of 24,585 tons. It is during the mid-winter
months that the colonial butter from Australasia arrives on the
British markets, while that from Canada begins to arrive in July,
and virtually ceases in the following January. The bulk of the
Canadian butter reaches British markets during August, September
and October; the bulk of the Australasian in December, January
and February.

It appears to be demonstrated by the experience of the last decade
of the 19th century that the United Kingdom is quite unable to turn
out sufficient dairy produce to supply its own population. In the
year ended 30th of June 1891 the total import of butter was 102,500
tons, and for the year ended 30th of June 1900 it was 170,700 tons,
which shows an annual average increase in the decade of 6800 tons.
This growth was on the whole very uniform, any disturbance in its
regularity being attributable more to the deficient seasons in the
colonies and foreign countries than to the bountiful seasons at home.
Twice in the decade the import of butter from colonial sources fell
off slightly from the previous year, namely, in 1896 and 1898, while
only once was there any decrease in the foreign supply, and this
occurred in 1906. In 1896 the colonial supply fell off by 5000 tons,
principally owing to drought in Australia, but from foreign countries
this deficiency was more than made good, as the increased import
from these sources exceeded 16,500 tons. In 1900 the position was
reversed, for while the foreign import fell away to the extent of over
8000 tons, the supply from the colonies exceeded that of 1899 by
15,000 tons, thus leaving a gain in the quantity of imported butter
of nearly 7000 tons on the year. Table XII. shows that over the
ten years, 1891-1900, the import of colonial butter was augmented
by 34,600 tons, and that of foreign by 33,600 tons, so that the in-

1 A special committee appointed by the council of the Royal
Statistical Society commenced in 1901 an inquiry into the home pro-
duction of milk and meat in the United Kingdom.

creased import is fairly divided between colonial and foreign sources.
If, however, the last five years of the period be taken, it will be seen
that the increases in the arrivals of colonial butter have far exceeded
those from foreign countries. Between 1891 and 1900 the Austral-
asian colonies increased their quota by 13,400 tons, and Canada by
11,100 tons. Of foreign countries, Denmark showed the greatest
development in the supply of imported butter, which increased in
the ten years by 28,678 tons. Next came Russia and Holland, with
increases respectively of 7207 tons and 6589 tons. Sweden, which
made steady progress from 1891 to 1896, subsequently declined,
and in 1900 sent 1400 tons less than in 1891. France and Germany
are rapidly falling away, and the latter country will soon cease its
supply altogether. Up to 1896 it was 6000 tons annually; by 1900
it had fallen to 1850 tons. France, which in 1892 sent to the United
Kingdom 29,000 tons, regularly declined, and in 1900 sent only
16,800. Among the countries sending the smaller quantities, Argen-
tina, Belgium and Norway are all gradually increasing their supplies ;
but their totals are comparatively insignificant, as they together
contributed in 1900 only 6400 tons out of a total foreign supply of
134,000 tons. The United States was erratic in its supplies during
the decade, and up to 1900 had not made butter specially for export
to the United Kingdom, as all the other foreign countries had done.
Consequently it is only when supplies from elsewhere fail that
American butter is sought for by British buyers. The large amount
of salt in this butter, although suitable for the American palate,
prevents its becoming popular in the United Kingdom.

The sources whence the United Kingdom receives butter from
abroad are sufficiently indicated in Table XIII., which shows the
absolute quantities and the relative proportions sent by the chief
contributory countries in each of the four years 1897 to 1900, the

Table XIII. — Annual Imports of Butter into the United Kingdom,
1897-1900.

From

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Denmark .
Australasia
France
Holland .
Russia*
Sweden
Canada
United States
Germany .
Other countries .

Total

Denmark .
Australasia
France
Holland .
Russia*
Sweden
Canada
United States
Germany .
Other countries

Total

Cwt.
1,334,726
269,432
448,128
278,631

299,214
109,402
154,196
5i,76i
272,312

Cwt.
1,465,030
228,563
416,821
269,631

294,962

156,865

66,712

41,231
269,645

Cwt.
1,430,052
366,944
353,942
284,810

245,599
250,083

159,137

36,953

262,331

Cwt.
1,486,342
509,910
322,048
282,805
209,738
196,041

138,313
56,046
36,042

141,231

3,217,802

3,209,153

3,389,851

3,378,516

%

41-5

8-4

13-9

8-7

9-3

3-4
4-8
1-6
8-4

%
45-6

7-1
13-0

8-4

9-2

4.9

2-1

1-3

8-4

%
42-2
io-8
10-5

8-4

7-2
7-4
47
i-i

7-7

%
44-0

i5-i
9-5
8-4

6-2

5-8
4-1
1-6
i-i
4-2

IOO-O

IOO-O

IOO-O

IOO-O

* Not shown separately in the Trade and Navigation Returns
prior to 1900.

order of precedence of the several countries being in accord with
the figures for 1900. Denmark, as a result of the efforts made by
that little kingdom to supply a sound product of uniform quality,
possesses over 40% of the trade, and in the year 1900 received from
the United Kingdom upwards of £8,000,000 for butter and over
£3,000,000 for bacon, the raising of pigs for the consumption of
separated milk being an important adjunct of the dairying industry
in Denmark, where butter factories are extensively maintained on
the co-operative principle. It is worthy of note that some at least
of the butter received in the United Kingdom from Russia is made
in Siberia, whence it is sent at the outset on a long land journey in
refrigerated railway cars for shipment at a Baltic port, usually Riga.
The countries not specially enumerated in Table XIII. from which
butter is sent to the United Kingdom are Argentina, Belgium,
Norway and Spain — these are included in " other countries."

In Table XIV., relating to the estimated home production of
cheese and the imports of that article, the ten years' average indicates
a home-made supply of 555-3 %, imports of colonial cheese 24-2 %,
and imports of foreign cheese 20-5 %. Comparing, however, the first
with the last year of the period 1891-1900, it appears that in 1891
the proportions were 58-6% home-made, 17-2% colonial and
24-2 % foreign, whereas in 1900 the percentages were 50-3, 28-9
and 20-8 respectively. Hence the colonial contribution (chiefly

DAIRY

759

Canadian) has gained ground at the expense both of the home-made
and of the foreign. Again, comparing 1891 with 1900, the import
of cheese into the United Kingdom increased to the extent of only
24,500 tons, so that it shows no expansion comparable with that
of butter, which increased by about 70,000 tons. Simultaneously
the estimated home production diminished by 17,000 tons.

Table XIV. — Estimated Home Production and Imports of Cheese
into the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June
1900.

Year ended

Home

Imported

Imported,

Total.

30th June

estimated.

Colonial

Foreign.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

1891 .

147,078

43,22»'

60,816

251,122

1892

148,624

45,78i

59,452

253,857

1893

140,394

55,549

56,767

252,710

1894

131,843

57,322

52,498

241,663

1895

150,611

61,622

52,570

264,803

1896

137,148

62,478

44,569

244,195

1897

130,000

67,028

46,317

243,345

1898

148,260

77,620

49,H4

274,994

1899

150,000

73,752

46,985

270,737

1900

130,000

74,702

53,903

258,605

10 J

Ave

'ears'
rage

Hi,396

61,908

52,299

255,603

In imported colonial cheese Canada virtually has the field to itself,
for the only other colonial cheese which finds its way into the United
Kingdom is from New Zealand, but the amount of this kind is com-
paratively insignificant, having been in 1900 only 4000 tons out of
a total import of 128,600 tons. Australia, in several seasons since
1891, sent small quantities, but they are not worth quoting.

From foreign countries the decline in the export of cheese is mainly
in the case of the United States, which shipped to British ports
10,000 tons less in 1900 than in 1891. France also is losing its cheese
trade in British markets, and is being supplanted by Belgium. In
1891 France supplied over 3000 tons, in 1900 the import was below
2000 tons. Belgium in 1 891 supplied less than 1000 tons, but in
1900 contributed 2600 tons. The import trade in Dutch cheese
remains almost stationary. In 1891 it amounted to 15,300 tons, in
1899 it was 15,600 tons, whilst in 1900, owing to exceptionally high
prices, which stimulated the manufacture, it reached 17,000 tons.

Over 80% of the cheese imported into the United Kingdom is
derived from North America, but the bulk of the trade belongs to
Canada, which supplies nearly 60 % of the entire import. The value
of the cheese exported from Canada to the United Kingdom in the
calendar year 1900 was close upon £3,800,000. As is shown in
Table XV. below, Holland, Australasia and France participate in
this trade, whilst amongst the " other countries " are Germany,
Italy and Russia. The cheese sent from North America and Aus-

Table XV. — Annual Imports of Cheese into the United Kingdom,
1897-1900.

From

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Canada

1,526,664

1,432,181

1,337,198

1,511,872

•United States

631,616

485,995

590,737

680,583

Holland .

297,604

292,925

328,541

327,817

Australasia

68,615

44,608

32,294

86,513

France

36,358

33,o86

34,307

35,"o

Other countries .
Total .

Canada

42,321

50,657

60,992

69,910

2,603,178

2,339,452

2,384,069

2,711,805

%
58-6

%

6l-2

%

56-i

%
55-8

United States

24-3

20-8

24-8

25-1

Holland .

114

12-5

13-8

120

Australasia

2-7

1-9

i-3

3-2

France

1-4

1-4

1-4

i-3

Other countries •
Total .

16

2-2

2-6

2-6

IOO-O

100-0

100-0

IOO-O

tralasia is mostly of the substantial Cheddar type, whereas soft or
" fancy " cheese is the dominant feature of the French shipments.
Thus, in the calendar year 1900 the average price of the cheese
imported into the United Kingdom from France was 61s. per cwt.,
whilst the average value of the cheese from all other sources was
50s. per cwt., there being a difference of us. in favour of the " soft "
cheese of France.

The imports of butter and margarine into the United Kingdom
were not separately distinguished before the year 1886. Previous to

that date they amounted, at five-year intervals, to the following
aggregate quantities: —

1870. 1875. 1880. 1885.

Cwt. . . 1,159,210 1,467,870 2,326,305 2,401,373
For the same years the imports of cheese registered the subjoined
totals : —

1870. 1875. 1880. 1885.

Cwt. . . 1,041,281 1,627,748 1,775,997 1,833,832

The imports of butter and margarine, both separately and to-
gether, and also the imports of cheese in each year from 1886 to 1900
inclusive, are set out in Table XVI., the most significant feature of
which is the rapid expansion it shows in the imports of butter. In.
the space of nine years, between 1887 and 1896, the quantity was
doubled. On the other hand, the general tendency of the imports
of margarine, which have been much more uniform than those of
butter, has been in the direction of decline since 1892. It is neces-
sary, however, to point out that there has been an increase in the
number of margarine factories in the United Kingdom, and in the
quantity of margarine manufactured in them, during the last few
years. Taking the imports of butter and margarine together, the
aggregate in 1889 and also in 1900 was practically three times as
large as a quarter of a century earlier, in 1875. The imports of
cheese have increased at a less rapid rate than those of butter, and
the quantity imported in 1900, which was a maximum, fell con-
siderably short of twice the quantity in 1875. In 1886, 1887, 1888,
1890 and 1892 the imports of cheese exceeded those of butter, butsince

Table XVI

—Imports of

Butter, Margarine and Cheese into the

United

Kingdom, 1886-1900.

Total Butter

Year.

Butter.

Margarine.

and
Margarine.

Cheese.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Cwt.

Cwt.

1886 .

1,543,566

887,974

2,431,540

1,734,890

1887

1,513,134

1,276,140

2,789,274

1,836,789

1888

1,671,433

1,139,743

2,811,176

1,917,616

1889

1,927,842

1,241,690

3,169,532

1,907,999

1890

2,027,717

1,079,856

3,107,573

2,144,074

1891

2,135,607

1,235,430

3,371,037

2,041,325

1892

2,183,009

1,305,350

3,488,359

2,232,817

1893

2,327,474

1,299,970

3,627,444

2,077,462

1894

2,574,835

1,109,325

3,684,160

2,266,145

1895

2,825,662

940,168

3,765,830

2,133,819

1896

3,037,718

925,934

3,963,652

2,244,525

1897

3,217,802

936,543

4,154,345

2,603,178

1898

3,209,153

900,615

4,109,768

2,339,452

1899

3,389,851

953,175

4,343,026

2,384,069

1900

3,378,516

920,416

4,298,932

2,711,805

the last-named year those of butter have always been the larger, and
1899 were fully a million cwt. more than the cheese imports. The
cheapness of imported fresh meat has probably had the effect of
checking the growth of the demand for cheese amongst the industrial
classes.

The imports of condensed milk into the United Kingdom were
not separately distinguished before 1888. In that year they
amounted to 352,332 cwt. The quantities imported in subsequent
years were the following : —

Year.

Cwt.

Year.

Cwt.

Year.

Cwt.

1889 .
1890

1891 .

1892 .

339,892
407,426
444,666
48i,374

1893 •

1894 .

1895 •

1896 .

501,005
529,465
545,394
6n,335

1897 •

1898 .

1899 .
1900

756,243
817,274

824,599
986,741

The quantity thus increased continuously in each year after 1889,
with the result that in 1900 the imports had grown to nearly three
times the amount of those in 1 889. Simultaneously, over the period
1889-1900 the annual value of the imports steadily advanced from
£704,849 to £1,405,033. Thus, while the imports of condensed milk
trebled in quantity, they doubled in value. A fair proportion is,
however, exported, as is shown in the following statement of exports
of imported condensed milk for the four years 1897 to 1900:—

1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.

Quantity, . cwt. 143,932 133,596 118,394 164,602
Value . . £274,578 £256,525 £228,446 £309,460

There is also an export trade in condensed milk made in the
United Kingdom. Thus, in 1892 the exports of home-made con-
densed milk amounted to 61,442 cwt., valued at £133,556. By 1896
the quantity had almost doubled, and reached 111,959 cwt., of the
value of £224,831. In subsequent years the exports were:—

1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Quantity,

. cwt.

154,901

178,055

185,749

209,447

Value

£302,748

£343,070

£353,819

£390,559

760

DAIRY

Milk and cream (fresh or preserved other than condensed) received
no separate classification in the imports until 1894, in which year
the quantity imported was 161,633 gallons, followed by 126,995
gallons in 1895, and 22,776 gallons in 1896. The quantities have
since been returned by weight — 10,006 cwt. in 1897, 10,691 cwt. in
1898, 7859 cwt. in 1899, and 15,638 cwt. in 1900. The values of
these imports in the successive years 1894 to 1900 were £21,371,
£i9.99L £5489, £9848. £11,293, £16,068 and £26,837. (l . ,

The total values of the imports of dairy produce of all kinds —
butter, margarine, cheese, &c. — into the United Kingdom were, at
five-year intervals betv/een 1875 and 1890, the following: —

1875. 1880. 1885. 1890.

Value . £13,211,592 £17,232,548 £15,632,852 £19,505,798

The values in each year of the closing decade of the 19th century
are set forth in Table XVII., where the totals in the last column
include small sums for margarine-cheese and, since 1893, for fresh
milk and cream. The aggregate value more than doubled during
the iast quarter of the century. The earliest year for which the value

Table XVII. — Values of Dairy Products imported into the United
Kingdom from i8qi to 1900, in Thousands of Pounds Sterling.

Year.

Butter.

Margarine.

Cheese.

Condensed
Milk.

Total.

£1000.

£1000.

£1000.

£1000.

£1000.

1891 .

11,591

3558

4813

900

20,863

1892 .

11,965

3713

5417

930

22,025

1893 •

12,754

3655

5161

IOIO

22,580

1894 .

13,457

3045

5475

1079

23.077

1895 •

14,245

2557

4675

1084

22,581

1896 .

15,344

2498

4900

1 170

23,920

1897 .

15,917

2485

5886

1398

25.715

1898 .

15,962

2384

4970

1436

24.779

1899 .

17,214

2549

5503

H55

26,747

1900

i7,45o

2465

6838

1743

28,544

of imported butter is separately available is 1886, when it amounted
to £8,141,438. Thirteen years later this sum had more than doubled,
and it is an impressive fact that in the closing year of the century
the United Kingdom should have expended on imported butter alone
a sum closely approximating to 17 J million pounds sterling, equiva-
lent to about three-fourths of the total amount disbursed on imported
wheat grain. 1

The imports of margarine — that is, of margarine specifically
declared to be such — into the United Kingdom are derived almost
entirely from Holland. Out of a total of 920,416 cwt. imported in
1900 Holland supplied 862,154 cwt., and out of £2,464,839 expended
on imported margarine in the same year Holland received £2,295,174.
To the imports in the year named Holland contributed 93-7%;
France, 2-9; Norway, 0-9; all other countries, 2-5; so that Holland
•possesses almost a monopoly of this trade. The quantities of im-
ported butter, margarine and cheese that are again exported from
the United Kingdom are trivial when compared with the imports,
as will be seen from the following quantities and values in the three
years 1898 to 1900 : —

1898.

1899.

1900.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Butter

Margarine

Cheese

Cwt.

63.491
10,023
56,694

Cwt.
5o,453
13.139
56,390

Cwt.

51,583
11,326
55.982

£

319,806

24,721

159,210

£

257,999

33,319

163,991

£

258,931

27,882

168,369

There is also a very small export trade in butter and cheese made
in the United Kingdom, but its insignificant character is evident
from the subjoined details as to quantities and values for the years
named : —

1898.

1899.

1900.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Butter
Cheese

Cwt.

u,359
jo, 126

Cwt.

9,936

9,758

Cwt.

10,127

9,356

£
59,731
36,803

£
53,195
35,890

£
53,701
36,691

American Dairying
The development of the dairying industry in the vast region
of the United States of America has been described in the
official Year-Book by Major Henry E. Alvord, chief of the dairy
division of the bureau of animal industry in the department
of agriculture at Washington . The beginning of the 20th century
found the industry upon an altogether higher level than seemed
possible a few decades earlier. The milch cow herself, upon which

1 In 1901 the United Kingdom imported 3,702,810 cwt. of butter,
valued at £19,297,005, both totals being the largest on record.

the whole business rests, has become almost as much a machine
as a natural product, and a very different creature from the
average animal of bygone days. The few homely and incon-
venient implements for use in the laborious duties of the dairy
have been replaced by perfected appliances, skilfully devised
to accomplish their object and to lighten labour. Long rows
of shining metal pans no longer adorn rural dooryards. The'
factory system of co-operative or concentrated manufacture
has so far taken the place of home dairying that in entire states
the cheese vat or press is as rare as the handloom, and in many
counties it is as difficult to find a farm churn as a spinning-wheel.
An illustration of the nature of the changes is afforded in the
butter-making district of northern Vermont, at St Albans, the
business centre of Franklin county. In 1880 the first creamery
was built in this county; ten years later there were 15. Now
a creamery company at St Albans has upwards of 50 skimming
or separating stations distributed through Franklin and adjoining
counties. To these is carried the milk from more than 30,000
cows. Farmers who possess separators at home may deliver
cream which, after being inspected and tested, is accepted and
credited at its actual butter value, just as other raw material is
sold to mills and factories. The separated cream is conveyed
by rail and waggon to the central factory, where in one room
from 10 to 12 tons of butter are made every working day — a
single churning place for a whole county! The butter is all of
standard quality, " extra creamery," and is sold on its reputation
upon orders received in advance of its manufacture. The price
is relatively higher than the average for the product of the same
farms fifty years earlier. This is mainly due to better average
quality and greater uniformity — two important advantages
of the creamery system.

In one important detail dairy labour is the same as a century
ago. Cows still have to be milked by hand. Although many
attempts have been made, and patent after patent has been
issued, no mechanical contrivance has yet proved a practical
success as a substitute for the human hand in milking. Con-
sequently, twice (or thrice) daily every day in the year, the dairy
cows must be milked by manual labour. This is one of the main
items of labour in dairying, and is a delicate and important duty.
Assuming 10 cows per hour to a milker, which implies quick
work, it requires the continuous service of an army of 300,000
men, working 10 or 12 hours a day throughout the year, to
milk the cows kept in the United States.

The business of producing milk for urban consumption, with
the accompanying agencies for transportation and distribution,
has grown to immense proportions. In many places the milk
trade is regulated and supervised by excellent municipal ordin-
ances, which have done much to prevent adulteration and to
improve the average quality of the supply. Quite as much is,
however, being done by private enterprise through large milk
companies, well organized and equipped, and establishments
which make a speciality of serving milk and cream of fixed
quality and exceptional purity. Such efforts to furnish " certi-
fied " and " guaranteed " milk, together with general competi-
tion for the best class of trade, are doing more to raise the
standard of quality and improve the service than all the legal
measures. The buildings and equipment of some of these modern
dairies are beyond precedent. This branch of dairying is
advancing fast, upon the safe basis of care, cleanliness and
better sanitary conditions.

Cheese-making has been transferred bodily from the domain of
domestic arts to that of manufactures. In the middle of the 19th
century about 100,000,000 lb of cheese was made yearly in the
United States, and all of it in farm dairies. At the beginning of
the 20th century the annual production was about 300,000,000 lb,
and 96 or 97 % of this was made in factories. Of these there
are nearly 3000, but they vary greatly in capacity, and some are
very small. New York and Wisconsin possess a thousand each,
but the former state makes nearly twice as much cheese as the
latter, whilst the two together produce three-fourths of the entire
output of the country. A change is taking place in the direction
of bringing a number of factories previously independent into a

DAIS— DAISY

y6i

Table XVIII.-

" combination " or under the same management. This tends to
improve the quality and secure greater uniformity in the product,
and often reduces cost of manufacture. More than nine-tenths of
all the cheese made is of the familiar standard type, copied after
the English Cheddar, but new kinds and imitations of foreign
varieties are increasing. The annual export of
cheese from the United States ranges between
30,000,000 and 50,000,000 lb. The consumption
per capita does not exceed 35 lb per annum, which
is much less than in most European countries.

Butter differs from cheese in that it is still
made much more largely on farms in the United
States than in creameries. Creamery butter con-
trols all the large markets, but this represents
little more than one-third of the entire business.
Estimating the annual butter product of

ous large towns and cities. In the centrai, west and north-west
butter is the leading dairy product.

Table XVIII. shows approximately the quantity and value of the
dairy products of the United States for a typical year, the grand total
representing a value of $45 1 ,600,000. Adding to this the skim-milk,
butter-milk and whey, at their proper feeding value, and the calves

-Estimated Number of Cows and Quantity and Value of Dairy
Products in the United States in i8gg.

Cows.

1 1 ,000,000
1 ,000,000
5,500,000

Product.

Butter
Cheese

Milk

Rate of
Product
per Cow.

130 lb
300 lb
380 gals.

Total Product.

1,430,000,000 ft
300,000,000 fh
2,090,000,000 gals.

Rate of
Value.

Cents.

18

9

Total Value.

Dollars.

257,400,000

27,000,000

167,200,000

the

entire
country at 1,400,000,000 lb not much over 500,000,000 lb of
this is made at the 7500 or 8000 creameries in operation.
Iowa is the greatest butter-producing state, and the one
in which the greater proportion is made on the factory
plan. The total output of butter in this state is one-tenth
of all made in the Union. The average quality of butter
has materially improved since the introduction of the creamery
system and the use of modern appliances. Nevertheless, a
vast quantity of poor butter is made — enough to afford a
large and profitable business in collecting it at country stores at
grease prices or a little more, and then rendering or renovating it
by patent processes. This renovated butter has been fraudu-
lently sold to a considerable extent as the true creamery article,
of which it is a fair imitation while fresh, and several states have
made laws for the identification of the product and to prevent
buyers from being imposed upon. No butter is imported, and the
quantity exported is insignificant, although there is beginning to
be a foreign demand for American butter. The home consump-
tion is estimated at the yearly rate of 20 lb per person, which, if
correct, would indicate Americans to be the greatest butter-eating
people in the world. The people of the United States also con-
sume millions of pounds every year of butter substitutes and
imitations, such as oleomargarine and butterine. Most of this is
believed to be butter by those who use it, and the state dairy
commissioners are busily employed in carrying out the laws
intended to protect purchasers from these butter frauds.

The by-products of dairying have, within recent years, been put
to economical uses, in an increasing degree. For every pound of
butter made there are 15 to 20 lb of skim-milk and abo.ut 3 lb of
butter-milk, and for every pound of cheese nearly 9 lb of whey.
Up to 1889 or 1890 enormous quantities of skim-milk and butter-
milk from the creameries and of whey from the cheese factories
were entirely wasted. At farm dairies these by-products are
generally used to advantage in feeding animals, but at the
factories — especially at the seasons of greatest milk supply — this
most desirable method of utilization is to a great extent im-
practicable. In many places new branches have been instituted
for the making of sugar-of-milk and other commercial products
from whey, and for the utilization of skim-milk in various ways.
The albumin of the latter is extracted for use with food products
and in the arts. The casein is desiccated and prepared as a
substitute for eggs in baking, as the basis of an enamel paint, and
as a substitute for glue in paper-sizing. It has also been proposed
to solidify it to make buttons, combs, brush-backs, electrical
insulators and similar articles.

No census of cows in the United States was taken until the year
1840, but they have been enumerated in each subsequent decennial
census. From 23 to 27 cows to every 100 of the population were
required to keep the country supplied with milk, butter and cheese,
and provide for the export of dairy products. The export trade,
though it has fluctuated considerably, has never exceeded the
produce of 500,000 cows. At the close of the 19th century it was
estimated that there was one milch cow in the United States for
every four persons, making the number of cows about 17,500,000.
They are, however, very unevenly distributed, being largely concen-
trated in the great dairy states, Iowa leading with 1,500,000 cows,
and being followed closely by New York. In the middle and eastern
states the milk product goes very largely to the supply of the numer-

dropped yearly, the annual aggregate value of the produce of the
dairy cows exceeds $500,000,000, or is more than one hundred
million pounds sterling. Accepting these estimates as conservative,
they show that the commercial importance of the dairy industry
of the United States is such as to justify all reasonable provisions
for guarding its interests. (\v. Fr.)

DAIS (Fr. dais, estrade, Ital. predella), originally a part of the
floor at the end of a medieval hall, raised a step above the rest of
the building. On this the lord of the mansion dined with his
friends at the high table, apart from the retainers and servants.
In medieval halls there was generally a deep recessed bay window
at one or at each end of the dais, supposed to be for retirement,
or greater privacy than the open hall could afford. In France the'
word is understood as a canopy or hanging over a seat; probably
the name was given from the fact that the seats of great men were
then surmounted by such a feature. In ordinary use, the term
means any raised platform in a room, for dignified occupancy.

DAISY (A.S. daeges eage, day's eye), the name applied to the
plants constituting the genus Bellis, of the natural order Com-
positae. The genus contains ten species found in Europe and the
Mediterranean region. The common daisy, B. perennis, is the
only representative of the genus in the British Isles. It is a
perennial, abundant everywhere in pastures and on banks in
Europe, except in the most northerly regions, and in Asia Minor,
and occurs as an introduced plant in North America. The stem
of the daisy is short; the leaves, which are numerous and form
a rosette, are slightly hairy, obovate-spathulate in shape, with
rounded teeth on the margin in the upper part; and the root-
stock is creeping, and of a brownish colour. The flowers are to be
found from March to November, and occasionally in the winter
months. The heads of flowers are solitary, the outer or ray-
florets pink or white, the disk-florets bright yellow. The size and
luxuriance of the plant are much affected by the nature of the
soil in which it grows. The cultivated varieties, which are
numerous, bear finely-coloured flowers, and make very effective
borders for walks. What is known as the " hen-and-chicken "
daisy has the main head surrounded by a brood of sometimes as
many as ten or twelve small heads, formed in the axils of the
scales of the involucre. The ray-florets curve inwards and
" close " the flower-head in dull weather and towards evening.

Chaucer writes —

" The daisie, or els the eye of the daie,
The emprise, and the floure of flouris alle " ;
and again —

" To seen this floure agenst the sunne sprede
Whan it riseth early by the morrow,
That blissful sight softeneth all my sorrow ";

and the flower is often alluded to with admiration by the other
poets of nature. To the farmer, however, the daisy is a weed,
and a most wasteful one, as it exhausts the soil and is not eaten
by any kind of stock.

In French the daisy is termed la marguerite (fiapyaplrris, a
pearl), and " herb margaret " is stated to be an old English
appellation for it. In Scotland it is popularly called the gowan,
and in Yorkshire it is the bairn wort, or flower beloved by children.
The Christmas and Michaelmas daisies are species of Aster;
the ox-eye daisy is Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, a common
weed in meadows and waste places. B. perennis flore-pleno, the

762

DAKAR— DALBERG FAMILY

double daisy, consists of dwarf, showy, 3 to 4 in. plants, flowering
freely in spring if grown in rich light soil, and frequently divided
and transplanted. The white and pink forms, with the white and
red quilled, and the variegated-leaved aucubaefolia, are some of
the best.

DAKAR, a seaport of Senegal, and capital of French West
Africa, in 14 40' N., 17 24' W. The town, which is strongly
fortified, holds a commanding strategic position on the route
between western Europe and Brazil and South Africa, being
situated in the Gulf of Goree on the eastern side of the peninsula
of Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Africa. It is the only
port of Senegal affording safe anchorage for the largest ships.
Pop. (1904), within the municipal limits, 18,447; including
suburbs, 23,452.

The town consists for the most part of broad and regular
streets and possesses several fine public buildings, notably the
palace of the governor-general. It is plentifully supplied with
good water and is fairly healthy. It is the starting point of the
railway to St Louis, and is within five days steam of Lisbon.
The harbour, built in 1004-1008, is formed by two jetties, one
of 6840 ft., the other of 1968 ft., the entrance being 720 ft.
wide. There are three commercial docks, with over 7000 ft.
of quayage, ships drawing 26 ft. being able to moor alongside.
Cargo is transferred directly to the railway trucks. There is
also a naval dock and arsenal with a torpedo-boat basin 755 ft.
by 410 ft. and a dry dock 656 ft. long and 92 ft. broad. The
Messageries Maritimes Company use the port as a coaling
station and provisioning depot for their South American trade.
Dakar is a regular port of call for other French lines and for
the Elder Dempster boats sailing between Liverpool and the
West Coast of Africa. It shares with Rufisque and St Louis
the external trade of Senegal and the adjacent regions. For
trade statistics see Senegal.

Dakar was originally a dependency of Goree and was founded
in 1862, a year after the declaration of a French protectorate over
the mainland. The port was opened for commerce in 1867,
and in 1885 its importance was greatly increased by the com-
pletion of the railway (163 m. long) to St Louis. Dakar thus
came into direct communication with the countries of Upper
Senegal and the middle Niger. In 1887 the town was made
a commune on the French model, all citizens irrespective of
colour being granted the franchise. In 1903 the offices of the
governor-general and of the court of appeal of French West
Africa were transferred from St Louis to Dakar, which is also
the seat of a bishop. In February 1905 a submarine cable
was laid between Brest and Dakar, affording direct telegraphic
communication between France and her West African colonies
by an all French route.

DALAGUETE, a town of the province of Cebu, island of
Cebu, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Tapon river on
the E. coast, 50 m. S.S.W. of Cebu, the capital. The town has
a healthy climate, cool during November, December, January
and February, and hot during the rest of the year. The in-
habitants grow hemp, Indian corn, coffee, sibucao, cacao, cocoa-
nuts (for copra) and sugar, weave rough fabrics and manufacture
tuba (a kind of wine used as a stimulant), clay pots and jars,
salt and soap. There is some fishing here. The language is
Cebii-Visayan.

DALBEATTIE, a police burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 3469. It lies on Dalbeattie Burn, 14J m. S.W.
of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The
town dates from 1780 and owes its rise to the granite quarries
at Craignair and elsewhere in the vicinity, from which were
derived the supplies used in the construction of the Thames
Embankment, the docks at Odessa and Liverpool and other
works. Besides quarrying, the industries include granite-
polishing, concrete (crushed granite) works, dye-works, paper-
mills and artificial manures. The estuary of the Urr, known
as Rough Firth, is navigable by ships of from 80 to 100 tons,
and small vessels can ascend as far as the mouth of Dalbeattie
Burn, within a mile of the town. A mile to the north-west stand
the ruins of the castle of Buittle or Botel, where lived John de

Baliol, founder of Baliol college, who had married Dervorguila,
daughter of Alan (d. 1234), the last " king " of Galloway.

DALBERG, the name of an ancient and distinguished German
noble family, derived from the hamlet and castle (now in ruins)
of Dalberg or Dalburg near Kreuznach in the Rhine Province.
In the 14th century the original house of Dalberg became
extinct in the male line, the fiefs passing to Johann Gerhard,
chamberlain of the see of Worms, who married the heiress of
his cousin, Anton of Dalberg, about 1330. His own family
was of great antiquity, his ancestors having been hereditary
ministerials of the bishop of Worms since the time of Ekbert
the chamberlain, who founded in 1119 the Augustinian monastery
of Frankenthal and died in 1132. By the close of the 15th
century the Dalberg family had grown to be of such importance
that, in 1494, the German King Maximilian I. granted them the
honour of being the first to receive knighthood at the coronation;
this part of the ceremonies being opened by the herald asking
in a loud voice " Is no Dalberg present? " (1st kein Dalberg da?).
This picturesque privilege the family enjoyed till the end of the
Holy Roman Empire. The elder line of the family of Dalberg-
Dalberg became extinct in 1848, the younger, that of Dalberg-
Herrnsheim, in 1833. The male line of the Dalbergs is now
represented only by the family of Hessloch, descended from
Gerhard of Dalberg (c. 1239), which in 1809 succeeded to the
title and estates in Moravia and Bohemia of the extinct counts of
Ostein.

The following are the most noteworthy members of the family:

1. Johann von Dalberg (1445-1503), chamberlain and
afterwards bishop of Worms, son of Wolfgang von Dalberg.
He studied at Erfurt and in Italy, where he took his degree
of doctor utriusque juris at Ferrara and devoted himself more
especially to the study of Greek. Returning to Germany, he
became privy councillor to the elector palatine Philip, whom
he assisted in bringing the university of Heidelberg to the height
of its fame. He was instrumental in founding the first chair
of Greek, which was filled by his friend Rudolph Agricola, and
he also established the university library and a college for
students of civil law. He was an ardent humanist, was president
of the Sodalitas Celtica founded by the poet Konrad Celtes (?•».),
and corresponded with many of the leading scholars of his day,
to whom he showed himself a veritable Maecenas. He was
employed also on various diplomatic missions by the emperor
and the elector.

See K. Morneweg, Johann von Dalberg, ein deutscher Humanist und
Bischof (Heidelberg, 1887).

2. Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg (1744-1817),
archbishop-elector of Mainz, arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman
Empire, and afterwards primate of the Confederation of the
Rhine and grand-duke of Frankfort. He was the son of Franz
Heinrich, administrator of Worms, one of the chief counsellors of
the elector of Mainz. Karl had devoted himself to the study of
canon law, and entered the church; and, having been appointed
in 1772 governor of Erfurt, he won further advancement by his
successful administration; in 1787.be was elected coadjutor of
Mainz and of Worms, and in 1788 of Constance; in 1802 he
became archbishop-elector of Mainz and arch-chancellor of the
Empire. As statesman Dalberg was distinguished by his
" patriotic " attitude, whether in ecclesiastical matters, in which
he leaned to the Febronian view of a German national church, or
in his efforts to galvanize the atrophied machinery of the Empire
into some sort of effective central government of Germany.
Failing in this, he turned to the rising star of Napoleon, believing
that he had found in " the truly great man, the mighty genius
which governs the fate of the world," the only force strong
enough to save Germany from dissolution. By the peace of
Luneville, accordingly, though he had to surrender Worms and
Constance, he received Regensburg, Aschaffenburg and Wetzlar.
On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 he formally resigned the
office of arch-chancellor in a letter to the emperor Francis, and
was appointed by Napoleon prince primate of the Confederation
of the Rhine. In 1810, after the peace of Vienna (Schonbrunn),
the grand-duchy of Frankfort was created for his benefit out of his

DALE, R. W.— DALE, SIR T.

7 6 3

territories, which, in spite of the cession of Regensburg to
Bavaria, were greatly augmented. Dalberg's subservience, as a
prince of the Confederation, to Napoleon was specially resented
since, as a priest, he had no excuse of necessity on the ground
of saving family or dynastic interests; his fortunes therefore
fell with those of Napoleon, and, when he died on the ioth of
February 1817, of all his dignities he was in possession only of
the archbishopric of Regensburg. Weak and shortsighted as a
statesman, as a man and prelate Dalberg was amiable, con-
scientious and large-hearted. Himself a scholar and author, he
was a notable patron of letters, and was the friend of Goethe,
Schiller and Wieland,

See Karl v. Beaulieu-Marconnay, Karl von Dalberg und seine
Zeit (Weimar, 1879).

3. Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg (1750-1806), brother
of the above. He was intendant of the theatre at Mannheim,
which he brought to a high state of excellence. His chief claim to
remembrance is that it was he who first put Schiller's earlier
dramas on the stage, and it is to him that the poet's Briefe an den
Freiherrn von Dalberg (Karlsruhe, 1819) are addressed. He
himself wrote several plays, including adaptations of Shakes-
peare. His brother, Johann Friedrich Hugo von Dalberg (1752-
1812), canon of Trier, Worms and Spires, had some vogue as a
composer and writer on musical subjects.

4. Emmerich Joseph, dtjc de Dalberg (i 773-1833), son of
Baron Wolfgang Heribert. He was born at Mainz on the 30th of
May 1773. In 1803 he entered the service of Baden, which he
represented as envoy in Paris. After the peace of Schonbrunn
(1809) he entered the service of Napoleon, who, in 1810, created
him a duke and councillor of state. He had from the first been
on intimate terms with Talleyrand, and retired from the public
service when the latter fell out of the emperor's favour. In 18 14
he was a member of the provisional government by whom the
Bourbons were recalled, and he attended the congress of Vienna,
with Talleyrand, as minister plenipotentiary. He appended his
signature to the decree of outlawry launched in 1815 by the
European powers against Napoleon. For this his property in
France was confiscated, but was given back after the second
Restoration, when he became a minister of state and a peer of
France. In 1816 he was sent as ambassador to Turin. The
latter years of his life he spent on his estates at Herrnsheim,
where he died on the 27th of April 1833.

The due de Dalberg had inherited the family property of
Herrnsheim from his uncle the arch-chancellor Karl von Dalberg,
and this estate passed, through his daughter and heiress, Marie
Louise Pelline de Dalberg, by her marriage with Sir (Ferdinand)
Richard Edward Acton, 7th baronet (who assumed the addi-
tional name of Dalberg), to her son the historian, John Emerich
Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (q.v.).

DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM (1829-1895), English Noncon-
formist divine, was born in London on the 1st of December
1829, and was educated at Spring Hill College, Birmingham,
for the Congregational ministry. In 1853 he was invited to
Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, as co-pastor with John Angell
James (q.v.), on whose death in 1859 he became sole pastor for
the rest of his life. In the London University M.A. examination
(1853) Dale stood first in philosophy and won the gold medal.
The degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by the university
of Glasgow during the lord rectorship of John Bright. Yale
University gave him its D.D. degree, but he never used it, " not
because it came from America, but because I have a sentimental
objection — perhaps it is something more — to divinity degrees."
Dale displayed a keen interest in Liberal politics and in the
municipal affairs of Birmingham; and his high moral ideal
made him a great force on the progressive side. In 1886 he
adhered to Mr Chamberlain in opposition to Irish Home Rule,
but this difference did not diminish his influence even among
those Liberals and Nonconformists who adopted the Glad-
stonian standpoint. In the education controversy of 1870 he
took an important part, ably championing the Nonconformist
position. When Mr Foster's bill appeared, Dale attacked it on
the grounds that the schools would in many cases be purely

denominational institutions, that the conscience clause gave
inadequate protection, and that school boards were empowered
by it to make grants out of the rates to maintain sectarian
schools. He was himself in favour of secular education, claiming
that it was the only logical solution and the only legitimate
outcome of Nonconformist principles. In Birmingham the con-
troversy was terminated in 1879 by a compromise, from which,
however, Dale stood aloof. His interest in educational affairs
had led him to accept a seat on the Birmingham school board.
He was appointed a governor of the grammar school, served on
the royal commission of education, and was also chairman of the
council of Mansfield College, Oxford, with the foundation of
which he had much to do. He was a strong advocate of dis-
establishment, holding that the church was essentially a spiritual
brotherhood, and that any vestige of political authority impaired
its spiritual work. In church polity he held that Congrega-
tionalism constituted the most fitting environment in which
religion could achieve her work. Perhaps the most effective
contributions he made to ecclesiastical literature were those
dealing with the history and principles of the congregational
system. At his death on the 13th of March 1895 he left an un-
finished MS. of the history of Congregationalism, since edited
and completed (1907) by his son, A. W. W. Dale, principal of
Liverpool University.

Dale's powers were fully appreciated by his colleagues in the
congregational ministry, and at the early age of thirty-nine he
was elected chairman of the Congregational union of England
and Wales. His addresses from the chair on " Christ and the
Controversies of Christendom," and the " Holy Spirit and the
Christian Ministry " were remarkable for a keen insight into the
conditions and demands of the age. For some years he edited
the Congregationalist, a monthly magazine connected with the
denomination. In 1877 he was appointed Lyman Beecher
lecturer at Yale University, and visited America to deliver his
" Lectures on Preaching." At the International Council of
Congregationalists, meeting in London in 189 1, the first gathering
of the kind, Dale was nominated for the presidency. He accepted
the honour and delivered an address on " The Divine Life in
Man."

As a theologian Dale occupied an influential position amongst
the religious thinkers of the 19th century. He ably interpreted
the Evangelical thought of his age, but his Evangelicalism was
of a broad and progressive type. His chief contribution to con-
structive theological thought is his work On The Atonement, in
which he contends that the death of Christ is the objective
ground on which the sins of man were remitted. Among his
other theological books are: The Epistle to the Ephesians (a
series of expositions), Christian Doctrine, The Living Christ and
the Four Gospels, Fellowship with Christ, The Epistle to James,
and The Ten Commandments.

DALE, SIR THOMAS (d. 1619), British naval commander and
colonial deputy -governor of Virginia. From about 1588 to 1609
he was in the service of the Low Countries with the English army
originally under Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; in 1606, while
visiting in England, he was knighted by King James; from 1611
to 1 61 6 he was actually though not always nominally in chief
control of the province of Virginia either as deputy-governor or
as " high marshall," and he is best remembered for the energy
and the extreme rigour of his administration there, which estab-
lished order and in various ways seems to have benefited the
colony; he himself declared that he left it "in great prosperity
and peace." Under him began the first real expansion of the
colony with the establishment of the settlement of Henrico on
and about what was later known as Farrar's Island; it was he
who, about 16 14, took the first step toward abolishing the com-
munal system by the introduction of private holdings, and it was
during his administration that the first code of laws of Virginia,
nominally in force from 1610 to 161 9, was effectively tested.
This code, entitled " Articles, Lawes, and Orders — Divine,
Politique, and Martiall," but popularly known as Dale's Code,
was notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been
prepared in large part by Dale himself. He left Virginia in 1616

7 6 4

DALECARLIA— DALHOUSIE

with the intention probably of returning to the service of the
Low Countries, but instead was given command of an English
fleet sent against the Dutch, defeated the enemy near Batavia
in the East Indies late in the year 1618, arrived at Masulipatam
in July 1619, and died there on the 9th of the following month.

An account of Dale's career in Virginia is given in Alexander
Brown's The First Republic in America (Boston, 1898); a scholarly
discussion of " Dale's Code " by Walter F. Prince may be found in
vol. i. of the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for
1899 (Washington, D.C., 1900), and the code itself is reprinted in
Peter Force's Historical Tracts, vol. iii., No. 11.

DALECARLIA (Dalarne, " the Dales "), a west midland region
of Sweden, virtually coincident with the district (Ian) of Koppar-
berg, which extends from the mountains of the Norwegian
frontier to within 25 m. of Gefle on the Baltic coast. It is a
region full of historical associations, and possesses strong local
characteristics in respect of its products, and especially of its
people. The Dalecarlians or Dalesmen speak their own peculiar
dialect, wear their own peculiar costumes, and are famed for
their brave spirit and sturdy love of independence. In 1434,
led by Engelbrecht, the miner, they rose against the oppressive
tyranny of the officers of Eric XIV. of Denmark, and in 15 19-
1523 it was among them that Gustavus Vasa found his staunchest
supporters in his patriotic task of freeing Sweden from the yoke
of the Danes. The districts around Lakes Runn and Siljan (" the
Eye of the Dales "), the principal sheets of water in the valleys
of the Dal rivers, are consequently classic ground. By the banks
of Lake Runn, for example, is seen the barn in which Vasa
threshed corn in disguise, when still a fugitive from the Danes.
The people are for the most part small peasant proprietors.
They eke out their scanty returns from tilling the soil by a
variety of home industries, such as making scythes, saws, bells,
wooden wares, hair goods, and so forth. About three quarters
of the whole district is covered with forest. Besides the wealth
of the forests, the Dales contain some of the largest and most
prolific iron mines in Sweden, notably those of Grangesberg.
Copper is mined at Falun (q.v.), the chief town of Kopparberg,
and some silver and lead, zinc and sulphur is found. In conse-
quence of this the district has numerous smelting furnaces,
blasting and rolling mills, iron and metallurgical works, as well
as saw-mills, wood-pulp factories, and chemical works.

See G. H. Mellin, Skildringar af den Skandinaviska Nordens
Folklif og Natur, vol. iii. (1865) ; and Frederika Bremer, 2" Dalarne
(1845), of which there is an English translation by William and Mary
Howitt (1852). For the dialect, see a paper by A. Noreen, in Be
Svenska Landsm&len, vol. iv. (1881).

DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE (1818-1876), English Roman
Catholic priest, was born in Guernsey on the 21st of October
1818. About the age of seventeen he entered Exeter College,
Oxford, and soon after taking his degree he contributed a letter
to Louis Veuillot's ultramontane organ L'Univers, on " Anglican
Church Parties," which gave him considerable repute. Together
with Mark Pattison and others, he translated the Catena aurea
of St Thomas Aquinas, a commentary on the Gospels, taken
from the works of the Fathers. He was a contributor to New-
man's Lives of the English Saints, for which he wrote the beautiful
studies on the Cistercian Saints. The Life of St Stephen Harding
has been translated into several languages. Dalgairns became a
Roman Catholic in 1845, and was ordained priest in the following
year. He joined his friend John Henry Newman in Rome, and,
together with him, entered the Congregation of the Oratory.
On his return to England in 1848, he was attached to the London
Oratory, where he laboured successfully as a priest, with the
exception of three years spent in Birmingham. Dalgairns was a
prominent member of the well-known " Metaphysical Society."
He died at Burgess Hill, near Brighton, on the 6th of April 1876.
During the Catholic period of his life, Dalgairns wrote The
Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, with an Introduction on the
History of Jansenism (London 1853) ; The German Mystics of
the Fourteenth Century (London, 1858); The Holy Communion,
its Philosophy, Theology and Practice (Dublin, 1861).

A list of his contributions on religious and philosophical subjects,
to the reviews and periodicals, is given in J. Gillow's Bibliographical
Dictionary of English Catholics, vol. ii.

DALGARNO. GEORGE (c. 1626-1687), English writer, was
born at Oid Aberdeen about 1626. He appears to have studied
at Marischal College; but he finally settled in Oxford, where,
according to Wood, " he taught a private grammar-school with
good success for about thirty years," and where he died on the
28th of August 1687. He was master of Elizabeth school,
Guernsey, for some ten years, but resigned in 1672. In his work
entitled Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor
(Oxford, 1680), he explained, for the first time, the hand alphabet
for the deaf and dumb, though he does not claim to have invented
this method of communication. Twenty years before the pub-
lication of his Didascalocophus, Dalgarno had given to the world
a very ingenious piece entitled Ars Signorum (1661), dividing
ideas into seventeen classes, to be represented by the letters
of the Latin alphabet with the addition of two Greek characters.
Among the Sloane manuscripts are several tracts by Dalgarno,
further elucidating his system of universal shorthand. Leibnitz
on various occasions alluded to the Ars signorum in commen-
datory terms.

The chief works of Dalgarno were reprinted (1834) f° r the Maitland
Club.

DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY, ist

Marquess and ioth Earl or (1812-1860), British statesman and
Indian administrator, was born at Dalhousie Castle, Scotland, on
the 22nd of April 1812. He crowded into his short life conspicuous
public services in England, and established an unrivalled position
among the master-builders of the Indian empire. Denounced
on the eve of his death as the chief offender who failed to notice
the signs of the mutiny of 1857, and even aggravated the crisis
by his overbearing self-consciousness, centralizing activity and
reckless annexations, he stands out in the clear light of history
as the far-sighted governor-general who consolidated British
rule in India, laid truly the foundations of its later adminis-
tration, and by his sound policy enabled his successors to stem
the tide of rebellion.

He was the third son of George Ramsay 9th earl of Dalhousie
(1770-1838), one of Wellington's generals, who, after holding
the highest offices in Canada, became commander-in-chief in
India, and of his wife Christina Broun of Coalstoun, a lady of
noble lineage and distinguished gifts. From his father he in-
herited a vigorous self-reliance and a family pride which urged
him to prove worthy of the Ramsays who had " not crawled
through seven centuries of their country's history," while to his
mother he owed his high-bred courtesy and his deeply seated
reverence for religion. The Ramsays of Dalhousie (or Dalwolsie)
in Midlothian were a branch of the main line of Scottish Ramsays,
of whom the earliest known is Simon de Ramsay, of Huntingdon,
England, mentioned in 1140 as the grantee of lands in West
Lothian at the hands of David I. A Sir William de Ramsay
of Dalhousie swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296, but is famous for
having in 1320 signed the letter to the pope asserting the in-
dependence of Scotland; and his supposed son, Sir Alexander
Ramsay (d. 1342), was the Scottish patriot and capturer of
Roxburgh Castle (1342), who, having been made warder of the
castle and sheriff of Teviotdale by David II., was soon afterwards
carried off and starved to death by his predecessor, the Douglas,
in revenge. Sir John Ramsay of Dalhousie (1580-1626),
James VI. 's favourite, is famous for rescuing the king in the
Gowrie conspiracy, and was created (1606) Viscount Haddington
and Lord Ramsay of Barns (subsequently baron of Kingston
and earl of Holderness in England) . The barony of Ramsay of
Melrose was granted in 1618 to his brother George Ramsay of
Dalhousie (d. 1629), whose son William Ramsay (d. 1674) was
made ist earl of Dalhousie in 1633.

The 9th earl was in 18 15 created Baron Dalhousie in the
peerage of the United Kingdom, and had three sons, the two
elder of whom died early. His youngest son, the subject of this
article, was small in stature, but his firm chiselled mouth, high
forehead and masterful manner intimated a dignity that none
could overlook. Yet his early life gave little promise of the
dominating force of his character or of his ability to rise to the
full height of his splendid opportunities. Nor did those brought

DALHOUSIE

765

into closest intimacy with him, whether at school or at Oxford,
suspect the higher qualities of statesmanship which afterwards
established his fame on so firm a foundation.

Several years of his early boyhood were spent with his father
and mother in Canada, reminiscences of which were still vivid
with him when governor-general of India. Returning to Scotland
he was prepared for Harrow, where he entered in 1825. Two
years later he was removed from school, his entire education
being entrusted to the Rev. Mr Temple, incumbent of a quiet
parish in Staffordshire. To this gentleman he referred in later
days as having taught him all he knew, and to his training he
must have owed those habits of regularity and that indomitable
industry which marked his adult life. In October 1829 he passed
on to Christ Church, Oxford, where he worked fairly hard, won
some distinction, and made many lifelong friends. His studies,
however, were so greatly interrupted by the protracted illness
and death in 1832 of his only surviving brother, that Lord
Ramsay, as he then became, had to content himself with entering
for a " pass " degree, though the examiners marked their
appreciation of his work by placing him in the fourth class of
honours for Michaelmas 1833. He then travelled in Italy and
Switzerland, enriching with copious entries the diary which
he religiously kept up through life, and storing his mind with
valuable observations.

An unsuccessful but courageous contest at the general election
in 1835 for one of the seats in parliament for Edinburgh,
fought against such veterans as the future speaker, James
Abercrombie, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, and John Campbell,
future lord chancellor, was followed in 1837 by Ramsay's
return to the House of Commons as member for East Lothian.
In the previous year he had married Lady Susan Hay, daughter
of the marquess of Tweeddale, whose companionship was his
chief support in India, and whose death in 1853 left him a
heartbroken man. In 1838 his father had died after a long
illness, while less than a year later he lost his mother.

Succeeding to the peerage, the new earl soon made his mark
in a speech delivered on the 16th of June 1840 in support of Lord
Aberdeen's Church of Scotland Benefices Bill, a controversy
arising out of the Auchterarder case, in which he had already
taken part in the "general assembly" in opposition to Dr
Chalmers. In May 1843 he became vice-president of the board
of trade, Gladstone being president, and was sworn in as a
member of the privy council. Succeeding Gladstone as president
in 1845, he threw himself into the work during the crisis of the
railway mania with such energy that his health partially broke
down under the strain. In the struggle over the corn laws
he ranged himself on the side of Sir Robert Peel, and after the
failure of Lord John Russell to form a ministry he resumed
his post at the board of trade, entering the cabinet on the retire-
ment of Lord Stanley. When Peel resigned office in June 1846,
Lord John offered Dalhousie a seat in the cabinet, an offer
which he declined from a fear that acceptance might " involve
the loss of public character." Another attempt to secure his
services in the appointment of president of the railway board
was equally unsuccessful; but in 1847 he accepted the post of
governor-general of India in succession to Lord Hardinge, on
the understanding that he was to be left in " entire and un-
questioned possession " of his own " personal independence
with reference to party politics."

Dalhousie assumed charge of his dual duties as governor-
general of India and governor of Bengal on the 12th of January
1848, and shortly afterwards he was honoured with the green
ribbon of the Order of the Thistle. In writing to the president
of the board of control, Sir John Hobhouse, he was able to assure
him that everything was quiet. This statement, however, was
to be falsified by events almost before it could reach England.
For on the 19th of April Vans Agnew of the civil service and
Lieutenant Anderson of the Bombay European regiment, having
been sent to take charge of Multan from Diwan Mulraj, were
murdered there, and within a short time the Sikh troops and
sardars joined in open rebellion. Dalhousie agreed with Sir
Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, that the Company's

military forces were neither adequately equipped with transport
and supplies, nor otherwise prepared to take the field immedi-
ately. He also foresaw the spread of the rebellion, and the
necessity that must arise, not merely for the capture of Multan,
but also for the entire subjugation of the Punjab. He therefore
resolutely delayed to strike, organized a strong army for operations
in November, and himself proceeded to the Punjab. Despite
the brilliant successes gained by Herbert Edwardes in conflict
with Mulraj, and Goagh's indecisive victories at Ramnagar
in November, at Sadulapur in December, and at Chillianwalla
in the following month, the stubborn resistance at Multan
showed that the task required the utmost resources of the
government. At length, on the 22nd of January 1849, the
Multan fortress was taken by General Whish, who was thus set
at liberty to join Gough at Gujrat. Here a complete victory
was won on the 21st of February, the Sikh army surrendered
at Rawal Pindi, and their Afghan allies were chased out of India.
For his services the earl of Dalhousie received the thanks of
parliament and a step in the peerage, as marquess.

The war being now over, Dalhousie, without waiting for
instructions from home, annexed the Punjab, and made provision
for the custody and education of the infant maharaja. For the
present the province was administered by a triumvirate under
the personal supervision of the governor-general, and later, a
place having been found for Henry Lawrence in Rajputana, by
John Lawrence as sole commissioner. Twice did Dalhousie tour
through its length and breadth, settling on the spot all matters
of importance, and when he left India no province could show a
better record of progress.

One further addition to the empire was made by conquest.
The arrogant Burmese court at Ava was bound by the treaty of
Yandabo, 1826, to protect British ships in Burmese waters, but
the outrageous conduct of the governor of Rangoon towards the
masters of the " Monarch " and " Champion " met with no
redress from the king. Dalhousie adopted the maxim of Lord
Wellesley " that an insult offered to the British flag at the
mouth of the Ganges should be resented as promptly and fully
as an insult offered at the mouth of the Thames"; but, anxious
to save the cost of war, he tried to settle the dispute by diplomacy.
When that failed he made vigorous preparation for the campaign
to be undertaken in the autumn, giving his attention to the
adequate provision of rations, boat transport, and medical
supplies, composing differences between the military contingents
from Bengal and Madras, and between the military and naval
forces employed, and conferring with General Godwin whom he
had chosen to command the expedition. Martaban was taken on
the 5th of April 1852, and Rangoon and Bassein shortly after-
wards. Since, however, the court of Ava showed no sign of
submission, the second campaign opened in October, and after
the capture of Prome and Pegu the annexation of the province
of Pegu was declared by a proclamation dated the 20th of
December 1853. To any further invasion of the Burmese empire
Dalhousie was firmly opposed, being content to " consolidate "
the Company's possessions by uniting Arakan to Tenasserim.
By his wise policy he pacified the new province, placing Colonel
Arthur Phayre in sole charge of it, personally visiting it, and
establishing a complete system of telegraphs and communications.

These military operations added force to the conviction which
Dalhousie had formed of the need of consolidating the Company's
ill-knit possessions, and as a step in that direction he decided to
apply the doctrine of " lapse," and annex any Hindu native
states, created or revived by the grants of the British government,
in which there was a failure of male lineal descendants, reserving
for consideration the policy of permitting adoptions in other
Hindu chief ships tributary and subordinate to the British govern-
ment as paramount. Under the first head he recommended the
annexation of Satara in January 1849, of Jaitpur and Sambalpur
in the same 'year, and of Jhansi and Nagpur in 1853. In these
cases his action was approved by the home authorities, but his
proposal to annex Karauli in 1849 was disallowed, while Baghat
and the petty estate of Udaipur, which he had annexed in 1851
and 1852 respectively, were afterwards restored to native rule.

766

DALHOUSIE

Other measures with the same object were carried out in the
Company's own territories. Bengal, too long ruled by the
governor-general or his delegate, was placed under a separate
lieutenant-governor in May 1854; a department of public works
was established in each presidency, and engineering colleges
were provided. An imperial system of telegraphs followed;
the first link of railway communication was completed in 185s;
well-considered plans mapped out the course of other lines and
their method of administration; the Ganges canal, which then
exceeded " all the irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt
together," was completed; and despite the cost of wars in the
Punjab and Burma, liberal provision was made for metalled
roads and bridges. The useless military boards were swept
away; selection took the place of seniority in the higher com-
mands; an army clothing and a stud department were
created, and the medical service underwent complete re-
organization.

" Unity of authority coupled with direct responsibility " was
the keynote of his policy. In nine masterly minutes he suggested
means for strengthening the Company's European forces, calling
attention to the dangers that threatened the English community,
" a handful of scattered strangers "; but beyond the additional
powers of recruitment which at his entreaty were granted in the
last charter act of 1853, his proposals were shelved by the home
authorities, who scented no danger and wished to avoid expense.
In his administration Dalhousie vigorously asserted the control
of the civil government over military affairs, and when Sir
Charles Napier ordered certain allowances, given as compensation
for the dearness of provisions, to be granted to the sepoys on a
system which had not been sanctioned from headquarters, and
threatened to repeat the offence, the governor-general found it
necessary to administer such a rebuke that the hot-headed soldier
resigned his command.

Dalhousie's reforms were not confined to the departments of
public works and military affairs. He created an imperial
system of post-offices, reducing the rates of carrying letters and
introducing postage stamps. To him India owes the first
department of public instruction; it was he who placed the
gaols under proper inspection, abolishing the practice of branding
convicts; put down the crime of meriahs or human sacrifices;
freed converts to other religions from the loss of their civil
rights; inaugurated the system of administrative reports; and
enlarged and dignified the legislative council of India. His wide
interest in everything that concerned the welfare of the country
was shown in the encouragement he gave to the culture of tea,
in his protection of forests, in the preservation of ancient and
historic monuments. With the object of improving civil ad-
ministration, he closed the useless college in Calcutta for the
education of young civilians, establishing in its place a proper
system of training them in mufasal stations, and subjecting
them to departmental examinations. He was equally careful of
the well-being of the European soldier, providing him with
healthy recreations and public gardens. To the civil service he
gave improved leave and pension rules, while he purified its moral
by forbidding all share in trading concerns, by vigorously
punishing insolvents, and by his personal example of careful
selection in the matter of patronage. As a comprehensive view
of the constitution of the Indian government, dealing with the
functions of its various members and the different parts of the
official machinery, nothing could be more masterly than his
minute of the 13th of October 1852. Indeed no governor-general
ever penned a' larger number of weighty papers dealing with
public affairs in India. Even after laying down office and while
on his way home, he forced himself, ill as he was, to review his
own administration in a document of such importance that the
House of Commons gave orders for its being printed (Blue Book
245 of 1856).

His foreign policy was guided by a desire to recognize the
" independence " of the larger native states, and to avoid
extending the political relations of his government with foreign
powers outside India. Pressed to intervene in Hyderabad, he
refused to do so, laying down the doctrine that interference was

only justified " if the administration of native princes tends
unquestionably to the injury of the subjects or of the allies of
the British government." Protection in his view carried no
right of interference in the affairs of what he called " indepen-
dent " states. In this spirit he negotiated in 1853 a treaty with
the nizam, which provided funds for the maintenance of the
contingent kept up by the British in support of that prince's
authority, by the assignment of the Berars in lieu of annual
payments of the cost and large outstanding arrears. " The
Berar treaty," he told Sir Charles Wood, " is more likely to keep
the nizam on his throne than anything that has happened for
fifty years to him," while at the same time the control thus
acquired over a strip of territory intervening between Bombay
and Nagpur promoted his policy of consolidation and his schemes
of railway extension. The same spirit induced him to tolerate a
war of succession in Bahawalpur, so long as the contending
candidates did not violate British territory. This reluctance to
increase his responsibilities further caused him to refrain from
punishing Dost Mahommed for the part he had taken in the Sikh
War, and resolutely to refuse to enter upon any negotiations until
the amir himself came forward. Then he steered a middle course
between the proposals of his own agent, Herbert Edwardes,
who advocated an offensive alliance, and those of John Lawrence,
who would have avoided any sort of engagement. He himself
drafted the short treaty of peace and friendship which Lawrence
signed in 1855, that officer receiving in 1856 the order of K.C.B.
in acknowledgment of his services in the matter. While, how-
ever, Dalhousie was content with a mutual engagement with the
Afghan chief, binding each party to respect the territories of the
other, he saw that a larger measure of interference was needed
in Baluchistan, and with the khan of Kalat he authorized Major
Jacob to negotiate a treaty of subordinate co-operation on the
14th of May 1854. The khan was guaranteed an annual subsidy
of Rs. 50,000, in return for the treaty which " bound him to us
wholly and exclusively. ' ' To this the home authorities demurred,
but the engagement was duly ratified, and the subsidy was
largely increased by Dalhousie's successors. On the other hand,
he insisted on leaving all matters concerning Persia and Central
Asia to the decision of the queen's advisers. The frontier tribes-
men it was obviously necessary to coerce into good behaviour
after the annexation of the Punjab. " The hillmen," he wrote,
"regard the plains as their food and prey," and the Afridis,
Mohmands, Black Mountain tribes, Waziris and others had to
be taught that their new neighbours would not tolerate outrages.
But he proclaimed to one and ail his desire for peace, and urged
upon them the duty of tribal responsibility.

The settlement of the Oudh question was reserved to the last.
The home authorities had begged Dalhousie to prolong his tenure
of office during the Crimean War, but the difficulties of the
problem no less than complications elsewhere had induced him
to delay operations. In 1854 he appointed Outram as resident
at the court of Lucknow, directing him to submit a report on
the condition of the province. This was furnished in March
1855. But though the state of disorder and misrule revealed
by it called for prompt remedy, Dalhousie, looking at the treaty
of 1 801, considered that he was bound to proceed in the matter
of reform with the king's consent. He proposed, therefore, to
demand a transfer to the Company of the entire administration,
the king merely retaining his royal rank, certain privileges in
the courts, and a liberal allowance. If he should refuse this
arrangement, a general rising was almost certain to follow, and
then the British government would of necessity intervene on its
own terms. On the 21st of November 1855 the court of directors
instructed Dalhousie to assume the powers essential to the
permanence of good government in Oudh, and' to give the king
no option unless he was sure that his majesty would surrender
the administration rather than risk a revolution. Dalhousie
was in wretched health and on the eve of retirement when the
belated orders reached him; but he at once laid down instruc-
tions for Outram in every detail, moved up troops, and elaborated
a scheme of government with particular orders as to conciliating
local opinion. The king refused to sign the treaty put before

DALHOUSIE— DALKEITH

767

him, and a proclamation annexing the province was therefore
issued on the 13th of February 1856.

Only one important matter now remained to him before
quitting office. The insurrection of the half-civilized Kolarian
Santals of Bengal against the extortions of landlords and money-
lenders had been severely repressed, but the causes of the in-
surrection had still to be reviewed and a remedy provided. By
removing the tract of country from the ordinary regulations,
enforcing the residence of British officers there, and employing
the Santal headmen in a local police, he ensured a system of
administration which afterwards proved eminently successful.

At length, after seven years of strenuous labour, Dalhousie,
on the 6th of March 1856, set sail for England on board the
Company's " Firoze," an object of general sympathy and not
less general respect. At Alexandria he was carried by H.M.S.
" Caradoc " to Malta, and thence by the " Tribune " to Spithead,
which he reached on the 13th of May. His return had been
eagerly looked for by statesmen who hoped that he would
resume his public career, by the Company which voted him an
annual pension of £5000, by public bodies which showered upon
him every mark of respect, and by the queen who earnestly
prayed for the " blessing of restored health and strength."
That blessing was not to be his. He lingered on, seeking sunshine
in Malta and medical treatment at Malvern, Edinburgh and other
places in vain obedience to his doctors. The outbreak of the
mutiny led to bitter attacks at home upon his policy, and to
strange misrepresentation of his public acts, while on the other
hand John Lawrence invoked his counsel and influence, and
those who really knew his work in India cried out, " Oh, for a
dictator," and his return " for one hour!" To all these cries
he turned a deaf ear, refusing to embarrass those who were
responsible by any expressions of opinion, declining to undertake
his own defence or to assist in his vindication through the public
press, and by his last directions sealing up his private journal
and papers of personal interest against publication until fifty
years after his death. On the 9th of August 1859 his youngest
daughter, Edith, was married at Dalhousie Castle to Sir James
Fergusson, Bart. In the same castle Dalhousie died on the 19th
of December i860; he was buried in the old churchyard of
Cockpen.

Dalhousie's family consisted of two daughters, and the
marquessate became extinct at his death.

The detailed events of the period will be found in Sir William
Lee- Warner's Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie, K.T. ; Sir E. Arnold's
Dalhousie's Administration of British India; Sir C. Jackson's Vin-
dication of Dalhousie's Indian Administration; Sir W. W. Hunter's
Dalhousie; Capt. L. J. Trotter's Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie;
the duke of Argyll's India under Dalhousie and Canning; Broughton
MSS. (British Museum) ; and parliamentary papers.

(W. L.-W.)

DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY, nth Earl or (1801-
1874), was the eldest son of William Ramsay Maule, 1st Baron
Panmure (1771-1852), and a grandson of George, 8th earl of
Dalhousie. Born on the 22nd of April 1801 and christened Fox
as a compliment to the great Whig, he served for a term in the
army, and then in 1835 entered the House of Commons as member
for Perthshire. In Lord Melbourne's ministry (1835-1841)
Maule was under-secretary for home affairs, and under Lord
John Russell he was secretary-at-war from July 1846 to January
1852, when for two or three weeks he was president of the board
of control. In April 1852 he became the 2nd Baron Panmure,
and early in 1855 ne joined Lord Palmerston's cabinet, filling
the new office of secretary of state for war. Panmure held this
office until February 1858, being at the war office during the
concluding period of the Crimean War and having to meet a
good deal of criticism, some of which was justified and some of
which was not. In December i860 he succeeded his kinsman,
the marquess of Dalhousie, as nth earl of Dalhousie, and he died
childless on the 6th of July 1874. Always interested in church
matters, Dalhousie was a prominent supporter of the Free Church
of Scotland after the disruption of 1843. On his death the barony
became extinct, but his earldom passed to his cousin, George
Ramsay (1806-1880), an admiral who, in 1875, was created a

peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. George's
grandson, Arthur George Maule Ramsay (b. 1878), became the
14th earl in 1887.

. See the Panmure Papers, a selection from Panmure's correspond-
ence, edited in two volumes (1908), by Sir G. Douglas, Bart., and
Sir G. D. Ramsay. These numerous letters throw much light on
the concluding stage of the Crimean War.

DALIN, OLOF VON (1708-1763), Swedish poet, was born on
the 29th of August 1708 in the parish of Vinberg in Halland,
where his father was the minister. He was nearly related to
Rydelius, the philosophical bishop of Lund, and he was sent at
a very early age to be instructed by him, Linnaeus being one of
his fellow-pupils. While studying at Lund, Dalin had visited
Stockholm in the year 1723, and in 1726 entered one of the public
offices there. Under the patronage of Baron Ralamb he rapidly
rose to preferment, and his skill and intelligence won him golden
opinions. In 1733 he started the weekly Svenska Argus, on the
model of Addison's Spectator, writing anonymously till 1736.
His next work was Tankar ofver Critiquer (Thoughts about
Critics, 1736). With the avowed purpose of enlarging the horizon
of his cultivation and tastes, Dalin set off, in company with his
pupil, Baron Ralamb's son, on a tour through Germany and
France, in 1 739-1 740. On his return the shifting of political
life at home caused him to write his famous satiric allegories of
The Story of the Horse and Aprilverk (1738), which were very
popular and provoked countless imitations. His didactic epos
of Svenska Friheten (Swedish Liberty) appeared in 1742.
Hitherto Addison and Pope had been his models; in this work
he draws his inspiration from Thomson, whose poem of Liberty
it emulated. On the accession of Adolphus Freduck in 1751
Dalin received the post of tutor to the crown prince, afterwards
Gustavus III. He had enjoyed the confidence of Queen Louisa
Ulrika, sister of Frederick the Great of Germany, while she was
crown princess, and she now made him secretary of the Swedish
academy of literature, founded by her in 1753. His position
at court involved him in the queen's political intrigues, and
separated him to a vexatious degree from the studies in which
he had hitherto been absorbed. He held the post of tutor to
the crown prince until 1756, when he was arrested on suspicion
of having taken part in the attempted coup d'itat of that year,
and was tried for his life before the diet. He was acquitted, but
was forbidden on any pretence to show himself at court. This
period of exile, which lasted until 1761, Dalin spent in the
preparation of the third volume of his great historical work, the
Svea Rikes historia (History of the Swedish Kingdom), which
came down to the death of Charles IX. in 161 1. The first two
volumes appeared in 1746-1750; the third, in two parts, in
1760-1762. Dalin had been ennobled in 1751, and made privy
councillor in 1753; and now, in 1761, he once more took his
place at court. During his exile, however, his spirit and his
health had been broken; in a fit of panic he had destroyed some
packets of his best unpublished works and this he constantly
brooded over. On the 12th of August 1763 he died at his house
in Drottningholm. In the year 1767 his writings in belles lettres
were issued in six volumes, edited by J. C. Bokman, his half-
brother. Amid an enormous mass of occasional verses, ana-
grams, epigrams, impromptus and the like, his satires and
serious poems were almost buried. But some of these former,
even, are found to be songs of remarkable grace and delicacy,
and many display a love of natural scenery and a knowledge of
its forms truly remarkable in that artificial age. His dramas
also are of interest, particularly his admirable comedy of Den
afvundsjuke (The Envious Man, 1738); he also wrote a tragedy,
Brynilda (1739), and a pastoral in three scenes on King Adolphus
Frederick's return from Finland. During the early part of his
life he was universally admitted to be facile princeps among the
Swedish poets of his time.

See also K. Warburg, " Olof von Dalin," in the Handlingar (vol.
lix., 1884) of the Swedish Academy. A selection of his works was
edited by E. V. Lindblad (Orebro, 1872).

DALKEITH, a municipal and police burgh of Edinburghshire,
Scotland, lying between the North and South Esk, 7^ m. S.E.

768

DALKEY— DALLAS, A. J.

of Edinburgh, by the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 7035;
(1901) 6812. It is an important agricultural centre, and has
every week one of the largest grain-markets in Scotland. Besides
milling, brewing and tanning, the chief industries are the making
of carpets, brushes and bricks, and iron and brass founding.
Near Eskbank, a handsome residential quarter with a railway
station, coal-mining is carried on. Market-gardening, owing to
the proximity of the capital, flourishes. The parish church — an
old Gothic edifice, which was originally the Castle chapel, and
was restored in 1852 — the municipal buildings, corn exchange,
Foresters' hall and Newmills hospital are among the principal
public buildings. Dalkeith was the birthplace of Professor
Peter Guthrie Tait, the mathematician (1831-1901). Dalkeith
Palace, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, was designed by Sir
John Vanbrugh in 1 700 for the widow of the duke of Monmouth,
countess of Buccleuch in her own right. It occupies the site of
a castle which belonged first to the Grahams and afterwards to
the Douglases, and was sold in 1642 by William, seventh or
eighth earl of Morton, to Francis, second earl of Buccleuch,
for the purpose of raising money to assist Charles I. in the Civil
War. The palace has been the residence of several sovereigns
during their visits to Edinburgh, among them George IV.
in 1822, Queen Victoria in 1842, and Edward VII. in 1903.
The picture gallery possesses important examples of the Old
Masters; the gardens are renowned for their fruit and flowers;
and the beautiful park of over 1000 acres — containing a remnant
of the Caledonian Forest, with oaks, beeches and ashes of great
girth and height — is watered by the North and South Esk,
which unite before they leave the policy. About 1 m. south is
Newbattle Abbey, the seat of the marquess of Lothian, delight-
fully situated on the South Esk. It is built on the site of an
abbey founded by David I., the ancient crypt being incorporated
in the mansion. The library contains many valuable books and
illuminated MSS., and excellent pictures and carvings. In the
park are several remarkable trees, among them one of the
largest beeches in the United Kingdom. Two miles still farther
south lies Cockpen, immortalized by the Baroness Nairne's
humorous song " The Laird of Cockpen," and Dalhousie Castle,
partly ancient and partly modern, which gives a title to the
earls of Dalhousie. About 6 m. south-east of Dalkeith are
Borthwick and Crichton castles, 1 m. apart, both now in ruins.
Queen Mary spent three weeks in Borthwick Castle, as in durance
vile, after her marriage with Bothwell, and fled from it to Dunbar
in the guise of a page. The castle, which is a double tower,
was besieged by Cromwell, and the marks of his cannon-balls
are still visible. In the manse of the parish of Borthwick, William
Robertson, the historian, was born in 1721. About 4 m. west of
Dalkeith is the village of Burdiehouse, the limestone quarries
of which are famous for fossils. The name is said to be a corrup-
tion of Bordeaux House, which was bestowed on it by Queen
Mary's French servants, who lived here when their mistress
resided at Craigmillar.

DALKEY, a small port and watering-place of Co. Dublin,
Ireland, in the south parliamentary division; 9 m. S.E. of
Dublin by the Dublin & South-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 3398. It is pleasantly situated on and about
Sorrento Point, the southern horn of Dublin Bay. Dalkey
Island, lying off the town, has an ancient ruined chapel, of the
history of which nothing is certainly known, and a disused
battery, which protected the harbour, a landing-place of some
former importance. A castle in the town, of the 15th century,
is restored to use as offices for the urban district council. There
are also ruins of an old church, the dedication of which, like
the island chapel, is ascribed to one St Begnet, perhaps a diminu-
tive form of Bega, but the identity is not clear. Until the close
of the 18th century Dalkey was notorious for the burlesque
election of a " king," a mock ceremony which became invested
with a certain political importance.

DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES (1759-1817), American
statesman and financier, was born on the island of Jamaica,
West Indies, on the 21st of June 1759, the son of Dr Robert C.
Dallas (d. 1774), a Scottish physician then practising there.

Dr Dallas soon returned to England with his family, and
Alexander was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. He
studied law for a time in the Inner Temple, and in 1780 returned
to Jamaica. There he met the younger Lewis Hallam (1738-
1808), a pioneer American theatrical manager and actor, who
induced him to remove to the United States', and in 1783 he
settled in Philadelphia, where he at once took the oath of
allegiance to the United States, was admitted to practise law
in 1785, and rapidly attained a prominent position at the bar.
He was interested in the theatrical projects of Hallam, for whom
he wrote several dramatic compositions, and from 1787 to 1789
he edited The Columbian Magazine. From 1791 to 1801 he
was secretary of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Partly
owing to his publication of an able pamphlet against the Jay
treaty in 1795, he soon acquired a position of much influence
in the Democratic-Republican party in the state. During the
Whisky Insurrection he was paymaster-general of the state
militia. His official position as secretary did not entirely
prevent him from continuing his private law practice, and, with
Jared Ingersoll, he was the counsel of Senator William Blount
in his impeachment trial. Dallas was United States attorney
for the eastern district of Pennsylvania from 1801 until 1814,
a period marked by bitter struggles between the Democratic-
Republican factions in the state, in which he took a leading
part in alliance with Governor Thomas M'Kean and Albert
Gallatin, and in opposition to the radical factions led by Michael
Leib (1759-1822) and William Duane (1760-1835), of the Aurora.
The quarrel led in 1805 to the M'Kean party seeking Federalist
support. By such an alliance, largely due to the political
ingenuity of Dallas, M'Kean was re-elected. In October 1814
President Madison appointed Dallas secretary of the treasury,
to succeed George W. Campbell (1768-1848), whose brief and
disastrous term had been marked by wholesale bank suspensions,
and an enormous depreciation of state and national bank notes.
The appointment itself inspired confidence, and Dallas's prompt
measures still further relieved the situation. He first issued
new interest-bearing treasury notes of small denominations,
and in addition proposed the re-establishment of a national
bank, by which means he expected to increase the stability
and uniformity of the circulating medium, and furnish the govern-
ment with a powerful engine in the upholding of its credit.
In spite of his already onerous duties, Dallas, with characteristic
energy, served also as secretary of war ad interim from March
to August 1815, and in this capacity successfully reorganized
the army on a peace footing. Although peace brought a more
favourable condition of the money market, Dallas's attempt to
fund the treasury notes on a satisfactory basis was unsuccessful,
but a bill, reported by Calhoun, as chairman of the committee
on national currency, for the establishment of a national bank,
became law on the 10th of April 1816. Meanwhile (12th of
February 1816) Dallas, in a notable report, recommended a
protective tariff, which was enacted late in April, largely in
accordance with his recommendation. Although Dallaf, left
the cabinet in October 1816, it was through his efforts that the
new bank began its operations in the following January, and
specie payments were resumed in February. Dallas, who
belonged to the financial school of Albert Gallatin, deserves
to rank among America's greatest financiers. He found the
government bankrupt, and after two years at the head of the
treasury he left it with a surplus of $20,000,000; moreover, as
Henry Adams points out, his measures had " fixed the financial
system in a firm groove for twenty years." He retired from
office to resume his practice of the law, but the burden of his
official duties had undermined his health, and he died suddenly
at Philadelphia on the 16th of June 1817. He was the author
of several notable political pamphlets and state papers, and in
addition edited The Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801 (i8or),
and Reports of Cases ruled and adjudged by the Courts of the
United States and of Pennsylvania before and since the Revolution
(4 vols., 1790-1807; new edition with notes by Thomas J.
Wharton, 1830). He wrote An Exposition of the Causes and
Character of the War of 1812-15 (1815), which was republished

DALLAS, G. M.— DALLING AND BULWER

769

by government authority in New York and London and widely
circulated. He left in MS. an unfinished History of Pennsylvania.

His brother, Robert Charles Dallas (1754-1824), was born
in Jamaica, and lived at various times in the West Indies, the
United States, England and France. He was an intimate
friend of Lord Byron. He wrote Recollections of Lord Byron
(1824), and several novels, plays and miscellaneous works.

See G. M. Dallas, Life and Writings of Alexander James Dallas
(Philadelphia, 1871).

DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN (1702-1864), American states-
man and diplomat, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on
the lothof July 1792. He graduated at Princeton in 1810 at
the head of his class; then studied law in the office of his father,
Alexander J. Dallas, the financier, and was admitted to the bar
in 1813. In the same year he accompanied Albert Gallatin, as
his secretary, to Russia, and in 1814 returned to the United
States as the bearer of important dispatches from the American
peace commissioners at Ghent. He practised law in New York
and Philadelphia, was chosen mayor of Philadelphia in 1828,
and in 1829 was appointed by President Jackson, whom he had
twice warmly supported for the presidency, United States
attorney for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, a position long
held by his father. From 1831 to 1833 he was a Democratic
member of the United States Senate, in which he advocated a
compromise tariff and strongly supported Jackson's position in
regard to nullification. On the bank question he was at first at
variance with the president; in January 1832 he presented in
the Senate a memorial from the bank's president, Nicholas
Biddle, and its managers, praying for a recharter, and subse-
quently he was chairman of a committee which reported a bill
re-chartering the institution for a fifteen-year period. After-
wards, however, his views changed and he opposed the bank.
From 1833 to 1835 Dallas was attorney-general of Pennsylvania,
and from 1835 to 1839 was minister to Russia. During the
following years he was engaged in a long struggle with James
Buchanan for party leadership in Pennsylvania. He was vice-
president of the United States from 1845 to 1849, but the
appointment of Buchanan as secretary of state at once shut him
off from all hope of party patronage or influence in the Polk
administration, and he came to be looked upon as the leader of
that body of conservative Democrats of the North, who, while
they themselves chafed at the domination of Southern leaders,
were disposed to disparage all anti-slavery agitation. By his
casting vote at a critical period during the debate in the Senate
on the tariff bill of 1846, he irretrievably lost his influence with
the protectionist element of his native state, to whom he had
given assurances of his support of the Tyler tariff of 1842. For
several years after his retirement from office, he devoted himself
to his law practice, and in 1856 succeeded James Buchanan as
United States minister to England, where he remained until
relieved by Charles Francis Adams in May 1861. During this
trying period he represented his country with ability and tact,
making every endeavour to strengthen the Union cause in Great
Britain. He died at Philadelphia on the 1st of December 1864.
He wrote a biographical memoir for an edition of his father's
writings, which was published in 187 1.

His Diary of his residence in St Petersburg and London was
published in Philadelphia in 1892.

DALLAS, a city and the county-seat of Dallas county, Texas,
U.S.A., about 220 m. N.W. of Houston, on the E. bank of the
Trinity river. Pop. (1880) 10,358; (1890) 38,067; (1900)
42,638, of whom 9035 were negroes and 3381 were foreign-born;
(1910) 92,104. Area, about 15 sq. m. Dallas is served
by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Gulf, Colorado &
Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas, the St Louis South-western, the Texas &New Orleans,
the Trinity & Brazos Valley, and the Texas & Pacific railways,
and by interurban electric railways to Fort Worth and Sherman.
The lower channel of the Trinity river has been greatly improved
by the Federal government; but in. 1908 the river was not
navigable as far as Dallas. Among public buildings are
the Carnegie library (1901), Dallas county court house, the
vii. 25

city hall, the U.S. government building, St Matthew's cathedral
(Prot. Episc), the cathedral of the Sacred Heart (Rom. Cath.),
the city hospital, St Paul's sanitarium (Rom. Cath.), and the
Baptist Memorial sanitarium. Educational institutions include
Dallas medical college( 1 901) , the colleges of medicine and pharmacy
of Baylor University, the medical college of South-western
University (at Georgetown, Texas), Oak Cliff female academy,
Patton seminary, St Mary's female college (Prot. Episc), and
Holy Trinity college (Rom. Cath.). The city had in 1908 three
parks — Bachman's Reservoir (500 acres); Fair (525 acres) — the
Texas state fair grounds, in which an annual exhibition is held—
and City park (17 acres). Lake Cliff, Cycle and Oak Lawn parks
are amusement grounds. A Confederate soldiers' monument,
a granite shaft 50 ft. high, was erected in 1897, with statues of
R. E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, " Stonewall " Jackson and A. S.
Johnston. Dallas was in 1900 the third city in population and
the most important railway centre in Texas. It is a shipping
centre for a large wheat, fruit and cotton-raising region, and
the principal jobbing market for northern Texas, Oklahoma and
part of Louisiana, and the biggest distributing point for agri-
cultural machinery in the South-west. It is a livestock market,
and one of the chief centres in the United States for the manu-
facture of saddlery and leather goods, and of cotton-gin
machinery. It has flour and grist mills (the products of which
ranked first in value among the city's manufactures in 1905),
wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, cooper-
age works, railway repair shops, cotton compresses, lumber yards,
salt works, and manufactories of cotton-seed oil and cake, boots
and shoes and cotton and agricultural machinery. In 1900
and 1905 it was the principal manufacturing centre in the state,
the value of its factory product in 1905 being $15,627,668, an
increase of 64-7 % over that in 190c. The water- works are
owned and operated by the city, and the water is taken from
the Elm fork of Trinity river. There are several artesian wells.
Dallas, named in honour of G. M. Dallas, was settled in 1841, and
first chartered as a city in 1856. The city is governed, under a
charter of 1907, by a mayor and four commissioners, who
together pass ordinances, appoint nearly all city officers, and
generally are responsible for administering the government.
In addition a school board is elected by the people. The -charter
contains initiative and referendum provisions, provides for the
recall of any elective city official, and prohibits the granting
of any franchise for a longer term than twenty years.

DALLE (pronounced " dal," Fr. for a flag-stone or flat tile),
a rapid falling over flat smooth rock surfaces in a river bed,
especially in rivers flowing between basaltic rocks. The name is
common in America, and came into use through the French
employes of the Hudson's Bay Company. Well-known "dalles" are
on the St Louis, St Croix and Wisconsin rivers. The " dalles " of
the Columbia river are very beautiful, and have given its name to
Dalles (1910 pop. 4880), county-seat of Wasco county, Oregon.

DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN (1861- ), American sculptor,
was born at Springville, Utah, on the 22nd of November 1861.
He was a pupil of Truman H. Bartlett in Boston, of the Ecole
des Beaux Arts, the Academie Julien and the sculptors Henri M.
Chapu and Jean Dampt (born 1858), in Paris, and on his return
to America became instructor in modelling in the state normal art
school in Boston. He is best known for his plastic representa-
tions of the North American Indian — especially for " The Signal
of Peace " in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and " The Medicine Man,"
in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. As a boy he had lived among
the Indians in the Far West, and had learned their language. His
later works include " Pioneer Monument," Salt Lake City;
" Sir Isaac Newton," Congressional Library, Washington; and
" Don Quixote." He won a silver medal at the Paris Exposition,
1900, and a gold medal at the St Louis Exposition, 1904.

DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON
EARLE BULWER, Baron (1801-1872), better known as Sir
Henry Bulwer, English diplomatist and author, was born in
London on the 13th of February 1801. His father, General
William Earle Bulwer, when colonel of the 106th regiment,
had married Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, who — as the only child

77°

DALLING AND BULWER

of Richard Warburton Lytton, of Knebworth Park, in Hertford-
shire — was sole heiress of the family of Norreys-Robinson-
Lytton of Monacdhu in the island of Anglesea and of Guersylt
in Denbighshire. Three sons were the fruit of this marriage.
The second, afterwards Lord Dalling, was amply provided for
by his selection as heir to his maternal grandmother; the
paternal estates in Norfolk went to his elder brother William,
and the maternal property in Herts to the youngest, Edward,
known first as Bulwer the novelist and dramatist, and after-
wards as the first Baron Lytton (q.v.) of Knebworth.

General Bulwer, as brigadier-general of volunteers, was one
of the four commanding officers to whom was entrusted the
defence of England in 1804, when threatened with invasion by
Napoleon. Three years afterwards, on the 7th of July 1807,
he died prematurely at fifty-two at Heyden Hall. His young
widow had then devolved upon her not only the double charge
of caring for the estates in Herts and Norfolk, but the far
weightier responsibility of superintending the education of her
three sons, then in their earliest boyhood. Henry Bulwer was
educated at Harrow, under Dr George Butler, and at Trinity
College and Downing College, Cambridge. In 1822 he pub-
lished a small volume of verse, beginning with an ode on the
death of Napoleon. It is chiefly interesting now for its fraternal
dedication to Edward Lytton Bulwer, then a youth of nineteen.

On leaving Cambridge in the autumn of 1824, Henry Bulwer
went, as emissary of the Greek committee then sitting in London,
to the Morea, carrying with him £80,000 sterling, which he handed
over to Prince Mavrocordato and his colleagues, as the responsible
leaders of the War of Independence. He was accompanied
on this expedition by Hamilton Browne, who, a year before,
had been despatched by Lord Byron to Cephalonia to treat
with the insurgent government. Shortly after his return to
England in 1826, Bulwer published a record of this excursion,
under the title of An Autumn in Greece. Meanwhile, bent for
the moment upon following in his father's footsteps, he had, on
the 19th of October 1825, been gazetted as a cornet in the
2nd Life Guards. Within less than eight months, however, he
had exchanged from cavalry to infantry, being enrolled on the
2nd of June r826 as an ensign in the 58th regiment. That
ensigncy he retained for little more than a month, obtaining
another unattached, which he held until the 1st of January 1829,
when he finally abandoned the army. The court, not the camp,
was to be the scene of his successes; and for thirty-eight years
altogether — from August 1827 to August 1865 — he contrived,
while maturing from a young attache to an astute and veteran
ambassador, to hold his own with ease, and in the end was
ranked amongst the subtlest intellects of his time as a master
of diplomacy. His first appointment in his new profession
was as an attache at Berlin. In April 1830 he obtained his next
step through his nomination as an attache at Vienna. Thence,
exactly a year afterwards, he was employed nearer home in the
same capacity at the Hague.

As yet ostensibly no more than a careless lounger in the
salons of the continent, the young ex-cavalry officer veiled the
keenest observation under an air of indifference. His con-
stitutional energy, which throughout life was exceptionally
intense and tenacious, wore from the first a mask of languor.
When in reality most cautious he was seemingly most negligent.
No matter what he happened at the moment to take in hand,
the art he applied to it was always that highest art of all, the
ars celare artem. His mastery of the lightest but most essential
weapon in the armoury of the diplomatist, tact, came to him
as it seemed intuitively, and from the outset was consummate.
Talleyrand himself would have had no reason, even in Henry
Bulwer's earliest years as an attache, to write entreatingly, " pas
de zele," to one who concealed so felicitously, even at starting,
a lynx : like vigilance under an aspect the most phlegmatic.
He had hardly reached his new post at the Hague when he found
and seized his opportunity. The revolutionary explosion of
July at Paris had been echoed on the 25 th of August 1830 by
an outburst of insurrection at Brussels. During the whole of
September a succession of stormy events swept over Belgium,

until the popular rising reached its climax on the 4th of October in
the declaration of Belgian independence by the provisional
government. At the beginning of the revolution, the young
attache was despatched by the then foreign secretary at White-
hall, Lord Aberdeen, to watch events as they arose and report
their character. In the execution of his special mission he
traversed the country in all directions amidst civil war, the issue
of which was to the last degree problematic. Under those
apparently bewildering circumstances, he was enabled by hi?
sagacity and penetration to win his spurs as a diplomatist.
Writing almost haphazard in the midst of the conflict, he sent
home from day to day a series of despatches which threw a
flood of light upon incidents that would otherwise have appeared
almost inexplicable. Scarcely a week had elapsed, during which
his predictions had been wonderfully verified, when he was
summoned to London to receive the congratulations of the
cabinet. He returned to Brussels no longer in a merely temporary
or informal capacity. As secretary of legation, and afterwards
as charge d'affaires, he assisted in furthering the negotiations
out of which Belgium rose into a kingdom. Scarcely had this
been accomplished when he wrote what may be called the first
chapter of the history of the newly created Belgian kingdom.
It appeared in 1831 as a brief but luminous paper in the January
number of the Westminster Review. And as the events it recorded
had helped to inaugurate its writer's career as a diplomatist, so
did his narrative of those occurrences in the pages of the Radical
quarterly signalize in a remarkable way the commencement of
his long and consistent career as a Liberal politician. Shortly
before his appearance as a reviewer, and immediately prior to
the carrying of the first Reform Bill, Bulwer had won a seat in the
House of Commons as member for Wilton, afterwards in 1831
and 1832 sitting there as M.P. for Coventry. Nearly two years
having elapsed, during which he was absent from parliament,
he was in 1834 returned to Westminster as member for Maryle-
bone. That pdfition he retained during four sessions, winning
considerable distinction as a debater. Within the very year
in which he was chosen by the Marylebone electors, he brought
out in two volumes, entitled France — Literary, Social and
Political, the first half of a work which was only completed
upon the publication, two years afterwards, of a second series,
also in two volumes, under the title of The Monarchy of the
Middle Classes. Through its pages he made good his claim to be
regarded not merely as a keen-witted observer, but as one of the
most sagacious and genial delineators of the generic Frenchman,
above all of that supreme type of the race, with whom all through
his life he especially delighted to hold familiar intercourse, the
true Parisian. Between the issuing from the press of these two
series, Henry Bulwer had prefixed an intensely sympathetic
Life of Lord Byron to the Paris edition of the poet's works pub-
lished by Galignani, — a memoir republished sixteen years after-
wards. A political argument of a curiously daring and outspoken
character, entitled The Lords, the Government, and the Country,
was given to the public in 1836 by Bulwer, in the form of an
elaborate letter to a constituent. At this point his literary
labours, which throughout life were with him purely labours
by-the-way, ceased for a time, and he disappeared during three
decades from authorship and from the legislature.

During the period of his holding the position of charge d'affaires
at Brussels, Bulwer had seized every opportunity of making
lengthened sojourns at Paris, always for him the choicest place of
residence. It was in the midst of one of these dolce far niente
loiterings on the boulevards that, on the 14th of August 1837, he
received his nomination as secretary of embassy at Constanti-
nople. Recognizing his exceptional ability Lord Ponsonby, the
British ambassador at Constantinople, at once entrusted to him
the difficult task of negotiating a commercial treaty, which had
the double object of removing the intolerable conditions which
hampered British trade with Turkey and of dealing a blow at the
threatening power of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, by shattering
the system of monopolies on which it was largely based. In this
difficult task Bulwer was helped by the hatred of Sultan Mahmed
II. for Mehemet Ali, but the treaty was none the less a remarkable

DALLMEYER

771

proof of his diplomatic skill, and the compliment was well
deserved when Palmerston, in writing his congratulations to him
from Windsor Castle, on the 13th of September 1838, pronounced
the treaty a capo d'opera, adding that without reserve it would
be at once ratified. Shortly after this achievement Bulwer was
nominated secretary of embassy at St Petersburg. Illness,
however, compelled him to delay his northern journey — almost
opportunely, as it happened, for in June 1839 he was despatched,
in the same capacity, to the more congenial atmosphere of Paris.
At that juncture the developments of the feud between Mehemet
Ali and the Porte were threatening to bring England and France
into armed collision (see Mehemet Ali). In 1839 and 1840,
during the temporary absence of his chief, Lord Granville, the
secretary of embassy was gazetted ad interim charge d'affaires at
the court of France, and thus during this critical time he had
fresh opportunities of winning distinction as a diplomatist.

On the 14th of November 1843 he was appointed ambassador
at the court of the young Spanish queen Isabella II. Upon his
arrival at Madrid signal evidence was afforded of the estimation
in which he was then held as a diplomatist. He was chosen
arbitrator between Spain and Morocco, then confronting each
other in deadly hostility, and, as the result of his mediation, a
treaty of peace was signed between the two powers in 1844. In
1846 a much more formidable difficulty arose, — one which, after
threatening war between France and England, led at last to a
diplomatic rupture between the British and Spanish govern-
ments. The dynastic intrigues of Louis Philippe were the
immediate cause of this estrangement, and those intrigues found
their climax in what has ever since been known in European
annals as the Spanish Marriages. The storm sown in the Spanish
marriages was reaped in the whirlwind of the February revolu-
tion. And the explosion which took place at Paris was answered
a month afterwards at Madrid by a similar outbreak. Marshal
Narvaez thereupon assumed the dictatorship, and wreaked upon
the insurgents a series of reprisals of the most pitiless character.
These excessive severities of the marshal-dictator the British
ambassador did his utmost to mitigate. When at last, however,
Narvaez carried his rigour to the length of summarily suppressing
the constitutional guarantees, Bulwer sent in a formal protest in
the name of England against an act so entirely ruthless and un-
justifiable. This courageous proceeding at once drew down upon
the British envoy a counter-stroke as ill-judged as it was un-
precedented. Narvaez, with matchless effrontery, denounced the
ambassador from England as an accomplice in the conspiracies
of the Progressistas; and despite his position as an envoy, and in
insolent defiance of the Palmerstonian boast, Civis Britannicus,
Bulwer, on the 12th of June, was summarily required to quit
Madrid within twenty-four hours. Two days afterwards M.
Isturitz, the Spanish ambassador at the court of St James's,
took his departure from London. Diplomatic relations were not
restored between the two countries until years had elapsed, nor
even then until after a formal apology, dictated by Lord Pal-
merston, had been signed by the prime minister of Queen
Isabella. Before his return the ambassador was gazetted a
K.C.B., being promoted to the grand cross some three years
afterwards. In addition to this mark of honour he received the
formal approbation of the ministry, and with it the thanks of
both Houses of Parliament.

Before the year of his return from the peninsula had run out
Sir Henry Bulwer was married to the Hon. Georgiana Charlotte
Mary Wellesley,' youngest daughter of the 1st Baron Cowley,
and niece to the duke of Wellington. Early in the following year,
on the 27th of April 1849, he was nominated ambassador at
Washington. There he acquired immense popularity. His
principal success was the compact known as the Clayton-Bulwer
Treaty (q.v.), ratified in May 1850, pledging the contracting
governments to respect the neutrality of the meditated ship canal
through Central America, bringing the waters of the Atlantic
and Pacific into direct communication. After having been
accredited as ambassador to the United States for three years,
Sir Henry Bulwer, early in 1852, was despatched as minister
plenipotentiary at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany at

Florence. Shortly after his retirement from that post in the
January of 1855, he was entrusted with various diplomatic
missions, in one of which he was empowered as commissioner
under the 23rd article of the treaty of Paris, 1856, to investigate
the state of things in the Danubian principalities, with a view to
their definite reorganization. Finally he was installed, from
May 1858 to August 1865, as the immediate successor, after the
close of the Crimean war, of the " Great Elchi," Viscount Strat-
ford de Redcliffe, as ambassador extraordinary to the Ottoman
Porte at Constantinople.

In the winter of 1865 Bulwer returned home from the Bosporus,
and retired with a pension. He was elected member for Tam-
worth on the 17th of November 1868, and retained his seat until
gazetted as a peer of the realm on the 21st of March 1871, under
the title of Baron Dalling and Bulwer of Wood Dalling in the
county of Norfolk. Upon the eve of his return to his old haunts
as a debater and a politician he had asserted his claim to literary
distinction by giving to the world in two volumes his four
masterly sketches of typical men, entitled Historical Characters.
This work, dedicated to his brother Edward, in testimony of
the writer's fraternal affection and friendship, portrayed in
luminous outline Talleyrand the Politic Man, Cobbett the Con-
tentious Man, Canning the Brilliant Man, and Mackintosh the
Man of Promise. Two other kindred sketches, those of Sir
Robert Peel and Viscount Melbourne, having been selected from
among their author's papers, were afterwards published posthum-
ously. Another work of ampler outline and larger pretension
was begun and partially issued from the press during Lord
Dalling's lifetime, but not completed. This was the Life of
Viscount Palmerston, the first two volumes of which were pub-
lished in 1870. A third volume appeared four years afterwards.
Even then it left the story of the English statesman broken
off so abruptly that the work remained at the last the merest
fragment. It was completed by Evelyn Ashley.

Lord Dalling died unexpectedly on the 23rd of May 1872 at
Naples. He had no issue, and the title became extinct. In his
public career he enjoyed a three-fold success — as ambassador, as
politician and as man of letters. His popularity in society was
at all times remarkable, mainly no doubt from his mastery of all
the subtler arts of a skilled conversationalist. The apparent
languor with which he related an anecdote, flung off a bon mot,
or indulged in a momentary stroke of irony imparted interest to
the narrative, wings to the wit and point to the sarcasm in a
manner peculiarly his own. (C. K.)

DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY (1830-1883), Anglo-German
optician, was born on the 6th of September 1830 at Loxten,
Westphalia, the son of a landowner. On leaving school at the
age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an Osnabruck optician, and
in 1851 he came to London, where he obtained work with an
optician, W. Hewitt, who shortly afterwards, with his workmen,
entered the employment of Andrew Ross, a lens and telescope
manufacturer. Dallmeyer's position in this workshop appears
to have been an unpleasant one, and led him to take, for a time,
employment as French and German corrrespondent for a com-
mercial firm. After a year he was, however, re-engaged by Ross
as scientific adviser, and was entrusted with the testing and
finishing of the highest class of optical apparatus. This appoint-
ment led to his marriage with Ross's second daughter, Hannah,
and to the inheritance, at Ross's death (1859), of a third of his
employer's large fortune and the telescope manufacturing portion
of the business. Turning from astronomical work to the making
of photographic lenses (see Photography), he introduced
improvements in both portrait and landscape lenses, in object-
glasses for the microscope and in condensers for the optical
lantern. In connexion with celestial photography he constructed
photo-heliographs for the Wilna observatory in 1863, for the
Harvard College observatory in 1864, and, in 1873, several for
the British government. Dallmeyer's instruments achieved a
wide success in Europe and America, taking the highest awards
at various international exhibitions. The Russian government
gave him the order of St Stanislaus, and the French government
made him chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He was for many

772

DALL' ONGARO— DALMATIA

years upon the councils of both the Royal Astronomical and
Royal Photographic societies. About 1880 he was advised to
give up the personal supervision of his workshops, and to travel
for his health, but he died on board ship, off the coast of New
Zealand, on the 30th of December 1883.

His second son, Thomas Rudolphus Dallmeyer (1859-1906),
who assumed control of the business on the failure of his father's
health, was principally known as the first to introduce tele-
photographic lenses into ordinary practice (patented 1891), and
he was the author of a standard book on the subject ( Telephoto-
graphy, 1899). He served as president of the Royal Photographic
Society in 1900-1903.

DALL' ONGARO, FRANCESCO (1808-1873), Italian writer,
born in Friuli, was educated for the priesthood, but abandoned
his orders, and taking to political journalism founded the Favilla
at Trieste in the Liberal interest. In 1848 he enlisted under
Garibaldi, and next year was a member of the assembly which
proclaimed the republic in Rome, being given by Mazzini the
direction of the Monitor officiate. On the downfall of the republic
he fled to Switzerland, then to Belgium and later to France,
taking a prominent part in revolutionary journalism; it was not
till i860 that he returned to Italy, where he was appointed
professor of dramatic literature at Florence. Subsequently he
was transferred to Naples, where he died on the 10th of January
1873. His patriotic poems, Stornelli, composed in early life,
had a great popular success; and he produced a number of plays,
notably Fornaretto, Bianca Capello, Fasma and II Tesoro. His
collected Fantasie drammatiche e liriche were published in his
lifetime.

DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-
Croatian, Dalmacija), a kingdom and crownland of the Austro-
Hungarian empire, in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula,
and on the Adriatic Sea. Dalmatia is bounded, on the landward
side, by Croatia and Bosnia, in the N.and N.E.; and by Herze-
govina and Montenegro, in the S.E. and S. Its area amounts to
4923 sq. m.; its greatest length, from north-west to south-east,
is 210 m.; its breadth reaches 35 m. between Point Planca and
the Bosnian frontier, diminishing to less than 1 m. at Cattaro.
Near the ports of Klek and Castelnuoyo the Herzegovinian frontier
comes down to the sea, 1 but only for a total distance of 143 m.

Physical Features. — No part of the Mediterranean shore, except
the coast of Greece, is so deeply indented as the Dalmatian
littoral, with its multitude of rock-bound bays and inlets. It is
sheltered from the open sea by a rampart of islands which vary
greatly in size; a few being large enough to support several
thousand inhabitants, while others are mere reefs, swept bare by
the sea, or tenanted only by rabbits and seabirds. This Dal-
matian archipelago, separated from the Istrian by the Gulf of
Quarnerolo, forms two island groups, the northern or Liburnian,
and the southern; with open water intervening, off Point Planca.
In calm weather the channels between the islands and the main-
land resemble a chain of landlocked lakes, brilliantly clear to a
depth of several fathoms. As a rule, the surrounding hills are
rugged, bleached almost white or pale russet, and destitute of
verdure; but their monotony is relieved by the half-ruined
castles and monasteries clinging to the rocks, or by the beauty
of such cities as Ragusa, or Arbe, with its fantastic row of
steeples overlooking the beach. The principal islands, Arbe,
Brazza, Curzola, Lacroma, Lesina, Lissa and Meleda, are de-
scribed under separate headings. The promontory of Sabbion-
cello, or»Punt& di Stagno, which juts out for 41 m. into the sea,
between Curzola and Lesina, is almost another island; for its
breadth, which nowhere exceeds 5 m., dwindles to about 1 m.
at the narrow isthmus which unites it with the shore. There are
two small ports on this isthmus — on the south, Stagno Grande

1 This arrangement is based on the terms of the peace of Carlowitz
1699 (articles IX. and XI. of the Turco- Venetian Treaty). It is due
to the commercial and maritime rivalry between Venice and Ragusa.
The Ragusans bribed the Turkish envoys at Carlowitz to stipulate
for a double extension of the Ottoman dominions down to the
Adriatic ; and thus the Ragusan lands, which otherwise would have
bordered upon the Dalmatian possessions of Venice, were surrounded
by neutral territory.

(Serbo-Croatian, Ston Veliki), once celebrated for its salt and
shipbuilding industries, and, on the north, Stagno Piccolo (Ston
Mali). Dalmatia possesses a magnificent anchorage in the
Bocche di Cattaro, and there are numerous lesser havens, at
Sebenico, Trau, Zara and elsewhere along the coast and among
the islands.

The country is almost everywhere hilly or mountainous. Or.
the Croatian border rises the lofty barrier of the Velebit, which,
culminates in Sveto Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.).
The Dinaric Alps form the frontier between Dalmatia and
Bosnia; Dinara (6007 ft.), which gives its name to the whole
chain, and Troglav (6276 ft.), being the highest Dalmatian
summits. North-west of Sinj rise the Svilaja and Mosec
Planinas; the ridges of Mosor and Biokovo, with Sveto Juraj
(5781 ft.), follow the windings of the coast from Spalato to
Macarsca; Orjen marks the meeting-place of the Herzegovinian,
Montenegrin and Dalmatian frontiers, and the Sutorman range
appears in the extreme south. The barren dry limestone of the
Dalmatian highlands has been aptly compared with a petrified
sponge; for it is honeycombed with underground caverns and
water-courses, into which the rainfall is at once filtered. Thus
arises a complete system of subterranean rivers, with waterfalls,
lakes and regular seasons of flood. Even the few surface rivers
vanish and emerge again at intervals. The Trebinjcica, for in-
stance, disappearing in Herzegovina, supplies both the broad
and swift estuary of Ombla, near Ragusa, and the fresh-water
spring of Doli, which issues from the bottom of the sea. Apart
from the Ombla, and the Narenta (Serbo-Croatian, Neretva;
Roman, Naro), which creates a broad marshy delta between
Metkovic and the sea, Dalmatia has only three rivers more than
25 m. long; the Zermagna (Zrmanja, Tedanium), Kerka, (Krka,
Titius), and Cetina [Cetina; Narona or Tilurus). The Zermagna
skirts the southern foothills of the Velebit and falls into the
harbour of Novigrad. Better known is the Kerka, which rises
in the Dinaric Alps and flows south-westward to the Adriatic.
Near Scardona (Skradin) it spreads into a broad lake, and forms
several fine waterfalls, after receiving its tributary the Cikola
(Cikola), from the east. South of Spalato, the Cetina, which also
springs from the Dinaric Alps, descends to the sea at Almissa
(Omis), after passing between the Mosor and Biokovo ranges.
There are a few small lakes near Zara, Zaravecchia and the
Narenta estuary; while the fertile, but unhealthy, hollows
among the mountains fill with water after heavy rain, and some-
times cause disastrous floods. But most parts of the country
suffer from drought.

For an account of the chief geological formations see Balkan
Peninsula. Small quantities of iron, lignite, asphalt and bay
salt are the only minerals of commercial importance.

The climate is warm and healthy, the mean temperature at
Zara being 57° F., at Lesina 62°, and at Ragusa 63 . The pre-
vailing wind is the sirocco, or S.E.; but the terrible Bora, or
N.N.E., may blow at any season of the year. The average annual
rainfall is about 28 in., but a dry and a wet year usually alternate.

Fauna. — Bears, badgers and wild cats, with a larger number
of wolves and foxes, find shelter in the Dinaric Alps and on the
heights of Svilaja, Mosor and Biokovo; while jackals exist
on Curzola and Sabbioncello, almost their last refuges in Europe.
Roedeer are uncommon, and the wild boar, chamois, red-deer and
beaver are extinct; but hares and rabbits abound. The game-
laws are not strict, and are often evaded by the Morlachs ;
but moderate sport may be obtained in the fens formed by the
Cetina about Sinj, and the lagoons of the Narenta estuary;
both regions being frequented by wild swans, geese, duck, snipe
and other aquatic birds. Among land-birds, the commonest
are quails, woodcock, partridges, and especially the so-called
" stone-fowl " (Steinhuhn, Perdix Graeca). Tortoises are
numerous; snakes, lizards, scorpions and innumerable sand-
flies infest the dry hillsides; and the limestone caverns are
peopled by sightless bats, reptiles, fish, flies, beetles, spiders,
Crustacea and molluscs.

Fisheries. — No region of Europe is richer in its marine fauna
and flora. Sponge and coral fisheries afford a valuable source of

DALMATIA

773

income to the peasantry, many of whom also go northward for the
sardine and tunny fisheries of the Istrian coast, while salmon,
trout and eels are caught in the Dalmatian rivers.

Flora, — The olive, almond, fig, orange, palm, aloe, myrtle,
locust-tree and other characteristic members of the Mediterranean
flora thrive in the sheltered valleys of the Dalmatian littoral,
where almond-blossoms appear in mid-winter, and the palm
occasionally bears ripe fruit. The marasca, or wild cherry, is
abundant, and yields the celebrated liqueur called maraschino.
But at a little distance from the rivers and on the more exposed
parts of the coast the aspect of the country changes entirely.
Patches of thin grass, heather, juniper, thyme, tamarisks and
mountain roses hardly relieve the bareness and aridity of the
seaward slopes.

Forests. — Oaks, pines and beeches still, in a few parts, clothe
the landward slopes, but, as a rule, the forests for which Dalmatia
was once famous were cut down for the Venetian shipyards
or burned by pirates; while every attempt at replanting is
frustrated by the shallowness of the soil, the drought and the
multitude of goats that browse on the young trees.

Agriculture. — Little more than one- tenth of the whole surface
is under the plough; the rest, where it is not altogether sterile,
being chiefly mountain pasture, vineyards and garden land.
Asses are the favourite beasts of burden; goats are strikingly
numerous; and sheep are kept for the sake of their mutton,
which is almost the only animal food freely consumed by the
peasantry. Cattle-breeding, bee-keeping, and the cultivation
of fruit and vegetables, especially potatoes and beetroot, are
among the principal resources of the people, while wheat, rye,
barley, oats, Indian corn, hemp and millet are also grown.
Viticulture is carried on with great and increasing success (see
Wine).

Land-tenure. — Individual proprietorship of the soil is rare,
for, despite the decadence of the zadruga or household com-
munity, the tenure of land and the privilege of using the com-
munal domain still appertain to the family as a whole. There
are a few large estates, but most of the land is parcelled out in
small holdings.

Industries. — Besides fishing, farming and such allied trades as
ship-building, wine and oil pressing, and the distillation of
spirits, notably -maraschino, a few other industries are practised,
such as tile-burning and the manufacture of soap; but these are
of minor importance. Certain crafts are also carried on by the
country-folk, in their own homes; thus the peasant is sometimes
his own mason, carpenter, weaver and miller. Manufactured
goods and foodstuffs are imported, in return for asphalt, lignite,
bay salt, wine, spirits, oil, honey, wax and hides; and there is
a lucrative transit trade with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Monte-
negro, Turkey and various Adriatic and Mediterranean ports.

Communications. — Communications are defective, some parts
of the interior being only accessible by the roughest of mountain
roads. The principal railway, in point of size, traverses the
central districts, linking together Enin, Spalato, Sebenico and
Sinj; but the southern lines, which unite Dalmatia with Herze-
govina and terminate at Ragusa, Metkovic and Castlenuovo
on the Bocche di Cattaro, are almost of equal importance,
Cattaro being one of the chief outlets for Montenegrin commerce,
while the vessels which steam up the Narenta to Metkovic carry
the bulk of the sea-borne trade of Herzegovina. In 1897
Dalmatia possessed 151 post and 98 telegraph offices.

Chief Towns.-^-Tlie chief towns are Zara, the capital, with
32,506' inhabitants in 1900, Spalato (27,198), Sebenico (24,751),
Trau (17,064), Ragusa (13,174), Macarsca (11,016), and
Cattaro (5418). All these are described under separate headings.

Population and National Characteristics. — With a constant
excess of male over female children, the population increased
steadily from 1869 to 1900, when it reached 591,597. Of this
total 1 % are foreigners and about 3 % Italians, whose numbers

1 These figures, taken from the Austrian official returns, include
the population of the entire commune,' not merely the urban resi-
dents. Only in Zara, Spalato, Sebenico and Ragusa, do the actual
townsfolk number more than 1000.

tend slowly to diminish. The Morlachs, who constitute the
remaining 96%, belong to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the
Slavonic race, having absorbed the Latinized Illyrians, Albanians
and other alien elements with which they have been associated.
The name of Morlachs, Morlaks or Morlacks commonly bestowed
by English writers on the Dalmatian Slavs, though sometimes
restricted to the peasantry of the hills, is an abbreviated form
of Mavrovlachi, meaning either " Black Vlachs," or, less probably,
" Sea Vlachs." It was originally applied to the scattered
remnants of the Latin or Latinized inhabitants of central Illyria,
who were driven from their homes by the barbarian invaders
during the 7 th century, and took refuge among the mountains.
Throughout the middle ages the Mavrovlachi were usually
nomadic shepherds, cattle-drovers or muleteers. In the 14th
century they emigrated from central Illyria into northern
Dalmatia and maritime Croatia; and these regions were thence-
forward known as Morlacchia, until the 1 8th century. Gradually,
however, the Mavrovlachi became identified with the Slavs,
whose language and manners they adopted, and to whom they
gave their own name. In northern Dalmatia the Slavs of the
interior are still called Morlacchi; in the south this name ex-
presses contempt. Of the Vlachs, properly so called, very few
are left in the country; although the name Vlachs (q.v.) is
frequently used by the Slavs to designate the Italians and the
town-dwellers generally. The literary languages of Dalmatia
are Italian and Serbo-Croatian; the spoken language is, in
each case, modified by the introduction of various dialect forms.

The Morlachs wear a picturesque and brightly-coloured
costume, resembling that of the Serbs (see Servia). In appear-
ance they are sometimes blond, with blue or grey eyes, like
the Shumadian peasantry of Servia; more often, olive-skinned,
with dark hair and eyes, like the Montenegrins, whom they rival
in stature, strength and courage; while their conservative
spirit, their devotion to national traditions, poetry and music,
their pride, indolence and superstition, are typically Servian.
Dalmatian public life is deeply affected by the jealousies which
subsist between the Slavs and the Italians, whose influence,
though everywhere waning, remains predominant in some of the
towns; and between Orthodox " Serbs," who use the Cyrillic
alphabet, and Roman Catholic " Croats," who prefer the Latin.

Government. — Dalmatia occupies a somewhat anomalous
position in the Austro-Hungarian state system. Itself a crown-
land of Austria, returning eleven members to the Austrian
parliament, it is severed geographically from the other Austrian
lands by the Hungarian kingdom of Croatia. Ethnologically
it is one with Croatia, and it is included in the official title of
the Croatian king, i.e. the emperor. The political system is
based on a law of the 26th of February 1861. The provincial
diet is composed of 43 members, comprising the Roman Catholic
archbishop, the Orthodox bishop of Zara and representatives
of the chief taxpayers, the towns and the communes. Benkovac,
on the main road from Zara to Spalato, Cattaro, Curzola, Imotski,
21 m. N. by E. of Macarsca, Knin, Lesina, Macarsca, Ragusa,
Sebenico, Sinj, Spalato and Zara, give names to the twelve
administrative districts, of which they are the capitals.

Defence. — Conscription is in force, as elsewhere in Austria,
and the Dalmatian coast furnishes the Austrian — as formerly
the Venetian — navy with many of its best recruits.

Religion. — Roman Catholicism is the religion of more than
80% of the population, the remainder belonging chiefly to the
Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic archbishop has his seat
in Zara, while Cattaro, Lesina, Ragusa, Sebenico and Spalato are
bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox community stands
the bishop of Zara.

The use of Slavonic liturgies written in the Glagolitic alphabet,
a very ancient privilege of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia
and Croatia, caused much controversy during the first years of
the 20th century. There was considerable danger that the Latin
liturgies would be altogether superseded by the Glagolitic,
especially among the northern islands and in rural communes,
where the Slavonic element is all-powerful. In 1904 the Vatican
forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril and

774

DALMATIA

Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism. A
few years previously the Slavonic archbishop Rajcevic of Zara,
in discussing the " Glagolitic controversy," had denounced the
movement as " an innovation introduced by Panslavism to
make it easy for the Catholic clergy, after any great revolution
in the Balkan States, to break with Latin Rome." This view
is shared by very many, perhaps by the majority, of the Roman
Catholics in Dalmatia.

Education. — Education progressed slowly between i860 and
1900, attendance at school being often a hardship in the poor and
widely scattered hamlets of the interior. In 1890 more than
80 % of the population could neither read nor write, although
schools are maintained by every commune. In 1893 the country
possessed 5 intermediate and 337 elementary schools, 6 theo-
logical seminaries, 6 gymnasia, and about 40 continuation and
technical schools.

Antiquities. — To the foreign visitor Dalmatia is chiefly
interesting as a treasury of art and antiquities. The grave-
mounds of Curzola, Lesina and Sabbioncello have yielded a few
relics of prehistoric man, and the memory of the early Celtic
conquerors and Greek settlers is preserved only in a few place-
names; but the monuments left by the Romans are numerous
and precious. They are chiefly confined to the cities; for the
civilization of the country was always urban, just as its history
is a record of isolated city-states rather than of a united nation.
Beyond the walls of its larger towns, little was spared by the
barbarian Goths, Avars and Slavs; and the battered fragments
of Roman work which mark the sites of Salona, near Spalato,
and of many other ancient cities, are of slight antiquarian interest
and slighter artistic value. Among the monuments of the Roman
period, by far the most noteworthy in Dalmatia, and, indeed,
in the whole Balkan Peninsula, is the Palace of Diocletian at
Spalato (q.v.). Dalmatian architecture was Byzantine in its
general character from the 6th century until the close of the 10th.
The oldest memorials of this period are the vestiges of three
basilicas, excavated in Salona, and dating from the first half of
the 7th century at latest. Byzantine art, in the latter half of
this period and the two succeeding centuries, continued to
flourish in those cities which, like Zara, gave their allegiance to
Venice; just as, in the architecture of Trau and other cities
dominated by Hungary, there are distinct traces of German
influence. The belfry of S. Maria, at Zara, erected in 1105, is
first in a long list of Romanesque buildings. At Arbe there is
a beautiful Romanesque campanile which also belongs to the
1 2th century; but the finest example in this style is the cathedral
of Trail. The 14th century Dominican and Franciscan convents
in Ragusa are also noteworthy. Romanesque lingered on in
Dalmatia until it was displaced by Venetian Gothic in the early
years of the 15th century. The influence of Venice was then
at its height. Even in the hostile republic of Ragusa the
Romanesque of the custom-house and Rectors' palace is com-
bined with Venetian Gothic, while the graceful balconies and
ogee windows of the Prijeki closely follow their Venetian models.
Gothic, however, which had been adopted very late, was aban-
doned very early; for in 144 1 Giorgio Orsini of Zara, summoned
from Venice to design the cathedral of Sebenico, brought with
him the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The new forms
which he introduced were eagerly imitated and developed by
other architects, until the period of decadence — which virtually
concludes the history of Dalmatian art — set in during the latter
half of the 17th century. Special mention must be made of the
carved woodwork, embroideries and plate preserved in many
churches. The silver statuette and the reliquary of St Biagio at
Ragusa, and the silver ark of St Simeon at Zara, are fine speci-
mens of Byzantine and Italian jewellers' work, ranging in date
from the 1 1 th or 1 2 th to the 1 7 th cent ury .

History

Dalmatia under Roman Rule, a.d. 9-1 102. — The history of

Dalmatia may be said to begin with- the year 180 B.C., when the

tribe from which the country derives its name declared itself

independent of Gentius, the Illyrian king, and established a

republic. Its capital was Delminium 1 ; its territory stretched
northwards from the Narenta to the Cetina, and later to the
Kerka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. In 156 B.C. the
Dalmatians were for the first time attacked by a Roman army
and compelled to pay tribute; but only in the time of Augustus
(31 b.c.-a.d. 14) was their land finally annexed, after the last
of many formidable revolts had been crushed by Tiberius in
a.d. 9. This event was followed by total submission and a
ready acceptance of the Latin civilization which overspread
Illyria (q.v.). The downfall of the Western Empire left this
region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and Theodoric, from
476 to S3 5 , when it was added by Justinian to the Eastern Empire.
The great Slavonic migration into Illyria, which wrought a
complete ehange in the fortunes of Dalmatia, took place in the
first half of the 7th century. In other parts of the Balkan
Peninsula these invaders — Serbs, Croats or Bulgars — found little
difficulty in expelling or absorbing the native population. But
here they were baffled when confronted by the powerful maritime
city-states, highly civilized, and able to rely on the moral if not
the material support of their kinsfolk in Italy. Consequently,
while the country districts were settled by the Slavs, the Latin or
Italian population flocked for safety to Ragusa, Zara and other
large towns, and the whole country was thus divided between
two frequently hostile communities. This opposition was in-
tensified by the schism between Eastern and Western Chris-
tianity (1054), the Slavs as a rule preferring the Orthodox or
sometimes the Bogomil creed, while the Italians were firmly
attached to the Papacy. Not until the 15th century did the
rival races contribute to a common civilization in the literature
of Ragusa. To such a division of population may be attributed
the two dominant characteristics of local history — the total
absence of national as distinguished from civic life, and the
remarkable development of art, science and literature. Bosnia,
Servia and Bulgaria had each its period of national greatness,
but remained intellectually backward; Dalmatia failed ever. to
attain political or racial unity, but the Dalmatian city-states,
isolated and compelled to look to Italy for support, shared
perforce in the march of Italian civilization. Their geographical
position suffices to explain the relatively small influence exercised
by Byzantine culture throughout the six centuries (535-1102)
during which Dalmatia was part of the Eastern empire. Towards
the close of this period Byzantine rule tended more and more to
become merely nominal. In 806 Dalmatia was added to the
Holy Roman empire, but was soon restored; in 829 the coast was
ravaged by Saracens. A strange republic of Servian pirates arose
at the mouth of the Narenta. In the 10th century description of
Dalmatia by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (De Administrando
Imperio, 29-37), this region is called Pagania, from the fact that
its inhabitants had only accepted Christianity about 890, or 250
years later than the other Slavs. These Pagani, or Arentani
(Narentines) , utterly defeated a Venetian fleet despatched against
them in 887, and for more than a century exacted tribute from
Venice itself. In 998 they were finally crushed by the doge
Pietro Orseolo II., who assumed the title duke of Dalmatia,
though without prejudice to Byzantine suzerainty. Meanwhile
the Croatian kings had extended their rule over northern and
central Dalmatia, exacting tribute from the Italian cities, Trau,
Zara and others, and consolidating their own power in the purely
Slavonic towns, such as Nona or Belgrad (Zaravecchia). The
Church was involved in the general confusion; for the synod of
Spalato, in 1059, had forbidden the use of any but Greek or Latin
liturgies, and so had accentuated the differences between Latin
and Slav. A raid of Norman corsairs in 1073 was hardly defeated
with the help of a Venetian fleet.

1 Also written Dalminium, Deminium, and Delmis. Thomas of
Spalato (c. 1200-1250) mentions that the site of Delminium had been
forgotten in his time, although certain ancient walls among the
mountains were believed to be its ruins. It has been variously
identified, by modern archaeologists, with Almissa, on the coast,
Dalen, in the Herzegovina, Duvno, near Sinj, and Gardun, in the
same locality. It was evidently a stronghold of considerable size
and importance, and Appian (De bellis Illyricis) alludes to its almost
impregnable fortifications.

DALMATIA

775

Rivalry of Venice and Hungary in Dalmatia, 1 102-1420. —
Unable amid such dissensions to stand alone, unprotected by the
Eastern empire and hindered by their internal dissensions from
uniting in a defensive league, the city-states turned to Venice
and Hungary for support. The Venetians, to whom they were
already bound by race, language and culture, could afford to
concede liberal terms because their own principal aims was not
the territorial aggrandizement sought by Hungary, but only such
a supremacy as might prevent the development of any dangerous
political or commercial competitor on the eastern Adriatic.
Hungary had also its partisans; for in the Dalmatian city-
states, like those of Greece and Italy, there were almost invariably
two jealous political factions, each ready to oppose any measure
advocated by its antagonist. The origin of this division seems
here to have been economic. The farmers and the merchants
who traded in the interior naturally favoured Hungary, their
most powerful neighbour on land; while the seafaring com-
munitydooked to Venice as mistress of the Adriatic. In return
for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the
army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute
either in money or in kind. Arbe, for example, annually paid
ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold to Venice. The citizens
clung to their municipal privileges, which were reaffirmed after
the conquest of Dalmatia in 1102-1105 by Coloman of Hungary.
Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief
magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law remained
valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances.
No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he
was unwelcome ; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion
could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of
tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared
equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality.
These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice
were, however, too frequently infringed, Hungarian garrisons
being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered
with trade, with the appointment of bishops, or with the tenure
of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained
loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections
frequently occurred. Even in Zara four outbreaks are recorded
between 1180 and 1345, although Zara was treated with special
consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its posses-
sion as essential to their maritime ascendancy. The doubtful
allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle
between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by
internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy ;
and by many outside influences, such as the vague suzerainty
still enjoyed by the Eastern emperors during the 12th century;
the assistance rendered to Venice by the armies of the Fourth
Crusade in 1 202 ; and the Tartar invasion of Dalmatia forty years
later (see Trau). The Slavs were no longer regarded as a
hostile race, but the power of certain Croatian magnates, notably
the counts of Bribir, was from time to time supreme in the
northern districts (see Croatia-Slavonia) ; and Stephen
Tvrtko, the founder of the Bosnian kingdom, was able in 1389
to annex the whole Adriatic littoral between Cattaro and Fiume,
except Venetian Zara and his own independent ally, Ragusa (see
Bosnia and Herzegovina). Finally, the rapid decline of Bosnia,
and of Hungary itself when assailed by the Turks, rendered easy
the success of Venice; and in 1420 the whole of Dalmatia, except
Almissa, which yielded in 1444, and Ragusa, which preserved
its freedom, either submitted or was conquered. Many cities
welcomed the change with its promise of tranquillity.

Venetian and Turkish Rule, 1420-1797. — An interval of peace
ensued, but meanwhile the Turkish advance continued. Con-
stantinople fell in 1453, Servia in 1459, Bosnia in 1463 and
Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers
met; border wars were incessant; Ragusa sought safety in
friendship with the invaders. In 1508 the hostile league of
Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home
service, and after the overthrow of Hungary at Mohacs in 1526
the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dal-
matia. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to

Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province, governed from
the fortress of Clissa by a Sanjakbeg, or administrator with
military powers. Christian Slavs from the neighbouring lands
now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Italian population
and introducing their own language, but falling under the
influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The pirate community
of the Uskoks (q.v.) had originally been a band of these fugitives;
its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and
Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of con-
temporary manners is presented by the Venetian agents, 1 whose
reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the
middle ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other
chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dal-
matian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and
courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at Lepanto, for
example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets
of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the
Turkish navy. A fresh war broke out in 1645, lasting inter-
mittently until 1699, when the peace of Carlowitz gave the
whole of Dalmatia to Venice, including the coast of Herzegovina,
but excluding the domains of Ragusa and the protecting band of
Ottoman territory which surrounded them. After further fight-
ing this delimitation was confirmed in 17 18 by the treaty of
Passarowitz; and it remains valid, though modified by the
destruction of Ragusan liberty and the substitution of Austria-
Hungary for Venice and Turkey.

The intellectual life of Dalmatia during the 15th, 16th and
17 th centuries reached a higher level than any attained by the
purely Slavonic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. Its chief
monuments are described elsewhere,-*-the work of the Ragusan
poets and historians as a part of Servian literature, the scientific
achievements of R. G. Boscovich and Marcantonio de Dominis
in separate biographies. Architecture and art generally have
been discussed above. But this intellectual development was
the work of a small and opulent minority in all the cities except
Ragusa. Popular education was neglected; Zara had no
printing-press until 1796; Venetian Dalmatia possessed only
one public school, and that an ecclesiastical seminary; and
even the sons of the rich, though free to visit the universities
of Italy, France, Holland and England, ran the risk of exile or
worse punishment if they brought home too liberal a culture.
Poorer students learned what they could from the clergy, and the
peasantry were wholly illiterate. Although the secular power of
the Church was strictly limited, the country was overrun by
ecclesiastics. When Fortis visited the island of Arbe in the
18th century, he found a population of 3000, mostly fishermen,
contributing to the stipends of sixty priests. There were also
three monasteries and three nunneries. Heavy taxes, the salt
monopoly, reckless destruction of timber, and a deliberate
attempt to ruin the oil and silk industries, were among the means
by which Venice prevented competition with its own trade.
Although justice was fairly well administered and some show
of municipal autonomy conceded, the right of electing a chief
magistrate had been withheld after 1420; and the Grand Council
or Senate of each city, losing its original democratic character,
had degenerated into a mere tool of the resident Venetian agents
(provveditori) , officials who held their post for thirty-two months
and were subject to little effective control. Nevertheless, 150
years of war against the common Turkish enemy had drawn the
Venetians and their subjects closely together, and the loyalty of
the Dalmatian soldiers and sailors abroad, if not of their fellow-
citizens at home, rests beyond doubt.

Dalmatia after 1797. — After the fall of the Venetian republic
in 1797, the treaty of Campo Formio gave Dalmatia to Austria.
The republics of Ragusa and Poglizza retained their independ-
ence, and Ragusa grew rich by its neutrality during the earlier
Napoleonic wars. By the peace of Pressburg in 1805 the country
was handed over to France, but its occupation was ineffectually
contested by a Russian force which seized the Bocche di Cattaro
and induced the Montenegrins to render aid. Poglizza was

1 Long extracts from these reports or diaries are published by
Wilkinson, Dalmatia and Montenegro (London, 1840), ii. 297-350.

776

DALMATIC

deprived of its independence by Napoleon in 1807, Ragusa
in 1808. In 1809 the French troops were withdrawn, but in
the same year Dalmatia was restored to France and united to
the Illyrian kingdom by the treaty of Vienna. A British naval
force under Captain Hoste, after a successful engagement with
a small French squadron off Lissa, occupied the islands of
Curzola, Lesina and Lagosta from 181 2 to 1815, and established
a considerable overland trade through Dalmatia, Austria and
Germany. The allied British and Austrian forces drove out
the last French garrison in 1814, and in 1815 Dalmatia was
finally incorporated in the Austro-Hungarian empire, with which
its history has since been identified. Its subsequent tran-
quillity has only been disturbed by the ineffectual risings of
1869 and 1881-1882, which took place near Cattaro (q.v.). For
an account of the development of Croatian nationalism among
the Dalmatians, during the 19th and 20th centuries, see Croatia-

Slavonia.

Bibliography. — A minute and accurate account of Dalmatian
history, art (especially architecture), antiquities and topography, is
given by T. G. Jackson, in Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria (Oxford,
1887), (3 vols, illustrated). E. A. Freeman, Subject and Neighbour
Lands of Venice (London, 1881), and G. Modrich, La Dalmazia
(Turin, 1892), describe the chief towns, their history and antiquities.
Much miscellaneous information is contained in the following mainly
topographical works: — P. Bauron, Les Rives illyriennes (Paris,
"""); Sir A. A. Paton, Highlands and Islands of the Adriatic

1000;; oil n.. n.. 1 aiun, n( S i^t»iw «./*i* *.« v ~.*~~ ~, ...-

(London, 1849); Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Dalmatia and Montenegro
(London, 1840); A. Fortis, Travels into Dalmatia (London, 1778);
and the periodicals, Rivista Dalmatica (Zara, 1899, &c), and Annu-
ario Dalmatico (Zara, 1884, &c). The best maps are those of the
Austrian General Staff and Vincenzo de Haardt's Zemljovid Kral-
jevine Dalmacije (Zara, 1892). See also for trade, the Annual British
Consular Reports; for sport, " Snaffle," In the Land of the Bora
(London, 1897); for Roman and pre-Roman antiquities, R. Munro,
Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia (Edinburgh, 1904). Besides the
works mentioned above, and those bylFarlatus, Makushev, Miklosich,
Theiner, Shafarik; Orbini and du Cange, which are quoted under
Bosnia and Herzegovina, the chief authority for Dalmatian
history is G. Lucio (Lucius of Traii), De regno Dalmatiae etCroatiae,
a gentis origine ad annum 1480 (Amsterdam, 1666). To this edition
are appended the works of the Presbyter Diocleas, Thomas of
Spalato and other native chroniclers from the 12th century onwards.
An Italian translation, omitting the appendix, was published at
Trieste in 1892, entitled Storia del Regno di Dalmatia e di Croazia,
and edited by Luigi Cesare. Lucio's work is singularly trustworthy
and scientific. See also P. Pisani, La Dalmatie de 1797 a 1815 (Paris,
1893). (K. G. J.)

DALMATIC (Lat. dalmatica, tunica dalmatica), a liturgical
vestment of the Western Church, proper to deacons, as the
tunicle (tunicella) is to subdeacons. Dalmatic and tunicle are
now, however, practically identical in shape and size; though,
strictly, the latter should be somewhat smaller and with narrower
arms. In most countries, e.g. England, France, Spain and
Germany, dalmatic and tunicle are now no longer tunics, but
scapular-like cloaks, with an opening for the head to pass through
and square lappets falling from the shoulder over the upper
part of the arm; in Italy, on the other hand, though open up
the side, they still have regular sleeves and are essentially tunics.
The most characteristic ornament of the dalmatic and tunicle
is the vertical stripes running from the shoulder to the lower
hem, these being connected by a cross-band, the position of
which differs in various countries (see figs. 3, 4). Less essential
are the orphreys on the hem of the arms and the fringes along
the slits at the sides and the lower hem. The tassels hanging
from either shoulder at the back (see fig. 6), formerly very
much favoured, have now largely gone out of use.

The dalmatica, which originated-^-as its name implies — in
Dalmatia, came into fashion in the Roman world in the 2nd
century a.d. It was a loose tunic with very wide sleeves, and
was worn over the tunica alba by the better class of citizens
(see. fig. 2). According to the Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne,
1. 171) the dalmatic was first introduced as a vestment in public
worship by Pope Silvester I. (314-335), who ordered it to be
worn by the deacons; but Braun (Liturg. Gewandung, p. 250)
thinks that it was probably in use by the popes themselves so
early as the 3rd century, since St Cyprian (d. 258) is mentioned
as wearing it when he went to his death. If this be so, it was
probably given to the Roman deacons to distinguish them

from the other clergy and to mark their special relations to
the pope. However this may be, the dalmatic remained for
centuries the vestment distinctive of the pope and his deacons,
and — according at least to the view held at Rome— could be
worn by other clergy only by special concession of the pope.
Thus Pope Symmachus (498-514) granted the right to wear it
to the deacons of Bishop Caesarius of Aries; and so late as
757 Pope Stephen II. gave permission to Fulrad, abbot of St
Denis, to be assisted by six deacons at mass, and these are
empowered to wear " the robe of honour of the dalmatic."
How far, however, this rule was strictly observed, and what was
the relation of the Roman dalmatic to the diaconal alba and
subdiaconal tunica, which were in liturgical use in Gaul and
Spain so early as the 6th century, are moot points (see Braun,
p. 252). The dalmatic was in general use at the beginning of the
9th century, partly as a result of the Carolingian reforms, which
established the Roman model in western Europe; but it con-
tinued to be granted by the popes to distinguished ecclesiastics
not otherwise entitled to wear it, e.g. to abbots or to the cardinal
priests of important cathedrals. So far as the records show, Pope
John XIII. (965-972) was the first to bestow the right to wear
the dalmatic on an abbot, and Pope Benedict VII. the first to
grant it to a cardinal priest of a foreign
cathedral (97 s). The present rule was
firmly established by the nth century.
According to the actual use of the Roman
Catholic Church dalmatic and tunicle are
worn by deacon and subdeacon when
assisting at High Mass, and at solemn
processions and benedictions. They are,
however, traditionally vestments sym-
bolical of joy (the bishop in placing the
dalmatic on the newly ordained deacon
says:—" May the Lord clothe thee in the
tunic of joy and the garment of rejoic-
ing "), and they are therefore not worn
during seasons of fasting and penitence or
functions connected with these, the folded
chasuble (paenula plicata) being substi-
tuted (see Chasuble). Dalmatic and tunicle
are never worn by priests, as priests, but
both are worn by bishops under the
chasuble (never under the cope) and also

by those prelates, not being bishops, to

whom the pope has conceded the right to ^STappSd
wear the episcopal vestments. amice and alb.

In England at the Reformation the
dalmatic ultimately shared the fate of the chasuble and other
mass vestments. It was, however, certainly one of the " orna-
ments of the minister " in the second year of Edward VI., the
rubric in the office for Holy Communion directing the priest's
" helpers " to wear " albes with tunacles." In many Anglican
churches it has therefore been restored, as a result of the
ritual revival of the 19th century, it being claimed that its use
is obligatory under the " ornaments rubric " of the Book of
Common Prayer (see Vestments) .

In the Eastern churches the only vestment that has any true
analogy with the dalmatic or liturgical upper tunic is the
sakkos, the tunic worn by deacons and subdeacons over their
everyday clothes being the equivalent of the Western alb (q.v.).
The sakkos, which, as a liturgical vestment, first appears in the
12th century as peculiar to patriarchs, is now a scapular-like
robe very similar to the modern dalmatic (see fig. 5). Its origin
is almost certainly the richly embroidered dalmatic that formed
part of the consular insignia, which under the name of sakkos
became a robe of state special to the emperors. It is clear, then,
that this vestment can only have been assumed with the emperor's
permission; and Braun suggests (p. 305) that its use was granted
to the patriarchs, after the completion of the schism of East and
West, in order " in some sort to give them the character, in
outward appearance as well, of popes of the East." Its use is
confined to the Greek rite. In the Greek and Greek-Melchite

DALMATIC

Plate I.

Fig. 2— TUNIC OF
From t lie

LlNhN, WOVEN
tombs at Akhmim.

WITH BANDS OF PURPLE WOOL EMBROIDERED WITH WHITE FLAX.
Egypto-Roman; 1st to 4th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)

" 1

FIG. 3-— BACK OF A DALMATIC OF STAMPED GREEN WOOLLEN VELVET: THE ORPHRF.YS AND APPARELS

ARE OF EMBROIDERED SILK VELVET.
The two figures on the cross-band or apparel represent St. Gregory the Great and St. Augustine. The shields of arms are for the
dukes of Juiich and Berg, counts of Ravensberg, and for the electors of Bavaria. Said to have come from the church of St Severin
Cologne. German (Cologne); second half of 15th century, (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)

DALMATIC

Fig. 4. -DALMATIC OF WHITE SATIN EMBROIDERED WITH COLOURED SILKS AND SILVER-GILT AND SILVER THREAD
Spanish; early 17th century. (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)

I

; <|J*|iii» _jjfr <i H»ii> ^jt if»5,
■ . f ' • ; . • j>-

Fk

5.— GREEK SAKKOS, OF RED SATIN EM-
BROIDERED WITH SILVER-GILT AND
SILVER THREAD WITH SILK.
It has the names and arms of two archbishops. 18th
century, (In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)

Fig. C— DALMATIC OF TOPE PIUS V.
An early example of the modern Roman type. Roman; 16th century.
Preserved at Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. From a photograph taken by
Father J. Braun (in Die liturgische Gewandung), by permission of B. Herder.

DALMELLINGTON— DALTON, JOHN

churches it is confined to the patriarchs and metropolitans;
in the Russian, Ruthenian and Bulgarian churches it is worn by
all bishops. Unlike the practice of the Latin church, it is not
worn under, but has replaced the phelonion (chasuble).

A silk dalmatic forms one (the undermost) of the English
coronation robes. Its use would seem to have been borrowed,
not from the robes of the Eastern emperors, but from the
church, and to symbolize with the other robes the quasi-
sacerdotal character of the kingship (see Coronation). The
magnificent so-called dalmatic of Charlemagne, preserved at
Rome (see Embroidery), is really a Greek sakkos.

See Joseph Braun, S.J., Die liturgische Cewandung (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1907), pp. 247-305. For further references and illustrations
see the article Vestments. (W. A. P.)

DALMELLINGTON, a village of Ayrshire, Scotland, 15 m. S.E.
of Ayr by a branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the
Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1448. The
district is rich in minerals — coal, ironstone, sandstone and
limestone. Though the place is of great antiquity, the Roman
road running near it, few remains of any interest exist. It was,
however, a centre of activity in the Covenanting times.

DALOU, JULES (1838-1902), French sculptor, was the pupil
of Carpeaux and Duret, and combined the vivacity and richness
of the one with the academic purity and scholarship of the other.
He is one of the most brilliant virtuosos of the French school,
admirable alike in taste, execution and arrangement. He first
exhibited at the Salon in 1867, but when in 1871 the troubles of
the Commune broke out in Paris, he took refuge in England,
where he rapidly made a name through his appointment at
South Kensington. Here he laid the foundation of that great
improvement which resulted in the development of the modern
British school of sculpture, and at the same time executed a
remarkable series of terra-cotta statuettes and groups, such as
" A French Peasant Woman " (of which a bronze version under
the title of " Maternity " is erected outside the Royal Exchange) ,
the group of two Boulogne women called " The Reader " and
" A Woman of Boulogne teUing her Beads." He returned to
France in 1879 and produced a number of masterpieces. His
great relief of " Mirabeau replying to M. de Dreux-Breze,"
exhibited in 1883 and now at the Palais Bourbon, and the highly
decorative panel, " Triumph of the Republic," were followed in
1885 by " The Procession of Silenus." For the city of Paris
he executed his most elaborate and splendid achievement, the
vast monument, " The Triumph of the Republic," erected, after
twenty years' work, in the Place de la Nation, showing a sym-
bolical figure of the Republic, aloft on her car, drawn by lions
led by Liberty, attended by Labour and Justice, and followed by
Peace. It is somewhat in the taste of the Louis XIV. period,
ornate, but exquisite in every detail. Within a few days there
was also inaugurated his great "Monument to Alphand" (1899),
which almost equalled in the success achieved the monument to
Delacroix in the Luxembourg Gardens. Dalou, who gained the
Grand Prix of the International exhibition of 1889, and was an
officer of the Legion of Honour, was one of the founders of the
New Salon (Society Nationale des Beaux- Arts), and was the first
president of the sculpture section. In portraiture, whether
statues or busts, his work is not less remarkable.

DALRADIAN, in geology, a series of metamorphic rocks,
typically developed in the high ground which lies E. and S.
of the Great Glen of Scotland. This was the old Celtic region of
Dalradia, and in 1891 Sir A. Geikie proposed the name Dalradian
as a convenient provisional designation for the complicated set
of rocks to which it is difficult to assign a definite position in
the stratigraphical sequence (Q.J.G.S. 47, p. 75).- In Sir A.
Geikie's words, " they consist in large proportion of altered
sedimentary strata, now found in the form of mica-schist,
graphite-schist, andalusite-schist, phyllite, schistose grit, grey-
wacke and conglomerate, quartzite, limestone and other
rocks, together with epidiorites, chlorite-schists, hornblende
schists and other allied varieties, which probably mark sills,
5ava-sheets or beds of tuff, intercalated among the sediments.
The total thickness of this assemblage of rocks must be many

777

thousand feet." The Dalradian series includes the " Eastern or
Younger schists " of eastern Sutherland, Ross-shire and Inver-
ness-shire — the Moine gneiss, &c. — as well as the metamorphosed
sedimentary and eruptive rocks of the central, eastern and
south-western Highlands. The series has been traced into the
north-western counties of Ireland. The whole of the Dalradian
complex has suffered intense crushing and thrusting.

See Pre-Cambrian; also J. B. Hill, Q.J.G.S., 1899, 55, and G.
Barrow, loc. cit., 1901, 57, and the Annual Reports and Summaries
of Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom from 1893
onwards.

DALRIADA, the name of two ancient Gaelic kingdoms, one
in Ireland and the other in Scotland. The name means the
home of the descendants of Riada. Irish Dalriada was the
district which now forms the northern part of county Antrim,
and from which about a.d. 500 some emigrants crossed over to
Scotland, and founded in Argyllshire the Scottish kingdom of
Dalriada. For a time Scottish Dalriada appears to have been
dependent upon Irish Dalriada, but about 575 King Aidan
secured its independence. One of Aidan's successors, Kenneth,
became king of the Picts about 843, and gradually the name
Dalriada both in Ireland and Scotland fell into disuse.

See W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh, 1876-1880).

DALRY (Gaelic, " the field of the king "), a mining and
manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the Garnock,
231 m. S.W. of Glasgow, by the Glasgow & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 5316. The public buildings include the
library and reading-room, the assembly rooms, Davidshill
hospital, Temperance hall and night asylum. There is a public
park. The industries consist of woollen factories, worsted
spinning, box-, cabinet-, coke- and brick-making, machine-
knitting, currying and the manufacture of aerated waters.
Coal and iron are found, but mining is not extensively pursued.
In the vicinity are the iron works of Blair and Glengarnock,
and a curious stalactite cave, known as Elf House, 30 ft. high
and about 200 ft. long, offering some resemblance to a pointed
aisle. Rye Water flows into the Garnock close to the town.
Captain Thomas Crawford of Jordanhill (1530-1603), the captor
of Dumbarton Castle, spent the closing years of his life at Dairy,
where a considerable estate had been granted to him.

DALTON, JOHN (1766-1844), English chemist and physicist,
was born about the 6th of September 1766 at Eaglesfield, near
Cockermouth in Cumberland. His father, Joseph Dalton, was
a weaver in poor circumstances, who, with his wife (Deborah
Greenup), belonged to the Society of Friends; they had three
children— Jonathan, John and Mary. John received his early
education from his father and from John Fletcher, teacher of
the Quakers' school at Eaglesfield, on whose retirement in 1778
he himself started teaching. This youthful venture was not
successful, the amount he received in fees being only about
five shillings a week, and after two years he took to farm work.
But he had received some instruction in mathematics from
a distant relative, Elihu Robinson, and in 178 1 he left his native
village to become assistant to his cousin George Bewley who
kept a school at Kendal. There he passed the next twelve years,
becoming in 1785, through the retirement of his cousin, joint
manager of the school with his elder brother Jonathan. About
1790 he seems to have thought of taking up law or medicine,
but his projects met with no encouragement from his relatives and
he remained at Kendal till, in the spring of 1793, he moved to
Manchester, where he spent the rest of his life. Mainly through
John Gough (1757-1825), a blind philosopher to whose aid he
owed much of his scientific knowledge, he was appointed teacher
of mathematics and natural philosophy at the New College in
Moseley Street (in 1880 transferred to Manchester College,
Oxford), and that position he retained until the removal of the
college to York in 1799, when he. became a " public and private
teacher of mathematics and chemistry."

During his residence in Kendal, Dalton had contributed solu-
tions of problems and questions on various subjects to the
Gentlemen's and Ladies' Diaries, and in 1787 he began to keep
a meteorological diary in which during the succeeding fifty-seven

77 8

DALTON, JOHN

years he entered more than 200,000 observations. His first
separate publication was Meteorological Observations and Essays
(1793). which contained the germs of several of his later dis-
coveries ; but in spite of the originality of its matter, the book
met with only a limited sale. Another work by him, Elements
of English Grammar, was published in 1801. In 1794 he was
elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, and a few weeks after election he communicated his
first paper on "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of
colours," in which he gave the earliest account of the optical
peculiarity known as Daltonism or colour-blindness, and summed
up its characteristics as observed in himself and others. Besides
the blue and purple of the spectrum he was able to recognize
only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper, " that part
of the image which others call red appears to me little more
than a shade or defect of light; after that the orange, yellow
and green seem one colour which descends pretty uniformly
from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call
different shades of yellow." This paper was followed by many
others on diverse topics — on rain and dew and the origin of
springs, on heat, the colour of the sky, steam, the auxiliary
verbs and participles of the English language and the reflection
and refraction of light. In 1800 he became a secretary of the
society, and in the following year he presented the important
paper or series of papers, entitled " Experimental Essays on the
constitution of mixed gases; on the force of steam or vapour
of water and other liquids in different temperatures, both in
Torricellian vacuum and in air; on evaporation; and on the
expansion of gases by heat." The second of these essays opens
with the striking remark, " There can scarcely be a doubt enter-
tained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever
kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting
it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted upon
the unmixed gases " ; further, after describing experiments
to ascertain the tension of aqueous vapour at different points
between 32 and 212 F., he concludes, from observations on
the vapour of six different liquids, " that the variation of the
force of vapour from all liquids is the same for the same variation
of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given force."
In the fourth essay he remarks, " I see no sufficient reason why
we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same
pressure expand equally by heat and that for any given expansion
of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally
something less, the higher the temperature. ... It seems,
therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity
and the nature of heat are more likely to be derived from elastic
fluids than from other substances." He thus enunciated the
law of the expansion of gases, stated some months later by
Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following the reading
of these essays, he published several papers on similar topics,
that on the " Absorption of gases by water and other liquids "
(1803), containing his " Law of partial pressures."

But the most important of all Dalton's investigations are
those concerned with the Atomic Theory in chemistry, with
which his name is inseparably associated. It has been supposed
that this theory was suggested to him either by researches on
defiant gas and carburetted hydrogen or by analysis of " pro-
toxide and deutoxide of azote," both views resting on the
authority of Dr Thomas Thomson (1773-1852), professor of
chemistry in Glasgow university. But from a study of Dalton's
own MS. laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the
Manchester society, Roscoe and Harden {A New View of the
Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory, 1896) conclude that so far
from Dalton being led to the idea that chemical combination
consists in the approximation of atoms of definite and character-
istic weight by his search for an explanation of the law of com-
bination in multiple proportions, the idea of atomic structure
arose in his mind as a purely physical conception, forced upon
him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and
other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to
be found at the end of his paper on the " Absorption of gases "
already mentioned, which was read on the 21st of October 1803

though not published till 1805. Here he says: " Why does not
water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? This question
I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfy
myself completely I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance
depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of
the several gases." He proceeds to give what has been quoted
as his first table of atomic weights, but on p. 248 of his laboratory
notebooks for 1802-1804, under the date 6th of September 1803,
there is an earlier one in which he sets forth the relative weights
of the ultimate atoms of a number of substances, derived from
analysis of water, ammonia, carbon-dioxide, &c. by chemists of
the time. It appears, then, that, confronted with the " problem
of ascertaining the relative diameter of the particles of which,
he was convinced, all gases were made up, he had recourse to
the results of chemical analysis. Assisted by the assumption
that combination always takes place in the simplest possible
way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes
place between particles of different weights, and this it was
which differentiated his theory from the historic speculations
of the Greeks. The extension of this idea to substances in general
necessarily led him to the law of combination in multiple
proportions, and the comparison with experiment brilliantly
confirmed the truth of his deduction " (A New View, &"c,
pp. 50, 51). It may be noted that in a paper on the " Proportion
of the gases or elastic fluids constituting the atmosphere," read
by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions
appears to be anticipated in the words — " The elements of
oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or
with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity,"
but there is reason to suspect that this sentence was added
some time after the reading of the paper, which was not published
till 1805.

Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Dr Thomson, who
by consent included an outline of it in the third edition of his
System of Chemistry (1807), and Dalton gave a further account of
it in the first part of the first volume of his New System of Chemical
Philosophy (1808). The second part of this volume appeared
in 1810, but the first part of the second volume was not issued
till 1827, though the printing of it began in 1817. This delay
is not explained by any excess of care in preparation, for much
of the matter was out of date and the appendix giving the author's
latest views is the only portion of special interest. The second
part of vol. ii. never appeared.

Altogether Dalton contributed 116 memoirs to the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, of which from 18 17 till his
death he was the president. Of these the earlier are the most
important. In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the
principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the
earliest workers. In 1840 a paper on the phosphates and
arsenates, which was clearly unworthy of him, was refused by
the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it
himself. He took the same course soon afterwards with four
other papers, two of which — " On the quantity of acids, bases
and salts in different varieties of salts " and " On a new and easy
method of analysing sugar," contain his discovery, regarded
by him as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that
certain anhydrous salts when dissolved in water cause no increase
in its volume, his inference being that the " salt enters into the
pores of the water."

As an investigator, Dalton was content with rough and in-
accurate instruments, though better ones were readily attainable.
Sir Humphry Davy described him as a " very coarse experi-
menter," who " almost always found the results he required,
trusting to his head rather than his hands." In the preface to
the second part of vol. i. of his New System he says he had so
often been misled by taking for granted the results of others
that he " determined to write as little as possible but what I can
attest by my own experience," but this independence he carried
so far that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus
he distrusted, and probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac 's
conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases; he held
peculiar and quite unfounded views about chlorine, even after

DALTON— DALYELL

779

its elementary character had been settled by Davy; he persisted
in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, even when
they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations
of other chemists; and he always objected to the chemical
notation devised by J. J. Berzelius, although by common consent
it was much simpler and more convenient than his cumbersome
system of circular symbols. His library, he was once heard to
declare, he could carry on his back, yet he had not read half the
books it contained.

Before he had propounded the atomic theory he had already
attained a considerable scientific reputation. In 1804 he was
chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the
Royal Institution in London, where he delivered another course
in 1809-1810. But he was deficient, it would seem, in the
qualities that make an attractive lecturer, being harsh and
indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject,
and " singularly wanting in the language and power of illustra-
tion." In 1810 he was asked by Davy to offer himself as a
candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, but declined,
possibly for pecuniary reasons; but in 1822 he was proposed
without his knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six
years previously he had been made a corresponding member of
the French Academy of Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as
one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833 Lord
Grey's government conferred on him a pension of £150, raised in
1836 to £300. Never married, though there is evidence that he
delighted in the society of women of education and refinement,
he lived for more than a quarter of a century with his friend
the Rev. W. Johns (1771-1845), in George Street, Manchester,
where his daily round of laboratory work and tuition was broken
only by annual excursions to the Lake district and occasional
visits to London, " a surprising place and well worth one's while
to see once, but the most disagreeable place on earth for one of a
contemplative turn to reside in constantly." In 1822 he paid a
short visit to Paris, where he met many of the distinguished men
of science then living in the French capital, and he attended
several of the earlier meetings of the British Association at York,
Oxford, Dublin and Bristol. Into society he rarely went, and
his only amusement was a game of bowls on Thursday afternoons.
He died in Manchester in 1844 of paralysis. The first attack he
suffered in 1837, and a second in 1838 left him much enfeebled,
both physically and mentally, though he remained able to make
experiments. In May 1844 he had another stroke; on the 26th
of July he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological
observation, and on the 27th he fell from his bed and was found
lifeless by his attendant. A bust of him, by Chantrey, was
publicly subscribed for in 1833 and placed in the entrance hall of
the Manchester Royal Institution.

See Henry, Life of Dalton, Cavendish Society (1854) ; Angus
Smith, Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory
(1856), which on pp. 253-263 gives a list of Dalton's publications;
and Roscoe and Harden, A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic
Theory (1896) ; also Atom.

DALTON, a city and the county-seat of Whitfield county,
Georgia, U.S.A., in the N W. part of the state, 100 m. N.N.W. of
Atlanta. Pop. (1890)3046; (1900) 4315 (957 negroes) 5(1910) 5324.
Dalton is served by the Southern, the Nashville, Chattanooga &
St Louis, and the Western & Atlanta (operated by the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis) railways. The city is in a rich agricul-
tural region; ships cotton, grain, fruit and ore; and has various
manufactures, including canned fruit and vegetables, flour and
foundry and machine shop products. It is the seat of Dalton
Female College. Dalton was founded by Duff Green and others
in 1848, and was incorporated in 1874. Hither General Braxton
Bragg retreated after his defeat at Chattanooga in the last week
of November 1863. Three weeks afterwards Bragg, in command
of the army in northern Georgia in winter quarters here, was
replaced by General Joseph E. Johnston, who, with his force of
54,400, adopted defensive tactics to meet Sherman's invasion of
Georgia, with his 99,000 or 100,000 men in the Army of the
Cumberland (60,000) under General G. H. Thomas, the Army of
the Tennessee (25,000) under General J. B. M'Pherson, and the
Army of the Ohio (14,000) under General J. M. Schofield. The

Federal forces stretched for 20 m. in a position south of Ringgold
and between Ringgold and Dalton. Johnston's line of defences
included Rocky Face Ridge, a wall of rock through which the
railway passes about 5 m. north-west of the city, Mill Creek (1 m.
north-north-west of Dalton), which he dammed so that it could
not be forded, and earthworks north and east of the city. On
the 7th of May General M'Pherson started for Resaca, 18 m.
south of Dalton, to occupy the railway there in Johnston's rear,
but he did not attack Resaca, thinking it too strongly protected;
Thomas, with Schofield on his left, on the 7th forced the Con-
federates through Buzzard's Roost Gap (the pass at Mill Creek)
north-west of Dalton; at Dug Gap, 4 m. south-west of Dalton,
on the 8th a fierce Federal assault under Brigadier- General John
W. Geary failed to dislodge the Confederates from a quite im-
pregnable position. On the nth the main body of Sherman's
army followed M'Pherson toward Resaca, and Johnston, having
evacuated Dalton on the night of the 12th, was thus forced, after
five days' manoeuvring and skirmishing, to march to Resaca and
to meet Sherman there.

See J. D. Cox, The Atlanta Campaign (New York, 1882) ; Johnson
and Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (4 vols., New York,
1887) ; and Official Records of the War of the Rebellion, series I, vols.
32, 38, 39, 45, 49; series ii., vol. 8.

DALTON-IN-FURNESS, a market town in the North Lonsdale
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. N.E. by N.
of Barrow-in-Furness by the Furness railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 13,020. The church of St Mary is in the main a
modern reconstruction, but retains ancient fragments and a font
believed to have belonged to Furness Abbey. This fine ruin lies
3 m. south of Dalton (see Furness). St Mary's churchyard
contains the tomb of the painter George Romney, a native of
the town. Of Dalton Castle there remains a square tower,
showing decorated windows. Here was held the manorial court
of Furness Abbey. There are numerous iron-ore mines in the
parish, and ironworks at Askam-in-Furness, in the northern part
of the district. - -

DALY, AUGUSTIN (1838-1899), American theatrical manager
and playwright, was born in Plymouth, North Carolina, on the
20th of July 1838. He was dramatic critic for several New York
papers from 1859, and he adapted or wrote a number of plays,
Under the Gaslight (1867) being his first success. In 1869 he was
the manager of the Fifth Avenue theatre, and in 1879 he built
and opened Daly's theatre in New York, and, in 1893, Daly's
theatre in London. At the former he gathered a company of
players, headed by Miss Ada Rehan, which made for it a high
reputation, and for them he adapted plays from foreign sources,
and revived Shakespearean comedies in a manner before un-
known in America. He took his entire company on tour, visiting
England, Germany and France, and some of the best actors on
the American stage have owed their training and first successes
to him. Among these were Clara Morris, Sara Jewett, John
Drew, Fanny Davenport, Maude Adams, Mrs Gilbert and many
others. Daly was a great book-lover, and his valuable library
was dispersed by auction after his death, which occurred in
Paris on the 7th of June 1899. Besides plays, original and
adapted, he wrote Woffington: a Tribute to the Actress and the
Woman (1888).

DALYELL (or Dalziell or Dalzell), THOMAS (d. 1685),
British soldier, was the son of Thomas Dalyell of Binns, Lin-
lithgowshire, a cadet of the family of the earls of Carnwath, and
of Janet, daughter of the 1st Lord Bruce of Kinloss, master of
the rolls in England. He appears to have accompanied the
Rochelle expedition in 1628, and afterwards, becoming colonel,
served under Robert Munro, the general in Ireland. He was
taken prisoner at the capitulation of Carrickfergus in August
1650, but was given a free pass, and having been banished from
Scotland remained in Ireland. He was present at the battle of
Worcester (3rd of September 1651), where his men surrendered,
and he himself was captured and imprisoned in the Tower. In
May he escaped abroad, and in 1654 took part in the Highland
rebellion and was- excepted from Cromwell's act of grace, a
reward of £200 being offered for his capture, dead or alive. The
king's cause being now for the time hopeless, Dalyell entered the

780

DAM— DAMAGES

service of the tsar of Russia, and distinguished himself as general
in the wars against the Turks and Tatars. He returned to Charles
in 1665, and on the 19th of July 1666 he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief in Scotland to subdue the Covenanters. He
defeated them at Rullion Green and exercised his powers with
great cruelty, his name becoming a terror to the peasants. He
obtained several of the forfeited estates. On the 3rd of January
1667 he was made a privy councillor, and from 1678 till his death
represented Linlithgow in the Scottish parliament. He was
incensed by the choice of the duke of Monmouth as commander-
in-chief in June 1679, and was confirmed in his original appoint-
ment by Charles, but in consequence did not appear at Bothwell
Bridge till after the close of the engagement. On the 25th of
November 168 1, a commission was issued authorizing him to
enrol the regiment afterwards known as the Scots Greys. He
was continued in his appointment by James II., but died soon
after the latter's accession in August 1685. He married Agnes,
daughter of John Ker of Cavers, by whom he had a son, Thomas,
created a baronet in 1685, whose only son and heir, Thomas,
died unmarried. The baronetage apparently became extinct,
but it was assumed about 1726 by James Menteith, a son of the
sister of the last baronet, who took the name of Dalyell; his
last male descendant, Sir Robert Dalyell, died unmarried in
1886.

DAM. (1) (A common Teutonic word, cf. Swed. and Ger.
damm, and the Gothic verb faurdammj an, to block up), a barrier
of earth or masonry erected to restrain, divert or contain a
body of water, particularly in order to form a reservoir. (2)
(Fr. dame, dame; Lat. domina, feminine of dominus, lord,
master), the mother of an animal, now chiefly used of the larger
quadrupeds, and particularly of a mare, the mother of a foal.

DAMAGES (through O. Fr. damage, mod. Fr. dommage, from
Lat. damnum, loss), the compensation which a person who has
suffered a legal wrong is by law entitled to recover from the person
responsible for the wrong. Loss caused by an act which is not
a legal wrong (damnum sine injuria) is not recoverable, e.g.
where a father loses a young child by the negligence of a third
party.

The principle of compensation in law makes its first appearance
as a substitute for personal retaliation. In primitive law some-
thing of the nature of the Anglo-Saxon wer-gild, or the ttoivt]
of the Iliad, appears to be universal. It marks out with great
minuteness the measure of the compensation appropriate to
each particular case of personal injury. And there is a resem-
blance between the legal compensation, as it may be called, and
the compensation which an injured person, seeking his own
remedy, would be likely to exact for himself. In such a system
the two entirely different objects of personal satisfaction and
criminal punishment are not clearly separated, and in fact,
criminal and civil remedies were administered in the same
proceeding.

Under modern systems of law, the object of legal compensation
is to place the injured person as nearly as possible in the situation
in which he would have been but for the injury; and the con-
trolling principle is that compensation should be determined so
far as possible by the actual amount of the loss sustained. In
England, civil proceedings for reparation and criminal proceed-
ings for punishment are with few exceptions carefully kept
separate. In Scotland, pursuit of the two kinds of remedies in
the same proceeding is possible but very rare; but in France and
other European states it is lawful and usual in the case of those
delicts which are also punishable criminally.

In the law of England the two historical systems of common
law and equity viewed compensation or reparation from two
different points of view. The principle of the common law was
that the amount of every injury might be estimated by pecuniary
valuation. The idea was no doubt derived from the old tariffs
of were, hot and wife, in which the valuations were elaborate.
Until 1858 (Cairns' Act) courts of equity had no direct jurisdic-
tion to award damages, and their business was to place the
injured party in the actual position to which he was entitled
(restitutio ad integrum) . This difference comes out most clearly

in cases of breach of contract. The common law, with a few
partial exceptions, could do no more than compel the defaulter
to make good the loss of the other party, by paying him an ascer-
tained sum of money as damages. Equity, recognizing the fact
that complete satisfaction was not in all cases to be obtained by
mere money payment, compelled those who broke certain classes
of contracts specifically to perform them, and in the case of acts
or defaults not amounting to breach of contract, on satisfactory
proof that a wrong was contemplated, would interfere to prevent
it by injunction; while at common law no action could be
brought until the injury was accomplished, and then only
pecuniary damages could be obtained. Since the Judicature
Acts this distinction has ceased and the appropriate remedy may
be awarded in any division of the High Court of Justice.

Under the common law damages were always assessed by a
jury. Under the existing procedure in England they may be
assessed (1) by a jury under the directions of a judge; (2) by a
judge alone or sitting with assessors; (3) by a referee, official or
special, or officer of the courts with or without the assistance of
mercantile or other assessors; (4) by a consensual tribunal such
as an arbitrator or valuer selected by the parties. Whatever the
mode of assessment, it is subject to review if the assessors have
clearly mistaken the proper measure of damage.

In the case of assessment by a jury, the verdict may be set
aside because the damages are clearly excessive or palpably
insufficient, or arrived at by some irregular conduct, e.g. by
setting down the sum which each juryman would give and divid-
ing the result by twelve. The appellate court, however, cannot,
without the consent of the parties, itself fix the amount of
damages in a case which has been submitted to a jury (Watt v.
Walt, 1905, Appeal Cases 115).

The courts have gradually evolved certain rules or principles
for the proper assessment of damages, although extreme difficulty
is found in their application to concrete cases. A
distinction is drawn between general and special Measure
damages. (1) General damage is that implied by law damages.
as necessarily flowing from the breach of right, and
requiring no proof. (2) Special damage is that in fact caused by
the wrong. Under existing practice this form of damage cannot
be recovered unless it has been specifically claimed and proved,
or unless the best available particulars or details have been
before trial communicated to the party against whom it is
claimed.

Contracts. — " The law imposes or implies a term that upon
breach of contract damages must be paid." The general tend-
ency of legal decisions in cases of contract is (i.) to make the
amount of damages which may be awarded a matter of legal
certainty, (ii.) to leave to a jury or like tribunal little more to do
than find the facts, (iii.) and to revise the assessment if it is
clear that it has been made in disregard of the terms of the
contract or of the natural and direct consequences of the breach.
The measure of damage, general speaking, is the sum necessary
to place the aggrieved party in the same position so far as money
will do it as if the contract had been performed. If the breach
is proved, but the person complaining has suffered no real
damage, he is entitled to have his legal right recognized by an
award of what are called nominal damages, i.e. a sum just suffi-
cient to carry a judgment in his favour on the infraction of his
rights. Nominal damages, it will therefore be seen, are not the
same as " small damages." He is, however, also entitled to
prove and recover the special or particular damage lawfully
attributable to the breach. Where the contract is to pay a
fixed sum of money or liquidated amount, the measure of
damages for non-payment is the sum agreed to be paid and
interest thereon at the rate stipulated in the contract or recog-
nized by law.

The law is the same in Scotland and in France (Civil Code, art.
1 1 53). In some contracts the parties themselves fix the sum
to be paid as damages if the contract is not fulfilled. These
damages are described as liquidated, in Scots law stipulated or
estimated. It would be supposed that the sum thus fixed would
be the proper damages to be awarded. And under the French

DAMAGES

781

Civil Code (arts. 1152, 1153, 1780) the stipulation of the parties
as to the damages to be paid for breach of a stipulation other
than for paying a sum of money is binding on the courts. . But
in England, Scotland and the United States, courts disregard the
words used, and inquire into the real nature of the transaction in
order to see whether the sum fixed is to be treated as ascertained
damage or as a penalty to be held in terrorem over the defaulter,
and in the latter case, notwithstanding the stipulation, will
require proof of the actual loss. In Kemble v. Farren (1829, 6
Bingham, 141), a contract between a manager and an actor
provided that for a breach of any of the stipulations therein, the
sum of £1000 should be payable by the defaulter, not as a
penalty, but as liquidated and ascertained damages. Yet, the
court, observing that under the stipulations of the contract the
sum of £1000, if it were taken to be liquidated damages, might
become payable for mere non-payment of a trifling sum, held
that it was not fixed as damages, but as a penalty only. The
case in which an agreed sum is most usually treated as a penalty
is a bond to pay a fixed sum containing a condition that it shall
be void if certain acts are done or a certain smaller sum paid.
Another case is where a single lump sum is fixed as the liquidated
amount of damage to be paid for doing or failing to do a number
of different things of very varying degrees of importance (Elphin-
stonev.Monkland Iron Co., 1887, n A.C. 333). But the courts
have accepted as creating a contractual measure of damage a
stipulation to finish sewerage works by a given day (Law v.
Reddilch Local Board, 1892, 1 Q.B. 127); or to complete
torpedo boats within a limited time for a foreign government
(Clydebank Engineering Co. v. Yzquierda, 1905, A.C. 6). In
this last case the law lords indicated that the provision of an
agreed sum was peculiarly appropriate in view of the difficulty of
showing the exact damage which a state sustains by non-delivery
of a warship. Where the damage is not liquidated or agreed
it is assessed to upon evidence as to the actual loss naturally and
directly flowing from the breach of contract.

In contracts for the sale of goods the measure of damages is
fixed by statute. Where the buyer wrongfully refuses or neglects
to accept and pay for, or the seller wrongfully neglects or refuses
to deliver the goods, the measure is the estimated loss directly
and naturally resulting in the ordinary course of events from
the buyer's or seller's breach of contract. Where there is an
available market for the goods in question, the measure of
damages is prima facie to be ascertained by the difference between
the contract price and the market or current price at the time
or times when the goods ought to have been accepted or delivered,
or if no such time was fixed for acceptance or delivery, then at
the time of refusal to accept or deliver (Sale of Goods Act 1893,
§§ So, Si)-

Where there is no market, the value is fixed by the price of the
nearest available substitute. Where the sufferer, at the request
of the person in default, postpones purchase or sale, any in-
creased loss thereby caused falls on the defaulter. If the buyer,
before the time fixed for delivery, has resold the goods to a sub-
vendor, he cannot claim against his own vendor any damages
which the sub-vendor may recover against him for breach of
contract, because he ought to have gone into the market and
purchased other goods. But this is subject to modification in
cases falling within the rule in Hadley v. Baxendale (1854, 9
Exchequer, 341 ) . But trouble and expense incurred by the seller
of finding a new purchaser or other goods may be taken account
of in assessing the damages.

Where the goods delivered are not as contracted the buyer
may as a rule sue the seller for a breach of warranty, or set it
up as reduction of price. Where the warranty is of quality the
loss is prima facie the difference between the value of the goods
delivered when delivered and the value which they would have
then had if they had answered to the warranty (Sale of Goods
Act 1893, § 53). In an American case, where a person had agreed
with a boarding-house keeper for a year, and quitted the house
within the time, it was held that the measure of damages was not
the price stipulated to be paid, but "only the loss caused by the
breach of contract. In contracts to marry, a special class of

considerations is recognized, and the jury in assessing damages
will take notice of the conduct of the parties. The social position
and means of the defendant may be given in evidence to show
what the plaintiff has lost by the breach of contract.

On a breach of contract to replace stock lent, the measure of
damages is the price of the stock on the day when it ought to
have been delivered, or on the day of trial, at the plaintiff's
option.

In contracts for the sale of realty, the measure of damage for
breach by the vendor is the amount of any deposit paid by the
would-be purchaser and of the expenses thrown away. But the
purchaser may, in a proper case, obtain specific performance,
and if he has been cheated may obtain damages in an action for
deceit.

Breaches of trust are in a sense distinct from breaches of
contract, as they fell under the jurisdiction of courts of equity
and not of the common law courts. The rule applied was to
require a. defaulting trustee to make good to the beneficiaries
any loss flowing from a breach of trust and not to allow him to
set off against this liability any gain to the trust fund resulting
from a different breach of trust or from good management
(Lewin on Trusts, ed. 1904, 1146).

In estimating the proper amount to be assessed as damages
for a breach of contract, it is not permissible to include every
loss caused by the act or default upon which the claim for
damages is based. The damage to be awarded must be that
fairly and naturally arising from the breach under ordinary
circumstances or the special circumstances of the particular
contract, or in other words, which may reasonably be supposed
to have been in the contemplation of the parties at the time of
making the contract. The chief authority for this rule is the
case of Hadley v. Baxendale (1854, 9 Exch. 341), which has
been accepted in Scotland and the United States and through-
out the British empire, and often differs little, if at all, from the
rule adopted in the French civil code (art. 1150). In that case
damages were sought for the loss of profits caused by a steam mill
being kept idle, on account of the delay of the defendants in
sending a new shaft which they had contracted to make. The
court held the damage to be too remote, and stated the proper
rule as follows: —

"Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has
broken, the damages which the other party ought to receive in respect
of such breach of contract should be such as may fairly and reason-
ably be considered either arising naturally, i.e. according to the usual
course of things, from such breach of contract itself, or such as may
reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both
parties at the time they made the contract as the probable result of
the breach of it. Now if the special circumstances under which the
contract was actually made were communicated by the plaintiffs to
the defendants, and thus known to both parties, the damages result-
ing from such contract which they would reasonably contemplate
would be the amount of injury which would ordinarily flow from a
breach of contract under these special circumstances so known and
communicated. But on the other hand, if those special circumstances
were wholly unknown to the party breaking the contract, he at the
most could only be supposed to have had in his mind the amount of
injury which would arise generally, and in the great multitude of
cases not affected by any special circumstances, from such breach of
contract." 1

The rule is, however, only a general guide, and does not
obviate the necessity of inquiring in each case what are the
natural or contemplated damages. In an action by the pro-
prietor of a theatre, it was alleged that the defendant had
written a libel on one of the plaintiff's singers, whereby she was

1 In the Indian Contracts Code (Act xii. of 1872), the rule is thus
summarized : — •

" When a contract has been broken, the party who suffers by
such breach is entitled to receive from the party who has broken
the contract, compensation for any loss or damage caused to him
thereby, which naturally arose in the usual course of things from
such breach, or which the parties knew when they made the contract
to be likely to result from the breach of it. Such compensation is
not to be given for any remote or indirect loss or damage sustained
by reason of the breach. ... In estimating the loss or damage
arising from a breach of contract, the means of remedying the
inconvenience caused by the non-performance must be taken into
account " (§ 73).

782

DAMAGES

deterred from appearing on the stage, and the plaintiff lost his
profits; such loss was held to be too remote to be the ground
of an action for damages. In Smeed v. Foord (1 Ellis and Ellis,
602), the defendant contracted to deliver a threshing-machine
to the plaintiff, a farmer, knowing that it was needed to thresh
the wheat in the field. Damages were sought for injury done to
the wheat by rain in consequence of the machine not having
been delivered in time, and also for a fall in the market before
the grain could be got ready. It was held that the first claim
was good, as the injury might have been anticipated, but that
the second was bad. When, through the negligence of a railway
company in delivering bales of cotton, the plaintiffs, having no
cotton to work with, were obliged to keep their workmen un-
employed, it was held that the wages paid and the profits lost
were too remote for damages. On the other hand, where the
defendant failed to keep funds on hand to meet the drafts of
the plaintiff, so that a draft was returned dishonoured, and his
business in consequence was for a time suspended and injured,
the plaintiff was held entitled to recover damage for such loss.

The rule that the contract furnishes the measure of the
damages does not prevail in the case of unconscionable, i.e.
unreasonable, absurd or impossible contracts. The old school-
book juggle in geometrical progression has more than once
been before the courts as the ground of an action. Thus, when
a man agreed to pay for a horse a barley-corn per nail, doubling
it every nail, and the amount calculated as 32 nails was 500
quarters of barley, the judge directed the jury to disregard the
contract, and give as damages the value of the horse. And when
a defendant had agreed for £5 to give the plaintiff two grains of
rye on Monday, four on the next Monday, 1 and so on doubling it
every Monday, it was contended that the contract was impossible,
as all the rye in the world would not suffice for it ; but one of the
judges said that, though foolish, it would hold in law, and the
defendant ought to pay something for his folly. And when a
man had promised £1000 to the plaintiff if he should find his owl,
the jury were directed to mitigate the damages.

Interest is recoverable as damages at common law only upon
mercantile securities, such as bills of exchange and promissory
notes or where a promise to pay interest has been made in express
terms or may be implied from the usage of trade or other circum-
stances [Mayne, Damages (7th ed.) 166]. Under the Civil
Procedure Act 1833, the jury is allowed to give interest by way
of damages on debts or sums payable at a certain time, or if not
so payable, from the date of demand in writing, and in actions
on policies of insurance, and in actions of tort arising out of
conversion or seizure of goods.

In the United States, interest is in the discretion of the court,
and is made to depend on the equity of the case. In both
England and America compound interest, or interest on interest,
appears to have been regarded with the horror that formerly
attached to usury. Lord Eldon would not recognize as valid
an agreement to pay compound interest. And Chancellor Kent
held that compound interest could not be taken except upon a
special agreement made after the simple interest became due.

In Scotland compound interest is not allowed by way of
damages.

Torts. — In actions arising otherwise than from breach of
contract (i.e. of tort, delict or quasi-delict), the principles applied
to the assessment of damage in cases arising ex contractu are
generally applicable (The Notting Hill, 1884, 9 P. D. 105); but
from the nature of the case less precision in assessment is attain-
able. The remoteness of the damage claimed is a ground for
excluding it from the assessment. In some actions of tort the
damages can be calculated with exactness just as in cases of
contract, e.g. in most cases of interference with rights of property
or injury to property. Thus, for wrongful dispossession from a
plantation (in Samoa) it was held that the measure of damage
was the annual value of the produce of the lands when wrongfully

1 Quolibet alio die lunae, which was translated by some every
Monday, and by others every other Monday. The amount in the
latter case would have been 125 quarters, in the former 524,288,000
quarters.

seized, less the cost of management, and that the wilful character
of the seizure did not justify the infliction of a penalty over and
above the loss to the plaintiff (Mc Arthur v. Cornwall, 1892,
A.C. 75). Where minerals are wrongfully severed and carried
away, the damage is assessed by calculating the value of the
mineral as a chattel and deducting the reasonable expense of
getting it. But where the interference with property, whether
real or personal, is attended by circumstances of aggravation
such as crime or fraud or wanton insult, it is well established
that additional damages may be awarded which in effect are
penal or vindictive. In actions for injuries to the person or to
reputation, it is difficult to make the damages a matter for
exact calculation, and it has been found impossible or inexpedient
by the courts to prevent juries from awarding amounts which
operate as a punishment of the delinquent rather than as a
true assessment of the reparation due to the sufferer. And
while a bad motive (malice) is seldom enough to give a cause
of action, proof of its existence is a potent inducement to a jury
to swell the assessment of damages, as evidence of bad character
may induce them to reduce the damages to a derisory amount.
In the case of injuries to the person caused by negligence, the
tribunal considers, as part of the general damage, the actual pain
and suffering, including nervous shock (but not wounded feelings)
and the permanent or temporary character of the injury, and as
special damage the loss of time and employment during recovery
and the cost of cure. It is difficult by any arithmetical calcula-
tion to value pain and suffering; nor is it easy to value the effect
of a permanent injury; and in the Workmen's Compensation Act
and Employers' Liability Act, an attempt has been made in the
case of workmen to assess by reference to the earnings of the
injured person.

In the case of such wrongs as assault, arrest or prosecution,
the motives of the defendant naturally affect the amount of
general damage awarded, even when not essential elements in
the case, and the damages are " at large." Any other rule would
enable a man to distribute blows as he can utter curses at a
statutory tariff of so much a curse, according to his rank. This
position was strongly asserted in the cases arising out of the
celebrated " General Warrants " (1763) in the time of Lord
Camden, who is reported in one case to have said, " damages
are designed not only as a satisfaction to the injured person,
but as a punishment to the guilty, and as a proof of the detesta-
tion in which the wrongful act is held by the jury." In another
case he mentioned the importance of the question at issue,
the attempt to exercise arbitrary power, as a reason why the
jury might give exemplary damages. Another judge, in another
case, said " I remember a case when the jury gave £500 damages
for knocking a man's hat off; and the court refused a new
trial." And he urged that exemplary damages for personal insult
would tend to prevent the practice of duelling.

The right to give exemplary or punitive or (as they are some-
times called) vindictive damages is fully recognized both in
England and in the United States, and especially in the following
cases. (1) Against the co-respondent in a divorce suit. This
right is the same as that recognized at common law in the
abolished action of criminal conversation, but the damages
awarded may by the court be applied for the maintenance and
education of the children of the marriage or the maintenance
of the offending wife. (2) In actions of trespass to land where
the conduct of the defendant has been outrageous. (3) In
actions of defamation spoken or written, attended by circum-
stances of aggravation, and the analogous action of malicious
prosecution. (4) In the anomalous actions of seduction and
breach of promise of marriage.

In actions for wrongs, as in those ex contractu, the damages
may be general or special. In a few cases of tort, the action fails
wholly if special damage is not proved, e.g. slander by imputing
to a man vicious, unchaste or immoral conduct, slander of title
to land or goods or nuisance.

In theory, English law does not recognize " moral or intel-
lectual " damage, such as was claimed by the South African
Republic after the Jameson Raid. The law of Scotland allows

DAMANHUR— DAMASCIUS

783

a solatium for wounded feelings, as does French law under the
name of dommage moral, 6prouvi par la partie UsSe dans sa
liberty, sa surete, son honneur, sa consideration, ses affections
legitimes ou dans lajouissance de son patrimoine. Under this head
compensation is awarded to widow, child or sister, for the loss of
husband, parent or brother, in addition to the actual pecuniary
loss (Dalloz, Nouveau Code civil, art. 1382). Claims of damage
for negligence are defeated by proof of what is known as con-
tributory negligence (faute commune). In other claims of tort,
as already stated, the conduct of the claimant may materially
reduce the amount of his damages.

In cases of damages to ships or cargo by collision at sea, the
rule of the old court of admiralty (derived from the civil law
and preserved by the Judicature Acts) is that when both or all
vessels are to blame, the whole amount of the loss is divided
between them. The rule appears not to apply to cases where
death or personal injury results from the collision (" Vera Cruz,"
1884, 14 A.C. 50. " Bernina," 1888, 13 A.C. 1).

Costs. — The costs of a legal proceeding are no longer treated as
damages to be assessed by the jury, nor do they depend on any
act of the jury. The right to receive them depends on the court,
and they are taxed or assessed by its officers (see Costs). In a
few cases where costs cannot be given, e.g. on compulsory
acquisition of land in London, the assessing tribunal is invited
to add to the compensation price the owner's expense in the
compensation proceedings.

Death. — In English law a right to recover damages for a tort
as a general rule was lost on the death of the sufferer or of the
delinquent. The cause of action was considered not to survive.
This rule differs from that of Scots law (under which the claim
for damages arises at the moment of injury and is not affected
by the death of either party). The English rule has been criti-
cized as barbarous, and has been considerably broken in upon by
legislation, in cases of taking the goods of another (4 Edw. III.,
c. 7, 1330), and injuries to real or personal property (3 & 4
Will. IV., c. 42, 1833), but continues in force as to such matters
as defamation, malicious prosecution and trespass to the person.
By the Fatal Accidents Act 1846 (commonly called Lord Camp-
bell's Act), it is enacted that wherever a wrongful act would have
entitled the injured person to recover damages (if death had not
ensued), the person who in such case would have been liable
" shall be liable to an action for damages for the pecuniary loss
which the death has caused to certain persons, and although the
death shall have been caused under such circumstances as amount
in law to felony." The only persons by whom or for whose
benefit such an action may be brought are the husband, wife,
parent and child (including grandchild and stepchild, but not
illegitimate child) of the deceased. The right of action and the
measure of damages are statutory and distinct from the right
which the deceased had till he died. It was held in Osborne v.
Gillelt, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 88, and has since been approved (Clark
v. London General Omnibus Co., 1906, 2 K.B. 648), that no
person can recover damages for the death of another wrongfully
killed by the act of a third person, unless he claims through or
represents the person killed, and unless that person in case of an
injury short of death would have had a good claim to recover
damages.

In Scotland the law of compensation for breach of contract is
substantially the same as in England. In cases of delict or quasi-
delict, the measure of reparation is a fair and reasonable compensa-
tion for the advantage which the sufferer would, but for the wrong,
have enjoyed and has lost as a natural and proximate result of the
wrong, coupled with a solatium for wounded feelings. The claim
for reparation vests as a debt when it arises and survives to the
representatives of the sufferer, and against the representatives of the
delinquent. In other words, the maxim actio personalis moritur cum
persona does not apply in Scots law; and even in cases of murder
there has always been recognized a right to " assythement."

See also Mayne on Damages, 7th ed.; Sedgwick on Damage;
Bell, Principles of Law of Scotland. (W. F. C.)

DAMANHUR, a town of Lower Egypt, 38 m. E.S.E. of Alex-
andria by rail, capital of the richly-cultivated province of Behera.
It is the ancient Timenhor, " town of Horus," which in Ptolemaic

times was capital of a nome and lay on the Canopic branch of the
Nile. Its name and other circumstances imply that Horus
( = Apollo) was worshipped there in the same form as at Edfu
(Brugsch, Dictionnaire geographique, p. 521), but its Greek name,
Hermopolis Parva, should indicate Thoth as the local god.
This apparent contradiction is perhaps due to some early mis-
understanding that held its ground after the Greeks knew Egypt
better. A much frequented fair is held at Damanhur three
times a year, and there are several cotton manufactories.
Population (1907) 38,752.

DAMARALAND, a region of south-western Africa, bounded
W. by the Atlantic, E. by the Kalahari, N. by Ovampoland,
and S. by Great Namaqualand. It forms the central portion
of German South-West Africa. Damaraland is alternatively
known as Hereroland, both names being derived from the tribes
inhabiting the region. The so-called Damara consist of two
probably distinct peoples. They are known respectively as
" the Hill Damara " and " the Cattle Damara," i.e. those who
breed cattle in the plains. The Hill Damara are Negroes with
much Hottentot blood, and have adopted the Hottentot tongue,
while the Cattle Damara are of distinct Bantu-Negro descent
and speak a Bantu language. The term Damara (" Two Dama
Women ") is of Hottentot origin, and is not used by the people,
who call themselves Ova-herero, " the Merry People " (see
Hottentots and Herero).

DAMASCENING, or Damaskeening, a term sometimes applied
to the production of damask steel, but properly the art of in-
crusting wire of gold (and sometimes of silver or copper) on the
surface of iron, steel or bronze. The surface upon which the
pattern is to be traced is finely undercut with a sharp instrument,
and the gold thread by hammering is forced into and securely
held by the minute furrows of the cut surface. This system of
ornamentation is peculiarly Oriental, having been much practised
by the early goldsmiths of Damascus, and it is still eminently
characteristic of Persian metal work.

DAMASCIUS, the last of the Neoplatonists, was born in
Damascus about a.d. 480. In his early youth he went to Alex-
andria, where he spent twelve years partly as a pupil of Theon,
a rhetorician, and partly as a professor of rhetoric. He then
turned to philosophy and science, and studied under Hermeias
and his sons, Ammonius and Heliodorus. Later on in life he
migrated to Athens and continued his studies under Marinus,
the mathematician, Zenodotus, and Isidore, the dialectician.
He became a close friend of Isidore, succeeded him as head of the
school in Athens, and wrote his biography, part of which is
preserved in the Bibliotheca of Photius (see appendix to the
Didot edition of Diogenes Laertius). In 529 Justinian closed the
school, and Damascius with six of his colleagues sought an
asylum, probably in 532, at the court of Chosroes J., king of
Persia. They found the conditions intolerable, and in 533, in a
treaty between Justinian and Chosroes, it was provided that they
should be allowed to return. It is believed that Damascius
settled in Alexandria arid there devoted himself to the writing
of his works. The date of his death is not known.

His chief treatise is entitled Difficulties and Solutions of First
Principles ('Airopiat /ecu xwreis irepi rwv irpiiTwv apx&v). It
examines into the nature and attributes of God and the human
soul. This examination is, in two respects, in striking contrast
to that of certain other Neoplatonist writers. It is conspicuously
free from that Oriental mysticism which stultifies so much of the
later pagan philosophy of Europe. Secondly, it contains no
polemic against Christianity, to the doctrines of which, in fact,
there is no allusion. Hence the charge of impiety which Photius
brings against him. His main result is that God is infinite, and
as such, incomprehensible; that his attributes of goodness,
knowledge and power are, credited to him only by inference
from their effects; that this inference is logically valid and
sufficient for human thought. He insists throughout on the
unity and the indivisibility of God, whereas Plotinus and
Porphyry had admitted not only a Trinity, but even an Ennead
(nine-fold personality).
Interesting as Damascius is in himself,heis stillmoreinteresting

7 8 4

DAMASCUS

as the last in the long succession of Greek philosophers. (See
Neoplatonism.)

Bibliography. — The 'Airopicu was partly edited bv J. Kopp
(1826), and in full by C. E. Ruelle (Paris, 1889). French trans, by
Chaignet (1898). See T. Whittaker, The Neo-platonists (Cambridge,
1901); E. Zeller, History of Greek Philosophy; C. E. Ruelle, Le
Philosophe Damascius (1861) ; Ch. Levgque, " Damascius " (Journal
des savants, February 1891). See also works quoted under Neo-
platonism and Alexandrian School.

DAMASCUS, the chief town of Syria, and the capital of a
government province of the same name, 57 m. from Beirut,
situated in 33 30' N., and 3 6° 18' E.

History. — The origin of the city is unknown, and the popular
belief that it is the oldest city in the world still inhabited has
much to recommend it. It has been suggested that the ideogram
by which it is indicated in Babylonian monuments literally means
" fortress of the Amorites "; could this be proved it would be
valuable testimony to its antiquity if not its origin. The city is
mentioned in the document that describes the battle of the four
kings against five, inserted in the book of Genesis (ch. xiv.):
Abram (Abraham) is reported to have pursued the routed kings
to Hobah north of Damascus (v. 15). The name of the steward
of Abram 's establishment is given in Genesis xv. 2, as Dammesek
Eliezer, which is explained in the Aramaic and Syriac versions as
" Eliezer of Damascus." This reading is adopted by the author-
ized version, but the Hebrew, as it stands, will not support it.
There is probably here some textual corruption.

In the period of the Egyptian suzerainty over Palestine in the
eighteenth dynasty Damascus (whose name frequently appears in
the Tell el-Amarna tablets) was capital of the small province of
Ubi. The name of the city in the Tell el-Amarna correspondence
is Dimashka. Towards the end of that period tha. overrunning
of Palestine and Syria by the Khabiri and Suti, the forerunners
of the Aramaean immigration, changed the conditions, language
and government of the country. One of the first indications of
this change that has been traced is the appearance of the Ara-
maean Darmesek for Damascus in an inscription of Rameses III.

The growth of an independent kingdom with Damascus as
centre must date from very early in the Aramaean occupation.
It had reached such strength that though Tiglath-Pileser I.
reduced the whole of northern Syria, and by the fame of his
victories induced the king of Egypt to send him presents, yet he
did not venture to attack Kadesh and Damascus, so that this
kingdom acted as a " buffer " between the king of Assyria and
the rising kingdom of Saul.

David, however, after his accession made an expedition
against Damascus as a reprisal for the assistance the city had
given his enemy Hadadezer, king of Zobah. The expedition was
successful; David smote of the Syrians 22,000 men, and took
and garrisoned the city; " and the Syrians became servants to
David, and brought gifts " (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6; 1 Chron. xviii. 5).
This statement, it should be noticed, has been questioned by
some modern historical and textual critics, who believe that
" Syria " (Hebrew Aram) is here a corruption for " Edom."
There is no other evidence — save the corrupt passage, 2 Sam. xxiv.
6, where " Tahtim-hodshi " is explained as meaning " the land
of the Hittites to Kadesh " — that David's kingdom was so far
extended northward. However this may be, it is evident that
the Israelite possession of Syria did not last long. A subordinate
of Hadadezer named Rezon (Rasun) succeeded in establishing
himself in Damascus and in founding there a royal dynasty.
Throughout the reign of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 23, 24) this Rezon
seems to have been a constant enemy to the kingdom of Israel.

It is inferred from 1 Kings xv. 19 that Abijah,son of Rehoboam,
king of Judah, made a league with Tab-Rimmon of Damascus to
assist him in his wars against Israel, and that afterwards Tab-
Rimmon's son Ben-Hadad came to terms with the second suc-
cessor of Jeroboam, Baasha. Asa, son of Abijah, followed his
father's policy, and bought the aid of Syria, whereby he was
enabled to destroy the border fort that Baasha had erected
(1 Kings xv. 22).

Hostilities between Israel and Syria lasted to the days of Ahab.
From Omri the king of Syria took cities and the right to establish

a quarter for his merchants in Samaria (1 Kings xx. 34). His
son Ben-Hadad made an unsuccessful attack on Israel at Aphek,
and was allowed by Ahab to depart on a reversal of these terms
(loc. cit.). This was the cause of a prophetic denunciation (1
Kings xx. 42). According to the Assyrian records Ahab fought
as Ben-Hadad's ally at the battle of Karkar against Shalmaneser
in 854. This seems to indicate an intermediate defeat and
vassalage of Ahab, of which no direct record remains; and it
was probably in the attempt to throw off this vassalage in 853,
the year after the battle of Karkar, that Ahab met his death in
battle with the Syrians (1 Kings xxii. 34-40). In the reign of
Jehoram, Naaman, the Syrian general, came and was cleansed by
the prophet Elisha of leprosy (2 Kings v.).

In 843 Hazael assassinated Ben-Hadad and made himself
king of Damascus. The states which Ben-Hadad had brought
together into a coalition against the advancing power of Assyria
all revolted; and Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, took advantage
of this in 842 and attacked Syria. He wasted the country, but
could not take the capital. Jehu, king of Israel, paid tribute to
Assyria, for which Hazael afterwards revenged himself, during
the time when Shalmaneser was distracted by. his Armenian
wars, by attacking the borders of Israel (2 Kings x. 32).

Adad-nirari IV. invaded Syria and besieged Damascus in 806.
Taking advantage of this and similar succeeding events, Jehoash,
king of Israel, recovered the cities that his father had lost to
Hazael. '

In 734 Ahaz became king of Judah, and Rezon (Rasun, Rezin),
the king of Damascus at the time, came up against him; at the
same time the Edomites and the Philistines revolted. Ahaz
appealed to Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, sent him gifts,
and besought his protection. Tiglath-Pileser invaded Syria, and
in 732 succeeded in reducing Damascus (see also Babylonia
and Assyria, Chronology, § 5, and Jews, §§ 10 sqq.).

Except for the abortive rising under Sargon in 720, we hear
nothing more of Damascus for a long period. In 333 B.C., after
the battle of Issus, it was delivered over by treachery to Par-
menio, the general of Alexander the Great; the harem and
treasures of Darius had here been lodged. It had a chequered
history during the wars of the successors of Alexander, being
occasionally in Egyptian hands. In 112 B.C. the empire of Syria
was divided by Antiochus Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus;
the city of Damascus fell to the share of the latter. Hyrcanus
took advantage of the disputes of these rulers to advance his
own kingdom. Demetrius Eucaerus, successor of Cyzicenus,
invaded Palestine in 88 B.C., and defeated Alexander Jannaeus
at Shechem. On his dethronement and captivity by the Par-
thians, Antiochus Dionysus, his brother, succeeded him, but was
slain in battle by Haritha (Aretas) the Arab — the first instance of
Arab interference with Damascene politics. Haritha yielded to
Tigranes, king of Armenia, who in his turn was driven out by
Q. Caecilius Metellus (son of Scipio Nasica), the Roman general.
In 63 Syria was made a Roman province.

In the New Testament Damascus appears only in connexion
with the miraculous conversion of St Paul (Acts ix., xxii., xxvi.),
his escape from Aretas the governor by being lowered in a basket
over the wall (Acts ix. 25; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 2,3), and his return
thither after his retirement in Arabia (Gal. i. 17).

In 150, under Trajan, Damascus became a Roman provincial
city.

On the establishment of Christianity Damascus became the
seat of a bishop who ranked next to the patriarch of Antioch.
The great temple of Damascus was turned by Arcadius into
a Christian church.

In 63 5 Damascus was captured for Islam by Khalid ibn Walid,
the great general of the new religion, being the first city to yield
after the battle of the Yarmuk (Hieromax). After the murder
of AH, the fourth caliph, his successor Moawiya transferred the
seat of the Caliphate (q.v.) from Mecca to Damascus and thus
commenced the great dynasty of the Omayyads, whose rule
extended from the Atlantic to India. This dynasty lasted about
ninety years; it was supplanted by that of the Abbasids, who
removed the seat of empire to Mesopotamia ; and Damascus

DAMASK

785

passed through a period of unrest in which it was captured and
ravaged by Egyptians, Carmathians and Seljuks in turn. The
crusaders attacked Damascus in n 26, but never succeeded in
keeping a firm hold of it, even during their brief domination of the
country. It was the headquarters of Saladin in the wars with
the Franks. Of its later history we need only mention the
Mongolian capture in 1260; its Egyptian recapture by the
Mameluke Kotuz; the ferocious raid of Timur (Tamerlane) in
1399; and the conquest by the Turkish sultan Selim, whereby
it became a city of the Ottoman empire (1516). In its more
recent history the only incidents that need be mentioned are
its capture by Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian general, in 1832,
when the city was first opened to the representatives of foreign
powers; its revolt against Ibrahim's tyranny in 1834, which
he crushed with the aid of the Druses; the return of the city
to Turkish domination, when the Egyptians were driven out
of Syria in 1840 by the allied powers; and the massacre of July
i860, when the Moslem population rose against the Christians,
burnt their quarter, and slaughtered about 3000 adult males.

Modern City. — Damascus is a city with a population estimated
at from 154,000 (35,000 Christians and Jews) to 225,000 (55,000
Christians and Jews), situated near the northern edge of a plain
called the Ghutah, at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, 2250 ft. above
the sea. The river Barada (the Abanah of 2 Kings v. 12) rises
in the Anti-Lebanon, runs for about 10 m. in a narrow channel,
and then spreads itself fan-wise over the plain. About 18 m,
east of the city it loses itself in the marshlands known as the
Meadow Lakes. A second river, the 'Awaj (possibly the Pharpar
of 2 Kings), pursues a similar course. The plain is thus excep-
tionally well irrigated, and its consequent fertility is proverbial
over the East. Damascus is situated on both banks of the
Barada, about 2 m. from the exit of the river from the gorge.
On the right bank is all the older part of the city, and a long
suburb called El-Meidan extending about a mile along the Hajj
Road. On the left bank are the suburbs El 'Amara and El-
Salihia. The waters of the river are carried by channels and
conduits to all the houses of the city. The orchards, gardens,
vineyards and fields of Damascus are said to extend over a
circuit of at least 60 m. In the surrounding plain are one hundred
and forty villages, occupied in all by about 50,000 persons (1000
Christians, 2000 Druses).

The rough mud walls in the private houses give poor promise
of splendour within. The entrance is usually by a low door, and
through a narrow winding passage which leads to the outer
court, where the master has his reception room. From this
another winding passage leads to the harem, which is the principal
part of the house. The plan of all is the same — an open court,
with a tesselated pavement, and one or two marble fountains;
orange and lemon trees, flowering shrubs, and climbing plants
give freshness and fragrance. All the apartments open into the
court; and on the south side is an open alcove, with a marble
floor, and raised dais round three sides, covered with cushions;
the front wall is supported by an ornamented Saracenic arch.
The decoration of some of the rooms is gorgeous, the walls being
covered in part with mosaics and in part with carved work,
while the ceilings are rich in arabesque ornaments, elaborately
gilt. A few of the modern Jewish houses have been embellished
at an enormous cost, but they are wanting in taste.

Antiquities. — Considering the great age of Damascus, its
comparative poverty in antiquities is remarkable. The walls
of the city seem to be Seleucid in origin; some of the Roman
gateways being still in good order. The Derb el-Mistakim, or
" Straight Street," still runs through the city from the eastern
to the western gate. At the north-west corner is a large castle
built in a.d. 1219, by El-Malik el-Ashraf, on the site of an earlier
palace. It is quadrangular, surrounded by a moat filled by the
Barada. The outer walls are in good preservation, but the
interior is ruined.

The church of St John the Baptist constructed by Arcadius
on the site of the temple was turned by Caliph Walid I. (705-717)
to a mosque which was the most important building of Damascus.
It was a structure 431 ft. by 125 it. interior dimensions, extending

along the south side of a quadrangle 163 yds.by 108 yds. Except
the famous inscription over the door — " Thy kingdom, O Christ,
is an everlasting kingdom, and thy dominion endure th throughout
all generations " — every trace of Christianity was effaced from
the church at its conversion. It was destroyed by fire on the
14th of October 1893, and though it was subsequently rebuilt,
much that was of archaeological and historical interest perished.
It is estimated that there are over two hundred mosques in
Damascus.

Products, Manufactures, &c. — Damascus occupies an important
commercial position, being the market for the whole of the desert;
it also is of great importance religiously, as being the starting-
point for the Hajj pilgrimage from Syria to Mecca, which leaves
on the 15th of the lunar month of Shawwal each year. This of
course brings much trade to the city. Its chief manufactures are
silk work, cloths and cloaks, gold and silver ornaments, &c,
brass and copper work, furniture and ornamental woodwork.
The bazaars of Damascus are among the most famous of their
kind. It is connected with Beirut and Mezerib by railway, and
at the end of the past century the great undertaking of running
a line to Mecca was commenced. In the surrounding gardens and
fields walnuts, apricots, wheat, barley, maize, &c. are grown.
Its commercial importance is referred to by Ezekiel (xxvii. 18),
who mentions its trade in wines and wool. The climate is good;
in winter there is often hard frost and much snow, and even in
summer, with a day temperature of 100° F., the nights are always
cool. Fever, dysentery and ophthalmia, chiefly due to exposure
to heavy dews and cold nights, are prevalent. Though still
the market of the nomads, the surer and cheaper sea route has
almost destroyed the transit trade to which it once owed its
wealth, and has even diminished the importance of the annual
pilgrim caravan to Mecca. The Damascene, however, still
retains his skill as a craftsman and tiller of the soil. The chief
imports are cloths, prints, muslins, raw silk, sugar, rice, &c.

The value of exports and imports in certain specified years
is shown in the following table : —

1890.

1894.

1898.

1905.

Exports ....
Imports ....

£325,660
525,710

£400,830
614,490

£302,050
675,080

£386,000
872,400

Most of the Christians belong to the Orthodox and Roman
Catholic (United) Greek Churches; and there are also communi-
ties of Melchites, Jacobites, Maronites,Nestorians, Armenians and
Protestants. There are Protestant missions, founded 1843, and
a British hospital.

Authorities. — Lortet, La Syrie d'aujourd'hui, p. 567 f. (Paris,
1884); Von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, i.
49 f. (Berlin, 1899); G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy
Land; Encyclopaedia Biblica, art, " Damascus " ; Consular Reports;
Baedeker- Socin, Handbook to Syria and Palestine. For the Great
Mosque see Dickie, Phene Spiers, and Sir C. W. Wilson in Palestine
Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, Oct. 1897. (R. A. S. M.)

DAMASK, the technical term applied to certain distinct types
of fabric. The term owes its origin to the ornamental silk fabrics
of Damascus, fabrics which were elaborately woven in colours,
sometimes with the addition of gold and other metallic threads.
At the present day it denotes a linen texture richly figured in
the weaving with flowers, fruit, forms of animal life, and other
types of ornament. " China, no doubt," says Dr Rock (Catalogue
of Textile Fabrics, Victoria and Albert Museum), "was the first
country to ornament its silken webs with a pattern. India,
Persia, and Syria, then Byzantine Greece followed, but at long
intervals between, in China's footsteps. Stuffs so figured brought
with them to the West the name ' diaspron ' or diaper, bestowed
upon them at Constantinople. But about the 12 th century the
city of Damascus, even then long celebrated for its looms, so
far outstripped all other places for beauty of design, that her
silken textiles were in demand everywhere; and thus, as often
happens, traders fastened the name of damascen or damask upon
every silken fabric richly wrought and curiously designed, no
matter whether it came or not from Damascus." The term is
perhaps now best known in reference to damask table-cloths, a

786

DAMASK STEEL— DAMAUN

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species of figured cloth usually of flax or tow yarns, but sometimes
made partly of cotton. The finer qualities are made of the best
linen yarn, and, although the latter is of a brownish colour during
the weaving processes, the ultimate fabric is pure white. The
high lights in these cloths are obtained by long floats of warp
and weft, and, as these are set at right angles, they reflect the
light differently according to the angle of the rays of light ; the
effect changes also with the position of the observer. Subdued
effects are produced by shorter floats of yarn, and sometimes
by special weaves. Any subject, however intricate, can be
copied by this method of weaving, provided that expense is no
object. The finest results are obtained when the so-called
double damask weaves are used. These weaves are shown under
Die, and it will be seen that each weave gives a maximum float
of seven threads. (In some special cases a weave is used which
gives a float of nine.) The small figure here shown to illustrate
a small section of a damask design is composed of the two single
damask weaves; these give a maximum float of four threads or
picks. No shading is shown in the design, and this for two
reasons — (i) the single damask weaves do not permit of
elaborate shading, although some very good effects are obtain-
able; (2) the available space is not sufficiently large to show the
method to advantage. The different single damask weaves used

in the shading of these
cloths appear, however,
at the bottom of the
figure, while between
these and the design
proper there is an illus-
tration of the thirty-first
pick interweaving with all
the forty-eight threads.

The principal British
centres for fine damasks
are Belfast and Dunferm-
line, while the medium
qualities are made in
several places in Ireland,
in a few places in England,
and in the counties of
Fife, Forfar and Perth
in Scotland. Cotton
damasks, which are made
in Paisley, Glasgow, and several places in Lancashire, are
used for toilet covers, table-cloths, and similar purposes. They
are often ornamented with colours and sent to the Indian and
West Indian markets. Silk damasks for curtains and upholstery
decoration are made in the silk- weaving centres.

DAMASK STEEL, or Damascus Steel, a steel with a peculiar
watered or streaked appearance, as seen in the blades of fine
swords and other weapons of Oriental manufacture. One way of
producing this appearance is to twist together strips of iron and
steel of different quality and then weld them into a solid mass.
A similar but inferior result may be obtained by etching with
acid the surface of a metal; parts of which are protected by some
greasy substance in such a way as to give the watered pattern
desired. The art of producing damask steel has been generally
practised in Oriental countries from a remote period, the most
famous blades having come from Isfahan, Khorasan, and
Shiraz in Persia.
DAMASUS, the name of two popes.

Damasus I. was pope from 366 to 384. At the time of the
banishment of Pope Liberius (355), the deacon Damasus, like
all the Roman clergy, made energetic protest. When, however,
the emperor Constantius sent to Rome an anti-pope in the
person of Felix II., Damasus, with the other clergy, rallied to
his cause. When Liberius returned from exile and Felix was
expelled from Rome, Damasus again took his place among the
adherents of Liberius. On the death of Liberius (566) a consider-
able party nominated Damasus successor; but the irreconcil-
ables of the party of Liberius refused to pardon his trimming,
and set up against him another deacon, Ursinus. A serious

conflict ensued between the rival factions, which quickly led to
rioting and hand-to-hand fighting. In one of these encounters
the then new basilica, called the Liberian Basilica (S. Maria
Maggiore), was partially destroyed, and 137 dead bodies were
left in the building. On several occasions the secular arm had to
intervene, although the government of the emperor Valentinian
was averse from involving itself in ecclesiastical affairs. From
the outset the prefect of Rome recognized the claims of Damasus,
and exerted himself to support him. Ursinus and the leading
men of his faction were expelled from Rome, and afterwards
from central Italy, or even interned in Gaul. They, however,
persisted obstinately in their opposition to Damasus, combating
him at first by riots, and then by calumnious law-suits, such as
that instituted by one Isaac, a converted and relapsed Jew.

To the official support, which never failed him, Damasus
endeavoured to join the popular sympathy. From before his
election he had been in high favour with the Roman aristocracy,
and especially with the great ladies. At that period the urban
masses, but recently converted to Christianity, sought in the
worship of the martyrs a sort of substitute for polytheism.
Damasus showed great zeal in discovering the tombs of martyrs,
adorning them with precious marbles and monumental inscrip-
tions. The inscriptions he composed himself, in mediocre
verse, full of Virgilian reminiscences. Several have come down
to us on the original marbles, entire or in fragments; others are
known from old copies. In the interior of Rome he erected or
embellished the church which still bears his name (S. Lorenzo
in Damaso), near which his father's house appears to have
stood.

The West was recovering gradually from the troubles caused
by the Arian crisis. Damasus took part, more or less effectually,
in the efforts to eliminate from Italy and Illyria the last cham-
pions of the council of Rimini. In spite of his declaration at
the council convened by him in 372, he did not succeed in
evicting Auxentius from Milan. But Auxentius died soon
afterwards, and his successor, Ambrose, undertook to bring
these hitherto abortive efforts to a successful conclusion, and to
complete the return of Illyria to the confessions of Nicaea. The
bishops of the East, however, under the direction of St Basil,
were involved in a struggle with the emperor Valens, whose
policy was favourable to the council of Rimini. Damasus, to
whom they appealed for help, was unable to be of much service
to them, the more so because that episcopal group, viewed
askance by St Athanasius and his successor Peter, was inces-
santly combated at the papal court by the inveterate hatred of
Alexandria. The Eastern bishops triumphed in the end under
Theodosius, at the council of Constantinople (381), in which
the pope and the Western church took no part. They were
invited to a council of wider convocation, held at Rome in 382,
but very few attended.

This council had brought to Rome the learned monk Jerome,
for whom Damasus showed great esteem. To him Damasus
entrusted the revision of the Latin text of the Bible and other
works of religious erudition. A short time before, the pope had
received a visit from the Priscillianists after their condemnation
in Spain, and had dismissed them. Damasus died in 384, on
the nth of December, the day on which his memory is still
celebrated.

Damasus II., pope from the 17th of July to the 9th of August
1048, was the ephemeral successor of Clement II. His original
name was Poppo, and he was bishop of Brixen when the emperor
Henry III. raised him to the papacy. (L. D.*)

DAMAUN or Daman, a town of Portuguese India, capital of
the settlement of Damaun, situated on the east side of the
entrance of the Gulf of Cambay within the Bombay Presidency.
The area of the settlement is 82 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 41,671.
The settlement is divided into two parts, Damaun proper, and
the larger pargana of Nagar Havili, the two being separated
by a narrow strip of British territory. The soil is fertile, and rice,
wheat and tobacco are the chief crops. The teak forests are
valuable. Weaving is an industry less important than formerly;
mats and baskets are manufactured, and deep-sea fishing is an

DAME— DAMIANI

787

important industry. The shipbuilding business at the town
of Damaun is important. Early in the 19th century a large
transit trade in opium between Karachi and China was carried
on at Damaun, but it ceased in 1837, when the British prohibited
it after their conquest of Sind. The settlement is administered as
a unit, and has a municipal chamber.

Damaun town was sacked and burnt by the Portuguese in
1531. It was subsequently rebuilt, and in 1558 was again taken
by the Portuguese, who made a permanent settlement and
converted the mosque into a Christian church. From that time
it has remained in their hands. The territory of Damaun proper
was conquered by the Portuguese in 1559; that of Nagar Havili
was ceded to them by the Mahrattas in 1780 in indemnification
for piracy.

DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady,
the feminine of dominus, master, lord), properly a name of
respect or a title equivalent to " lady," now surviving in English
as the legal designation of the wife or widow of a baronet or knight
and prefixed to the Christian name and surname. It has also
been used in modern times by certain societies or orders, e.g. the
Primrose League, as the name of a certain rank among the lady
members, answering to the male rank of knight. The ordinary
use of the word by itself is for an old woman. As meaning
"mistress," i.e. teacher, "dame" was used of the female keepers
of schools for young children, which have become obsolete since
the advance of public elementary education. At Eton College
boarding-houses kept by persons other than members of the
teaching staff of the school were known as " Dames' Houses,"
though the head might not necessarily be a lady. As a term of
address to ladies of all ranks, from the sovereign down, "madam,"
shortened to " ma'am," represents the French madame, my
lady.

" Damsel," a young girl or maiden, now only used as a literary
word, is taken from the Old French dameisele, formed from dame,
and parallel with the popular dansele or doncele from the medieval
Latin domicella or dominicella, diminutive of domina. The
French damoisette and demoiselle are later formations. The
English literary form " damosel " was another importation from
France in the 15th century. In the early middle ages damoiseau,
medieval Latin domicellus, dameicele, damoisette, domicella, were
used as titles of honour for the unmarried sons and daughters
of royal persons and lords {seigneurs). Later the damoiseau
(in the south donzel, in Beam domengar) was specifically a young
man of gentle birth who aspired to knighthood, equivalent to
icuyer, esquire, or valet (q.v.). The damoiseau performed certain
functions and received training in knightly accomplishments
in the domestic service of his lord. Later again the name was
also used of nobles who had not been knighted. In certain
seigneuries in France, notably in that of Commercy, in Lorraine,
damoiseau became the permanent title of the holder. In England
the title, when used by the French-speaking nobility and members
of the court, was only applied to the son or grandson of the king;
thus in the Laws of Edward the Confessor, quoted in Du Cange
(Glossarium, s.v. Domicellus), we find " Rex vero Edgarum . . .
pro filio nutrivit et quia cogitavit ipsum heredem facere, nomi-
navit Ethelinge, quod nos Domicellum, id, Damisell; sed nos
indiscrete de pluribus dicimus, quia Baronum filios vocamus
domicellos, Angli vero nullos nisi natos regum." Froissart
calls Richard II. during the lifetime of his father the Black
Prince, le jeune Demoisel. The use of damoisette followed much
the same development; it was first applied to the unmarried
daughters of royal persons and seigneurs, then to the wife of a
damoiseau, and also to the young ladies of gentle birth who
performed for the wives of the seigneurs the same domestic
services as the damoiseaus for their husbands. Hence the later
form demoiselle became merely the title of address of a young
unmarried lady, the mademoiselle of modern usage, the English
"miss." At the court of France, after the 17th century,
Mademoiselle, without the name of the lady, was a courtesy
title given to the eldest daughter of the eldest brother of the king,
who was known as Monsieur. To distinguish the daughter of
Gaston d'Orleans. brother of Louis XIII., from the daughter of

Philippe d'Orleans, brother of Louis XIV., the former, Anne
Marie Louise, duchesse de Montpensier, was called La Grande
Mademoiselle, by which title she is known to history (see Mont-
pensier, A. M. L., Duchesse de).

DAME'S VIOLET, the English name for Hesperis matronalis,
a herbaceous plant belonging to the natural order Cruciferae,
and closely allied to the wallflower and stock. It has an erect
stout leafy stem 2 to 3 ft. high, with irregularly toothed short-
stalked leaves and white or lilac flowers, § in. across, which are
scented in the evening (hence the name of the genus, from the
Gr. ecnrepos, evening). The slender pods are constricted be-
tween the seeds. The plant is a native of Europe and temperate
Asia, and is found in Britain as an escape from gardens, in
meadows and plantations.

DAMGHAN, a town of Persia in the province of Semnan va
Damghan, 216 m. from Teheran on the high-road thence to
Khorasan, at an elevation of 3770 ft. and in 36 10' N., 54° 20' E.
Pop. about 10,000. There are post and telegraph offices, and
a great export trade is done in pistachios and almonds, the latter
being of the kind called Kaghazi (" of paper ") with very thin
shells, famous throughout the country. Damghan was an im-
portant city in the middle ages, but only a ruined mosque with
a number of massive columns and some fine wood carvings
and two minarets of the nth century remain of that period.
Near the city, a few miles south and south-west, are the remains
of Hecatompylos, extending from Frat, 16 m. south of Damghan,
to near Gtisheh, 20 m. west. Damghan was destroyed by the
Afghans in 1723. On an eminence in the western part of the
city are the ruins of a large square citadel with a small white-
washed building, called Molud Khaneh (the house of birth), in
which Fath Ali Shah was born (1772).

DAMIANI, PIETRO (c. 1007-1072), one of the most celebrated
ecclesiastics of the nth century, was born at Ravenna, and after
a youth spent in hardship and privation, gained some renown
as a teacher. About 1035, however, he deserted his secular
calling and entered the hermitage of Fonte Avellana, near
Gubbio; and winning sound reputation through his piety and
his preaching, he became the head of this establishment about
1043. A zealot for monastic and clerical reform, he introduced
a more severe discipline, including the practice of flagellation,
into the house, which, under his rule, quickly attained celebrity,
and became a model for other foundations. Extending the area
of his activities, he entered into communication with the emperor
Henry III., addressed to Pope Leo IX. in 1049 a writing denoun-
cing the vices of the clergy and entitled Liber Gomorrhianus;
and soon became associated with Hildebrand in the work of
reform. As a trusted counsellor of a succession of popes he was
made cardinal bishop of Ostia, a position which he accepted
with some reluctance; and presiding over a council at Milan in
1059, he courageously asserted the authority of Rome over this
province, and won a signal victory for the principles which he
advocated. He rendered valuable assistance to Pope Alexander
II. in his struggle with the anti-pope, Honorius II.; and having
served the papacy as legate to France and to Florence, he was
allowed to resign his bishopric in 1067. After a period of retire-
ment at Fonte Avellana, he proceeded in 1069 as papal legate to
Germany, and persuaded the emperor Henry TV. to give up his
intention of divorcing his wife Bertha. During his concluding
years he was not altogether in accord with the political ideas of
Hildebrand. He died at Faenza on the 22nd of February 1072.
Damiani was a determined foe of simony, but his fiercest wrath
was directed against the married clergy. He was an extremely
vigorous controversialist, and his Latin abounds in denunciatory
epithets. He was specially devoted to the Virgin Mary, and
wrote an Qfficium Beatae Virginis, in addition to many letters,
sermons, and other writings.

His works were collected by Cardinal Cajetan, and were published
in four volumes at Rome (1606-1615), and then at Paris in 1642,
at Venice in 1743, and there are other editions. See A. Vogel, Peter
Damiani (Jena, 1856); A. Capecelatro, Storia di S. Pier Damiani e
del suo tempo (Florence, 1862); F. Neukirch, Das Leben des Peter
Damiani (Gottingen, 1875) ; L. Guerrier, De Petro Damiano (Orleans,
1 881); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit

788

DAMIEN, FATHER— DAMIRON

(Leipzig, 1885-1890) ; and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, Band
iv. (Leipzig, 1898).

DAMIEN, FATHER, the name in religion of Joseph de
Veuster (1840-1889), Belgian missionary, was born at Tremeloo,
near Louvain, on the 3rd of January 1840. He was educated for
a business career, but in his eighteenth year entered the Church,
joining the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary (also
known as the Picpus Congregation), and taking Damien as his
name in religion. In October 1863, while he was still in minor
orders, he went out as a missionary to the Pacific Islands, taking
the place of his brother, who had been prevented by an illness.
He reached Honolulu in March 1864, and was ordained priest in
Whitsuntide of that year. Struck with the sad condition of the
lepers, whom it was the practice of the Hawaian government to
deport to the island of Molokai, he conceived an earnest desire
to mitigate their lot, and in 1873 volunteered to take spiritual
charge of the settlement at Molokai. Here he remained for the
rest of his life, with occasional visits to Honolulu, until he became
stricken with leprosy in 1885. Besides attending to the spiritual
needs of the lepers, he managed, by the labour of his own hands
and by appeals to the Hawaian government, to improve materi-
ally the water-supply, the dwellings, and the victualling of the
settlement. For five years he worked alone; subsequently
other resident priests from time to time assisted him. He suc-
cumbed to leprosy on the 1 5th of April 1 889. Some ill-considered
imputations upon Father Damien by a Presbyterian minister
produced a memorable tract by Robert Louis Stevenson (An
Open Letter to the Rev. Dr Hyde, 1890).

See also lives by E. Clifford (1889) and Fr. Pamphile (1889).

(J. M'F.)

DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANCOIS (1715-1757), a Frenchman
who attained notoriety by his attack on Louis XV. of France in
1757, was born in a village near Arras in 1715, and early enlisted
in the army. After his discharge, he became a menial in the
college of the Jesuits in Paris, and was dismissed from this as
well as from other employments for misconduct, his conduct
earning for him the name of Robert le Diable. During the
disputes of Clement XI. with the parlement of Paris the mind
of Damiens seems to have been excited by the ecclesiastical
disorganization which followed the refusal of the clergy to grant
the sacraments to the Jansenists and Convulsionnaires; and he
appears to have thought that peace would be restored by the
death of the king. He, however, asserted, perhaps with truth,
that he only intended to frighten the king without wounding
him severely. On the 5th of January 1757, as the king was
entering his carriage, he rushed forward and stabbed him with a
knife, inflicting only a slight wound. He made no attempt to
escape, and was at once seized. He was condemned as a regicide,
and sentenced to be torn in pieces by horses in the Place de
Greve. Before being put to death he was barbarously tortured
with red-hot pincers, and molten wax, lead, and boiling oil were
poured into his wounds. After his death his house was razed to
the ground, his brothers and sisters were ordered to change their
names, and his father, wife, and daughter were banished from
France.

See Pieces originates et procSdures du proces fait a Robert Francois
Damiens (Paris, 1757).

DAMIETTA, a town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern (Damietta
or Phatnitic) branch of the Nile, about 12 m. above its mouth,
and 125 m. N.N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 29,354.
The town is built on the east bank of the river between it and
Lake Menzala. Though in general ill-built and partly ruinous,
the town possesses some fine mosques, with lofty minarets,
public baths and busy bazaars. Along the river-front are many
substantial houses furnished with terraces, and with steps leading
to the water. Their wooden lattices of saw-work are very
graceful. After Cairo and Alexandria, Damietta was for cen-
turies the largest town in Egypt, but the silting up of the entrance
to the harbour, the rise of Port Said, and the remarkable develop-
ment of Alexandria have robbed Damietta of its value as a port.
It has still, however, a coasting trade with Syria and the Levant.
Ships over 6 ft. draught cannot enter the river, but must anchor

in the offing. Lake Menzala yields large supplies of fish, which
are dried and salted, and these, with rice, furnish the chief articles
of trade.

Damietta is a Levantine corruption of the Coptic name
Tamiati, Arabic Dimyat. The original town was 4 m. nearer
the sea than the modern city, and first rose into importance on
the decay of Pelusium. When it passed into the hands of the
Saracens it became a place of great wealth and commerce, and,
as the eastern bulwark of Egypt, was frequently attacked by the
crusaders. The most remarkable of these sieges lasted eighteen
months, from June 1218 to November 1219, and ended in the
capture of the town, which was, however, held but for a brief
period. In June 1249 Louis IX. of France occupied Damietta
without opposition, but being defeated near Mansura in the
February following, and compelled (6th April) to surrender
himself prisoner, Damietta was restored to the Moslems as part
of the ransom exacted. To prevent further attacks from the sea
the Mameluke sultan Bibars blocked up the Phatnitic mouth of
the Nile (about 1260), razed old Damietta to the ground, and
transferred the inhabitants to the site of the modern town. It
continued to be a place of commercial importance for a con-
siderable period, until in fact Port Said gave the eastern part of
the Delta a better port. Damietta gives its name to dimity, a
kind of striped cloth, for which the place was at one time famous.
Cotton and silk goods are still manufactured here.

DAMIRI, the common name of Kamal ud-Din Muhammad ibn
Musa ud-Damiri (1344-1405), Arabian writer on canon law and
natural history, belonged to one of the two towns called Damlra
near Damietta and spent his life in Egypt. Of the Shafi'ite school
of law, he became professor of tradition in the Rukniyya at Cairo,
and also at the mosque el-Azhar; in connexion with this work
he wrote a commentary on the Minhaj ut-Talibin of Nawawi
(q.v.). He is, however, better known in the history of literature
for his Life of Animals (Hay at ul-Hayawan), which treats in
alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Koran, the
traditions and the poetical and proverbial literature of the Arabs.
The work is a compilation from over 500 prose writers and nearly
200 poets. The correct spelling of the names of the animals is
given with an explanation of their meanings. The use of the
animals in medicine, their lawfulness or unlawfulness as food,
their position in folk-lore are the main subjects treated, while
occasionally long irrelevant sections on political history are
introduced.

The work exists in three forms. The fullest has been published
several times in Egypt; a mediate and a short recension exist in
manuscript. Several editions have been made at various times of
extracts, among them the poetical one by SuyQti (q.v.), which was
translated into Latin by A. Ecchelensis (Paris, 1667). Bochartus
in his Hierozoicon (1663) used Damlri's work. There is a translation
of the whole into English by Lieutenant-Colonel Jayakar (Bombay,
1906-1908). (G. W. T.)

DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT (1794-1862), French philo-
sopher, was born at Belleville. At nineteen he entered the
normal school, where he studied under Burnouf, Villemain, and
Cousin. After teaching for several years in provincial towns, he
came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy in various in-
stitutions, and finally became professor in the normal school,
and titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part
with P. F. Dubois and Th. S. Jouffroy in the establishment of
the Globe; and he was also a member of the committee of the
society which took for its motto Aide-toi, le del t 'aider a. In
1833 he was appointed chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in
1836 member of the Academy of Moral Sciences. Damiron died
at Paris on the nth of January 1862.

The chief works of Damiron, of which the best are his accounts
of French philosophers, are the following: — An edition of the
Nouveaux melanges philosophiques de Jouffroy (1842), with a
notice of the author, in which Damiron softened and omitted
several expressions used by Jouffroy, which were opposed to the
system of education adopted by the Sorbonne, an article which
gave rise to a bitter controversy, and to a book by Pierre Leroux,
De la mutilation des manuscrits de M. Jouffroy (1843); Essai sur
I'histoire de la philosophie en France au XIX' siecle (1828, 3rd ed.

DAMJANICH— DAMOCLES

789.

1834); Essai sur I'histoire de la philosophie en France au XVII.
siecle (1846); Memoir es a servir pour I'histoire de la philosophie
en France au X VIII. siecle (1858-1864) ; Cours de la philosophie;
De la Providence (1849, 1850).

See A. Franck, Moralistes et philosophes (1872).

DAMJANICH, JANOS (1804-1849), Hungarian soldier, was
born at Stasa in the Banat. He entered the army as an officer
in the 61st regiment of foot, and on the outbreak of the Hun-
garian war of independence was promoted to be a major in the
third Honved regiment at Szeged. Although an orthodox Serb,
he was from the first a devoted adherent of the Magyar liberals.
He won his colonelcy by his ability and valour at the battles of
Alibunar and Lagerdorf in 1848. At the beginning of 1849 he
was appointed commander of the 3rd army corps in the middle
Theiss, and quickly gained the reputation of being the bravest
man in the Magyar army, winning engagement after engagement
by sheer dash and daring. At the beginning of March 1849 he
annihilated a brigade at Szolnok, perhaps his greatest exploit.
He was elected deputy for Szolnok to the Hungarian diet, but
declined the honour. Damjanich played a leading part in the
general advance upon the Hungarian capital under Gorgei. He
was present at the engagements of Hort and Hatvan, converted
the doubtful fight of Tapio-Bicsk into a victory, and fought
with irresistible elan at the bloody battle of Isaszeg. At the
ensuing review at Godollo, Kossuth expressed the sentiments of
the whole nation when he doffed his hat as Damjanich's battalions
passed by. Always a fiery democrat, Damjanich uncompromis-
ingly supported the extremist views of Kossuth, and was
appointed commander of one of the three divisions which, under
Gorgei, entered Vacz in April 1849. His fame reached its
culmination when, on the 19th of April, he won the battle of
Nagysarlo, which led to the relief of the hardly-pressed fortress
of Komarom. At this juncture Damjanich broke his leg, an
accident which prevented him from taking part in field opera-
tions at the most critical period of the war, when the Magyars
had to abandon the capital for the second time. He recovered
sufficiently, however, to accept the post of commandant of the
fortress of Arad. After the Vilagos catastrophe, Damjanich, on
being summoned to surrender, declared he would give up the
fortress to a single company of Cossacks, but would defend it to
the last drop of his blood against the whole Austrian army. He
accordingly surrendered to the Russian general Demitrius
Buturlin (1790-1849), by whom he was handed over to the
Austrians, who shot him in the market-place of Arad a few days
later.

See Odon Hamvay, Life of Jdnos Damjanich (Hung.), (Budapest,
1904). (R. N. B.)

DAMMAR, or Dammer (Hind. damar = resin, pitch), a resin,
or rather series of resins, obtained from various coniferous trees
of the genus Dammara (Agathis). East Indian dammar or cat's
eye resin is the produce of Dammara orientalis, which grows in
Java, Sumatra, Borneo and other eastern islands and some-
times attains a height of 80-100 ft. It oozes in large quantities
from the tree in a soft viscous state, with a highly aromatic
odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by exposure. The
resin is much esteemed in oriental communities for incense-
burning. Dammar is imported into England by way of Singa-
pore; and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent,
brittle, straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily
soluble in ether, benzol and chloroform, and with oil of turpentine
it forms a fine transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth and
hard. The allied kauri gum, or dammar of New Zealand
(Australian dammar), is produced by Dammara australis, or
kauri-pine, the wood of which is used for wood paving. Much of
the New Zealand resin is found fossil in circumstances analogous
to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is
obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various
other resins, which, however, are little known in western com-
merce. Of these the principal are black dammar (the Hindustani
kala-damar) , yielded by Canarium strictum, and white dammar,
Indian copal, or piney varnish (sufed-damar) , the produce of
Valeria indica. Sal dammar (damar) is obtained from Shorea

robusta; Hopea micrantha is the source of rock dammar (the
Malay dammer-batu) ; and other species yield resins which are
similarly named and differ little in physical properties.

DAMMARTIN, a small town of France, in the department of
Seine et Marne, 22 m. N.E. of Paris. It is well situated on a
hill forming part of the plateau of la Goele, and is known as
Dammartin-en-Goele to distinguish it from Dammartin-sous-
Tigeaux, a small commune in the same department. Dammartin
is historically important as the seat of a countship of which the
holders played a considerable part in French history. The
earliest recorded count of Dammartin was a certain Hugh, who
made himself master of the town in the 10th century; but his
dynasty was replaced by another family in the nth century.
Reynald I. (Renaud), count of Dammartin (d. 1227), who was
one of the coalition crushed by King Philip Augustus at the
battle of Bouvines (1214), left two co-heiresses, of whom the
elder, Maud (Matilda or Mahaut), married Philip Hurepel, son
of Philip Augustus, and the second, Alix, married Jean de Trie,
in whose line the countship was reunited after the death of
Philip Hurepel's son Alberic. The countship passed, through
heiresses, to the houses of Fayel and Nanteuil, and in the 15th
century was acquired by Antoine de Chabannes (d. 1488), one
of the favourites of King Charles VII., by his marriage with
Marguerite, heiress of Reynald V. of Nanteuil-Aci and Marie of
Dammartin. This Antoine de Chabannes, count of Dammartin
in right of his wife, fought under the standard of Joan of Arc,
became a leader of the Ecorcheurs, took part in the war of the
public weal against Louis XL, and then fought for him against
the Burgundians. The collegiate church at Dammartin was
founded by him in 1480, and his tomb and effigy are in the
chancel. His son, Jean de Chabannes, left three heiresses,
of whom the second left a daughter who brought the countship
to Philippe de Boulainvilliers, by whose heirs it was sold in
1554 to' the dukes of Montmorency. In 1632 the countship was
confiscated by Louis XIII. and bestowed on the princes of
Conde.

DAMME, a decayed city of Belgium, 5 m. N.E. of Bruges,
once among the most important commercial ports of Europe.
It is situated on the canal from Bruges to Sluys (Ecluse), but
in the middle ages a navigable channel or river called the Zwyn
gave ships access to it from the North Sea. The great naval
battle of Sluys, in which Edward III. destroyed the French
fleet and secured the command of the channel, was fought in
the year 1340 at the mouth of the Zwyn. About 1395 this
channel began to show signs of silting up, and during the next
hundred years the process proved rapid. In 1490 a treaty was
signed at Damme between the people of Bruges and the archduke
Maximilian, and very soon after this event the channel became
completely closed up, and the foreign merchant gilds or " nations"
left the place for Antwerp. This signified the death of the port
and was indirectly fatal to Bruges as well. The marriage of
Charles the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV.,
was celebrated at Damme on the 2nd of July 1468. It will give
some idea of the importance of the town to mention that it had
its own maritime law, known as Droit maritime 'de Damme. The
new ship canal from Zeebrugge will not revive the ancient port,
as it follows a different route, leaving Damme and Ecluse quite
untouched. Damme, although long neglected, preserves some
remains of its former prosperity, thanks to its remoteness from
the area of international strife in the Low Countries. The tower
of Notre Dame, dating from n 80, is a landmark across the
dunes, and the church behind it, although a shell, merits in-
spection. Out of a portion of the ancient markets a hotel-de-
ville of modest dimensions has been constructed, and in the
hospital of St Jean are a few pictures. Camille Lemonnier has
given in one of his Causeries a striking picture of this faded
scene of former greatness, now a solitude in which the few
residents seem spectres rather than living figures.

DAMOCLES, one of the courtiers of the elder Dionysius of
Syracuse. When he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness
of his sovereign, Dionysius is said to have invited him to a
sumptuous banquet, at which he found himself seated under

,79°

DAMOH— DAMPIER

a naked sword suspended by a single hair (Cicero, Tusc. v. 21;
Horace, Odes, iii. 1,17; Persius iii. 40).

DAMOH, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbul-
pore division of the Central Provinces. The town has a railway
station, 48 m. E. of Saugor. Pop. (1901) 13,355. It has a con-
siderable cattle-market, and a number of small industries, such
as weaving, dyeing and pottery-making.

The District or Damoh has an area of 2816 sq. m. Except
on the south and east, where the offshoots from the surrounding
hills and patches of jungle break up the country, the district
consists of open plains of varying degrees of fertility, interspersed
with low ranges and isolated heights. The richest tracts lie in
the centre. The gentle declivity of the surface and the porous
character of the prevailing sandstone formation render the
drainage excellent. All the streams flow from south to north.
The Sunar and the Bairma, the two principal rivers, traverse
the entire length of the district. Little use has been made of
any of the rivers for irrigation, though in many places they offer
great facilities for the purpose. Damoh was first formed into
a separate district in 1861. In 1901 the population was 285,326,
showing a decrease of 1 2 % in one decade due to famine. Damoh
suffered severely from the famine of 1896-1897. Fortunately
the famine of 1900 was little felt. A branch of the Indian
Midland railway was opened throughout from Saugor to Katni
in January 1899.

DAMON, of Syracuse, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his
disinterested affection for Phintias (not, as commonly given,
Pythias), a member of the same sect. Condemned to death by
Dionysius the Elder (or Younger) of Syracuse, Phintias begged
to be set at liberty for a short time that he might arrange his
affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his friend;
and Phintias faithfully returned before the appointed day of
execution. The tyrant, to express his admiration of their
fidelity, released both the friends and begged to be admitted
to their friendship (Diod. Sic. x. 4; Cicero, De Off. iii. 10).
Hyginus {Fab. 257, who is followed by Schiller in his ballad,
Die Biirgschaft) tells a similar story, in which the two friends
are named Moerus and Selinuntius.

DAMOPHON, a Greek sculptor of Messene, who executed
many statues for the people of Messene, Megalopolis, Aegium and
other cities of Peloponnesus. Considerable fragments, including
three colossal heads from a group by him representing Demeter,
Persephone, Artemis and the giant Anytus, have been discovered
on the site of Lycosura in Arcadia, where was a temple of the
goddess called " The Mistress." They are preserved in part in
the museum at Athens and partly on the spot. Hence there
has arisen a great controversy as to the date of the artist, who
has been assigned to various periods, from the 4th century B.C.
to the 2nd a.d. A good account of the whole matter will be
found in Frazer's Pausanias, iv. 372-379. Frazer wisely in-
clines to an early date; it is in fact difficult to find any period,
when the cities mentioned were in a position to found temples,
later than the time of Alexander.

DAMP, a common Teutonic word, meaning vapour or mist
(cf. Ger. Dampf, steam), and hence moisture. In its primitive
sense the word persists in the vocabulary of coal-miners. Their
" firedamp " (formerly fulminating damp) is marsh gas, which,
when mixed with air and exploded, produced " choke damp,"
"after damp," or "suffocating damp" (carbon dioxide).
" Black damp " consists of accumulations of irrespirable gases,
mostly nitrogen, which cause the lights to burn dimly, and
the term " white damp " is sometimes applied to carbon mon-
oxide. As a verb, the word means to stifle or check ; hence
damped vibrations or oscillations are those which have been
reduced or stopped, instead of being allowed to die out natur-
ally; the " dampers " of the piano are small pieces of felt-
covered wood which fall upon the strings and stop their vibra-
tions as the keys are allowed to rise; and the " damper " of a
chimney or flue, by restricting the draught, lessens the rate of
combustion.

DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715), English buccaneer, navi-
gator and hydrographer, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire,

in 1 65 2 (baptized 8th of June) . Having early become an orphan,
he was placed with the master of a ship at Weymouth, in which
he made a voyage to Newfoundland. On his return he sailed to
Bantam in the East Indies. He served in 1673 in the Dutch
War under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two engage-
ments (28th of May; 4th of June); but then fell sick and was
put ashore. In 1674 he became an under-manager of a Jamaica
estate, but continued only a short time in this situation. He
afterwards engaged in the coasting trade, and thus acquired an
accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of the island. He
made two voyages to the Bay of Campeachy (1675-1676), and
remained for some time with the logwood-cutters, varying this
occupation with buccaneering. In 1678 he returned to England,
again visiting Jamaica in 1679 and joining a party of buccaneers,
with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, spent the year
1680 on the Peruvian coast, and sacking, plundering and burn-
ing, made his way down to Juan Fernandez Island. After serving
with another privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, he
went to Virginia and engaged with a captain named Cook for a
privateering voyage against the Spaniards in the South Seas.
They sailed in August 1683, touched at the Guinea coast, and
then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific. Having
touched at Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South
America, cruising along Chile and Peru. They took some prizes,
and with these they proceeded to the Galapagos Islands and
to Mexico, which last they fell in with near Cape Blanco.
While they lay here Captain Cook died, and the command
devolved on Captain Davis, who, with several other pirate
vessels, English and French, raided the west American shores
for the next year, attacking Guayaquil, Puebla Nova, &c. At
last Dampier, leaving Davis, went on board Swan's ship, and
proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico as far as
southern California. Swan then proposed, as the expedition met
with " bad success " on the Mexican coast, to run across the
Pacific and return by the East Indies. They started from Cape
Corrientes on the 31st of March 1686, and reached Guam in the
Ladrones on the 20th of May; the men, having almost come to
an end of their rations, had decided to kill and eat their leaders
next, beginning with the " lusty and fleshy " Swan. After six
months' drunkenness and debauchery in the Philippines, the
majority of the crew, including Dampier, left Swan and thirty-
six others behind in Mindanao, cruised (1687-1688) from Manila
to Pulo Condore, from the latter to China, and from China to
the Spice Islands and New Holland (the Australian mainland).
In March 1688 they were off Sumatra, and in May off the Nico-
bars, where Dampier was marooned (at his own request, as he
declares, for the purpose of establishing a trade in ambergris)
with two other Englishmen, a Portuguese and some Malays.
He and his companions contrived to navigate a canoe to Achin
in Sumatra; but the fatigues and distress of the voyage proved
fatal to several and nearly carried off Dampier himself. After
making several voyages to different places of the East Indies
(Tongking, Madras, &c), he acted for some time, and apparently
somewhat unwillingly, as gunner to the English fort of Benkulen.
Thence he ultimately contrived to return to England in 1691.

In 1699 he was sent out by the English admiralty in command
of the " Roebuck," especially designed for discovery in and
around Australia. He sailed from the Downs, the 14th of
January, with twenty months' provisions, touched at the
Canaries, Cape Verdes and Bahia, and ran from Brazil round
the Cape of Good Hope direct to Australia, whose west coast he
reached on the 26th of July, in about 26° S. lat. Anchoring in
Shark's Bay, he began a careful exploration of the neighbouring
shore-lands, but found no good harbour or estuary, no fresh
water or provisions. In September, accordingly, he left Australia,
recruited and refitted at Timor, and thence made for New Guinea,
where he arrived on the 3rd of December. By sailing along to
its easternmost extremity, he discovered that it was terminated
by an island, which he named New Britain (now Neu Pommern),
whose north, south and east coasts he surveyed. That St
George's Bay was really St George's Channel, dividing the island
into two, was not perceived by Dampier; it was the discovery

DAN— DANA, C. A.

791

of his successor, Philip Carteret. Nor did Dampier visit the
west coast of New Britain or realize its small extent on that side.
He was prevented from prosecuting his discoveries by the dis-
content of his men and the state of his ship. In May 1700 he was
again at Timor, and thence he proceeded homeward by Batavia
(4th July-iyth October) and the Cape of Good Hope. In
February 1701 he arrived off Ascension Island, when the vessel
foundered (2ist~24th February), the crew reaching land and
staying in the island till the 3rd of April, when they were con-
veyed to England by some East Indiamen and warships bound for
home. In 1 703-1 707 Dampier commanded two government
privateers on an expedition to the South Seas with grievous
unsuccess; better fortune attended him on his last voyage, as
pilot to Woodes Rogers in the circumnavigation of 1708-17 n.
On the former venture Alexander Selkirk, the master of one of
the vessels, was marooned at Juan Fernandez; on the latter
Selkirk was rescued and a profit of nearly £200,000 was made.
But four years before the prize-money was paid Dampier died
(March 1715) in St Stephen's parish, Coleman Street, London.
Dampier's accounts of his voyages are famous. He had a genius
for observation, especially of the scientific phenomena affecting
a seaman's life; his style is usually admirable — easy, clear and
manly. His knowledge of natural history, though not scientific,
appears surprisingly accurate and trustworthy.

See Dampier's New Voyage Round the World (1697) ; his Voyages
and Descriptions (1699), a work supplementary to the New Voyage;
his Voyage to New Holland in . . . 1699 (1703, 1709); also Fun-
nell's Narrative of the Voyage of 1703-1707; Dampier's Vindication of
his Voyage (1707) ; Welbe's Answer to Captain Dampier's Vindication;
Woodes Rogers, Cruising Voyage Round the World (17 12). (C. R. B.)

DAN. (from a Hebrew word meaning "judge"), a tribe of
Israel, named after a son of Jacob and Bilhah, the maid of
Rachel. The meaning of the name (referred to in Gen. xxx. 5 seq.,
xlix. 16) connects Dan with Dinah (" judgment "), the daughter
of Leah, whose story in Gen. xxxiv. (cf. xlix. 5 seq.) seems to
point to an Israelite occupation of Shechem, a treacherous
massacre of its Canaanite inhabitants by Simeon and Levi, and
the subsequent scattering of the latter. But, historically, the
occupation of Shechem, whether by conquest (Gen. xlviii. 22) or
purchase (xxxiii. 19), is as obscure as the conquest of central
Palestine itself (see Joshua), and the true relation between Dan
and Dinah is uncertain. The earliest seats of Dan lay at Zorah,
Eshtaol and Kirjath-jearim, west of Jerusalem, whence they were
forced to seek a new home, and a valuable narrative detailing
some of the events of the move is preserved in the story of the
sanctuary of the Ephraimite Micah (q.v.). Laish (Leshem) was
taken with the sword and re-named Dan (see below). Here a
sanctuary was founded under the guardianship of Jonathan,
the grandson of Moses, which survived until the " captivity of
the land " (by Tiglath-Pileser IV. in 733-732), or, according to
another notice, until the fall of Shiloh (Judg. xviii. 30 seq.). Dan
formed the northern limit of the land, 1 and with Abel (-beth-
Maacah) was an old place renowned for Israelite lore (2 Sam.
xx. 18; on the text see the commentaries). Little can be made
of Dan's history. The reference to it as a seafaring folk (Judg.
v. 17) is difficult, and it is uncertain whether its character as
represented in Gen. xlix. 17, Deut. xxxiii. 22, refers to its earlier
or later seat. The post-exilic accounts of its southern border
would make it part of Judah, and both of them are in tradition
the greatest of the tribes in the wanderings in the wilderness.
Dan was subsequently either regarded as the embodiment of
wickedness or entirely ignored; late speculation that the
Antichrist should spring from it appears to be based upon an
interpretation of Gen. xlix. 17 (see further R. H. Charles,
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, pp. 128 seq.).

A brief record of the Danite migration is found in some old
detached fragments which K. Budde (Richter und Samuel)
ingeniously arranges thus: — Judg. i. 34 (Amorite pressure);
Josh. xix. 47a (see the Septuagint), 476; Judg. i. 35. The position

1 On the late phrase " Dan to Beersheba " as the extreme points
of religious life in Israel, see H. W. Hsgg, Expositor, viii. 411-421
(1898) ; and for a complete discussion of the tribe, his art. " Dan "
in Encyc. Bib.

of Judg. xvii. seq. (after the stories of Samson) may imply that
the Philistines, not the Amorites, caused the migration (cf.
1 Sam. vii. 14, where the two ethnical terms interchange). The
Mosaic priesthood and the reference to Shiloh suggest that the
story of Eli may have belonged to this cycle of narratives; and
the spoliation of the unknown sanctuary of the Ephraimite
Micah and the character of the fierce Puritan tribesmen connect
Dan with the problems of the tribes of Simeon and Levi. Dan's
northern home lay near Beth-rehob, which appears to have been
Aramean in David's time (2 Sam. x. 6), and it is possible that
the migration has been antedated (cf. similarly the case of Jair,
Num. xxxii. 41, Judg. x. 3-5). The Tyrian artificer sent to
Solomon by Hiram was partly of Danite descent (2 Chron.
ii. 13 seq.; but of Naphtali, so 1 Kings vii. 14); and of the two
workers in brass who took part in the building of the tabernacle in
the desert, one was Danite (Oholiab, Ex. xxxi. 6), while the other
appears to have been Calebite (Bezalel, ib., v. 2; 1 Chron. ii. 20).
The Kenites, too, have been regarded as a race of metal-workers
(see Cain, Kenites), and there is evidence which would show
that Danites, Calebites and Kenites were once closely associated
in tradition.

See S. A. Cook, Critical Notes, Index, s.v.: E Meyer, Israeliten,
pp. 525 seq. (S. A. C)

DAN, a town of ancient Israel, near the head-waters of the
Jordan, inhabited before its conquest by the Danites by a peace-
ful commercial population who called their city Laish or Leshem
(Josh. xix. 47, Judg. xviii.). It appears to have been even at
this early period a sacred city, the shrine of Micah being removed
hither, and it was chosen by Jeroboam as the site of one of his
calf-shrines. It makes the north limit of Palestine in the pro-
verbial expression " from Dan to Beersheba." The town was
plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that
time to have gradually declined. Its site is sought in the mound
called Tell-el-Kadi, "the hill of the judge" (Dan = " judge"
in Hebrew), though weighty authorities incline to place it 4 m.
east of this, at Banias, the old Caesarea Philippi. (See above.)

DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819-1897), American jour-
nalist, was born in Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the 8th of
August 1819. At the age of twelve he became a clerk in his
uncle's general store at Buffalo, which failed in 1837. In 1839
he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight in 1841
forced him to leave college, and caused him to abandon his
intention of entering the ministry and of studying in Germany.
From September 1841 until March 1846 he lived at Brook Farm,
where he was made one of the trustees of the farm, was head
waiter when the farm became a Fourierite phalanx, and was in
charge of the phalanstery's finances when its buildings were
burned in 1846. He had previously written for (and managed)
the Harbinger, the Brook Farm organ, and had written as early
as 1844 for the Boston Chronotype. In 1847 he joined the staff
of the New York Tribune, and in 1848 he wrote from Europe
letters to it and other papers on the revolutionary movements
of that year. Returning to the Tribune in 1849, he became its
managing-editor, and in this capacity actively promoted the
anti-slavery cause, seeming to shape the paper's policy at a time
when Greeley was undecided and vacillating. In 1862 his
resignation was asked for by the board of managers of the
Tribune, apparently because of wide temperamental differences
between him and Greeley. Secretary of War Stanton immedi-
ately made him a special investigating agent of the war "depart-
ment; in this capacity Dana discovered frauds of quartermasters
and contractors, and as the " eyes of the administration," as
Lincoln called him, he spent much time at the front, and sent to
Stanton frequent reports concerning the capacity and methods
of various generals in the field; he went through the Vicksburg
campaign and was at Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and urged
the placing of General Grant in supreme command of all the
armies in the field. Dana was second assistant-secretary of war
in 1864-1865, and in 1865-1866 conducted the newly-established
and unsuccessful Chicago Republican. He became the editor
and part-owner of the New York Sun in 1868, and remained in
control of it until his death at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York,

792

DANA, F.

on the 17th of October 1897. Under Dana's control the Sun
opposed the impeachment of President Johnson; it supported
Grant for the presidency in 1868; it was a sharp critic of Grant
as president; and in 1872 took part in the Liberal Republican
revolt and urged Greeley's nomination. It favoured Tilden,
the Democratic candidate for the presidency, in 1876, opposed
the Electoral Commission and continually referred to Hayes as
the " fraud president." In 1884 it supported Benjamin F.
Butler, the candidate of Greenback-Labor and Anti-Monopolist
parties, for the presidency, and opposed Blaine (Republican)
and even more bitterly Cleveland (Democrat); it supported
Cleveland and opposed Harrison in 1888, although it had bitterly
criticized Cleveland's first administration, and was to criticize
nearly every detail of his second, with the exception of Federal
interference in the Pullman strike of 1894; and in 1896, on
the free-silver issue, it opposed Bryan, the Democratic candidate
for the presidency. Dana's literary style came to be the style
of the Sun — simple, strong, clear, " boiled down." The Art of
Newspaper Making, containing three lectures which he wrote
on journalism, was published in 1900. With George Ripley
he edited The New American Cyclopaedia (15 vols., 1857-1863),
reissued as the American Cyclopaedia in 1873-1876. He had
excellent taste in the fine arts and edited an anthology, The
Household Book of Poetry (1857). He was a very good linguist,
published several versions from the German, and read the
Romance and Scandinavian languages; he was an art con-
noisseur and left a remarkable collection of Chinese porcelain.
Dana's Reminiscences of the Civil War was published in 1898,
as was his Eastern Journeys, Notes of Travel. He also edited a
campaign Life of U. S. Grant, published over his name and that
of General James H. Wilson in 1868.

See James Wilson, The Life of Charles A . Dana (New York, 1907).

DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811), American jurist, was born in
Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 13th of June 1743. He was
the son of Richard Dana (1699-1772), a leader of the Massa-
chusetts provincial bar, and a vigorous advocate of colonial rights
in the pre-revolutionary period. Francis Dana graduated at
Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in 1767, and, being
an opponent of the British colonial policy, became a leader of
the Sons of Liberty, and in 1774 was a member of the first pro-
vincial congress of Massachusetts. During a two years' visit to
England he sought earnestly to gain friends to his colony's cause,
but returned to Boston in April 1776 convinced that a friendly
settlement of the dispute was impossible. He was a member of
the Massachusetts executive council from 1776 to 1780, and a
delegate to the Continental Congress from 1776 to 1778. As a
member of the latter body he became chairman in January 1778
of the committee appointed to visit Washington at Valley Forge,
and confer with him concerning the reorganization of the army.
This committee spent about three months in camp, and assisted
Washington in preparing the plan of reorganization which Con-
gress in the main adopted. In this year he was also a member
of a committee to consider Lord North's offer of conciliation,
which he vigorously opposed. In the autumn of 1779 he was
appointed secretary to John Adams, who had been selected
as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of peace and
commerce with Great Britain, and in December 1780 he was
appointed diplomatic representative to the Russian government.
He remained at St Petersburg from 1781 to 1783, but was never
formally received by the empress Catherine. In February 1784
he was again chosen a delegate to Congress, and in January 1785
he became a justice of the Massachusetts supreme court. He
was chief justice of this court from 1791 to 1806, and presided
with ability and rare distinction. He was an earnest advocate
of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a member of the
Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument, and
was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the
Federalist party. His tastes were scholarly, and he was one of
the founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
He died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 25th of April 181 1.

His son, Richard Henry Dana" (1787-1879), was born in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 15th of November 1787. He

was educated at Harvard in the class of 1808. Subsequently he
studied law and in 181 1 was admitted to practice. But all other
interests were early subordinated to his love of literature, to
which the greater part of his long life was devoted. He became
in 1 8 14 a member of a literary society in Cambridge, known as
the Anthology Club. This club began the publication of a
monthly magazine, The Monthly Anthology, which gave way in
1815 to The North American Review. In the editorial control of
this periodical he was associated with Jared Sparks and Edward
T. Channing (1790-1856) until 1821, contributing essays and
criticisms which attracted wide attention. In 1821-1822 he
edited in New York a short-lived literary magazine, The Idle
Man. He published his first volume of Poems in 1827, and in
1833 appeared his Poems and Prose Writings, republished in
1850 in two volumes, in which were included practically all of
his poems and of his prose contributions to periodical literature.
Although the bulk of his published writings was not large, his
influence on American literature during the first half of the
19th century was surpassed by that of few of his contemporaries.
Richard Henry Dana (181 5-1882), son of the last-mentioned,
was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August 1815.
He entered Harvard in the class of 1835, but at the beginning of
his junior year an illness affecting his sight necessitated a suspen-
sion of his college work, and in August 1834 he shipped before
the mast for California, returning in September 1836. The
rough experience of this voyage did more than endow him with
renewed health; it changed him from a dreamy, sensitive boy,
hereditarily disinclined to any sort of active career, into a self-
reliant, energetic man, with broad interests and keen sympathies.
He re-entered Harvard in December 1836 and graduated in June
1837. He was a student at the Harvard law school from 1837
to 1840, and from January 1839 to February 1840 he was also an
instructor in elocution in the college. In 1840 the notes of his
sea-trip were published under the title Two Years Before the Mast.
The book attained an almost unprecedented popularity both in
America and in Europe, where it was translated into several
languages ; and it came to be considered a classic. Immediately
after the appearance of this book Dana began the practice of law,
which brought him a large number of maritime cases. In 1 84 1 he
published The Seaman's Friend, republished in England as The
Seaman's Manual, which was long the highest authority on the
legal rights and duties of seamen. After gaining recognition as
one of the most prominent members of the Suffolk bar, he became
associated in 1848 with the Free Soil movement, and took a
prominent part in the Buffalo convention of that year. This
step, which caused him to be ostracized for a time from the
Boston circles in which he had been reared, brought him the
cases of the fugitive slaves, Shadrach, Sims and Burns, and of the
rescuers of Shadrach. On the night following the surrender of
Burns (May 1854) Dana was brutally assaulted on the Boston
streets. In 1853 he took a prominent part in the state constitu-
tional convention. He allied himself with the Republican party
on its organization, but his inborn dislike for political man'
ceuvring prevented his ever becoming prominent in its councils.
In 1857 he became a regular attendant at the meetings of the
famous Boston Saturday Club, to the members of which he
dedicated his account of a vacation trip, To Cuba and Back
(1857). He returned to America from a trip round the world in
time to participate in the presidential campaign of i860, and
after Lincoln's inauguration he was appointed United States
district attorney for Massachusetts. In this office in 1863 he
won before the Supreme Court of the United States the famous
prize case of the "Amy Warwick," on the decision in which
depended the right of the government to blockade the Con-
federate ports, without giving the Confederate States an inter-
national status as belligerents. He brought out in 1865 an edition
of Wheaton's International Law, his notes constituting a most
learned and valuable authority on international law and its
bearings on American history and diplomacy; but immediately
after its publication Dana was charged by the editor of two
earlier editions, William Beach Lawrence, with infringing his
copyright, and was involved in litigation which was continued

DANA, J. D.— DANBURY

793

for thirteen years. In such minor matters as arrangement of
notes and verification of citations the court found against Dana,
but in the main Dana's notes were vastly different from
Lawrence's. In 1865 Dana declined an appointment as a
United States district judge. During the Reconstruction period
he favoured the congressional plan rather than that of President
Johnson, and on this account resigned the district-attorneyship.
In 1867-1868 he was a member of the Massachusetts House of
Representatives, and in 1867 was retained with William M.
Evarts to prosecute Jefferson Davis, whose admission to bail he
counselled. In 1877 he was one of the counsel for the United
States before the commission which in accordance with the treaty
of Washington met at Halifax, N.S., to arbitrate the fisheries
question between the United States and Great Britain. In
1878 he gave up his law practice and devoted the rest of his life
to study and travel. He died in Rome, Italy, on the oth of
January 1882.

See Charles Francis Adams, Richard Henry Dana: a Biography
(2 vols., Boston, Mass., 1891).

DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895), American geologist,
mineralogist and zoologist, was born in Utica, New York, on
the 1 2 th of February 1 8 1 3 . He early displayed a taste for science,
which had been fostered by Fay Edgerton, a teacher in theUtica
high school, and in 1830 he entered Yale College, in order to
study under Benjamin Silliman the elder. Graduating in 1833,
for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics to midship-
men in the navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged
in his duties. In 1836-1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman
in the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted
as mineralogist and geologist of a United States exploring ex-
pedition, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific
ocean (see Wilkes, Charles). His labours in preparing the
reports of his explorations occupied parts of thirteen years after
his return to America in 1842. In 1844 he again became a resi-
dent of New Haven, married the daughter of Professor Silliman,
and in 1850, on the resignation of the latter, was appointed
Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale
College, a position which he held till 1892. In 1846 he became
joint editor and during the later years of his life he was chief
editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts (founded
in 1818 by Benjamin Silliman), to which he was a constant
contributor, principally of articles on geology and mineralogy.
A bibliographical list of his writings shows 214 titles of books
and papers, beginning in 1835 with a paper on the conditions
of Vesuvius in 1834, an d ending with the fourth revised edition
(finished in February 1895) of his Manual of Geology. His
reports on Zoophytes, on the Geology of the Pacific Area, and on
Crustacea, summarizing his work on the Wilkes expedition,
appeared in 1846, 1849 and l8 S 2- i8S4, in quarto volumes, with
copiously illustrated atlases; but as these were issued in small
numbers, his reputation more largely rests upon his System of
Mineralogy (1837 and many later editions in 1892); Manual
of Geology (1862; ed. 4, 1895); Manual of Mineralogy (1848),
afterwards entitled Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology (ed. 4,
1887); and Corals and Coral Islands (1872; ed. 2, 1890). In
1887 Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of his
further investigations were published in a quarto volume in 1890,
entitled Characteristics of Volcanoes. By the Royal Society of
London he was awarded the Copley medal in 1877; and by
the Geological Society the Wollaston medal in 1874. His powers
of work were extraordinary, and in his 82nd year he was occupied
in preparing a new edition of his Manual of Geology, the 4th
edition being issued in 1895. He died on the 14th of April 1895.

His son Edward Salisbury Dana, born at New Haven on
the 16th of November 1849, is author of A Textbook of Mineralogy
(1877; new ed. 1898) and a Text Book of Elementary Mechanics
(1881). In 1879-80 he was professor of natural philosophy and
then became professor of physics at Yale.

See Life of J. D. Dana, by Daniel C. Gilman (1899).

OANAE, in Greek legend, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos.
Her father, having been warned by an oracle that she would bear
a son by whom he would be slain, confined Danae in a brazen

tower. But Zeus descended to her in a shower of gold, and she
gave birth to Perseus, whereupon Acrisius placed her and her
infant in a wooden box and threw them into the sea. They were
finally driven ashore on the island of Seriphus, where they were
picked up by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother Polydectes,
who was king of the island, fell in love with Danae and married
her. According to another story, her son Perseus, on his return
with the head of Medusa, finding his mother persecuted by
Polydectes, turned him into stone, and took Danae back with him
to Argos. Latin legend represented her as landing on the coast
of Latium and marrying Pilumnus or Picumnus, from whom
Turnus, king of the Rutulians, was descended. Danae formed
the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides,
Livius Andronicus and Naevius. She is the personification oi
the earth suffering from drought, on which the fertilizing rain
descends from heaven.

Apollodorus ii. 4; Sophocles, Antigone, 944; Horace, Odes, iii.
16; Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 410. See also P. Schwarz, De Fabula
Danaeia (1881).

DANAO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu,
Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the Danao
river, 17 m. N.N.E. of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,173.
Danao has a comparatively cool and healthy climate, is the
centre of a rich agricultural region producing rice, Indian corn,
sugar, copra and cacao, and coal is mined in the vicinity. The
language is Cebu-Visayan.

DANAUS, in Greek legend, son of Belus, king of Egypt, and
twin-brother of Aegyptus. He was born at Chemmis (Panopolis)
in Egypt, buthavingbeen driven out byhis brother he fled with his
fifty daughters to Argos, the home of his ancestress Io. Here he
became king and taught the inhabitants of the country to dig
wells. In the meantime the fifty sons of Aegyptus arrived in
Argos, and Danaus was obliged to consent to their marriage
with his daughters. But to each of these he gave a knife with
injunctions to slay her husband on the marriage night. They all
obeyed except Hyperm(n)estra, who spared Lynceus. She was
brought to trial by her father, acquitted and afterwards married
to her lover. Being unable to find suitors for the other daughters,
Danaus offered them in marriage to the youths of the district
who proved themselves victorious in racing contests (Pindar,
Pythia, ix. 117). According to another story, Lynceus slew
Danaus and his daughters and seized the throne of Argos (schol.
on Euripides, Hecuba, 886). By way of expiation for their crime
the Dana'ides were condemned to the endless task of filling with
water a vessel which had no bottom. This punishment, originally
inflicted on those who neglected certain mystic rites, was trans-
ferred to those who, like the Danaides, despised the mystic rite
of marriage; cf. the water-bearing figure (KovTpo<j)6pos) on the
grave of unmarried persons. The murder of the sons of Aegyptus
by their wives is supposed to represent the drying up of the rivers
and springs of Argolis in summer by the agency of the nymphs.

Apollodorus ii. 1; Horace, Odes, iii. 11; O. Waser, in Archiv fur
Religionswissenschaft, ii. Heft 1, 1899; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's
Realencyclopadie and W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie;
Campbell Bonner, in Harvard Studies, xiii. (1902).

DANBURITE, a rare mineral species consisting of calcium
and boron orthosilicate, CaB 2 (Si0 4 ) 2 , crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system. It was discovered by C. U. Shepard in 1839
at Danbury, Connecticut, U.S.A., and named by him after this
locality. The crystals are prismatic in habit, and closely re-
semble topaz in form and interfacial angles. There is an im-
perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane. Crystals are
transparent to translucent, and colourless to pale yellow;
hardness 7; specific gravity 3-0. At Danbury the mineral occurs
with microcline and oligoclase embedded in dolomite. Large
crystals, reaching 4 in. ki length, have been found with calcite in
veins traversing granite at Russell in St Lawrence county, New
York. Smaller but well-developed crystals have been found on
gneiss at Mt. Scopi and Petersthal (the valley of the Vals Rhine)
in Switzerland. Splendid crystals have recently been obtained
from Japan.

DANBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of Fair-
field county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in Danbury township, in the

794

DANBY— DANCE

south-west part of the state, on the Still river, a tributary of the
Housatonic. Pop. (1890) 16,552; (1900) 16,537 (3702 foreign-
born); (i9io)>20,234. In 1900 the population of the township, in-
cluding that of the city, was 19474, andin 1910, 23,502. Danbury
is served by three divisions of the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway; by the Danbury & Harlem electric railway,
which connects at Goldens Bridge, New York, with the Harlem
division of the New York Central; and by an electric line to
Bethel, Connecticut. Lake Kenosia, about 2 1 m. from the centre
of the city, is a pleasure resort. A state normal school was
opened in Danbury in 1904, and there is a home for destitute
and homeless children under private (unsectarian) control.
The city has good water-power, and the municipality owns the
water works. The principal industry is the manufacture of felt
hats, begun in 1780, and in 1905 engaging about thirty factories,
with a product for the year valued at $5,798,107 (71-9% of the
value of all the factory products of the city, and 15.8% of the
value of all the felt hats produced in the United States). The
city ranked first among the cities of the country in this industry
in 1900 and second in 1905, and in 1905 no other city showed so
high a degree of specialization in it. Silver-plated ware (mostly
manufactured by Rogers Bros.) is another important product.
At Danbury is held annually the well-known agricultural
Danbury Fair. The township was settled in 1684 by emigrants
from Norwalk, and received its present name in 1687. When
the War of Independence opened, Enoch Crosby, believed to be
the original of Harvey Birch, the hero of J. F. Cooper's The Spy,
was a resident of Danbury. A depot of military supplies was
established in the village of Danbury in 1776; in April 1777
Governor William Tryon, of New York, raided the place, destroy-
ing the military stores and considerable private property.
During his retreat he was attacked (April 26th) at Ridgefield
(about 9 m. south by east of Danbury) by the Americans under
General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was fatally wounded
in the conflict (being succeeded by General Benedict Arnold),
and to whose memory a monument was erected in Danbury in
1854. Danbury was chartered as a borough in 1832 and as a
city in 1880. In 1870 the Danbury News was established by the
consolidation of the Jejfersonian and the Times, by James
Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894), from 1865 to 1870 proprietor
of the Times. He wrote for the News humorous sketches,
which made him and the paper famous, Bailey being known as
the " Danbury News Man "; among his books are Life in Dan-
bury (1873), The Danbury News Man's Almanac (1873), They
All Do It (1877), England from a Back Window (1878), Mr
Philip's Goneness (1879), The Danbury Boom (1880), and History
of Danbury (1896).

DANBY, FRANCIS (1 793-1861), English painter, was born in
the south of Ireland on the 16th of November 1793. His father
farmed a small property he owned near Wexford, but his death
caused the family to remove to Dublin, while Francis was still a
schoolboy. He began to practice drawing at the Royal Dublin
Society's schools; and under an erratic young artist named
O'Connor he began painting landscape. Danby also made
acquaintance with George Petrie, and all three left for London
together in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very in-
adequate funds, quickly came to an end, and they had to get
home again by walking. At Bristol they made a pause, and
Danby, finding he could get trifling sums for water-colour
drawings, remained there working diligently and sending to the
London exhibitions pictures of importance. There his large
pictures in oil quickly attracted attention. " The Upas Tree "
(1820) and " The Delivery of the Israelites " (1825) brought
him his election as an associate of the Royal Academy. He left
Bristol for London, and in 1828 exhibited his " Opening of the
Sixth Seal " at the British Institution, receiving from that body
a prize of 200 guineas; and this picture was followed by two
others from the Apocalypse. He suddenly left London, declaring
that he would never live there again, and that the Academy,
instead of aiding him, had, somehow or other, used him badly.
Some insurmountable domestic difficulty overtook him also, and
for eleven or twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a

Bohemian with boat-building fancies, painting only now and
then. He returned to England in 1841, when his sons, James
and Thomas, both artists, were growing up. Other pictures by
him were " The Golden Age " and " The Evening Gun," the
first begun before he left England, the second painted after his
return; he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died
on the 9th of February 1861.

DANCE, the name of an English family distinguished in
architecture, art and the drama. George Dance, the elder
(1700-1768), obtained the appointment of architect to the city
of London, and designed the Mansion House (1 739) ; the churches
of St Botolph, Aldgate (1741), St Luke's, Old Street; St
Leonard, Shoreditch; the old excise office; Broad Street; and
other public works of importance. He died on the 8th of
February 1768. His eldest son, James Dance (1722-1744), was
born on the 17th of March 1722, and educated at the Merchant
Taylors' School and St John's College, Oxford, which he left
before graduating. He took the name of Love, and became an
actor and playwright of no great merit. In the former capacity
he was for twelve years connected with Drury Lane theatre.
He wrote " an heroic poem " on Cricket, about 1 740, and a volume
of Poems on Several Occasions (1754), and a number of comedies
— the earliest Pamela (1742).

George Dance's third son, Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland,
Bart. (1735-1811), was born on the 18th of May 1735, and
studied art under Francis Hayman, and in Italy, where he met
Angelica Kauffmann, to whom he was devotedly and hopelessly
attached. From Rome he sent home " Dido and Aeneas "
(1763), and he continued to paint occasional historical pictures
of the same quasi-classic kind throughout his career. On his
return to England he took up portrait-painting with great
success, and contributed to the first exhibition of the Royal
Academy, of which he was a foundation member, full-length
portraits of George III. and his queen. These, and his portraits
of Captain Cook and of Garrick as Richard III., engraved by
Dixon, are his best-known works. Himself a rich man, in 1790
he married a widow with £15,000 a year, dropped his profession,
and became M.P. for East Grinstead, taking the additional name
of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. He died on the
15th of October 1811, leaving a fortune of £200,000.

George Dance's fifth and youngest son, George Dance, the
younger (1741-1825), succeeded his father as city surveyor and
architect in 1768. He was then only twenty-seven, had spent
several years abroad, chiefly in Italy with his brother Nathaniel,
and had already distinguished himself by designs for Blackfriars
Bridge sent to the 1761 exhibition of the Incorporated Society of
Artists. His first important public work was the rebuilding
of Newgate prison in 1770. The front of the Guildhall was also
his. He, too, was a foundation member of the Royal Academy,
and for a number of years the last survivor of the forty original
academicians. His last years were devoted to art rather than to
architecture, and after 1798 his Academy contributions consisted
solely of chalk portraits of his friends, seventy-two of which were
engraved and published (1808-1814). He resigned his office in
1815, and after many years of illness died on the 14th of January
1825, and was buried in St Paul's. His son, Charles Dance
(1794-1863), was for thirty years registrar, taxing officer and
chief clerk of the insolvent debtors' court, retiring, when it was
abolished, on an allowance. In collaboration with J. R. Planche
and others, or alone, he wrote a great number of extravaganzas,
farces and comediettas. He was one of the first, if not the first,
of the burlesque writers, and was the author of those produced
so successfully by Madame Vestris for years at the Olympic.
Of his farces, Delicate Ground, Who Speaks First ?, A Morning
Call and others are still occasionally revived. He died on the
6th of January 1863.

DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old
High Ger. danson, to stretch). The term "dancing" in its
widest sense includes three things: — (1) the spontaneous activity
of the muscles under the influence of some strong emotion, such
as social joy or religious exultation ; (2) definite combinations of
graceful movements performed for the sake of the pleasure

DANCE

795

which the exercise affords to the dancer or to the spectator;
(3) carefully trained movements which are meant by the dancer
vividly to represent the actions and passions of other people.
In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song
is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Regarded as the
outlet or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require
much discussion, for the general rule applies that such demon-
strations for a time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow
of feeling. The voice and the facial muscles and many of the
organs are affected at the same time, and the result is a high state
of vitality which among the spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic
worship of Bacchus and Cybele amounted to something like
madness. Even here there is traceable an undulatory movement
which, as Herbert Spencer says, is " habitually generated by
feeling in its bodily discharge." But it is only in the advanced
or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the essential
feature of measure, which has been said to consist in " the alter-
nation of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones," an
alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children,
" is compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of
muscular excitement." In analysing the state of mind which
this measured dancing produces, we must first of all allow for
the pleasant glow of excitement caused by the excess of blood
sent to the brain. But apart from this, there is an agreeable
sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular efforts, and in
the spaces described, and also in the period of their recurrence.
If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not precisely
equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually in-
creasing intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly
rises in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, " When you do
dance, I wish you a wave of the sea " (Winter's Tale, iv. 3).
The mind feeis the beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular
motion, just as much as in musical notes. Then, the figure of
the dance is frequently a circle or some more graceful curve or
series of curves, — a fact which satisfies the dancer as well as the
eye of the spectator. But all such effects are intensified by the
use of music, which not only brings a perfectly distinct set of
pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but by the control
of dancing produces an inexpressibly sweet harmony of sound
and motion. This harmony is further enriched if there be two
dancing together on one plan, or a large company of dancers
executing certain evolutions, the success of which depends on
the separate harmonies of all the couples. The fundamental
condition is that throughout the dance all the dancers keep
within their bases of gravity. This is not only required for the
dancers' own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury on
tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator.
The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves
attractive in the posturing ballet. But this is merely one condi-
tion of graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object the
dancer sinks into the acrobat.

Dancing is, in fact, the universal human expression, by
movements of the limbs and body, of a sense of rhythm which
is implanted among the primitive instincts of the animal world.
The rhythmic principle of motion extends throughout the uni-
verse, governing the lapse of waves, the flow of tides, the rever-
berations of light and sound, and the movements of celestial
bodies; and in the human organism it manifests itself in the
automatic pulses and flexions of the blood and tissues. Dancing
is merely the voluntary application of the rhythmic principle,
when excitement has induced an abnormally rapid oxidization
of brain tissue, to the physical exertion by which the over-
charged brain is relieved. This is primitive dancing; and it
embraces all movements of the limbs and body expressive of
joy or grief, all pantomimic representations of incidents in the
lives of the dancers, all performances in which movements of
the body are employed to excite the passions of hatred or love,
pity or revenge, or to arouse the warlike instincts, and all cere-
monies in which such movements express homage or worship,
or are used as religious exercises. Although music is not an
essential part of dancing, it almost invariably accompanies it,
even in the crudest form of a rhythm beaten out on a drum.

Primitive and Ancient Dancing. — In Tigre the Abyssinians
dance the chassie step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging
their shoulders and working their elbows backwards and for-
wards. At intervals the dancers squat on the ground, still
moving the arms and shoulders in the same way. The Bushmen
dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting themselves by
sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a wild
irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks.
The Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs,
with a shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to
the body, and the elbows at an angle with the closed hand.
Advancing to a point, the dancer suddenly erects his head, and
wheels round to the starting point. The women of the Pultooah
tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and forwards in a bent
posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and graceful in
dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a
circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire,
moving at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to
complete the circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only
the rudest possible step, an awkward hop with the knees very
much bent. The national dance of the Kamchadale is one of
the most violent known, every muscle apparently quivering at
every movement. But there, and in some other cases where
men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate
obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual
passion. It has been said that some of the Tasmanian corrobories
have a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of naual may also
be mentioned. The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the
arms violently backwards and forwards. The Veddahs jump
with both feet together, patting their bodies, or clapping their
hands, and make a point of bringing their long hair down in
front of the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a series
of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but
without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side
to side with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the
Samoan dance is one of time — a crescendo movement, which is
well-known in the modern ball-room. The Javans are perhaps
unique in their distinct and graceful gestures of the hands and
fingers. At a Mexican feast called Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen
and women danced tied together at the hands, and embracing
one another, the arms being thrown over the neck. This re-
sembles the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or
Brawl, "Opmos, or Bearsfeet; but all of them 1 probably are to a
certain extent symbolical of the relations between the sexes.
Actual contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as
matter of pure dancing; for, apart altogether from the pleasure
of the embrace, the harmony of the double rotation adds very
much to the enjoyment. In a very old Peruvian dance of
ceremony before the Inca, several hundreds of men formed a
chain, each taking hold of the hand of the man beyond his
immediate neighbour, and the whole body moving forwards and
backwards three steps at a time as they approached the throne.
In this, as in the national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal,
there was perhaps a suggestion of " l'union fait la force." In
Yucatan stilts were occasionally used for dancing.

It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accom-
paniment, either by the dancers or by others. This is not merely
because the feelings which find relief in dancing express them-
selves at the same time in other forms; in some cases, indeed,
the vocal and instrumental elements largely predominate, and
form the ground-work of the whole emotional demonstration.
Whether they do so or not will of course depend on the intellectual
advancement of the nation or tribe and upon the particular
development of their aesthetical sensibility. A striking instance
occurs among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the
accompaniment to the colloquial war and hunting songs, in
which the women put questions which are answered by the men.
So also in Tahiti there is a set of national ballads and songs,
referring to many events in the past and present lives of the

1 Compare the Chica of South America, the Fandango of Spain,
and the Angrismene or la Fachee of modern Greece. See also
Romaunt de la rose, v. 776.

79 6

DANCE

people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the canoe-builder, has
each his trade song, which on public occasions at least is illus-
trated by dancing. But the accompaniment is often consciously
intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the
excitement of the muscles. And a close relation will be found
always to exist between the excellence of a nation's dancing
and the excellence or complexity of its music and poetry. In
some cases the performer himself sings or marks time by the
clanking of ornaments on his person. In others the accompani-
ment consists sometimes of a rude chant improvised by those
standing round, or of music from instruments, or of mere clapping
of the hands, or of striking one stick against another or on the
ground, or of " marking time," in the technical sense. The
Tasmanians beat on a rolled-up kangaroo-skin. The Kamcha-
dales make a noise like a continuous hiccough all through the
dance. The Andamans use a large hollow dancing-board, on
which one man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes it is the
privilege of the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while his
people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and strike
upon the hip.

The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of extreme
interest. In the same way the dances of the Ostyak tribes
(Northern Asiatic) imitate the habitual sports of the chase and
the gambols of the wolf and the bear and other wild beasts, the
dancing consisting mainly of sudden leaps and violent turns
which exhaust the muscular powers of the whole body. The
Kamchadales, too, in dancing, imitate bears, dogs and birds.
The Kru dances of the Coast Negroes represent hunting scenes;
and on the Congo, before the hunters start, they go through a
dance imitating the habits of the gorilla and its movements
when attacked. The Damara dance is a mimic representation
of the movements of oxen and sheep, four men stooping with
their heads in contact and uttering harsh cries. The canter of
the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The Bushmen
dance in long irregular jumps, which they compare to the leaping
of a herd of calves, and the Hottentots not only go on all-fours
to counterfeit the baboon, but they have a dance in which the
buzzing of a swarm of bees is represented. The Kennowits in
Borneo introduce the mias and the deer for the same purpose.
The Australians and Tasmanians in their dances called corrobories
imitate the frog and the kangaroo (both leaping animals). The
hunt of the emu is also performed, a number of men passing
slowly round the fire and throwing their arrows about so as
to imitate the movements of the animal's head while feeding.
The Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt, one man with
skin and horns taking the part of the animal. Closely allied to
these are the mimic fights, almost universal among tribes to
which war is one of the great interests of life. The Bravery
dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of the Bhil tribe in the
Vindhya Hills are illustrations. The latter seems to have been
reduced to an amusement conducted by professionals who go
from village to -village, — the battle being engaged in by women
with long poles on the one side, and men with short cudgels on
the other. There is here an element of comedy, which also
appears in the Fiji club-dance. This, although no doubt origin-
ally suggested by war, is enlivened by the presence of a clown
covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The monotonous song
accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary or ex-
planation. So, also, in Guatemala there is a public baile or dance,
in which all the performers, wearing the skins and heads of beasts,
go through a mock battle, which always ends in the victory of
those wearing the deer's head. At the end the victors trace in
the sand with a pole the figure of some animal; and this exhibi-
tion is supposed to have some historical reference. But nearly
all savage tribes have a regular war-dance, in which they appear
in fighting costume, handle their weapons, and go through the
movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or defeat. The women
generally supply the stimulus of music. There is one very
picturesque dance of the Natal Kaffirs, which probably refers to
the departure of the warriors for the battle. The women appeal
plaintively to the men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the
ground and darting their short spears or assegais towards the sky.

In Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women
dance for a great part of the day, believing that this inspires
their husbands with courage. In this, however, there may be
some religious significance. These war-dances are totally distinct
from the institution of military drill, which belongs to a later
period, when social life has become less impulsive and more re-
flective. 1 There can be little doubt that some of the character-
istic movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances
survive in the smooth and ceremonious dances of the present day.
But the early mimetic dance was not confined to these two
subjects; it embraced the other great events of savage life —
the drama of courtship and marriage, the funeral dance, the
consecration of labour, the celebration of harvest or vintage; 2
sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of dramatic interest,
while other dances degenerated into games. For instance, in
Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude round a circle,
while another followed, hurling at him bohordos or canes, which
were adroitly caught on a small stick. Again, in Tasmania, the
dances of the women describe their " clamber for the opossum,
diving for shell-fish, digging for roots, nursing children and
quarrelling with husbands." Another dance, in which a woman
by gesture taunts a chieftain with cowardice, gives him an
opportunity of coming forward and recounting his courageous
deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas (another Indian
hill-tribe) consists in walking backwards and forwards, without
variation, to a howling tune of "ha! hoo! " The meaning of
this is obscure, but it can scarcely be solely an outburst of grief.
In Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves and
bards, with their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic
dance. We may add here a form of dance which is almost pre-
cisely equivalent to the spoken incantation. It is used by the
professional devil-dancer of the wild Veddahs for the cure of
diseases. An offering of eatables is put on a tripod of sticks,
and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes into a paroxysm
of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the required infor-
mation. This, however, rather belongs to the subject of religious
dances.

It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the
forms of the sacred dances which formed so prominent a part
of the worship of antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in them
a resemblance to the courses of the stars. This Pythagorean
idea was expanded by Sir John Davies, in his epic poem Orchestra,
published in 1596. They were probably adapted to many
purposes, — to thanksgiving, praise, supplication and humiliation.
It is only one striking illustration of this widespread practice,
that there was at Rome a very ancient order of priests especially
named Salii, who struck their shields and sang assamenta as
they danced. The practice reappeared in the early church,
special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger,
who astonished Charles V. by his dancing powers, says the
bishops were called Praesules, because they led the dance on
feast days. According to some of the fathers, the angels are
always dancing, and the glorious company of the apostles is
really a chorus of dancers. Dancing, however, fell into discredit
with the feast of the Agapae. St Augustine says, " Melius est
fodere quam saltare "; and the practice was generally prohibited
for some time. No church or sect has raged so fiercely against
the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of Languedoc and
the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil's procession.
After the middle of the 18th century there were still traces of
religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal and
Roussillon — especially in the Mozarabic Mass of Toledo. An
account of the numerous secular dances, public and private, of
Greece and Rome will be found in the classical histories, and in
J. Weaver's Essay towards a History of Dancing, (London, 1712),
which, however, must be revised by more recent authorities.
The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all its local varieties,

1 The Greek Kapwala represented the surprise by robbers of a warrior
ploughing a field. The gymnopaedic dances imitated the sterner
sports of the palaestra.

2 The Greek Lenaea and Dionysia had a distinct reference to the
seasons.

DANCE

797

the Bacchanalia and the Hymenaea were among the more
important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the
Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which
formed interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was
the Delian dance of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and
called Tepavos, from its resemblance to the flight of cranes,
and one of the most powerful was the dance of the Eumenides.
A further development of the art took place at Rome, under
Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought serious and comic
pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen were such
as the labours of Hercules, and the surprise of Venus and Mars by
Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown
in Lucian's amusing dialogue De Saltatione. Before this Rome
had only very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties,
and whose art traditions belonged not to Greece, but to Etruria. 1
Apparently, however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony
and of the theatre, were by temperament not great dancers
in private. Cicero says: "Nemo fere sal tat sobrius, nisi
forte insanit." But the Italic dance of the imperial theatre,
supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a
time the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to
cultivate , other than political interests for the people; and he
passed laws for the protection and privilege of the pantomimiets.
They were freed from the jus virgarum, and they used their
freedom against the peace of the city. Tiberius and Domitian
oppressed and banished them; Trajan and Aurelius gave them
such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but the panto-
mime stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the
empire.

Modern Dancing. — In modern civilized countries dancing
has developed as an art and pastime, as an entertainment. Its
direct application to arouse emotion or religious feeling tends to
be obscured and finally dropped out.

Italy, in the 15th century, saw the renaissance of dancing,
and France may be said to have been the nursery of the modern
art, though comparatively few modern dances are really French
in origin. The national dances of other countries were brought
to France, studied systematically, and made perfect there.
An English or a Bohemian dance, practised only amongst
peasants, would be taken to France, polished and perfected,
and would at last find its way back to its own country, no more
recognizable than a piece of elegant cloth when it returns from
the printer to the place from which as " grey " material it was
sent. The fact that the terminology of dancing is almost entirely
French is a sufficient indication of the origin of the rules that
govern it. The earliest dances that bear any relation to the
modern art are probably the danses basses and danses hautes
of the 1 6th century. The danse basse was the dance of the
court of Charles IX. and of good society, the steps being very
grave and dignified, not to say solemn, and the accompaniment
a psalm tune. The danses hautes or baladines had a skipping
step, and were practised only by clowns and country people.
More lively dances, such as the Gaillarde and Volta, were intro-
duced into France from Italy by Catherine de' Medici, but even
in these the interest was chiefly spectacular. Other dances of
the same period were the Branle (afterwards corrupted to Braule,
and known in England as the Brawle) — a kind of generic dance
which was capable of an almost infinite amount of variety.
Thus there were imitative dances — Branles mimes, such as the
Brattles des Er mites, Branles des flambeaux and the Branles des
lavandieres. The Branle in its original form had steps like the
Allemande. Perhaps the most famous and stately dance of this
period was the Pavane (of Spanish origin), which is very fully
described m Tabouret's Orchesographie, the earliest work in which
a dance is found minutely described. The Pavane, which was
really more a procession than a dance, must have been a very
gorgeous and noble sight, and it was perfectly suited to the dress
of the period, the stiff brocades of the ladies and the swords and
heavily-plumed hats of the gentlemen being displayed in its
simple and dignified measures to great advantage. The dancers

_ * The Pantomimus was an outgrowth from the canticum or choral
singing of the older comedies and fabulae Atellanae.

in the time of Henry III. of France usually sang, while performing
the Pavane, a chanson, of which this is one of the verses:
" Approche done, ma belle,

Approche-toi, mon bien;
Ne me sois plus rebellc,

Puisque mon coeur est tien ;
Pour mon ame apaiser,
Donne-moi un baiser."

In the Pavane and Branle, and in nearly all the dances of the
17 th and 1 8th centuries, the practice of kissing formed a not
unimportant part, and seems to have added greatly to the popu-
larity of the pastime. Another extremely popular dance was the
Saraband, which, however, died out after the 17 th century.
It was originally a Spanish dance, but enjoyed an enormous
success for a time in France. Every dance at that time had its
own tune or tunes, which were called by its own name, and of
the Saraband the chevalier de Grammont wrote that " it either
charmed or annoyed everyone, for all the guitarists of the court
began to learn it, and God only knows the universal twanging
that followed." Vauquelin des Yveteaux, in his eightieth year,
desired to die to the tune of the Saraband, " so that his soul might
pass away sweetly." After the Pavane came the Courante,
a court dance performed on tiptoe with slightly jumping steps
and many bows and curtseys. The Courante is one of the most
important of the strictly modern dances. The minuet and the
waltz were both in some degree derived from it, and it had much
in common with the famous Seguidilla of Spain. It was a
favourite dance of Louis XIV., who was an adept in the art,
and it was regarded in his time as of such importance that a
nobleman's education could hardly have been said to be begun
until he had mastered the Courante.

The dance which the French brought to the greatest perfection
— which many, indeed, regard as the fine flower of the art — was
the Minuet. Its origin, as a rustic dance, is not less antique
than that of the other dances from which the modern art has
been evolved. It was originally a branle of Poitou, derived from
the Courante. It came to Paris in 1650, and was first set to
music by Lully. It was at first a gay and lively dance, but on
being brought to court it soon lost its sportive character and
became grave and dignified. It is mentioned by Beauchamps,
the father of dancing-masters, who flourished in Louis XIV. 's
reign, and also by Blondy, his pupil; but it was Pecour who
really gave the minuet its popularity, and although it was
improved and made perfect by Dauberval, Gardel, Marcel and
Vestris, it was in Louis XV.'s reign that it saw its golden age.
It was then a dance for two in moderate triple time, and was
generally followed by the gavotte. Afterwards the minuet was
considerably developed, and with the gavotte became chiefly a
stage dance and a means of display; but it should be remem-
bered that the minuets which are now danced on the stage are
generally highly elaborated with a view to their spectacular effect,
and have imported into them steps and figures which do not
belong to the minuet at all, but are borrowed from all kinds of
other dances. The original court minuet was a grave and simple
dance, although it did not retain its simplicity for long. But
when it became elaborated it was glorified and moulded into a
perfect expression of an age in which deportment was most
sedulously cultivated and most brilliantly polished. The " lan-
guishing eye and smiling mouth " had their due effect in the
minuet; it was a school for chivalry, courtesy and ceremony;
the hundred slow graceful movements and curtseys, the pauses
which had to be filled by neatly-turned compliments, the beauty
and bravery of attire — all were eloquent of graces and outward
refinements which we cannot boast now. The fact that the
measure of the minuet has become incorporated in the structure
of the symphony shows how important was its place in the polite
world. The Gavotte, which was often danced as a pendant to
the minuet, was also originally a peasant's dance, a danse des
Gavots, and consisted chiefly of kissing and capering. It also
became stiff and artificial, and in the later and more prudish
half of the 18th century the ladies received bouquets instead of
kisses in dancing the gavotte. It rapidly became a stage dance,
and it has never been restored to the ballroom. Gretry attempted

798

DANCE

to revive it, but his arrangement never became popular. Other
dances which were naturalized in France were the Ecossaise,
popular in 1760; the Cotillon, fashionable under Charles X.,
derived from the peasant branles and danced by ladies in short
skirts; the Galop, imported from Germany; the Lancers,
invented by Laborde in 1836; the Polka, brought by a dancing-
master from Prague in 1840; the Schottische, also Bohemian,
first introduced in 1844; the Bourree, or French clog-dance; the
Quadrille, known in the 18th century as the Contre-danse; and
the Waltz, which was danced as a volte by Henry III. of France,
but only became popular in the beginning of the 19th century.
We shall return to the history of some of these later dances in
discussing the dances at present in use.

If France has been the nursery and school of the art of dancing,
Spain is its true home. There it is part of the national life, the
inevitable expression of the gay, contented, irresponsible, sun-
burnt nature of the people. The form of Spanish dances has
hardly changed; some of them are of great antiquity, and may
be traced back with hardly a break to the performances in ancient
Rome of the famous dancing-girls of Cadiz. The connexion is
lost during the period of the Arab invasion, but the art was not
neglected, and Jovellanos suggests that it took refuge in the
Asturias. At any rate, dances of the 10th and 12th centuries
have been preserved uncorrupted. The earliest dances known
were the Turdion, the Gibidana, the Pie-de-gibao, and (later) the
Madama Orleans, the Alemana and the Pavana. Under Philip
IV. theatrical dancing was in high popularity, and ballets were
organized with extraordinary magnificence of decoration and
costume. They supplanted the national dances, and the Zara-
banda and Chacona were practically extinct in the 18th century.
It is at this period that the famous modern Spanish dances, the
Bolero, Seguidilla and the Fandango, first appear. Of these the
Fandango is the most important. It is danced by two people in
6-8 time, beginning slowly and tenderly, the rhythm marked by
the click of castanets, the snapping of the fingers and the
stamping of feet, and the speed gradually increasing until a
whirl of exaltation is reached. A feature of the Fandango and
also of the Seguidilla is a sudden pause of the music towards the
end of each measure, upon which the dancers stand rigid in the
attitudes in which the stopping of the music found them, and
only move again when the music is resumed. M. Vuillier, in his
History of Dancing, gives the following description of the Fan-
dango: — " Like an electric shock, the notes of the Fandango ani-
mate all hearts. Men and women, young and old, acknowledge
the power of this air over the ears and soul of every Spaniard.
The young men spring to their places, rattling castanets or
imitating their sound by snapping their fingers. The girls are
remarkable for the willowy languor and lightness of their move-
ments, the voluptuousness of their attitudes — beating the
exactest time with tapping heels. Partners tease and entreat
and pursue each other by turns. Suddenly the music stops, and
each dancer shows his skill by remaining absolutely motionless,
bounding again into the full life of the Fandango as the orchestra
strikes up. The sound of the guitar, the violin, the rapid tic-tac
of heels (taconeos) , the crack of fingers and castanets, the supple
swaying of the dancers, fill the spectator with ecstasy. The
measure whirls along in a rapid triple time. Spangles glitter;
the sharp clank of ivory and ebony castanets beats out the
cadence of strange, throbbing, deepening notes — assonances
unknown to music, but curiously characteristic, effective and
intoxicating. Amidst the rustle of silks, smiles gleam over white
teeth, dark eyes sparkle and droop and flash up again in flame.
All is flutter and glitter, grace and animation — quivering,
sonorous, passionate, seductive."

The Bolero is a comparatively modern dance, having been
invented by Sebastian Cerezo, a celebrated dancer of the time of
King Charles III. It is remarkable for the free use made in it
of the arms, and is said to be derived from the ancient Zarabanda,
a violent and licentious dance, which has entirely disappeared,
and with which the later Saraband has practically nothing in
common. The step of the Bolero is low and gliding but well
marked. It is danced by one or more couples. The Seguidilla is

hardly less ancient than the Fandango, which it resembles.
Every province in Spain has its own Seguidilla, and the dance is
accompanied by coplas, or verses, which are sung either to
traditional melodies or to the tunes of local composers; indeed,
the national music of Spain consists largely of these coplas.
Baron Davillier, among several specimens of Seguidillas, gives
this one

" Mi corazon volando
Se f ue a tu pecho ;
Le cortaste las alas,
Y quedo dentro.
Por atrevido
Se quedara por siempre
En el metido." 1

M. Vuillier quotes a copla which he heard at Polenza, in the
Balearic Islands. This verse is formed on the rhythm of the
Malagueiia :

" Una estrella se ha pardida
En el ciel y no parece ;
En tu cara se ha metido ;

Y en tu frente resplandece." 2

The Jola is the national dance of Aragon, a lively and splendid,
but withal dignified and reticent, dance derived from the 16th-
century Passacaille. It is still used as a religious dance. The
Cachuca is a light and graceful dance in triple time. It is per-
formed b y a single dancer of either sex, The head and shoulders
play an important part in the movements of this dance. Other
provincial dances now in existence are the Jaleo de Jerez, a whirl-
ing measure performed by gipsies, the PaloUa, the Polo, the
Gallegada, the Muyneria, the Habas Verdes, the Zapateado, the
Zorongo, the Vito, the Tirano and the Tripola Trapola. Most of
these dances are named either after the places where they are
danced or after the composers who have invented tunes for them.
Many of them are but slight variations from the Fandango and
Seguidilla.

The history of court dancing in Great Britain is practically
the same as that of France, and need not occupy much of our
attention here. But there are strictly national dances still in
existence which are quite peculiar to the country, and may be
traced back to the dances and games of the Saxon gleemen.
The Egg dance and the Carole were both Saxon dances, the Carole
being a Yule-tide festivity, of which the present-day Christmas
carol is a remnant. The oldest dances which remain unchanged
in England are the Morris dances, which were introduced in the
time of Edward III. The name Morris or Moorish refers to the
origin of these dances, which are said to have been brought back
by John of Gaunt from his travels in Spain. The Morris dances
are associated with May-day, and are danced round a maypole
to a lively and capering step, some of the performers having bells
fastened to their knees in the Moorish manner. They are dressed
as characters of old English tradition, such as B.obin Hood,
Maid Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John and Tom the Piper. All
the true country dances of Great Britain are of an active and
lively measure; they may all, indeed, be said to be founded on
the jig; and the hornpipe, which is a kind of jig, is the national
dance of England. Captain Cook, on his voyages, made his sailors
dance hornpipes in calm weather to keep them in good health.
A characteristic of English dances was that they partook to a
great extent of the nature of games; there was little variety in
the steps, which were nearly all those of the jig or hornpipe, but
these were incorporated into various games or plays, of which
the Morris dances were the most elaborate. Richard Baxter
wrote that " sometimes the Morris dancers would come into the
church in all their linen and scarves and antic dresses, with
Morris bells jingling at their legs; and as soon as Common
Prayer was read, did haste and presently to their play again."
May-day has always been celebrated in England with rustic
dances and festivities. Before the Reformation there were no

1 " My heart flew to thy breast. Thou didst cut its wings, so that
it remained there. And now it has waxed daring, and will stay with
thee for evermore."

2 " A star is lost and appears not in the sky ; in thy face it has set
itself; on thy brow it shines."

DANCE

799

really national dances in use at court; but in the reign of
Elizabeth the homely, domestic style of dancing reached the
height of its popularity. Remnants of many of these dances
remain to-day in the games played by children and country
people; " Hunt the Slipper," " Kiss in the Ring," " Here we go
round the Mulberry Bush," are examples. All the Tudor dances
were kissing dances, and must have been the occasion of a great
deal of merriment. Mrs Groves gives the following description
of the Cushion dance: — " The dance is begun by a single person,
man or woman, who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the
room, and at the. end of a short time stops and sings: 'This
dance it will no farther go,' to which the musician answers:
' I pray you, good sir, why say so? ' ' Because Joan Sanderson
will not come to.' ' She must come to whether she will or no,'
returns the musician, and then the dancer lays the cushion before
a woman; she kneels and he kisses her, singing ' Welcome, Joan
Sanderson.' Then she rises, takes up the cushion, and both
dance and sing ' Prinkum prankum is a fine dance, and shall we
go dance it over again?' Afterwards the woman takes the
cushion and does as the man did." Other popular dances —
generally adapted to the tunes of popular songs, the nature of
some of which may be guessed from their titles — were the
Trenchmore, Omnium-gatherum, Tolly-polly, Hoite cum toite,
Dull Sir John, Faine I would, Sillinger, All in a Garden Green,
An Old Man's a Bed Full of Bones, If All the World were Paper,
John, Come Kiss Me Now, Cuckholds All Awry, Green Sleeves
and Pudding Pies, Lumps of Pudding, Under and Over, Up Tails
All, The Slaughter House, Rub her Down with Straw, Have at
thy Coat Old Woman, The Happy Marriage, Dissembling Love,
Sweet Kate, Once I Loved a Maiden Fair. Dancing practically
disappeared during the Puritan rigime, but with the Restoration
it again became popular. It underwent no considerable develop-
ments, however, until the reign of Queen Anne, when the glories
of Bath were revived in the beginning of the 18th century, and
Beau Nash drew up his famous codes of rules for the regulation
of dress and manners, and founded the balls in which the polite
French dances completely eclipsed the simpler English ones.
An account of a dancing lesson witnessed by a fond parent at
this time is worth quoting, as it shows how far the writer (but
not his daughter) had departed from the jolly, romping traditions
of the old English dances: — " As the best institutions are liable
to corruption, so, sir, I must acquaint you that very great abuses
are crept into this entertainment. I was amazed to see my girl
handed by and handing young fellows with so much familiarity,
and I could not have thought it had been my child. They very
often made use of a most impudent and lascivious step called
setting to partners, which I know not how to describe to you
but by telling you that it is the very reverse of bach to back.
At last an impudent young dog bid the fiddlers play a dance called
Moll Patley, and, after having made two or three capers, ran to
his partner, locked his arms in hers, and whisked her round
cleverly above ground in such a manner that I, who sat upon one
of the lowest benches, saw farther above her shoe than I can think
fit to acquaint you with. I could no longer endure these enor-
mities, wherefore, just as my girl was going to be made a whirligig,
I ran in, seized my child and carried her home." What we may
call polite dancing, when it became fashionable, soon invaded
London, its first home being Madame Cornely's famous Carlisle
House in Soho Square. Ranelagh and Vauxhall and Almack's
were all extensively patronized, and the rage for magnificent
entertainment and dancing culminated in the erection of the
palatial Pantheon in Oxford Street — a place so universally
patronized that even Dr Johnson was to be found there. White's
and Boodle's were also famous assembly rooms, but the most
exclusive of all these establishments was Almack's, the original
of Brooks's Club.

The only true national dances of Scotland are reels, strathspeys
and flings, while in Ireland there is but one dance — the jig, which
is there, however, found in many varieties and expressive of
many shades of emotion, from the maddest gaiety to the wildest
lament. Curiously enough, although the Welsh dance often,
they have no strictly national dances.

Dancing in present-day society is a comparatively simple affair,
as five-sixths of almost all ball programmes consists of waltzes.
The origin of the waltz is a much-debated subject, the French,
Italians and Bavarians each claiming for their respective
countries the honour of having given birth to it. As a matter of
fact the waltz, as it is now danced, comes from Germany; but
it is equally true that its real origin is French, since it is a de-
velopment of the Volte, which in its turn came from the Lavolta
of Provence, one of the most ancient of French dances. The
Lavolta was fashionable in the 16th century and was the delight
of the Valois court. The Volte danced by Henry III. was really
a Valse & deux pas; and Castil-Blaze says that " the waltz
which we took again from the Germans in 1 795 had been a French
dance for four hundred years." The change, it is true, came upon
it during its visit to Germany, hence the theory of its German
origin. The first German waltz tune is dated 1770 — " Ach! du
lieber Augustin." It was first danced at the Paris opera in 1793,
in Gardel's ballet La Dansomanie. It was introduced to English
ballrooms in 1812, when it roused a storm of ridicule and opposi-
tion, but it became popular when danced at Almack's by the
emperor Alexander in 1816. The waltz d trois temps has a sliding
step in which the movements of the knees play an important
part. The tempo is moderate, so as to allow three distinct
movements on the three beats of each bar; and the waltz is
written in 3-4 time and in eight-bar sentences. Walking up and
down the room and occasionally breaking into the step of the
dance is not true waltzing, and the habit of pushing one's partner
backwards along the room is an entirely English one. But the
dancer must be able to waltz equally well in all directions,
pivoting and crossing the feet when necessary in the reverse turn.
It need hardly be said that the feet should never leave the floor
in the true waltz. Gungl, Waldteufel and the Strauss family
may be said to have moulded the modern waltz to its present
form by their rhythmical and agreeable compositions. There
are variations which include hopping and lurching steps; these
are degradations, and foreign to the spirit of the true
waltz.

The Quadrille is of some antiquity, and a dance of this kind
was first brought to England from Normandy by William the
Conqueror, and was common all over Europe in the 16th and
17th centuries. The term quadrille means a kind of card game,
and the dance is supposed to be in some way connected with
the game. A species of quadrille appeared in a French ballet in
1743, and since that time the dance has gone by that name.
Like many other dances, it came from Paris to Almack's in
1 8 1 5, and in its modern form was danced in England for the
first time by Lady Jersey, Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan
Ryder and Miss Montgomery, with Count Aldegarde, Mr Mont-
gomery, Mr Harley and Mr Montague. It immediately became
popular. It then consisted of very elaborate steps, which in
England have been simplified until the degenerate practice has
become common of walking through the dance. The quadrille,
properly danced, has many of the graces of the minuet. It is
often stated that the square dance is of modern French origin.
This is incorrect, and probably arises from a mistaken identifica-
tion of the terms quadrille and square dance. " Dull Sir John "
and " Faine I would " were square dances popular in England
three hundred years ago.

An account of the country-dance, with the names of some of
the old dance-tunes, has been given above. The word is not, as
has been supposed, an adaptation of the French contre-danse,
neither is the dance itself French in origin. According to the
New English Dictionary, contre-danse is a corruption of " country-
dance," possibly due to a peculiar feature of many of such dances,
like Sir Roger de Coverley, where the partners are drawn up in
lines opposite to each other. The earliest appearance of the
French word is in its application to English dances, which are
contrasted with the French; thus in the Memoirs of Grammont,
Hamilton says: " On quitta les danses francaises pour se mettre
aux contre-danses." The English " country-dances " were intro-
duced into France in the early part of the 18th century and
became popular; later French modifications were brought back

8oo

DANCOURT

to England under the French form of the name, and this, no
doubt, caused the long-accepted but confused derivation.

The Lancers were invented by Laborde in Paris in 1836.
They were brought over to England in 1850, and were made
fashionable by Madame Sacre at her classes in Hanover Square
Rooms. The first four ladies to dance the lancers in England
were Lady Georgina Lygon, Lady Jane Fielding, Mdlle. Olga de
Lechner and Miss Berkeley.

The Polka, the chief of the Bohemian national dances, was
adopted by Society in 1835 at Prague. Josef Neruda had seen
a peasant girl dancing and singing the polka, and had noted
down the tune and the steps. From Prague it readily spread to
Vienna, and was introduced to Paris by Cellarius, a dancing-
master, who gave it at the Odeon in 1840. It took the public by
storm, and spread like an infection through England and America.
Everything was named after the polka, from public-houses to
articles of dress. Mr Punch exerted his wit on the subject
weekly, and even' The Times complained that its French corre-
spondence was interrupted, since the polka had taken the place
of politics in Paris. The true polka has three slightly jumping
steps, danced on the first three beats of a four-quaver bar, the
last beat of which is employed as a rest while the toe of the un-
employed foot is drawn up against the heel of the other.

The Galop is strictly speaking a Hungarian dance, which
became popular in Paris in 1830. But some kind of a dance
corresponding to the galop was always indulged in after Voltes
and Contre-danses, as a relief from their grave and constrained
measures.

The Washington Post and several varieties of Barn-dance are
of American origin, and became fashionable towards the end of
the 19th century.

The Polka-Mazurka is extremely popular in Vienna and Buda-
pest, and is a favourite theme with Hungarian composers. The six
movements of this dance occupy two bars of 3-4 time, and consist
of a mazurka step joined to the polka. It is of Polish origin.

The Polonaise and Mazurka are both Polish dances, and are
still fashionable in Russia and Poland. Every State ball in
Russia is opened with the ceremonious Polonaise.

The Schottische, a kind of modified polka, was " created "
by Markowski, who was the proprietor of a famous dancing
academy in 1850. The Highland Schottische is a fling. The
Fling and Reel are Celtic dances, and form the national dances
of Scotland and Denmark. They are complicated measures
of a studied and classical order, in which free use is made of the
arms and of cries and stampings. The Strathspey is a slow and
grandiose modification of the Reel.

Sir Roger de Coverley is the only one of the old English social
dances which has survived to the present day, and it is frequently
danced at the conclusion of the less formal sort of balls. It is a
merry and lively game in which all the company take part, men
and women facing each other in two long rows. The dancers
are constantly changing places in such a way that if the dance is
carried to its conclusion everyone will have danced with everyone
else. The music was first printed in 1685, and is sometimes
written in 2-4 time, sometimes in 6-8 time, and sometimes in
3-9 time.

The Cotillon is a modern development of the French dance of
the same name referred to above. It is an extremely elaborate
dance, in which a great many toys and accessories are employed;
hundreds of figures may be contrived for it, in which presents,
toys, lighted tapers, biscuits, air-balloons and hurdles are used.

Ballet, b°c. — The modern ballet (q.v.) seems to have been first
produced on a considerable scale in 1489 at Tortona, before
Duke Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement
on great occasions at the European courts. The ordinary length
was five acts, each containing several entries, and each entree
containing several quadrilles. The accessories of painting,
sculpture and movable scenery were employed, and the repre-
sentation often took place at night. The allegorical, moral and
ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by Baif in the time
of Catherine de' Medici. The complex nature of these exhibitions
may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in 1634 —

La verita nemica della apparenza, sollevala dal tempo. Of the
ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of I a
verita raminga. Now and then, however, a high political aim
may be discovered, as in the " Prosperity of the Arms of France,"
danced before Richelieu in 1641, or " Religion uniting Great
Britain to the rest of the World," danced at London on the
marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the elector Frederick. Outside
the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory ballet which
was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to
which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this
time also the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of
courante, minuet and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of
the church assembled at Trent gave a ball in which they took a
part. Masked balls, too, resembling in some respects the Roman
Saturnalia, became common towards the end of the 17th century.
In France a ball was sometimes diversified by a masquerade,
carried on by a limited number of persons in character-costume.
Two of the most famous were named " au Sauvage " and " des
Sorciers." In 1715 the regent of France started a system of
public balls in the opera-house, which did not succeed. Dancing,
also, formed a leading element in the Opera Francais introduced
by Quinault. His subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from
the classical mythologies; and the choral dancing was not merely
divertissement, but was intended to assist and enrich the dramatic
action of the whole piece.

Musical Gymnastics. — Dancing is an important branch of
physical education. Long ago Locke pointed out (Education,
§§ 67, 196) that the effects of dancing are not confined to the
body; it gives to children, he says, not mere outward graceful-
ness of motion, but manly thoughts and a becoming confidence.
Only lately, however, has the advantage been recognized of
making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what Homer
calls " the sweetest and most perfect of human enjoyments."
The practical principle against heavy weights and intense
monotonous exertion of particular muscles was thus stated by
Samuel Smiles (Physical Education, p. 148): — "The greatest
benefit is derived from that exercise which calls into action the
greatest number of muscles, and in which the action of these is
intermitted at the shortest intervals." It required only one
further step to see how, if light and changing movements were
desirable, music would prove a powerful stimulus to gymnastics.
It touches the play-impulse, and substitutes a spontaneous flow
of energy for the mechanical effort of the will. The force of
imitation or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in
education, is also much increased by the state of exhilaration
into which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied
by Froebel in his Kindergarten plan, and was developed by Jahn
and Schreber in Germany, by Dio Lewis in the United States,
and by Ling (the author of the Swedish Cure Movement) in
Sweden.

Authorities. — For the old division of the Ars Gymnastica into
palaestrica and saltatoria, and of the latter into cubistica, sphaeristica
and orchestica, see the learned work of Hieronymus Mercurialis, De
arte Gymnastica (Amsterdam, 1572). Cubistic was the art of throwing
somersaults, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in his Trois
Dialogues (Paris,_ 1599). Sphaeristic included several complex games
at ball and tilting — the Greek kupvkos, and the Roman trigonalis
and paganica. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into latio, figura and
indicatio, was really imitative dancing, the " silent poetry " of
Simonides. The importance of the x^povo^la. or hand-movement
is indicated by Ovid: — " Si vox est, canta; si mollia brachia, salta."
For further information as to modern dancing, see Rameau's Le
maitre & danser (1726); Querlon's Le triomphe des graces (1774);
Cahousac, La danse ancienne et moderne (1754) > Vuillier, History of
Dancing (Eng. trans., 1897) ; Giraudet, Traite de la danse (1900).

(W. C. S.; A. B. F. Y.)

DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON (1661-1725), French drama-
tist and actor, was born at Fontainebleau on the 1st of November
1 66 1 . He belonged to a family of rank , and his parents entrusted
his education to Pere de la Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest
efforts to induce him to join the order. But he had no religious
vocation and proceeded to study law. He practised at the bar
for some time, but his marriage to the daughter of the comedian
Francois Lenoir de la Thorilliere led him to become an actor,
and in 1685, in spite of the strong opposition of his family, he

DANDELION— DANDOLO FAMILY

801

appeared at the Theatre Francais. His gifts as a comedian gave
him immediate and marked success, both with the public and
with his fellow actors. He was the spokesman of his company
on occasions of state, and in this capacity he frequently appeared
before Louis XIV., who treated him with great favour. One of
his most famous impersonations was Alceste in the Misanthrope
of Moliere. His first play, Le Notaire obligeant, produced in 1685,
was well received. La Desolation des joueuses (1687) was still
more successful. Le Chevalier a la mode (1687) is generally
regarded as his best work, though his claim to original author-
ship in this and some other cases has been disputed. In Le
Chevalier a la mode appears the bourgeoise infatuated with the
desire to be an aristocrat. The type is developed in Les Bour-
geoises a la mode (1692) and Les Bourgeoises de qualite (1700).
Dancourt was a prolific author, and produced some sixty plays
in all. Some years before his death he terminated his career
both as an actor and as an author by retiring to his chateau at
Courcelles le Roi, in Berry, where he employed himself in making
a poetical translation of the Psalms and in writing a sacred
tragedy. He died on the 7th of December 1725. The plays of
Dancourt are faithful descriptions of the manners of the time,
and as such have real historical value. The characters are drawn
with a realistic touch that led to his being styled by Charles
Palissot the Teniers of comedy. He is very successful in his
delineation of low life, and especially of the peasantry. The
dialogue is sparkling, witty and natural. Many of the incidents
of his plots were derived from actual occurrences in the " fast "
and scandalous life of the period, and several of his characters
were drawn from well-known personages of the day. Most of
the plays incline to the type of farce rather than of pure comedy.
Voltaire defined his talent in the words: " Ce que Regnard etait
a 1' egard de Moliere dans la haute comedie, le comedien Dancourt
1' etait dans la farce."

His two daughters, Manon and Marie Anne (Mimi), both
obtained success on the stage of the Theatre Francais.

The complete works of Dancourt were published in 1760 (12 vols.
!2mo). An edition of his Thedtre choisi, with a preface by F. Sarcey,
appeared in 1884.

DANDELION {Taraxacum officinale), a. perennial herb belong-
ing to the natural order Compositae. The plant has a wide range,
being found in Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the
Arctic regions, and also in the south temperate zone. The leaves
form a spreading rosette on the very short stem; they are smooth,
of a bright shining green, sessile, and tapering downwards. The
name dandelion is derived from the French dent-de-lion, an
appellation given on account of the tooth-like lobes of the leaves.
The long tap-root has a simple or many-headed rhizome; it is
black externally, and is very difficult of extirpation. The flower-
stalks are smooth, brittle, leafless, hollow, and very numerous.
The flowers bloom from April till August, and remain open from
five or six in the morning to eight or nine at night. The flower-
heads are of a golden yellow, and reach i| to 2 in. in width;
the florets are all strap-shaped. The fruits are olive or dull
yellow in colour, and are each surmounted by a long beak, on
which rests a pappus of delicate white hairs, which occasions
the ready dispersal of the fruit by the wind; each fruit contains
one seed. The globes formed by the plumed fruits are nearly
two inches in diameter. The involucre consists of an outer
spreading (or reflexed) and an inner and erect row of bracts.
In all parts of the plant a milky juice is contained, which has a
somewhat complex composition. The chief constituent is
taraxacin, a neutral principle. In addition the juice contains
taraxacerin (derived from the former), asparagin, inulin, resins
and salts. An extract (dose 5-15 grains), a liquid extract (dose
5-1 drachm) and a succus (dose 1-2 drachms) of the root are all
used medicinally. For the purposes formerly recognized tarax-
acum is now never used, but it has been shown to possess definite
cholagogue properties, and may therefore be prescribed along
with ammonium chloride in cases of hepatic constipation, which
it very constantly relieves. The root — which is the medicinal
product — is most bitter from March to July, but the milky juice
it contains is less abundant in the summer than in the autumn,
(ii. 26

For this reason, the extract and succus are usually prepared
during the months of September and October. After a frost a
change takes place in the root, which loses its bitterness to a

Dandelion {Taraxacum officinale).
I, Unopened head; 2, ripe head from which all the fruits except
3> one floret, enlarged; 4, one fruit.

two have been removed;

large extent. In the dried state the root will not keep well,
being quickly attacked by insects. Externally it is brown and
wrinkled, internally white, with a yellow centre and concentric
paler rings. It is two inches to a foot long, and about a quarter
to half an inch in diameter. The leaves are bitter, but are some-
times eaten as a salad; they serve as food for silkworms when
mulberry leaves are not to be had. The root is roasted as a
substitute for coffee. Several varieties of the dandelion are
recognized by botanists; they differ in the degree and mode of
cutting of the leaf-margin and the erect or spreading character
of the outer series of bracts. The variety palustre, which affects
boggy situations, and flowers in late summer and autumn, has
nearly entire leaves, and the outer bracts of its involucre are
erect.

DANDOLO, the name of one of the most illustrious patrician
families of Venice, of which the earliest recorded member was
one of the electors of the first doge (a.d. 697). The Dandolo
gave to Venice four doges; of these the first and most famous was
Enrico Dandolo (c. 1120-1205), elected on the 1st of January
1193 {more Venelo, 1192). He had distinguished himself in various
military enterprises and diplomatic negotiations in the course of
an active career, and although over seventy years old and of
very weak sight (the story that he had been made blind by the
emperor Manuel Comnenus while he was at Constantinople is a
legend), he proved a most energetic and capable ruler. His first
care was to re-establish Venetian authority over the Dalmatians
who had rebelled with the king of Hungary's protection, but he
failed to capture Zara, owing to the arrival of the Pisan fleet,
and although the latter was defeated by the Venetians, the under-
taking was suspended. In the meanwhile the situation in the
East was becoming critical. The Eastern emperor Isaac II.
Angelus had been deposed, imprisoned, and blinded by his

802

DANDOLO, V.

brother Alexius, who usurped the throne. The new emperor
proved unfriendly to the Venetians and made difficulties about
renewing their privileges. In the West a new crusade to the
Holy Land was in preparation, and the crusaders sent am-
bassadors, one of whom was Villehardouin, the historian of the
expedition, to ask the Venetians to give them passage and
means of transport (1201). After much deliberation the republic
agreed to transport 4500 horse and 29,000 foot to Palestine with
provisions for one year, for a sum of 85,000 marks; in addition
50 Venetian galleys would be provided free of charge, while
Venice was to receive half the conquests made by the crusaders.
But as the time agreed upon for the departure approached, it
appeared that the crusaders had not the money to pay the stipu-
lated advance. Dandolo then proposed that if they helped him
to reduce Zara payment might be deferred. Some of the cru-
saders disapproved of this attack on a Christian city, but the
majority, only too glad of an opportunity for plunder, willingly
agreed. The expedition sailed on the 8th of October 1202, three
hundred sail in all, with the aged Dandolo himself in command.
Zara was taken and pillaged, for which the Venetians were
severely reprimanded by the pope. But new possibilities of
conquest were now opened up at the suggestion of Alexius, the
son of the deposed emperor Isaac. He promised the crusaders
that if they went first to Constantinople and re-instated Isaac,
the latter would maintain them for a year, contribute 10,000
men and 200,000 marks for the expedition to Egypt, and subject
the Eastern to the Western Church. The proposal was accepted,
largely owing to the influence of Dandolo, who saw in it a means
for further extending the dominions and commerce of the
Venetians. After wintering at Zara the fleet set sail on the 7 th
of April 1203, and on the 23rd of June anchored in the Bosporus.
After long parleys the city was attacked by land and sea on the
17th of July (the fleet being commanded by Dandolo) and taken
by storm. The emperor Alexius fled, and Isaac reoccupied the
throne, but, although grateful to the crusaders, he was not dis-
posed to fulfil the promises made by his son. Tumults between
crusaders and Greeks arose, and the people of the city, excited
by a certain Alexis Murzuphlus, murmured at the new taxes
which were imposed on them. A revolt broke out, and an officer
named Nicholas Canabus was placed on the throne; Prince
Alexius was strangled by order of Murzuphlus, Isaac died of the
shock, Murzuphlus imprisoned Canabus and made himself
emperor (Alexius V.). The crusaders thereupon attacked Con-
stantinople a second time (12th of April 1204), and after a
desperate struggle captured the city, which they subjected to
hideous carnage. Immense booty was secured, the Venetians
obtaining among other treasures the four bronze horses which
adorn the facade of St Mark's. The Eastern empire was abol- j
ished, and a feudal Latin empire erected in its stead. The
leaders of the crusaders then met to elect an emperor. Dandolo
was one of the candidates, but Count Baldwin of Flanders was
elected and crowned on the 23rd of May. The Venetians were
given Crete and several other islands and ports in the Levant,
which formed an uninterrupted chain from Venice to the Black
Sea, a large part of Constantinople (whence the doge assumed
the title of " lord of a quarter and a half of Romania "), and
many valuable privileges. But hardly had the new state been
established when various provinces rose in rebellion and the
Bulgarians invaded Thrace. A Latin army was defeated by
them at Adrianople (April 1205), and the emperor himself was
captured and killed, the fragments of the force being saved only
by Dandolo's prowess. But he was now old and ill, and on the
23rd of June 1205 he died. He certainly consolidated Venice's
dominion in the East and increased its commercial prosperity
to a very high degree. But the policy he pursued in turning the
crusaders against Constantinople, in order to promote the
interests of the republic, while serving to break up the Greek
empire, created in its place a Latin state that was far too feeble
to withstand the onslaught of Greek national feeling and
Orthodox fanaticism; at the same time the Greeks were greatly
weakened and their power of resisting the Turks consequently
lessened. This paved the way for the Turkish invasion of

Europe, which proved an unmixed calamity for all Christendom,
Venice included.

Enrico Dandolo's sons distinguished themselves in the public
service, and his grandson Giovanni was doge from 1280 to 1289.
The latter's son Andrea commanded the Venetian fleet in the
war against Genoa in 1294, and, having been defeated and taken
prisoner, he was so overwhelmed with shame that he committed
suicide by beating his head against the mast (according to Andrea
Navagero). Francesco Dandolo, also known as Dandolo Cane,
was doge from 1329 to 1339. During his reign the Venetians
went to war with Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, with the
result that they occupied Treviso and otherwise extended their
possessions on the terra firma. Andrea Dandolo (1307/10-
1354), the last doge of the family, reigned from 1343 to 1354.
He had been the first Venetian noble to take a degree at the
university of Padua, where he had also been professor of juris-
prudence. The terrible plague of 1348, wars with Genoa, against
whom the great naval victory of Lojera was won in 1353, many
treaties, and the subjugation of the seventh revolt of Zara, are
the chief events of his reign. The poet Petrarch, who was the
doge's intimate friend, was sent to Venice on a peace mission by
Giovanni Visconti, lord of Milan. " Just, incorruptible, full of
zeal and of love for his country, and at the same time learned,
of rare eloquence, wise, affable, and humane," is the poet's
verdict on Andrea Dandolo (Varior. epist. xix.). Dandolo died
on the 7th of September 1354. He is chiefly famous as a his-
torian, a.n&h.b, Annals to the year 1280 are one of the chief sources
of Venetian history for that period; they have been published
by Muratori (Rer. Ital. Script, torn. xxi.). He also had a new
code of laws compiled (issued in 1346) in addition to the statute
of Jacopo Tiepolo.

Another well-known member of this family was Silvestro
Dandolo (1 796-1866), son of Girolamo Dandolo, who was the
last admiral of the Venetian republic and died an Austrian
admiral in 1847. Silvestro was an Italian patriot and took part
in the revolution of 1848.

Bibliography. — S. Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia
(Venice, 1853); among more recent books H. Kretschmayr's
excellent Geschichte von Venedig (Gotha, 1905) should be consulted:
it contains a bibliography of the authorities and all the latest re-
searches and discoveries ; C. Cipolla and G. Monticolo have published
many essays and editions of chronicles in the A rchivio Veneto, and the
" Fonti per la Storia d'ltalia," in the Istituto storico italiano; H.
Simonsfeld has written a life of Andrea Dandolo in German (Munich,
1876). (L. V.*)

DANDOLO, .VINCENZO, Count (1758-1819), Italian chemist
and agriculturist, was born at Venice, of good family, though not
of the same house as the famous doges, and began his career as a
physician. He was a prominent opponent of the oligarchical
party in the revolution which took place on the approach of
Napoleon; and he was one of the envoys sent to seek the pro-
tection of the French. When the request was refused, and
Venice was placed under Austria, he removed to Milan, where he
was made member of the great council. In 1799, on the invasion
of the Russians and the overthrow of the Cisalpine republic,
Dandolo retired to Paris, where, in the same year, he published
his treatise Les Hommes nouveaux, ou moyen d'operer une regenera-
tion nouvelle. But he soon after returned to the neighbourhood
of Milan, to devote himself to scientific agriculture. In 1805
Napoleon made him governor of Dalmatia, with the title of
provediteur geniral, in which position Dandolo distinguished
himself by his efforts to remove the wretchedness and idleness of
the people, and to improve the country by draining the pesti-
lential marshes and introducing better methods of agriculture.
When, in 1809, Dalmatia was re-annexed to the Illyrian prov-
inces, Dandolo returned to Venice, having received as his reward
from the French emperor the title of count and several other
distinctions. He died in his native city on the 13th of December
1819.

Dandolo published in Italian several treatises on agriculture,
vine-cultivation, and the rearing of cattle and sheep; a work on
silk- worms, which was translated into French by Fontanelle; a
work on the discoveries in chemistry which were made in the last

DANDY— DANELAGH

803

quarter of the 18th century (published 1796); and translations of
several of the best French works on chemistry.

DANDY, a word of uncertain origin which about 1813-1816
became a London colloquialism for the exquisite or fop of the
period. It seems to have been in use on the Scottish border at
the end of the 18th century, its full form, it is suggested, being
" Jack-a-Dandy," which from 1659 had a sense much like its
later one. It is probably ultimately derived from the French
dandin, " a ninny or booby," but a more direct derivation was
suggested at the time of the uprise of the Regency dandies. In
The Northampton Mercury, under date of the 17th of April
1819, occurs the following: " Origin of the word ' dandy.'
This term, which has been recently applied to a species of
reptile very common in the metropolis, appears to have
arisen from a small silver coin struck by King Henry VII., of
little value, called a dandiprat; and hence Bishop Fleetwood
observes the term is applied to worthless and contemptible
persons."

It was Beau Brummel, the high-priest of fashion, who gave
dandyism its great vogue. But before his day foppery in dress
had become something more than the personal eccentricity
which it had been in the Stuart days and earlier. About the
middle of the 18th century was founded the Macaroni Club.
This was a band of young men of rank who had visited Italy
and sought to introduce the southern elegances of manner and
dress into England. The Macaronis gained their name from
their introduction of the Italian dish to English tables, and were
at their zenith about 1772, when their costume is described as
" white silk breeches, very tight coat and vest with enormous
white neckcloths, white silk stockings and diamond-buckled
red-heeled shoes." For some time the moving spirit of the club
was Charles James Fox. It was with the advent of Brummel,
however, that the cult of dandyism became a social force. Beau
Brummel was supreme dictator in matters of dress, and the prince
regent is said to have wept when he disapproved of the cut of
the royal coat. Around the Beau collected a band of young
men whose insolent and affected manners made them universally
unpopular. Their chief glory was their clothes. They wore
coats of blue or brown cloth with brass buttons, the coat-tails
almost touching the heels. Their trousers were buckskin, so
tight that it is said they " could only be taken off as an eel
would be divested of his skin." A pair of highly-polished
Hessian boots, a waistcoat buttoned incredibly tight so as to
produce a small waist, and opening at the breast to exhibit the
frilled shirt and cravat, completed the costume of the true dandy.
Upon the Beau's disgrace and ruin, Lord Alvanleywas regarded
as leader of the dandies and " first gentleman in England."
Though in many ways a worthier man than Brummel, his vanity
exposed him to much derision, and he fought a duel on
Wimbledon Common with Morgan O'Connell, who, in the House
of Commons, had called him a " bloated buffoon." After 1825
" dandy " lost its invidious meaning, and came to be applied
generally to those who were neat in dress rather than to those
guilty of effeminacy.

See Barbey D'Aurevilly, Du dandysme et de G, Brummel (Paris,
1887).

DANEGELD, an English national tax originally levied by
jEthelred II. (the Unready) as a means of raising the tribute
which was the price of the temporary cessation of the Danish
ravages. This expedient of buying off the invader was first
adopted in 991 on the advice of certain great men of the kingdom.
It was repeated in 994, 1002, 1007 and 1012. With the accession
of the Danish king Canute, the original raison d'etre of the tax
ceased to exist, but it continued to- be levied, though for a
different purpose, assuming now the character of an occasional
war-tax. It was exceedingly burdensome, and its abolition by
Edward the Confessor in 105 1 was welcomed as a great relief.
William the Conqueror revived it immediately after his accession,
as a convenient method of national taxation, and it was with the
object of facilitating its collection that he ordered the compilation
of Domesday Book. It continued to be levied until 1163, in
which year the name Danegeld appears for the last time in the

Rolls. Its place was taken by other imposts of similar character
but different name.

DANELAGH, the name given to those districts in the north
and north-east of England which were settled by Danes and other
Scandinavian invaders during the period of the Viking invasions.
The real settlement of England by Danes began in the year 866
with the appearance of a large army in East Anglia, which turned
north in the following year. The Danes captured York and
overthrew the Northumbrian kingdom, setting up a puppet
king of their own. They encamped in Nottingham in 868, and
Northern Mercia was soon in their hands; in 870 Edmund, king
of the East Anglians, fell before them. During the next few years
they maintained their hold on Mercia, and we have at this time
coins minted in London with the inscription " Alfdene rex," the
name of the Danish leader. In the winter of 874-875 they
advanced as far north as the Tyne, and at the same time Cam-
bridge was occupied. In the meantime the great struggle with
Alfred the Great was being carried on. This was terminated by the
peace of Wedmore in 878, when the Danes withdrew from Wessex
and settled finally in East Anglia under their king Guthrum.
This peace was finally and definitely ratified in the document
known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum, which is probably to
be referred to the year 880. The peace determined the boundary
of Guthrum's East Anglian kingdom. According to the terms
of the agreement the boundary was to run along the Thames
estuary to the mouth of the Lea (a few miles east of London),
then up the Lea to its source near Leighton Buzzard, then due
north to Bedford, then eastwards up the Ouse to Watling Street
somewhere near Fenny or Stony Stratford. From this point
the boundary is left undefined, perhaps because the kingdoms
of Alfred and Guthrum ceased to be conterminous here, though if
Northamptonshire was included in the kingdom of Guthrum,
as seems likely, the boundary must be carried a few miles along
Watling Street. Thus Northern Mercia, East Anglia, the greater
part of Essex and Northumbria were handed over to the
Danes and henceforth constitute the district known as the
Danelagh.

The three chief divisions of the Danelagh were (1) the kingdom
of Northumbria, (2) the kingdom of East Anglia, (3) the district
of the Five (Danish) Boroughs — lands grouped round Leicester,
Nottingham, Derby, Stamford and Lincoln, and forming a loose
confederacy. Of the history of the two Danish kingdoms we
know very little. Guthrum of East Anglia died in 890, and later
we hear of a king Eric or Eohric who died in 902. Another
Guthrum was ruling there in the days of Edward the Elder. The
history of the Northumbrian kingdom is yet more obscure.
After an interregnum consequent on the death of Healfdene the
kingdom passed in 883 to one Guthred, son of Hardicanute, who
ruled till 894, when his realm was taken over by King Alfred,
though probably only under a very loose sovereignty. It may be
noted here that Northumbria north of the Tyne, the old Bernicia,
seems never to have passed under Danish authority and rule, but
to have remained in independence until the general submission to
Edward in 924.

More is known of the history of the five boroughs. From 907
onwards Edward the Elder, working together with yEthelred of
Mercia and his wife, worked for the recovery of the Danelagh. In
that year Chester was fortified. In 9 1 1-9 1 2 an advance on Essex
and Hertfordshire was begun. In 914 Buckingham was fortified
and the Danes of Bedfordshire submitted. In 917 Derby was
the first of the five boroughs to fall, followed by Leicester a
few months later. In the same year after a keen struggle all the
Danes belonging to the " borough " of Northampton, as far north
as the Welland (i.e. the border of modern Northamptonshire),
submitted to Edward and at the sam,e time Colchester was forti-
fied; a large portion of Essex submitted and the whole of the East
Anglian Danes came in. Stamford was the next to yield, soon
followed by Nottingham, and in 920 there was a general submis-
sion on the part of the Danes and the reconquest of the Danelagh
was now complete.

Though the independent occupation of the Danelagh by
Viking invaders did not last for more than fifty years at the

804

DANGERFIELD— DANIEL

outside, the Danes left lasting marks of their presence in these
territories.

The divisions of the land are foreign not native. The grouping
of shires round a county town as distinct from the old national
shires is probably of Scandinavian origin, and so certainly is the
division of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire into " ridings." In
Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, part of Northampton-
shire, Nottinghamshire, Rutlandshire (of later formation) and
Yorkshire we have the counties divided into " wapentakes "
instead of " hundreds," again a mark of Danish influence.

When we turn to the social divisions we find in Domesday and
other documents classes of society in these districts bearing purely
Norse names, dreng, karl, karlman, bonde, thrall, lysing, hold; in
the system of taxation we have an assessment by carucates and
not by hides and virgates, and the duodecimal rather than the
decimal system of reckoning.

The highly developed Scandinavian legal system has also left
abundant traces in this district. We may mention specially the
institution of the " lawmen," whom we find as a judicial body in
several of the towns in or near the Danelagh. They are found at
Cambridge, Stamford, Lincoln, York and Chester. There can be
no doubt that these " lawmen," who can be shown to form a close
parallel to and indeed the ultimate source of our jury, were of
Scandinavian origin. Many other legal terms can be definitely
traced to Scandinavian sources, and they are first found in use in
the district of the Danelagh.

The whole of the place nomenclature of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire,
Nottinghamshire and Northern Northamptonshire is Scandi-
navian rather than native English, and in the remaining districts
of the Danelagh a goodly proportion of Danish place-names may
be found. Their influence is also evident in the dialects spoken
in these districts to the present day. It is probable that until
the end of the ioth century Scandinavian dialects were almost the
sole language spoken in the district of the Danelagh, and when
English triumphed, after an intermediate bilingual state, large
numbers of words were adopted from the earlier Scandinavian
speech.

See The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer
(Oxford, 1892-1899); J. C. H. R. Steenstrup, Normannerne (4 vols.,
1876-1882) ; and A. Bugge, Vikingerne (2 vols.). (A. Mw.)

DANGERFIELD, THOMAS (c. 1650-1685), English conspirator,
was born about 1650 at Waltham, Essex, the son of a farmer.
He began his career by robbing his father, and, after a rambling
life, took to coining false money, for which offence and others he
was many times imprisoned. False to everyone, he first tried to
involve the duke of Monmouth and others by concocting infor-
mation about a Presbyterian plot against the throne, and this
having been proved a lie, he pretended to have discovered a
Catholic plot against Charles II. This was known as the " Meal-
tub Plot," from the place where the incriminating documents
were hidden at his suggestion, and found by the king's officers by
his information. Mrs Elizabeth Cellier, — in whose house the tub
was, — almoner to the countess of Powis, who had befriended
Dangerfield when he posed as a Catholic, was, with her patroness,
actually tried for high treason and acquitted (1680). Danger-
field, when examined at the bar of the House of Commons, made
other charges against prominent Papists, and attempted to
defend his character by publishing, among other pamphlets,
Dangerfield' s Narrative. This led to his trial for libel, and on the
29th of June 1685 he received sentence to stand in the pillory on
two consecutive days, be whipped from Aldgate to Newgate, and
two days later from Newgate to Tyburn. On his way back he
was struck in the eye with a cane by a barrister, Robert Francis,
and died shortly afterwards from the blow. The barrister was,
tried and executed for the murder.

DANIEL, the name given to the central figure 1 of the biblical
Book of Daniel (see below), which is now generally regarded as a
production dating from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (175-

1 Four personages of the name of Daniel appear in the Old Testa-
ment: (1) the patriarch of Ezekiel (see above); (2) a son of David
(1 Chron. iii. 1) ; (3) a Levite contemporary with Ezra (Ezra viii. 2 ;
Neh. x. 6) ; (4) our Daniel.

J 164 B.C.). There are no means of ascertaining anything definite
concerning the origin of the hero Daniel. The account of him in
Dan. i. has been generally misunderstood. According to i. 3, the
Babylonian chief eunuch was commanded to bring " certain of
the children of Israel, and of the king's seed, and of the nobles "
to serve in the court. Many commentators have considered this
to mean that some of the children were of the royal Judaean line
of Jewish noble families, an interpretation which is not justified
by the wording of the passage, which contains nothing to indicate
that the author meant to convey the idea that Daniel was either
royal or noble. Josephus, 2 never doubting the historicity of
Daniel, made the prophet a relative of Zedekiah and consequently
of Jehoiakim, a conclusion which he apparently drew from the
same passage, i. 3. Pseudo-Epiphanius, 3 again, probably having
the same source in mind, thought that Daniel was a Jewish
noble. The true Epiphanius 4 even gives the name of his father as
Sabaan, and states that the prophet was born at Upper Beth-
Horon, a village near Jerusalem. The after life and death of the
seer are as obscure as his origin. The biblical account throws no
light on the subject. According to the rabbis, 6 Daniel went back
to Jersualem with the return of the captivity, and is supposed to
have been one of the founders of the mythical Great Synagogue.
Other traditions affirm that he died and was buried in Babylonia
in the royal vault, while the Jewish traveller Benjamin of
Tudela (12th cent, a.d.) was shown his tomb in Susa, which is
also mentioned by the Arab, Abulfaragius (Bar-hebraeus).
The author of Daniel did not pretend to give any sketch of the
prophet's career, but was content merely with making him the
central figure, around which to group more or less disconnected
narratives and accounts of visions. In view of these facts, and
also of the generally inaccurate character of all the historical
statements in the work, there is really no evidence to prove even
the existence of the Daniel described in the book bearing his name.

The question at once arises as to where the Maccabaean author
of Daniel could have got the name and personality of his Daniel.
It is not probable that he could have invented both name and
character. There is an allusion in the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14,
20, xxviii. 3) to a Daniel whom he places as a great personality
between Noah and Job. But this could not be our Daniel , whom
Ezekiel, probably a man of ripe age at the time of the Babylonian
deportation of the Jews, would hardly have mentioned in the same
breath with two such characters, much less have put him between
them, because, had the Daniel of the biblical book, existed at this
time, he would have been a mere boy, lacking any such distinction
as to make him worthy of so high a mention. It is evident that
Ezekiel considered his Daniel to be a celebrated ancient prophet,
concerning whose date and origin, however, there is not a single
trace to guide research. Hitzig's 6 conjecture that the Daniel of
Ezekiel was Melchizedek is quite without foundation. The most
that can be said in this connexion is that there may really have
been a spiritual leader of the captive Jews who resided at Babylon
and who was either named Daniel, perhaps after the unknown
patriarch mentioned by Ezekiel, or to whom the same name had
been given in the course of tradition by some historical confusion
of persons. Following this hypothesis, it must be assumed that
the fame of this Judaeo-Babylonian leader had been handed
down through the unclear medium of oral tradition until the time
of Antiochus Epiphanes, when some gifted Jewish author, feeling
the need of producing a work which should console his people in
their affliction under the persecutions of that monarch, seized
upon the personality of the seer who lived during a time of persecu-
tion bearing many points of resemblance to that of Antiochus IV.,
and moulded some of the legends than extant about the life
and activity of this misty prophet into such a form as should be
best suited to a didactic purpose. 7

2 Ant. x. 10, 1. s Chap, x., on the Prophets.

4 Panarion, adv. Haeres. 55, 3. 6 Prince, Dan. p. 26, n. 6.

6 Dan. p. viii.

' The account in chap. ii. of the firomotion of Daniel to be governor
of Babylon, as a reward for his correct interpretation of Nebuchad-
rezzar's dream, is very probably an imitation of the story of Joseph
in Gen. xl-xli. The points of resemblance are very striking. In both
accounts, we have a young Hebrew raised by the favour of a heathen

DANIEL, BOOK OF

805

Daniel, Book of. — The Book of Daniel stands between Ezra
and Esther in the third great division of the Hebrew Bible known
as the Hagiographa, in which are classed all works which were
not regarded as being part of the Law or the Prophets . The book
presents the unusual peculiarity of being written in two languages,
i.-ii. 4 and viii.-xii. being in Hebrew, while the text of ii. 4-vii.
is the Palestinian dialect of Aramaic. 1 The subject matter,
however, falls naturally into two divisions which are not co-ter-
minous with the linguistic sections; viz. i.-vi. and vii.-xii. The
first of these sense-divisions deals only with narratives regarding
the reign of Nebuchadrezzar and his supposed son Belshazzar,
while the second section consists exclusively of apocalyptic
prophecies. There can be no doubt that a definite plan was
followed in the arrangement of the work. The author's object
was clearly to demonstrate to his readers the necessity of faith
in Israel's God, who shall not for ever allow his chosen ones to
be ground under the heel of a ruthless heathen oppressor. To
illustrate this, he makes use on the one hand (i.-vi.) of carefully
chosen narratives, somewhat loosely connected it is true, but all
treating substantially the same subject, — the physical triumph
of God's servant over his unbelieving enemies; and on the other
hand (vii.-xii.) , he introduces certain prophetic visions illustrative
of God's favour towards the same servant, Daniel. So carefully
is this record of the visions arranged that the first two chapters of
the second part of the book (vii.-viii.) were no doubt purposely
made to appear in a symbolic form, in order that in the last two
revelations (xi.-xii.), which were couched in such direct language
as to be intelligible even to the modern student of history, the
author might obtain the effect of a climax. The book is probably
not therefore a number of parts of different origin thrown loosely
together by a careless editor, who does not deserve the title of
author. 2 The more or less disconnected sections of the first part
of the work were probably so atranged purposely, in order to
facilitate its diffusion at a time when books were known to the
people at large chiefly by being read aloud in public.

Various attempts have been made to explain the sudden change
from Hebrew to Aramaic in ii. 4. It was long thought, for
example, that Aramaic was the vernacular of Babylonia and was
consequently employed as the language of the parts relating to
that country. But this was not the case, because the Babylonian
language survived until a later date than that of the events
portrayed in Daniel. 3 Nor is it possible to follow the theory of
Merx, that Aramaic, which was the popular tongue of the day
when the Book of Daniel was written, was therefore used for the
simpler narrative style, while the more learned Hebrew was made
the idiom of the philosophical portions. 4 The first chapter,
which is just as much in the narrative style as are the following
Aramaic sections, is in Hebrew, while the distinctly apocalyptic
chapter vii. is in Aramaic. A third view, that the bilingual
character of the work points to a time when both languages were
used indifferently, is equally unsatisfactory, 6 because it is highly
questionable whether two idioms can ever be used quite indiffer-
ently. In fact, a hybrid work in two languages would be a
literary monstrosity. In view of the apparent unity of the entire
work, the only possible explanation seems to be that the book
was written at first all in Hebrew, but for the convenience of the
general reader whose vernacular was Aramaic, a translation,
possibly from the same pen as the original, was made into
king to great political prominence, owing to his extraordinary God-
given ability to interpret dreams. In both versions, the heathen
astrologers make the first attempt to solve the difficulty, which
results in failure, whereupon the pious Israelite, being summoned to
the royal presence, in both cases through the friendly intervention
of a court official, triumphantly explains the mystery to the king's
satisfaction (cf. Prince, Dan. p. 29).

1 See Beyan, Dan. 28-40, on the Hebrew and Aramaic of Daniel.

2 According to Lagarde, Mitteilungen, iv. 351 (1891); also Gott,
Gelehrte Anzeigen (1891), 497-520.

3 The latest connected Babylonian inscription is that of
Antiochus Soter (280-260 B.C.), but the language was probably
spoken until Hellenic times; cf. Gutbrod, Zeitschr. fur Assyriol.
vi. 27.

4 Prince, Dan. 12.

Bertholdt, Dan. 15; Franz Delitzsch, in Herzog, Realencyklo-
ptidie, ->nd ed., iii. 470.

Aramaic. It must be supposed then that, certain parts of the
original Hebrew manuscript being lost, the missing places were
supplied from the current Aramaic translation. 6

It cannot be denied in the light of modern historical research
that if the Book of Daniel be regarded as pretending to full
historical authority, the biblical record is open to all manner of
attack. It is now the general opinion of most modern scholars
who study the Old Testament from a critical point of view that
this work cannot possibly have originated, according to the
traditional theory, at any time during the Babylonian monarchy,
when the events recorded are supposed to have taken place.

The chief reasons for such a conclusion are as follows. 7

1 . The position of the book among the Hagiographa, instead of
among the Prophetical works, seems to show that it was intro-
duced after the closing of the Prophetical Canon. Some com-
mentators have believed that Daniel was not an actual prophet in
the proper sense, but only a seer, or else that he had no official
standing as a prophet and that therefore the book was not
entitled to a place among official prophetical books. But if the
work had really been in existence at the time of the completion
of the second part of the canon, the collectors of the prophetical
writings, who in their care did not neglect even the parable of
Jonah, would hardly have ignored the record of so great a
prophet as Daniel is represented to have been.

2. Jesus ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), who wrote about 200-
180 B.C., in his otherwise complete list of Israel's leading spirits
(xlix.), makes no mention of Daniel. Hengstenberg's plea that
Ezra and Mordecai were also left unmentioned has little force,
because Ezra appears in the book bearing his name as nothing
more than a prominent priest and scholar, while Daniel is repre-
sented as a great prophet.

3. Had the Book of Daniel been extant and generally known
after the time of Cyrus (537-529 B.C.), it would be natural to look
for some traces of its power among the writings of Haggai,
Zechariah and Malachi, whose works, however, show no evidence
that either the name or the history of Daniel was known to these
authors. Furthermore, the manner in which the prophets are
looked back upon in ix. 6-10 cannot fail to suggest an extremely
late origin for the book. Besides this, a careful study of ix. 2
seems to indicate that the Prophetical Canon was definitely
completed at the time when the author of Daniel wrote. It is also
highly probable that much of the material in the second part of
the book was suggested by the works of the later prophets,
especially by Ezekiel and Zechariah.

4. Some of the beliefs set forth in the second part of the book
also practically preclude the possibility of the author having
lived at the courts of Nebuchadrezzar and his successors. Most
noticeable among these doctrines is the complete system of
angelology consistently followed out in the Book of Daniel,
according to which the management of human affairs is en-
trusted to a regular hierarchy of commanding angels, two of
whom, Gabriel and Michael, are even mentioned by name. Such
an idea was distinctly foreign to the primitive Israelitish con-
ception of the indivisibility of Yahweh's power, and must conse-
quently have been a borrowed one. It could certainly not have
come from the Babylonians, however, whose system of attendant
spirits was far from being so complete as that which is set forth
in the Book of Daniel, but rather from Persian sources where
a more complicated angelology had been developed. As many
commentators have brought out, there can be little doubt that
the doctrine of angels in Daniel is an indication of prolonged
Persian influence. Furthermore, it is now very generally admitted
that the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which is
advanced for the first time in the Old Testament in Daniel, also
originated among the Persians, 8 and could only have been
engrafted on the Jewish mind after a long period of intercourse
with the Zoroastrian religion, which came into contact with the
Jewish thinkers considerably after the time of Nebuchadrezzar.

6 Bevan, Dan. 27 ff. ; Prince, Dan. 13.

7 For this whole discussion, see Prince, Dan. 15 ff.

8 The investigations of Haug, Spiegel and Windischmann show
that this was a real Zoroastrian doctrine.

8o6

DANIEL, BOOK OF

5. All the above evidences are merely internal, but we are now
able to draw upon the Babylonian historical sources to prove
that Daniel could not have originated at the time of Nebuchad-
rezzar. There can be no doubt that the author of Daniel thought
that Belshazzar (q.v.), who has now been identified beyond all
question with Bel-sar-uzur , the son of Nabonidus, the last Semitic
king of Babylon, was the son of Nebuchadrezzar, and that
Belshazzar attained the rank of king. 1 This prince did not even
come from the family of Nebuchadrezzar. Nabonidus, the father
of Belshazzar, was the son of a nobleman Nabu-baladsu-iqbi, who
was in all probability not related to any of the preceding kings of
B abylon. Had Nabonidus been descended from Nebuchadrezzar
he could hardly have failed in his records, which we possess, to
have boasted of such a connexion with the greatest Babylonian
monarch; yet in none of his inscriptions does he trace his descent
beyond his father. Certain expositors have tried to obviate the
difficulty, first by supposing that the expression " son of
Nebuchadrezzar " in Daniel means " descendant " or " son," a
view which is rendered untenable by the facts just cited. This
school has also endeavoured to prove that the author of Daniel
did not mean to imply Belshazzar's kingship of Babylon at all by
his use of the word " king," but they suggest that the writer of
Daniel believed Belshazzar to have been co-regent. If Belshazzar
had ever held such a position, which is extremely unlikely in the
absence of any evidence from the cuneiform documents, he would
hardly have been given the unqualified title " king of Babylon "
as occurs in Daniel. 2 For example, Cambyses, son of Cyrus, was
undoubtedly co-regent and bore the title " king of Babylon "
during his father's lifetime, but, in a contract which dates from the
first year of Cambyses, it is expressly stated that Cyrus was still
" king of the lands." This should be contrasted with Dan.
viii. 1, where reference is made to the " third year of Belshazzar,
king of Babylon " without any allusion to another over-ruler.
Such attempts are at best subterfuges to support an impossible
theory regarding the origin of the Book of Daniel, whose author
clearly believed in the kingship of Belshazzar and in that prince's
descent from Nebuchadrezzar.

Furthermore, the writer of Daniel asserts (v. 1) that a
monarch " Darius the Mede " received the kingdom of Babylon
after the fall of the native Babylonian house, although it is
evident, from i. 21, x. 1, that the biblical author was perfectly
aware of the existence of Cyrus. 3 The fact that in no other
scriptural passage is mention made of any Median ruler between
the last Semitic king of Babylon and Cyrus, and the absolute
silence of the authoritative ancient authors regarding such a king,
make it apparent that the late author of Daniel is again in error
in this particular. It is known that Cyrus became master of
Media by conquering Astyages, and that the troops of the king of
Persia capturing Babylon took Nabonidus prisoner with but little
difficulty. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to identify this
mythical Darius with the Cyaxares, son of Astyages, of Xeno-
phon's Cyropaedia, and also with the Darius of Eusebius, who was
in all probability Darius Hystaspis. There is not only no room
in history for this Median king of the Book of Daniel, but it is
also highly likely that the interpolation of " Darius the Mede "
was caused by a confusion of history, due both to the destruction
of the Assyrian capital Nineveh by the Medes, sixty-eight years
before the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, and also to the fame of
the later king, Darius Hystaspis, a view which was advanced as
early in the history of biblical criticism as the days of the Bene-
dictine monk,' Marianus Scotus. It is important to note in
this connexion that Darius the Mede is represented as the son
of Xerxes (Ahasuerus) and it is stated that he established
120 satrapies. Darius Hystapis was the father of Xerxes, and
according to Herodotus (iii. 89) established twenty satrapies.
Darius the Mede entered into possession of Babylon after the
death of Belshazzar; Darius Hystaspis conquered Babylon

1 Prince, Dan. 35-42.

2 Certain tablets published by Strassmaier, bearing date con-
tinuously from Nabonidus to Cyrus, show that neither Belshazzar
nor " Darius the Mede " could have had the title " king of Babylon."
See Driver, Introduction, 3 xxii.

3 Prince, Dan. 44-56.

from the hands of certain rebels (Her. iii. 153-160). In fine, the
interpolation of a Median Darius must be regarded as the most
glaring historical inaccuracy of the author of Daniel. In fact,
this error of the author alone is proof positive that he must have
lived at a very late period, when the record of most of the earlier
historical events had become hopelessly confused and perverted.

With these chief reasons why the Book of Daniel cannot have
originated in the Babylonian period, -if the reader will turn more
especially to the apocalyptic sections (vii.-xii.), it will be quite
evident that the author is here giving a detailed account of
historical events which may easily be recognized through the thin
veil of prophetic mystery thrown lightly around them. It is
indeed highly suggestive that just those occurrences which are
the most remote from the assumed standpoint of the writer
are the most correctly stated, while the nearer we approach the
author's supposed time, the more inaccurate does he become.
It is quite apparent that the predictions in the Book of Daniel
centre on the period of Antiochus Epiphanes ( 1 7 5-1 64 B.C.) , when
that Syrian prince was endeavouring to suppress the worship
of Yahweh and substitute for it the Greek religion. 4 There can
be no doubt, for example, that in the " Little Horn " of vii. 8,
viii. 9, and the " wicked prince " described in ix.-x., who is to
work such evil among the saints, we have clearly one and the
same person. It is now generally recognized that the king
symbolized by the Little Horn, of whom it is said that he shall
come of one of four kingdoms which shall be formed from the
Greek empire after the death of its first king (Alexander), can be
none other than Antiochus Epiphanes, and in like manner the
references in ix. must allude to the same prince. It seems quite
clear that xi. 21-45 refers to the evil deeds of Antiochus IV. and
his attempts against the Jewish people and the worship of
Yahweh. In xii. follows the promise of salvation from the same
tyrant, and, strikingly enough, the predictions in this last section,
x.-xii., relating to future events, become inaccurate as soon as
the author finishes the section describing the reign of Antiochus
Epiphanes. The general style of all these prophecies differs
materially from that of all other prophetic writings in the Old
Testament. Other prophets confine themselves to vague and
general predictions, but the author of Daniel is strikingly
particular as to detail in everything relating to the period in
which he lived, i.e. the reign of Antiochus IV. Had the work
been composed during the Babylonian era, it would be more
natural to expect prophecies of the return of the exiled Jews to
Palestine, as in Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Isaiah, rather than the
acclamation of an ideal Messianic kingdom such as is emphasized
in the second part of Daniel.

As a specimen of the apocalyptic method followed in Daniel,
the celebrated prophecy of the seventy weeks (ix. 24-27) may be
cited, a full discussion of which will be found in Prince, Daniel
1 57-161. According to Jer. xxv. 11-12, the period of Israel's
probation and trial was to last seventy years. In the angelic
explanation in Daniel of Jeremiah's prophecy, these years were
in reality year-weeks, which indicated a period of 490 years. This
is the true apocalyptic system. The author takes a genuine
prophecy, undoubtedly intended by Jeremiah to refer simply to
the duration of the Babylonian captivity, and, by means of a
purely arbitrary and mystical interpretation, makes it denote the
entire period of Israel's degradation down to his own time. This
prophecy is really nothing more than an extension of the vision
of the 2300 evening-mornings of viii. 14, and of the " time, times
and a half a time " of vii. 25. The real problem is as to the
beginning and end of this epoch, which is divided into three
periods of uneven length; viz. one of seven weeks; one of sixty-
two weeks; and the last of one week. It seems probable that the
author of Daniel , like the Chronicler, began his period with the fall
of Jerusalem in 586. His first seven weeks, therefore, ending with
theruleof " Messiah the Prince," 5 probably Joshua ben Jozadak,
the first high-priest after the exile (Ezra iii. 2), seem to coincide ex-
actly with the duration of the Babylon exile, i.e. forty-nine years.

4 Prince, Dan. 19-20, 140, 155, 179 ff.

'That " Messiah " or " Anointed One " was used of the High-
Priest is seen from Lev. x, 3, v. 16.

DANIEL, BOOK OF

807

The second period of the epoch, during which Jerusalem is to
be peopled and built, and at the end of which the Messiah is to
be cut off, is much more difficult to determine. The key to the
problem lies undoubtedly in the last statement regarding the
overthrow of the Messiah or Anointed One. Such a reference
coming from a Maccabean author can only allude to the deposi-
tion by Antiochus IV. of the high-priest Onias III., which took
place about 174 B.C., and the Syrian king's subsequent murder
of the same person not later than 171 (2 Mace. iv. 33-36). The
difficulty now arises that between 537 and 171 there are only 366
years instead of the required number 434. It was evidently not
the author's intention to begin the second period of sixty weeks
simultaneously with the first period, as some expositors have
thought, because the whole passage shows conclusively that he
meant seventy independent weeks. Besides, nothing is gained
by such a device, which would bring the year of the end of the
second period down to the meaningless date 152, too late to refer
to Onias. Cornill therefore adopted the only tenable theory
regarding the problem; viz. that the author of Daniel did not
know the chronology between 537 and 312, the establishment of
the Seleucid era, and consequently made the period too long. A
parallel case is the much quoted example of Demetrius, who
placed the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.) 573 years before the succes-
sion of Ptolemy IV. (222), thus making an error of seventy-three
years. Josephus, who places the reign of Cyrus forty to fifty
years too early, makes a similar error.

The last week is divided into two sections (26-27), in the first
of which the city and sanctuary shall be destroyed and in the
second the daily offering is to be suspended. All critical scholars
recognize the identity of this second half -week with the " time,
times and a half a time " of vii. 25. This last week must, there-
fore, end with the restoration of the temple worship in 164 b.c.

This whole prophecy, which is perhaps the most interesting
in the Book of Daniel, presents problems which can never be
thoroughly understood, first because the author must have been
ignorant of both history and chronology, and secondly, because,
in his effort to be as mystical as possible, he purposely made use
of indefinite and vague expressions which render the criticism of
the passage a most unsatisfactory task.

The Book of Daniel loses none of its beauty and force because
we are bound, in the light of modern criticism, to consider it as
a production of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, nor should
conservative Bible-readers lament because the historical accuracy
of the work is thus destroyed. The influence of the work was
very great on the subsequent development of Christianity, but
it was not the influence of the history contained in it which made
itself felt, but rather of that sublime hope for a future deliverance
of which the author of Daniel never lost sight. The allusion to
the book by Jesus (Matt. xxiv. 1 5) shows merely that our Lord
was referring to the work by its commonly accepted title, and
implies no authoritative utterance with regard to its date or
authorship. Our Lord simply made use of an apt quotation from
a well-known work in order to illustrate and give additional force
to his own prediction. If the book be properly understood, it
must not only be admitted that the author made no pretence at
accuracy of detail, but also that his prophecies were clearly in-
tended to be merely an historical resume, clothed for the sake of
greater literary vividness in a prophetic garb . The work, which is
certainly not a forgery, but only a consolatory political pamphlet,
is just as powerful, viewed according to the author's evident
intention, as a consolation to God's people in their dire distress
at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, as if it were, what an ancient
but mistaken tradition had made it, really an accurate account of
events which took place at the close of the Babylonian period. 1

Literature. — See bibliography in Bevan, Daniel 9, and add
Kamphausen, Dan., in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament;
Behrmann, Dan. (1894); J- D. Prince, Dan. (1899); G. A. Barton,
" The Compilation of the Book of Daniel," in Journ. Bibl. Lit.
(1898), 62-86, against the unity of the book, &c, &c.; J. D. Davis,
" Persian Words and the Date of O.T. Documents," in Old
Testament and Semitic Studies: in Memory of W. R. Harper
(Chicago, 1908). ' (J. D. Pr.)

1 Prince, Dan. 22-24.

Additions to Daniel. — The " additions to Daniel " are three
in number: Susannah and the Elders, Bel and the Dragon, and
The Song of the Three Children. Of these the two former have
no organic connexion with the text. The case is otherwise with
regard to the last. In some respects it helps to fill up a gap in the
canonical text between verses 23 and 24 of chapter iii. And yet
we find Polychronius, early in the 5th century, stating that this
song was not found in the Syriac version.

Susannah. — This addition was placed by Theodotion before
chap, i., and Bel and the Dragon at its close, whereas by the
Septuagint and the Vulgate it was reckoned as chap. xiii. after
the twelve canonical chapters, Bel and the Dragon as xiv.
Theodotion's version is the source of the Peshitto and the Vulgate,
for all three additions, and the Septuagint is the source of
the Syro-Hexaplaric which has been published by Ceriani (Mon.
Sacr. vii.) . The legend recounts how that in the early days of the
Captivity Susannah, the beautiful and pious wife of the rich
Joakim, was walking in her garden and was there seen by two
elders who were also judges. Inflamed with lust, they made
infamous proposals to her, and when repulsed they brought
against her a false charge of adultery. When brought before the
tribunal she was condemned to death and was on the way to
execution, when Daniel interposed and, by cross-questioning the
accusers apart, convinced the people of the falsity of the charge.

The source of the story may, according to Ewald (Gesch?
iv. 636), have been suggested by the Babylonian legend of the
seduction of two old men by the goddess of love (see also Koran,
Sur. ii. 96) . Another and much more probable origin of the work
is that given by Briill (Das apocr. Susanna-Buch, 1877) and Ball
(Speaker's A poor. ii. 3 23-33 1) . The first half of the story is based
on a tradition — originating possibly in Jer. xxix. 21-32 and found
in the Talmud and Midrash — of two elders Ahab and Zedekiah,
who in the Captivity led certain women astray under the delusion
that they should thereby become the mother of the Messiah.
But the most interesting part of the investigation is concerned
with the latter half of the story, which deals with the trial. The
characteristics of this section point to its composition about 100-
90 B.C., when Simon ben Shetah was president of the Sanhedrin.
Its object was to support the attempts of the Pharisees to
bring about a reform in the administration of the law courts.
According to Sadducean principles the man who was convicted
of falsely accusing another of a capital offence was not put to
death unless his victim was already executed. The Pharisees held
that the intention of the accusers was equivalent to murder. Our
apocryph upholds the Pharisaic contention. As Simon ben Shetah
insisted on a rigorous examination of the witnesses, so does our
writer: as he and his party required that the perjurer should suffer
the same penalty he sought to inflict on another, so our writer
represents the death penalty as inflicted on the perjured elders.

The language was in all probability Semitic-Hebrew or
Aramaic. The paronomasiae in the Greek in verses 54-55 (oto
axivov . . . cxtcret) and 58-59 (inro irplvov . . . irpio-ei) present
no cogent difficulty against this view; for they may be accidental
and have arisen for the first time in the translation. But as Briill
and Ball have shown (see Speaker's Apocr. ii. 324), the same
paronomasiae are possible either in Hebrew or Aramaic.

Literature. — Ball in the Speaker's Apocr. ii. 233 sqq.; Schiirer,
Gesch. 3 iii. 333; Rothstein in Kautzsch's Apocr. u. Pseud, i.
176 sqq.; Kamphausen in Ency. Bib.; Marshall in Hastings' Bible
Diet. ; Toy in the Jewish Encyc.

Bel and the Dragon. — We have here two independent narratives,
in both of which Daniel appears as the destroyer of heathenism.
The latter had a much wider circulation than the former, and is
most probably a Judaized form of the old Semitic myth of the
destruction of the old dragon, which represents primeval chaos
(see Ball, Speaker's Apocr. ii. 346-348; Gunkel, Schopfung und
Chaos, 320-323). Marduk destroys Tiamat in a similar manner
to that in which Daniel destroys the dragon (Delitzsch, Das
babylonische Weltschopfung Epos), by driving a storm- wind into
the dragon which rends it asunder. Marshall (Hastings' Bib.
Diet. i. 267) suggests that the " pitch " of the Greek (Aramaic
NB'i) arose from the original term for storm- wind (xsyi)-

8o8

DANIEL OF KIEV— DANIEL, SAMUEL

The Greek exists in two recensions, those of the Septuagint and
Theodotion. Most scholars maintain a Greek original, but this is
by no means certain. Marshall (Hastings' Bib Diet. i. 268) argues
for an Aramaic, and regards Gasters's Aramaic text [Proceedings
of the Society of Biblical Archaeology (1894), pp. 280-290, 312-317;
(1S95) 75-94] as of primary value in this respect, but this is
doubtful.

Literature. — Fritzsche's Handbuch zu den Apoc. ; Ball in the
Speaker's Apocr. ii. 344 sqq.; Schurer, 3 Gesch. iii. 332 sqq. ; and
the articles in the Ency. Bibl., Bible Diet., and Jewish Encyc.

The Greek text is best given in Swete iii., and the Syriac will be
found in Walton's Polyglot, Lagarde and Neubauer's Tobit.

Song of the Three Children. — This section is composed of the
Prayer of Azariah and the Song of Azariah, Ananias and Misael,
and was inserted after iii. 23 of the canonical text of Daniel.
According to Fritzsche, Konig, Schurer, &c, it was composed in
Greek and added to the Greek translation. On the other hand,
Delitzsch, Bissell, Ball, &c, maintain a Hebrew original. The
latter view has been recently supported by Rothstein, Apocr. und
Pseud, i. 173-176, who holds that these additions were made to
the text before its translation into Greek. These additions still
preserve, according to Rothstein, a fragment of the original text,
i.e. verses 23-28, which came between verses 23 and 24 of
chapter iii. of the canonical text. They certainly fill up
excellently a manifest gap in this text. " The Song of the Three
Children " was first added after the verses just referred to, and
subsequently the Prayer of Azariah was inserted before these
verses.

Literature. — Ball in the Speaker's Apocr. ii. 305 sqq. ; Rothstein
in Kautzsch's Apocr. und Pseud, i. 173 sqq.; Schurer, 3 Gesch. iii.
332 sqq. (R. H. C.)

DANIEL (Danil), of Kiev, the earliest Russian travel- writer,
and one of the leading Russian travellers in the middle ages. He
journeyed to Syria and other parts of the Levant about 1106-
1107. He was the igumen, or abbot, of a monastery probably
near Chernigov in Little Russia: some identify him with one
Daniel, bishop of Suriev (fl. 1115-1122). He visited Palestine
in the reign of Baldwin I., Latin king of Jerusalem (1100-1118),
and apparently soon after the crusading capture of Acre (1104);
he claims to have accompanied Baldwin, who treated him with
marked friendliness, on an expedition against Damascus (c. 1 107).
Though Daniel's narrative, beginning (as it practically ends) at
Constantinople, omits some of the most interesting sections of
his journey, his work has considerable value. His picture of the
Holy Land preserves a record of conditions (such as the Saracen
raiding almost up to the walls of Christian Jerusalem, and the
friendly relations subsisting between Roman and Eastern
churches in Syria) peculiarly characteristic of the time; his
account of Jerusalem itself is remarkably clear, minute and
accurate; his three excursions — to the Dead Sea and Lower
Jordan (which last he compares to a river of Little Russia, the
Snov), to Bethlehem and Hebron, and towards Damascus —
gave him an exceptional knowledge of certain regions. In spite
of some extraordinary, blunders in topography and history, his
observant and detailed record, marked by evident good faith, is
among the most valuable of medieval documents relating to
Palestine: it is also important in the history of the Russian
language, and in the study of ritual and liturgy (from its descrip-
tion of the Easter services in Jerusalem, the Descent of the Holy
Fire, &c). Several Russian friends and companions, from Kiev
and Old Novgorod, are recorded by Daniel as present with him at
the Easter Eve " miracle," in the church of the Holy Sepulchre.

There are seventy-six MSS. of Daniel's Narrative, of which only
five are anterior to A.D. 1500; the oldest is of 1475 (St Petersburg,
Library of Ecclesiastical History 9/1086). Three editions exist, of
which I. P. Sakharov's (St Petersburg, 1849) is perhaps the best
known (in Narratives of the Russian People, vol. ii. bk. viii. pp.
1-45). See also the French version in Itineraires russes en orient, ed
Me B. de Khitrovo (Geneva, 1889) (Societe de V orient latin); and
the account of Daniel in C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography,
ii. 155-174- (C R. B.)

DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-17 28), French Jesuit historian, was
born at Rouen on the 8th of February 1649. He was educated
by the Jesuits, entered the order at the age of eighteen, and

became superior at Paris. He is best known by his Histoire de
France depuis I'etablissement de la monarchie franqaise (first
complete edition, 1713), which was republished in 1720, 1721,
1725, 1742, and (the last edition, with notes by Father Griffet)
1755-1760. Daniel published an abridgment in 1724 (English
trans., 1726), and another abridgment was published by Dorival
in 1751. Though full of prejudices which affect his accuracy,
Daniel had the advantage of consulting valuable original sources.
His Histoire de la milice franqaise, &*c. (1721) is superior to his
Histoire de France, and may still be consulted with advantage.
Daniel also wrote a by no means successful reply to Pascal's
Provincial Letters, entitled Entretiens de Cleanthe et d'Eudoxe snr
les lettres provinciates (1694); two treatises on the Cartesian
theory as to the intelligence of the lower animals, and other
works.

See Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, t. ii.

DANIEL, SAMUEL (1562-1619), English poet and historian,
was the son of a music-master, and was born near Taunton, in
Somersetshire, in 1562. Another son, John Daniel, was a
musician, who held some offices at court, and was the author of
Songs for the Lute, Viol and Voice (1606). In 1579 Samuel was
admitted a commoner of Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he
remained>for about three years, and then gave himself up to the
unrestrained study of poetry and philosophy. The name of
Samuel Daniel is given as the servant of Lord Stafford, am-
bassador in France, in 1 586, and probably refers to the poet. He
was first encouraged and, if we may believe him, taught in verse,
by the famous countess of Pembroke, whose honour he was
never weary of proclaiming. He had entered her household as
tutor to her son, William Herbert. His first known work, a
translation of Paulus Jovius, to which some original matter is
appended, was printed in 1585. His first known volume of verse
is dated 1592; it contains the cycle of sonnets to Delia and the
romance called The Complaint of Rosamond. Twenty-seven of
the sonnets had already been printed at the end of Sir Philip
Sidney's Astrophel and Stella without the author's consent.
Several editions of Delia appeared in 1592, and they were very
frequently reprinted during Daniel's lifetime. We learn by
internal evidence that Delia lived on the banks of Shakespeare's
river, the Avon, and that the sonnets to her were inspired by her
memory when the poet was in Italy. To an edition of Delia and
Rosamond, in 1594, was added the tragedy of Cleopatra, a severe
study in the manner of the ancients, in alternately rhyming
heroic verse, diversified by stiff choral interludes. The First
Four Books of the Civil Wars, an historical poem in ottava rima,
appeared in 1 595. The bibliography of Daniel's works is attended
with great difficulty, but as far as is known it was not until 1 599
that there was published a volume entitled Poetical Essays,
which contained, besides the " Civil Wars," " Musophilus, " and
" A letter from Octavia to Marcus Antonius," poems in Daniel's
finest and most mature manner. About this time he became
tutor to Anne Clifford, daughter of the countess of Cumberland,.
On the death of Spenser, in the same year, Daniel received the
somewhat vague office of poet-laureate, which he seems, however
to have shortly resigned in favour of Ben Jonson. Whether it
was on this occasion is not known, but about this time, and at the
recommendation of his brother-in-law, Giovanni Florio, he was
taken into favour at court, and wrote a Panegyric Congratulatorie
offered to the King at Burleigh Harrington in Rutlandshire, in
ottava rima. In 1603 this poem was published, and in many cases
copies contained in addition his Poetical Epistles to his patrons
and an elegant prose essay called A Defence of Rime (originally
printed in 1602) in answer to Thomas Campion's Observations on
the Art of English Poesie, in which it was contended that rhyme
was unsuited to the genius of the English language. In 1603,
moreover, Daniel was appointed master of the queen's revels.
In this capacity he brought out a series of masques and pastoral
tragi-comedies, — of which were printed A Vision of the Twelve
Goddesses, in 1604; The Queen's Arcadia, an adaptation of
Guarini's Pastor Fido, in 1606; Tethys Festival or the Queenes
Wake, written on the occasion of Prince Henry's becoming a
Knight of the Bath, in 1610; and Hymen's Triumph, in honour

DANIELL, J. F.— DANNAT

809

of Lord Roxburgh's marriage in 161 5. Meanwhile had appeared,
in 1605, Certain Small Poems, with the tragedy of Philotas;
the latter was a study, in the same style as Cleopatra, written
some five years earlier. This drama brought its author into
difficulties, as Philotas, with whom he expressed some sym-
pathy, was taken to represent Essex. In 1607, under the title
of Certaine small Workes heretofore divulged by Samuel Daniel, the
poet issued a revised version of all his works except Delia and
the Civil Wars. In 1609 the Civil Wars had been completed
in eight books. In 1612 Daniel published a prose History of
England, from the earliest times down to the end of the reign
of Edward III. This work afterwards continued, and published
in 161 7, was very popular with Drayton's contemporaries. The
section dealing with William the Conqueror was published in
1692 as being the work of Sir Walter Raleigh, apparently without
sufficient grounds.

Daniel was made a gentleman-extraordinary and groom of
the chamber to Queen Anne, sinecure offices which offered no
hindrance to an active literary career. He was now acknow-
ledged as one of the first writers of the time. Shakespeare,
Selden and Chapman are named among the few intimates who
were permitted to intrude upon the seclusion of a garden-house
in Old Street, St Luke's, where, Fuller tells us, he would " lie
hid for some months together, the more retiredly to enjoy the
company of the Muses, and then would appear in public to con-
verse with his friends." Late in life Daniel threw up his titular
posts at court and retired to a farm called " The Ridge," which
he rented at Beckington, near Devizes in Wiltshire. Here he died
on the 14th of October 16 19.

The poetical writings of Daniel are very numerous, but in spite
of the eulogies of all the best critics, they were long neglected.
This is the more singular since, during the 18th century, when so
little Elizabethan literature was read, Daniel retained his poetical
prestige. In later times Coleridge, Charles Lamb and others
expended some of their most genial criticisms on this poet. Of
bis multifarious works the sonnets are now, perhaps, most read.
They depart from the Italian sonnet form in closing with a
couplet, as is the case with most of the sonnets of Surrey and
Wyat, but they have a grace and tenderness all their own. Of a
higher order is The Complaint of Rosamond, a soliloquy in which
the ghost of the murdered woman appears and bewails her fate
in stanzas of exquisite pathos. Among the Epistles to Dis-
tinguished Persons will be found some of Daniel's noblest stanzas
tind most polished verse. The epistle to Lucy, countess of Bedford,
fe remarkable among those as being composed in genuine terza
rima, till then not used in English. Daniel was particularly
fond of a four-lined stanza of solemn alternately rhyming
iambics, a form of verse distinctly misplaced in his dramas.
These, inspired it would seem by like attempts of the countess of
Pembroke's, are hard and frigid; his pastorals are far more
pleasing; and Hymen's Triumph is perhaps the best of all his
dramatic writing. An extract from this masque is given in
Lamb's Dramatic Poets, and it was highly praised by Coleridge.
In elegiac verse he always excelled, but most of all in his touching
address To the Angel Spirit of the Most Excellent Sir Philip
Sidney. We must not neglect to quote Musophilus among the
most characteristic writings of Daniel. It is a dialogue between
a courtier and a man of letters, and is a general defence of learning,
and in particular of poetic learning as an instrument in the
education of the perfect courtier or man of action. It is addressed
to Fulke Greville, and written, with much sententious melody,
in a sort of terza rima, or, more properly, ottava rima with the
couplet omitted. Daniel was a great reformer in verse, and the
introducer of several valuable novelties. It may be broadly said
of his style that it is full, easy and stately, without being very
animated or splendid. It attains a high average of general
excellence, and is content with level flights. As a gnomic writer
Daniel approaches Chapman, but is far more musical and
coherent. He is wanting in fire and passion, but he is pre-
eminent in scholarly grace and tender, mournful reverie.

Daniel's works were edited by A. B. Grosart in 1 885-1 896.

(E. G.)

DANIELL, JOHN FREDERIC (1790-1845), English chemist
and physicist, was born in London on the 12th of March 1790,
and in 1831 became the first professor of chemistry at the newly
founded King's College, London. His name is best known for
his invention of the Daniell cell {Phil. Trans., 1836), still ex-
tensively used for telegraphic and other purposes. He also
invented the dew-point hygrometer known by his name {Quar.
Journ. Sci., 1820), and a register pyrometer (Phil. Trans., 1830) ;
and in 1830 he erected in the hall of the Royal Society a water-
barometer, with which he carried out a large number of observa-
tions (Phil. Trans., 1832). A process devised by him for the
manufacture of illuminating gas from turpentine and resin was
in use in New York for a time. His publications include Meteoro-
logical Essays (1823), an Essay on Artificial Climate considered in
its Applications to Horticulture (1824), which showed the necessity
of a humid atmosphere in hothouses devoted to tropical plants,
and an Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy (1839).
He died suddenly of apoplexy on the 13th of March 1845, i n
London, while attending a meeting of the council of the Royal
Society, of which he became a fellow in 1813 and foreign secretary
in 1839.

DANIELL, THOMAS (1749-1840), English landscape painter,
was born at the Chertsey inn, kept by his father, in 1749, and
apprenticed to an heraldic painter. Daniell, however, was ani-
mated with a love of the romantic and beautiful in architecture
and nature. Up to 1784 he painted topographical subjects and
flower pieces. By this time his two nephews (see below) had come
under his influence, the younger, Samuel, being apprenticed to
Medland the landscape engraver, and the elder, William, being
under his own care. In this year (1784) he embarked for India
accompanied by William, and found at Calcutta ample encourage-
ment. Here he remained ten years, and on returning to London
he published his largest work, Oriental Scenery, in six large
volumes, not completed till 1808. From 1795 till 1828 he
continued to exhibit Eastern subjects, temples, jungle hunts, &c,
and at the same time continued the publication of illustrated
works. These are — Views of Calcutta; Oriental Scenery, 144
plates; Views in Egypt; Excavations at Ellora; Picturesque
Voyage to China. These were for the most part executed in
aquatint. He was elected an Academician in 1799, fellow of
the Royal Society about the same time, and at different times
member of several minor societies. His nephews both died before
him; his Indian period had made him independent, and he lived
a bachelor life in much respect at Kensington till his death on the
19th of March 1840.

William Daniell (1769-1837), his nephew, was fourteen
when he accompanied his uncle to India. His own publications,
engraved in aquatint, were — Voyage to India; Zoography;
Animated Nature; Views of London; Views of Bootan, a work
prepared from his uncle's sketches; and a Voyage Round Great
Britain, which occupied him several years. The British
Institution made him an award of £100 for a " Battle of
Trafalgar," and he was elected R.A. in 1822. He turned to
panorama painting before his death, beginning in 1832 with
Madras, the picture being enlivened by a representation of the
Hindu mode of taming wild elephants.

Samuel Daniell, William's younger brother, was brought up
as an engraver, and first appears as an exhibitor in 1792. A few
years later he went to the Cape and travelled into the interior
of Africa, with his sketching materials in his haversack. The
drawings he made there were published, after his return, in his
African Scenery. He did not rest long at home, but left for
Ceylon in 1806, where he spent the remaining years of his life,
publishing The Scenery, Animals and Natives of Ceylon.

DANNAT, WILLIAM T. (1853- ), American artist, was
born in New York city in 1853. He was a pupil of the Royal
Academy of Munich and of Munkacsy, and became an accom-
plished draughtsman and a distinguished figure and portrait
painter. He early attracted attention with sketches and pictures
made in Spain, and a large composition, " The Quartette," now
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, was one of the
successes of the Paris Salon of 1884. Dannat settled in Paris,

8io

DANNECKER— DANTE

became an officer of the Legion of Honour, and is represented in
the Luxembourg.

DANNECKER, JOHANN HEINRICH VON (1758-1841),
German sculptor, was born at Stuttgart, where his father was
employed in the stables of the duke of Wurttemberg, on the 15th
of October 1758. The boy was entered in the military school at
the age of thirteen, but after two years he was allowed to take his
own taste for art. We find him at once associating with the
young sculptors Scheffauer and Le Jeune, the painters Guibal and
Harper, and also with Schiller, and the musician Zumsteeg. His
busts of some of these are good; that of Schiller is well known.
In his eighteenth year he carried off the prize at the Concours
with his model of Milo of Crotona. On this the duke made him
sculptor to the palace (1780), and for some time he was employed
on child-angels and caryatides for the decoration of the reception
rooms. In 1783 he left for Paris with Scheffauer, and placed
himself under Pajou. His Mars, a sitting figure sent home to
Stuttgart, marks this period; and we next find him, still travel-
ling with his friend, at Rome in 1785, where he settled down to
work hard for five years. Goethe and Herder were then in Rome
and became his friends, as well as Canova, who was the hero of the
day, and who had undoubtedly a great authoritative influence on
his style. His marble statues of Ceres and Bacchus were done at
this time. These are now in the Residenz-schloss, at Stuttgart.
On his return to Stuttgart, which he never afterwards quitted
except for short trips to Paris, Vienna and Zurich, the double
influence of his admiration for Canova and his study of the antique
is apparent in his works. The first was a girl lamenting her dead
bird, which pretty light motive was much admired. Afterwards,
Sappho, in marble for the Lustschloss, and two offering-bearers
for the Jagdschloss; Hector, now in the museum, not in marble;
the complaint of Ceres, from Schiller's poem; a statue of Christ,
worthy of mention for its nobility, which has been skilfully
engraved by Amsler; Psyche; kneeling water-nymph; Love,
a favourite he had to repeat. These stock subjects with sculptors
had freshness of treatment; and the Ariadne, done a little later,
especially had a charm of novelty which has made it a European
favourite in a reduced size. It was repeated for the banker Von
Bethmann in Frankfort, and it now appears the ornament of the
Bethmann Museum. Many of the illustrious men of the time
were modelled by him. The original marble of Schiller is now at
Weimar; after the poet's death it was again modelled in colossal
size. Lavater, Metternich, Countess Stephanie of Baden,
General Benkendorf and others are much prized. Dannecker
was director of the Gallery of Stuttgart, and received many
academic and other distinctions. His death in 1841 was preceded
by a period of mental failure.

DANNEWERK, or Danewerk (Danish, Dannevirke or Dane-
virke, " Danes' rampart "), the ancient frontier rampart of the
Danes against the Germans, extending io| m. from just south of
the town of Schleswig to the marshes of the river Trene near the
village of Hollingstedt. The rampart was begun by Gu8oSr
(Godefridus) , king of Vestfold, early in the 9th century. In 934
it was passed by the German king Henry I., after which it was
extended by King Harold Bluetooth (940-986), but was again
stormed by the emperor Otto II. in 974. The chronicler Saxo
Grammaticus mentions in his Gesta Danorum the " rampart of
Jutland " (Jutiae moenia) as having been once more extended
by Valdemar the Great (n 57-1 182), which has been cited among
the proofs that Schleswig (S<f>nderjylland) forms an integral part of
Jutland (Manuel hist, de la question de Slesvig, 1906). After the
union of Schleswig and Holstein under the Danish crown, the
Danevirke fell into decay, but in 1848 it was hastily strengthened
by the Danes, who were, however, unable to hold it in face of the
superiority of the Prussian artillery, and on the 23rd of April it
was stormed. From 1850 onwards it was again repaired and
strengthened at great cost, and was considered impregnable; but
in the war of 1864 the Prussians turned it by crossing the Schlei,
and it was abandoned by the Danes on the 6th of February
without a blow. It was thereupon .destroyed by the Prussians;
in spite of which, however, a long line of imposing ruins still
remains. The systematic excavation of these, begun in 1900, has

yielded some notable finds, especially of valuable runic inscrip-
tions (F. de Jessen, La Question de Slesvig, pp. 25, 44-50, &c).

See Lorenzen, Dannevirke og Omegn (2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1864):
H. Handelmann, Das Dannewerk (Kiel, 1885); Philippsen and
Siinksen, Fuhrer durch das Danewerk (Hamburg, 1903).

DANSVILLE, a village of Livingston county, New York,
U.S.A., 49 m. S. of Rochester, on the Canaseraga Creek. Pop.
(1890) 3758; (1900) 3633, of whom 417 were foreign-born;
(1905) 3908; (1910) 3938. The village is served by the Delaware,
Lackawanna & Western, and the Dansville & Mount Morris
railways. At Dansville is the Jackson Health Resort, a large
sanatorium, with which a nurses' training school is connected.
There is a public library. The village has large nurseries and
vineyards, flour and paper mills, a large printing establishment,
a foundry, and a shoe factory. Dansville, named in honour of
Daniel P. Faulkner, was settled about 1800, and was incorpor-
ated in 1845.

DANTE, Dante (or Durante) Alighieri (1265-1321), the
greatest of Italian poets, was born at Florence about the middle
of May 1265. He was descended from an ancient family, but
from one which at any rate for several generations had belonged
to the burgher and not to the knightly class. His biographers
have attempted on very slight grounds to deduce his origin from
the Frangipani, one of the oldest senatorial families of Rome. We
can affirm with greater certainty that he was connected with the
Elisei who took part in the building of Florence under Charles
the Great. Dante himself does not, with the exception of a
few obscure and scattered allusions, carry his ancestry beyond
the warrior Cacciaguida, whom he met in the sphere of Mars
(Par. xv. 87, foil.). Of Cacciaguida's family nothing is known.
The name, as he told Dante (Par. xv. 139, 5), was given him at
his baptism; it has a Teutonic ring. The family may well have
sprung from one of the barons who, as Villani tells us, remained
behind Otto I. It has been noted that the phrase " Tonde
venner quivi " (xvi. 44) seems to imply that they were not
Florentines. He further tells his descendant that he was born in
the year 1106 (or, if another reading of xvi, 37, 38 be adopted, in
1091), and that he married an Aldighieri from the valley of the
Po. Here the German strain appears unmistakably; the name
Aldighiero (Aldiger) being purely Teutonic. He also mentions
two brothers, Moronte and Eliseo, and that he accompanied the
emperor Conrad III. upon his crusade into the Holy Land, where
he died (1147) among the infidels. From Eliseo was probably
descended the branch of the Elisei; from Aldighiero, son of
Cacciaguida, the branch of the Alighieri. Bellincione, son of
Aldighiero, was the grandfather of Dante. His father was a
second Aldighiero, a lawyer of some reputation. By his first
wife, Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffii, this Aldighiero had a son
Francesco; by his second, Donna Bella, whose family name is
not known, Dante and a daughter. Thus the family of Dante
held a most respectable position among the citizens of his beloved
city; but had it been reckoned in the very first rank they could
not have remained in Florence after the defeat of the Guelphs at
Montaperti in 1 260. It is clear, however, that Dante's mother at
least did so remain, for Dante was born in Florence in 1 265. The
heads of the Guelph party did not return till 1267.

Dante was born under the sign of the twins, " the glorious stars
pregnant with virtue, to whom he owes his genius such as it
is." Astrologers considered this constellation as favourable to
literature and science, and Brunetto Latini, the philosopher and
diplomatist, his instructor, tells him in the Inferno (xv. 25, foil.)
that, if he follows its guidance, he cannot fail to reach the harbour
of fame. Boccaccio relates that before his birth his mother
dreamed that she lay under a very lofty laurel, growing in a green
meadow, by a very .clear fountain, when she felt the pangs of
childbirth, — that her child, feeding on the berries which fell from
the laurel, and on the waters of the fountain, in a very short time
became a shepherd, and attempted to reach the leaves of the
laurel, the fruit of which had nurtured him, — that, trying to
obtain them he fell, and rose up, no longer a man, but in the guise
of a peacock. We know little of Dante's boyhood except that
he was a hard student and was profoundly influenced by

DANTE

8n

Brunetto Latini. Boccaccio tells us that he became very familiar
with Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Statius, and all other famous
poets. From the age of eighteen he, like most cultivated young
men of that age, wrote poetry assiduously, in the philosophical
amatory style of which his friend, older by many years than him-
self, Guido Cavalcanti, was a great exponent, and of which Dante
regarded Guido Guinicelli of Bologna as the master (Purg.
xxvi. 97, 8). Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, writing a hundred years
or more after his death, says that " by study of philosophy, of
theology, astrology, arithmetic and geometry, by reading of
history, by the turning over many curious books, watching and
sweating in his studies, he acquired the science which he was to
adorn and explain in his verses." Of Brunetto Latini Dante
himself speaks with the most loving gratitude and affection,
though he does not hesitate to brand his vices with infamy.
Under such guidance Dante became master of all the science of his
age at a time when it was not impossible to know all that could be
known. He had some knowledge of drawing; at any rate he tells
us that on the anniversary of the death of Beatrice he drew an
angel on a tablet. He was an intimate friend of Giotto, who
has immortalized his youthful lineaments in the chapel of the
Bargello, and who is recorded to have drawn from his friend's
inspiration the allegories of Virtue and Vice which fringe the
frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel at Padua. Nor was he less
sensible to the delights of music. Milton had not a keener ear
for the loud uplifted angel trumpets and the immortal harps of
golden wires of the cherubim and seraphim; and the English
poet was proud to compare his own friendship with Henry Lawes
with that between Dante and Casella, " met in the milder shades
of purgatory." Of his companions the most intimate and
sympathetic were the lawyer-poet Cino of Pistoia, Lapo Gianni,
Guido Cavalcanti and others, similarly gifted and dowered
with like tastes, who moved in the lively and acute society of
Florence, and felt with him the first warm flush of the new spirit
which was soon to pass over Europe. He has written no sweeter
or more melodious lines than those in which he expresses the
wish that he, with Guido and Lapo, might be wafted by enchant-
ment over the sea wheresoever they might list, shielded from
tempest and foul weather, in such contentment that they should
wish to live always in one mind, and that the good enchanter
should bring Monna Vanna and Monna Bice and that other lady
into their barque, where they should for ever discourse of love
and be for ever happy. It is a wonderful thing (says Leonardo
Bruni) that, though he studied without intermission, it would
not have appeared to anyone that he studied, from his joyous
mien and youthful conversation. Like Milton he was trained in
the strictest academical education which the age afforded; but
Dante lived under a warmer sun and brighter skies, and found in
the rich variety and gaiety of his early life a defence against the
withering misfortunes of his later years. Milton felt too early the
chill breath of Puritanism, and the serious musing on the experi-
ence of life, which saddened the verse of both poets, deepened in
his case rather into grave and desponding melancholy, than into
the fierce scorn and invective which disillusion wrung from Dante.
We must now consider the political circumstances in which
lay the activity of Dante's manhood. From ins, the y ear 0I

the death of Matilda countess of Tuscany, to 1215,
Hfe< Florence enjoyed a nearly uninterrupted peace.

Attached to the Guelph party, it remained undivided
against itself. But in 1215 a private feud between the families
of Buondelmonte and Uberti introduced into the city the horrors
of civil war. Villani (lib. v. cap. 38) relates how Buondelmonte
de' Buondelmonti, a noble youth of Florence, being engaged to
marry a lady of the house of Amidei, allied himself instead to a
Donati, and how Buondelmonte was attacked and killed by the
Amidei and Uberti at the foot of the Ponte Vecchio, close by the
pilaster which bears the image of Mars. " The death of Messer
Buondelmonte was the occasion and beginning of the accursed
parties of Guelphs and Ghibellines in Florence." Of the seventy-
two families then in Florence thirty-nine became Guelph under
the leadership of the Buondelmonte and the rest Ghibelline
under the Uberti. The strife of parties was for a while allayed

by the war against Pisa in 1222, and the constant struggles
against Siena; but in 1248 Frederick II. sent into the city his
natural son Frederick " of Antioch," with 1600 German knights.
The Guelphs were driven away from the town, and took refuge,
part in Montevarchi, part in Capraia. The Ghibellines, masters
of Florence, behaved with great severity, and destroyed the
towers and palaces of the Guelph nobles. At last the people
became impatient. They rose in rebellion, reduced the powers of
the podesta, elected a captain of the people to manage the internal
affairs of the city, with a council of twelve, established a more
democratic constitution, and, encouraged by the death of
Frederick II. in December 1250, recalled the exiled Guelphs.
Manfred, the bastard son of Frederick, pursued the policy of his
father. He stimulated the Ghibelline Uberti to rebel against
their position of subjection. A rising of the vanquished party
was put down by the people, in July 1258 the Ghibellines were
expelled from the town, and the towers of the Uberti razed to
the ground. The exiles betook themselves to the friendly city
of Siena. Manfred sent them a reinforcement of German horse,
under his kinsman Count Giordano Lancia. The Florentines,
after vainly demanding their surrender, despatched an army
against them. On the 4th of September 1260 was fought the
great battle of Montaperti, which dyed the Arbia red, and in
which the Guelphs were entirely defeated. The hand which
held the banner of the republic was sundered by the sword of
a traitor (Inf. xxxii. 106). For the first time in the history of
Florence the Carroccio was taken. Florence lay at the mercy of
her enemies. A parliament was held at Empoli, in which the
deputies of Siena, Pisa, Arezzo and other Tuscan towns consulted
on the best means of securing their new war power. They voted
that the accursed Guelph city should be blotted out. But
Farinata degli Uberti stood up in their midst, bold and defiant
as when he stood erect among the sepulchres of hell, and said that
if, from the whole number of, the Florentines, he alone should
remain, he would not suffer, whilst he could wield a sword, that
his country should be destroyed, and that, if it were necessary to
die a thousand times for her, a thousand times would he be ready
to encounter death. Help came to the Guelphs from an unex-
pected quarter. Clement IV., elected pope in 1265, offered the
crown of Apulia and Sicily to Charles of Anjou. The French
prince, passing rapidly through Lombardy, Romagna and the
Marches, reached Rome by way of Spoleto, was crowned on
the 6th of January 1266, and on the 23rd of February defeated
and killed Manfred at Benevento. In such a storm of conflict
did Dante first see the light. In 1267 the Guelphs were recalled,
but instead of settling down in peace with their opponents they
summoned Charles of Anjou to vengeance, and the Ghibellines
were driven out. The meteor passage of Conradin gave hope to
the imperial party, which was quenched when the head of the
fair-haired boy fell on the scaffold at Naples. Pope after pope
tried in vain to make peace. Gregory X. placed the rebellious
city under an interdict; in 1278 Cardinal Latini by order of
Nicholas III. effected a truce, which lasted for four years. The
city was to be governed by a committee of fourteen buonomini,
on which the Guelphs were to have a small majority. In 1282
the constitution of Florence received the final form which it
retained till the collapse of freedom. From the three arti
maggiori were chosen six priors, in whose hands was placed the
government of the republic. Before the end of the century,
seven greater arts were recognized, including the speziali, —
druggists and dealers in all manner of oriental goods, and in
books — among whom Dante afterwards enrolled himself. They
remained in office for two months, and during that time lived and
shared a common table in the public palace. We shall see what
influence this office had upon the fate of Dante. The success of
the " Sicilian Vespers " (March 1282), the death of Charles of
Anjou (January 1285), and of Martin IV. in the following March,
roused again the courage of the Ghibellines. They entered
Arezzo, where the Ghibellines at present had the upper hand, and
threatened to drive out the Guelphs from Tuscany. Skirmishes
and raids, of which Villani and Bruni have left accounts, went on
through the winter of 1 288-1 289, forming a prelude to the great

8l2

DANTE

battle of Campaldino in the following summer. Then it was
that Dante saw " horsemen moving camp and commencing the
assault, and holding muster, and the march of foragers, the shock
of tournaments, and race of jousts, now with trumpets and now
with bells, with drums and castle signals, with native things and
foreign " (Inf. xxii. i, foil.). On the nth of June 1289, at Cam-
paldino near Poppi, in the Casentino, the Ghibellines were utterly
defeated. They never again recovered their hold on Florence,
but the violence of faction survived under other names. In a
letter quoted, though not at first hand, by Leonardo Bruni, which
is not now extant, Dante is said to mention that he himself fought
with distinction at Campaldino. He was present shortly after-
wards at the battle of Caprona (Inf. xxi. 95, foil.), and returned in
September 1 2 89 to his studies and his love. His peace was of short
duration. On the 9th of June 1290 died Beatrice, whose mortal
love had guided him for thirteen years, and whose immortal spirit
purified his later life, and revealed to himthemysteriesof Paradise.
Dante had first met Beatrice Portinari at the house of her
father Folco on May-day 1274. In his own words, ' ' already nine
times after my birth the heaven of light had returned as it were
to the same point, when there appeared to my eyes the glorious
lady of mymind, who was by many called Beatrice who knew not
what to call her. She had already been so long in this life that
already in its time the starry heaven had moved towards the east
the twelfth part of a degree, so that she appeared to me about
the beginning of her ninth year, and I saw her about the end of
my ninth year. Her dress on that day was of a most noble
colour, a subdued and goodly crimson, girdled and adorned in
such sort as best suited with her tender age. At that moment I
saw most truly that the spirit of life which hath its dwelling in
the secretest chamber of the heart began to tremble so violently
that the least pulses of my body shook therewith; and in
trembing it said these words, 'Ecce deus fortior me qui veniens
dominabitur mihi.' " In the Vita Nuova is written the story of
his passion from its commencement to within a year after the
lady's death (June 9th, 1290). He saw Beatrice only once or
twice, and she probably knew little of him. She married Simone
de' Bardi. But the worship of her lover was stronger for the
remoteness of its subject. The last chapter of the Vita Nuova
relates how, after the lapse of a year, " it was given me to behold
a wonderful vision, wherein I saw things which determined me
to say nothing further of this blessed one until such time as I
could discourse more worthily concerning her. And to this end
I labour all I can, as she in truth knoweth. Therefore if it be His
pleasure through whom is the life of all things that my life
continue with me a few years, it is my hope that I shall yet write
concerning her what hath not before been written of any woman.
After the which may it seem good unto Him who is the master of
grace that my spirit should go hence to behold the glory of its
lady, to wit, of that blessed Beatrice who now gloriously gazes on
the countenance of Him qui est per omnia saecula benedictus."
In the Convito he resumes the story of his life. " When I had lost
the first delight of my soul (that is, Beatrice) I remained so pierced
with sadness that no comforts availed me anything, yet after
some time my mind, desirous of health, sought to return to the
method by which other disconsolate ones had found consolation,
and I set myself to read that little-known book of Boetius in
which he consoled himself when a prisoner and an exile. And
hearing that Tully had written another work, in which, treating
of friendship, he had given words of consolation to Laelius, I set
myself to read that also." He so far recovered from the shock of
his loss that in 1292 he married Gemma, daughter of Manet to
Donati, a connexion of the celebrated Corso Donati, afterwards
Dante's bitter foe. It is possible that she is the lady mentioned
in the Vita Nuova as sitting full of pity at her window and
comforting Dante for his sorrow. By this wife he had two sons
and two daughters, and although he never mentions her in the
Divina Commedia, and although she did not accompany him into
exile, there is no reason to suppose that she was other than a good
wife, or that the union was otherwise than happy. Certain it is
that he spares the memory of Corso in his great poem, and speaks
kindly of his kinsmen Piccarda and Forese.

In 1293 Giano della Bella, a man of old family who had thrown
in his lot with the people, induced the commonwealth to adopt the
so-called " Ordinances of Justice," a severely democratic consti-
tution, by which among other things it was enacted that no
man of noble family, even though engaged in trade, could hold
office as prior. Two years later Giano was banished, but the
ordinances remained in force, though the grandi recovered much
of their power.

Dante now began to take an active part in politics. He was
inscribed in the arte of the Medici and Speziali, which made him
eligible as one of the six priori to whom the government of the
city was entrusted in 1282. Documents still existing in the
archives of Florence show that he took part in the deliberations
of the several councils of the city in 1295, 1296, 1300 and 1301.
The notice in the last year is of some importance. The pope
had demanded a contingent of 100 Florentine knights to serve
against his enemies, the Colonna family. On the 19th of June
we read in the contemporary report of the debate on this
question in the Council of a Hundred : " Dantes Alagherius
consuluit quod de servitio faciendo Domino Papae nihil fieret."
Other instances of his invariable opposition to Boniface occur.
Filelfo says that he served on fourteen embassies, a statement not
only unsupported by evidence, but impossible in itself. Filelfo
does not mention the only embassy in which we know for certain
that Dante was engaged, that to the town of San Gemignano in
May 1300. From the 15th of June to the 15th of August 1300
he held the office of prior, which was the source of all the miseries
of his life. The spirit of faction had again broken out in Florence.
The two rival families were the Cerchi and the Donati,- — the first
of great wealth but recent origin, the last of ancient ancestry but
poor. A quarrel had arisen in Pistoia between the two branches
of the Cancellieri,- — the Bianchi and Neri, the Whites and the
Blacks. The quarrel spread to Florence, the Donati took the side
of the Blacks, the Cerchi of the Whites. Pope Boniface was
asked to mediate, and sent Cardinal Matteo d'Acquasparta to
maintain peace. He arrived just as Dante entered upon his
office as prior. The cardinal effected nothing, but Dante and his
colleagues banished the heads of the rival parties in different
directions to a distance from the capital. The Blacks were sent to
Citta della Pieve in the Tuscan mountains; the Whites, among
whom was Dante's dearest friend Guido Cavalcanti, to Serrezzano
in the unhealthy Maremma. After the expiration of Dante's
office both parties returned, Guido Cavalcanti so ill with fever
that he shortly afterwards died. At a meeting held in the church
of the Holy Trinity the Whites were denounced as Ghibellines,
enemies of the pope. The Blacks sought for vengeance. Their
leader, Corso Donati, hastened to Rome, and persuaded Boniface
VIII. to send for Charles of Valois, brother of the French king,
Philip the Fair, to act as " peacemaker." The priors sent at
the end of September four ambassadors to the pope, one of whom,
according to the chronicler Dino, was Dante. There are, how-
ever, improbabilities in the story, and the passage quoted in
support of it bears marks of later interpolation. He never again
saw the towers of his native city. Charles of Valois, after visiting
the pope at Anagni, retraced his steps to Florence, entering
the city on All Saints' Day and taking up his abode in the
Oltr' Arno. Corso Donati, who had been banished a second
time, returned in force and summoned the Blacks to arms. The
prisons were broken open, the podesta driven from the town, the
Cerchi confined within their houses, a third of the city was
destroyed with fire and sword. By the help of Charles the Blacks
were victorious. They appointed Cante de' Gabrielli of Gubbio
as podesta, a man devoted to their interests. More than 600
Whites were condemned to exile and cast as beggars upon the
world. On the 27th of January 1302, Dante, with four others
of the White party, was charged before the podesta, Cante
de' Gabrielli, with baratteria, or corrupt jobbery and peculation
when in office, and, not appearing, condemned to pay a fine of
5000 lire of small florins. If the money was not paid within
three days their property was to be destroyed and laid waste;
if they did pay the fine they were to be exiled for two years from
Tuscany; in any case they were never again to hold office in the

DANTE

813

republic. The charge in Dante's case was obviously preposterous,
though ingeniously devised; for he was known to be at the time
in somewhat straitened circumstances, and had recently been
in control of certain public works. But of all sins, that of
" barratry " was one of the most hateful to him. No doubt the
papal finger may be traced in the affair. On the 10th of March
Dante and fourteen others were condemned to be burned alive
if they should come into the power of the republic. Similar
sentences were passed in September 1311 and October 1315.
The sentence was not formally reversed till 1494, under the
government of the Medici.

Leonardo Bruni, who accepts the story of the embassy to
Rome, states that Dante received the news of his banishment in
that city, and at once joined the other exiles at Siena. How he
escaped arrest in the papal states is not explained. The exiles
met first at Gargonza, a castle between Siena and Arezzo, and
then at Arezzo itself. They joined themselves to the Ghibellines,
to which party the podesta. Uguccione della Faggiuola belonged.
The Ghibellines, however, were divided amongst themselves, and
the more strict Ghibellines were not disposed to favour the cause
of the White Guelphs. On the 8th of June 1302, however, a
meeting was held at San Godenzo, a place in the Florentine
territory, Dante's presence at which is proved by documentary
evidence, and an alliance was there made with the powerful
Ghibelline clan of the Ubaldini. The exiles remained at Arezzo
till the summer of 1304. In September 1303 the fleur-de-lis had
entered Anagni, and Christ had a second time been made prisoner
in the person of his vicar. At the instigation of Philip the Fair,
William of Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna had entered the papal
palace at Anagni, and had insulted and, it is said, even beaten
the aged pontiff under his own roof. Boniface did not survive
the insult long, but died in the following month. He was suc-
ceeded by Benedict XI., and in March the cardinal da Prato
came to Florence, sent by the new pope to make peace. The
people received him with enthusiasm; ambassadors came to him
from the Whites ; and he did his best to reconcile the two parties.
But the Blacks resisted all his efforts. He shook the dust from
off his feet, and departed, leaving the city under an interdict.
Foiled by the calumnies and machinations of the one party,
the cardinal gave his countenance to the other. It happened
that Corso Donati and the heads of the Black party were absent
at Pistoia. Da Prato advised the Whites to attack Florence,
deprived of its heads and impaired by a recent fire. An army
was collected of 16,000 foot and 9000 horse. Communications
were opened with the Ghibellines of Bologna and Romagna, and
a futile attempt was made to enter Florence from Lastra, the
failure of which further disorganized the party. Dante had,
however, already separated from the " ill-conditioned and
foolish company " of common party-politicians, who rejected his
counsels of wisdom, and had learnt that he must henceforth form
a party by himself. In 1303 he had left Arezzo and gone to Forli
in Romagna, of which city Scarpetta degli Ordelaffi was lord.
To him, according to Flavius Blondus the historian (d. before
1484), a native of the place, Dante acted for a time as secretary.
From Forli Dante probably went to Bartolommeo della Scala,
lord of Verona, where the country of the great Lombard gave him
his first refuge and his first hospitable reception. Can
ahlbel- Grande, to whom he af terwards'dedicated the Paradiso,
llnlsm. was then a boy. Bartolommeo died in 1304, and it is
possible that Dante may have remained in Verona till
his death. We must consider, if we would understand the real
nature of Dante's Ghibellinism, that he had been born and
bred a Guelph; but he saw that the conditions of the time were
altered, and that other dangers menaced the welfare of his
country. There was no fear now that Florence, Siena, Pisa,
Arezzo should be razed to the ground in order that the castle of
the lord might overlook the humble cottages of his contented
subjects; but there .was danger lest Italy should be torn in
sunder by its own jealousies and passions, and lest the fair
domain bounded by the sea and the Alps should never properly
assert the force of its individuality, and should present a con-
temptible contrast to a united France and a confederated

Wander-
ings.

Germany. Sick with petty quarrels and dissensions, Dante
strained his eyes towards the hills for the appearance of a
universal monarch, raised above the jars of faction and the spur of
ambition, under whom each country, each city, each man, might, •
under the institutions best suited to it, lead the life and do the
work for which it was best fitted. United in spiritual harmony
with the vicar of Christ, he should show for the first time to the
world an example of a government where the strongest force and
the highest wisdom were interpenetrated by all that God had
given to the world of piety and justice. In this sense and in no
other was Dante a Ghibelline. The vision was never realized
— the hope was never fulfilled. Not till 500 years later did
Italy become united and the " greyhound of deliverance "
chase from city to city the wolf of cupidity. But is it possible
to say that the dream did not work its own realization, or to
deny that the high ideal of the poet, after inspiring a few minds
as lofty as his own, has become embodied in the constitution of
a state which acknowledges no stronger bond of union than a
common worship of the exile's indignant and impassioned verse?
It is very difficult to determine with exactness the order and
the place of Dante's wanderings. Many cities and castles in Italy
have claimed the honour of giving him shelter, or of
being for a time the home of his inspired muse. He
certainly spent some time with Count Guido Salvatico
in the Casentino near the sources of the Arno, probably in the
castle of Porciano, and with Uguccione in the castle of Faggiuola
in the mountains of Urbino. After this he is said to have visited
the university of Bologna; and in August 1306 we find him at
Padua. Cardinal Napoleon Orsini, the legate of the French pope
Clement V., had put Bologna under a ban, dissolved the university
and driven the professors to the northern city. In May or June
1307 the same cardinal collected the Whites at Arezzo and tried
to induce the Florentines to recall them. The name of Dante is
found attached to a document signed by the Whites in the church
of St Gaudenzio in the Mugello. This enterprise came to nothing.
Dante retired to the castle of Moroello Malespina in the Lunigi-
ana, where the marble ridges of the mountains of Carrara descend
in precipitous slopes to the Gulf of Spezzia. From this time till
the arrival of the emperor Henry VII. in Italy, October 13 10, all
is uncertain. His old enemy Corso Donati had at last allied
himself with Uguccione della Faggiuola, the leader of the
Ghibellines. Dante thought it possible that this might lead to
his return. But in 1308 Corso was declared a traitor, attacked
in his house, put to flight and killed. Dante lost his last hope.
He left Tuscany, and went to Can Grande della Scala at Verona.
From this place it is thought that he visited the university of
Paris (1309), studied in the rue du Fouarre and went on into
the Low Countries. That he ever crossed the Channel or went to
Oxford, or himself saw where the heart of Henry, son of Richard,
earl of Cornwall, murdered by his cousin Guy of Montfort in
1271, was " still venerated on the Thames," may safely be dis-
believed. The only evidence for it is in the Commentary of John
of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, who lived a century later, had no
special opportunity of knowing, and was writing for the benefit
of two English bishops. The election in 1308 of Henry of Luxem-
burg as emperor stirred again his hopes of a deliverer. At the end
of 13 10, in a letter to the princes and people of Italy, he pro-
claimed the coming of the saviour; at Milan he did personal
homage to his sovereign. The Florentines made every preparation
to resist the emperor. Dante wrote from the Casentino a letter
dated the 31st of March 13 n, in which he rebuked them for their
stubbornness and obstinacy. Henry still lingered in Lombardy
at the siege of Cremona, when Dante, on the 16th of April 131 1,
in a celebrated epistle, upbraided his delay, argued that the
crown of Italy was to be won on the Arno rather than on the Po,
and urged the tarrying emperor to hew the rebellious Florentines
like Agag in pieces before the Lord. Henry was as deaf to this
exhortation as the Florentines themselves. After reducing
Lombardy he passed from Genoa to Pisa, and on the 29th of June
13 1 2 was crowned by some cardinals in the church of St John
Lateran at Rome; the Vatican being in the hands of his adversary
King Robert of Naples. Then at length he moved towards

814

DANTE

Tuscany by way of Umbria. Leaving Cortona and Arezzo, he
reached Florence on the 19th of September. He did not dare to
attack it, but returned in November to Pisa. In the summer of
' the following year he prepared to invade the kingdom of Naples;
but in the neighbourhood of Siena he caught a fever and died at
the monastery of Buonconvento, on the 24th of August 1313.
.He lies in the Campo Santo of Pisa; and the hopes of Dante and
his party were buried in his grave.

After the death of the emperor Henry (Bruni tells us) Dante
passed the rest of his life as an exile, sojourning in various places

throughout Lombardy, Tuscany and the Romagna,
auddlaih. un der the protection of various lords, until at length

he retired to Ravenna, where he ended his life. Very
little can be added to this meagre story. There is reason for
supposing that he stayed at Gubbio with Bosone dei Rafaelli, and
tradition assigns him a cell in the monastery of Sta Croce di Fonte
Avellana in the same district, situated on the slopes of Catria,
one of the highest peaks of the Apennines in that region.
After the death of the French pope, Clement V., he addressed a
letter, dated the 14th of July 13 14, to the cardinals in conclave,
urging them to elect an Italian pope. About this time he came
to Lucca, then lately conquered by his friend Uguccione. Here he
completed the last cantos of the Purgatory, which he dedicated
to Uguccione, and here he must have become acquainted with
Gentucca, whose name had been whispered to him by her country-
man on the slopes of the Mountain of Purification {Purg. xxiv.
37). That the intimacy between the " world-worn " poet and
the young married lady (who is thought to be identifiable with
Gentucca Morla, wife of one Cosciorino Fondora) was other than
blameless, is quite incredible. In August 1315 was fought the
battle of Monte Catini, a day of humiliation and mourning for
the Guelphs. Uguccione made but little use of his victory; and
the Florentines marked their vengeance on his adviser by con-
demning Dante yet once again to death if he ever should come
into their power. In the beginning of the following year Uguc-
cione lost both his cities of Pisa and Lucca. At this time Dante
was offered an opportunity of returning to Florence. The con-
ditions given to the exiles were that they should pay a fine and
walk in the dress of humiliation to the church of St John, and
there do penance for their offences. Dante refused to tolerate
this shame; and the letter is still extant in which he declines to
enter Florence except with honour, secure that the means of life
will not fail him, and that in any corner of the world he will be
able to gaze at the sun and the stars, and meditate on the sweetest
truths of philosophy. He preferred to take refuge with his most
illustrious protector Can Grande della Scala of Verona, then a
young man of twenty-five, rich, liberal and the favoured head
of the Ghibelline party. His name has been immortalized by an
eloquent panegyric in the seventeenth canto of the Paradiso.
Whilst on a visit at the court of Verona he maintained, on the
20th of January 1320, the philosophical thesis De aqua et terra,
on the levels of land and water, which is included in his minor
works. The last three years of his life were spent at Ravenna,
under the protection of Guido da Polenta. In his service Dante
undertook an embassy to the Venetians. He failed in the object
of his mission, and, returning disheartened and broken in spirit
through the unhealthy lagoons, caught a fever and died in
Ravenna on the 14th of September 13 21. His bones still repose
there. His doom of exile has been reversed by the union of Italy,
which has made the city of his birth and the various cities of his
wanderings component members of a common country. His son
Piero, who wrote a commentary on the Divina Cornmedia, settled
as a lawyer in Verona, and died in 1364. His daughter Beatrice
lived as a nun in Ravenna, dying at some time between 1350
(when Boccaccio brought her a present of ten gold crowns from a
Florentine gild) and 1370. His direct line became extinct in 1 509.
Dante's Works. — Of Dante's works, that by which he is known
to all the educated world, and in virtue of which he holds his

place as one of the half-dozen greatest writers of all
Commedia. t™ 6 ! is 0I course the Cornmedia. (The epithet divina,

it may be noted, was not given to the poem by its
author, nor does it appear on a title-page until 1555, in the

edition of Ludovico Dolce, printed by Giolito ; though it is
applied to the poet himself as early as 1512.) The poem is
absolutely unique in literature; it may safely be said that at no
other epoch of the world's history could such a work have been
produced. Dante was steeped in all the learning, which in its
way was considerable, of his time; he had read the Summa
Theologica of Aquinas, the Tresor of his master Brunetto, and
other encyclopaedic works available hi that age ; he was familiar
with all that was then known of the Latin classical and post-
classical authors. Further, he was a deep and original political
thinker, who had himself borne a prominent part in practical
politics. He was born into a generation in which almost every
man of education habitually wrote verse, as indeed their pre-
decessors had been doing for the last fifty years. Vernacular
poetry had come late into Italy, and had hitherto, save for a few
didactic or devotional treatises hitched into rough rhyme, been
exclusively lyric in form. Amatory at first, later, chiefly in the
hands of Guittone of Arezzo and Guido Cavalcanti, taking an
ethical and metaphysical tone, it had never fully shaken off the
Provencal influence under which it had started, and of which
Dante himself shows considerable traces.

The age also was unique, though the two great events which
made the 15th century a turning-point in the world's history —
the invention of printing and the discovery of the new world (to
which might perhaps be added the intrusion of Islam into Europe)
— were still far in the future. But the age was essentially one of
great men; of free thought and free speech; of brilliant and
daring action, whether for good or evil. It is easy to understand
how Dante's bitterest scorn is reserved for those " sorry souls
who lived without infamy and without renown, displeasing to
God and to His enemies."

The time was thus propitious for the production of a great
imaginative work, and the man was ready who should produce it.
It called for a prophet, and the prophet said, " Here am I."
" Dante," says an acute writer, " is not, as Homer is, the father
of poetry springing in the freshness and simplicity of childhood
out of the arms of mother earth; he is rather, like Noah, the
father of a second poetical world, to whom he pours forth his
prophetic song fraught with the wisdom and the experience of the
old world." Thus the Commedia, though often classed for want
of a better description among epic poems, is totally different in
method and construction from all other poems of that kind. Its
" hero " is the narrator himself; the incidents do not modify the
course of the story; the place of episodes is taken by theological
or metaphysical disquisitions; the world through which the poet
takes his readers is peopled, not with characters of heroic story,
but with men and women known personally or by repute to him
and those for whom he wrote. Its aim is not to delight, but to
reprove, to rebuke, to exhort; to form men's characters by
teaching them what courses of life will meet with reward, what
with penalty, hereafter; " to put into verse," as the poet says,
" things difficult to think." For such new matter a new vehicle
was needed. We have Bembo's authority for believing that the
terza rima, surpassed, if at all, only by the ancient hexameter, as
a measure equally adaptable to sustained narrative, to debate,
to fierce invective, to clear-cut picture and to trenchant epigram,
was first employed by Dante.

The action of the Commedia opens in the early morning of the
Thursday before Easter, in the year 1300. The poet finds himself
lost in a forest, escaping from which he has his way barred by a
wolf, a lion and a leopard. All this, like the rest of the poem, is
highly symbolical. This branch of the subject is too vast to be
entered on at any length here; but so far as this passage is con-
cerned it may be said that it seems to indicate that at this period
of his life, about the age of thirty-five, Dante went through some
experience akin to what is now called " conversion." Having led
up till then the ordinary life of a cultivated Florentine of good
family; taking his part in public affairs, military and civil, as an
hereditary member of the predominant Guelph party; dallying
in prose which with all its beauty and passion is full of the
conceits familiar to the 13th century, and in verse which save for
the excellence of its execution differs in no way from that of his

DANTE

815

predecessors, with the memory of his lost love; studying more
seriously, perhaps, than most of his associates; possibly travel-
ling a little, — gradually or suddenly he became convinced that all
was not well with him, and that not by leading, however blame-
lessly, the "active" life could he save his soul. The strong vein of
mysticism, found in so many of the deepest thinkers of that age,
and conspicuous in Dante's mind, no doubt played its part. His
efforts to free himself from the " forest " of worldly cares were
impeded by the temptations of the world — cupidity (including
ambition), the pride of life and the lusts of the flesh, symbolized
by the three beasts. But a helper is at hand. Virgil appears and
explains that he has a commission from three ladies on high to
guide him. The ladies are the Blessed Virgin, St Lucy (whom for
some reason never yet explained Dante seems to have regarded
as in a special sense his protector) and Beatrice. In Virgil we
are apparently intended to see the symbol of what Dante calls
philosophy, what we should rather call natural religion ; Beatrice
standing for theology, or rather revealed religion. Under Virgil's
escort Dante is led through the two lower realms of the next
world, Hell and Purgatory; meeting on the way with many
persons illustrious or notorious in recent or remoter times, as well
as many well enough known then in Tuscany and the neighbour-
ing states; but who, without the immortality, often unenvi-
able, that the poet has conferred on them, would long ago have
been forgotten. Popes, kings, emperors, poets and warriors,
Florentine citizens of all degrees, are there found; some doomed
to hopeless punishment, others expiating their offences in milder
torments, and looking forward to deliverance in due time. It is
remarkable to notice how rarely, if ever, Dante allows political
sympathy or antagonism to influence him in his distribution of
judgment. Hell is conceived as a vast conical hollow, reaching to
the centre of the earth. It has three great divisions, correspond-
ing to Aristotle's three classes of vices, incontinence, brutishness
and malice. The first are outside the walls of the city of Dis;
the second, among whom are included unbelievers, tyrants,
suicides, unnatural offenders, usurers, are within; the first
apparently on the same level as those without, the rest separated
from them by a steep descent of broken rocks. (It should be said
that many Dante scholars hold Jiat Aristotle's " brutishness " has
no place in Dante's scheme; but the symmetry of the arrange-
ment, the special reference made to that division, and certain
expressions used elsewhere by Dante, seem to make it probable
that he would here, as in most other cases, have followed his
master in philosophy.) The sinners by malice, which includes all
forms of fraud or treachery, are divided from the last by a yet
more formidable barrier. They lie at the bottom of a pit, the
depth of which is not stated, with vertical sides, and accessible
only by supernatural means; a monster named Geryon bearing
the poets down on his back. The torments here are of a more
terrible, often of a loathsome character. Ignominy is added to
pain, and the nature of Dante's demeanour towards the sinners
changes from pity to hatred. At the very bottom of the pit is
Lucifer, immovably fixed in ice; climbing down his limbs they
reach the centre of the earth, whence a cranny conducts them
back to the surface, at the foot of the purgatorial mountain,
which they reach as Easter Day is dawning. Before the actual
Purgatory is attained they have to climb for the latter half of the
day and rest at night. The occupants of this outer region are
those who have delayed repentance till death was upon them.
They include many of the most famous men of the last thirty
years. In the morning the gate is opened, and Purgatory proper
is entered. This is divided into seven terraces, corresponding to
the seven deadly sins, which encircle the mountain and have
to be reached by a series of steep climbs, compared by Dante in
one instance to the path from Florence to Samminiato. The
penalties are not degrading, but rather tests of patience or
endurance; and in several cases Dante has to bear a share in
them as he passes. On the summit is the Earthly Paradise.
Here Beatrice appears, in a mystical pageant ; Virgil departs,
leaving Dante in her charge. By her he is led through the
various spheres of which, according to both the astronomy and
the theology of the time, Heaven is composed, to the supreme

Heaven, or Empyrean, the seat of the Godhead. For one
moment there is granted him the intuitive vision of the Deity,
and the comprehension of all mysteries, which is the ultimate'
goal of mystical theology ; his will is wholly blended with that of
God, and the poem ends.

The Convito, or Banquet, also called Convivio (Bembo uses the
first form, Trissino the other), is the work of Dante's manhood,
as the Vita Nuova is the work of his youth. It consists, convtto
in the form in which it has come down to us, of an
introduction and three treatises, each forming an elaborate
commentary in a long canzone. It was intended, if completed,
to have comprised commentaries on eleven more canzoni,
making fourteen in all, and in this shape would have formed a
tesoro or handbook of universal knowledge, such as Brunetto
Latini and others have left to us. It is perhaps the least well
known of Dante's Italian works, but crabbed and unattractive
as it is in many parts, it is well worth reading, and contains
many passages of great beauty and elevation. Indeed a knowledge
of it is quite indispensable to the full understanding of the Divina
Commedia and the De Monorchia. The time of its composition is
uncertain. As it stands it has very much the look of being the
contentsof note-bookspartiallyarranged. Dantementions princes
as living who died in 1309; he does not mention Henry VII. as
emperor, who succeeded in 1 3 1 o. There are some passages which
seem to have been inserted at a later date. The canzoni upon
which the commentary is written were probably composedbetween
1292 and 1300, when he was seeking in philosophy consolation
for the loss of Beatrice. The Convito was first printed in Florence
by Buonaccorsi in 1490. It has never been adequately edited.

The Vita Nuova ( Young Life or New Life, for both significations
seem to be intended) contains the history of his love for Beatrice.
He describes how he met Beatrice as a child, himself a
child, how he often sought her glance, how she once Nuova.
greeted him in the street, how he feigned a false love
to hide his true love, how he fell ill and saw in a dream the death
and transfiguration of his beloved, how she died, and how his
health failed from sorrow, how the tender compassion of another
lady nearly won his heart from its first affection, how Beatrice
appeared to him in a vision and reclaimed his heart, and how at
last he saw a vision which induced him to devote himself to study
that he might be more fit to glorify her who gazes on the face of
God for ever. This simple story is interspersed with sonnets,
ballads and canzoni, arranged with a remarkable symmetry, to
which Professor Charles Eliot Norton was the first to draw
attention, chiefly written at the time to emphasize some mood of
his changing passion. After each of these, in nearly every case,
follows an explanation in prose, which is intended to make the
thought and argument intelligible to those to whom the language
of poetry was not familiar. The whole has a somewhat artificial
air, in spite of its undoubted beauty; showing that Dante
was still under the influence of the Dugentisti, many of whose
conceits he reproduces. The book was probably completed by
1300. It was first printed by Sermartelli in Florence, 1576.

Besides the smaller poems contained in the Vita Nuova and
Convito there are a considerable number of canzoni, ballate and
sonnetti bearing the poet's name. Of these many
undoubtedly are genuine, others as undoubtedly nl
spurious. Some which have been preserved under the
name of Dante belong to Dante de Maiano, a poet of a harsher
style; others which bear the name of Aldighiero are referable
to Dante's sons Jacopo or Pietro, or to his grandsons; others may
be ascribed to Dante's contemporaries and predecessors Cino
da Pistoia and others. Those which are genuine secure Dante
a place among lyrical poets scarcely if at all inferior to that of
Petrarch. Most of these were printed in Sonelti e canzoni
(Giunta, 1527). The best edition of the Canzoniere of Dante is
that by Fraticelli published by Barbera at Florence. His collec-
tion includes seventy-eight genuine poems, eight doubtful and
fifty-four spurious. To these are added an Italian paraphrase of
the seven penitential psalms in terza rima, and a similar paraphrase
of the Credo, the seven sacraments, the ten commandments, the
Lord's Prayer and the Ave Maria.

8i6

DANTE

The Latin treatise De monarchia, in three books, contains the
mature statement of Dante's political ideas. In it he propounds
the theory that the supremacy of the emperor is derived
chia from the supremacy of the Roman people over the

world, which was given to them direct from God. As
the emperor is intended to assure their earthly happiness, so
does their spiritual welfare depend upon the pope, to whom the
emperor is to do honour as to the first-born of the Father. The
date of its publication is almost universally admitted to be the
time of the descent of Henry VII. into Italy, between 13 10 and
13 13, although its composition may have been in hand from a
much earlier period. The book was first printed by Oporinus
at Basel in 1559, and placed on the Index of forbidden books.

The treatise De vulgari eloquentia, in two books, also in Latin,
is mentioned in the Convito. Its object was first to establish the
De vul- Italian language as a literary tongue, and to distinguish
gari the noble or " courtly " speech which might become the

eloquen- property of the whole nation, at once a bond of internal
Wa * unity and a line of demarcation against external

nations, from the local dialects peculiar to different districts;
and secondly, to lay down rules for poetical composition in the
language so established. The work was intended to be in four
books, but only two are extant. The first of these deals with the
language, the second with the style and with the composition of
the canzone. The third was probably intended to continue this
subject, and the fourth was destined to the laws of the ballata and
sonetto. It contains much acute criticism of poetry and poetic
diction. This work was first published in the Italian translation
of Trissino at Yicenza in 1529. The original Latin was not pub-
lished till 1577 at Paris by Jacopo Corbinelli, one of the Italians
who were brought from Florence by Catherine de' Medici, from
a MS. now preserved at Grenoble. The work was probably left
unfinished in consequence of Dante's death.

Boccaccio mentions in his life of Dante that he wrote two
eclogues in Latin in answer to Johannes de Virgilio, who invited
him to come from Ravenna to Bologna and compose
a great work in the Latin language. The most interest-
ing passage in the work is that in the first poem, where he expresses
his hope that when he has finished the three parts of his great
poem his grey hairs may be crowned with laurel on the banks of
the Arno. Although the Latin of these poems is superior to that
of his prose works, we may feel thankful that Dante composed
the great work of his life in his own vernacular. The versification,
however, is good, and there are pleasant touches of gentle humour.
The Eclogues have been edited by Messrs Wicksteed and Gardiner
(Dante and Giovanni del Virgilio, London, 1902).

A treatise De aqua et terra has come down to us, which Dante
tells us was delivered at Mantua in January 1320 (perhaps 1321)
as a solution of the question which was being at that
eiterra. time muc h discussed— whether in any place on the
earth's surface water is higher than the earth. It was
first published at Venice in 1508, by an ecclesiastic named
Moncetti, from a MS. which he alleged to be in his possession, but
which no one seems to have seen. Its genuineness is accordingly
eery doubtful; but Dr Moore has from internal evidence made
out a very strong case for it.

The Letters of Dante are among the most important materials
for his biography. Giovanni Villani mentions three as specially
remarkable — one to the government of Florence, in
which he complains of undeserved exile; another to
the emperor Henry VIL, when he lingered too long at the siege
of Brescia; and a third to the Italian cardinals to urge them to
the election of an Italian pope after the death of Clement V.
The first of these letters has not come down to us, the two last are
extant. Besides these we have one addressed to the cardinal da
Prato, one to a Florentine friend refusing the base conditions of
return from exile, one to the princes and lords of Italy to prepare
them for the coming of Henry of Luxembourg, another to the
Florentines reproaching them with the rejection of the emperor,
and a long letter to Can Grande della Scala, containing directions
for interpreting the Divina Commedia, with especial reference to
the Paradiso. Of less importance are the letters to the nephews

Eclogues.

Letters.

of Count Alessandro da Romena, to the marquis Moroello
Malespina, to Cino da Pistoia and to Guido da Polenta. The
genuineness of all the letters has at one time or another been
impugned; but the more important are now generally accepted.
They have been translated by Mr C. S. Latham, ed. by Mr G. R.
Carpenter (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, 1891).

Dante's reputation has passed through many vicissitudes, and
much trouble has been spent by critics in comparing him with
other poets of established fame. Read and commented upon
with more admiration than intelligence in the Italian universities
in the generation immediately succeeding his death, his name
became obscured as the sun of the Renaissance rose higher
towards its meridian. In the 16th century he was held inferior
to Petrarch; in the 17th and first half of the 18th he was almost
universally neglected. His fame is now fully vindicated. Trans-
lations and commentaries issue from every press in Europe and
America, and many studies for separate points are appearing
every year.

Authorities. — It would be impossible here to give anything like
a complete account even of the editions of Dante's works ; still more
of the books which have been written to elucidate the Commedia
as a whole, or particular points in it. The section " Dante " in the
British Museum catalogue down to 1887 occupies twenty-nine folio
pages; the supplement, to 1900, as many more. The catalogue of
the Fiske collection, id Cornell University library, is in two quarto
volumes and covers 606 pages. A few of the more important editions
and of the more valuable commentaries and aids may, however, be
recorded.

Editions. — The Commedia was first printed by John Numeister
at Foligno, in April 1472. Two other editions followed in the same
year: one at Jesi (Federicus Veronensis), and Mantua (Georgius et
Paulus Teutonici). These, together with a Naples edition of about
1477 (Francesco del Tuppo), were included by Lord Vernon in
Le Prime Quattro Edizioni (1858). Another Neapolitan edition, with-
out printer's name, is dated 1477, and in the same year Wendelin of
Spires published the first Venetian edition. Milan followed in 1478
with that known from the name of its editor as the Nidobeatine. In
1481 appeared the first Florentine edition (Nicolo and Lorenzo della
Magna) with the commentary of Cristoforo Landino, and a series of
copper engravings ascribed to Baccio Baldini, varying in number in
different copies from two to twenty; a sumptuous and very care-
lessly printed volume. Venice supplied most of the editions for many
years to come. Altogether twelve existed by the end of the century.
In 1502 Aldus produced the first " pocket " edition in his new
" italic " type, probably cut from the handwriting of his friend
Bembo. A second edition of this is dated 15 1 5. The firm of Giunta at
Florence printed the poem in a small volume with cuts, in 1506; and
for the rest of the 16th century edition follows edition, to the number
of about thirty in all. The most noteworthy commentaries are
thoseof Alessandro Vellutello (Venice, 1544), and Bernardo Daniello
(Venice, 1568), both of Lucca. The Cruscan Academicians edited
the text in 1595. The first edition with woodcuts is that of Boninus
de Boninis (Brescia, 1487). Bernardino Benali followed at Venice
in 1491, and from that time onward few if any of the folio editions are
without them. The 17th century produced three (or perhaps four)
small, shabby and inaccurate editions. In 1716 a revival of interest
in Dante had set in, and before 1800 some score of editions had ap-
peared, the best-known being those of G. A. Volpi (Padua, 1727),
Pompeo Venturi (Venice, 1739) and Baldassare Lombardi (Rome,
1791).

Commentaries. — The Commedia began to be the subject of com-
mentaries as soon as, if not before, the author was in his grave. One
known as the Anonimo until in 1881 Dr Moore identified its writer
as Graziolo de' Bambaglioli, was in course of writing in 1324. It was
published by Lord Vernon, to whose munificence we owe the accessi-
bility of most of the earlier commentaries, in 1848. That of Jacopo
della Lana is thought to have been composed before 1340. It was
printed in the Venice and Milan editions of 1477, and 1478 respec-
tively. The so-called Ottimo Comento (Pisa, 1837) is of about the
same date. It embodies parts of Lana's, but is largely an independent
work. Witte ascribes it to Andrea della Lancia, a Florentine notary.
Dante's sons Pietro and Jacopo also commented on their father's
poem. Their works were published, again at Lord Vernon's expense,
in 1845 and 1848. Boccaccio's lectures on the Commedia, cut short
at Inf. xvii. 17 by his death in 1375, are accessible in various forms.
His work was achieved by his disciple Benvenuto Rambaldi of Imola
(d. c. 1390). Benvenuto's commentary, written in Latin, genial in
temper, and often acute, was popular from the first. Extracts from
it were used as notes in many MSS. Much of it was printed by
Muratori in his Antiquilates Italicae; but the entire work was first
published in 1887 by Mr William Warren Vernon, with the aid of Sir
James Lacaita. No greater boon has ever been offered to students
of Dante. Another early annotator who must not be overlooked is
Francesco da Buti of Pisa, who lectured in that city towards the close

DANTON

817

of the same century. His commentary, which served as the basis
of Landino's already mentioned, was first printed in Pisa in 1858.
One more commentary deserves mention. During the council of
Constance, John of Serravalle, bishop of Fermo, fell in with the
English bishops Robert Hallam and Nicholas Bubwith, and at their
request compiled a voluminous exposition of the Commedia. This
remained in MS. till recently, when it was printed in a costly form.

Translations. — Probably the first complete translation of Dante
into a modern language was the Castilian version of Villena (1428).
In the following year Andreu Febrer produced a rendering into
Catalan verse. In 1515 Villegas published the Inferno in Spanish.
' The earliest French version is that of B. Grangier (1597). Chaucer
has rendered several passages beautifully, and similar fragments are
embedded in Milton and others. But the first attempt to reproduce
any considerable portion of the poem was made by Rogers, who only
completed the Inferno (1782). The entire poem appeared first in
English in the version of Henry Boyd (1802) in six-line stanzas; but
the first adequate rendering is the admirable blank verse of H. F.
Cary (1814, 2nd ed. 1819), which has remained the standard trans-
lation, though others of merit, notably those of Pollock (1854) and
Longfellow (1867) in blank verse, Plumptre (1887) and Haselfoot
(1887) in terza rima ; J. A. Carlyle (inferno only, 1847). C. E. Norton
(1891), and H. F. Tozer (1904), in prose, have since appeared. The
best in German are those of " Philalethes " (the late King John of
Saxony) and Witte, both in blank verse.

Modern Editions and Commentaries. — The first serious attempt to
establish an accurate text in recent times was made by Carl Witte,
whose edition (1862) has been subsequently used as the basis for the
text of the Commedia in the Oxford edition of Dante's complete
works (1896 and later issues). Dr Toynbee's text (1900) follows the
Oxford, with some modifications. The notes of Cary, Longfellow,
Witte and " Philalethes," appended to their several translations,
and Tozer's, in an independent volume, are valuable. Scartazzini's
commentary is the most voluminous that has appeared since the
15th century. With a good deal of superfluous, and some superficial,
erudition, it cannot be neglected by any one who wishes to study the
poem thoroughly. An edition by A.J. Butler contains a prose version
and notes. Of modern Italian editions, Bianchi's and Fraticelli's are
still as good as any.

Other Aids. — For beginners no introduction is equal to the essay
on Dante by the late Dean Church. Maria Rossetti's Shadow of
Dante is also useful. A Study of Dante, by J. A. Symonds, is
interesting. More advanced students will find Dr Toynbee's Dante
Dictionary indispensable, and Dr E. Moore's Studies in Dante of great
service in its discussion of difficult places. Two concordances, to the
Commedia by Dr Fay (Cambridge, Mass., 1888), and to the minor
works by Messrs Sheldon and White (Oxford, 1905), are due to
American scholars. Mr W. W. Vernon's Readings in Dante have
profited many students. Dante's minor works still lack thorough
editing and scholarly elucidation, with the exception of the De
vulgari eloquentia, which has been well handled by Professor Pio
Rajna (1896), and the Vita Nuova by F. Beck (1896) and Barbi
(1907). Good translations of the latter by D. G. Rossetti and C. E.
Norton, and of the De monarchia by F. C. Church and P. H. Wicksteed
are in existence. The best text is that of the Oxford Dante, though
much confessedly remains to be done. The dates of their original
publication have already been given.

Bibliography. — The first attempt at a bibliography of editions
of Dante was made in Pasquali's edition of his collected works
(Venice, 1739); but the first really adequate work on the subject is
that of the viscount Colomb de Batines (1846-1848). A supplement
by Dr Guido Biagi appeared in 1888. Julius Petzholdt had already
covered some of the same ground in Bibliographia Dantea, extend-
ing from 1865 to 1880. The period from 1891 to 1900 has been dealt
with by SS. Passerini and Mazzi in Un Decennio di bibliografia
Dantesca (1905). The catalogues of the two libraries already named,
and that of Harvard University, are worth consulting. For the
MSS. Dr E. Moore's Textual Criticism (1889) is the most complete
guide. (A. J. B.*)

DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES (1759-1794), one of the most
conspicuous actors in the decisive episodes of the French Revolu-
tion, was born at Arcis-sur-Aube on the 26th of October 1759.
His family was of respectable quality, though of very moderate
means. They contrived to give him a good education, and he
was launched in the career of an advocate at the Paris bar.
When the Revolution broke out, it found Danton following his
profession with apparent success, leading a cheerful domestic life,
and nourishing his intelligence on good books. He first appears
in the revolutionary story as president of the popular club or
assembly of the district in which he lived. This was the famous
club of the Cordeliers, so called from the circumstance that its
meetings were held in the old convent of the order of the
Cordeliers, just as the Jacobins derived their name from the
refectory of the convent of the Jacobin brothers. It is an odd
coincidence that the old rivalries of Dominicans and Franciscans

in the democratic movement inside the Catholic Church should
be recalled by the names of the two factions in the democratic
movement of a later century away from the church. The
Cordeliers were from the first the centre of the popular principle
in the French Revolution carried to its extreme point ; they were
the earliest to suspect the court of being irreconcilably hostile to
freedom; and it was they who most vehemently proclaimed the
need for root-and-branch measures. Danton's robust, energetic
and impetuous temperament made him the natural leader in such
a quarter. We find no traces of his activity in the two great
insurrectionary events of 1789 — the fall of the Bastille, and the
forcible removal of the court from Versailles to the Tuileries.
In the spring of 1790 we hear his voice urging the people to pre-
vent the arrest of Marat. In the autumn we find him chosen to
be the commander of the battalion of the national guard of his
district. In the beginning of 1791 he was elected to the post of
administrator of the department of Paris. This interval was for
all France a barren period of doubt, fatigue, partial reaction and
hoping against hope. It was not until 1792 that Danton came
into the prominence of a great revolutionary chief.

In the spring of the previous year (1791) Mirabeau had died,
and with him had passed away the only man who was at all likely
to prove a wise guide to the court. In June of that year the king
and queen made a disastrous attempt to flee from their capital and
their people. They were brought back once more to the Tuileries,
which from that time forth they rightly looked upon more as a
prison than a palace or a home. The popular exasperation was
intense, and the constitutional leaders, of whom the foremost was
Lafayette, became alarmed and lost their judgment. A bloody
dispersion of a popular gathering, known afterwards as the
massacre of the Champ'-de-Mars (July 1791), kindled a flame of
resentment against the court and the constitutional party which
was never extinguished. The Constituent Assembly completed
its infertile labours in September 1791. Then the elections took
place to its successor, the short-lived Legislative Assembly.
Danton was not elected to it, and his party was at this time only
strong enough to procure for him a very subordinate post in the
government of the Parisian municipality. Events, however,
rapidly prepared a situation in which his influence became of
supreme weight. Between January and August 1792 the want
of sympathy between the aims of the popular assembly and the
spirit of the king and the queen became daily more flagrant and
beyond power of disguise. In April war was declared against
Austria, and to the confusion and distraction caused by the
immense civil and political changes of the past two years was now
added the ferment and agitation of war with an enemy on the
frontier. The distrust felt by Paris for the court and its loyalty
at length broke out in insurrection. On the memorable morning
of the 10th of August 1792 the king and queen took refuge with
the Legislative Assembly from the apprehended violence of the
popular forces who were marching on the Tuileries. The share
which Danton had in inspiring and directing this momentous
rising is very obscure. Some look upon him as the head and
centre of it. Apart from documents, support is given to this view
by the fact that on the morrow of the fall of the monarchy Danton
is found in the important post of minister of justice. This sudden
rise from the subordinate office which he had held in the commune
is a proof of the impression that his character had made on the
insurrectionary party. To passionate fervour for the popular
cause he added a certain broad steadfastness and an energetic
practical judgment which are not always found in company with
fervour. Even in those days, when so many men were so astonish-
ing in their eloquence, Danton stands out as a master of com-
manding phrase. One of his fierce sayings has become a proverb.
Against Brunswick and the invaders, "il nous font de I'audace, et
encore de I'audace, et toujours de I'audace," — we must dare, and
again dare, and for ever dare. The tones of his voice were loud
and vibrant. As for his bodily presence, he had, to use his own
account of it, the athletic shape and the stern physiognomy of
the Liberty for which he was ready to die. Jove the Thunderer,
the rebel Satan, a Titan, Sardanapalus, were names that friends
or enemies borrowed to describe his mien and port. He was

8i8

DANTON

thought about as a coarser version of the great tribune of the
Constituent Assembly; he was called the Mirabeau of the sans-
culottes, and Mirabeau of the markets.

In the executive government that was formed on the king's
dethronement, this strong revolutionary figure found himself
the colleague of the virtuous Roland and others of the Girondins.
Their strength was speedily put to a terrible test. The alarming
successes of the enemy on the frontier, and the surrender of two
important fortresses, had engendered a naturalpanicin thecapital.
But in the breasts of some of the wild men whom the disorder
of the time had brought to prominent place in the Paris com-
mune this panic became murderously heated. Some hundreds
of captives were barbarously murdered in the prisons. There has
always been much dispute as to Danton's share in this dreadful
transaction. At the time, it must be confessed, much odium on
account of an imputed direction of the massacres fell to him.
On the whole, however, he cannot be fairly convicted of any part
in the plan. What he did was to make the best of the misdeed,
with a kind of sombre acquiescence. He deserves credit for
insisting against his colleagues that they should not flee from
Paris, but should remain firm at their posts, doing what they
could to rule the fierce storm that was raging around them.

The elections to the National Convention took place in
September, when the Legislative Assembly surrendered its
authority. The Convention ruled France until October 1795.
Dan ton was a member; resigning the ministry of justice, he took
a foremost part in the deliberations and proceedings of the
Convention, until his execution in April 1 794. This short period
of nineteen months was practically the life of Dan ton, so far as the
world is concerned with him.

He took his seat in the high and remote benches which gave
the name of the Mountain to the thoroughgoing revolutionists
who sat there. He found himself side by side with Marat, whose
exaggerations he never countenanced; with Robespierre, whom
he did not esteem very highly, but whose immediate aims were in
many respects his own; with Camille Desmoulins and Phelip-
peaux, who were his close friends and constant partisans. The
foes of the Mountain were the group of the Girondins, — eloquent,
dazzling, patriotic, but unable to apprehend the fearful nature of
the crisis, too full of vanity and exclusive party-spirit, and too
fastidious to strike hands with the vigorous and stormy Danton.
The Girondins dreaded the people who had sent Danton to the
Convention ; and they insisted on seeing on his hands the blood of
the prison massacres of September. Yet in fact Danton saw
much more clearly than they saw how urgent it was to soothe the
insurrectionary spirit, after it had done the work of abolition
which to him, as to them too, seemed necessary and indispensable.
Danton discerned what the Girondins lacked the political genius
to see, that this control of Paris could only be wisely effected by
men who sympathized with the vehemence and energy of Paris,
and understood that this vehemence and energy made the only
force to which the Convention could look in resisting the Germans
on the north-east frontier, and the friends of reaction in the
interior. " Paris," he said, " is the natural and constituted centre
of free France. It is the centre of light. When Paris shall perish
there will no longer be a republic."

Danton was among those who voted for the death of the king
(January 1793). He had a conspicuous share in the creation of
the famous revolutionary tribunal, his aim being to take the
weapons away from that disorderly popular vengeance which had
done such terrible work in September. When all executive
power was conferred upon a committee of public safety, Danton
had been one of the nine members of whom that body was origin-
ally composed. He was despatched on frequent missions from
the Convention to the republican armies in Belgium, and wherever
he went he infused new energy into the work of national liberation.
He pressed forward the erection of a system of national education,
and he was one of the legislative committee charged with the
construction of a new system of government. He vainly tried to
compose the furious dissensions between Girondins and Jacobins.
The Girondins were irreconcilable, and made Danton the object
of deadly attack. He was far too robust in character to lose

himself in merely personal enmities, but by the middle of May
(1793) he had made up his mind that the political suppression
of the Girondins had become indispensable. The position of
the country was most alarming. Dumouriez, the victor of Valmy
and Jemmappes, had deserted. The French arms were suffering
a series of checks and reverses. A royalist rebellion was gaining
formidable dimensions in the west. Yet the Convention was
wasting time and force in the vindictive recriminations of
faction. There is no positive evidence that Danton directly
instigated the insurrection of the 3 1st of May and the 2nd of June,
which ended in the purge of the Convention and the proscription
of the Girondins. He afterwards spoke of himself as in some
sense the author of this revolution, because a little while before,
stung by some trait of factious perversity in the Girondins, he
had openly cried out in the midst of the Convention, that if he
could only find a hundred men, they would resist the oppressive
authority of the Girondin commission of twelve. At any rate,
he certainly acquiesced in the violence of the commune, and he
publicly gloried in the expulsion of the men who stood obsti-
nately in the way of a vigorous and concentrated exertion of
nationaFpower. Danton, unlike the Girondins, accepted the fury
of popular passion as an inevitable incident in the work of
deliverance. Unlike Billaud Varenne or Hebert, or any other
of the Terrorist party, he had no wish to use this frightful two-
edged weapon more freely than was necessary. Danton, in short,
had the instinct of the statesman. His object was to reconcile
France with herself; to restore a society that, while emanci-
pated and renewed in every part, should yet be stable; and
above all to secure the independence of his country, both by
a resolute defence against the invader, and by such a mixture
of vigour with humanity as should reconcile the offended opinion
of the rest of Europe. This, so far as we can make it out, was
what was in his mind.

The position of the Mountain had now undergone a complete
change. In the Constituent Assembly its members did not
number more than 30 out of the 578 of the third estate. In
the Legislative Assembly they had not been numerous, and
none of their chiefs had a seat. In the Convention for the
first nine months they had an incessant struggle for their very
lives against the Girondins. They were now (June 1793) for the
first time in possession of absolute power. It was not easy, how-
ever, for men who had for many months been nourished on the
ideas and stirred to the methods of opposition, all at once to
develop the instincts of government. Actual power was in the
hands of the two committees — that of public safety and of
general security. Both were chosen out of the body of the
Convention. The drama of the nine months between the expul-
sion of the Girondins and the execution of Danton turns upon the
struggle of the committee to retain power — first, against the
insurrectionary commune of Paris, and second, against the
Convention, from which the committees derived an authority
that was regularly renewed on the expiry of each short term.

Danton, immediately after the fall of the Girondins, had
thrown himself with extraordinary energy into the work to be
done. The first task in a great city so agitated by anarchical
ferment had been to set up a strong central authority. In this
genuinely political task Danton was prominent. He was not a
member of the committee of public safety when that body was
renewed in the shape that speedily made its name so redoubtable
all over the world. This was the result of a self-denying ordinance
which he imposed upon himself. It was he who proposed that
the powers of the committee should be those of a dictator, and
that it should have copious funds at its disposal. In order to
keep himself clear of any personal suspicion, he announced his
resolution not to belong to the body which he had thus done his
best to make supreme in the state. His position during the
autumn of 1793 was that of a powerful supporter and inspirer,
from without, of the government which he had been foremost in
setting up. Danton was not a great practical administrator and
contriver, like Carnot, for instance. But he had the gift of raising
in all who heard him an heroic spirit of patriotism and fiery
devotion, and he had a clear eye and a cool judgment in the

DANUBE

819

tempestuous emergencies which aroseinsuch appallingsuccession.
His distinction was that he accepted the insurrectionary forces,
instead of blindly denouncing them as the Girondins had done.
After these forces had shaken down the throne, and then, by
driving away the Girondins, had made room for a vigorous
government, Danton perceived the expediency of making all
haste to an orderly state. Energetic prosecution of the war, and
gradual conciliation of civil hatreds, had been, as we have said,
the two marks of his policy ever since the fall of the monarchy.
The first of these objects was fulfilled abundantly, partly owing
to the energy with which he called for the arming of the whole
nation against its enemies. His whole mind was now given to
the second of them. But the second of them, alas, was desperate.
It was to no purpose that, both in his own action and in the
writings of Camille Desmoulins {Le Vieux Cordelier), of whom he
was now and always the intimate and inspirer, he worked against
the iniquities of the bad men, like Carrier and Collot d'Herbois,
in the provinces, and against the severity of the revolutionary
tribunal in Paris. The black flood could not at a word or in an
hour subside from its storm-lashed fury. The commune of Paris
was now composed of men like Hebert and Chaumette, to whom
the restoration of any sort of political order was for the time
indifferent. They wished to push destruction to limits which
even the most ardent sympathizers with the Revolution condemn
now, and which Danton condemned then, as extravagant and
senseless. Those men were not politicians, they were fanatics;
and Danton, who was every inch a politician, though of a vehe-
ment type, had as little in common with them as John Calvin of
Geneva had with John of Leiden and the Mtinster Anabaptists.
The committee watched Hebert and his followers uneasily for
many weeks, less perhaps from disapproval of their excesses
than from apprehensions of their hostility to the committee's own
power. At length the party of the commune proposed to revolt
against the Convention and the committees. Then the blow was
struck, and the Hebertists were swiftly flung into prison, and
thence under the knife of the guillotine (March 24th, 1794).
The execution of the Hebertists was the first victory of the
revolutionary government over the extreme insurrectionary
party. But the committees had no intention to concede anything
to their enemies on the other side. If they refused to follow the
lead of the anarchists of the commune, they were none the more
inclined to give way to the Dantonian policy of clemency.
Indeed, such a course would have been their own instant and
utter ruin. The Terror was not a policy that could be easily
transformed. A new policy would have to be carried out by new
men, and this meant the resumption of power by the Convention,
and the death of the Terrorists. In Thermidor 1794 such a
revolution did take place, with those very results. But in
Germinal feeling was not ripe. The committees were still too
strong to be overthrown. And Danton seems to have shown
a singular heedlessness. Instead of striking by vigour in the
Convention, he waited to be struck. In these later days a certain
discouragement seems to have come over his spirit. His wife had
died during his absence on one of his expeditions to the armies ;
he had now married again, and the rumour went that he was
allowing domestic happiness to tempt him from the keen incessant
vigilance proper to the politician in such a crisis. He must have
known that he had enemies. When the Jacobin club was
" purified " in the winter, Danton's name would have been
struck out as a moderate if Robespierre had not defended him.
The committees had deliberated on his arrest soon afterwards,
and again it was Robespierre who resisted the proposal. Yet
though he had been warned of the lightning that was thus playing
round his head, Danton did not move. Either he felt himself
powerless, or he rashly despised his enemies. At last Billaud
Varenne, the most prominent spirit of the committee after
Robespierre, succeeded in gaining Robespierre over to his designs
against Danton. Robespierre was probably actuated by the
motives of selfish policy which soon proved the greatest blunder
of his life. The Convention, aided by Robespierre and the
authority of the committee, assented with ignoble unanimity.
On the 30th of March Danton, Desmoulins and others of the

party were suddenly arrested. Danton displayed such vehe-
mence before the revolutionary tribunal, that his enemies feared
lest he should excite the crowd in his favour. The Convention,
in one of its worst fits of cowardice, assented to a proposal made
by St Just that, if a prisoner showed want of respect for justice,
the tribunal might pronounce sentence without further delay.
Danton was at once condemned, and led, in company with
fourteen others, including Camille Desmoulins, to the guillotine
(April 5th, 1 794). " I leave it all in a frightful welter," he said;
" not a man of them has an idea of government. Robespierre
will follow me; he is dragged down by me. Ah, better be a poor
fisherman than meddle with the government of men!"

Events went as Danton foresaw. The committees presently
came to quarrel with the pretensions of Robespierre. Three
months after Danton, Robespierre fell. His assent to the execu-
tion of Danton had deprived him of the single great force that
might have supported him against the committee. The man who
had " saved France from Brunswick " might perhaps have saved
her from the White reaction of 1 794.

Bibliography. — Sources for the life of Danton abound in the
national archives and in the columns of the Moniteur. His (Euvres
were published by A. Vermorel (Paris, 1866), and his speeches are
included in H. Morse Stephens' Principal Speeches of the Statesmen
and Orators of the French Revolution (vol. ii., Oxford, 1892) ; cf. F. V.
Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (Danton and
his group; 2 vols., 1885-1886). The charges of corruption freely
brought against Danton by contemporaries were accepted by many
historians, and he has been persistently accused of instigating or at
least abetting, by failure to use the power he possessed, the September
massacres. A minute examination of the evidence by F. V. Aulard
and J. F. E. Robinet in France, followed by A. H. Beesly in England,
has placed his career and his character in a fairer light. The chief
books on Danton's life are: — A. Bougeart, Danton, documents pour
servir a I'histoire de la Revolution frangaise (Brussels, 1861); J. F. E.
Robinet, Danton, memoire sur sa vie privee (Paris, 1865), Le Proces
des Dantonistes (Paris, 1879), Danton emigre (Paris, 1887), Danton,
homme d'etat (Paris, 1889); F. V. Aulard, Hist. pol. de la Rev. fr.
(Paris, 1901), and Danton (Paris, 1887); A. Dubost, Danton et la
politique contemporaine (Paris, 1880); A. H. Beesly, Life of Danton
(1899, new ed. 1906); H. Belloc, Danton (1899). There is a short
" Life of Danton " in Morse Stephens' Principal Speeches, cited
above. See also C. F. Warwick, Danton and the French Revolution
(1909)- (J. Mo.)

DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea,
Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course
Ister), the most important river of Europe as regards the volume
of its outflow, but inferior to the Volga in length and in the area
of its drainage. It originates at Donaueschingen in the Black
Forest, where two mountain streams, the Brigach and the Brege,
together with a third stream from the Palace Gardens, unite
at an elevation of 2187 ft. above the sea to form the Danube
so called. From this point it runs in an easterly direction until
it falls into the Black Sea some 1750 m. from its source, being the
only European river of importance with a course from west to east.
Its basin, which comprises a territory of nearly 300,000 sq. m.,
is bounded by the Black Forest, some of the minor Alpine ranges,
the Bohemian Forest and the Carpathian Mountains on the north,
and by the Alps and the Balkan range on the south. From the
point where the Danube first becomes navigable, i.e. at its
junction with the Uler at Ulm (1505 ft. above sea-level), it is fed
by at least 300 tributaries, the principal of which on the right
bank are the Inn, the Drave and the Save; while on the left
bank are the Theiss or Tisza, the Olt, the Sereth and the Pruth.
These seven rivers have a total length of 2920 m. and drain one
half of the basin of the Danube.

The course of this mighty river is rich in historical and political
associations. For a long period it formed the frontier of the
Roman empire; near Eining (above Regensburg) was w/storica/
the ancient Abusina, which for nearly five centuries an d
was the chief Roman outpost against the northern political
barbarians. Traces of Trajan's wall still exist between * ssoc/a -
that point and Wiesbaden, while another line of forti-
fications bearing the same emperor's name are found in the
Dobrudja between Cernavoda (on the lower Danube) and
Constantza. At intervening points are still found many notable
Roman remains, such as Trajan's road, a marvellous work on the

820

DANUBE

right bank of the river in the rocky Kazan defile (separating the
Balkans on the south from the Carpathians on the north), where
a contemporary commemorative tablet is still conspicuously
visible. At Turnu Severin below the end of this famous gorge
are the remains of a solid masonry bridge constructed by the
same emperor at the period of his Dacian conquests. But since
Roman days the central Danube has never formed the boundary
of a state; on the contrary it became the route followed from
east to west by successive hordes of barbarians — the Huns,
Avars, Slavs, Magyars and Turks; while the Franks under
Charlemagne, the Bavarians and the Crusaders all marched in
the opposite direction towards the east. In more modern days
its banks were the scenes of many bloody battles during the
Napoleonic Wars. Still more recently it has become the great
highway of commerce for central Europe. It has been pointed
out by J. G. Kohl (Austria and the Danube, London, 1844) and
others that, in consequence of the Danube having been in
constant use as the line of passage of migratory hostile tribes,
it nowhere forms the boundary between two states from Orsova
upwards, and thus it traverses as a central artery Wurttemberg,
Bavaria, Austria and Hungary, while on the other hand various
tributaries both north and south, which formed serious obstacles
to the march of armies, have become lines of separation between
different states. Thus Hungary is separated from Austria by the
rivers March and Leitha; the river Enns, for a considerable
period the extreme western boundary of the Magyar kingdom,
still separates Upper and Lower Austria; the Inn and the
Salzach divide Austria from Bavaria, and farther west the Iller
separates Bavaria from Wurttemberg.

The Danube after leaving Donaueschingen flows south-east
in the direction of Lake Constance, and below Immendingen a
considerable quantity of its waters escapes through
subterranean fissures to the river Ach in the Rhine
basin. At Gutmadingen it turns to the north-east, which
general direction, although with many windings, it maintains as
far as Linz. At Tuttlingen it contracts and the hills crowd close
to the banks, while ruins of castles crown almost every possible
summit. The scenery is wild and beautiful until the river passes
Sigmaringen. At Ulm, where the river leaves Wurttemberg
and enters Bavaria, it is joined by a large tributary, the Iller,
and from this point becomes navigable downstream for specially
constructed boats carrying 100 tons of merchandise. It is here
some 78 yds. in breadth, with an average depth of 3 ft. 6 in.
Continuing its north-easterly course it passes through Bavaria,
gradually widening its channel first at Steppberg, then at Ingol-
stadt, but finally narrowing again until it reaches Regensburg
(height 949 ft.). At this point it changes its direction to the south-
east, and passing along the southern slopes of the Bavarian
Forest enters Austria at Passau (height 800 ft.). In its passage
through Bavaria it receives several important affluents on both
banks, notably on the right the Alpine rivers Lech, Isar and Inn,
the last of which at the junction near Passau exceeds in volume
the waters of the Danube.

From Passau the Danube flows through Austria for a distance
of 233 m. Closed in by mountains it flows past Linz in an un-
broken stream — below, it expands and divides into many arms
until it reaches the famous whirlpool near Grein where its waters
unite and flow on in one channel for 40 m., through mountains
and narrow passes. Beyond Krems it again divides, forming
arms and islands beyond Vienna. The Danube between Linz and
Vienna is renowned not only for its picturesque beauty but for the
numerous medieval and modern buildings of historical and archae-
ological interest which crown its banks. The splendid Benedictine
monastery of Melk and the ruins of Diirrenstein, the prison
of Richard Cceur de Lion, are among the most interesting.

After passing Vienna and the Marchfeld, the Danube (here
316 yds. wide and 429 ft. above sea-level) passes through a defile
formed by the lower spurs of the Alps and the Carpathians and
enters Hungary at the ruined castle of Theben a little above
Pressburg, the old Magyar capital, after leaving which the river
passes through the Hungarian plains, receiving several affluents
on both sides. It divides into three channels, forming several

islands. After passing the fortress of Komarom it loses its easterly
course at Vacz (Waitzen), and flows nearly due south for 230 m.
down to its junction with the Drave (81 ft. above sea-level),
passing in its course Budapest, the capital of Hungary, and
farther on Mohacs. Below Mohacs the Franz Josef canal con-
nects the Danube with the Theiss. After its junction with the
Save the Danube follows a south-easterly direction for 200 m.
until it is joined on the right bank of the Drave at Belgrade,
above which it receives on the left bank the Theiss or Tisz., the
largest of its Hungarian affluents. From Belgrade the Danube
separates Hungary from Servia. It flows eastward until it has
passed through the stupendous Kazan defile, in which its waters
(at Semlin 1700 yds. wide and 40 ft. deep) are hemmed in by
precipitous rocks to a width of only 162 yds., with a depth of
150 ft. and a tremendous current. Emerging, above Orsova, at
a height of 42 ft. above sea-level, it opens to nearly a mile in
width and, turning south-eastwards, is again narrowed by its
last defile, the Iron Gates, where it passes over the Prigrada
rock. The course of the river through Hungary, from Pressburg
to Orsova, is some 600 m.

The river now flows south, separating Servia from Rumania
down to its junction with the Timok, after which as far as
Silistria, a distance of 284 m., it separates Rumania from
Bulgaria. The north bank is mostly flat and marshy, whereas
the Bulgarian bank is almost continuously crowned by low
heights on which are built the considerable towns of Vidin
(Widdin), Lorn Palanka, Rustchuk and Silistria, all memorable
names in Turko-Russian wars. From Silistria the river flows
through Rumanian territory and after passing Cernavoda, where
it is crossed by a modern railway bridge, it reaches (left bank)
the important commercial ports of Braila and Galatz. A few
miles east of Galatz the Pruth enters on the left bank, which is
thenceforward Russian territory. The Danube flows in a single
channel from Galatz for 30 m. to the Ismail Chatal (or fork),
where it breaks up into the several branches of the delta. The
Kilia branch from this point flows to the north-east past the
towns of Ismail and Kilia, and 17 m. below the latter breaks up
into another delta discharging by seven channels into the Black
Sea. The Tulcea branch flows south-east from the Ismail
Chatal, and 7 m. below the town of Tulcea separates into two
branches. The St George's branch, holding a general, though
winding, course to the south-east, discharges by two channels
into the sea; and the Sulina branch, taking an easterly direction,
emerges into the Black Sea 20 m. south of the Ochakov mouth of
the Kilia, and 20 m. north of the Kedrilles mouth of the St George.

In 1857 the proportion of discharge by the three branches of the
Danube was Sulina 7%, St George's 30% and Kilia 63%; but
in 1905 the relative proportions had altered to Sulina 9%, St
George's 24% and Kilia 67%. The average outflow by the
three mouths combined is 236,432 cub. ft. per second. The
delta enclosed between the Kilia and St George's branches, about
1000 sq. m. in area, mainly consists of one large marsh covered
with reeds, and intersected by channels, relieved in places by
isolated elevations covered with oak, beech and willows, many
of them marking the ancient coast-line. On the eastern side of
the. Kilia delta the coast-line is constantly advancing and the
sea becoming shallower, owing to the enormous amount of solid
deposits brought down by the river. In time of ordinary flood
the Kilia branch with its numerous mouths pours into the sea
some 3000 cub. ft. of sand and mud per minute. Its effects are
felt as far south as Sulina, and tend to necessitate the farther
extension into the sea of the guiding piers of that port.

In the course of the 19th century, more especially during its
latter half, much was done to render the Danube more available
as a means of communication. In 1816 Austria and
B avaria made arrangements for the common utilization t ^ a ga ~
of the upper portion of the river, and since then both
governments have been liberal in expenditure on its improve-
ment. In 1844 the Ludwigs Canal was constructed by King Louis
of Bavaria. It is no m. in length and 7 ft. in depth, and connects
the Danube at Kelheim (half way between Ulm and Passau) with
the Rhine at Mainz by means of the rivers Altmuhl, Regnitz and

DANUBE

821

Main. Various other projects exist, one for the connexion of the
Danube (near Vienna) with the river Oder at Oderberg, another
for a canal from the Danube to the Moldau at Budweis, 125 m. in
length, which owing to the regularization of the Moldau is the
last uncompleted link of a navigable channel 1875 m. in length
between Sulina and Hamburg at the mouths of the Danube and
the Elbe respectively. There also exist other schemes for joining
the Danube with the rivers Neckar and Theiss, and also for
connecting the Oder Canal with the Vistula and the Dniester.
Between Ulm and Vienna, a distance of 629 m., works of
rectification have been numerous and have greatly improved
the navigability of the river. The draining of the Donau-moos
between Neuburg and Ingolstadt, commenced in 1791, was
successfully completed about 1835; and in 1853 the removal of
the rocks which obstructed the river below Grein was finally
achieved; while at Vienna itself the whole mass of the Danube
was conducted nearer the town for a distance of nearly 2 m.
through an artificial channel 10 m. in length and 330 yds. in
width, with a depth of about 12 ft., and at a cost with subsidiary
works of over three millions sterling. The work, begun in 1866,
involved the removal of 12,000,000 cub. metres of sand and
gravel, and proved a great success, not only amply realizing its
principal object, the protection of Vienna from disastrous inun-
dations, but also improving the navigability of the river in that
portion of its course. The Hungarian government also, through-
out the latter half of the 19th century, expended vast sums at
Budapest for the improvement of navigation and the protection
of the town from inundation, and in the regularization of the
Danube down to Orsova.

In prehistoric times a great part of the plains of Hungary
formed a large inland sea, which ultimately burst its bounds,
whereupon the Danube forced its way through the Carpathians
at the Kazan defile. Much of what then formed the bottom of
this sea consisted until modern times of marshes and waste lands
lying in the vicinity of its numerous rivers. The problem of
draining and utilizing these lands was not the only difficulty to
be surmounted by the Hungarian engineers; the requirements
of navigation and the necessity in winter of preventing the
formation of large ice-fields, such as caused the disastrous floods
at Budapest in 1838, had also to be considered. In carrying out
these works the Hungarian government between 1867 and 1895
spent seven millions sterling, and a further expenditure of three
and a half millions was provided for up to 1907. At Budapest,
where the formation of ice-fields at the upper entrance of the two
side arms of the Danube — the Promontor on the north, 20 m. in
length, and the Soroksar, 35 m. long, — caused the inundation
alluded to, the latter branch has been artificially blocked and
the whole of the Danube now flows through Budapest in a single
channel. For the first section of 60 m. after entering Hungary,
the bed of the river, here surcharged with gravel, was constantly
changing its course. It has been regularized throughout, the
width of the stream varying from 320 to 400 yds. In the second
section from Gonyo to Paks, 164 m. in length, the river had a
tendency to form islands and sandbanks — its width now varies
uniformly from 455 to 487 yds. The third section of 113 m., from
Paks to the mouth of the Drave, differed from the others and made
innumerable twists and curves. No fewer than seventeen cuttings
have been made, reducing the original course of the river by 75 m.
The fourth section, 217 m. in length, from the Drave to Old
Moldova, resembles in its characteristics the second section and
has been similarly treated. Cuttings have also been made where
necessary, and the widths of the channel are 487 yds. to the mouth
of the Theiss, 650 between that point and the Save, and lower
down 760 yds. In the fifth and last section from Old Moldova
to Orsova and the Iron Gates the river is enclosed by mountains
and rocky banks, and the obstacles to navigation are rocks and
whirlpools.

Article VI. of the treaty of London (1871) authorized the
powers which possess the shores of this part of the Danube to
come to an understanding with the view of removing these
impediments, and to have the right of levying a provisional tax
on vessels of every flag which may henceforth benefit thereby

until the extinction of the debt contracted for the execution of the
works. As the riverain powers could not come to an agreement on
the subject, the great powers at the congress of Berlin (1878)
entrusted to Austria-Hungary the execution of the works in
question. Austria-Hungary subsequently conferred its rights on
Hungary, by which country the works were carried out at a cost
of about one and a half millions sterling.

The principal obstructions between Old Moldova and Turnu
Severin were the Stenka Rapids, the Kozla Dojke Rapids, the
Greben section and the Iron Gates. At the first named there
was a bank of rocks, some of them dry at low water, extending
almost across the river (985 yds. wide). The fall of the river bed
is small, but the length of the rapid is 1100 yds. The Kozla
Dojke, 9 m. below the Stenka Rapids, extend also for 1100 yds.,
with a fall of 1 in 1000, where two banks of rocks cause a sudden
alternation in the direction of the current. The river is here
only 170 to 330 yds. in width. Six miles farther on is the Greben
section, the most difficult part of the works of improvement. A
spur of the Greben mountains runs out below two shoals where
the river suddenly narrows to 300 yds. at low water, but presently
widens to i| m. Seven miles lower down are the Jucz Rapids,
where the river-bed has a fall of 1 in 433. At the Iron Gates,
34 m. below the Greben, the Prigrada rocky bank nearly blocked
the river at the point where it widens out after leaving the Kazan
defile. The general object of the works was to obtain a navigable
depth of water at all seasons of 2 metres (6-56 ft.) on that portion
of the river above Orsova, and a depth of 3 metres (9^84 ft.)
below that town. To effect this at Stenka, Kozla Dojke, Islaz
and Tachtalia, channels 66 yds. wide had to be cut in the solid
rock to a depth of 6 ft. 6 in. below low water. The point of the
Greben spur had to be entirely removed for a distance of 167 yds.
back from its original face. Below the Greben point a training
wall 7 to 9 ft. high, 10 ft. at top and nearly 4 m. in length, has
been built along the Servian shore in order to confine the river
in a narrow channel. At Jucz another similar channel had to be
cut and a training wall built. At the Iron Gates a channel 80 yds.
wide, nearly 2000 yds. in length and 10 ft. deep (in the immediate
vicinity of traces of an old Roman canal) had to be cut on the
Servian side of the river through solid rock. Training walls have
been built on either side of the channel to confine the water so as
to raise its level; that on the right bank having a width of 19 ft.
6 in. at top, and serving as a tow-path; that on the left being
13 ft. in width. These training walls are built of stone with flat
revetments to protect them against ice. These formidable and
expensive works have not altogether realized the expectations
that had been formed of them. One most important result,
however, has been attained, i.e. vessels can now navigate the
Iron Gates at all seasons of the year when the river is not closed
by ice, whereas formerly at extreme low water, lasting generally
for about three months in the late summer and autumn, through
navigation was always at a standstill, and goods had to be landed
and transported considerable distances by land. The canal was
opened for traffic on the 1st of October 1898. It was designed of
sufficient width, as was supposed, for the simultaneous passage
of boats in opposite directions; but on account of the great
velocity of the current this has been found to be impracticable.
From the Iron Gates down to Braila, which is the highest point
to which large sea-going ships ascend the river, there have been
no important works of improvement. From Braila to p urooeaa
Sulina, a distance of about 100 m., the river falls under commis-
the jurisdiction of the European commission of the *>ob of
Danube, an institution of such importance as to merit J? e
lengthened notice. It was called into existence under
Art. XVI. of the treaty of Paris (1856), and in November of that
year a commission was constituted in which Austria, France,
Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey were each
represented by one delegate " to designate and cause to be exe-
cuted the works necessary below Isaktcha 1 to clear the mouths
of the Danube as well as the neighbouring parts of the sea, from

1 Isakcea was 66 nautical m. from the sea measured by the
Sulina arm of the Danube, 37 m. below Braila and 26 m. below
Galatz.

822

DANUBE

the sands and other impediments which obstructed them, in order
to put that part of the river and the said parts of the sea in the
best possible state for navigation."

In Art. XVIII. of the same treaty it was anticipated that the
European commission would have finished the works described
within the period of two years, when it was to be dissolved and its
powers taken over by a Riverain commission to be established
under the same treaty; but this commission has never come
into existence. Extended by short periods up to 1871, the
powers of the European commission were then prolonged under
the treaty of London for twelve years. At the congress of Berlin
in 1878 its jurisdiction was extended from Isakcea to Galatz
(26 m.), and it was decided that the commission, in which
Rumania was henceforward to be represented by a delegate,
should exercise its powers in complete independence of the
territorial authority. By the treaty of London of 1883 the
jurisdiction of the commission was extended from Galatz to
Braila and its powers were prolonged for twenty-one years (i.e. till
the 24th of April 1904), after which its existence was to continue
by tacit prolongation for successive terms of three years unless
one of the high contracting powers should propose any modifica-
tion in its constitution or attributes. It was also decided that
the European commission should no longer exercise any effective
control over that portion of the Kilia branch of which the two
banks belonged to one of the riverain powers (Russia and
Rumania), while as regards that portion of it which separated the
two countries, control was to be exercised by the Russian and
Rumanian delegates on the European commission. Russia was
also authorized to levy tolls intended to cover the expenses of
any works of improvement that might be undertaken by her.
Art. VII. of the same treaty declared that the regulations for
navigation, river police, and superintendence drawn up on the
2nd of June 1882 by the European commission, assisted by the
delegates of Servia and Bulgaria, should be made applicable to
that part of the Danube situated between the Iron Gates and
Braila. In consequence of Rumania's opposition, the proposed
Commission Mixte was never formed, and these regulations have
never been put in force. As regards the extension of the powers
of the European commission to Braila, 1 1 m. above Galatz, and
at the head of the maritime navigation, a tacit understanding has
been arrived at, under which questions concerning navigation
proper come under the jurisdiction of the commission, while the
police of the ports remains in the hands of the Rumanian
authorities.

Sir Charles Hartley, who was chief engineer of the commission
from 1856 to 1907, 1 in a paper contributed to the Institution of
Civil Engineers in 1873 (vol. xxxvi.), gave the following graphic
description of the state of the Sulina mouth when the commission
entered on its labours in 1856: —

" The entrance to the Sulina branch was a wild open seaboard
strewn with wrecks, the hulls and masts of which, sticking out of
the submerged sandbanks, gave to mariners the only guide where the
deepest channel was to be found. The depth of the channel varied
from 7 to II ft., and was rarely more than 9 ft.

" The site now occupied by wide quays extending several miles
in length was then entirely covered with water when the sea rose a
few inches above ordinary level, and that even in a perfect calm;
the banks of the river near the mouth were only indicated by
clusters of wretched hovels built on piles and by narrow patches of
sand skirted by tall weeds, the only vegetable product of the vast
swamps beyond.

" For some years before the improvements, an average of 2000
vessels of an aggregate capacity of 400,000 tons visited the Danube,
and of this number more than three-fourths loaded either the whole
or part of their cargoes from lighters in the Sulina roadstead, where,
lying off a lee shore, they were frequently exposed to the greatest
danger. Shipwrecks were of common occurrence, and occasionally
the number of disasters was appalling. One dark winter night in
1855, during a terrific gale, 24 sailing ships and 60 lighters went
ashore off the mouth and upwards of 300 persons perished."

The state of affairs in the river was not much better than at the
Sulina mouth. Of the three arms of the Danube, the Kilia, the

1 Sir Charles Hartley became consulting engineer in 1872, when he
was succeeded as resident engineer by Mr Charles Kiihl, C.E., C.M.G.
To those two gentlemen is mainly due the conspicuous success of the
engineering works.

Sulina and the St George, the central or Sulinabranch, owing to its
greater depth of water over the bar, had from time immemorial
been the principal waterway for sea-going vessels; its average
' depth throughout its course, which could not always be counted
on, was 8 ft., but it contained numerous shoals where vessels had
to lighten, so that cargo had often to be shifted several times in
the voyage down the river. It also contained numerous bends
and sharp curves, sources of the greatest difficulty to navigation.
The commission fixed its seat at Galatz. Provisional works
of improvement were begun almost immediately at the mouth of
the Sulina branch of the Danube, but two years were spent in
discussing the relative claims to adoption of the Kilia, the Sulina
and the St George's mouths. Unable to agree, the delegates
referred the question to their respective governments, and a
technical commission appointed by France, England, Prussia and
Sardinia met at Paris and decided unanimously in favour of St
George's; but recommended, instead of the embankment of the
natural channel, the formation of an artificial canal 17 ft. in
depth closed by sluices at its junction with the river, and reaching
the sea at some distance from the natural embouchure. The
choice of St George's made by this commission was adopted at
Galatz in December 1858, and six of the seven representatives
voted for its canalization; but owing to various political and
financial considerations, it was ultimately decided to do nothing
more in the meantime than render permanent and effective
the provisional works already in progress at the Sulina mouth.
These consisted of two piers forming a seaward prolongation of
the fluvial channel, begun in 1858 and completed in 1861. The
northern pier had a length of 4631 ft., the southern of 3000,
and the depth of the water in which they were built varied from
6 to 20 ft. At the commencement of the works the depth of the
channel was only 9 ft. but by their completion it had increased
to 19 ft. The works designed and constructed by Sir Charles
Hartley had in fact proved so successful that nothing more was
ever heard of the St George's project. In 1865 a new lighthouse
was erected at the end of the north pier. The value of these
early works of the commission is shown by the fact that of 2928
vessels navigating the lower Danube in 1855, 36 were wrecked,
while of 2676 in 1865 only 7 were wrecked. In 1871 it was
found expedient to lengthen the piers seaward, and in 1876 the
south jetty was prolonged, so as to bring its end exactly opposite
the lighthouse on the north pier. This resulted in an increase of
the depth to 2o| ft., and for fifteen years, from 1879 to 1895, this
depth remained constant without the aid of dredging. In 1894,
owing to the constantly increasing size of vessels frequenting the
Danube, it was found necessary to deepen the entrance still
further, and to construct two parallel piers between the main
jetties, reducing the breadth of the river to 500 ft., and thereby
increasing the scour. There is now a continuous channel 24 ft.
in depth, 5200 ft. in length, and 300 ft. in width between the piers,
and 600 ft. outside the extremities of the piers, until deep water
is reached in the open sea. This depth is only maintained by
constant dredging. The engineers of the commission have been
equally successful in dealing with the Sulina branch of the river.
Its original length of 45 m. from St George's Chatal to the sea was
impeded at the commencement of the improvement works by
eleven bends, each with a radius of less than 1000 ft., besides
numerous others of somewhat larger radius, and its bed was
encumbered by ten shifting shoals, varying from 8 to 13 ft. in
depth at low water. By means of a series of training walls,
by groynes thrown out from the banks, by revetments of the
banks, and by dredging, all done with the view of narrowing the
river, a minimum depth of 11 ft. was attained in 1865, and 13 ft.
in 1 87 1. In 1880 the needs of commerce and the increased size
of steamers frequenting the river necessitated the construction
of a new entrance from the St George's branch. This work,
designed in 1857, Dut unexecuted during a quarter of a century,
owing to insufficiency of funds, was completed in 1882; and in
1886, after other comparatively short cuttings had been made to
get rid of difficult bends and further to deepen the channel
without having to resort to dredgers, the desired minimum depth
of 15 ft. was attained. Since that date a series of new cuttings

DANVERS— DANVILLE

823

has been made. These have shortened the length of the Sulina
canal by 11 nautical m., eliminated all the difficult bends and
shoals, and provided an almost straight waterway 34 m. in length
from Sulina to St George's Chatal, with a minimum depth of
20 ft. when the river is at its lowest.

In the early days of the commission, i.e. from 1857 to i860, the
money spent on the works of improvement, amounting to about
£150,000, was advanced as a loan by the then territorial power,
Turkey; but in i860 the commission began to levy taxes on
vessels frequenting the river, and since then has repaid its debt
to the Turkish government, as well as various loans for short
periods, and a larger one of £120,000 guaranteed by the powers,
and raised in 1868, mainly through the energy of the British
commissioner, Sir John Stokes. This last loan was paid off in
1882 and the commission became free from debt in 1887. It has
now an average annual income of about £80,000 derived from
taxes paid by ships when 1 leaving the river. The normal annual
expenditure amounts to about £56,000, while £24,000 is gener-
ally allotted to extraordinary works, such as new cuttings, &c.
Between 1857 and 1905 a sum of about one and three quarter
millions sterling was spent on engineering works, including the
construction of quays, lighthouses, workshops and buildings,
&c. Sulina from being a collection of mud hovels has developed
into a town with 5000 inhabitants; a well-found hospital has been
established where all merchant sailors receive gratuitous treat-
ment; lighthouses, quays, floating elevators and an efficient
pilot service all combine to make it a first-class port.

The result of all the combined works for the rectification of the
Danube is that from Sulina up to Braila the river is navigable for
sea-going vessels up to 4000 tons register, from Braila to Turnu
Severin it is open for sea-going vessels up to 600 tons, and for flat
barges of from 1 500 to 2000 tons capacity. From Turnu Severin
to Orsova navigation is confined to river steamers, tugs and
barges drawing 6 ft. of water. Thence to Vienna, the draught is
limited to 5 ft., and from Vienna to Regensburg to a somewhat
lower figure. Barges of 600 tons register can be towed from the
lower Danube to Regensburg. Here petroleum tanks have been
constructed for the storage of Rumanian petroleum, the first
consignment of which in 1898, conveyed in tank boats, took six
weeks on the voyage up from Giurgevo. The principal navigation
company on the upper Danube is the Societe Imperiale et Royale
Autrichienne of Vienna, which started operations in 1830. This
company also owns the Fiinfkirchen mines, producing annu^
ally 500,000 tons of coal. The society transports goods and
passengers between Galatz and Regensburg. A less important
society is the Rumanian State Navigation Company, possessing
a large flotilla of tugs and barges, which run to Budapest, where
they have established a combined service with the South Danube
German Company for the transport of goods from Pest to
Regensburg. A Hungarian Navigation Company, subsidized by
the state, has also been formed, and the Hungarian railways, the
Servian government and private owners own a large number of
tugs and barges.

But it is the trade of the lower Danube that has principally
benefited. Freights from Galatz and Braila to North Sea ports
have fallen from 50s. to about 12s. or even 10s. per ton. Sailing
ships of 200 tons register have given way to steamers up to
4000 tons register carrying a deadweight of nearly 8000 tons; and
good order has succeeded chaos. From 1847 to i860 an average
of 203 British ships entered the Danube averaging 193 tons each;
from 1861 to 1889; 486 ships averaging 796 tons; in 1893, 905
vessels of 1,287,762 tons, or 68% of the total traffic, and rather
more than two and a half times the total amount of British
tonnage visiting the Danube in the fourteen years between 1847
and i860. The average amount of cereals (principally wheat)
annually exported from the Danube during the period 1901-1905
was 13,000,000 quarters, i.e. about five times the average annual

1 Ships pay no taxes to the commission on entering the river, but
on leaving it every ship of over 1500 tons register pays is. 5d. per
registered ton if loaded at Galatz or Braila', or nd. per ton if loaded
at Sulina. This includes pilotage and light dues. Smaller vessels
pay less and ships of less than 300 tons are exempt.

exportation during the period 1861-1867. It has been calculated
that between 1861 and 1902 the total tonnage of ships frequenting
the Danube increased five-fold, while the mean size of individual
ships increased ten-fold.

Bibliography. — Marsiglius, Danubius Pannonico-Mysicus (the
Hague, 1726); Schulte, Donaufahrten ..(1819-1829) ; Planche,
Descent of the Danube (1828); Szechenyi, liber die Donauschijfahrt
(1836) ; A. M tiller, Die Donau vom Ursprunge bis zu den Mundungen
(1839^1841); J. G. Kohl, Die Donau (Trieste, 1853-1854); G. B.
Rennie, Suggestions for the Improvement of the Danube (1856); Sir
C. A. Hartley, Description of the Delta of the Danube (1862 and 1874) ;
Memoire sur le regime administratif etabli aux embouchures du
Danube (Galatz, 1867) ; Desjardins, Rhone et Danube, a defence of
the canalization scheme (Paris, 1870); Carte du Danube entre Braila
et la mer, published by the European Commission (Leipzig, 1874);
Peters, Die Donau und ihr Gebiet, eine geologische Studie (1876);
A. F. Heksch, Guide illustre sur le Danube (Vienna, 1883); F. D.
Millet, The Danube (New York, 1893) ; Schweiger-Lerchenfeld, Die
Donau als Volkerweg, Schiffahrtsslrasse, und Reiseroute (Vienna,
1895); D. A. Sturza, La Question des Portes de Fer et des cataractes
du Danube (Berlin, 1899); A. de Saint Clair, Le Danube: etude de
droit international (Paris, 1899); D. A. Sturdza, Recueil de docu-
ments relatifs & la liberie de navigation du Danube, pp. 933 (Berlin,
1904) ; A. Schroth-Ukmar, Donausagen von Passau bis Wien
(Vienna, 1904). (H. Tr.)

DANVERS, a township of Essex county, on the coast of
Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 19 m. N. by E. of Boston. Pop.
(1890) 7454; (1900) 8542, of whom 1873 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 9407. Danvers includes an area of 14 sq. m. of
level country diversified by hills. There are several villages or
business centres, the largest of which, bearing the same name
as the township, is served by the Boston & Maine railway. In
the township are a state insane asylum, with accommodation for
1000 patients; St John's Preparatory College (Roman Catholic),
conducted by the Xavierian Brothers; and, in Peabody Park,
the Peabody Institute, with a good public library and museum,
the gift (1867) of George Peabody. The Danvers historical
society has a valuable collection. Although chiefly a residential
town, Danvers has various manufactures, the most important of
which are leather, boots and shoes, bricks, boxes and electric
lamps. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$2,017,908, of which more than one half was the value of leather.
Danvers owns its water-works and its electric lighting and power
plant. A part of what is now Danvers was included in the grant
made by the court of assistants to Governor John Endecott and
the Rev. Samuel Skelton of the Salem church in 1632. Danvers
was set off from Salem as a district in 1752 and was incorporated
as a township in 1757, but the act of incorporation was disallowed
in 1759 by the privy council on the recommendation of the board
of trade, in view of George II. 's disapproval of the incorporation
of new townships at that time, — hence the significance of the
words on the seal of Danvers, " The King Unwilling "; in 1775
the district was again incorporated. Salem Village, a part of
the present township, was the centre of the famous witchcraft
delusion in 1692. In 1885 South Danvers was set off as a separate
township, and in 1868 was named Peabody in honour of George
Peabody, who was born and is buried there. In 1857 part of
Beverly was annexed to Danvers. Among distinguished natives
of Danvers are Samuel Holton (1738-18 16), a member (1 778-1 780
and 1782-1787) of the Continental Congress and (1793-1795) of
the Federal Congress; Israel Putnam; Moses Porter (1755-1822),
who served through the War of Independence and the War of
1812; and Grenville Mellen Dodge (b. 1831), a prominent rail-
way engineer, who fought in the Union army in the Civil War,
reaching the rank of major-general of volunteers, was a Re-
publican member of the national House of Representatives in
1867-1869, and in 1898 president of the commission which
investigated the management of the war with Spain.

See J. W. Hanson, History of the Town of Danvers (Danvers, 1848) ;
Ezra D. Hines, Historic Danvers (Danvers, 1894) and Historical
Address (Boston, 1907), in celebration of the 150th anniversary of
the first incorporation; and A. P. White, " History of Danvers " in
History of Essex County, Mass. (Philadelphia, 1888).

DANVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Vermilion county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, near the Big Vermilion
river, 120 m. S. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 11,491; (1900) 16,354,

824

DANVILLE— DANZIG

of whom 1435 were foreign-born; (1010) 27,871. Danville
is served by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois (whose shops are
here), the Wabash, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern, and the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by three
interurban lines. There are three public parks (Lincoln, Douglas
and Ellsworth), a Carnegie library (1883), and a national home
for disabled volunteer soldiers (opened in 1898). Situated in the
vicinity of an extensive coalfield (the Grape Creek district),
Danville has a large trade in coal; it has also several manufactur-
ing establishments engaged principally in the construction and
repair of railway cars, and in the manufacture of bricks, foundry
products, glass, carriages, flour and hominy. The value of the
factory products of the city in 1905 was $3,304,120, an increase
of 72-7 % since 1900. Danville was first settled about 1830 and
was first incorporated in 1839; in 1874 it was chartered as a city
under the general state law of 1872 for the incorporation of
municipalities. It annexed Vermilion Heights in 1905, South
Danville (pop. in 1900, 898) in 1906, and Germantown (pop. in
1900, 1782) and Roselawn in 1907.

DANVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Boyle county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., 113 m. S. by W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890)
3766; (1900) 4285 (1913 negroes) (1910) 5420. The city is
served by the Southern and the Cincinnati Southern railways,
the latter connecting at Junction city (4 m. S.) with the Louis-
ville & Nashville railway. Danville is an attractive city,
situated in the S.E. part of the fertile " Blue Grass region "
of Kentucky. In McDowell Park there is a monument to the
memory of Dr Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830), who after 1795
lived in Danville, and is famous for having performed in
1809 the first entirely successful operation for the removal of
an ovarian tumour. Danville is the seat of several educational
institutions, the most important of which is the Central Uni-
versity of Kentucky (Presbyterian), founded in 1901 by the
consolidation of Centre College (opened at Danville in 1823),
and the Central University (opened at Richmond, Ky., in 1874).
The law school also is in Danville. The classical, scientific and
literary department of the present university is still known as
Centre College; the medical and dental departments are in Louis-
ville, and the university maintains a preparatory school, the
Centre College academy, at Danville. In 1908 the university had
87 instructors and 696 students. Other institutions at Danville
are Caldwell College for women (i860; Presbyterian), and the
Kentucky state institution for deaf mutes (1823). The Transyl-
vania seminary was opened here in 1785, but four years later
was removed to Lexington (q.v.), and a Presbyterian theological
seminary was founded here in 1853, but was merged with the
Louisville theological seminary (known after 1902 as the
Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky) in 1901. The
municipality owns and operates its water-works and power plant.
From its first settlement in 1781 until the admission of Kentucky
into the Union in 1792 Danville was an important political centre.
There was an influential political club here from 1786 to 1790,
and here, too, sat the several conventions — nine in all — which
asked for a separation from Virginia, discussed the proposed
conditions of separation from that commonwealth, framed the
first state constitution, and chose Frankfort as the capital.
Danville was incorporated in 1789. It was the birthplace of
James G. Birney and of Theodore O'Hara.

DANVILLE, a borough and the county-seat of Montour
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. branch of the Susque-
hanna riverj about 65 m. N. by E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890)
7998; (1900) 8042, of whom 771 were foreign-born; (191°
census) 7517. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by
electric railway to Bloomsburg. The borough is built on an
elevated bank of the river at the base of Montour Ridge, where
the narrow valley appears to be shut in on every side by hills;
the river is spanned by a steel bridge, built in 1905. Iron, coal
and limestone abound in the vicinity, and the borough has large
manufactories of stoves and furnaces, and of iron and steel, in one
of which in 1845 a " T "-rail, probably the first in America, was
rolled. It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (established

in 1868) . The water- works and electric light plant are owned and
operated by the municipality. A settlement was founded here
about 1776 by Captain William Montgomery and his son Daniel;
and a town was laid out in 1792 and called Dan's Town until the
present name was adopted a few years later. Growth was slow
until the discovery of iron ore on Montour Ridge, followed in
1832 by the completion of the N. branch of the Pennsylvania
Canal, which runs through the centre of the borough. Danville
was incorporated in 1849.

DANVILLE, a city in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, U.S.A., on
the Dan river about 140 m. (by rail) S.W. of Richmond. Pop.
(1890) 10,305; (1900) 16,520 (6515 negroes); (1910) 19,020. It
is on the main line of the Southern railway, and is the terminus
of branches to Richmond and Norfolk; it is also served by the
Danville & Western railway, a road (75 m. long) connecting with
Stuart, Va., and controlled by the Southern, though operated
independently. The city is built on high ground above the river.
It has a city hall, a general hospital, a Masonic temple, and a
number of educational institutions, including the Roanoke
College (i860; Baptist), for young women; the Randolph-
Macon Institute (1897; Methodist Episcopal, South), for girls;
and a commercial college. The river furnishes valuable water-
power, which is utilized by the city's manufactories (value of
product in 1900, third in rank in the state, $8,103,484, of which
only $3,693,792 was " factory " product; in 1905 the " factory "
product was valued at $4,774,818), including cotton mills— in
1905 Danville ranked first among the cities of the state in the
value of cotton goods produced — a number of tobacco factories,
furniture and overall factories, and flour and knitting mills.
The city is a jobbing centre and wholesale market for a consider-
able area in southern Virginia and northern North Carolina, and
is probably the largest loose-leaf tobacco market in the country,
selling about 40,000,000 ft annually. In the industrial suburb
of Schoolfield, which in 1908 had a population of about 3000, there
is a large textile mill. The city owns and operates its water-
supply system (with an excellent filtration plant installed in 1904)
and its gas and electric lighting plants. Danville was settled
about 1770, was first incorporated as a town in 1792, and became
a city in 1833; it is politically independent of Pittsylvania
county. To Danville, after the evacuation of Richmond on the
2nd of April 1865, the archives of the Confederacy were carried,
and here President Jefferson Davis paused for a few days in his
flight southward.

DANZIG, or Dantsic (Polish Gdansk), a strong maritime
fortress and seaport of Germany, capital of the province of West
Prussia, on the left bank of the western arm of the Vistula,
4 m. S. of its entrance, at Neufahrwasser, into the Baltic, 253 m.
N.E. from Berlin by rail. Pop. (1885) 114,805; (1905) 159,088.
The city is traversed by two branches of the Mottlau, a small
tributary of the Vistula, dredged to a depth of 15 ft., thus enab-
ling large vessels to reach the wharves of the inner town. The
strong fortifications which, with ramparts, bastions and wet
ditches, formerly entirely surrounded the city, were removed on
the north and west sides in 1895-1896, the trenches filled in, and
the area thus freed laid out on a spacious plan. One portion,
acquired by the municipality, has been turned into promenades
and gardens, the Steffens Park, outside the Olivaer Tor, fifty acres
in extent, occupying the north-western corner. The remainder of
the massive defences remain, with twenty bastions, in the hands
of the military authorities; the works for laying the surrounding
country under water on the eastern side have been modernized,
and the western side defended by a cordon of forts crowning the
hills and extending down to the port of Neufahrwasser.

Danzig almost alone of larger German cities still preserves its
picturesque medieval aspect. The grand old patrician houses of
the days of its Hanseatic glory, with their lofty and often elabor-
ately ornamented gables and their balconied windows, are the
delight of the visitor to the town. Only one ancient feature is
rapidly disappearing — owing to the exigencies of street traffic —
the stone terraces close to the entrance doors and abutting on the
street. Of its old gates the Hohe Tor, modelled after a Roman
triumphal arch, is a remarkable monumental erection of the 16th

DAPHLA HILLS— DAPHNEPHORIA

825

century. From it runs the Lange Gasse, the main street, to the
Lange Markt. On this square stands the Artus- or Junker-hof
(the merchant princes of the middle ages were in Germany styled
Junker, squire), containing a hall richly decorated with wood
carving and pictures, once used as a banqueting-room and now
serving as the exchange. There are twelve Protestant and seven
Roman Catholic churches and two synagogues. Gf these the
most important is St Mary's, begun in 1343 and completed in
1503, one of the largest Protestant churches in existence. It
possesses a famous painting of the Last Judgment, formerly
attributed to Jan van Eyck, but probably by Memlinc. Among
other ancient buildings of note are the beautiful Gothic town hall,
surmounted by a graceful spire, the armoury (Zeughaus) and
the Franciscan monastery, restored in 187 1, and now housing
the municipal picture gallery and a collection of antiquities.
Of modern structures, the government offices, the house of the
provincial diet, the post office and the palace of the commander
of the 1 7th army corps, which has its headquarters in Danzig, are
the most noteworthy.

The manufacture of arms and artillery is carried on to a great
extent, and the imperial and private docks and shipbuilding
establishments, notably the Schichau yard, turn out ships of the
largest size. The town is famous for its amber, beer, brandy and
liqueurs, and its transit trade makes it one of the most important
commercial cities of northern Europe. Danzig originally owed its
commercial importance to the fact that it was the shipping port
for the corn grown in Poland and the adjacent regions of Russia
and Prussia; but for some few years past this trade has been
slipping away from her. On the other hand, her trade in timber
and sugar has grown proportionally. Nevertheless energetic
efforts are being made to check any loss of importance — first, in
1898, by a determined attempt to make Danzig an industrial
centre, manufacturing on a large scale; and secondly, by the
construction and opening in 1899 of a free harbour at Neufahr-
wasser at the mouth of the Vistula. The industries which it has
been the principal aim to foster and further develop are ship-
building (naval and marine), steel foundries and rolling mills,
sugar refineries, flour and oil mills, and distilleries.

History. — The origin of Danzig is unknown, but it is mentioned
in 997 as an important town. At different times it was held by
Pomerania, Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark, and in 1308
it fell into the hands of the Teutonic knights, under whose
rule it long prospered. It was one of the four chief towns of
the Hanseatic League. In 1455, when the Teutonic Order had
become thoroughly corrupt, Danzig shook off its yoke and sub-
mitted to the king of Poland, to whom it was formally ceded,
along with the whole of West Prussia, at the peace of Thorn.
Although nominally subject to Poland, and represented in the
Polish diets and at the election of Polish kings, it enjoyed the
rights of a free city, and governed a considerable territory with
more than thirty villages. It suffered severely through various
wars of the 17 th and 18th centuries, and in 1734, having declared
in favour of Stanislus Leszczynski, was besieged and taken by the
Russians and Saxons. At the first partition of Poland, in 1772,
Danzig was separated from that kingdom; and in 1793 it came
into the possession of Prussia. In 1807, during the war between
France and Prussia, it was bombarded and captured by Marshal
Lefebvre, who was rewarded with the title of duke of Danzig;
and at the peace of Tilsit Napoleon declared it a free town, under
the protection of France, Prussia and Saxony, restoring to it its
ancient territory. A French governor, however, remained in it,
and by compelling it to submit to the continental system almost
ruined its trade. It was given back to Prussia in 1814.

See J. C. Schultz, Danzig und seine Bauwerke (Berlin, 1873) ;
Wistulanus, Geschichte der Stadt Danzig (Danzig, 1891); Defense de
Dantzig en 1813 ; documents militaires du lieutenant-general Campredon,
pub. by Auriel (Paris, 1888); Daniel, Deutschland (Leipzig, 1895).

DAPHLA (or Dafla) HILLS, a tract of hilly country on the
border of Eastern Bengal and Assam, occupied by an independent
tribe called Daphla. It lies to the north of the Tezpur and North
Lakhimpur subdivisions, and is bounded on the west by the Aka
Hills and on the east by the Abor range. Colonel Dalton in

The Ethnology of Bengal considers the Daphlas to be closely allied
to the hill Miris, and they are akin to and intermarry with the
Abors. They have a reputation for cowardice, and as politically
they are disunited, they are at the mercy of the Akas, their
less numerous but more warlike neighbours on the west. Their
clothing is scanty, and its most distinguishing feature is a cane
cap with a fringe of bearskin or feathers, which gives them a very
curious appearance. The men wear their hair in a plait, which is
coiled into a ball on the forehead, to which they fasten their
caps with a long skewer. In 1872 a party of independent
Daphlas suddenly attacked a colony of their own tribesmen, who
had settled at Amtola in British territory, and carried away forty-
four captives to the hills. This led to the Daphla expedition of
1874, when a force of 1000 troops released the prisoners and
reduced the tribe to submission. According to the census of 1901
the Daphlas in British territory numbered 954, the tribal country
not being enumerated.

DAPHNAE (Tahpanhes, Taphne; mod. Defenneh), an ancient
fortress near the Syrian frontier of Egypt, on the Pelusian arm of
the Nile. Here King Psammetichus established a garrison of
foreign mercenaries, mostly Carians and Ionian Greeks (Herodotus
ii. 154). After the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar
in 588 B.C., the Jewish fugitives, of whom Jeremiah was one, came
to Tahpanhes. When Naucratis was given by Amasis II. the
monopoly of Greek traffic, the Greeks were all removed from
Daphnae, and the place never recovered its prosperity; in
Herodotus's time the deserted remains of the docks and buildings
were visible. The site was discovered by Prof. W. M. Flinders
Petrie in 1886; the name " Castle of the Jew's Daughter "
seems to preserve the tradition of the Jewish refugees. There is
a massive fort and enclosure; the chief discovery was a large
number of fragments of pottery, which are of great importance
for the chronology of vase-painting, since they must belong to
the time between Psammetichus and Amasis, i.e. the end of the
7th or the beginning of the 6th century B.C. They show the
characteristics of Ionian art, but their shapes and other details
testify to their local manufacture.

See'W.M. F. Petrie, Tanis II., Nebesheh, and Defenneh (4th Memoir
of the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1888). (E. Gr.)

DAPHNE (Gr. for a laurel tree), in Greek mythology, the
daughter of the Arcadian river-god Ladon or the Thessalian
Peneus, or of the Laconian Amyclas. She was beloved by Apollo,
and when pursued by him was changed by her mother Gaea into
a laurel tree sacred to the god (Ovid, Metam. i. 452-567). In
the Peloponnesian legends, another suitor of Daphne, Leucippus,
son of Oenomatis of Pisa, disguised himself as a girl and joined her
companions. His sex was discovered while bathing, and he was
slain by the nymphs (Pausanias viii. 20; Parthenius, Erotica, 15).

DAPHNE, in botany, a genus of shrubs, belonging to the
natural order Thymelaeaceae, and containing about forty species,
natives of Europe and temperate Asia. D. Laureola, spurge
laurel, a small evergreen shrub with green flowers in the leaf axils
towards the ends of the branches and ovoid black very poisonous
berries, is found in England in copses and on hedge-banks in stiff
soils. D. Mezereum, mezereon, a rather larger shrub, 2 to 4 ft.
high, has deciduous leaves, and bears fragrant pink flowers in
clusters in the axils of last season's leaves, in early spring before
the foliage. The bright red ovoid berries are cathartic, the whole
plant is acrid and poisonous, and the bark is used medicinally.
It is a native of Europe and north Asia, and found apparently wild
in copses and woods in Britain. It is a well-known garden plant,
and several other species of the genus are cultivated in the opeif
air and as greenhouse plants. D. Cneorum (Europe) is a hardy
evergreen trailing shrub, with bright pink sweet-scented flowers.
D. pontica (Eastern Europe) is a hardy spreading evergreen
with greenish-yellow fragrant flowers. D. indica (China) and
D. japonica (Japan) are greenhouse evergreens with respectively
red or white and pinkish-purple flowers.

DAPHNEPHORIA, a festival held every ninth year at Thebes
in Boeotia in honour of Apollo Ismenius or Galaxius. It consisted
of a procession in which the chief figure was a boy of good family
and noble appearance, whose father and mother must be alive.

826

DAPHNIS— D'ARBLAY

Immediately in front of this boy, who was called Daphnephoros
(laurel bearer), walked one of his nearest relatives, carrying an
olive branch hung with laurel and flowers and having on the
upper end a bronze ball from which hung several smaller balls.
Another smaller ball was placed on the middle of the branch or
pole (called kwtvw), which was then twined round with purple
ribbons, and at the lower end with saffron ribbons. These balls
were said to indicate the sun, stars and moon, while the ribbons
referred to the days qf the year, being 365 in number. The Daphne-
phoros, wearing a golden crown, or a wreath of laurel, richly
dressed and partly holding the pole, was followed by a chorus of
maidens carrying suppliant branches and singing a hymn to the
god. The Daphnephoros dedicated a bronze tripod in the temple
of Apollo, and Pausanias (ix. 10. 4) mentions the tripod dedicated
there by Amphitryon when his son Heracles had been Daphne-
phoros. The festival is described by Proclus (in Photius cod. 239).
See also A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898) ; C. O. Miiller,
Orchomenos (1844) ; article in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire
des antiquites.

DAPHNIS, the legendary hero of the shepherds of Sicily, and
reputed inventor of bucolic poetry. The chief authorities for his
story are Diodorus Siculus, Aelian and Theocritus. According
to his countryman Diodorus (iv. 84) , and Aelian ( Var. Hist.,%. 18),
Daphnis was the son of Hermes (in his character of the shepherd-
god) and a Sicilian nymph, and was born or exposed and found
by shepherds in a grove of laurels (whence his name.) He was
brought up by the nymphs, or by shepherds, and became the
owner of flocks and herds, which he tended while playing on the
syrinx. When in the first bloom of youth, he won the affection
of a nymph, who made him promise to love none but her,
threatening that, if he proved unfaithful, he would lose his eye-
sight. He failed to keep his promise and was smitten with blind-
ness. Daphnis, who endeavoured to console himself by playing
the flute and singing shepherds' songs, soon afterwards died. He
fell from a cliff, or was changed into a rock, or was taken up to
heaven by his father Hermes, who caused a spring of water to
gush out from the spot where his son had been carried off. Ever
afterwards the Sicilians offered sacrifices at this spring as an
expiatory offering for the youth's early death. There is little
doubt that Aelian in his account follows Stesichorus (q.v.) of
Himera, who in like manner had been blinded by the vengeance
of a woman (Helen) and probably sang of the sufferings of
Daphnis in his recantation. Nothing is said of Daphnis's blind-
ness by Theocritus, who dwells on his amour with Nais; his
victory over Menalcas in a poetical competition; his love for
Xenea brought about by the wrath of Aphrodite ; his wanderings
through the woods while suffering the torments of unrequited love ;
his death just at the moment when Aphrodite, moved by com-
passion, endeavours (but too late) to save him; the deep sorrow,
shared by nature and all created things, for his untimely end
(Theocritus i. vii. viii.). A later form of the legend identifies
Daphnis with a Phrygian hero, and makes him the teacher of
Marsyas. The legend of Daphnis and his early death may be
compared with those of Narcissus, Linus and Adonis — all
beautiful youths cut off in their prime, typical of the luxuriant
growth of vegetation in the spring, and its sudden withering away
beneath the scorching summer sun.

See F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften zur griechischen Litteratur~
geschichte, i. (1844); C. F. Hermann, De Daphnide Theocriti (1853);
R. H. Klausen, Aeneas und die Penaten, i. (1840); R. Reitzenstein,
Epigramm und Skolion (1893) ; H. W. Prescott in Harvard Studies, x.
(1899); H. W. Stoll in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and
G. Knaack in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie.

DARAB (originally DarAbgerd), a district of the province
of Fars in Persia. It has sixty-two villages, and possesses a hot
climate, snow being rarely seen there in winter. It produces a
great quantity of dates and much tobacco, which is considered
the best in Persia. The town Darab, the capital of the district,
is situated in a very fertile plain, 140 m. S.E. of Shiraz. It has
a population of about 5000, and extensive orchards of orange
and lemon trees and immense plantations of date-palms. Legend
ascribes the foundation of the city to Darius, hence its name
Darab-gerd (Darius- town). In the neighbourhood there are

various remains of antiquity, the most important of which
31 m. S., is known as the Kalah i Darab, or citadel of Darius, and
consists of a series of earthworks arranged in a circle round
an isolated rock. Nothing, however, remains to fix the date or
explain the history of the fortification. Another monument in the
vicinity is a gigantic bas-relief, carved on the vertical face of a
rock, representing the victory of the Sassanian Shapur I. (Sapor)
of Persia over the Roman emperor Valerian, a.d. 260.

DARBHANGA, a town and district of British India, in the
Patna division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the
Little Baghmati river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901)
66,244. The town is really a collection of villages that have
grown up round the residence of the raja. This is a magnificent
palace, with gardens, a menagerie and a good library. There
are a first-class hospital, with a Lady Dufferin hospital attached;
a handsome market-place, and an Anglo-vernacular school.
The district of Darbhanga extends from the Nepal frontier to the
Ganges. It was constituted in 1875 out of the unwieldy district
of Tirhoot. Its area is 3348 sq. m. In 1901 the population was
2,912,611, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. The district
consists entirely of an alluvial plain, in which the principal rivers
are the Ganges, Buri Gandak, Baghmati and Little Baghmati,
Balan and Little Balan, and Tiljuga. The land is especially fertile
in the more elevated part of the district S.W. of the Buri Gandak;
rice is the. staple crop, and it may be noted that the cultivator
in Darbhanga is especially dependent on the winter harvest.
The chief exports are rice, indigo, linseed and other seeds, saltpetre
and tobacco. There are several indigo factories and saltpetre
refineries, and a tobacco factory. The district is traversed by the
main line of the Bengal & North- Western railway and by branch
lines, part of which were begun as a famine relief work in 1874.

The maharaja bahadur of Darbhanga, a Rajput, whose ancestor
Mahesh Thakor received the Darbhanga raj (which includes large
parts of the modern districts of Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur,
Monghyr, Purnea and Bhagalpur) from the emperor Akbar early
in the 16th century, is not only the premier territorial noble of
Behar but one of the greatest noblemen of all India. Maharaja
Lachhmeswar Singh Bahadur, who succeeded to the raj in i860
and died in 1898, was distinguished for his public services, and
especially as one of the most munificent of living philanthropists.
Under his supervision his raj came to be regarded as the model
for good and benevolent management; he constructed hundreds
of miles of roads planted with trees, bridged all the rivers, and
constructed irrigation works on a great scale. His charities were
without limit; thus he contributed £300,000 for the relief of the
sufferers from the Bengal famine of 1873-1874, and it is computed
that during his possession of the raj he expended at least
£2,000,000 on charities, works of public utility, and charitable
remissions of rent. For many years he served as a member of the
legislative council of the viceroy with conspicuous ability and
moderation of view. As representative of the landowners of
Berar and Bengal he took an important part in the discussion
on the Bengal Tenancy Bill. He was succeeded by his brother,
Maharaja Rameshwar Singh Bahadur, who was born on the 16th
of January i860, and on attaining his majority in 1878 was
appointed to the Indian Civil Service, serving as assistant
magistrate successively at Darbhanga, Chhapra and Bhagalpur.
In 1886 he was created a raja bahadur, exempted from attend-
ance at the civil courts, and appointed a member of the legislative
council of Bengal. He was created a maharaja bahadur on his
succession to the raj in 1898. Like his brother, he was educated
by an English tutor, and his administration carried on the
enlightened traditions of his predecessor.

See Sir Roper Lethbridge, The Golden Book of India.

D'ARBLAY, FRANCES (1752-1840), English novelist and
diarist, better known as Fanny Burney, daughter of Dr Charles
Burney (q.v.), was born at King's Lynn, Norfolk, on the 13th of
June 1752. Her mother was Esther Sleepe, granddaughter of a
French refugee named Dubois. Fanny was the fourth child in a
family of six. Of her brothers, James (1750-1821) became an
admiral and sailed with Captain Cook on his second and third
voyages, and Charles Burney (1757-1817) was a well-known

D'ARBLAY

827

classical scholar. In 1760 the family removed to London, and
Dr Burney, who was now a fashionable music master, took a
house in Poland Street. Mrs Burney died in 1761, when Fanny
was only nine years old. Her sisters Esther (Hetty), afterwards
Mrs Charles Rousseau Burney, and Susanna, afterwards Mrs
Phillips, were sent to school in Paris, but Fanny was left to
educate herself. Early in 1766 she paid her first visit to Dr
Burney's friend Samuel Crisp at Chessington Hall, near Epsom.
Dr Burney had first made Samuel Crisp's acquaintance about
1745 at the house of Fulke Greville, grandfather of the diarists,
and the two studied music while the rest of the guests hunted.
Crisp wrote a play, Virginia, which was staged by David Garrick
in 1754 at the request of the beautiful countess of Coventry (nee
Maria Gunning). The play had no great success, and in 1764
Crisp established himself in retirement at Chessington Hall,
where he frequently entertained his sister, Mrs Sophia Gast, of
Burford, Oxfordshire, and Dr Burney and his family, to whom
he was familiarly known as " daddy " Crisp. 1 It was to her
" daddy " Crisp and her sister Susan that Fanny Burney addressed
large portions of her diary and many of her letters. After his
wife's death in 1767, Dr Burney married Elizabeth Allen, widow
of a King's Lynn wine-merchant.

From her fifteenth year Fanny lived in the midst of an excep-
tionally brilliant social circle, gathered round her father in Poland
Street, and later in his new home in St Martin's Street, Leicester
Fields. Garrick was a constant visitor, and would arrive before
eight o'clock in the morning. Of the various " lyons " they
entertained she leaves a graphic account, notably of Omai,
the Otaheitan native, and of Alexis Orlov, the favourite of
Catherine II. of Russia. Dr Johnson she first met at her father's
home in March 1777. Her father's drawing-room, where she met
many of the chief musicians, actors and authors of the day, was
in fact Fanny's only school. Her reading, however, was by
no means limited. Macaulay stated that in the whole of Dr
Burney's library there was but one novel; Fielding's Amelia;
but Austin Dobson points out that she was acquainted with the
abbe Prevost's Doyen de Killerine, and with Marivaux's Vie de
Marianne, besides Clarissa Harlowe and the books of Mrs
Elizabeth Griffith and Mrs Frances Brooke. Her diary also
contains the record of much more strenuous reading. Her step-
mother, a woman of some cultivation, did not encourage habits
of scribbling. Fanny, therefore, made a bonfire of her MSS.,
among them a History of Caroline Evelyn, a story containing an
account of Evelina's mother. Luckily her journal did not meet
with the same fate. The first entry in it was made on the 30th of
May 1768, and it extended over seventy-two years. The earlier
portions of it underwent wholesale editing in later days, and much
of it was entirely obliterated. She planned out Evelina, or A
Young Lady's Entrance into the World, long before it was written
down. Evelina was published by Thomas Lowndes in the end of
January 1778, but it was not until June that Dr Burney learned
its authorship, when the book had been reviewed and praised
everywhere. Fanny proudly told Mrs Thrale the secret. Mrs
Thrale wrote to Dr Burney on the 22nd of July: " Mr Johnson
returned home full of the Prayes of the Book I had lent him, and
protesting that there were passages in it which might do honour
to Richardson: we talk of it for ever, and he feels ardent after
the denouement; he could not get rid of the Rogue, he said."
Miss Burney soon visited the Thrales at Streatham, " the most
consequential day I have spent since my birth " she calls the
occasion. It was the prelude to much longer visits there. Dr
Johnson's best compliments were made for her benefit, and
eagerly transcribed in her diary. His affectionate friendship for
" little Burney " only ceased with his death.

Evelina was a continued success. Sir Joshua Reynolds sat up all
night to read it, as did Edmund Burke, who came next to Johnson
in Miss Burney's esteem. She was introduced to Elizabeth
Montagu and the other bluestocking ladies, to Richard Brinsley
Sheridan, and to the gay Mrs Mary Cholmondeley, the sister of
Peg Woffington, whose manners, as . described in the diary,

1 His letters to Mrs Gast and another sister, Anne, were edited
with the title of Burford Papers (1906), by W. H. Hutton.

explain much of Evelina. At the suggestion of Mrs Thrale, and
with offers of help from Arthur Murphy, and encouragement from
Sheridan, Fanny began to write a comedy. Crisp, realizing the
limitations of her powers, tried to dissuade her, and the piece,
The Witlings, was suppressed in deference to what she called a
" hissing, groaning, catcalling epistle " from her two " daddies."
Meanwhile her intercourse with Mrs Thrale proved very exacting,
and left her little time for writing. She went with her to Bath
in 1780, and was at Streatham again in 1781. Her next book was
written partly at Chessington and after much discussion with
Mr Crisp. Cecilia; or, Memoirs of an Heiress, by the author of
Evelina, was published in 5 vols, in 1782 by Messrs Payne &
Cadell (who paid the author £250 — not £2000 as stated by
Macaulay). If Cecilia has not quite the freshness and charm
of Evelina, it is more carefully constructed, and contains many
happy examples of what Johnson called Miss Burney's gift of
" character-mongering." Burke sent her a letter full of high
praise. But some of her friends found the writing too often
modelled on Johnson's, and Horace Walpole thought the person-
ages spoke too uniformly in character.

On the 24th of April 1783, Fanny Burney's " most judicious
adviser and stimulating critic," "daddy" Crisp, died. He was
her devoted friend, as she was to him, " the dearest thing on
earth." The next year she was to lose two more friends. Mrs
Thrale married Piozzi, and Johnson died. Fanny had met the
celebrated Mrs Delany in 1783, and she now attached herself to
her. Mrs Delany, who was living (1785) in a house near Windsor
Castle presented to her by George III., was on the friendliest
terms with both the king and queen, and Fanny was honoured
with more than one royal interview. Queen Charlotte, soon after-
wards, offered Miss Burney the post of second keeper of the robes,;
with a salary of £200 a year, which after some hesitation was
accepted. Much has been said against Dr Burney for allowing
the authoress of Evelina and Cecilia to undertake an office which
meant separation from all her friends and a wearisome round of
court ceremonial. On the other hand, it may be fairly urged that
Fanny's literary gifts were really limited. She had written
nothing for four years, and apparently felt she had used her
best material. " What my daddy Crisp says," she wrote as early
as 1779, " ' that it would be the best policy, but for pecuniary
advantages, for me to write no more,' is exactly what I have
always thought since Evelina was published " {Diary, i. 258).
Her misgivings as to her unfitness for court life were quite
justified. From Queen Charlotte she received unvarying kind-
ness, though she was not very clever with her waiting-maid's
duties. She had to attend the queen's toilet, to take care of her
lap-dog and her snuff-box, and to help her senior, Mrs Schwellen-
berg, in entertaining the king's equerries and visitors at tea.
The constant association with Mrs Schwellenberg, who has been
described as " a peevish old person of uncertain temper and
impaired health, swaddled in the . buckram of backstairs
etiquette, " proved to be the worst part of Fanny's duties. Her
diary is full of amusing court gossip, and sometimes deals with
graver matters, notably in the account of Warren Hastings'
trial, and in the story of the beginning of George III.'s madness,
as seen by a member of his household. But the strain told on her
health, and after pressure both from Fanny and her numerous
friends, Dr Burney prepared with her a joint memorial asking
the queen's leave to resign. She left the royal service in July
1 791 with a retiring pension of £100 a year, granted from the
queen's private purse, and returned to her father's house at
Chelsea. Dr Burney had been appointed organist at Chelsea
Hospital in 1783, through Burke's influence.

In 1792 she became acquainted with a group of French exiles,
who had taken a house, Juniper Hall, near Mickleham, where
Fanny's sister, Mrs Phillips, lived. On the 31st of July 1793 she
married one of the exiles, Alexandre D'Arblay, an artillery
officer, who had been adjutant-general to La Fayette. They
took a cottage at Bookham on the strength, it appears, of Miss
Burney's pension. In 1793 she produced her Brief Reflections
relative to the Emigrant French Clergy. Her son Alexandre was
born on the 18th of December 1794. In the following spring

828

DARBOY— DARCY

Sheridan produced at Drury Lane her Edwy and Elgiva, a tragedy
which was not saved even by the acting of the Kembles and Mrs
Siddons. The play was never printed. Money was now a serious
object, and Madame D'Arblay was therefore persuaded to issue
her next novel, Camilla: or A Picture of Youth (5 vols., 1796),
by subscription. A month after publication Dr Burney told
Horace Walpole that his daughter had made £2000 by the book,
and this sum was almost certainly augmented later. It is interest-
ing to note that Jane Austen was among the subscribers. Unfor-
tunately its literary success was not as great. " How I like
Camilla? " wrote Horace Walpole to Miss Hannah More (August
29th, 1796), " I do not care to say how little. Alas! she has
reversed experience . . . this author knew the world and
penetrated characters before she had stepped over the threshold;
and, now she has seen so much of it, she has little or no insight
at all: perhaps she apprehended having seen too much, and kept
the bags of foul air that she brought from the Cave of Tempests
too closely tied." Nevertheless Camilla has found judicious
persons to admire it, notably Jane Austen in Northanger Abbey.
A second play, Love and Fashion, was actually put in rehearsal in
1799, but was withdrawn in the next year. In 1801 Madame
D'Arblay accompanied her husband to Paris, where General
D'Arblay eventually obtained a place in the civil service. In
181 2 she returned to England, bringing with her her son Alexandre
to escape the conscription. In 1814 she published The Wanderer ;
or Female Difficulties. Possibly because readers expected to find
a description of her impressions of revolutionary France, it had
a large sale, from which the author realized £7000. Nobody,
it has been said, ever read The Wanderer. In the end of the
year General D'Arblay came to England and took his wife
back to France. During the Hundred Days of 1815 she was
in Belgium, and the vivid account in her Diary of Brussels
during Waterloo may have been used by Thackeray in Vanity
Fair. General D'Arblay now received permission to settle in
England. After his death, which took- place at Bath on the 3rd
of May 1 81 8, his wife lived in Bolton Street, Piccadilly. There
she was visited in 1826 by Sir Walter Scott, who describes her
{Journal, November 18th, 1826) as an elderly lady with no
remains of personal beauty, but with a gentle manner and a
pleasing countenance. The later years of her life were occupied
with the editing of the Memoirs of Dr Burney, arranged from his
own Manuscripts, from family papers and from personal recollec-
tions (3 vols., 1832). Her style had, as time went on, altered for
the worse, and this book is full of extraordinary affectations.
Madame D'Arblay died in London on the 6th of January 1840
and was buried at Walcot, Bath, near her son and husband.

Madame D'Arblay is still read in Evelina, but her best title to
the affections of modern readers is the Diary and Letters. The
small egotisms of the writer do not alienate other readers as they
did John Wilson Croker. Dr Johnson lives in its pages almost as
vividly as in those of Boswell, and King George and his wife in a
friendlier light than in most of their contemporary portraits.
Croker, in TheQuarterly Review, April 1833 and June 1842, made
two attacks on Madame D'Arblay. The first is an unfriendly
but largely justifiable criticism on the Memoirs of Dr Burney. In
the second, a review of the first three volumes of the Diary and
Letters, Croker abused the writer's innocent vanity, and declared
that, considering their bulk and pretensions, the Diary and
Letters were " nearly the most worthless we have ever waded
through." These pronouncements drew forth the eloquent
defence by Lord Macaulay, first printed in The Edinburgh Review,
January 1843, which, in spite of some inaccuracies and consider-
able exaggeration, has perhaps done more than anything else to
maintain Madame D'Arblay's constant popularity.

Bibliography. — The Diary and Letters of Madame D'Arblay was
edited by her niece, Charlotte Frances Barrett, in 7 vols. (1842-1846).
The text, covering the years 1778-1840, was edited with preface,
notes and reproductions of contemporary portraits and other
illustrations, by Mr Austin Dobson in 6 vols. (1904-1905). This
Diary, which begins with the publication of Evelina, was supple-
mented in 1889 by The Early Diary of Frances Burney (1768-1778),
which was in the first instance suppressed as being of purely private
interest, edited by Mrs Aunie Raine Ellis, with an introduction

giving many particulars of the Burney family. Mrs Ellis also edited
Evelina for " Bohn's Novelist's Library " in 1881, and Cecilia in 1882.
See also Austin Dobson's Fanny Burney {Madame D'Arblay) (1903),
in the " English Men of Letters Series."

DARBOY, GEORGES (1813-1871), archbishop of Paris, was
born at Fayl-Billot in Haut Marne on the 16th of January 1813.
He studied with distinction at the seminary at Langres, and was
ordained priest in 1836. Transferred to Paris as almoner of the
college of Henry IV., and honorary canon of Notre Dame, he
became the close friend of Archbishop Affre and of his successor
Archbishop Sibour. He was appointed bishop of Nancy in 1859,
and in January 1863 was raised to the archbishopric of Paris.
The archbishop was a strenuous upholder of episcopal independ-
ence in the Gallican sense, and involved himself in a controversy
with Rome by his endeavours to suppress the jurisdiction of the
Jesuits and other religious orders within his diocese. Pius IX.
refused him the cardinal's hat, and rebuked him for his liberalism
in a letter which was probably not intended for publication. At
the Vatican council he vigorously maintained the rights of the
bishops, and strongly opposed the dogma of papal infallibility,
against which he voted as inopportune. When the dogma had
been finally adopted, however, he was one of the first to set the
example of submission. Immediately after his return to Paris
the war with Prussia broke out, and his conduct during the
disastrous year that followed was marked by a devoted heroism
which has secured for him an enduring fame. He was active in
organizing relief for the wounded at the commencement of the
war, remained bravely at his post during the siege, and refused
to seek safety by flight during the brief triumph of the Commune.
On the 4th of April 187 1 he was arrested by the communists as
a hostage, and confined in the prison at Mazas, from which he
was transferred to La Roquette on the advance of the army of
Versailles. On the 27th of May he was shot within the prison
along with several other distinguished hostages. He died in the
attitude of blessing and uttering words of forgiveness. His body
was recovered with difficulty, and, having been embalmed, was
buried with imposing ceremony at the public expense on the
7th of June. It is a noteworthy fact that Darboy was the
third archbishop of Paris who perished by violence in the
period between 1848 and 1871. Darboy was the author of a
number of works, of which the most important are a Vie de St
Thomas Becket (1859), a translation of the works of St Denis the
Areopagite, and a translation of the Imitation of Christ.

See J. A. Foulon, Histoire de la vie et des ceuvres de Mgr. Darboy
(Paris, 1889), and J. Guillermin, Vie de Mgr. Darboy (Paris, 1888),
biographies written from the clerical standpoint, which have called
forth a number of pamphlets in reply.

DARCY, THOMAS DARCY, Baron (1467-1537), English
soldier, was ason of Sir William Darcy (d. 1488), and belonged to
a family which was seated at Templehurst in Yorkshire. In early
life he served, both as a soldier and a diplomatist, in Scotland and
on the Scottish borders, where he was captain of Berwick; and
in 1505, having been created Baron Darcy, he was made warden
of the east marches towards Scotland. In 151 1 Darcy led some
troops to Spain to help Ferdinand and Isabella against the
Moors, but he returned almost at once to England, and was with
Henry VIII. on his French campaign two years later. One of the
most influential noblemen in the north of England, where he held
several important offices, Darcy was also a member of the royal
council, dividing his time between state duties in London and a
more active life in the north. He showed great zeal in preparing
accusations against his former friend, Cardinal Wolsey; how-
ever, after the cardinal's fall his words and actions caused him
to be suspected by Henry VIII. Disliking the separation from
Rome, Darcy asserted that matrimonial cases were matters for
the decision of the spiritual power, and he was soon communi-
cating with Eustace Chapuys, the ambassador of the emperor
Charles V., about an invasion of England in the interests of the
Roman Catholics. Detained in London against his will by the
king, he was not allowed to return to Yorkshire until late in
1535, and about a year after his arrival in the north the rising
known as the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out. For a short time
Darcy defended Pontefract Castle against the rebels, but soon

DARDANELLES— DAR-ES-SALAAM

829

he surrendered to them this stronghold, which he could certainly
have held a little longer, and was with them at Doncaster, being
regarded as one of their leaders. Upon the dispersal of the in-
surgents Darcy was pardoned, but he pleaded illness when
Henry requested him to proceed to London. He may have
assisted to suppress the rising which was renewed under Sir
Francis Bigod early in 1537, but the king believed, probably with
good reason, that he was guilty of fresh treasons, and he was
seized and hurried to London. During his imprisonment he
uttered his famous remark about Thomas Cromwell: — " Crom-
well, it is thou that art the very original and chief causer of all
this rebellion and mischief, . . . and I trust that or thou die,
though thou wouldst procure all the noblemen's heads within the
realm to be stricken off, yet shall there one head remain that shall
strike off thy head." Tried by his peers, Darcy was found guilty of
treason, and was beheaded on the 20th of June 1537. In 1548 his
barony was revived in favour of his son George (d. 1557), but it
became extinct on the death of George's descendant John in 1635.

DARDANELLES (Turk. Bahr-Sefed Boghazi), the strait, in
ancient times called the Hellespont (q.v.), uniting the Sea of
Marmora with the Aegean, so called from the two castles which
protect the narrowest part and preserve the name of the city of
Dardanus in the Troad, famous for the treaty between Sulla and
Mithradates in 84 b . c. The shores of the strait are formed by the
peninsula of Gallipoli on the N.W. and by the mainland of Asia
Minor on the S.E. ; it extends for a distance of about 47 m. with
an average breadth of 3 or 4 m. At the Aegean extremity stand
the castles of Sedil Bahr and Kum Kaleh respectively in Europe
and Asia; and near the Marmora extremity are situated the
important town of Gallipoli (Callipolis) on the northern side, and
the less important though equally famous Lamsaki or Lapsaki
(Lampsacus) on the southern. The two castles of the Darda-
nelles par excellence are Chanak-Kalehsi, Sultanieh-Kalehsi, or
the Old Castle of Anatolia, and Kilid-Bahr, or the Old Castle of
Rumelia, which were long but erroneously identified with Sestos
and Abydos now located farther to the north. The strait of the
Dardanelles is famous in history for the passage of Xerxes by
means of a bridge of boats, and for the similar exploit on the part
of Alexander. It is famous also from the story of Hero and
Leander, and from Lord Byron's successful attempt (repeated by
others) to rival the ancient swimmer. Strategically the Darda-
nelles is a point of great importance, since it commands the
approach to Constantinople from the Mediterranean. The
passage of the strait is easily defended, but in 1807 the English
admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth made his way past all the fortresses
into the Sea of Marmora. The treaty of July 1841, confirmed by
the Paris peace of 1856, prescribed that no foreign ship of war
might enter the strait except by Turkish permission, and even
merchant vessels are only allowed to pass the castle of Chanak-
Kalehsi during the day.

See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque (Paris, 1842) ; Murray's
Handbook for Constantinople (London, 1900).

DARDANELLES (Turk. Sultanieh Kalehsi, or Chanak Kalehsi),
the chief town and seat of government of the lesser Turkish
province of Bigha, Asia Minor. It is situated at the mouth of the
Rhodius, and at the narrowest part of the strait of the Darda-
nelles, where its span is but a mile across. Its recent growth has
been rapid, and it possesses a lyceum, a military hospital, a public
garden, a theatre, quays and water-works. Exclusive of the
garrison, the population is estimated at 13,000, of whom one-half
are Turkish, and the remainder Greek, Jewish, Armenian and
European. The town contains many mosques, Greek, Armenian
and Catholic churches, and a synagogue. There is a resident
Greek bishop. The civil governor, and the military command-
ants of the numerous fortresses on each side of the strait, are
stationed here. Many important works have been added to
the defences. The Ottoman fleet is stationed at Nagara (anc.
Abydos). The average annual number of merchant vessels
passing the strait is 12,000 and the regular commercial vessels
calling at the port of Dardanelles are represented by numerous
foreign agencies. Besides the Turkish telegraph service, the
Eastern Telegraph Company has a station at Dardanelles, and

there are Turkish, Austrian, French and Russian post offices.
The import trade consists of manufactures, sugar, flour, coffee,
rice, leather and iron. The export trade consists of valonia
(largely produced in the province), wheat, barley, beans, chick-
peas, canary seed, liquorice root, pine and oak timber, wine and
pottery. Excepting in the items of wine and pottery, the export
trade shows steady increase. Every year sees a larger area of
land brought under cultivation by immigrants, and adds to
the number of mature (i.e. fruit-bearing) valonia trees. Vine-
growers are discouraged by heavy fiscal charges, and by the low
price of wine; many have uprooted their vineyards. The pottery
trade is affected by change of fashion, and the factories are losing
their importance. The lower quarters of the town were heavily
damaged in the winter of 1000-1001 by repeated inundations
caused by the overflow of the Rhodius.

See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890-1900).

DARDANUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus and Electra, the
mythical founder of Dardanus on the Hellespont and ancestor of
the Dardans of the Troad and, through Aeneas, of the Romans.
His original home was supposed to have been Arcadia, where
he married Chryse, who brought him as dowry the Palladium
or image of Pallas, presented to her by the goddess herself
Having slain his brother Iasius or Iasion (according to others,
Iasius was struck by lightning), Dardanus fled across the sea.
He first stopped at Samothrace, and when the island was visited
by a flood, crossed over to the Troad. Being hospitably received
by Teucer, he married his daughter Batea and became the
founder of the royal house of Troy.

See Apollodorus iii. 12; Diod. Sic. v. 48-75; Virgil, Aeneid, iii.
163 ff. ; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie and Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie.

DARDISTAN, a purely conventional name given by scientists
to a tract of country on the north-west frontier of India. There is
no modern race called Dards, and no country so named by its
inhabitants, but the inhabitants of the right bank of the Indus,
from the Kandia river to Batera, apply it to the dwellers on the
left bank. In the scientific use of the appellation, Dardistan
comprises the whole of Chitral, Yasin, Panyal, the Gilgit valley,
Hunza and Nagar, the Astor valley, the Indus valley from
Bunji to Batera, the Kohistan-Malazai, i.e. the upper reaches of
the Panjkora river, and the Kohistan of Swat. The so-called
Dard races are referred to by Pliny and Ptolemy, and are
supposed to be a people of Aryan origin who ascended the Indus
valley from the plains of the Punjab, reaching as far north as
Chitral, where they dispossessed the Khos. They have left their
traces in the different dialects, Khoswar, Burishki and Shina,
spoken in the Gilgit agency.

The question of Dardistan is debated at length in Leitner's
Dardistan (1877); Drew's Jummoo and Kashmir Territories (1875);
Biddulph's Tribes of the Hindu-Kush (1880) and Durand's The
Making of a Frontier (1899). For further details see Gilgit.

DARES PHRYGIUS, according to Homer (Iliad, v. 9) a Trojan
priest of Hephaestus. He was supposed to have been the author
of an account of the destruction of Troy, and to have lived before
Homer (Aelian, Var. Hist. xi. 2). A work in Latin, purporting to
be a translation of this, and entitled Daretis Phrygii de excidio
Trojae historia, was much read in the middle ages, and was then
ascribed to Cornelius Nepos, who is made to dedicate it to Sallust;
but the language is extremely corrupt, and the work belongs to a
period much later than the time of Nepos (probably the 5th
century a.d.) . It is doubtful whether the work as we have it is an
abridgment of a larger Latin work or an adaptation of a Greek
original. Together with the similar work of Dictys Cretensis
(with which it is generally printed) the De excidio forms the chief
source for the numerous middle age accounts of the Trojan legend.
(See Dictys; and O. S. von Fleschenberg, Daresstudien, 1908.)

DAR-ES-SALAAM ("The harbour of peace"), a seaport of
East Africa, in 6° 50' S. 39° 20' E., capital of German East
Africa. Pop. (1909} estimated at 24,000, including some 500
Europeans. The entrance to the harbor, which is perfectly
sheltered (hence its name), is through a narrow opening in the
palm-covered shore. The harbour is provided with a floating
dock, completed in 1902. The town is built on the northern

8 3 o

DARESTE, A. E. C— DARFUR

sweep of the harbour and is European in character. The streets
are wide and regularly laid out. The public buildings, which are
large and handsome, include the government and customs offices
on the quay opposite the spot where the mail boats anchor, the
governor's house, state hospital, post office, and the Boma or
barracks. Adjoining the governor's residence are the botanical
gardens, where many European plants are tested with a view to
acclimatization. There are various churches, and government
and mission schools. In the town are the head offices of the
Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft, the largest trading com-
pany in German East Africa. The mangrove swamps at the
north-west end of the harbour have been drained and partially
built over.

Until the German occupation nothing but an insignificant
village existed at Dar-es-Salaam. In 1862 Said Majid, sultan of
Zanzibar, decided to build a town on the shores of the bay, and
began the erection of a palace, which was never finished, and of
which but scanty ruins remain. In 187 1 Said Majid died, and his
scheme was abandoned. In 1876 Mr (afterwards Sir) William
McKinnon began the construction of a road from Dar-es-Salaam
to Victoria Nyanza, intending to make of Dar-es-Salaam an
important seaport. This project however failed. In 1887 Dr
Carl Peters occupied the bay in the name of the German East
Africa Company. Fighting with the Arabs followed, and in 1889
the company handed over their settlement to the German
imperial government. In 1891 the town was made the adminis-
trative capital of the colony. It is the starting point of a railway
to Mrogoro, and is connected by overland telegraph via Ujiji
with South Africa. A submarine cable connects the town with
Zanzibar. Dar-es-Salaam was laid out by the Germans on an
ambitious scale in the expectation that it would prove an
important centre of commerce, but trade developed very slowly.
Ivory, rubber and copal are the chief exports. The trade returns
are included in those of German East Africa (q.v.).

DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, ANTOINE ELISABETH
CLlSOPHAS (1820-1882), French historian, was born in Paris on
the 28th of October 1820, of an old Lyons family. Educated at
the Ecole des Chartes, he became professor in the faculty of
letters at Grenoble in 1844, and in 1849 at Lyons, where he
remained nearly thirty years. He died on the 6th of August
1882. His works comprise: Histoire de V administration en
France depuis Philippe- Auguste (2 vols., 1848); Histoire des
classes agricoles en France depuis saint Louis jusqu'a Louis XVI
(2 vols., 1853 and 1858), now quite obsolete; and a Histoire de
France (8 vols., 1865-1873), completed by a Histoire de la
Restauration (2 vols., 1880), a good summary of the work of
Veil-Castel, and by a Histoire dn Gouvemement de Juillet, a
dry enumeration of dates and facts. Before the publication of
Lavisse's great work, Dareste's general history of France was
the best of its kind; it surpassed in accuracy the work of Henri
Martin, especially in the ancient periods, just as Martin's in its
turn was an improvement upon that of Sismondi.

DARESTE DE LA CHAVANNE, RODOLPHE MADELEINE
CLEOPHAS (1824- ), French jurist, was born in Paris on the
25th of December 1824. He studied at the Ecole des Chartes
and the Ecole de Droit, and starting early on a legal career he
rose to be counsellor to the court of cassation (1877 to 1900).
His first publication was an Essai sur Francois Hotman (1850),
completed later by his publication of Hotman's correspondence
in the Revue historique (1876), and he devoted the whole of his
leisure to legal history. Of his writings may be mentioned Les
Anciennes Lois de I'lslande (1881); Memoire sur les anciens
monuments du droit de la Hongrie (1885), and Etudes d'histoire du
droit (1889). On Greek law he wrote some notable works: Du
prel a la grosse chez les Atheniens (1867) ; Les Inscriptions hypothi-
caires en Gr'ece (1885), La Science du droit en Grece: Platon,
A ristote, Theophraste ( 1 893 ) , and Etude sur la loi de Gortyne (1885).
He collaborated with Theodore Reinach and B. Haussoullier
in their Recueil des inscriptions juridiques grecques (1905), and
his name is worthily associated with the edition of Philippe de
Beaumanoir's Coutumes de Beauvaisis, published by Salmon
(2 vols., 1899, 1900).

DARFUR, a country of east central Africa, the westernmost
state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It extends from about
10° N. to 16 N. and from 21° E. to 27° 30' E., has an area of some
150,000 sq. m., and an estimated population of 750,000. It is
bounded N. by the Libyan desert, W. by Wadai (French Congo),
S. by the Bahr-el-Ghazal and E. by Kordofan. The two last-
named districts are mudirias (provinces) of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. The greater part of the country is a plateau from 2000
to 3000 ft. above sea-level. A range of mountains of volcanic
origin, the Jebel Marra, runs N. and S. about the line of the 24 E.
for a distance of over 100 m., its highest points attaining from
5000 to 6000 ft. East to west this chain extends about 80 m.
Eastward the mountains fall gradually into sandy, bush-covered
steppes. North-east of Jebel Marra lies the Jebel Medob
(3500 ft. high), a range much distorted by volcanic action, and
Bir-el-Melh, an extinct volcano with a crater 150 ft. deep. South
of Jebel Marra are the plains of Dar Dima and Dar Uma; S.W.
of the Marra the plain is 4000 ft. above the sea. The watershed
separating the basins of the Nile and Lake Chad runs north and
south through the centre of the country. The mountains are
scored by numerous khors, whose lower courses can be traced
across the tableland. The khors formerly contained large rivers
which flowed N.E. and E. to the Nile, W. and S.W. to Lake
Chad, S. and S.E. to the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The streams going
N.E. drain to the Wadi Melh, a dry river-bed which joins the
Nile near Debba, but on reaching the plain the waters sink into
the sandy soil and disappear. The torrents flowing directly east
towards the Nile also disappear in the sandy deserts. The khors
in the W., S.W. and S., — the most fertile part of Darfur — contain
turbulent torrents in the rainy season, when much of the southern
district is flooded. Not one of the streams is perennial, but in
times of heavy rainfall the waters of some khors reach the Bahr-
el-Homr tributary of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. (For some 200 m. the
Bahr-el-Homr marks the southern frontier of the country.) In
the W. and S. water can always be obtained in the dry season by
digging 5 or 6 ft. below the surface of the khors.

The climate, except in the south, where the rains are heavy
and the soil is a damp clay, is healthy except after the rains.
The rainy season lasts for three months, from the middle of June
to the middle of September. In the neighbourhood of the khors
the vegetation is fairly rich. The chief trees are the acacias
whence gum is obtained, and baobab (Adansonia digitata);
while the sycamore and, in the Marra mountains, the Euphorbia
candelabrum are also found. In the S.W. are densely forested
regions. Cotton and tobacco are indigenous. The most fertile
land is found on the slopes of the mountains, where wheat,
durra, dukhn (a kind of millet and the staple food of the people)
and other grains are grown. Other products are sesame, cotton,
cucumbers, water-melons and onions.

Copper is obtained from Hofrat-el-Nahas in the S.E., iron is
wrought in the S.W.; and there are deposits of rock-salt in
various places. The copper mines (in 9 48' N. 24 5' E.) are
across the Darfur frontier in the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. The
vein runs N.W. and S.E. and in places rises in ridges 2 ft. above
the general level of ground. There is an immense quanti ty of ore,
(silicate and carbonate) specimens containing 14% of metal.
Camels and cattle are both numerous and of excellent breeds.
Some of the Arab tribes, such as the Baggara, breed only cattle,
those in the north and east confine themselves to rearing camels.
Horses are comparatively rare; they are a small but sturdy
breed. Sheep and goats are numerous. The ostrich, common in
the eastern steppes, is bred by various Arab tribes, its feathers
forming a valuable article of trade.

Inhabitants. — The population of Darfur consists of negroes
and Arabs. The negro For, forming quite half the inhabitants,
occupy the central highlands and part of the Dar Dima and Dar
Uma districts; they speak a special language, and are sub-
divided into numerous tribes, of which the most influential are
the Masabat, the Kunjara and the Kera. They are of middle
height, and have rather irregular features. The For are described
as clean and industrious, somewhat fanatical, but generally
amenable to civilization, and freedom-loving. The Massalit are

DARGAI

831

a negro tribe which, breaking off from the For some centuries
back, have now much Arab blood, and speak Arabic ; while
the Tunjur are an Arab tribe which must have arrived in the
Sudan at a very early date, as they have incorporated a large
For element, and no longer profess Mahommedanism. The Dago
(Tago) formerly inhabited Jebel Marra, but they have been
driven to the south and west, where they maintain a certain
independence in Dar Sula, but are treated as inferiors by the
For. The Zaghawa, who inhabit the northern borders, are on the
contrary regarded by the For as their equals, and have all the
prestige of a race that at one time made its influence felt as far as
Bornu. Among other tribes may be mentioned the Berti
and Takruri, the Birgirid, the Beraunas, and immigrants from
Wadai and Bagirmi, and Fula from west of Lake Chad. Genuine
Arab tribes, e.g. the Baggara and Homr, are numerous, and they
are partly nomadic and partly settled. The Arabs have not,
generally speaking, mixed with the negro tribes. They are great
hunters, making expeditions into the desert for five or six days
at a time in search of ostriches.

Slaves, ostrich feathers, gum and ivory used to be the chief
articles of trade, a caravan going annually by the Arbain
(" Forty Days ") road to Assiut in Egypt and taking back
cloth, fiie-arms and other articles. The slave trade has ceased,
but feathers, gum and ivory still constitute the chief exports of
the country. The principal imports are cotton goods, sugar and
tea. There is also an active trade in camels and cattle.

The internal administration of the country is in the hands of the
sultan, who is officially recognized as the agent of the Sudan
government. The administrative system resembles that of other
Mahommedan countries.

Towns. — The capital is El-Fasher, pop. about 10,000, on the
western bank of the Wadi Tendelty in an angle formed by the
junction of that wadi with the Wadi-el-Kho, one of the streams
which flow towards the Bahr-el-Homr. Fasher is the residence
of the sultan. There are a few fine buildings, but the town
consists mainly of tukls and box-shaped straw sheds. It is 500 m.
W.S.W. of Khartum. Dara, a small market town, is no m. S.
of El-Fasher. Shakka is in the S.E. of the country near the Bahr-
el-Homr, and was formerly the headquarters of the slave dealers.

History. — The Dago or Tago negroes, inhabitants of Jebel
Marra, appear to have been the dominant race in Darfur in the
earliest period to which the history of the country goes back.
How long they ruled is uncertain, little being known of them
save a list of kings. According to tradition the Tago dynasty
was displaced, and Mahommedanism introduced, about the 14th
century, by Tunjur Arabs, who reached Darfur by way of Bornu
and Wadai. The first Tunjur king was Ahmed-el-Makur, who
married the daughter of the last Tago monarch. Ahmed reduced
many unruly chiefs to submission, and under him the country
prospered. His great-grandson, the sultan Dali, a celebrated
figure in Darfur histories, was on his mother's side a For, and thus
was effected a union between the negro and Arab races. Dali
divided the country into provinces, and established a penal code,
which, under the title of Kitab Dali or Dali's Book, is still
preserved, and shows principles essentially different from those
of the Koran. His grandson Soleiman (usually distinguished by
the Forian epithet Solon, the Arab or the Red) reigned from 1596
to 1637, ana " was a great warrior and a devoted Mahommedan.
Soleiman's grandson, Ahmed Bahr (1682-1722), made Islam the
religion of the state, and increased the prosperity of the country
by encouraging immigration from Bornu and Bagirmi. His rule
extended east of the Nile as far as the banks of the Atbara.
Under succeeding monarchs the country, involved in wars with
Sennar and Wadai, declined in importance. Towards the end of
the 18th century a sultan named Mahommed Terab led an army
against the Funj, but got no further than Omdurman. Here he
was stopped by the Nile, and found no means of getting his army
across the river. Unwilling to give up his project, Terab remained
at Omdurman for months. He was poisoned by his wife at the
instigation of disaffected chiefs, and the army returned to
Darfur. The next monarch was Abd-er-Rahman, surnamed
el-Raschid or the Just. It was during his reign that Napoleon

Bonaparte was campaigning in Egypt; and in 1799 Abd-er-
Rahman wrote to congratulate the French general on his defeat
of the Mamelukes. To this Bonaparte replied by asking the
sultan to send him by the next caravan 2000 black slaves upwards
of sixteen years old, strong and vigorous. To Abd-er-Rahman
likewise is due the present situation of the Fasher, or royal town-
ship. The capital had formerly been at a place called Kobbe.
Mahommed-el-Fadhl, his son, was for some time under the
control of an energetic eunuch, Mahommed Kurra, but he ulti-
mately made himself independent, and his reign lasted till 1839,
when he died of leprosy. He devoted himself largely to the
subjection of the semi-independent Arab tribes who lived in the
country, notably the Rizighat, thousands of whom he slew. In
1821 he lost the province of Kordofan, which in that year was
conquered by the Egyptians. Of his forty sons, the third,
Mahommed Hassin, was appointed his successor. Hassin is
described as a religious but avaricious man. In the later part of
his reign he became involved in trouble with the Arab slave
raiders who had seized the Bahr-el-Ghazal, looked upon by the
Darfurians as their especial " slave preserve." The negroes of
Bahr-el-Ghazal paid tribute of ivory and slaves to Darfur, and
these were the chief articles of merchandise sold by the Darfurians
to the Egyptian traders along the Arbain road to Assiut. The
loss of the Bahr-el-Ghazal caused therefore much annoyance to
the people of Darfur. Hassin died in 1873, blind and advanced in
years, and the succession passed to his youngest son Ibrahim,
who soon found himself engaged in a conflict with Zobeir (q.11.),
the chief of the Bahr-el-Ghazal slave traders, and with an
Egyptian force from Khartum. The war resulted in the destruc-
tion of the kingdom. Ibrahim was slain in battle in the autumn
of 1874, and his uncle Hassab Alia, who sought to maintain the
independence of his country, was captured in 1875 by the troops
of the khedive, and removed to Cairo with his family. The
Darfurians were restive under Egyptian rule. Various revolts
were suppressed, but in 1879 General Gordon (then governor-
general of the Sudan) suggested the reinstatement of the ancient
royal family. This was not done, and in 1881 Slatim Bey (Sir
Rudolf von Slatin) was made governor of the province. Slatin
defended the province against the forces of the Mahdi, who were
led by a Rizighat sheik named Madibbo, but was obliged to
surrender (December 1883), and Darfur was incorporated in the
Mahdi's dominions. The Darfurians found Dervish rule as irk-
some as that of the Egyptians had been, and a state of almost
constant warfare ended in the gradual retirement of the
Dervishes from Darfur. Following the overthrow of the khalifa
at Omdurman in 1898 the new (Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan govern-
ment recognized (1899) Ali Dinar, a grandson of Mahommed-el-
Fadhl, as sultan of Darfur, on the payment by that chief of
an annual tribute of £500. Under Ali Dinar, who during the
Mahdia had been kept a prisoner in Omdurman, Darfur enjoyed
a period of peace.

The first European traveller known to have visited Darfur was
William George Browne (q.v.), who spent two years (1793-1795)
at Kobbe. Sheik Mahommed-el-Tounsi travelled in 1 803 through
various regions of Africa, including Darfur, in search of Omar,
his father, and afterwards -gave to the world an account of
his wanderings, which was translated into French in 1845 by
M. Perron. Gustav Nachtigal in 1873 spent some months in
Darfur, and since that time the country has become well
known through the journeys of Gordon, Slatin and others.

Authorities. — Browne's account of Darfur will be found in his
Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria (London, 1799); Nachtigal's
Sahara una* Sudan gives the results of that traveller's observations.
The first ten chapters of Slatin Pasha's book Fire and Sword in the
Sudan (English edition, London, 1896) contain much information
concerning the country, its history, and a full account of the
overthrow of Egyptian authority by the Mahdi. See also The
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (London, 1905), edited by Count Gleichen,
and the bibliography given under Sudan.

DARGAI, the name of a mountain peak and a frontier station
in the north-west Frontier Province of India. The mountain peak
is situated on the Samana Range, and the Kohat border, and is
famous for the stand made there by the Afridis and Oraizais in

8. 3 2

DARGOMIJSKY^DARIUS

the Tirah Campaign. (See Tirah Campaign.) Dargai station is
situated on the Peshawar border, and is the terminus of the
frontier railway running from Nowshera to the Malakand Pass.

DARGOMIJSKY, ALEXANDER SERGEIVICH (1813-1869),
Russian composer, was born in 1813, and educated in St Peters-
burg. He was already known as a talented musical amateur
when in 1833 he met Glinka and was encouraged to devote him-
self to composition. His light opera Esmeralda was written in
1839, and his Roussalka was performed in 1856, but he had but
small success or recognition either at home or abroad, except
in Belgium, till the 'sixties, when he became one of Balakirev's
circle. His opera The Stone Guest then became famous among
the progressive Russian school, though it was not performed till
1872. Dargomijsky died in January 1869. His compositions
include a number of songs, and some orchestral pieces.

DARIAL, a gorge in the Caucasus, at the east foot of Mt.
Kasbek, pierced by the river Terek for a distance of 8 m. between
vertical walls of rock (5900 ft.). It is mentioned in the Georgian
annals under the names of Ralani, Dargani, Darialani; the
Persians and Arabs knew it as the Gate of the Alans; Strabo
calls it Porta Caucasica and Porta Cumana; Ptolemy, Porta
Sarmatica; it was sometimes known as Portae Caspiae (a name
bestowed also on the " gate " or pass beside the Caspian at
Derbent) ; and the Tatars call it Darioly. Being the only avail-
able passage across the Caucasus, it has been fortified since a
remote period — at least since 150 B.C. In Russian poetry it has
been immortalized by Lermontov. The present Russian fort,
Darial, which guards this section of the Georgian military road,
is at the northern issue of the gorge, at an altitude of 4746 ft.

DARIEN, a district covering the eastern part of the isthmus
joining Central and South America. It is mainly within the
republic of Panama, and gives its name to a gulf of the Carribbean
Sea. Darien is of great interest in the history of geographical
discovery. It was reconnoitred in the first year of the 16th
century by Rodrigo Bastidas of Seville; and the first settlement
was Santa Maria la Antigua, situated on the small Darien river,
north-west of the mouth of the Atrato. In 1513 Vasco Nufiez
de Balboa stood "silent upon a peak in Darien," 1 and saw the
Pacific at his feet stretching inland in the Gulf of San Miguel;
and for long this narrow neck of land seemed alternately to proffer
and refuse a means of transit between the two oceans. The first
serious attempt to turn the isthmus to permanent account as a
trade route dates from the beginning of the 18th century, and
forms an interesting chapter in Scottish history. In 1695 an act
was passed by the Scottish parliament giving extensive powers
to a company trading to Africa and the Indies; and this
company, under the advice of one of the most remarkable
economists of the period, William Paterson (q.v.), determined to
establish a colony on the isthmus of Darien as a general emporium
for the commerce of all the nations of the world. Regarded with
disfavour both in England and Holland, the project was taken
up in Scotland with the enthusiasm of national rivalry towards
England, and the " subscriptions sucked up all the money in the
country." On the 26th of July 1698 the pioneers set sail from
Leith amid the cheers of an almost envious multitude; and on
the 4th of November, with the loss of only fifteen out of 1 200 men,
they arrived at Darien, and took up their quarters in a well-
defended spot, with a good harbour and excellent outlook. The
country they named New Caledonia, and two sites selected for
future cities were designated respectively New Edinburgh and
New St Andrews. At first all seemed to go well; but by and by
lack of provisions, sickness and anarchy reduced the settlers to
the most miserable plight; and in June 1699 they re-embarked
in three vessels, a weak and hopeless company, to sail whither-
soever Providence might direct. Meanwhile a supplementary
expedition had been prepared in Scotland; two vessels were
despatched in May, and four others followed in August. But
this venture proved even more unfortunate than the former.
The colonists arrived broken in health; their spirits were crushed

'Keats, in his famous sonnet beginning: — " Much have I travelled
in the realms of gold," of which this is the concluding line, inaccur-
ately substitutes Cort«>z for Balboa,

by the fate of their predecessors, and embittered by the harsh
fanaticism of the four ministers whom the general assembly of
the Church of Scotland had sent out to establish a regular
presbyterial organization. The last addition to the settlement
was the company of Captain Alexander Campbell of Fonab, who
arrived only to learn that a Spanish force of 1500 or 1600 men lay
encamped at Tubacanti, on the river Santa Maria, waiting for the
appearance of a Spanish squadron in order to make a combined
attack on the fort. Captain Campbell, on the second day after
his arrival, marched with 200 men across the isthmus to Tubacanti,
stormed the camp in the night-time, and dispersed the Spanish
force. On his return to the fort on the fifth day he found it
besieged by the Spaniards from the men-of-war; and, after a
vain attempt to maintain its defence, he succeeded with a few
companions in making his escape in a small vessel. A capitula-
tion followed, and the Darien colony was no more. Of those who
had taken part in the enterprise only a miserable handful ever
reached their native land.

See J. H. Burton, The Darien Papers (Bannatyne Club, 1849);
Macaulay, History of England (London, 1866) ; and A. Lang, History
of Scotland, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).

DARIUS (Pers. Ddrayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh), the
name of three Persian kings.

1. Darius the Great, the son of Hystaspes (q.v.). The
principal source for his history is his own inscriptions, especially
the great inscription of Behistun (q.v.), in which he relates how he
gained the crown and put down the rebellions. In modern times
his veracity has often been doubted, but without any sufficient
reason; the whole tenor of his words shows that we can rely upon
his account. The accounts given by Herodotus and Ctesias of
his accession are in many points evidently dependent on this
official version, with many legendary stories interwoven, e.g.
that Darius and his allies left the question as to which of them
should become king to the decision of their horses, and that
Darius won the crown by a trick of his groom.

Darius belonged to a younger branch of the royal family of
the Achaemenidae. When, after the suicide of Cambyses (March
521), the usurper Gaumata ruled undisturbed over the whole
empire under the name of Bardiya (Smerdis), son of Cyrus, and
no one dared to gainsay him, Darius, " with the help of Ahura-
mazda," attempted to regain the kingdom for the royal race.
His father Hystaspes was still alive, but evidently had not the
courage to urge his claims. Assisted by six noble Persians, whose
names he proclaims at the end of the Behistun inscription, he
surprised and killed the usurper in a Median fortress (October
521; for the chronology of these times cf. E. Meyer, Forschungen
zur alten Geschichte, ii. 472 ff.), and gained the crown. But this
sudden change was the signal for an attempt on the part of all
the eastern provinces to regain their independence. In Susiana,
Babylon, Media, Sagartia, Margiana, usurpers arose, pretending
to be of the old royal race, and gathered large armies around them ;
in Persia itself Vahyazdata imitated the example of Gaumar.a and
was acknowledged by the majority of the people as the true
Bardiya. Darius with only a small army of Persians and Medes
and some trustworthy generals overcame all difficulties, and in
520 and 519 all the rebellions were put down (Babylon rebelled
twice, Susiana even three times), and the authority of Darius
was established throughout the empire.

Darius in his inscriptions appears as a fervent believer in the
true religion of Zoroaster. But he was also a great statesman and
organizer. The time of conquests had come to an end; the wars
which Darius undertook, like those of Augustus, only served the
purpose of gaining strong natural frontiers for the empire and
keeping down the barbarous tribes on its borders. Thus Darius
subjugated the wild nations of the Pontic and Armenian
mountains, and extended the Persian dominion to the Caucasus;
for the same reasons he fought against the Sacae and other
Turanian tribes. But by the organization which he gave to the
empire he became the true successor of the great Cyrus. His
organization of the provinces and the fixing of the tributes is
described by Herodotus iii. 90 ff., evidently from good official
sources. He fixed the coinage and introduced the gold coinage

DARJEELING

833

of the Daric (which is not named after him, as the Greeks believed,
but derived from a Persian word meaning " gold "; in Middle
Persian it is called zarig) . He tried to develop the commerce of
the empire, and sent an expedition down the Kabul and the Indus,
led by the Carian captain Scylax of Caryanda, who explored the
Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. He dug a
canal from the Nile to Suez, and, as the fragments of a hiero-
glyphic inscription found there show, his ships sailed from the
Nile through the Red Sea by Saba to Persia. He had connexions
with Carthage (i.e. the Karkd of the Nakshi Rustam inscr.),
and explored the shores of Sicily and Italy. At the same time
he attempted to gain the good-will of the subject nations, and for
this purpose promoted the aims of their priests. He allowed the
Jews to build the Temple of Jerusalem. In Egypt his name
appears on the temples which he built in Memphis, Edfu and the
Great Oasis. He called the high-priest of Sais, Uzahor, to Susa
(as we learn from his inscription in the Vatican), and gave him
full powers to reorganize the " house of life," the great medical
school of the temple of Sals. In the Egyptian traditions he is
considered as one of the great benefactors and lawgivers of the
country (Herod, ii. 1 10, Diod. i. 95). In similar relations he stood
to the Greek sanctuaries (cf. his rescript to "his slave" Godatas,
the inspector of a royal park near Magnesia, on the Maeander,
in which he grants freedom of taxes and forced labour to the
sacred territory of Apollo. See Cousin and Deschamps, Bulletin
de corresp. hellen., xiii. (1889), 529, and Dittenberger, Sylloge
inscr. graec, 2); all the Greek oracles in Asia Minor and Europe
therefore stood on the side of Persia in the Persian wars and
admonished the Greeks to attempt no resistance.

About 512 Darius undertook a war against the Scythians. A
great army crossed the Bosporus, subjugated eastern Thrace, and
crossed the Danube. The purpose of this war can only have been
to attack the nomadic Turanian tribes in the rear and thus to
secure peace on the northern frontier of the empire. It was based
upon a wrong geographical conception; even Alexander and his
Macedonians believed that on the Hindu Kush (which they called
Caucasus) and on the shores of the Jaxartes (which they called
Tanais, i.e. Don) they were quite near to the Black Sea. Of
course the expedition undertaken on these grounds could not but
prove a failure; having advanced for some weeks into the Russian
steppes, Darius was forced to return. The details given by Hero-
dotus (according to him Darius had reached the Volga!) are quite
fantastical; and the account which Darius himself had given on a
tablet, which was added to his great inscription in Behistun, is
destroyed with the exception of a few words. (See R. W. Macan,
Herodotus, vol. ii. appendix 3; G. B. Grundy, Great Persian
War, pp. 48-64; J. B. Bury in Classical Review, July 1897.)

Although European Greece was intimately connected with the
coasts of Asia Minor, and the opposing parties in the Greek
towns were continually soliciting his intervention, Darius did not
meddle with their affairs. The Persian wars were begun by the
Greeks themselves. The support which Athens and Eretria gave
to the rebellious Ionians and Carians made their punishment
inevitable as soon as the rebellion had been put down. But the
first expedition, that of Mardonius, failed on the cliffs of Mt.
Athos (492), and the army which was led into Attica by Datis in
490 was beaten at Marathon. Before Darius had finished his
preparations for a third expedition an insurrection broke out in
Egypt (486). In the next year Darius died, probably in October
485, after a reign of thirty-six years. He is one of the greatest
rulers the east has produced.

2. Darius II., Ochus. Artaxerxes I., who died in the begin-
ning of 424, was followed by his son Xerxes II. But after a
month and a half he was murdered by his brother Secydianus, or
Sogdianus (the form of the name is uncertain). Against him rose
a bastard brother, Ochus, satrap of Hyrcania, and after a short
fight killed him, and suppressed by treachery the attempt of his
own brother Arsites to imitate his example (Ctesias ap. Phot. 44;
Diod. xii. 71, 108; Pausan. vi. 5, 7). Ochus adopted the name
Darius (in the chronicles called Nothos, the bastard). Neither
Xerxes II. nor Secydianus occurs in the dates of the numerous
Babylonian tablets from Nippur; here the dates of Darius II.

follow immediately on those of Artaxerxes I. Of Darius II. 's
reign we know very little (a rebellion of the Medes in 409 is
mentioned in Xenophon, Hellen. i. 2. 19) , except that he was quite
dependent on his wife Parysatis. In the excerpts from Ctesias
some harem intrigues are recorded, in which he played a dis-
reputable part. As long as the power of Athens remained intact
he did not meddle in Greek affairs; even the support which the
Athenians in 413 gave to the rebel Amorges in Caria would not
have roused him (Andoc. iii. 29; Thuc. viii. 28, 54; Ctesias
wrongly names his father Pissuthnes in his stead; an account
of these wars is contained in the great Lycian stele from Xanthus
in the British Museum) , had not the Athenian power broken down
in the same year before Syracuse. He gave orders to his satraps
in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the
overdue tribute of the Greek towns, and to begin war with
Athens; for this purpose they entered into an alliance with
Sparta. In 408 he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on
the war with greater energy. In 404 he died after a reign of
nineteen years, and was followed by Artaxerxes II.

3. Darius III., Codomannus. The eunuch Bagoas (?.».),
having murdered Artaxerxes III. in 338 and his son Arses in 336,
raised to the throne a distant relative of the royal house, whose
name, according to Justin x. 3, was Codomannus, and who had
excelled in a war against the Cadusians (cf. Diod. xvii. 5 ff., where
his father is called Arsames, son of Ostanes, a brother of
Artaxerxes). The new king, who adopted the name of Darius,
took warning by the fate of his predecessors, and saved himself
from it by forcing Bagoas to drink the cup himself. Already
in 336 Philip II. of Macedon had sent an army into Asia Minor,
and in the spring of 334 the campaign of Alexander began. In
the following year Darius himself took the field against the
Macedonian king, but was beaten at Issus and in 331 at Arbela.
In his flight to the east he was deposed and killed by Bessus
(July 33°)-

The name Darius was also borne by many later dynasts of
Persian origin, among them kings of Persis {q.v.), Darius of Media
Atropatene who was defeated by Pompeius, and Darius, king of
Pontus in the time of Antony. (Ed. M.)

DARJEELING, a hill station and district of British India, in
the Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The sanatorium is situated
367 m. by rail north of Calcutta. In 1901 it had a population of
16,924. It is the summer quarters of the Bengal government
and has a most agreeable climate, which neither exceeds 8o° F. in
summer, nor falls below 30 in winter. The great attraction of
Darjeeling is its scenery, which is unspeakably grand. The view
across the hills to Kinchinjunga discloses a glittering white wall
of perpetual snow, surrounded by towering masses of granite.
There are several schools of considerable size for European boys
and girls, and a government boarding school at Kurseong. The
buildings and the roads suffered severely from the earthquake of
the 1 2th of June 1897. But a more terrible disaster occurred in
October 1899, when a series of landslips carried away houses and
broke up the hill railway. The total value of the property
destroyed was returned at £160,000.

The district of Darjeeling comprises an area of 1164 sq. m.
It consists of two well-defined tracts, viz. the lower Himalayas
to the south of Sikkim, and the tarai, or plains, which extend from
the south of these ranges as far as the northern borders of
Purnea district. The plains from which the hills take their rise
are only 300 ft. above sea-level; the mountains ascend abruptly
in spurs of 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height. The scenery throughput
the hills is picturesque, and in many parts magnificent. The two
highest mountains in the world, Kinchinjunga in Sikkim
(28,156 ft.) and Everest in Nepal (29,002 ft.), are visible from the
town of Darjeeling. The principal peaks within the district are—
Phalut (11,811 ft.), Subargum (11,636), Tanglu (10,084), Situng
and Sinchal Pahai (8163). The chief rivers are the Tista, Great
and Little Ranjit, Ramman, Mahananda, Balasan and Jaldhaka.
None of them is navigable in the mountain valleys; but the
Tista, after it debouches on the plains, can be navigated by cargo
boats of considerable burthen. Bears, leopards and musk deer
are found on the higher mountains, deer on the lower ranges, and

VII.

834

DARLEY— DARLINGTON

a few elephants and tigers on the slopes nearest to the plains.
In the lowlands, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer and wild hogs are
abundant. A few wolves are also found. Of small game, hares,
jungle fowl, peacocks, partridges, snipe, woodcock, wild ducks
and geese, and green pigeons are numerous in the larai, and
jungle fowl and pheasants in the hills. The mahseer fish is found
in the Tista.

In iooi the population was 249,117, showing an increase of
12% since 1 891, compared with an increase of 43% in the
previous decade. The inhabitants of the hilly tract consist to a
large extent of Nepali immigrants and of aboriginal highland
races; in the tarai the people are chiefly Hindus and Mahom-
medans. The Lepchas are considered to be the aboriginal
inhabitants of the hilly portion of the district. They are a fine,
frank race, naturally open-hearted and free-handed, fond of
change and given to an out-door life ; but they do not seem
to improve on being brought into contact with civilization. It
is thought that they are now being gradually driven out of the
district, owing to the increase of regular cultivation, and to the
government conservation of the forests. They have no word for
plough in their language, and they still follow the nomadic form
of tillage known as jum cultivation. This consists in selecting a
spot of virgin soil, clearing it of forest and jungle by burning, and
scraping the surface with the rudest agricultural implements.
The productive powers of the land become exhausted in a few
years, when the clearing is abandoned, a new site is chosen, and
the same operations are carried on de novo. The Lepchas are also
the ordinary out-door labourers on the hills. They have no caste
distinctions but speak of themselves as belonging to one of nine
septs or clans, who all eat together and intermarry with each
other. In the upper or northern larai, along the base of the hills,
the Mechs form the principal ethnical feature. This tribe inhabits
the deadly jungle with impunity, and cultivates cotton, rice
and other ordinary crops, by the jum process described above.
The cultivation of tea was introduced in 1856, and is now a
large industry. Cinchona cultivation was introduced by the
government in 1862, and has since been taken up by private
enterprise. There is a coal mine at Daling. The Darjeeling
Himalayan railway of 2 ft. gauge, opened in 1880, runs for
50 m. from Siliguri in the plains on the Eastern Bengal line.

The British connexion with Darjeeling dates from 1816, when,
at the close of the war with Nepali, the British made over to the
Sikkim raja the tarai tract, which had been wrested from him and
annexed by Nepal. In 1835 the nucleus of the present district of
British Sikkim or Darjeeling was created by a cession of a portion
of the hills by the raja of Sikkim to the British as a sanatorium.
A military expedition against Sikkim, rendered necessary in 1850
by the imprisonment of Dr A. Campbell, the superintendent of
Darjeeling, and Sir Joseph Hooker, resulted in the stoppage of the
allowance granted to the raja for the cession of the hill station
of Darjeeling, and in the annexation of the Sikkim tarai at the foot
of the hills and of a portion of the hills beyond. In August 1 866 the
hill territory east of the Tista, acquired as the result of the Bhutan
campaign of 1864, was added to the jurisdiction of Darjeeling.

DARLEY, GEORGE (1705-1846), Irish poet, was born in
Dublin in 1 795. His parents, who were gentle folks of independent
means, emigrated to America, leaving the boy in charge of his
grandfather at Springfield, Co. Dublin. He was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in 1820 ; but an unfortunate
stammer prevented him from going into the church or to the bar,
and he established himself in London, where he published his
first volume of poems, the Errors of Ecstasie, in 1822, and became
a regular contributor to The London Magazine. He was intimate
with Cary, the translator of Dante, and with Charles Lamb. In
1826 he published under the name of " Grey Penseval " a volume
of prose tales and sketches, Labour in Idleness (1826), one of
which, " The Enchanted Lyre," is plainly autobiographical.
Sylvia, or the May Queen (1827, reprint 1892), a fairy opera, met
with no success, but about 1830, he became dramatic and art
critic to the Athenaeum. His other works are: Nepenthe (1835,
reprint 1897), his most considerable poem ; introduction to the
works of Beaumont and Fletcher (1840); with two plays,

Thomas a Becket (1840), and Ethelstan (1841). He died in
London on the 23rd of November 1846.

Selections from the Poems of George Darley, with an introduction by
R. A. Streatfield, appeared in 1904. See also the edition by Ramsay
Colles in the " Muses' Library " (1906).

DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY (1815-1842), British heroine,
was born at Bamborough, Northumberland, on the 24th of
November 181 5. Her father, William Darling, was the keeper of
the Longstone (Fame Islands) lighthouse. On the morning of
the 7th of September 1838, the " Forfarshire," bound from
Hull to Dundee, with sixty-three persons on board, struck on the
Fame Islands, forty-three being drowned. The wreck was
observed from the lighthouse, and Darling and his daughter
determined to try and reach the survivors. They recognized
that though they might be able to get to the wreck, they would
be unable to return without the assistance of the shipwrecked
crew, but they took this risk without hesitation. By a combina-
tion of daring, strength and skill, the father and daughter reached
the wreck in their coble and brought back four men and a
woman to the lighthouse. Darling and two of the rescued men
then returned to the wreck and brought off the four remaining
survivors. This gallant exploit made Grace Darling and her
father famous. The Humane Society at once voted them its gold
medal, the treasury made a grant, and a public subscription was
organized. Grace Darling, who had always been delicate, died
of consumption on the 20th of October 1842.

See Grace Darling, her true story (London, 1880).

DARLING, a river of Australia. It rises in Queensland and
flows into New South Wales, forming for a considerable distance
the boundary of the two colonies ; in its upper reaches it is
known as the Barwon, but from Bourke to its junction on the
Victorian border with the river Murray, it is called the Darling.
Its length is 1160 m., and with its affluents it drains an area of
about 200,000 sq. m. During the dry season its course is marked
by a series of shallow pools, but during the winter, when it is
subject to sudden floods, it is navigable as far as Bourke for
steamers of light draft. Excepting a narrow strip on the banks
of the river, the country through which it passes is, for the most
part, an arid plain.

DARLINGTON, a market town and municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of Durham, England, 232 m. N. by W. of
London, on the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 38,060;
(1901) 44>5 11 - It lies in a slightly undulating plain on the small
river Skerne, a tributary of the Tees, not far from the main river.
Its appearance is almost wholly modern, but there is a fine old
parish church dedicated to St Cuthbert. It is cruciform, and in
style mainly transitional Norman. It has a central tower sur-
mounted by a spire of the 14th century, which necessitated the
building of a massive stone screen across the chancel arch to
support the piers. Traces of an earlier church were discovered in
the course of restoration. Educational establishments include
an Elizabethan grammar school, a training college for school-
mistresses (British and Foreign School Society), and a technical
school. There is a park of forty-four acres. The industries of
Darlington are large and varied. They include worsted spinning
mills ; collieries, ironstone mines, quarries and brickworks ; the
manufacture of iron and steel, both in the rough and in the form of
finished articles, as locomotives, bridge castings, ships' engines,
gun castings and shells, &c. The parliamentary borough returns
one member. The town was incorporated in 1867, and the
corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen "and eighteen
councillors. Area, 3956 acres.

Not long after the bishop and monks of Lindisfarne had
settled at Durham in 995, Styr the son of Ulf gave them the vill
of Darlington (Dearthington, Darnington), which by 1083 had
grown into importance, probably owing to its situation on the
road from Watling Street to the mouth of the Tees. Bishop
William of St Carileph in that year changed the church to a
collegiate church, and placed there certain canons whom he
removed from Durham. Bishop Hugh de Puiset rebuilt the
church and built a manor house which was for many years the
occasional residence of the bishops of Durham. Boldon Book,

DARLINGTONIA— DARMESTETER

835

dated 1183, contains the first mention of Darlington as a
borough, rated at £5, while half a mark was due from the dyers
of cloth. The next account of the town is in Bishop Hatfield's
Survey (c. 1380), which states that " Ingelram Gentill and his
partners hold the borough of Derlyngton with the profits of the
mills and dye houses and other profits pertaining to the borough
rendering yearly four score and thirteen pounds and six shillings."
Darlington possesses no early charter, but claimed its privileges
as a borough by a prescriptive right. Until the 19th century it
was governed by a bailiff appointed by the bishop. The mention
of dyers in the Boldon Book and Hatfield's Survey probably
indicates the existence of woollen manufacture. Before the 19th
century Darlington was noted for the manufacture of linen,
worsted and flax, but it owes its modern importance to the
opening of the railway between Darlington and Stockton on the
27th of September 1825. " Locomotive No. 1," the first that
ever ran on a public railway, stands in Bank Top station, a
remarkable relic of the enterprise. As part of the palatinate of
Durham, Darlington sent no members to parliament until 1862,
when it was allowed to return one member. The fairs and
markets in Darlington were formerly held by the bishop and
were in existence as early as the nth century. According to
Leland, Darlington was in his time the best market town in the
bishopric with the exception of Durham. In 1664 the bishop,
finding that the inhabitants of the town had set up a market " in
the season of the year unaccustomed," i.e. from the fortnight
before Christmas to Whit Monday, prohibited them from con-
tinuing it. The markets and fairs were finally in 1854 purchased
by the local authority, and now belong to the corporation.

DARLINGTONIA (called after William Darlington, an American
botanist), a Calif ornian pitcher-plant, belonging to the order
Sarraceniaceae. There is only one species, D. californica, which
is found at 5000 ft. altitude on the Sierra Nevadas of California,
growing in sphagnum-bogs along with sundews and rushes.

Darlingtonia californica.

The pitcher-like leaves form a cluster, and are 1 to 2 ft. high,
slender, erect, and end in a rounded hooded top, from which
hangs a blade shaped like a fish-tail which guards the entrance to
the pitcher. Insects are attracted to the leaves by the bright
colouring, especially of the upper part; entering they pass down
the narrow funnel guided by downward pointing hairs which also
prevent their ascent. They form a putrefying mass in the bottom
of the pitcher, and the products of" their decomposition are
presumably absorbed by the leaf for food.

DARLY, MATTHIAS, 18th-century English caricaturist,
designer and engraver. This extremely versatile artist not only
issued political caricatures, but designed ceilings, chimney-
pieces, mirror frames, girandoles, decorative panels and other
mobiliary accessories, made many engravings for Thomas
Chippendale, and sold his own productions over the counter.
He was apparently an architect by profession. The first publica-
tion which can be attributed to him with certainty is a coloured
caricature, " The Cricket Players of Europe " (1741). In 1754
he issued A new Book of Chinese Designs, which was intended to
minister to the passing craze for furniture and household decora-
tions in the Chinese style. It was in this year that he engraved
many of the plates for the Director of Thomas Chippendale. He
published from many addresses, most of them in the Strand or
its immediate neighbourhood, and his shop was for a long period
perhaps the most important of its kind in London. In his book
Nollekens and his Times, J. T. Smith, writing of Richard Cosway,
says: — "So ridiculously foppish did he become that Matth.
Darly, the famous caricature print seller, introduced an etching
of him in his window in the Strand as the ' Macaroni Miniature
Painter.' " Darly was for many years in partnership with a man
named Edwards, and together they published many political
prints, which were originally issued separately and collected
annually into volumes under the title of Political and Satirical
History. Darly was a member both of the Incorporated Society
of Artists and the Free Society of Artists, forerunners of the
Royal Academy, and to their exhibitions he contributed many
architectural drawings, together with a profile etching of himself
(1775). Upon one of these etchings, published from 39 Strand,
he is described as " Professor of Ornament to the Academy of
Great Britain." Darly's most important publication was The
Ornamental Architect or Young Artists' Instructor (1770-1771),
a title which was changed in the edition of 1773 to A Compleat
Body of Architecture, embellished with a great Variety of Orna-
ments. He also issued Sixty Vases by English, French and
Italian Masters (1767). In addition to his immense mass of
other productions Darly executed many book plates, illustrated
various books and cabinet-makers' catalogues, and gave lessons
in etching. His skill as a caricaturist brought him into close
personal relations with the politicians of his time, and in 1763
he was instrumental in saving John Wilkes, whose partisan he
was, from death at the hands of James Dunn, who had determined
to kill him. Darly, who described himself as " Liveryman and
block maker," issued his last caricature in October 1780, and as
his shop, No. 39 Strand, was let to a new tenant in the following
year, it is to be presumed that he had by that time died, or
become incapable of further work. As a designer of furniture
Darly travelled in a dozen years or so from the extremes of
pseudo-Chinese affectation to classical severity of the type
popularized by the brothers Adam.

DARMESTETER, JAMES (1849-1894), French author and
antiquarian, was born of Jewish parents on the 28th of March
1849 at Chateau Salins, in Alsace. The family name had
originated in their earlier home of Darmstadt. He was educated
in Paris, where, under the guidance of Michel Breal and Abel
Bergaigne, he imbibed a love for Oriental studies, to which for a
time he entirely devoted himself. He was a man of vast intel-
lectual range. In 1875 he published a thesis on the mythology
of the Zend Avesta, and in 1877 became teacher of Zend at the
Ecole des Hautes fitudes. He followed up his researches with his
Etudes iraniennes (1883), and ten years later published a complete
translation of the Zend Avesta, with historical and philological
commentary (3 vols., 1892-1893), in the Annates du musee
Guimet. He also edited the Zend Avesta for Max Miiller's Sacred
Books of the East. Darmesteter regarded the extant texts as far
more recent than was commonly believed, placing the earliest in
the 1st century B.C., and the bulk in the 3rd century a.d. In
1885 he was appointed professor in the College de France, and
was sent to India in 1886 on a mission to collect the popular
songs of the Afghans, a translation of which, with a valuable
essay on the Afghan language and literature, he published on
his return. His impressions of English dominion in India

8 3 6

DARM3TADT--DARNLEY

were conveyed in Lettres sur I' I tide (1888). England interested
him deeply; and his attachment to the gifted English writer,
A. Mary F. Robinson, whom he shortly afterwards married (and
who in 1901 became the wife of Professor E. Duclaux, director
of the Pasteur Institute at Paris), led him to translate her poems
into French in 1888. Two years after his death a collection of
excellent essays on English subjects was published in English.
He also wrote Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l' Islam jusqu'd
nos jours (1885); Les Origines de la poSsie persane (1888);
ProphUes d' Israel (1892), and other books on topics connected
with the east, and from 1883 onwards drew up the annual
reports of the SocietS Asialique. He had just become connected
with the Revue de Paris, when his delicate constitution succumbed
to a slight attack of illness on the 19th of October 1894.

His elder brother, Arsene Darmesteter (1 846-1 888), was a
distinguished philologist and man of letters. He studied under
Gaston Paris at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and became
professor of Old French language and literature at the Sorbonne.
His Life of Words appeared in English in 1888. He also collabor-
ated with Adolphe Hatzfeld in a Dictionnaire gSniral de la langue
francaise (2 vols., 1895-1900). Among his most important work
was the elucidation of Old French by means of the many glosses
in the medieval writings of Rashi and other French Jews. His
scattered papers on romance and Jewish philology were collected
by James Darmesteter as Arsene Darmesteter ; reliques scienli-
fiques (2 vols., 1890). His valtiable Cours de grammaire
historique de la langue francaise was edited after his death by
E. Muret and L. Sudre (1891-1895 ; English edition, 1902).

There is an eloge of James Darmesteter in the Journal asiatique
(1894, vol. iv. pp. 519-534), and a notice by Henri Cordier, with a
list of his writings, in The Royal Asiatic Society's Journal (January
1895); see also Gaston Paris, "James Darmesteter," in Penseurs
et poetes (1896), pp. 1-61).

DARMSTADT, a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy
of Hesse-Darmstadt, on a plain gently sloping from the Odenwald
to the Rhine, 21 m. by rail S.E. from Mainz and 17 m. S. from
Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 83,000. It is the residence of
the grand-duke and the seat of government of the duchy.
Darmstadt consists of an old and a new town, the streets of the
former being narrow and gloomy and presenting no attractive
features. The new town, however, which includes the greater
part of the city, contains broad streets and several fine squares.
Among the latter is the stately Luisenplatz, on which are the house
of parliament, the old palace and the post office, and in the centre
of which is a column surmounted by the statue of the grand-
duke Louis I., the founder of the new town. The square is crossed
by the Rhein-strasse, the most important thoroughfare in the
city, leading directly from the railway station to the ducal
palace. This last, a complex of buildings, dating from various
centuries, but possessing few points of special interest, is sur-
rounded by grounds occupying the site of the old moat.
Opposite to it, on the north side, and adjoining the pretty palace
gardens, are the court theatre and the armoury, and a little
farther west the handsome buildings of the new museum, erected
in 1905 and containing the valuable scientific and art collections
of the state, which were formerly housed in the palace: a library
of 600,000 volumes and 4000 MSS., a museum of Egyptian and
German antiquities, a picture gallery with masterpieces of old
German and Dutch schools, a natural history collection and the
state archives. To the right of the entrance to the palace gardens
is the tomb of the " great landgravine," Caroline Henrietta, wife
of the landgrave Louis IX., surmounted by a marble urn, the
• gift of Frederick the Great of Prussia, bearing the inscription
femina sexu, ingenio vir. To the south of the castle lies the old
town, with the market square, the town hall (lately restored and
enlarged) and the town church. Of the eight churches (seven
Evangelical) only the Roman Catholic is in any way imposing.
There are two synagogues. The town possesses a technical high
school, having (since 1900) power to confer the degree of doctor
of engineering, and attended by about 2000 students, two
gymnasia, a school of agriculture, an artisans' school and a
botanical garden. The chemist, Justus von Liebig, was born

in Darmstadt in 1803. Among the chief manufactures are the
production of machinery, carpets, playing cards, chemicals,
tobacco, hats, wine and beer.

The surroundings of Darmstadt are attractive and contain
many features of interest. To the east of the town lies the
Mathildenhohe, formerly a park and now converted into villa
residences. Here are the Alice hospital and the pretty Russian
church, built (1898-1899) by the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia
in memory of the empress Maria, wife of Alexander II. In the
vicinity is the Rosenhohe, with the mausoleum of the ducal house,
with the tomb of the grand-duchess Alice, daughter of Queen
Victoria of England.

Darmstadt is mentioned in the nth century, but in the 14th
century it was still a village, held by the counts of Katzeneln-
bogen. It came by marriage into the possession of the house of
Hesse in 1479, the male line of the house of Katzenelnbogen
having in that year become extinct. The imperial army took
it in the Schmalkaldic War, and destroyed the old castle. In
1567, after the death of Philip the Magnanimous, his youngest
son George received Darmstadt and chose it as his residence.
He was the founder of the line of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its most
brilliant days were those of the reign of Louis X. (1790-1830),
the first grand-duke, under whom the new town was built.

See Walther, Darmstadt wie es war und wie es geworden (Darms.
1865) ; and Zernin und Worner, Darmstadt und seine Umgebung
(Zurich, 1890).

DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART or STUART, Lord (1545-
1567), earl of Ross and duke of Albany, second husband of Mary,
queen of Scots, was the eldest son of Matthew Stewart, earl of
Lennox (1516-1571), and through his mother Lady Margaret
Douglas (1515-1578) was a great-grandson of the English king
Henry VII. Born at Temple Newsam in Yorkshire on the 7th of
December 1545, he was educated in England, and his lack of
intellectual ability was compensated for by exceptional skill in
military exercises. After the death of Francis II. of France in 1 560
Darnley was sent into that country by his mother, who hoped
that he would become king of England on Elizabeth's death,
and who already entertained the idea of his marriage with Mary,
queen of Scots, the widow of Francis, as a means to this end.
Consequently in 1561 both Lady Margaret and her son, who were
English subjects, were imprisoned by Elizabeth ; but they were
soon released,, and Darnley spent some time at the English court
before proceeding to Scotland in February 1565. The marriage
of Mary and Darnley was now a question of practical politics,
and the queen, having nursed her new suitor through an attack of
measles, soon made up her mind to wed him, saying he " was the
properest and best proportioned long man that ever she had
seen." The attitude of Elizabeth towards this marriage is
difficult to understand. She had permitted Darnley to journey to
Scotland, and it has been asserted that she entangled Mary into
this union; but on the other hand she and her council declared
their dislike of the proposed marriage, and ordered Darnley and
his father to repair to London, a command which was disobeyed.
In March 1565 there were rumours that the marriage had already
taken place, but it was actually celebrated at Holyrood on the
29th of July 1565.

Although Mary had doubtless a short infatuation for Darnley,
the union was mainly due to political motives, and in view of the
characters of bride and bridegroom it is not surprising that
trouble soon arose between them. Contrary to his expectations
Darnley did not receive the crown matrimonial, and his foolish
and haughty behaviour, his vicious habits, and his boisterous
companions did not improve matters. He was on bad terms
with the regent Murray and other powerful nobles, who disliked
the marriage and were intriguing with Elizabeth. Scotland was
filled with rumours of plot and assassination, and civil war was
only narrowly avoided. Unable to take any serious part in
affairs of state, Darnley soon became estranged from his wife.
He believed that Mary's relations with David Rizzio injured him
as a husband, and was easily persuaded to assent to the murder
of the Italian, a crime in which he took part. Immediately
afterwards, however, flattered and cajoled by the queen, he

DARRANG— DARTMOOR

837

betrayed his associates to her, and assisted her to escape
from Holyrood to Dunbar. Owing to these revelations he was
deserted and distrusted by his companions in the murder, and
soon lost the queen's favour. In these circumstances he decided
to leave Scotland, but a variety of causes prevented his departure;
and meanwhile at Craigmillar a band of nobles undertook to free
Mary from her husband, who refused to be present at the baptism
of his son, James, at Stirling in December 1566. The details of
the conspiracy at Craigmillar are not clear, nor is it certain what
part, if any, Mary took in these proceedings. The first intention
may have been to obtain a divorce for the queen, but it was soon
decided that Darnley must be killed. Rumours of the plot came
to his ears, and he fled from Stirling to Glasgow, where he fell
ill, possibly by poisoning, and where Mary came to visit him.
Another reconciliation took place between husband and wife,
and Darnley was persuaded to journey with Mary by easy stages
to Edinburgh. Apartments were prepared for the pair at Kirk
o' Field, a house just inside the city walls, and here they remained
for a few days. On the evening of the 9th of February 1 567 Mary
took an affectionate farewell of her husband, and went to attend
some gaieties in Edinburgh. A few hours later, on the morning
of the 10th, Kirk o' Field was blown up with gunpowder.
Darnley's body was found at some distance from the house, and
it is supposed that he was strangled whilst making his escape.
The remains were afterwards buried in the chapel at Holyrood.

Much discussion has taken place about this crime, and the
guilt or innocence of Mary is still a question of doubt and debate.
It seems highly probable, however, that the queen was accessory
to the murder, which was organized by her lover and third
husband, Bothwell (q.v.). As the father of King James I.,
Darnley is the direct ancestor of all the sovereigns of England
since 1603. Personally he was a very insignificant character and
his sole title to fame is his connexion with Mary, queen of Scots.

For further information, and also for a list of the works bearing on
his life, see the article Mary, Queen of Scots.

DARRANG, a district of British India, in the provinte of
Eastern Bengal and Assam. It lies between the Bhutan and
Daphla Hills and the Brahmaputra, including many islands in the
river. The administrative headquarters are at Tezpur. Its area
is 3418 sq. m. It is for the most part a level plain watered by
many tributaries of the Brahmaputra. The two subdivisions of
Tezpur Mangaldai differ greatly in character. Tezpur is part of
Upper Assam and shares in the prosperity which tea cultivation
has brought to that part of the valley. In this portion of the
district there are still large areas of excellent land awaiting
settlement, and the cultivator finds a market for his produce
in the flourishing tea-gardens, to which large quantities of
coolies are imported every year. In Mangaldai, on the other
hand, most of the good rice land was settled about 1880-1890
when the subdivision had a population of 146 to the square mile,
as against 42 for Tezpur ; the soil is not favourable for tea, and
the population is stationary or receding. In 1901 the population
of the whole district was 337,313, showing an increase of 10% in
the decade. The principal grain-crop is rice. The principal means
of communication is by river. A steam tramway of 2§ ft. gauge
has been opened from Tezpur to Balipara, a distance of 20 m.

Darrang originally formed, according to tradition, part of the
dominions of Bana Raja, who was defeated by Krishna in a battle
near Tezpur (" the town of blood "). The massive granite ruins
found near by prove that the place must have been the seat of
powerful and civilized rulers. In the 16th century Darrang was
subject to the Koch king of Kamarupa, Nar Narayan, and on the
division of his dominions among his heirs passed to an independent
line of rajas. Early in the 17th century the raja Bali Narayan
invoked the aid of the Ahoms of Upper Assam against the Mussul-
man invaders; after his defeat and death in 1637 the Ahoms domin-
ated the whole district, and the Darrang rajas sank into petty feuda-
tories. About 1785 they took advantage of the decay of the Ahom
kingdom to try and re-establish their independence, but they were
defeated by a British expedition in 1792, and in 1826 Darrang, with
the rest of Assam, passed under British control.

DARTFORD, a market town in the Dartford parliamentary
division of Kent, England, on the Darent, 17 m. E.S.E. of
London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of

urban district (1891), 11,962 ; (1901) 18,644. The town lies low,
flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West Hills.
It possesses a town hall, a grammar school (1576), and a Martyr's
Memorial Halh The most noteworthy building, however, is the
parish church, restored in 1863, which contains a curious old
fresco and several interesting brasses, and has a Norman tower.
The prosperity of the town depends on the important works in its
vicinity, including powder works, paper mills, and engineering,
iron, chemical and cement works. One of the first attempts at
the manufacture of paper in England was made here by Sir John
Spielman (d. 1607), jeweller to Queen Elizabeth. Dartford was
the scene, in 1235, of the marriage, celebrated by proxy, between
Isabella, sister of Henry III., and the Emperor Frederick II. ;
and in 133 1 a famous tournament was held in the place by
Edward III. The same monarch established an Augustinian
nunnery on West Hill in 1355, of which, however, few remains
exist. After the Dissolution it was used as a private residence
by Henry VIII. , Anne of Cleves and Elizabeth. The chantry of
St Edmund the Martyr which stood on the opposite side of the
town was a part of Edward III.'s endowment to the priory, and
became so famous as a place of pilgrimage, especially for those
on their way to Canterbury, that the part of Watling Street which
crossed there towards London was sometimes called " St
Edmund's Way." It was here also that Wat Tyler's insurrection
began in 1377, and the house in which he resided is shown. On
Dartford Heath is a lunatic asylum of the London County Council,
and, at Long Reach, the infectious diseases hospital of the
Metropolitan Asylums Board. Stone church, 2 m. E. of Dartford,
mainly late Early English (1 251-1274), and carefully restored by
G. E. Street in i860, is remarkable ; the richness of the work
within increases from west to east, culminating in a choir arcade
decorated with work among the finest of its period extant;
the period is that of the choir of Westminster Abbey, and from a
comparison of building materials, choir arcades and sculpture
of foliage, a common architect has been suggested. Greenhithe,
on the banks of the Thames, has large chalk quarries in its
neighbourhood, from which lime and cement are manufactured.

DARTMOOR, a high plateau in the south-west of Devonshire,
England. Its length is about 23 m. from N. to S. and its extreme
breadth 20 m., the mean altitude being about 1500 ft. The area
exceeding 1000 ft. in elevation is about 200 sq. m. It is the
highest and easternmost in a broken chain of granitic elevations
which extends through Cornwall to the Stilly Isles. The higher
parts are open, bleak and wild, strongly contrasting with the
more gentle scenery of the well-wooded lowlands surrounding it.
Sloping heights rise from the main tableland in all directions,
crested with broken masses of granite, locally named tors, and
often singularly fantastic in outline. The highest of these are
Yes Tor and High Willhays in the north-west, reaching altitudes
of 2028 and 2039 ft. Large parts of the moor, especially in the
centre, are covered with morasses ; and head-waters of all the
principal streams of Devonshire (q.v.) are found here. Two main
roads cross the moor, one between Exeter and Plymouth, and
the other between Ashburton and Tavistock, intersecting at Two
Bridges. Both avoid the higher part of the moor, which, for the
rest, is traversed only in part by a few rough tracks. The central
part of Dartmoor was a royal forest from a date unknown, but
apparently anterior to the Conquest. Its woods were formerly
more extensive than now, but a few small tracts in which dwarf
oaks are characteristic remain in the lower parts. Previous to
1337, the forest had been granted to Richard, earl of Cornwall,
by Henry III., and from that time onward it has belonged to the
duchy of Cornwall. The districts immediately surrounding the
moor are called the Venville or Fenfield districts. The origin of
this name is not clear. The holders of land by Venville tenure
under the duchy have rights of pasture, fishing, &c. in the forest,
and their main duty is to " drive " the moor at certain times
in order to ascertain what head of cattle are pastured thereon,
and to prevent trespassing. The antiquarian remains of Dart-
moor are considered among those of Devonshire.

Dartmoor convict prison, near Princetown, was adapted to its
present purpose in 1850 ; but the original buildings were erected

8 3 8

DARTMOUTH— DARTMOUTH COLLEGE

in 1809 for the accommodation of French prisoners. A tract of
moorland adjacent to the prison has been brought under cultiva-
tion by the inmates.

See S. Rowe, Perambulation of the . . . forest of Dartmoor
(Plymouth, 1848) ; J. L. W. Page, Exploration of Dartmoor (London,
1889); S. Baring-Gould, Book of Dartmoor (London, 1900).

DARTMOUTH, a town in Halifax county, Nova Scotia,
Canada, on the north-eastern side of Halifax harbour, connected
by a steam ferry with Halifax, of which it is practically a suburb.
Pop. (1901) 4806. It contains a large sugar refinery, foundries,
machine shops, saw mills, skate, rope, nail, soap and sash
factories.

DARTMOUTH, a seaport, market town, and municipal
borough in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire,
England, 27 m. E: of Plymouth. Pop. (1901) 6579. It is
beautifully situated on the west bank and near the mouth of
the river Dart, which here forms an almost land-locked estuary.
The town is connected by a steam ferry with Kingswear on the
opposite bank, which is served by a branch of the Great Western
railway. The houses of Dartmouth, many of which are ancient,
rise in tiers from the shore, beneath a range of steep hills. An
embankment planted with trees fronts the river. The cruciform
church of St Saviour is of the 14th and 15th centuries, and
contains a graceful rood-screen of the 16th century, an ancient
stone pulpit and interesting monuments. Dartmouth Castle,
in part of Tudor date, commands the river a little below the
town. Portions of the cottage of Thomas Newcomen, one of
the inventors of the steam-engine, are preserved. Dartmouth is a
favourite yachting centre, and shipbuilding, brewing, engineering
and paint-making are carried on. Coal is imported, and resold
to ships calling at the harbour. The borough is under a mayor,
four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1924 acres.

History. — Probably owing its origin to Saxon invaders, Dart-
mouth (Darentamuthan, Dertemue) was a seaport of importance
when Earl Beorn was buried in its church in 1049. From its
sheltered harbour William II. embarked for the relief of Mans,
and the crusading squadron set sail in n 90, while John landed
here in 12 14. The borough, first claimed as such in the reign of
Henry I., was in existence by the middle of the 13th century,
since a deed of Gilbert Fitz-Stephen, lord of the manor, mentions
the services due from " his burgesses of Dertemue," and a borough
seal of 1 280 is extant. The king in 1 2 24 required the bailiffs and
good men of Dartmouth to keep all ships in readiness for his
service, and in 1302 they were to furnish two ships for the Scottish
expedition, an obligation maintained throughout the century.
The men of the vill were made quit of toll in 1337, and in
1342 the town was incorporated by a charter frequently con-
firmed by later sovereigns. Edward III. in 1372 granted that
the burgesses should be sued only before the mayor and bailiffs,
and Richard II. in 1393 granted extended jurisdiction and a
coroner; further charters were obtained in 1604 and 1684. A
French attack on the town was repulsed in 1404, and in 1485 the
burgesses received a royal grant of £40 for walling the town
and stretching a chain across the river mouth. Dartmouth fitted
out two ships against the Armada, and was captured by both the
royalists and parliamentarians in the Civil War. It returned two
representatives to parliament in 1298, and from 1350 to 1832.
In the latter year the representation was reduced to one, and was
merged in that of the county in 1868. Manorial markets were
granted for Dartmouth in 1231 and 1301. These were important
since as early as 1225 the fleet resorted there for provisions.
During the 14th and 15th centuries there was a regular trade
with Bordeaux and Brittany, and complaints of piracies by
Dartmouth men were frequent.

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, an American institution of higher
education, in Hanover, New Hampshire. It is Congregational in
its affiliations, but is actually non-sectarian. The college is open
only to men except during the summer session, when women also
are admitted. Dartmouth embraces, in addition to the original
college, incorporated in 1769, a medical school, dating from the
establishment of a professorship of medicine in the college in
1798; the Thayer school of civil engineering, established in 1867

by the bequest of Gen. Sylvanus Thayer; and the Amos Tuck
school of administration and finance, established in 1900 by
Edward Tuck — a remarkable feature, as it was the first, and,
until the establishment at Harvard of a similar graduate school,
the only commercial school in the country whose work is largely
post-graduate. The Chandler school of science and the arts was
founded by Abiel Chandler in 1851, in connexion with Dart-
mouth, and was incorporated into the collegiate department in
1893 as the Chandler scientific course in the college. From 1866
to 1893 the New Hampshire college of agriculture and the
mechanic arts, now at Durham, was connected with Dartmouth.
The medical school offers a four years' course, and each of the
other two professional schools a two years' course, the first year
of which may, under certain conditions, be counted as the senior
year of the undergraduate department. The college has a
beautiful campus or "yard"; a library of more than 100,000
volumes, housed in Wilson Hall (1885); instruction halls, resi-
dence halls — Thornton and Wentworth (i828),Hallgarten (1874),
Richardson (1897), and Fayerweather (1900); a gymnasium
(Bissell Hall, built in 1867); an athletic field, known as Alumni
Oval; Bartlett Hall (1890-1891), the house of the College Young
Men's Christian Association; Rollins Chapel (1885); College
Hall ( 1 901), a social headquarters; an astronomical and meteoro-
logical observatory (Shattuck Observatory, 1854); the Mary
Hitchcock hospital (1893), associated with the medical college;
museums (especially the Butterfield Museum); Culver Hall (1871),
the chemical laboratory; and Wilder Hall (1899), the physical
laboratory. The college in 1908 had 100 officers of administra-
tion and instruction and 12 19 students. It is maintained chiefly
by the proceeds of a productive endowment fund amounting to
$2,700,000 and by tuition fees ($125 a year for each student).
The government is entrusted to a board of twelve trustees, five
of whom are elected upon the nomination of the alumni.

Dartmouth is the outgrowth of Moor's Indian charity school,
founded by Eleazer Wheelock (1711-1779) about 1750 at
LebMion, Connecticut; this school was named in 1755 in honour
of Jolhua Moor, who in this year gave to it lands and buildings.
In 1765 Samson Occom (c. 1723-1792), an Indian preacher
and former student of the school, visited England and Scotland
in its behalf and raised £10,000, whereupon plans were made
for enlargement and for a change of site to Hanover. In 1 769 the
school was incorporated by a charter granted by George III. as
Dartmouth College, being named after the earl of Dartmouth,
president of the trustees of the funds raised in Great Britain.
The first college building, Dartmouth Hall (closely resembling
Nassau Hall at Princetown and the University Hall of Brown
University), was built in 1 784-1 791 and is still standing, as are
the typical college church, built in 1796 and enlarged in 1877 and
1889, and Moor Hall, the second building for Moor's charity
school, since 1852 called the Chandler building. During the War
of Independence the support from Great Britain was mostly
withdrawn. In 1815 President John Wheelock (1754-1817),
who had succeeded his father in 1779, and was a Presbyterian
and a Republican, was removed by the majority of the board
of trustees, who were Congregationalists and Federalists, and
Francis Brown was chosen in his place. Wheelock, upon his
appeal to the legislature, was reinstated at the head of a new
corporation, called Dartmouth University. The state courts
upheld the legislature and the " University," but in 1819 after
the famous argument of Daniel Webster {q.v.) in behalf of the
" College " board of trustees as against the " University " board
before the United States Supreme Court, that body decided that
the private trust created by the charter of 1769 was inviolable,
and Dr Francis Brown and the old " College " board took
possession of the institution's property. This was one of the
most important decisions ever made by the United States
Supreme Court.

See Frederick Chase, A History of Dartmouth College and the Town
of Hanover (Cambridge, 1891). For the Dartmouth College Case see
Shirley, The Dartmouth College Causes (St Louis, Missouri, 1879);
Kent, Commentaries on American Law (vol. i. Boston, 1884); an d
Joseph Story, Commentaries on the ConstitutioniyoX. ii., Boston, 1891).

DARTMOUTH, EARL OF— DARU, COUNT

839

DARTMOUTH, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family
of Legge from 17 10 to the present day.

William Legge (c. 1609-1670), the eldest son of Edward
Legge (d. 16 16), vice-president of Munster, gained some military
experience on the continent of Europe and then returning to
England assisted Charles I. in his war against the Scots in 1638.
He was also very useful to the king during the months which
preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, although his attempt
to seize Hull in January 1642 failed. During the war Legge
distinguished himself at Chalgrove and at the first battle of
Newbury, and in 1645 he became governor of Oxford. However,
he only held this position for a few months, as he shared the
disgrace of Prince Rupert, to whom he was very devoted; but
he was largely instrumental in putting an end to the quarrel
between the king and the prince. Legge helped Charles to
escape from Hampton Court in 1647, and after attending upon
him he was arrested in May 1648. He was soon released, but
was again captured in the following year while proceeding to
Ireland in the interests of Charles II. Regaining his freedom in
1653, he spent some years abroad, but in 1659 he was once more
in England inciting the royalists to rise. Legge enjoyed the
favour of Charles II., who offered to make him an earl. The old
royalist died on the 13th of October 1670.

Legge's eldest son, George, Baron Dartmouth (1647-1691),
served as a volunteer in the navy during the Dutch war of 1665-
1667, and quickly won his way to high rank. He was also a
member of the household of the duke of York, afterwards
James II.; was governor of Portsmouth and master-general of
the army; in 1678 he commanded as colonel the troop at Nieu-
port, and in 1682 he was created Baron Dartmouth. In 1683 as
" admiral of a fleet " he sailed to Tangiers, dismantled the fortifi-
cations and brought back the English troops, a duty which he
discharged very satisfactorily. Under James II. Dartmouth
was master of the horse and governor of the Tower of London;
and in 1688, when William of Orange was expected, James II.
made him commander-in-chief of his fleet. Although himself
loyal to James, the same cannot be said of many of his officers,
and an engagement with the Dutch fleet was purposely avoided.
Dartmouth, however, refused to assist in getting James Edward,
prince of Wales, out of the country, and even reproved the king
for attempting this proceeding. He then left the fleet and took
the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, but in July 1691 he
was arrested for treason, and was charged with offering to hand
over Portsmouth to France and to command a French fleet.
Macaulay believed that this accusation was true, but there are
those who hold that Dartmouth spoke the truth when he pro-
tested his innocence. * Further proceedings against him were
prevented by his death, which took place in the Tower of London
on the 25th of October 1691.

Lord Dartmouth's only son, William, 1st Earl of Dart-
mouth (1672-1750), succeeded to his father's barony in 1691.
In 1702 he was appointed a member of the board of trade and
foreign plantations, and eight years later he became secretary of
state for the southern department and joint keeper of the signet
for Scotland. In 171 1 he was created viscount Lewisham and
earl of Dartmouth; in 17 13 he exchanged his offices for that of
keeper of the privy seal, which he held until the end of 1714.
After a long period of retirement from public life he died on the
1 5th of December 1 7 50. Dartmouth's eldest son George,viscount
Lewisham (c. 1703-1732), predeceased his father. Other sons
were : Heneage Legge (1704-1759), judge of the court of
exchequer; Henry Legge (q.i:), afterwards Bilson-Legge ; and
Edward Legge (1710-1747), who served for some time in the navy
and died on the 19th of September 1747.

William, 2nd Earl or Dartmouth (1731-1801), was a son
of George, viscount Lewisham, and a grandson of the 1st earl,
whom he succeeded in 1750. For a few months in 1765 and 1766
he was president of the board of trade and foreign plantations;
in 1772 he returned to the same office holding also that of
secretary for the colonies; and in 17.75 he became lord privy
seal. With regard to the American colonies Dartmouth advised
them in 1777 to accept the conciliatory proposals put forward by

Lord North, but in 1776 he opposed similar proposals and advo-
cated the employment of force. In March 1782 he resigned his
office as lord privy seal and in 1783 he was lord steward of the
household; he died on the 15th of July 1801. Dartmouth was a
friend of Selina, countess of Huntingdon, and his piety and his
intimacy with the early Methodists won for him the epithet of the
Psalm-singer. Dartmouth College was named after him, and
among his papers preserved at Patshull House, Wolverhampton,
are many letters from America relating to the struggle for
independence. His sixth son, Sir Arthur Kaye Legge (d. 1835),
was an admiral of the blue, and his seventh son, Edward Legge
(d. 1827), was bishop of Oxford.

George, 3rd Earl or Dartmouth (1755-1810), the eldest son
of the 2nd earl, was lord warden of the stannaries and president
of the board of control; later he was lord steward and then lord
chamberlain of the royal household. He died on the 1st of
November 1810, when his eldest son, William (1784-1853),
became 4th earl. William's son, William Walter (1823-1891),
became 5th earl in 1853 and was succeeded in 1891 by his son
William Heneage Legge (b. 1851) as 6th earl of Dartmouth. As
Lord Lewisham this nobleman was a member of parliament
from 1878 to 1891, and was vice-chamberlain of the household in
1885-1886, and again from 1886 to 1892.

DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO, Count (1767-
1829), French soldier and statesman, was born at Montpellier
on the 12th of January 1767. He was educated at the military
school of Tournon, conducted by the Oratorians, and entered the
artillery at an early age. His fondness for literature, however,
soon made itself felt, and he published seyeral slight pieces, until
the outbreak of the French Revolution called him to a sterner
occupation. In 1793 he became commissary to the army,
protecting the coasts of Brittany from projected descents of the
British, or of French royalists. Thrown into prison on a frivolous
charge of friendliness to the royalists and England, he was released
after the fall of Robespierre in the summer of 1794, and rose in
the service until, in 1799, he became chief commissary to the
French army serving under Massena in the north of Switzerland.
In that position he won repute for his organizing capacity, great
power of work and unswerving probity — the last of which
qualities was none too common in the French armies at that
time. These exacting tasks did not absorb all his energies. He
found time, even during the campaign, to translate part of Horace
and to compose two poems, the Poeme des Alpes and the Chant de
guerre. The latter celebrated in indignant strains the murder
of the French envoys to the congress of Rastadt. ' 1

The accession of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in November
1799 led to the employment of Daru as chief commissary to the
Army of Reserve intended for North Italy, and commanded
nominally by Berthier, but really by the First Consul. Conjointly
with Berthier and Dejean, he signed the armistice with the
Austrians which closed the campaign in North Italy in June
1800. Daru now returned, for a time, mainly to civil life, and
entered the tribunate, where he ably maintained the principles
of democratic liberty. On the renewal of war with England, in
May 1803, he again resumed his duties as chief commissary for
the army on the northern coasts. It was afterwards asserted
that, on Napoleon's resolve to turn the army of England against
Austria, Daru had set down at the emperor's dictation all the
details of the campaign which culminated at TJlm. The story is
apocryphal; but Napoleon's confidence in him was evinced by
his being appointed to similar duties in the Grand Army, which in
the autumn of 1805 overthrew the armies of Austria and Russia.
After the battle of Austerlitz, he took part in the drafting of the
treaty of Presburg. At this time, too, he became intendant-
general of the military household of Napoleon. In the campaigns
of 1806-1807 he served, in his usual capacity, in the army which
overthrew the forces of Russia and Prussia; and he had a share
in drawing up the treaty of Tilsit (7th of July 1807). After this he
supervised the administrative and financial duties in connexion
with the French army which occupied the principal fortresses of
Prussia, and was one of the chief agents through whom Napoleon
pressed hard on that land. At the congress of Erfurt, Daru had

840

DARWEN— DARWIN, CHARLES

the privilege of being present at the interview between Goethe
and Napoleon, and interposed tactful references to the works of
the great poet. Daru fulfilled his usual duties in the campaign
of 1809 against Austria. Afterwards, when the subject of the
divorce of Josephine and the choice of a Russian or of an Austrian
princess came to be discussed, Daru, on being consulted by
Napoleon, is said boldly to have counselled his marriage with a
French lady; and Napoleon, who admired his frankness and
honesty, took the reply in good part. *

In 181 1 he became secretary of state in succession to Maret,
due de Bassano, and showed his usual ability in the administra-
tion of the vast and complex affairs of the French empire,
including the arrangements connected with the civil list and the
imperial domains. But neither his devotion to civic duty nor to
the administration of the affairs of the Grand Army could ward
off disaster. Late in the year 18 13 he took up the portfolio of
military affairs. After the first abdication of Napoleon in 1814,
Daru retired into private life, but aided Napoleon during the
Hundred Days. After the second Restoration he became a
member of the Chamber of Peers, in which he ably defended the
cause of popular liberty against the attacks of the ultra-royalists.
He died at Meulan on the 5th of September 1829.

Few men of the Napoleonic empire have been more generally
admired and respected than Daru. On one occasion when
he expressed a fear that he lacked all the gifts of a courtier,
Napoleon replied, " Courtiers! They are common enough about
me; I shall never be in want of them. What I want is an
enlightened, firm and vigilant administrator; and that is why
I have chosen you." At another time Napoleon said, " Daru is
good on all sides; he has good judgment, a good intellect, a great
power for work, and a body and mind of iron." The only
occasion on which he is known to have sunk beneath the weight
of his duties was in the course of writing letters at the emperor's
dictation for the third night in succession.

Of Daru's literary works may be mentioned his Histoire de
Venise, published at Paris in 7 vols, in 18 19; the Histoire de
Bretagne, in 3 vols. (Paris, 1826); a poetical translation of
Horace (of which Le Brun remarked: " Je ne lis point Daru,
j'aime trop mon Horace ") ; Discours en vers sur les faculUs de
Vhomme (Paris, 1825), and Astronomie, a didactic poem in six
cantos (Paris, 1820).

See the " Notice " by Viennet prefixed to the fourth edition of
Daru's Histoire de la republique de Venise (9 vols., 1853), and three
articles by Sainte-Beuve in Causeries du lundi, vol. ix. For the many
letters of Napoleon to Daru see the Correspondance de Napoleon I"
(32 vols., Paris, 1858-1870). (J. Hl. R.)

DARWEN, a municipal borough in the Darwen parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 20 m. N.W. from Manchester
by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 34,192;
(1901) 38,212. It lies on the river Darwen, which traverses a
densely populated manufacturing district, and is surrounded by
high-lying moors. Darwen is a centre of the cotton trade and
has also blast furnaces, and paper-making, paper-staining and
fire-clay works. In the neighbourhood are collieries and stone
quarries. The market hall is the chief public building; there are
technical schools, a free library, and two public parks. Darwen
was incorporated in 1788. The corporation consists of a mayor,
six aldermen and eighteen councillors.

DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882), English naturalist,
author of the Origin of Species, was born at Shrewsbury on the
12th of February 1809. He was the younger of the two sons and
the fourth child of Dr Robert Waring Darwin, son of Dr Erasmus
Darwin (<?.».). His mother, a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood
(1730-1795), died when Charles Darwin was eight years old.
Charles Darwin's elder brother, Erasmus Alvey (1804-1881),
was interested in literature and art rather than science: on the
subject of the wide difference between the brothers Charles wrote
that he was " inclined to agree with Francis Galton in believing
that education and environment produce only a small effect on
the mind of anyone, and that most of our qualities are innate "
(Life and Letters, London, 1887, p. 22). Darwin considered that
his own success was chiefly due to "the love of science, unbounded

patience in long reflecting over any subject, industry in observing
and collecting facts, and a fair share of invention as well as of
common sense " (I.e. p. 107). He also says: " I have steadily
endeavoured to keep my mind free so as to give up any hypothesis,
however much beloved (and I cannot resist forming one on every
subject), as soon as facts are shown to be opposed to it " (I.e.
p. 103) . The essential causes of his success are to be found in this
latter sentence, the creative genius ever inspired by existing
knowledge to build hypotheses by whose aid further knowledge
could be won, the calm unbiassed mind, the transparent honesty
and love of truth which enabled him to abandon or to modify his
own creations when they ceased to be supported by observation.
The even balance between these powers was as important as their
remarkable development. The great naturalist appeared in the
ripeness of time, when the world was ready for his splendid
generalizations. Indeed naturalists were already everywhere
considering and discussing the problem of evolution, although
Alfred Russel Wallace was the only one who, independently of
Darwin, saw his way clearly to the solution. It is true that
hypotheses essentially the same as natural selection were sug-
gested much earlier by W. C. Wells (Phil. Trans., 1813), and
Patrick Matthew (Naval Timber and Arboriculture, 1831), but
their views were lost sight of and produced no effect upon the
great body of naturalists. In the preparation for Darwin Sir
Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology played an important part,
accustoming men's minds to the vast changes brought about by
natural processes, and leading them, by its lucid and temperate
discussion of Lamarck's and other views, to reflect upon evolution.
Darwin's early education was conducted at Shrewsbury, first
for a year at a day-school, then for seven years at Shrewsbury
School under Dr Samuel Butler (1 774-1839). He gained but
little from the narrow system which was then universal. In 1 8 2 5
he went to Edinburgh to prepare for the medical profession, for
which he was unfitted by nature. After two sessions his father
realized this, and in 1828 sent him to Cambridge with the idea
that he should become a clergyman. He matriculated at Christ's
College, and took his degree in 1831, tenth in the list of those
who do not seek honours. Up to this time he had been keenly
interested in sport, and in entomology, especially the collecting
of beetles. Both at Edinburgh, where in 1826 he read his first
scientific paper, and at Cambridge he gained the friendship of'
much older scientific men — Robert Edmond Grant and William
Macgillivray at the former, John Stevens Henslow and Adam
Sedgwick at the latter. He had two terms' residence to keep after
passing his last examination, and studied geology with Sedgwick.
Returning from their geological excursion together in North
Wales (August 1 831), he found a letter from Henslow urging him
to apply for the position of naturalist on the " Beagle," about to
start on a surveying expedition. His father at first disliked the
idea, but his uncle, the second Josiah Wedgwood, pleaded with
success, and Darwin started on the 27th of December 1831, the
voyage lasting until the 2nd of October 1836. It is practically
certain that he never left Great Britain after this latter date.
After visiting the Cape de Verde and other islands of the
Atlantic, the expedition surveyed on the South American
coasts and adjacent islands (including the Galapagos), afterwards
visiting Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, Keeling
Island, Maldives, Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension; and Brazil,
de Verdes and Azores on the way home. His work on the geology
of the countries visited, and that on coral islands, became the
subject of volumes which he published after his return, as well
as his Journal of a Naturalist, and his other contributions to the
official narrative. The voyage must be regarded as the real
preparation for his life-work. His observations on the relation
between animals in islands and those of the nearest continental
areas, near akin and yet not the same, and between living
animals and those most recently extinct and found fossil in the
same country, here again related but not the same, led him even
then to reflect deeply upon the modification of species. He had
also been much impressed by " the manner in which closely
allied animals replace one another in proceeding southwards "
in South America. On his return home Darwin worked at his

DARWIN, CHARLES

841

collections, first at Cambridge for three months and then in
London. His pocket-book for 1837 contains the words: " In
July opened first note-book on Transmutation of Species. Had
been greatly struck from about the month of previous March
[while still on the voyage and just over twenty-eight years old]
on character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos
Archipelago. These facts (especially latter) origin of all my
views." From 1838 to 1841 he was secretary of the Geological
Society, and saw a great deal of Sir Charles Lyell, to whom he
dedicated the second edition of his Journal. On the 29th of
January 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, the
daughter of Josiah Wedgwood of Maer. They lived in London
until September 1842, when they moved to Down, which was
Darwin's home for the rest of his life. His health broke down
many times in London, and remained precarious during the whole
of his life. The immense amount of work which he got through
was only made possible by the loving care of his wife. For eight
years (1846 to 1854) he was chiefly engaged upon four mono-
graphs on the recent and fossil Cirripede Crustacea (Ray Soc,
1851 and 1854; Palaeonlo graph. Soc, 1851 and 1854). Towards
the close of this work Darwin became very wearied of it, especi-
ally of the synonymy. For a time he hoped to start a movement
which should discourage the habit of appending the name of the
describer to the name of the species, a custom which he thought
led to bad and superficial work. From this time he was engaged
upon the numerous lines of inquiry which led to the great work
of his life, the Origin of Species, published in November 1859.

Soon after opening his note-book in July 1837 he began to
collect facts bearing upon the formation of the breeds of domestic
animals and plants, and quickly saw " that selection was the
keystone of man's success. But how selection could be applied
to organisms living in a state of nature remained for some time a
mystery to me." Various ideas as to the causes of evolution
occurred to him, only to be successively abandoned. He had
the idea of " laws of change "which affected species and finally
led to their extinction, to some extent analogous to the causes
which bring about the development, maturity and finally death
of an individual. He also had the conception that species must
give rise to other species or else die out, just as an individual dies
unrepresented if it bears no offspring. These and other ideas, of
which traces exist in his Diary, arose in his mind, together with
perhaps some general conception of natural selection, during the
fifteen months after the opening of his note-book. In October
1838 he read Malthus on Population, and his observations having
long since convinced him of the struggle for existence, it at once
struck him " that under these circumstances favourable variations
would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be
destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new
species. Here, then, I had a theory by which to work." In
June 1842 he wrote out a sketch, which two years later he
expanded to an essay occupying 231 pages folio. The idea of
progressive divergence as an advantage in itself, because the
competition is most severe between organisms most closely
related, did not occur to him until long after he had come to
Down. During the growth of the Origin Sir Joseph Hooker was
his most intimate friend, and on the nth of January 1844 he
wrote: " At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost
convinced (quite contrary to the opinion I started with) that
species are not (it is like confessing a murder) immutable "
(I.e. ii. 13). In 1855 he began a correspondence with the great
American botanist Asa Gray, and in 1857 explained his views
in a letter which afterwards became classical. In 1856, urged by
Lyell, he began the preparation of a third and far more expanded
treatise, and had completed about half of it when, on the 18th of
June 1858, he received a manuscript essay from A. R. Wallace,
who was then at Ternate in the Moluccas. Wallace wanted
Darwin's opinion on the essay, which he asked should be for-
warded to Lyell. Darwin was much startled to find in the essay
a complete abstract of his own theory of natural selection. He
forwarded it the same day, writing to- Lyell, " your words have
come true with a vengeance— that I should be forestalled." He
placed himself in the hands of Ly<dl and Hooker, who decided to

send Wallace's essay to the Linnean Society, together with an
abstract of Darwin's work, which they asked him to prepare,
the joint essay being accompanied by a preface in the form of an
explanatory letter written by them to the secretary. The title
of the joint communication was " On the Tendency of Species
to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and
Species by Natural Means of Selection." It was read on the 1st
of July 1858, and appears in the Linn. Soc. Journal (Zoology)
for that year. In this statement of the theory of natural selection,
Darwin's part consisted of two sections, the first being extracts
from his 1844 essay, including a brief account of sexual selection,
and the second an abstract of his letter to Asa Gray dated
the 5th of September 1857. This latter, probably his first
attempt to expound natural selection, cannot be surpassed as a
clear statement of the theory. Darwin explained at the outset,
what he insisted on elsewhere, that the facts of adaptation or
contrivance in nature are the real difficulty to be explained by
a' theory of evolution, the stumbling-block of every previous
suggestion. Until he could explain " the mistletoe, with its
pollen carried by insects, and seed by birds — the woodpecker,
with its feet and tail, beak and tongue, to climb the tree and
secure insects," he was " scientifically 'orthodox." Neverthe-
less he was led to believe in evolution, apart from any possible
motive-cause, by " general facts in the affinities, embryology,
rudimentary organs, geological history, and geographical dis-
tribution of organic beings." He then proceeds to describe the
manner in which he met the difficulty of adaptation by " his
notions on the means by which Nature makes her species." The
essentials of the statement are as follows: — I. Man has made
his domestic breeds of animals and plants by selection, conscious
or unconscious, of very slight or greater variations. II. The
material for selection exists in nature, namely, slight variations
of all parts of the organism. III. The " unerring power " which
sifts these variations is " natural selection . . . which selects
exclusively for the good of each organic being." The rate of
increase is such that only a few in each generation can live:
hence the never sufficiently appreciated struggle for life. " What
a trifling difference must often determine which shall' survive
and which perish ! " The remaining heads explain the complex
nature of the struggle, the reasons for deficient direct evidence,
the advantage of divergence, &c. In the joint essay the phrases
" natural selection " and " sexual selection " were first made
public by Darwin, the " struggle for existence " by Wallace.
Darwin and Wallace had met only once before the departure of
the latter for the East. Their rivalry in the discovery of the
great principle of natural selection was the beginning of a lifelong
friendship. Wallace was lying ill with intermittent fever at
Ternate in February 1858 when he began to think of Malthus's
Essay on Population, read several years before: suddenly the
idea of the survival of the fittest flashed upon him. In two
hours he had " thought out almost the whole of the theory,"
and in three evenings had finished his essay. Darwin, also
inspired after reading Malthus, in October 1838, did not publish
until nearly twenty years had elapsed, and then only when
Wallace sent him his essay. Canon H. B. Tristram was the first
to apply the new theory, explaining by its aid the colours of
desert birds, &c. (Ibis, October 1859).

Acting under the advice of Lyell and Hooker, Darwin then
began to prepare what was to become the great work of his life.
It appeared on the 24th of November 1859, with the full title,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. The
whole edition of 1250 copies was exhausted on the day of issue.
The first four chapters explain the operation of artificial selection
by man and of natural selection in consequence of the struggle for
existence. The fifth chapter deals with the laws of variation and
causes of modification other than natural selection. The five
succeeding chapters consider difficulties in the way of a belief
in evolution generally as well as in natural selection. The three
remaining chapters (omitting the recapitulation which occupies
the last) deal with the evidence for evolution. The theory which
suggested a cause of evolution is thus given the foremost pkce.

842

DARWIN, CHARLES

and the evidence for the existence of evolution considered last of
all. This method of presentation was no doubt adopted because
it was just the want of a reasonable motive-cause which more
than anything else prevented the acceptance of evolution. But
the other side of the book must not be eclipsed by the brilliant
theory of Darwin and Wallace. The evidence for evolution itself
had never before been thought out and marshalled in a manner
which bears any comparison with that of Darwin in the Origin,
and the work would have been in the highest degree epoch-
making had it consisted of the later chapters alone. In the fifth
chapter Darwin incorporated a certain proportion of the
doctrines of Buffon, — modifications due to the direct influence
of environment; and of Lamarck, — the hereditary effects of use
and disuse. Lyell for a long time hesitated to accept the new
teaching, and Darwin carried on a long correspondence with him.
His public confession of faith was made at the anniversary
dinner of the Royal Society in 1864. A storm of controversy
arose over the book, reaching its height at the meeting of the
British Association at Oxford in i860, when the celebrated duel
between T. H. Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford took
place. Throughout these struggles Huxley was the foremost
champion for evolution and for fair play to natural selection,
although he never entirely accepted the latter theory, holding
that until man by his selection had made his domestic breed
sterile inter se, there was no sufficient evidence that selection
accounts for natural species which are thus separated by the
barrier of sterility. The theory of natural selection was at first
greatly misunderstood. Thus some writers thought it implied
conscious choice in the animals themselves, others that it was
the personification of some active power. By many it was
thought to be practically the same idea as Lamarck's. Herbert
Spencer's alternative phrase, " the survival of the fittest," prob-
ably helped to spread a clear appreciation of Darwin's meaning.
The history of opinion since 1859 may be summed up as follows.
Evolution soon gained general acceptance, except among a certain
number of those of middle or more advanced age at the time
when the Origin appeared. Although natural selection had been
an essential force in producing this conviction, there gradually
grew up a tendency to minimize its importance in relation to the
causes originally suggested by Buffon and Lamarck, ^hich were
ably presented and further elaborated by Herbert Spencer. In
America a school of Neo-Lamarckians appeared, and for a time
flourished under the inspiration of the vigorous personality of
E. D. Cope. The writings of August Weismann next raised a
controversy over the scope of heredity, assailing the very
foundation of the hypotheses of Buffon, Lamarck and Herbert
Spencer by demanding evidence that the " acquired characters "
upon which they rest are capable of hereditary transmission.
The quantitative determination of heredity has been the
subject of much patient investigation under the leadership of
Francis Galton. The question of isolation as a factor in species-
formation has been greatly discussed, G. J. Romanes proposing,
in his hypothesis of " Physiological Selection," that the barrier
of sterility may arise spontaneously by variation between two
sets of individuals as the beginning instead of the climax of
specific distinction. Others have fixed their attention upon the
variations, which provided the material for natural selection, and
have advocated the view that evolution proceeds by immense
strides instead of the minute steps in which Darwin and Wallace
believed. Others, again, have found significance in the artificial
production of " monstrosities " or huge modifications during
individual development. All through the period a varying
proportion of naturalists, probably larger now than at any other
time, has followed the founders of the theory, and has sought the
motive-cause of evolution in " the accumulative power of natural
selection," which Darwin, as his first public statement indicates,
looked upon " as by far the most important element in the pro-
duction of new forms." They hold, with Darwin and Wallace,
that although variation provides the essential material, natural
selection, from its accumulative power, is of such paramount
importance that it may be said to create new species as truly as a
man may be said to make a building out of the material provided

by stones of various shapes, a metaphor suggested and elaborated
by Darwin, and forming the concluding sentences of The Variation
of Animals and Plants under Domestication. This, probably the
second in importance of all his works, was published in 1868, and
may be looked upon as a complete account of the material of
which he had given a very condensed abstract in the first chapter
of the Origin, together with the conclusions suggested by it.
He finally brought together an immense number of apparently
disconnected sets of observations under his " provisional hypo-
thesis of pangenesis," which assumes that every cell in the body,
at every stage of growth and in maturity, is represented in each
germ-cell by a gemmule. The germ-cell is only the meeting-place
of gemmules, and the true reproductive power lies in the whole
of the body-cells which despatch their representatives, hence
" pangenesis." There are reasons for believing that this infinitely
complex conception, in which, as his letters show, he had great
confidence, was forced upon Darwin in order to explain the
hereditary transmission of acquired characters involved in the
small proportion of Lamarckian doctrine which he incorporated.
If such transmission does not occur, a far simpler hypothesis based
on the lines of Weismann's " continuity of the germ-plasm " is
sufficient to account for the facts.

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, was
published in 1871; as the title implies, it really consists of two
distinct works. The first, and by far the shorter, was the full
justification of his statement in the Origin that " light would be
thrown on the origin of man and his history." In the second
part he brought together a large mass of evidence in support of
his hypothesis of sexual selection which he had briefly described
in the 1858 essay. This hypothesis explains the development of
colours and structures peculiar to one sex and displayed by it in
courtship, by the preferences of the other sex. The majority of
naturalists probably agree with Darwin in believing that the
explanation is real, but relatively unimportant. It is interesting
to note that only in this subject and those treated of in the Varia-
tion under Domestication had Darwin exhausted the whole of the
material which he had collected. The Expression of the Emotions,
published in 1872, offered a natural explanation of phenomena
which appeared to be a difficulty in the way of the acceptance of
evolution. In 1876 Darwin brought out his two previously
published geological works on Volcanic Islands and South
America as a single volume. The widely read Formation of
Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms appeared in 1881.
He also published various volumes on botanical subjects. The
Fertilization of Orchids appeared in 1862. The subject of cross-
fertilization of flowers was in Darwin's mind, as shown by his
note-book in 1837. In 1841 Robert Brown directed his attention
to Christian Conrad Sprengel's work (Berlin, 1793), which con-
firmed his determination to pursue this line of research. The
Effects of Cross- and Self -Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom
(1876) contained the direct evidence that the offspring of cross-
fertilized individuals are more vigorous, as well as more numerous,
than those produced by a self-fertilized parent. Different Forms
of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species appeared in 1877. It is
here shown that each different form, although possessing both
kinds of sexual organs, is specially adapted to be fertilized by the
pollen of another form, and that when artificially fertilized by its
own pollen less vigorous offspring, bearing some resemblance to
hybrids, are produced. He says, " no little discovery of mine
ever gave me so much pleasure as the making out the meaning
of heterostyled flowers " (Autobiography) . Climbing Plants was
published in 1875, although it had, in large part, been communi-
cated to the Linnean Society, in whose publications much of the
material of several of his other works appeared. This inquiry
into the nature of the movements of twining plants was suggested
to him in a paper by Asa Gray. The Power of Movement in
Plants (1880) was produced by him in conjunction with his son
Francis. It was an inquiry into the minute power of movement
possessed, he believed, by plants generally, out of which the
larger movements of climbing plants of many different groups
had been evolved. The work included an investigation of other
kinds of plant movement due to light, gravity, &c, all of which

DARWIN, ERASMUS

843

he regarded as modifications of the one fundamental movement
(circumnutation) which exists in a highly specialized form in
climbing plants. Insectivorous Plants (1875) is principally con-
cerned with the description of experiments on the Sun-dew
(Drosera) , although other insect-catching plants, such as Dionaea,
are also investigated.

Charles Darwin's long life of patient, continuous work, the
most fruitful, the most inspiring, in the annals of modern science,
came to an end on the 19th of April 1882. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey on the 26th. It is of much interest to attempt
to set forth some of the main characteristics of the man who did
so much for modern science, and in so large a measure moulded
the form of modern thought. Although his ill-health prevented
Darwin, except on rare occasions, from attending scientific and
social meetings, and thus from meeting and knowing the great
body of scientific and intellectual workers of his time, probably
no man has ever inspired a wider and deeper personal interest and
affection. This was in part due to the intimate personal friends
who represented him in the circles he was unable frequently to
enter, but chiefly to the kindly, generous, and courteous nature
which was revealed in his large correspondence and published
writings, and especially in his treatment of opponents.

In a deeply interesting chapter of the Life and Letters Francis
Darwin has given us his reminiscences of his father's everyday
life. Rising early, he took a short walk before breakfasting alone
at 7.45, and then at once set to work, " considering the 15 hours
between 8.0 and 9.30 one of his best working times." He then
read his letters and listened to reading aloud, returning to work
at about 10.30. At 12 or 12.15 " he considered his day's work
over," and went for a walk, whether wet or fine. For a time he
rode, but after accidents had occurred twice, was advised to give
it up. After lunch he read the newspaper and wrote his letters
or the MS. of his books. At about 3.0 he rested and smoked for
an hour while being read to, often going to sleep. He then went
for a short walk, and returning about 4.30, worked for an hour.
After this he rested and smoked, and listened to reading until tea
at 7.30, a meal which he came to prefer to late dinner. He then
played two games of backgammon, read to himself, and listened
to music and to reading aloud. He went to bed, generally very
much tired, at 10.30, and was often much troubled by wakefulness
and the activity of his thoughts. It is thus apparent that the
number of hours devoted to work in each day was comparatively
few. The immense amount he achieved was due to concentration
during these hours, also to the unfailing and, because of his health,
the necessary regularity of his life.

The appearance of Charles Darwin has been made well known
in numerous portraits and statues. He was tall and thin, being
about six feet high, but looked less because of a stoop, which
increased towards the end of his life. As a young man he had
been active, with considerable powers of endurance, and possessed
in a marked degree those qualities of eye and hand which make
the successful sportsman.

Charles Darwin was, as a young man, a believer in Christianity,
and was sent to Cambridge with the idea that he would take
orders. It is probable, however, that he had merely yielded to
the influences of his home, without thinking much on the subject
of religion. He first began to reflect deeply on the subject during
the two years and a quarter which intervened between his return
from the " Beagle " (October and, 1836) and his marriage (January
29th, 1839). His own words are, " disbelief crepf over me at a
very slow rate, but was at last complete. The rate was so slow
that I felt no distress." His attitude was that of the tolerant
unaggressive agnostic, sympathizing with and helping in the
social and charitable influences of the English Church in his
parish. He was evidently most unwilling that his opinions on
religious matters should influence others, holding, as his son,
Francis Darwin, says, " that a man ought not to publish on a
subject to which he has not given special and continuous
thought" (I.e. i. p. 305).

In addition to the personal qualities and powers of Charles
Darwin, there were other contributing causes without which the
world could never have' reaped the benefit of his genius. It is

evident that Darwin'siealth could barely have endured the strain
of working for a living, and that nothing would have been left
over for his researches. A deep debt of gratitude is owing to his
father for placing him in a position in which all his energy could
be devoted to scientific work and thought. But his ill-health was
such that this important and essential condition would have
been insufficient without another even more essential. Francis
Darwin, in the Life and Letters (i. pp. 159-160), writes these
eloquent and pathetic words: — " No one indeed, except my
mother, knows the full amount of suffering he endured, or the full
amount of his wonderful patience. For all the latter years of his
life she never left him for a night; and her days were so planned
that all his resting hours might be shared with her. She shielded
him from every avoidable annoyance, and omitted nothing that
might save him trouble, or prevent him becoming over-tired,
or that might alleviate the many discomforts of his ill-health. I
hesitate, to speak thus freely of a thing so sacred as the lifelong
devotion which prompted all this constant and tender care. But
it is, I repeat, a principal feature of his life, that for nearly forty
years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men, and
that thus his life was one long struggle against the weariness and
the strain of sickness. And this cannot be told without speaking
of the one condition which enabled him to bear the strain and
fight out the struggle to the end."

Charles Darwin was honoured by the chief societies of the
civilized world. He was made a knight of the Prussian order,
" Pour le Merite," in 1867, a corresponding member of the Berlin
Academy of Sciences in 1863, a fellow in 1878, and later in the
same year a corresponding member of the French Institute in the
botanical section. He received the Bressa prize of the Royal
Academy of Turin, and the Baly medal of the Royal College of
Physicians in 1879, the Wollaston medal of the Geological Society
in 1859, a Royal medal of the Royal Society in 1853, and the
Copley medal in 1864. His health prevented him from accepting
the honorary degree which Oxford University wished to confer
on him, but his own university had stronger claims, and he
received its honorary LL.D. in 1877.

Two daughters and five sons survived him, four of the latter
becoming prominent in the scientific world, — Sir George Howard
(b. 1845), who became professor of astronomy and experimental
philosophy at Cambridge in 1883; Francis (b. 1848), the dis-
tinguished botanist; Leonard (b. 1850), a major in the royal
engineers, and afterwards well known as an economist; and
Horace (b. 1851), civil engineer.

See The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an auto-
biographical chapter, edited by his son Francis Darwin (3 vols.,
London, 1887) ; Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection,
by E. B. Poulton (London, 1896) ; Life and Letters of Thomas Henry
Huxley, by Leonard Huxley (2 vols., London, 1900) ; A. R. Wallace,
Darwinism (1889); G. J. Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin (1895).
Also the article on T. H. Huxley. (E. B. P.)

DARWIN, ERASMUS (1 731-1802), English man of science
and poet, was born at Elton, in Nottinghamshire, on the 12th of
December 1 73 1 . After studying at St John's College, Cambridge,
and at Edinburgh, he settled in 1756 as a physician at Notting-
ham, but meeting with little success he moved in the following
year to Lichfield. There he gained a large practice, and did
much, both by example and by more direct effort, to diminish
drunkenness among the lower classes. In 1781 he removed to
Derby, where he died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802. The
fame of Erasmus Darwin as a poet rests upon his Botanic Garden,
though he also wrote The Temple of Nature, or the Origin of
Society, a Poem, with Philosophical Notes (1803), and The Shrine
of Nature (posthumously published). The Botanic Garden (the
second part of which — The Loves of the Plants — was published
anonymously in 1789, and the whole of which appeared in 1791)
is a long poem in the decasyllabic rhymed couplet. Its merit lies
in the genuine scientific enthusiasm and interest in. nature which
pervade it; and of any other poetic quality — except a certain,
sometimes felicitous but oftener ill-placed, elaborated pomp of
words — it may without injustice be said to be almost destitute.
It was for the most part written laboriously, and polished with

8 4 4

DASENT— DASS

unsparing care, line by line, often as he rode from one patient to
another, and it occupied the leisure hours of many years. The
artificial character of the diction renders it in emotional passages
stilted and even absurd, and makes Canning's clever caricature —
The Loves of the Triangles — often remarkably like the poem it
satirizes: in some passages, however, it is not without a stately
appropriateness. Gnomes, sylphs and nereids are introduced on
almost every page, and personification is carried to an extra-
ordinary excess. Thus he describes the Loves of the Plants
according to the Linnaean system by means of a most ingenious
but misplaced and amusing personification of each plant, and
often even of the parts of the plant. It is significant that botanical
notes are added to the poem, and that its eulogies of scientific
men are frequent. Erasmus Darwin's mind was in fact rather
that of a man of science than that of a poet. His most important
scientific work is his Zoonomia (i 794-1 796), which contains a
system of pathology, and a treatise on generation, in which he,
in the words of his famous grandson, Charles Robert Darwin,
" anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinions of
Lamarck. ' ' The essence of his views is contained in the following
passage, which he follows up with the conclusion " that one and
the same kind of living filaments is and has been the cause of all
organic life ": —

" Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time
since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the
commencement of the history of mankind, — would it be too bold to
imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living
filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with
the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities,
directed by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and
thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own
inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements by
generation to its posterity, world without end! "

In 1799 Darwin published his Phytologia, or the Philosophy of
Agriculture and Gardening (1799), in which he states his opinion
that plants have sensation and volition. A paper on Female Educa-
tion in Boarding Schools (1797) completes the list of his works.

Robert Waring Darwin (1766-1848), his third son by his first
marriage, a doctor at Shrewsbury, was the father of the famous
Charles Darwin; and Violetta, his eldest daughter by his second
marriage, was the mother of Francis Galton.

See Anna Seward, Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darwin (1804) ; and
Charles Darwin, Life of Erasmus Darwin, an introduction to an essay
on his works by Ernst Krause (1879).

DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE (1817-1896), English writer,
was born in St Vincent, West Indies, on the 22nd of May 1817,
the son of the attorney-general of that island. He was educated
at Westminster school, King's College, and Oxford, where he
was a contemporary of J. T. Delane (q.v.), whose friend he had
become at King's College. On leaving the university in 1840 he
was appointed to a diplomatic post in Stockholm. Here he met
Jacob Grimm, and at his suggestion first interested himself in
Scandinavian literature and mythology. In 1842 he published
the results of his studies, a version of The Prose or Younger
Edda, and in the following year he issued a Grammar of the
Icelandic or Old-Norse Tongue, taken from the Swedish. Return-
ing to England in 1845, he became assistant editor of The Times
under Delane, whose sister he married; but he still continued his
Scandinavian studies, publishing translations of various Norse
stories. In 1853 he was appointed professor of English literature
and modern history at King's College, London. In 1861-1862 he
visited Iceland, and subsequently published Gisli the Outlaw and
ether translations from the Icelandic. In 1870 he was appointed
a civil service commissioner and consequently resigned his post
en The Times. In 1876 he was knighted. He retired from the
public service in 1892, and died at Ascot on the nth of June 1896.
In addition to the works mentioned above, he published The
Story of Burnt Njal, from the Icelandic of the Njals Saga (1861).

See the Life of Delane (1908), by Arthur Irwin Dasent.

DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV,
Princess (1 744-1810), Russian litterateur, was the third daughter
of Count Roman Vorontsov, a member of the Russian senate,
distinguished for his intellectual gifts. (For the family see

Vorontsov.) She received an exceptionally good education,
having displayed from a very early age the masculine ability
and masculine tastes which made her whole career so singular.
She was well versed in mathematics, which she studied at the
university of Moscow, and in general literature her favourite
authors were Bayle, Montesquieu, Boileau, Voltaire and
Helvetius. While still a girl she was connected with the Russian
court, and became one of the leaders of the party that attached
itself to the grand duchess (afterwards empress) Catherine.
Before she was sixteen she married Prince Mikhail Dashkov, a
prominent Russian nobleman, and went to reside with him at
Moscow. In 1 762 she was at St Petersburg and took a leading part,
according to her own account the leading part, in the coup d'etat
by which Catherine was raised to the throne. (See Catherine
II.) Another course of events would probably have resulted in
the elevation of the Princess Dashkov's elder sister, Elizabeth,
who was the emperor's mistress, and in whose favour he made no
secret of his intention to depose Catherine. Her relations with the
new empress were not of a cordial nature, though she continued
devotedly loyal. Her blunt manners, her unconcealed scorn of
the male favourites that disgraced the court, and perhaps also her
sense of unrequited merit, produced an estrangement between
her and the empress, which ended in her asking permission to
travel abroad. The cause of the final breach was said to have
been the refusal of her request to be appointed colonel of the
imperial guards. Her husband having meanwhile died, she
set out in 1768 on an extended tour through Europe. She
was received with great consideration at foreign courts, and her
literary and scientific reputation procured her the entrie to the
society of the learned in most of the capitals of Europe. In
Paris she secured the warm friendship and admiration of Diderot
and Voltaire. She showed in various ways a strong liking for
England and the English. She corresponded with Garrick, Dr
Blair and Principal Robertson; and when in Edinburgh, where
she was very well received, she arranged to entrust the education
of her son to Principal Robertson. In 1782 she returned to the
Russian capital, and was at once taken into favour by the empress,
who strongly sympathized with her in her literary tastes, and
specially in her desire to elevate Russ to a place among the
literary languages of Europe. Immediately after her return the
princess was appointed " directeur " of the St Petersburg
Academy of Arts and Sciences; and in 1784 she was named the
first president of the Russian Academy, which had been founded
at her suggestion. In both positions she acquitted herself with
marked ability. She projected the Russian dictionary of the
Academy, arranged its plan, and executed a part of the work
herself. She edited a monthly magazine ; and wrote at least
two dramatic works, The Marriage of Fabian, and a comedy
entitled Toissiokof. Shortly before Catherine's death the friends
quarrelled over a tragedy which the princess had allowed to find
a place in the publications of the Academy, though it contained
revolutionary principles,, according to the empress. A partial
reconciliation was effected, but the princess soon afterwards
retired from court. On the accession of the emperor Paul in 1 796
she was deprived of all her offices, and ordered to retire to a
miserable village in the government of Novgorod, " to meditate
on the events of 1762." After a time the sentence was partially
recalled on the petition of her friends, and she was permitted to
pass the closing years of her life on her own estate near Moscow,
where she died on the 4th of January 18 10.

Her son, the last of the Dashkov family, died in 1807 and be-
queathed his fortune to his cousin Illarion Vorontsov, who there-
upon by imperial licence assumed the name Vorontsov-Dashkov;
and Illarion's son,IUarion IvanovichVorontsov-Dashkov(b. 1837),
held an appointment in the tsar's household from 1881 to 1897.

_ The Memoirs of the Princess Dashkoff written by herself were pub-
lished in 1840 in London in two volumes. They were edited by Mrs
W. Bradford, who, as Miss Wilmot, had resided with the princess
between 1803 and 1808, and had suggested their preparation.

DASS, PETTER (1647 -1708), the "father" of modern
Norwegian poetry, was the son of Peter Dundas, a Scottish
merchant of Dundee, who, leaving his country about 1630 to

♦.DASYURE— DATIA

■8*5

escape the troubles of the Presbyterian chursh, settled in Bergen,
and in 1646 married a Norse girl of good family. Petter Dass
was born in 1647 on the island of Nord Hero; on the north coast
of Norway. Seven years later his father died, and his mother
placed him with his aunt, the wife of the priest of another little
island-parish. In 1660 he was sent to school at Bergen, in 1665 to
the university of Copenhagen, and in 1667 he began to earn his
daily bread as a private tutor. In 1672 he was ordained priest,
and remained till 1681 as under-chaplain at Nesne, a little parish
near his birthplace; for eight .years more he was resident
chaplain at Nesne; and at last in 1689 he received the living of
Alstahoug, the most important in the north of Norway. The
rule of Alstahoug extended over all the neighbouring districts,
including Dass's native island of Hero, and its privileges were
accompanied by great perils, for it was necessary to be constantly
crossing stormy firths of sea. Dass lived here in quietude, with
something of the honours and responsibilities of a bishop,
brought up his family in a God-fearing way, and wrote endless
reams of verses. In 1700 he asked leave to resign his living
in favour of his son Anders Dass, but this was not permitted;
in 1704, however, Anders became his father's chaplain. About
this time Petter went to Bergen, "where he visited Dorothea
Engelbrechtsdatter, with whom he had been for many years in
correspondence. He continued to write till 1707, and died in
August 1 708. The materials for his biography are very numerous ;
he was regarded with universal curiosity and admiration in
his lifetime; and, besides, he left a garrulous autobiography in
verse. A portrait, painted in middle age, now in the church of
Melhus, near Trondhjem, represents him in canonicals, with
deep red beard and hair, the latter waved and silky, arid a head of
massive proportions. The face is full of fire and vigour. His
writings passed in MS. from hand to hand, and few of them were
printed in his lifetime. Nordlands Trompel (The Trumpet of
Nordland) , his greatest and most famous poem, was not published
till 1739; Den nor ska Dale-Vise (The Norwegian Song of the
Valley) appeared in 1696; the Aandelig Tidsfordriv (Spiritual
Pastime) , a volume of sacred poetry, was published in 1 7 1 1 . The
Trumpet of Nordland remains as fresh as ever in the memories
of the inhabitants of the north of Norway; boatmen, peasants,
priests will alike repeat long extracts from it at the slightest
notice, and its popularity is unbounded. It is a rhyming
description of the province of Nordland, its natural features, its
trades, its advantages and its drawbacks, given in dancing verse
of the most breathless kind, and full of humour, fancy, wit and
quaint learning. The other poems of Petter Dass are less uni-
versally read; they abound, however, in queer turns of thought,
and fine homely fancies.

The collected writings of Dass were edited (3 vols., Christiania,
1 873-1 877) by Dr A. E. Eriksen.

DASYURE, a bookname for any member of the zoological
family Dasyuridae. (See Marsupialia.) The name is better
restricted to animals of the typical genus Dasyurus, sometimes
called true Dasyures. These are mostly inhabitants of the
Australian continent and Tasmania, where in the economy of
nature they take the place of the smaller predaceous Carnivora,
the cats, civets and weasels of other parts of the world. They
hide themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in hollow
trees, but prowl about at night in search of the small living
mammals and birds which constitute their prey, and are to some
extent arboreal in habit. The spot-tailed dasyure (D. macu-
latus), about the size of a cat, inhabiting Tasmania and Southern
Australia, has transversely striated pads on the soles of the feet.
These organs are also present in the North Australian dasyure
(D. hallucatus) and the Papuan D. albopunclatus, and are
regarded by Oldfield Thomas as indication of arboreal habits;
in the common dasyure (D. viverrinus) from Tasmania and
Victoria, and the black-tailed dasyure (D. geojfroyi) from South
Australia, these feet-pads are absent, whence these species are
believed to seek their prey on the ground. The ursine dasyure
{Sarcophilus ursinus), often called the " Tasmanian Devil,"
constitutes a distinct genus. In size' it may be compared to an
English badger; the general colour of the fur is black tinged

with brown, with white patches on the neck, shoulders, rump and
chest. It is a burrowing animal, of nocturnal habits, intensely
carnivorous, and commits great depredations on the sheepyards
and poultry-lofts of the settlers. In writing of this species Kreff t
says that one — by no means a large one — escaped from confine-
ment and killed in two nights fifty-four fowls, six geese, an
albatross and a cat. It was recaptured in what was considered a
stout trap, with a door constructed of iron bars as thick as a lead
pencil, but escaped by twisting this solid obstacle aside.

DATE PALIfl. The dates 1 of commerce are the fruit of a species
of palm, Phoenix dactylifera, a tree which ranges from the Canary
Islands through Northern Africa and the south-east of Asia to
India. It has been cultivated, and much prized throughout most
of these regions from the remotest antiquity. Its cultivation and
use are described on the mural tablets of the ancient Assyrians.
In Arabia it is the chief source of national wealth, and its fruit
forms the staple article of food in that country. The tree has also
been introduced along the Mediterranean shores of Europe; but
as its fruit does not ripen so far north, the European plants are
only used to supply leaves for the festival of Palm Sunday among
Christians, and for the celebration of the Passover by Jews. It
was introduced into the new world by early Spanish missionaries,
and is now cultivated in the dry districts of the south-western
United States and in Mexico. The date palm is a beautiful tree,
growing to a height of from 60 to 80 ft., and its stem, which is
strongly marked with old leaf-scars, terminates in a crown of
graceful shining pinnate leaves. The flowers spring in branching
spadices from the axils of the leaves, and as the trees are unisexual
it is necessary in cultivation to fertilize the female flowers by
artificial means. The fruit is oblong, fleshy and contains one
very hard seed which is deeply furrowed on the inside. The fruit
varies much in size, colour and quality under cultivation.
Regarding this fruit, W. G. Palgrave {Central and Eastern
Arabia) remarked: " Those who, like most Europeans at home,
only know the date from the dried specimens of that fruit shown
beneath a label in shop- windows, cari hardly imagine how delicious
it is when eaten fresh and in Central Arabia. Nor is it, when
newly gathered, heating,— a defect inherent to the preserved
fruit everywhere; nor does its richness, however great, bring
satiety ; in short it is an article of food alike pleasant and healthy."
In the oases of Sahara, and in other parts of Northern Africa,
dates are pounded and pressed into a cake for food. The dried
fruit used for dessert in European countries contains more than
half its weight of sugar, about 6 % of albumen, and 12 % of
gummy matter. All parts of the date palm yield valuable
economic products. Its trunk furnishes timber for house-building
and furniture; the leaves supply thatch; their footstalks are
used as fuel, and also yield a fibre from which cordage is spun.

Date sugar is a valuable commercial product of the East Indies,
obtained from the sap or toddy of Phoenix sylvestris, the toddy
palm, a tree so closely allied to the date palm that it has been
supposed to be the parent stock of all the cultivated varieties.
The juice, when not boiled down to form sugar, is either drunk
fresh, or fermented and distilled to form arrack. The uses of the
other parts and products of this tree are the same as those of the
date palm products. Date palm meal is obtained from the stem of
a small species, Phoenix farinifera, growing in the hill country of
southern India.

For further details see Sir G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic
Products of India (1892); and The Date Palm, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 53
(W. T. Swingle), 1904.

DATIA, a native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand
agency. It lies in the extreme north-west of Bundelkhand, near
Gwalior, and is surrounded on all sides by other, states of Central
India, except on the east where it meets the United Provinces.
The state came under the British government after the treaty
of Bassein in 1802. Area, 911 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 173,759.
Estimated revenue, £70,000; tribute to Sindhia paid through the

1 Lat. dactylus, finger, hence fruit of the date palm, gave O. Fr.
date, mod. dalte; distinguish "date," in chronology, from Lat.
datum, data, given, used at the beginning of a letter, &c, to show
time and place of writing, e.g. Datum Romae.

8 4 6

DATIVE— DAUBENY

British Government, £1000. The chief, whose title is maharaja,
is a Rajput of the Bundela clan, being descended from a younger
son of a former chief of Orchha. The state suffered from famine
in 1896-1897, and again to a less extent in 1800-1000. It is
traversed by the branch of the Indian Midland railway from
Jhansi to Gwalior. The town of Datia has a railway station,
16 m. from Jhansi. Pop. (1901) 24,071. It is surrounded by
a stone wall, enclosing handsome palaces, with gardens; the
palace of Bir Singh Deo, of the 17th century, is " one of the finest
examples of Hindu domestic architecture in India " (Imperial
Gazetteer of India, 1908).

DATIVE (Lat. datiws, giving or given, from dare, to give),
the name, in grammar, of the case of the '' indirect object," the
person or thing to or for whom or which anything is given or done.
In law, the word signifies something, such as an office, which
may be disposed of at will or pleasure, and is opposed to perpetual.
In Scots law the term is applied to persons, duties or powers,
appointed or granted by a court of law; thus an " executor-
dative " is an executor appointed by the court and not by a
testator. It answers, therefore, to the English administrator (q.v.).
In Roman law, a inter was either dativus, if expressly nominated
in a testament, or optivus, if a power of selection was given.

DATOLITE, a mineral species consisting of basic calcium and
boron orthosilicate, Ca(B0H)Si04. It was first observed by
J. Esmark in 1806, and named by him from 8arelcrdai, " to
divide," and \Wos, " stone," in allusion to the granular struc-
ture of the massive mineral. It usually occurs as well-developed
glassy crystals bounded by numerous bright faces, many of which
often have a more or less pentagonal outline. The crystals were
for a long time considered to be orthorhombic, and indeed they
approach closely to this system in habit, interfacial angles and
optical orientation; humboldtite was the name given by A. Levy
in 1823 to monoclinic crystals supposed to be distinct from
datolite, but the two were afterwards proved to be identical.
The mineral also occurs as masses with a granular to compact
texture; when compact the fractured surfaces have the appear-
ance of porcelain. A fibrous variety with a botryoidal or globular
surface is known as botryolite. Datolite is white or colourless,
often with a greenish tinge; it is transparent or opaque. Hard-
ness 5-5^; specific gravity 3-0.

Datolite is a mineral of secondary origin, and in its mode of
occurrence it resembles the zeolites, being found with them in the
amygdaloidal cavities of basic igneous rocks such as basalt; it is
also found in gneiss and serpentine, and in metalliferous veins
and in beds of iron ore. At Arendal in Norway, the original
locality for both the crystallized and botryoidal varieties, it is
found in a bed of magnetite. In amygdaloidal basaltic rocks it is
found at Bishopton in Renfrewshire and near Edinburgh; and
as excellent crystallized specimens at several localities in the
United States, e.g. at Westfield in Massachusetts, Bergen and
Paterson in New Jersey, and in the copper-mining region of
Lake Superior. At St Andreasberg in the Harz it occurs both
in diabase and in the veins of silver ore. Fine specimens have
recently been obtained from Tasmania.

Large crystals of datolite completely altered to chalcedony
were formerly found with magnetite in the Haytor iron mine on
Dartmoor in Devonshire ; to these pseudomorphs the name
haytorite has been applied. (L. J. S.)

DAUB, KARL (1765-1836), German Protestant theologian,
was born at Cassel on the 20th of March 1765. He studied
philosophy, philology and theology at Marburg in 1786, and
eventually (179s) became professor ordinarius of theology at
Heidelberg, where he died on the 22nd of November 1836. Daub
was one of the leaders of a school which sought to reconcile
theology and philosophy, and to bring about a speculative
reconstruction of orthodox dogma. In the course of his intel-
lectual development, he came successively under the influence
of Kant, Schelling and Hegel, and on account of the different
phases through which he passed he was called the Talleyrand of
German thought. There was one great defect in his speculative
theology: he ignored historical criticism. His purpose was, as
Otto Pfleiderer says, " to connect the metaphysical ideas, which

had been arrived at by means of philosophical dialectic, directly
with the persons and events of the Gospel narratives, thus rais-
ing these above the region of ordinary experience into that of
the supernatural, and regarding the most absurd assertions
as philosophically justified. Daub had become so hopelessly
addicted to this perverse principle that he deduced not only Jesus
as the embodiment of the philosophical idea of the union of God
and man, but also Judas Iscariot as the embodiment of the idea
of a rival god, or Satan." The three stages in Daub's develop-
ment are clearly marked in his writings. His Lehrbuch der
Katechetik (1801) was written under the spell of Kant. His
Theologumena (1806), his Einleitung in das Studium der chrisil.
Dogmatik (1810), and his Judas Ischarioth (2 vols., 1816, 2nd
ed., 1818), were allwritten in the spirit of Schelling, the last
of them reflecting a change in Schelling himself from theosophy
to positive philosophy. Daub's Die dogmatische Theologiejetziger
Zeit oder die Selbstsucht in der Wissenschaft des Glaubens (1833),
and Vorlesungen iiber die Prolegomena zur Dogmatik (1839), are
Hegelian in principle and obscure in language.

See Rosenkranz, Erinnerungen an Karl Daub (1837) ; D. Fr.
Strauss, Charakterisliken und Kritiken (2nd ed., 1844); and cf. F.
Lichtenberger, History of German Theology (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
Development of Theology (1890). (M. A. C.)

DAUBENTON, LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE (1716-1800), French
naturalist, was born at Montbar (C6te d'Or) on the 29th of May
1 7 16. His father, Jean Daubenton, a notary, destined him for
the church, and sent him to Paris to learn theology, but the study
of medicine was more to his taste. The death of his father in
1736 set him free to follow his own inclinations, and accordingly
in 1 741 he graduated in medicine at Reims, and returned to his
native town with the intention .of practising as a physician.
But about this time Buffon, also a native of Montbar, had formed
the plan of bringing out a grand treatise on natural history, and
in 1742 he invited Daubenton to assist him by providing the
anatomical descriptions for that work. The characters of the
two men were opposed in almost every respect. Buffon was
violent and impatient; Daubenton, gentle and patient; Buffon
was rash in his judgments, and imaginative, seeking rather to
divine than to discover truths; Daubenton was cautious, and
believed nothing he had not himself been able to see or ascertain.
From nature each appeared to have received the qualities requisite
to temper those of the other; and a more suitable coadjutor than
Daubenton it would have been difficult for Buffon to obtain. In
the first section of the natural history Daubenton gave descrip-
tions and details of the dissection of 182 species of quadrupeds,
thus procuring for himself a high reputation, and exciting the
envy of Reaumur, who considered himself as at the head of
the learned in natural history in France. A feeling of jealousy
induced Buffon to dispense with the services of Daubenton in the
preparation of the subsequent parts of his work, which, as a
consequence, lost much in precision and scientific value. Buffon
afterwards perceived and acknowledged his error, and renewed
his intimacy with his former associate. The number of disser-
tations on natural history which Daubenton published in the
memoirs of the French Academy is very great. Zoological
descriptions and dissections, the comparative anatomy of recent
and fossil animals, vegetable physiology, mineralogy, experiments
in agriculture, and the introduction of the merino sheep into
France gave active occupation to his energies; and the cabinet
of natural history in Paris, of which in 1744 he was appointed
keeper and demonstrator, was arranged and considerably
enriched by him. From 1775 Daubenton lectured on natural
history in the college of medicine, and in 1783 on rural economy
at the Alfort school. He was also professor of mineralogy at the
Jardin du Roi. As a lecturer he was in high repute, and to the
last retained his popularity. In December 1 799 he was appointed
a member of the senate, but at the first meeting which he attended
he fell from his seat in an apoplectic fit, and after a short illness
died at Paris on the 1st of January 1800.

DAUBENY, CHARLES GILES BRIDLE (1795-1867), English
chemist, botanist and geologist, was the third son of the Rev.
James Daubeny, and was born at Stratton in Gloucestershire on

DAUBIGNY— DAUBREE

847

the nth of February 1795. In 1808 he went to Winchester, and
in 1810 he was elected to a demyship at Magdalen College,
Oxford, where the lectures of Dr Kidd first awakened in him a
desire for the cultivation of natural science. In 18 14 he gradu-
ated with second-class honours, and in the next year he obtained
the prize for the Latin essay. From 1815 to 1818 he studied
medicine in London and Edinburgh. He took his M.D. degree
at Oxford, and was a fellow of the College of Physicians. In 1819,
in the course of a tour through France, he made the volcanic
district of Auvergne a special study, and his Letters on the
Volcanos of Auvergne were published in The Edinburgh Journal,
1820-21. He was elected F.R.S. in 1822. By subsequent
journeys in Hungary, Transylvania, Italy, Sicily, France and
Germany he extended his knowledge of volcanic phenomena;
and in 1826 the results of his observations were given ina work
entitled A Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos (2nd ed.,
1848). In common with Gay Lussac and Davy, he held subter-
raneous thermic disturbances to be probably due to the contact
of water with metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths. In
November 1822 Daubeny succeeded Dr Kidd as professor of
chemistry at Oxford, and retained this post until 1855; and in
1834 he was appointed to the chair of botany, to which was
subsequently attached that of rural economy. At the Oxford
botanic garden he conducted numerous experiments upon the
effect of changes in soil, light and the composition of the atmo-
sphere upon vegetation. In 1830 he published in the Philosophical
Transactions a paper on the iodine and bromine of mineral waters.
In the following year appeared his Introduction to the Atomic
Theory, which was succeeded by a supplement in 1840, and in
1850 by a second edition. In 183 1 Daubeny represented the
universities of England at the first meeting of the British Associa-
tion, which at his request held their next session at Oxford.
In 1836 he communicated to the Association a report on the
subject of mineral and thermal waters. In 1837 he visited
the United States, and acquired there the materials for papers
on the thermal springs and the geology of North Ame-ica, read
in 1838 before the Ashmolean Society and the British Associa-
tion. In 1856 he became president of the latter body at its
meeting at Cheltenham. In 1841 Daubeny published his Lectures
on Agriculture; in 1857 his Lectures on Roman Husbandry; in
1863 Climate: an inquiry into the causes of its differences and
into its influence on Vegetable Life; and in 1865 an Essay on the
Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients, and a Catalogue of the Trees
and Shrubs indigenous to Greece and Italy. His last literary work
was the collection of his Miscellanies, published in two volumes,
in 1867. In all his undertakings Daubeny was actuated by a
practical spirit and a desire for the advancement of knowledge;
and his personal influence on his contemporaries was in keeping
with the high character of his various literary productions. He
died in Oxford on the 12th of December 1867.

See Obituary by. John Phillips in Proceedings of Ashmolean Soc,
1868.

DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1817-1878), French land-
scape painter, allied in several ways with the Barbizon School,
was born in Paris, on the 15th of February 1817, but spent much
time as a child at Valmondois, a village on the Oise to the north-
west of Paris. Daubigny was the son of an artist, and most of his
family were painters. He began to paint very early in life, and at
the age of seventeen he took a studio of his own. Within twelve
months he had saved enough to go to Italy, where he studied and
painted for nearly two years; he then returned to Paris, not to
leave it again until, in i860, he took a house at Auvers on the
Oise. By 1837 Daubigny had become famous as a river and land-
scape painter, although he had been devoting himself as well to
drawing in black-and-white, to etching, wood engraving, and
lithography. In 1855 his picture, " Lock at Optevoz," now in
the Louvre, was purchased by the state; four years later
Daubigny was created knight of the Legion of Honour, and in
1874 he was promoted to be an officer. In 1866, at the invitation
of Lord, then Mr, Leighton and others, he visited London, where,
however, he was hurt by his now famous " Moonlight " being
badly hung in the Old Royal Academy. But the personal

encouragement of his admirers in England made up for the dis-
appointment, and the sale of his picture to a Royal Academician
greatly pleased him. In 1870-187 1 he again visited London, and
subsequently Holland, where he painted a number of river scenes
with windmills. In 1874, having returned to Paris, he fell ill,
and from that time until he died (on the 19th of February 1878)
his work won less distinction than before. In 1904 the muni-
cipality of Auvers-sur-Oise decided to erect a bronze monument
to Daubigny's memory.

Daubigny's finest pictures were painted between 1864 and
1874, and these for the most part consist of carefully completed
landscapes with trees, river and a few ducks. It has curiously
been said, yet with some appearance of truth, that when
Daubigny liked his pictures himself he added another duck or
two, so that the number of ducks often indicates greater or less
artistic quality in his pictures. One of his sayings was, " The
best pictures do not sell," as he frequently found his finest
achievements little understood. Yet although during the latter
part of his life he was considered a highly successful painter, the
money value of his pictures since his death has increased nearly
tenfold. Daubigny is chiefly preferred in his riverside pictures,
of which he painted a great number, but although there are two
large landscapes by Daubigny in the Louvre, neither is a river
view. They are for that reason not so typical as many of his
smaller Oise and Seine pictures. '

The works of Daubigny are, like Corot's, to be found in many
modern collections. His most ambitious canvases are: " Spring-
time" (1857), in the Louvre; " Borde de la Cure, Morvan" (1864);
"VillervillesurMer" (1864); "Moonlight" (1865); "Andresy sur
Oise" (1868); and " Return of the Flock— Moonlight " (1878).

His followers and pupils were his sen Karl (who sometimes
painted so well that his works are occasionally mistaken for those
of his father, though in few cases do they equal his father's
mastery), Oudinot, Delpy and Damoye.

See Fred Henriet, C. Daubigny et son wuvre (Paris, 1878);
D. Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters (London, 1890);
J. W. Mollett, Daubigny (London, 1890) ; J. Claretie, Peintres
et sculpteurs con'temporains : Daubigny (Paris, 1882); Albert
Wolff, La Capitate de Part: Ch. Francois Daubigny (Paris, 1881).

(D. C. T.)

DAUBREE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE (1814-1896), French
geologist, was born at Metz, on the 25th of June 1814, and
educated at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris. At the age of
twenty he had qualified as a mining engineer, and in 1838 he was
appointed to take charge of the mines in the Bas-Rhin (Alsace),
and subsequently to be professor of mineralogy and geology at
the Faculty of Sciences, Strassburg. In 1859 he became engineer
in chief of mines, and in 1861 he was appointed professor of
geology at the museum of natural history in Paris and was also
elected member of the Academy of Sciences. In the following
year he became professor of mineralogy at the Ecole des Mines,
and in 1872 director of that school. In 1880 the Geological
Society of London awarded to him the Wollaston medal. His
published researches date from 1841, when the origin of certain
tin minerals attracted his attention; he subsequently discussed
the formation of bog-iron ore, and worked out in detail the
geology of the Bas-Rhin (1852). From 1857 to 1861, while
engaged in engineering works connected with the springs of
Plombieres, he made a series of interesting observations on
thermal waters and their influence on the Roman masonry through
which they made their exit. He was, however, especially distin-
guished for his long-continued and often dangerous experiments
on the artificial production of minerals and rocks. He likewise
discussed the permeability of rocks by water, and the effects of
such infiltration in producing volcanic phenomena; he dealt with
the subject of metamorphism, with the deformations of the earth's
crust, with earthquakes, and with the composition and classifica-
tion of meteorites. Hedied_in Paris on the 29th of May 1896.

His publications were: Etudes et experiences synthetiques sur
le mttamorphisme et sur la formation des roches cristallines
(i860); Etudes synthetiques de gtologie experimentale (1879);
Les Eaux souterraines a I'ipoque actuelle (2 vols., 1887) ; Le
Eaux souterraines aux epoques anciennes (1887).

848

DAUDET— ;DAULATABAD

DAUDET, ALPHONSE (1840-1897), French novelist, was born
at Nlmes on the 13th of May 1840. His family, on both sides,
belonged to the bourgeoisie. The father, Vincent Daudet, was a
silk manufacturer — a man dogged through life by misfortune and
failure. The lad, amid much truancy, had but a depressing boy-
hood. In 1856 he left Lyons, where his schooldays had been
mainly spent, and began life as an usher at Alais, in the south.
The position proved to be intolerable. As Dickens declared that
all through his prosperous career he was haunted in dreams by
the miseries of his apprenticeship to the blacking business, so
Daudet says that for months after leaving Alais he would wake
with horror thinking he was still among his unruly pupils. On
the 1st of November 1857 he abandoned teaching, and took
refuge with his brother Ernest, only some three years his senior,
who was trying, " and thereto soberly," to make a living as a
journalist in Paris. Alphonse betook himself to his pen likewise,
— wrote poems, shortly collected into a small volume Les Amou-
reuses (1858), which met with a fair reception, — obtained employ-
ment on the Figaro, then under Cartier de Villemessant's
energetic editorship, wrote two or three plays, and began to be
recognized, among those interested in literature, as possessing
individuality and promise. Morny, the emperor's all-powerful
minister, appointed him to be one of his secretaries, — a post
which he held till Morny's death in 1865,— and showed him no
small kindness. He had put his foot on the road to fortune.

In 1866 appeared Lettres de mon moulin, which won the attention
of many readers. The first of his longer books, Le petit chose
(1868), did not, however, produce any very popular sensation.
It is, in its main feature, the story of his owfi earlier years told
with much grace and pathos. The year 1872 produced the
famous Aventures prodigieuses de Tartarin de Tarascon, and the
three-act piece L Arlesienne. But Fromont jeune et Risler aini
(1874) at once took the world by storm. It struck a note, not
new certainly in English literature, but comparatively new in
French. Here was a writer who possessed the gift of laughter and
tears, a writer not only sensible to pathos and sorrow, but also to
moral beauty. He could create too. His characters were real
and also typical; the rate's, the men who in life's battle had
flashed in the pan, were touched with a master hand. The book
was alive. It gave the illusion of a real world. Jack, the story
of an illegitimate child, a martyr to his mother's selfishness, which
followed in 1876, served only to deepen the same impression.
Henceforward his career was that of a very successful man of
letters, — publishing novel on novel, Le Nabab (1877), Les Rois en
exit (1879), Numa Roumestan (1881), Sapho (1884), L'lmmartel
(1888), — and writing for the stage at frequent intervals, — giving
to the world his reminiscences in Trente ans de Paris (1887),
and Souvenirs d'un homme de lettres (1888). These, with the
three Tartarins, — Tartarin the mighty hunter, Tartarin the
mountaineer, Tartarin the colonist, — and the admirable short
stories, written for the most part before he had acquired fame
and fortune, constitute his life work.

Though Daudet defended himself from the charge of imitating
Dickens, it is difficult altogether to believe that so many similar-
ities of spirit and manner were quite unsought. What, however,
was purely his own was his style. It is a style that may rightly
be called " impressionist," full of light and colour, not descriptive
after the old fashion, but flashing its intended effect by a masterly
juxtaposition of words that are like pigments. Nor does it
convey, like the style of the Goncourts, for example, a constant
feeling of effort. It is full of felicity and charm, — un charmeur
Zola has called him. An intimate friend of Edmond de Goncourt
(who died in his house), of Flaubert, of Zola, Daudet belonged
essentially to the naturalist school of fiction. His own experi-
ences, his surroundings, the men with whom he had been brought
into contact, various persons who had played a part, more or less
public, in Paris life — all passed into his art. But he vivified the
material supplied by his memory. His world has the great gift
of life. L'Immortel is a bitter attack on the French Academy, to
which august body Daudet never belonged.

Daudet wrote some charming stories for children, among which
may be mentioned La Belle Nivernaise, the story of an old boat

and her crew. His married life — he married in 1867 Julia Allard
— seems to have been singularly happy. There was perfect
intellectual harmony, and Madame Daudet herself possessed
much of his literary gift; she is known by her Impressions de
nature et d'art (1879), L'Enfance d'une Parisienne (1883), and
by some literary studies written under the pseudonym of Karl
Steen. In his later years Daudet suffered from insomnia, failure
of health and consequent use of chloral. He died in Paris on the
17th of December 1897.

The story of Daudet's earlier years is told in his brother Ernest
Daudet's Monfrere et moi. There is a good deal of autobiographical
detail in Daudet's Trente ans de Paris and Souvenirs d'un homme de
lettres, and also scattered in his other books. The references to him
in the Journal des Goncourt are numerous. See also L. A. Daudet,
Alphonse Daudet (1898), and biographical and critical essays by
R. H. Sherard (1894); by A. Gerstmann (1883); by B. Diederich
(1900); by A. Hermant (1903), and a bibliography by J. Brivois
(1895); also The Works of Alphonse Daudet, translated by L. Ensor,
H. Frith, E. Bartow (1902, etc.). Criticism of Daudet is also to
be found in F. Brunetiere, Le Roman naturaliste (new ed., 1897);
J. Lemaitre, Les Contemporains (vols. ii. and iv.) ; G. Pellissier, Le
Mouvement litteraire au XIX' Steele (1890); A. Symons, Studies in
Prose and Verse (1904). (F. T. M.)

DAULATABAD, a hill-fortress in Hyderabad state, India,
about 10 m. N.W. of the city of Aurangabad. The former city of
Daulatabad (Deogiri) has shrunk into a mere village, though
to its earlier greatness witness is still borne by its magnificent
fortress, and by remains of public buildings noble even in their
decay. The fortress stands on a conical rock crowning a hill that
rises almost perpendicularly from the plain to a height of some
600 ft. The outer wall, o\ m. in circumference, once enclosed the
ancient city of Deogiri (Devagiri), and between this and the base
of the upper fort are three lines of defences. The fort is a place of
extraordinary strength. The only means of access to the summit
is afforded by a narrow bridge, with passage for not more than
two men abreast, and a long gallery, excavated in the rock, which
has for the most part a very gradual upward slope, but about
midway is intercepted by a steep stair, the top of which is covered
by a grating destined in time of war to form the hearth of a huge
fire kept burning by the garrison above. Besides the fortifica-
tions Daulatabad contains several notable monuments, of which
the chief are the Chand Minar and the Chini Mahal. The Chand
Minar, considered one of the most remarkable specimens of
Mahommedan architecture in southern India, is a tower 210 ft.
high and 70 ft. in circumference at the base, and was originally
covered with beautiful Persian glazed tiles. It was erected in
1445 by Ala-ud-din Bahmani to commemorate his capture of the
fort. The Chini Mahal, or China Palace, is the ruin of a building
once of great beauty. In it Abul Hasan, the last of the Kutb
Shahi kings of Golconda, was imprisoned by Aurangzeb in 1687.

Deogiri is said to have been founded c. a.d. 1 187 by Bhillama I.
the prince who renounced his allegiance to the Chalukyas and
established the power of the Yadava dynasty in the west. In
1 294 the fort was captured by Ala-ud-din Khilji, and the rajas,
so powerful that they were held by the Mussulmans at Delhi
to be the rulers of all the Deccan, were reduced to pay tribute.
The tribute falling into arrear, Deogiri was again occupied by the
Mahommedans under Malik Kafur, in 1307 and 13 10, and in 13 18
the last raja, Harpal, was flayed alive. Deogiri now became an
important base for the operations of the Mussulman conquering
expeditions southwards, and in 1339 Mahommed ben Tughlak
Shah determined to make it his capital, changed its name to
Daulatabad ("Abode of Prosperity "), and made arrangements
for transferring to it the whole population of Delhi. The project
was interrupted by troubles which summoned him to the north;
during his absence the Mussulman governors of the Deccan
revolted; and Daulatabad itself fell into the hands of Zafar
Khan, the governor of Gulbarga. It remained in the hands of the
Bahmanis till 1526, when it was taken by the Nizam Shahis.
It was captured by the emperor Akbar, but in 1595 it again
surrendered to Ahmad Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, on the fall of
whose dynasty in 1607 it passed into the hands of the usurper,
the Nizam Shahi minister Malik Amber, originally an Abyssinian
slave, who was the founder of Kharki (the present Aurangabad?.

DAUMIER— DAUNOU

849

His successors held it until their overthrow by Shah Jahan, the
Mogul emperor, in 1633; after which it remained in the posses-
sion of the Delhi emperors until, after the death of Aurangzeb,
it fell to the first nizam of Hyderabad. Its glory, however, had
already decayed owing to the removal of the seat of government
by the emperors to Aurangabad.

DAUMIER, HONORfi (1808-1879), French caricaturist and
painter, was born at Marseilles. He showed in his earliest youth
an irresistible inclination towards the artistic profession, which
his father vainly tried to check by placing him first with a
huissier, and subsequently with a bookseller. Having mastered
the technique of lithography, Daumier started his artistic career
by producing plates for music publishers, and illustrations for
advertisements; these were followed by anonymous work for
publishers, in which he followed the style of Charlet and dis-
played considerable enthusiasm for the Napoleonic legend.
When, in the reign of Louis Philippe, Philipon launched the
comic journal, La Caricature, Daumier joined its staff, which
included such powerful artists as Deveria, Raffet and Grandville,
and started upon his pictorial campaign of scathing satire upon
the foibles of the bourgeoisie, the corruption of the law and the
incompetence of a blundering government. His caricature of the
king as " Gargantua " led to Daumier's imprisonment for six
months at Ste Pelagie in 1832. The publication of La Caricature
was discontinued soon after, but Philipon provided a new field
for Daumier's activity when he founded the Charivari. For this
journal Daumier produced his famous social caricatures, in which
bourgeois society is held up to ridicule in the figure of Robert
Macaire, the hero of a then popular melodrama. Another
series, " L'histoire ancienne," was directed against the pseudo-
classicism which held the art of the period in fetters. In 1848
Daumier embarked again on his political campaign, still in the
service of Charivari, which he left in i860 and rejoined in 1864.
In spite of his prodigious activity in the field of caricature — the
list of Daumier's lithographed plates compiled in 1904 numbers
no fewer than 3958 — he found time for flight in the higher sphere
of painting. Except for the searching truthfulness of his vision
and the powerful directness of his brushwork, it would be difficult
to recognize the creator of Robert Macaire, of Les Bas bleus,
Les Bohemiens de Paris, and the Masques, in the paintings of
" Christ and His Apostles " at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam,
or in his " Good Samaritan," " Don Quixote and Sancho Panza,"
"Christ Mocked," or even in the sketches in the Ionides Collection
at South Kensington. But as a painter, Daumier, one of the
pioneers of naturalism, was before his time, and did not meet with
success until in 1878, a year before his death, when M. Durand-
Ruel collected his works for exhibition at his galleries and
demonstrated the full range of the genius of the man who has been
well called the Michelangelo of caricature. At the time of this
exhibition Daumier, totally blind, was living in a cottage at
Valmondois, which was placed at his disposal by Corot, and
where he breathed his last in 1879. An important exhibition of
his works was held at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts in 1900.

His life and art were made the subject of an important volume
by Arsene Alexandre in 1888; see also Gustave Geffroy, Daumier
(Paris, Libraire de l'Art), and Henri Frantz and Octave Uzanne,
Daumier and Gavarni (London, The Studio, 1904), with a large selec-
tion of the artist's work.

DAUN (DHAUN), LEOPOLD JOSEF, Count Von (1705-1766),
prince of Thiano, Austrian field marshal, was born at Vienna
on the 24th of September 1705. He was intended for the
church, but his natural inclination for the army, in which his
father and grandfather had been distinguished generals, proved
irresistible. In 17 18 he served in the campaign in Sicily, in his
father's regiment. He had already risen to the rank of colonel
when he saw further active service in Italy and on the Rhine in
the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35). He continued to add
to his distinctions in the war against the Turks (1737-39), in
which he attained the rank of a general officer. In the War of the
Austrian Succession (1740-42), Daun, already a lieutenant field
marshal in rank, distinguished himself by the careful leadership
which was afterwards his greatest military quality. He was

present at Chotusitz and Prague, and led the advanced guard
of Khevenhiiller's army in the victorious Danube campaign
of 1743- Field Marshal Traun, who succeeded Khevenhiiller in
1744, thought equally highly of Daun, and entrusted him with
the rearguard of the Austrian army when it escaped from the
French to attack Frederick the Great. He held important
commands in the battles of Hohenfriedberg and Soor, and in the
same year (1745) was promoted to the rank of Feldzeugmeister.
After this he served in the Low Countries, and was present
at the battle of Val. He was highly valued by Maria Theresa,
who made him commandant of Vienna and a knight of the
Golden Fleece, and in 1754 he was elevated to the rank of field
marshal.

During the interval of peace that preceded the Seven Years'
War he was engaged in carrying out an elaborate scheme for the
reorganization of the Austrian army ; and it was chiefly through
his instrumentality that the military academy was established
at Wiener-Neustadt in 1751. He was not actively employed in
the first campaigns of the war, but in 1757 he was placed at the
head of the army which was raised to relieve Prague. On the
18th of June 1757 Daun defeated Frederick for the first time in
his career in the desperately fought battle of Kolin (q.v.). In
commemoration of this brilliant exploit the queen immediately
instituted a military order bearing her name, of which Daun was
nominated first grand cross. The union of the relieving army
with the forces of Prince Charles at Prague reduced Daun to the
position of second in command, and as such he took part in the
pursuit of the Prussians and the victory of Breslau. Frederick
now reappeared and won the most brilliant victory of the age
at Leuthen. Daun was present on that field, but was not held
accountable for the disaster, and when Prince Charles resigned
his command, Daun was appointed in his place. With the
campaign of 1758 began the war of manoeuvre in which Daun,
if he missed, through over-caution, many opportunities of crush-
ing the Prussians, at least maintained a steady and cool resistance
to the fiery strategy of Frederick. In 1758 Major-General
Loudon, acting under Daun's instructions, forced the king to
raise the siege of Olmiitz, and later in the same year Daun himself
surprised Frederick at Hochkirch and inflicted a severe defeat
upon him (October 14th). In the following year the war of
manoeuvre continued, and on the 20th and 21st of November he
surrounded the entire corps of General Finck at Maxen, forcing
the Prussians to surrender. These successes were counter-
balanced in the following year by the defeat of Loudon at
Liegnitz, which was attributed to the dilatoriness of Daun, and
Daun's own defeat in the great battle of Torgau (q.v.). In this
engagement Daun was so severely wounded that he had to return
to Vienna to recruit.

He continued to command until the end of the war, and after-
wards worked with the greatest energy at the reorganization of
the imperial forces. In 1762 he had been appointed president
of the Hofkriegsrath. He died on the 5th of February 1766. By
the order of Maria Theresa a monument to his memory was
erected in the church of the Augustinians, with an inscription
styling him the " saviour of her states." In 1888 the 56th
regiment of Austrian infantry was named after him. As a
general Daun has been reproached for the dilatoriness of his
operations, but wariness was not misplaced in opposing a general
like Frederick, who was quick and unexpected in his movements
beyond all precedent. Less defence perhaps may be made for
him on the score of inability to profit by a victory.

See Der deutsche Fabius Cunctator, oder Leben u. Thaten S. E. des
H. Leopold Reichsgrafen v. Dhaun K.K.F.M. (Frankfort and
Leipzig, 1759-1760), and works dealing with the wars of the period.

DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANCOIS (1761-1840), French
statesman and historian, was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer, and after
a brilliant career in the school of the Oratorians there, joined the
order in Paris in 1777. He was professor in various seminaries
from 1780 till 1787, when he was ordained priest. He was
already known in literary circles by several essays and poems,
when the revolution opened a wider career. He threw himself
with ardour into the struggle for liberty, and refused to be

8 5 o

DAUPHIN

silenced in his advocacy of the civil constitution of the clergy
by the offer of high office in the church. Elected to the Con-
vention by Pas-le-Calais, he associated himself with the Girondists,
but strongly opposed the death sentence on the king. He took
little part in the struggle against the Mountain, but was involved
in the overthrow of his friends, and was imprisoned for a year.
In December 1 794 he returned to the Convention, and was the
principal author of the constitution of the year III. It seems to
have been due to his Girondist ideas that the Ancients were
given the right of convoking the corps legislatif outside Paris,
an expedient which made possible Napoleon's coup d'etat of the
18th and 19th Brumaire. The creation of the Institute was also
due to Daunou, who drew up the plan for its organization. His
energy was largely responsible for the suppression of the royalist
insurrection of the 13th Vendemiaire, and the important place he
occupied at the beginning of the Directory is indicated by the
fact that he was elected by twenty-seven departments as member
of the Council of Five Hundred, and became its first president.
He had himself set the age qualification of the directors at forty,
and thus debarred himself as candidate, as he was only thirty-
four. The direction of affairs having passed into the hands
of Talleyrand and his associates, Daunou turned once more to
literature, but in 1798 he was sent to Rome to organize the
republic there, and again, almost against his will, he lent his aid
to Napoleon in the preparation of the constitution of the year
VIII. His attitude towards Napoleon was not lacking in inde-
pendence, but in this controversy with the pope, the emperor was
able again to secure from him the learned treatise Sur la puissance
temporelle du Pape (1809). Still he took little part in the new
regime, with which at heart he had no sympathy, and turned
more and more to literature. At the Restoration he was
deprived of the post of archivist of the empire, which he had
held from 1807, but from 1819 to 1830 (when he again became
archivist of the kingdom) he held the chair of history and ethics
at the College de France, and his courses were among the most
famous of that age of public lectures. During the reign of Louis
Philippe he received many honours. In 1839 he was made a peer.
He died in 1840.

In politics Daunou was a Girondist without combativeness;
a confirmed republican, who lent himself always to the policy
of conciliation, but whose probity remained unchallenged. He
belonged essentially to the centre, and lacked both the genius
and the temperament which would secure for him a commanding
place in a revolutionary era. As an historian his breadth of view
is remarkable for his time; for although thoroughly imbued with
the classical spirit of the iSth century, he was able to do justice
to the middle ages. His Discours sur I'itat des lettres au XIII'
siecle, in the sixteenth volume of the Histoire litUraire de France,
is a remarkable contribution to that vast collection, especially
as coming from an author so profoundly learned in the ancient
classics. Daunou's lectures at the College de France, collected
and published after his death, fill twenty volumes (Cours
d'etudes historiques, 1842-1846). They treat principally of the
criticism of sources and the proper method of writing history, and
occupy an important place in the evolution of the scientific study
of history in France. All his works were written in the most
elegant style and chaste diction; but apart from his share in the
editing of the Historiens de la France, they were mostly in the
form of separate articles on literary and historical subjects.
Personally Daunou was reserved and somewhat austere, preserv-
ing in his habits a strange mixture of bourgeois and monk. His
indefatigable work as archivist in the time when Napoleon was
transferring so many treasures to Paris is not his least claim to
the gratitude of scholars.

See Mignet, Notice historique sur la vie el les travaux de Daunou
(Paris, 1843); Taillandier, Documents bibliographiques sur Daunou
(Paris, 1847), including a full list of his works; Sainte-Beuve,
Daunou in his Portraits Contemporains, t. iii. (unfavourable and
somewhat unfair).

' DAUPHIN (Lat. Delphinus), an ancient feudal title in France,
borne only by the counts and dauphins of Vienne, the dauphins
of Auvergne, and from 1364 by the eldest sons of the kings of

France. The origin of this curious title is obscure and has been
the subject of much ingenious controversy; but it now seems clear
that it was in the first instance a proper name. Among the Norse-
men, and in the countries colonized by them, the name Dolphin
or Dolfin (dolfr, " a wound ") was fairly common, e.g. in the
north of England; thus a Dolfin is mentioned among the tenants-
in-chief in Domesday Book, and there was a Dolphin, lord of
Carlisle, towards the end of the nth century. It has thus been
conjectured by some that the dauphins of Vienne derived their
title from Teutonic sources through Germany. But in the south,
too, the name — not necessarily derived from the same root — was
not unknown, though exceedingly rare, and was moreover
illustrated by two conspicuous figures in the Catholic martyr-
ology: St Delphinus, bishop of Bordeaux from 380 to 404, and
St Annemundus, surnamed Dalfinus, bishop of Lyons from
c. 650 to 657. Whatever its origin, this name was borne by
Guigo, orGuigueIV.(d. ii42),countof Albon and Grenoble, as an
additional name, during the lifetime of his father, and was also
adopted by his son Guigue V. Beatrice, daughter and heiress
of Guigue V., whose second husband was Hugh III., duke of
Burgundy, bestowed the name on their son Andre, to recall his
descent from the ancient house of the counts of Albon, and in the
charters he is called sometimes Andreas Dalphinus, sometimes
Dalphinus simply, but his style is still " count of Albon and
Vienne." His successors Guigue VI. (d. 1270) and John I.
(d. 1282) call themselves sometimes Delphinus, sometimes
Delphini, the name being obviously treated as a patronymic,
and in the latter form it was borne by the sons of the reigning
" dauphin." But even under Guigue VI. foreigners had begun
to confuse the name with a title of dignity, an imperial diploma
of 1248 describing Guigue as " Guigo Dalphinus Viennensis."

It was not until the third dynasty, founded by the marriage
of Anne, heiress of John I., with Humbert, lord of La Tour du
Pin, that " dauphin " became definitely established as a title.
Humbert not only assumed the name of Delphinus, but styled
himself regularly Dauphin of the Viennois (Dalphinus Vien-
nensis), and in a treaty concluded in 1285 between Humbert and
Robert, duke of Burgundy, the word delphinatus (Dauphine)
appears for the first time, as a synonym for comitatus (county).
In 1349 Humbert II., the last of his race, sold Dauphin6 to
Charles of Valois, who, when he became king of France in 1364,
transferred it to his eldest son. From that time the eldest sons of
the kings of France were always either actual or titular dauphins
of the Viennois. The " canting arms " of a dolphin, which they
quartered with the royal fleurs de lys, were originally assumed by
Dauphin, count of Clermont, instead of the arms of Auvergne
(the earliest extant example is appended to a deed of n 99), and
from him they were borrowed by the counts of the Viennois.
Guigue VI. used this device on his secret seal from his accession,
the earliest extant example dating from 1237, but, though no
specimens have survived, M. Prudhomme thinks it probable that
the dolphin was also borne by Andre Dauphin. It was also
assumed by Guigue V., count of Forez (1 203-1 241), a descendant
of Guigue Raymond of the Viennois, count of Forez, in right of his
wife Ida Raymonde. It is thus abundantly clear that the name
of Dauphin was not assumed from the armorial device, but vice
versa.

The eldest son of the French king was sometimes called
" the king dauphin " (le roy daulphin), to distinguish him from
the dauphin of Auvergne, who was known, since Auvergne became
an appanage of the royal house, as " the prince dauphin." The
dauphinate of Auvergne, which is to be distinguished from the
county, dates from n 55, when William VII., count of Auvergne,
was deposed by his uncle William VIII. " the Old." William VII.
had married a daughter of Guigue IV. Dauphin, after whom their
son was named Dauphin (Delphinus). The name continued, as in
Viennois, as a patronymic, and was not used as a title until 1281,
when Robert II., count of Clermont, in his will, styles himself for
the first time Dauphin of Auvergne (Alvernie delphinus) for the
portion of the county of Auvergne left to his house. In 1428
Jeanne, heiress of the dauphin Beraud III., married Louis de
Bourbon, count of Montpensier (d. i486), thus bringing the

DAUPHINE— DAVENANT, SIR W.

851

dauphinate into the royal house of France. It was annexed to
the crown in 1693.

See A. Prudhomme, " De l'origine et du sens des mots dauphin et
dauphine " in Bibliotheque de l'£cole des Charles, liv. an. 1893 (Paris,
1893)-

DAUPHINE, one of the old provinces (the name being still
in current use in the country) of pre-Revolutionary France, in
the south-east portion of France, between Provence and Savoy;
since 1 790 it forms the departments of the Isere, the Dr6me and
the Hautes Alpes.

After the death of the last king of Burgundy, Rudolf III., in
1032, the territories known later as Dauphine (as part of his
realm) reverted to the far-distant emperor. Much confusion
followed, out of which the counts of Albon (between Valence and
Vienne) gradually came to the front. The first dynasty ended in
1 162 with Guigue V., whose daughter and heiress, Beatrice,
carried the possessions of her house to her husband, Hugh III.,
duke of Burgundy. Their son, Andre, continued the race, this
second dynasty making many territorial acquisitions, among
them (by marriage) the Embrunais and the Gapencais in 1232.
In 1282 the second dynasty ended in another heiress, Anna, who
carried all to her husband, Humbert, lord of La Tour du Pin
(between Lyons and Grenoble) . The title of the chief of the house
was Count (later Dauphin) of the Viennois, not of Dauphine.
(For the origin of the terms Dauphin and Dauphine see Dauphin.)
Humbert II. (1333-1349), grandson of the heiress Anna, was the
last independent Dauphin, selling his dominions in 1349 to
Charles of Valois, who on his accession to the throne of France
as Charles V. bestowed Dauphine on his eldest son, and the title
was borne by all succeeding eldest sons of the kings of France.
In 1422 the Diois and the Valentinois, by the will of the last
count, passed to the eldest son of Charles VI., and in 1424 were
annexed to the Dauphine. Louis (1440-1461), later Louis XL
of France, was the last Dauphin who occupied a semi-independent
position, Dauphine being annexed to the crown in 1456. The
suzerainty of the emperor (who in 1378 had named the Dauphin
" Imperial Vicar " within Dauphine and Provence) gradually died
out. In the 16th century the names of the reformer Guillaume
Farel (1489-1565) and of the duke of Lesdiguieres (1543-1626)
are prominent in Dauphine history. The " States " of Dauphine
(dating from about the middle of the 14th century) were sus-
pended by Louis XIII. in 1628, but their unauthorized meeting
(on the 21st of July 1788) in the tennis court {Salle du Jeu de
Paume) of the castle of Vizille, near Grenoble, was one of
the earliest premonitory signs of the great French Revolution
of 1789. It was at Laffrey, near Grenoble, that Napoleon
(March 7th, 18 15) was first acclaimed by his old soldiers sent to
arrest him.

Bibliography. — J. Brun-Durand, Dictionnaire topographique du
departement de la. Drome (Paris, 1891); Jules Chevalier, Essai
historique sur Veglise et la ville de Die, Montelimar and Valence
(2 vols., 1888 and 1896); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and Felix
Perrin, Climbers' Guide to the Central Alps of the Dauphiny (a revision
of a French work by the same, issued at Grenoble in 1887), London,
1892 (new ed. 1905) ; J. J. Guiffrey, Histoire de la reunion du
Dauphine & la France (Paris, 1868) ; Joanne, Dauphine" (Paris, 1905) ;
A. Prudhomme, Histoire de Grenoble (Grenoble, 1888); lb., " De
l'origine des mots ' Dauphin' et Dauphine " (article in vol. liv. (1893)
of the Bibliotheque de I'Hcole des Charles) ; A. Rochas, Biographie
du Dauphine (2 vols., Paris, 1856) ; J. Roman, Dictionnaire topo-
graphique (Paris, 1884); Tableau historique (Paris, 2 vols., 1887 and
1890) ; and Repertoire archeologique du departement des Hautes-
Alpes (Paris, 1888) ; J. Roman, Histoire de la ville de Gap (Gap, 1892) ;
A. De Terrebasse, Notice sur les Dauphins de Viennois (Vienne,
1875); J- M. De Valbonnais, Histoire de Dauphini (2 vols., Geneva,
1722); J. A. Felix Faure, Les Assemblies de Vizille et de Romans,
1788 (Paris, 1887) ; O. Chenavas, La Revolution de 1788 en Dauphine
(Grenoble, 1888); C. Lory, Description geologique du Dauphine
(Paris, i860). (W. A. B. C.)

DAURAT (or Dorat), JEAN (in Lat. Auratus), (1508-1588),
French poet and scholar, and member of the Pleiade, was born
at Limoges in 1508. His name was originally Dinemandy. He
belonged to a noble family, and, after studying at the college of
Limoges, came up to Paris to be presented to Francis I., who
made him tutor to his pages. He rapidly gained an immense

reputation as a classical scholar. As a private tutor in the house
of Lazare de Baif, he had J. A. de Baif for his pupil. His son,
Louis, showed great precocity, and at the age of ten translated
into French verse one of his father's Latin pieces; his poems
were published with his father's. Jean Daurat became the
director of the College de Coqueret, where he had among his
pupils, besides Baif, Ronsard, Remy, Belleau and Pontus de
Tyard. Joachim du Bellay was added by Ronsard to this group;
and these five young poets, under the direction of Daurat, formed
a society for the reformation of the French language and literature.
They increased their number to seven by the initiation of the
dramatist Etienne Jodelle, and thereupon they named themselves
La Pleiade, in emulation of the seven Greek poets of Alexandria.
The election of Daurat as their president proved the weight of his
personal influence, and the value his pupils set on the learning to
which he introduced them, but as a writer of French verse he is
the least important of the seven. Meanwhile he collected around
him a sort of Academy, and stimulated the students on all sides
to a passionate study of Greek and Latin poetry. He himself
wrote incessantly in both those languages, and was styled the
Modern Pindar. His influence extended beyond the bounds of
his own country, and he was famous as a scholar in England,
Italy and Germany. In 1556 he was appointed professor of
Greek at the College Royale, a post which he continued to hold
until, in 1567, he resigned it in favour of his nephew, Nicolas
Goulu. Charles IX. gave him the title of poeta regius. His flow
of language was the wonder of his time; he is said to have com-
posed more than 15,000 Greek and Latin verses. The best of
these he published at Paris in 1586 as /. Aurati Lemovicm poetae
et inter pretis regit poemata. He died at Paris on the 1st of
November 1588, having survived all his illustrious pupils of the
Pleiade, except Pontus de Tyard. He was a little, restless
man, of untiring energy, rustic in manner and appearance. His
unequalled personal influence over the most graceful minds of
his age gives him an importance in the history of literature for
which his own somewhat vapid writings do not fully account.

The CEuvres poStiques in the vernacular of Jean Daurat
were edited (1875) with biographical notice and bibliography by
Ch. Marty-La veaux in his Pleiade franqaise.

DAVENANT, CHARLES (1656-1714), English economist,
eldest son of Sir William Davenant, the poet, was born in London,
and educated at Cheam grammar school and Balliol College,
Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree. At the
age of nineteen he had composed a tragedy, Circe, which met with
some success, but he soon turned his attention to law, and having
taken the degree of LL.D., he became a member of Doctors'
Commons. He was member of parliament successively for St
Ives, Cornwall, and for Great Bedwyn. He held the post of
commissioner of excise from 1683 to 1689, and that of inspector-
general of exports and imports from 1705 till his death in 17 14.
He was also secretary to the commission appointed to treat for
the union with Scotland. As an economist, he must be classed
as a strong supporter of the mercantile theory, and in his economic
pamphlets — as distinct from his political writings — he takes up
an eclectic position, recommending governmental restrictions on
colonial commerce as strongly as he advocates freedom of ex-
change at home. Of his writings, a complete edition of which
was published in London in 1771, the following are the more
important: — An Essay on the East India Trade (1697); Two
Discourses on the Public Revenues and Trade of England (1698);
An Essay on the probable means of making the people gainers in
the balance of Trade (1699); A Discourse on Grants and Resump-
tions and Essays on the Balance of Power (1701).

DAVENANT (or D'Avenant), SIR WILLIAM (1 606-1 668),
English poet and dramatist, was baptized on the 3rd of March
1606; he was born at the Crown Inn, Oxford, of which his
father, a wealthy vintner, was proprietor. It was stated that
Shakespeare always stopped at this house in passing through the
city of Oxford, and out of his known or rumoured admiration of
the hostess, a very fine woman, there sprang a scandalous story
which attributed Davenant's paternity to Shakespeare, a legend
which there is reason to believe Davenant himself encouraged,

8 5 2

DAVENPORT, E, L.

but which later criticism has cast aside as spurious. In 162 1 the
vintner was made mayor of Oxford, and in the same year his son
left the grammar school of All Saints, where his master had been
Edward Sylvester, and was entered an undergraduate of Lincoln
College, Oxford. He did not stay at the university, however,
long enough to take a degree, but was hurried away to appear at
court as a page, in the retinue of the gorgeous duchess of Rich-
mond. From her service he passed into that of Fulke Greville,
Lord Brooke, in whose house he remained until the murder of
that eminent man in 1628. This blow threw him upon the world,
not altogether without private means, but greatly in need of a
profitable employment.

He turned to the stage for subsistence, and in 1629 produced
his first play, the tragedy of Albovine. It was not a very brilliant
performance, but it pleased the town, and decided the poet to
pursue a dramatic career. The next year saw the production at
Blackfriars of The Cruel Brother, a tragedy, and The Just Italian,
a tragi-comedy. Inigo Jones, the court architect, for whom
Ben Jonson had long supplied the words of masques and compli-
mentary pieces, quarrelled with his great colleague in the year
1634, and applied to William Davenant for verses. The result
was The Temple of Love, performed by the queen and her ladies
at Whitehall on Shrove Tuesday, 1634, and printed in that year.
Another masque, The Triumphs of the Prince D' Amour, followed
in 1636. The poet returned to the legitimate drama by the
publication of the tragi-comedy of The Platonic Lovers, and the
famous comedy of The Wits, in 1636, the latter of which, however,
had been licensed in 1633. The masque of Britannica Triumphans
(i637)i>rought him into some trouble, for it was suppressed as a
punishment for its first performance having been arranged for
a Sunday. By this time Davenant had, however, thoroughly
ingratiated himself with the court; and on the death of Ben
Jonson in 1637 he was rewarded with the office of poet-laureate,
to the exclusion of Thomas May, who considered himself entitled
to the honour. It was shortly after this event that Davenant
collected his minor lyrical pieces in a volume entitled Mada-
gascar and other Poems (1638); and in 1639 he became manager
of the new theatre in Drury Lane. The civil war, however, put a
check upon this prosperous career; and he was among the most
active partisans of royalty through the whole of that struggle for
supremacy.

As early as May 1642, Davenant was accused before the Long
Parliament of being mainly concerned in a scheme to seduce the
army to overthrow the Commons. He was accordingly appre-
hended at Faversham, and imprisoned for two months in London;
he then attempted to escape to France, and succeeded in reaching
Canterbury, where he was recaptured. Escaping a second time,
he made good his way to the queen, with whom he remained in
France until he volunteered to carry over to England some
military stores for the army of his old friend the earl of Newcastle,
by whom he was induced to enter the service as lieutenant-
general of ordnance. He acquitted himself with so much
bravery and skill that, after the siege of Gloucester, in 1643, he
was knighted by the king. After the battle of Naseby he retired
to Paris, where he became a Roman Catholic, and spent some
months in the composition of his epic poem of Gondibert. In
1646 he was sent by the queen on a mission to Charles I., then at
Newcastle, to advise him to " part with the church for his peace
and security." The king dismissed him with some ,sharpness,
and Davenant returned to Paris, where he was the guest of Lord
Jermyn. In 1650 he took the command of a colonizing expedi-
tion that set sail from France to Virginia, but was captured in the
Channel by a parliamentary man-of-war, which took him back
to the Isle of Wight. Imprisoned in Cowes castle until 1651,
he tempered the discomfort and suspense of his condition by
continuing the composition of Gondibert. He was sent up to the
Tower to await his trial for high treason, but just as the storm
was about to break over his head, all cleared away. It is believed
that the personal intercession of Milton led to this result. Another
account is that he was released by the desire of two aldermen
of York, once his prisoners, whom he had allowed to escape.
Davenant, released from prison, immediately published Gondibert,

the work on which his fame mainly rests, a chivalric epic in
the four-line stanza which Sir John Davies had made popular
by his Nosce teipsum, the influence of which is strongly
marked in the philosophical passages of Gondibert. It is a
cumbrous, dull production, but is relieved with a multitude
of fine and felicitous passages, and lends itself most happily to
quotation.

During the civil war one of his plays had been printed, the
tragedy of The Unfortunate Lovers, in 1643. One of his best
plays, Love and Honour, was published in 1649, but appears to
have been acted long before. He found that there were many
who desired him to recommence his theatrical career. Such a
step, however, was absolutely forbidden by Puritan law. Dave-
nant, therefore, by the help of some influential friends, obtained
permission to open a sort of theatre at Rutland House,, in
Charterhouse Yard, where, on the 21st of May 1656, he began a
series of representations, which he called operas, as an inoffensive
term. This word was then first introduced into the English
language. The opening piece was a kind of dialogue defending
the drama in the abstract. This was followed by his own Siege, of
Rhodes, printed the same year, which was performed with stage
decorations and machinery of a kind hitherto quite unthought of
in England. Two other innovations in its production were the
introduction of recitative and the appearance of a woman, Mrs
Coleman, on the stage. He continued until the Restoration to
produce ephemeral works of this kind, only one of which, The
Cruelly of the Spaniards in Peru, in 1658, was of sufficient literary
merit to survive. In 1660 he had the infinite satisfaction of being
able to preserve the life of that glorious poet who had, nine years
before, saved his own from a not less imminent danger. The
mutual relations of Milton and Davenant do honour to the
generosity of two men who, sincerely opposed in politics, knew
how to forget their personal anger in their common love of letters.
In. 1659 Davenant suffered a short imprisonment for complicity
in Sir George Booth's revolt. Under Charles II. Davenant
flourished in the dramatic world; he opened a new theatre in
Lincoln's Inn Fields, which he called the Duke's; and he intro-
duced a luxury and polish into the theatrical life which it had
never before known in England. Under his management, the
great actors of the Restoration, Betterton and his coevals, took
their peculiar French style and appearance; and the ancient
simplicity of the English stage was completely buried under the
tinsel of decoration and splendid scenery. Davenant brought
out six new plays in the Duke's Theatre, The Rivals (1668), an
adaptation of The Two Noble Kinsmen, which Davenant never
owned, The Man's the Master (1669), comedies translated from
Scarron, News from Plymouth, The Distresses, The Siege, The
Fair Favourite, tragi-comedies, all of which were printed after
his death, and only one of which survived their author on the
stage. He died at his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields on the night
of the 7th of April 1668, and two days afterwards was buried in
Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, with the inscription " O rare
Sir William Davenant!" In 1672 his writings were collected in
folio. His last work had been to travesty Shakespeare's Tempest
in company with Dryden.

The personal character, adventures and fame of Davenant,
and more especially his position as a leading reformer, or rather
debaser, of the stage, have always given him a prominence in the
history of literature which his writings hardly justify. His plays
are utterly unreadable, and his poems are usually stilted and
unnatural. With Cowley he marks the process of transition
from the poetry of the imagination to ihe poetry of the in-
telligence; but he had far less genius than Cowley, and his
influence on English drama must be condemned as wholly
deplorable. (E. G.)

DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS (181 6-1 87 7), American
actor, born in Boston, made his first appearance on the stage in
Providence in support of Junius Brutus Booth. Afterwards he
went to England, where he supported Mrs Anna Cora Mowatt
(Ritchie) (1819-1870), Macready and others. In 1854 he was
again in the United States, appearing in Shakespearian plays
and in dramatizations of Dickens's novels. As Bill Sykes he was

DAVENPORT, R.— DAVID

853

especially successful, and his Sir Giles Overreach and Brutus
were also greatly admired. He died at Canton, Pennsylvania,
on the 1st of September 1877. In 1849 he had married Fanny
Vining (Mrs Charles Gill) (d. 1891), an English actress also in
Mrs Mowatt's company. Their daughter Fanny (Lily Gipsy)
Davenport (1850-1898) appeared in America at the age of twelve
as the king of Spain in Faint Heart Never Won Fair Lady.
Later (1869) she was a member of Daly's company; and after-
wards, with a company of her own, acted with especial success
in Sardou's Fedora (1883), Cleopatra (1890), and similar plays.
Her last appearance was on the 25 th of March 1898, shortly
before her death.

DAVENPORT, ROBERT (fl. 1623-1639), English dramatist, is
mentioned as the author of a play licensed in 1624 under the title
of Henry I. In 1653 Henry I. and Henry II. was entered at
Stationers' Hall by Humphrey Moseley with a second part said
to be the work of Davenport and Shakespeare. Of this play or
plays nothing has been discovered, but King John and Matilda
(printed 1655), which probably dates from about the same time,
has survived. Throughout the play, as in its closing scene
quoted by Charles Lamb in his Dramatic Specimens, there is much
" passion and poetry " which saves the piece from being classed
as pure melodrama. The City-Night-Cap was licensed in 1624,
but not printed until 1661. The underplot of this unsavoury
play was borrowed from Cervantes and Boccaccio, and Mrs
Aphra Behn's Amorous Prince (1671) is an adaptation from it.
A New Tricke to Cheat the Divell (printed 1639) is a farcical
comedy, which contains among other things the idea of the
popular supper story which reappears in Hans Andersen's
Little dates and Big Claus. As told by Davenport the story
closely resembles the Scottish Freires of Berwick, which was
printed in 1603. Three other plays entered in the Stationers'
Register as Davenport's are lost, and he collaborated in two
plays with Thomas Drue.

Davenport's plays were reprinted by A. H. Bullen in Old English
Plays (new series, 1890). The volume includes two didactic poems,
which first saw the light in 1623.

DAVENPORT, a city and the county seat of Scott county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, opposite Rock Island,
Illinois, with which it is connected by two fine bridges and by
a ferry. It is the third largest city in the state. Pop. (1890)
26,872; (1900) 35,254, including 8479 foreign-born (6111
German), and 19,230 of foreign parentage (13,294 German);
(1905, state census) 39,797; (1910) 43,028. Davenport is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Iowa & Illinois
(interurban), and the Davenport, Rock Island & North Western
railways; opposite the city is the western terminus of the
Illinois and Mississippi, or Hennepin, Canal (which connects the
Mississippi and Illinois rivers). Davenport lies on the slope of a
bluff affording extensive views of landscape and river scenery.
In the city are an excellent public library, an Academy of Sciences,
several turn-halls and other German social organizations, the
Iowa soldiers' orphans' home, Brown business college, and several
minor Roman Catholic institutions. Davenport is an episcopal
see of the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Episcopal churches.
The city has a large commerce,and trade by water and rail in coal
and grain, which are produced in the vicinity, is of special
importance. With Rock Island and Moline it forms one great
commercial unit. Among Davenport's manufactures are the
products of foundries and machine shops, and of flouring, grist
and planing mills; glucose syrup and products; locomotives,
steel cars and car parts, washing machines, waggons, carriages,
agricultural implements, buttons, macaroni, crackers and
brooms. The value of the total factory product for 1905
was $13,695,978, an increase of 38-7% over that of 1900.
Davenport was founded in 1835, under the leadership of Colonel
George Davenport; it was incorporated as a town in 1838,
and was chartered as a city in 1851.

DAVENTRY, a market town and. municipal borough in the
Southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England,
74 m. N.W. from London by the London & North Western

railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It is picturesquely situated on a
sloping site in a rich undulating country. On the adjacent
Borough Hill are extensive earthworks, and the discovery of
remains here and at Burnt Walls, immediately south, proves the
existence of a considerable Roman station. The chief industry
of the town is the manufacture of boots and shoes. The borough
is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area,
3633 acres.

In spite of the Roman remains on Borough Hill, nothing is
known of the town itself until the time of the Domesday Survey,
when the manor consisting of eight hides belonged to the countess
Judith, the Conqueror's niece. According to tradition, Daventry
was created a borough by King John, but there is no extant
charter before that of Elizabeth in 1576, by which the town
was incorporated under the name of the bailiff, burgesses and
commonalty of the borough of Daventry. The bailiff was to
be chosen every year in the Moot Hall and to be assisted by
fourteen principal burgesses and a recorder. James I. confirmed
this charter in 1605-1606, and Charles II. in 1674-1675 granted a
new charter. The " quo warranto " rolls show that a market every
Wednesday and a fair on St Augustine's day were granted to
Simon son of Walter by King John. The charter of 1576 con-
firms this market and fair to the burgesses, and grants them two
new fairs each continuing for two days, on Tuesday after Easter
and on the feast of St Matthew the Apostle. Wednesday is still
the market day. The town was an important coaching centre, and
there was a large local industry in the manufacture of whips.
During the civil wars Daventry was the headquarters of Charles I.
,in the summer of 1645, immediately before the battle of Naseby,
at which he was defeated. A Cluniac priory founded here shortly
after the Conquest has left no remains.

DAVEY OF FERNHURST, HORACE DAVEY, Baron (1833-
1907), English judge, son of Peter Davey, of Horton, Bucks, was
born on the 30th of August 1833, and educated at Rugby and
University College, Oxford. He took a double first-class in
classics and mathematics, was senior mathematical scholar and
Eldon law scholar, and was elected a fellow of his college. In
1861 he was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, and read in the
chambers of Mr (afterwards Vice- Chancellor) Wickens. Devoting
himself to the Chancery side, he soon acquired a large practice,
and in 1875 became a Q.C. In 1880 he was returned to parlia-
ment as a Liberal for Christchurch, Hants, but lost his seat in
1885. On Gladstone's return to power in 1886 he was appointed
solicitor-general and was knighted, but had no seat in the House,
being defeated at both Ipswich and Stockport in 1886; in 1888
he found a seat at Stockton-on-Tees, but was rejected by that
constituency in 1892. As an equity lawyer Sir Horace Davey
ranked among the finest intellects and the most subtle pleaders
ever known at the English bar. He was standing counsel to the
university of Oxford, and senior counsel to the Charity Com-
missioners, and was engaged in all the important Chancery suits
of his time. Among the chief leading cases in which he took a
prominent part were those of The Mogul Steamship Company
v. M'Gregor, 1892, Boswell v. Coaks, 1884, Erlanger v. New
Sombrero Company, 1878, and the Ooregum Gold Mines Company
v. Roper, 1892; he was counsel for the promoters in the trial of
the bishop of Lincoln, and leading counsel in the Berkeley peerage
case. In 1862 he married Miss Louisa Donkin, who, with two
sons and four daughters, survived him. In 1893 he was raised
to the bench as a lord justice of appeal, and in the next year was
made a lord of appeal in ordinary and a life peer. He died in
London on the 20th of February 1907. Lord Davey J s great legal
knowledge was displayed in his judgments no less than at the
bar. In legislation he took no conspicuous part, but he was
a keen promoter of the act passed in 1906 for the checking of
gambling.

DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1 ), in the
Bible, the son of Jesse, king of Judah and Israel, and founder of
the royal Judaean dynasty at Jerusalem. The chronology of his
period is uncertain: the usual date, 1055-1015 B.C., is probably

1 See further the third edition of Schrader's Keilinschr, v.. das Alte
Test. pp. 225, 483.

8 54

DAVID

Source.

thirty years to half a century too early. The books of Samuel
(strictly, i Sam. xvi.-i Kings ii.), which are our principal source
for the history of David, show how deep an impres-
sion the personality of the king, his character, his
genius and the romantic story of his early years had left on the
mind of the nation. Of no hero of antiquity do we possess so
life-like a portrait. Minute details and traits of character are
portrayed with a vividness which bears all the marks of contem-
porary narrative. But the record is by no means all of one piece
or of one date. This history, as we now have it, is extracted
from various sources of unequal value, which are fitted together
in a way which offers considerable difficulties to the critic. In
the history of David's early adventures, for example, the
narrative is not seldom disordered, and sometimes seems to
repeat itself with puzzling variations of detail, which have led
critics to the unanimous conclusion that the First Book of
Samuel is drawn from at least two sources. It is indeed easy to
understand that the romantic incidents of this period were much
in the mouths of the people — to whom David was a popular
hero — and in course of time were written down in various forms
which were not combined into perfect harmony by later editors,
who gave excerpts from several sources rather than a new and
independent history. These excerpts, however, have been so
pieced together, that it is often impossible to separate them with
precision, and to distinguish accurately between earlier and later
elements. It even appears from a study of the Greek text that
some copies of the books of Samuel incorporated narratives
which other copies did not acknowledge. For the literary
problems of these books, see also Samuel (Books).

The parallel history of David in i Chron. xi.-xxix. contains a
great deal of additional matter, which can rarely be treated as
of equal historical value with the preceding. Where it follows
the chapters in Samuel it is important for textual and other
critical problems, but it omits narratives in which it is not
interested (David's youth, persecution by Saul, Absalom's
revolt, &c), and adds long passages (David's arrangements for
the temple, &c.) which reflect the views of a much later age
than David's. The lists of officers, &c, are fuller than those
in Samuel, and here and there contain notices of value. A
comparison of the two records, however, is especially important
for its illustration of the later tendency to idealize the figure of
David, and the historical critic has to bear in mind the possibility
that this tendency had begun long before the Chronicler's time,
and that it may be found in the relatively older records pre-
served in Samuel.

David's father, Jesse, was a citizen of Bethlehem in Judah,
5 m. south of Jerusalem; the polite deprecation in i Sam.
xviii. 1 8 means little (cf. Saul in ix. 21). Tradition
Introduc- ma( j e him a descendant of the ancient nobles of
Saul. Judah through Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth, but the

tendency to furnish a noble ancestry for a noble figure —
especially one of obscure birth — is widespread (cf. Genealogy).
He was the youngest of eight sons, 1 and spent his youth in an
occupation which the Hebrews as well as the Arabs seem to have
held in low esteem. He kept his father's sheep in the desert
steppes of Judah, and there developed the strength, agility,
endurance and courage which distinguished him throughout life
(cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 34, xxiv. 2; 2 Sam. xvii. 9). There, too, he ac-
quired that skill in music which led to his first introduction to Saul
(1 Sam. xvi. 14-23, and the apocryphal Psalm of David, Ps. cli. in
the Septuagint). He found favour in the king's eye, and became
his armour-bearer. 2 But traditions varied. In 1 Sam. xvii. he
does not follow his master to the field against the Philistines;
he is an obscure untried shepherd lad sent by his father with
supplies for his brothers in the Israelite camp. He does not even
present himself before the king, and his brothers treat him with a
petulance hardly conceivable if he stood well at court, and it'

1 But four in xvii. 13 sqq., and seven in I Chron. ii. 13-15.

2 An armour-bearer was not a full warrior but a sort of page or
apprentice-in-arms, whose most warlike function is to kill outright
those whom his master has struck down — an office which among the
Arabs was often performed by women.

appears from the close that neither Saul nor his captain Abner
had heard of him before (vv. 55-58). There is, indeed, a flat
contradiction between the two accounts, but a family of Greek
MSS. represented by the Vatican text omit xvii. 12-31, xvii. 55-
xviii. 5, and thus the difficulty is greatly lessened. Character-
istic of the omitted portions are the friendship which sprang up
between Jonathan and David and the latter's appointment to a
command in the army. A further difficulty is caused by 2 Sam.
xxi. 19, which makes Elhanan the slayer of Goliath. David's
exploit is not referred to in 1 Sam. xxi. 10-15, xxix., and on this
and other grounds the simpler tradition in 2 Sam. is usually pre-
ferred. (See Goliath.) But it must have been by some valiant
deed that Saul was led to notice him (cf. xiv. 52), and David
soon became both a popular hero and an object of jealousy
to Saul. According to the Hebrew text of 1 Sam. xviii., Saul's
jealousy leaped at once to the conclusion that David's ambition
would not stop short of the kingship. Such a suspicion would be
intelligible if we could suppose that the king had heard something
of the significant act of Samuel, which now stands at the head of
the history of David in witness of that divine election and unction
with the spirit of Yahweh on which his whole career hung (xvi.
1- 13). But this passage is the sequel to the rejection of Saul in
xv., and Samuel's position agrees with that of the late writer in
vii., viii. and xii. 3

The shorter text, represented by the Septuagint, gives an
account of Saul's jealousy which is psychologically more
intelligible. 4 According to this text Saul was simply
possessed with such a personal dislike and dread of c "amds
David as might easily occupy his disordered brain. Saul.
To be quit of his hateful presence he gave him a mili-
tary command. In this charge David increased his reputation
as a soldier and became a general favourite. Saul's daughter
Michal loved him; and her father, whose jealousy continued to
increase, resolved to put the young captain on a perilous enter-
prise, promising him the hand of Michal as a reward of success,
but secretly hoping that he would perish in the attempt. David's
good fortune did not desert him; he won his wife, and in this new
advancement continued to grow in the popular favour, and to
gain fresh laurels in the field. At this point it is necessary to
look back on the proposed marriage of David with Saul's eldest
daughter Merab (xviii. 17-19; cf. xvii. 25). When the time
came for Saul to fulfil his promise, Merab was given to Adriel of
Abel-Meholah (perhaps an Aramaean). What is said of this
affair interrupts the original context of chap, xviii., to which the
insertion has been clumsily fitted by an interpolation in the
second half of ver. 21 (LXX omits). We have here, therefore, a
notice drawn from a distinct source which connects itself with
the other omitted passage, xvii. 12-31, where Saul had promised
his daughter to the one who should overthrow Goliath (ver. 25).
Since Merab and Michal are confounded in 2 Sam. xxi. 8, the
whole episode of Merab and David perhaps rests on a similar
confusion of names.

As the king's son-in-law, David was necessarily again at court.
He became chief of the bodyguard, as Ewald rightly interprets
1 Sam. xxii. 14, and ranked next to Abner (xx. 25), so that Saul's
insane fears were constantly exasperated by personal contact
with him. On at least one occasion the king's frenzy broke out
in an attempt to murder David with his own hand. 5 At another
time Saul actually gave commands to assassinate his son-in-law,
but the breach was made up by Jonathan, whose chivalrous
spirit had united him to David in a covenant of closest friendship
(xix. 1-7). The circumstances of the final outburst of Saul's
hatred, which drove David into exile, are not easily disentangled.

3 See Samuel. The older history repeatedly indicates that David's
kingship was predicted by a divine oracle, but would hardly .lead us
to place the prediction so early (1 Sam. xxv. 30; 2 Sam. iii. 9, v. 2).

4 The LXX omits xviii. 1-6 (to " Philistine "), the first and last
clauses of 8, 10-n, the reason given for Saul's fear in 12, 17-19,
the second half of 21. It also modifies 28, and omits the second
half of 29 and the whole of 30.

6 I Sam. xix. 9. The parallel narrative, xviii. 10 sqq., is wanting in
the Greek, and in the light of subsequent events is improbable.
Its aim is to paint Saul's character as black as possible.

DAVID

855

The narrative of 1 Sam. xx., which is the principal account of
the matter, cannot originally have been preceded by xix. 11-24;
in chap. xx. David appears to be still at court, and Jonathan
is even unaware that he is in any danger, whereas the preceding
verses represent him as already a fugitive. It may also be
doubted whether the narrative of David's escape from his own
house by the aid of his wife Michal (xix. n-17) has any close
connexion with ver. 10, and does not rather belong to a later
period. 1 David's daring spirit might very well lead him to visit
his wife even after his first flight. The danger of such an enter-
prise was diminished by the reluctance to violate the apartments
of women and attack a sleeping foe, which appears also in Judges
xvi. 2, and among the Arabs. 2

According to chap. xx. David was still at court in his usual
position when he became certain that the king was aiming at his
life. He betook himself to Jonathan, who thought his suspicions
groundless, but undertook to test them. A plan was arranged by
which Jonathan should draw from the king an expression of his
feelings, and a tremendous explosion revealed that Saul regarded
David as the rival of his dynasty, and Jonathan as little better
than a fellow-conspirator. After a final interview (xx. 40-42),
which must be regarded as a later expansion, they parted and
David fled. He sought the sanctuary at Nob, where he had been
wont to consult the priestly oracle (xxii. 15), and here, concealing
his disgrace by a fictitious story, he also obtained bread from the
consecrated table and the sword of Goliath (chap. xxi. 1-9). 3
His hasty flight — without food and weapon — suggests that the
narrative should follow upon xix. 17.

It was perhaps after this that David made a last attempt to
find a place of refuge in the prophetic circle of Samuel at Ramah

(xix. 18-24). The episode now stands in another
life connexion, where it is certainly out of place. It might,

however, fit into the break that plainly exists in the
history at xxi. 10 after the affair at Nob. Deprived of the
protection of religion as well as of justice, David tried his fortune
among the Philistines at Gath. Recognized and suspected as a
redoubtable foe, he made his escape by feigning madness, which
in the East has inviolable privileges (xxi. n-16). 4 The passage
anticipates chap, xxvii., and it is hardly probable that the slayer
of Goliath or of any other Philistine giant fled to the Philistines
with their dead hero's sword. He returned to the wilds of Judah,
and was joined at Adullam 5 by his father's house and by a small
band of outlaws, of which he became the head. Placing his
parents under the charge of the king of Moab, he took up the life
of a guerilla captain, cultivating friendly relations with the
townships of Judah (xxx. 26), which were glad to have on their
frontiers a protector so valiant as David, even at the expense of
the blackmail which he levied in return. A clear conception of
his life at this time, and of the respect which he inspired by the
discipline in which he held his men, and of the generosity which
tempered his fiery nature, is given in chap. xxv. His force
gradually swelled, and he was joined by the prophet Gad (note his
message xxii. 5) and by the priest Abiathar, the only survivor
of a terrible massacre by which Saul took revenge for the favours
which David had received at the sanctuary of Nob. He was
even able to strike at the Philistines, and to rescue Keilah (south
of Adullam and to the east of Beit Jibrln) from their attack

1 The close of ver. 10 in the Hebrew is corrupt, and the words
" (and it came to pass) that night " seem to belong to the next
verse (so the Greek). H. P. Smith suggests that the passage origin-
ally followed upon xviii. 27.

2 Wellhausen cites a closely parallel case from Sprenger's Leben
Muhammad, vol. ii. p. 543.

3 On the meaning of this difficult passage, see the discussions by
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites^), p. 455 sqq., and Schwally
Semit. Kriegsalterthiimer , p. 60 sqq.

4 Interesting parallels in Barhebraeus Chron., ed. Brun and
Kirsch, p. 222, and Ewald, Hist. Israel, iii. p. 84.

5 The cave of Adullam has been traditionally placed (since the
12th century) at Khareitun, two hours' journey south of Bethlehem.
But the town of Adullam, which has not been identified with any
certainty, lay in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 35). The
" cave " is also spoken of as a " hold " or fortress, and this is every-
where the true reading. The name has been identified with 'Id-el-md
(or -miye) about 12 m. S.W. of Bethlehem.

(xxiii. 1-13). Forced to flee by the treachery of the very men
whom he had succoured, he lived for a time in constant fear of
being captured by Saul, and at length took refuge with Achish
king of Gath and established himself in Ziklag. Popular tradi-
tion, as though unwilling to let David escape from Saul, told of
that king's continual pursuit of the outlaw, of the attempt of the
men of Ziph (S.E. of Hebron) to betray him, of David's magnan-
imity displayed on two occasions, and of Jonathan's visit to
console his bosom friend (xxiv.-xxvi.). 6 The situation was one
which lent itself to the imagination.

The site of Ziklag is unknown. It hardly lay near Gath
(probably Tell es-Sa.fi, 12 m. E. of Ashdod), but rather to the
south of Judah (Josh. xix. 5). Here he occupied himself in
chastening the Amalekites and other robber tribes who made
raids on Judah and the Philistines without distinction (xxvii.).
The details of the text are obscure, and seem to imply that David
systematically attacked populations friendly to Achish whilst
pretending that he had been making forays against Judah. If
this were an attempt to steer a middle course his true actions
could not have been kept secret long, and as it is implied that the
Philistines subsequently acquiesced in David's sovereignty in
Hebron, it is not easy to see what interest they had in embroiling
him with the men of Judah. At length, in the second year, he
was called to join his master in a great campaign against Saul.
The Philistines for once directed their forces towards the plain of
Jezreel (Esdraelon) in the north; and Saul, forsaken by Yahweh,
already gave himself up for lost. David accompanied the army
as a matter of course. But his presence was not observed
until they reached their destination, when the jealousy of the
Philistines overrode his protestations of fidelity and he was
ordered to return. He reached Ziklag only to find the town
pillaged by the Amalekites. Pursuing the foes, he inflicted
upon them a signal chastisement and took a great booty,
part of which he spent in politic gifts to the leading men of
the towns in the south country. 7

Meantime Saul had fallen in battle, and northern Israel was in

a state of chaos. The Philistines took possession of the fertile

lowlands of Jezreel and the Jordan, and the shattered forces

of Israel were slowly rallied by Abner in the remote city of

Mahanaim in Gilead, under the nominal sovereignty of Saul's son

Ishbaal. David now took the first great step to the throne. He

was no longer an outlaw with a band of wandering companions,

but a petty chieftain, head of a small colony of men, allied with

families of Caleb and Jezreel (in Judah) , and on friendly footing

with the sheikhs south of Hebron. In response to an

oracle he was bidden to move northwards to Judah „"i a
1 r n • t • • i tt i • • Hebron,

and successfully occupied it with Hebron as his capital.

Here he was anointed king, the first ruler of the southern kingdom.
If the chronological notice may be trusted, he was then thirty
years of age, and he reigned there for seven and a half years
(2. Sam. ii. 1-40, 11, v. 4 sq.). The noble elegy on the death of
Saul and Jonathan, quoted from the Book of Jashar (2 Sam. i.),
is marked by the absence both of religious feeling and of allusions
to his earlier experiences with Saul which David might have been
expected to make. It was deemed only natural that he should
sympathize deeply with the disasters of the northern kingdom.
His vengeance on the Amalekite who slew Saul — the account
is a doublet of 1 Sam. xxxi.— is consistent with his generous
treatment of his late adversary in his outlaw life, and with this
agrees his embassy of thanks to the men of Jabesh-Gilead for their
chivalrous rescue of the bodies of the fallen heroes (2 Sam. ii. 46-7).
The embassy threw out a hint, — their lord was dead and David
himself had been anointed king over Judah; but the relation
between Jabesh-Gilead and Saul had been a close one, and it was
not to be expected that its eyes would be turned upon the king of
Judah when Saul's son was installed at the not distant Mahanaim.

6 According to a late Rabbinical story, David, like Bruce of
Scotland, was once saved by a spider which spun its web over the
cave wherein he was concealed.

7 The law of the distribution of booty after war enacted by David
(xxx. 24 sqq.) is given as a Mosaic precedent in the post-exilic priestly
legislation (Num. xxxi. 27). On the importance of this explicit
statement, see W. R. Smith, Old Test, in Jewish Churchi?), 386 sq.

8 5 6

DAVID

The interest of the narratives is now directed away from the
Philistines to the decaying fortunes of Saul's house. (See Abner
and Saul.) Abner had taken Saul's son Ishbaal and his authority
was gradually consolidated in the north. War broke out between
the two parties at Gibeon a few miles north of Jerusalem. A
sham contest was changed into a fatal fray by the treachery of
Ishbaal's men; and in the battle which ensued Abner was not
only defeated, but, by slaying Asahel, drew upon himself a blood-
feud with Joab. The war continued. Ishbaal's party became
weaker and weaker; and at length Abner quarrelled with his
nominal master and offered the kingdom to David. The king
seized the opportunity to demand the return of Michal, his
wife. The passage (iii. 12-16) is not free from difficulties,
but it is intelligible that David should desire to ally himself
as closely as possible with Saul's family (cf. xii. 8). The base
murder of Abner by Joab did not long defer the inevitable issue
of events. Ishbaal lost hope, and after he had been foully
assassinated by two of his own followers, all Israel sought David
as king.

The biblical narrative is admittedly not so constructed as to
enable us to describe in chronological order the thirty-three years
of David's reign over all Israel. It is possible that some of the
incidents ascribed to this period properly belong to an earlier
part of his life, and that tradition has idealized the life of David
the king even as it has not failed to colour the history of David
the outlaw and king of Hebron.

In the preceding account the biblical narratives have been
followed as closely as possible in the light of the critical results
Crtti I generally accepted. That they have been affected by the
°fL _ growth of popular tradition is patent from the traces
tlons " °^ duplicate narratives, from the difficulty caused, for
example, by the story of Goliath (g.».),and from a closer
study of the chapters. The later views of the history of this period
are represented in the book of Chronicles, where immediately after
Saul's death David is anointed at Hebron king over all Israel
(1 Chron. xi.). It is quite in harmony with this that the same source
speaks of the Israelites who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. xii.
1-22), and of the host which came to him at Hebron to turn over to
him Saul's kingdom (xii. 23-40). This treatment of history can be at
once corrected by the books of Samuel, but it is only from a deeper
study of the internal evidence that these, too, appear to give expres-
sion to doubtful and conflicting views. It is questionable whether
David could have become king over all Israel immediately after the
death of Ishbaal. The chronological notices in ii. 10 sqq. allow an
interval of no less than five and a half years, and nowhere do the
events of these years appear to be recorded. But David's position
in the south of Judah is clear. He is related by marriage with south
Judaean clans of Caleb, Jezreel, and probably Geshur. (See Absalom.)
He was at the head of a small colony (1 Sam. xxvii. 3), and on
friendly terms with the sheikhs south of Hebron (xxx. 26-31). 1 His
step forward to Hebron is in every way intelligible and is the natural
outcome of his policy. It is less easy to trace his previous moves.
There are gaps in the narratives, and the further back we proceed
the more serious do their difficulties become. These chapters bring
him farther north, and they commence by depicting David as a man
of Bethlehem, high in the court of Saul, the king's son-in-law, and
a popular favourite with the people. But notwithstanding this, the
relation is broken off, and years elapse before David gains hold upon
the Hebrews of north Israel, the weakness of the union being
proved by the ease with which it was subsequently broken after
Solomon's death. Much of the life of Saul is obscure, and this too,
it would seem, because tradition loved rather to speak of the founder
of the ideal monarchy than of his less successful rival. (See Saul.)
It is not impossible that some traditions did not bring them
together. If Jerusalem and its immediate neighbourhood were first
conquered by David (2 Sam. v.), it is probable that Beeroth and
Gibeon (2 Sam. iv. 2, xxi. 2), Shaalbim, Har-heres and Aijalon
(Judg. i. 35), Gezer {ib. i. 29), Chephirah and Kirjath-jearim (Josh.
ix. 17) had remained Canaanite. The evidence has obviously some
bearing upon the history of Saul, as also upon the intercourse between
Judah and Benjamin which David's early history implies. It has
been conjectured, therefore, that David's original home lay in the
south. Since the early historical narrative (1 Sam. xxv. 2) finds
him in Maon, Winckler has suggested that he was a Calebite chief,
while a criticism of the details relating to David's family has induced
Marquart 2 to conjecture that he was born at Arad (Tell 'Arad)

1 Bethel (ver. 27) is probably the Bethuel near Ziklag (1 Chron. iv.
30). David's friendly relations with the Philistines find a parallel
in Isaac's covenant with Abimelech {q.v.). In Ps. xxxiv. the latter
name actually appears in place of Ach'ish.

2 Fundamente israel. u. jiid. Gesch. (1896), pp. 23 sqq.; see also
Winckler, Gesch. Isr. i. 24; Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test.( z ), p. 228 sqq.

about 17 m. S.E. of Hebron. Once indeed we find him in the wilder-
ness of Paran 1 (Sam. xxv. I , LXX reads Maon) , and a more southerly
origin has been thought of (Winckler). This is involved with other
views of the early history of the Israelites; see further below.

David owed his success to his troop of freebooters (1 Sam.

xxii. 2), now an organized force, and absolutely attached to his

person. The valour of these " mighty men " (gibborim)

was topical. The names of the most honoured are Capture
iii r ofJeru-

preserved, and we have some interesting accounts of salem.

their exploits in the days of the giants (2 Sam. xxi.,

xxiii.). We hear of two great battles with the " Philistines " in

the valley of Rephaim, near Jerusalem, at a time when David's

base was Adullam (v. 17-25). In one conflict a giant thought

to slay him, but he was saved by Abishai, the brother of Joab,

and the men took an oath that David should no more go to battle

lest he " quench the light of Israel." On another occasion,

Elhanan of Bethlehem slew the giant Goliath of Gath, and

David's own brother Shimei (or Shammah) overthrew a monster

who could boast of twenty-four fingers and toes. In yet another

incident the Philistines maintained a garrison in Bethlehem,

and David expressed a wish for a drink from its well. The wish

was gratified at the risk of the lives of three brave men, and he

recognized the solemnity of the occasion by pouring out the

water as an offering unto Yahweh.

From a later summary (viii. 1) it seems that the Philistines
were at length vanquished, and the unknown Metheg-Ammah
taken out of their hands. 3 Not until the district was cleared
could Jerusalem be taken, and the capture of the almost impreg-
nable Jebusite fortress furnished a centre for future action.
Here, in the midst of a region which had been held by aliens, he
fortified the " city of David " and garrisoned it with his men.
Meanwhile the ark of Yahweh, the only sanctuary of national
significance, had remained in obscurity since its return from the
Philistines in the early youth of Samuel. (See Ark.) David
brought it up from Baalah of Judah with great pomp, and pitched
a tent for it in Zion, amidst national rejoicings. The narrative
(2 Sam. vi.) represents the act as that of a loyal and God-fearing
heart which knew that the true principle of Israel's unity and
strength lay in national adherence to Yahweh; but the event
was far from having the significance which later times ascribed
to it (1 Chron. xiii., xv. sqq.) ; even Solomon visited the sanctuary
at Gibeon, and Absalom vowed his vow unto Yahweh at Hebron.
It was not unnatural that the king who had his palace built by
Tyrian artists should have proposed to erect a permanent
temple to Yahweh. Such, at least, was the thought of later
writers, who have given effect to the belief in chap. viii. It was
said that the prophet Nathan commanded the execution of this
plan to be delayed for a generation; but David received at the
same time a prophetic assurance that his house and kingdom
should be established for ever before Yahweh.

What remains to be said of his internal policy may be briefly
detailed. In civil matters the king looked heedfully to the
execution of justice (viii. 15), and was always accessible
to the people (xiv. 4) . But he does not appear to have po u C y.
made any change in the old local administration of
justice, or to have appointed a central tribunal (xv. 2, where,
however, Absalom's complaint that the king was inaccessible is
merely factious). A few great officers of state were appointed
at the court of Jerusalem (viii. 16-18, xx. 23-26), which was
not without a splendour hitherto unknown in Israel. Royal
pensioners, of whom Jonathan's son Mephibosheth was one, were
gathered round a princely table. The art of music was not
neglected (xix. 35). A more dangerous piece of magnificence was
the harem. Another innovation was the census; it was under-
taken despite the protests of Joab, and was checked by the
rebukes of the prophet Gad and the visitation of a pestilence
(xxiv.). Striking, too, is the conception of the national God who
incites the king to do an act for which he was to be punished. 4
To us, the proposal to number the people seems innocent and

3 1 Chron. xviii. I reads " Gath and her dependent villages"; the
original reading is a matter for conjecture.

4 Cf. the idea in I Kings xxii. 19-23; Ezek. xiv. 9; contrast
I Chron. xxi. I.

DAVID

857

laudable, and the latest sources of the Pentateuch contain several
such lists. This new procedure, we may imagine, was resented
by the northern Hebrews as an encroachment upon their
liberties. We learn that the destroying angel was stayed at
the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite, 1 and the spot thus
sanctified was made a sanctuary, and commemorated by an
altar. It was the very place upon which Solomon's temple was
supposed to be founded. The census-taking may have been a
preliminary to the great wars, but the latter, on the other hand,
are obviously presupposed by the extent of his kingdom. For
his wars a larger force than his»early bodyguard was required, and
the Chronicler gives an account of the way in which an army of
nearly 300,000 was raised and held by David's thirty heroes
(1 Chron. xxvii.). It is certain at all events that no small body
of soldiers would be needed, and this alone would imply that all
Israel was by this time under his entire control.

Apart from the Ammonite war, our sources are confined to
a mere summary (viii.), which includes even the Amalekites
(viii. 12, cf. 1 Sam. xxx.). After the defeat of the
coiTuesti Philistines came the turn of Moab. It was under the
care of the king of Moab that David placed his parents
when he fled from Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3 sqq.), and what led to the
war is unknown. The severity with which the land was treated
may pass for a gentle reprisal if the Moabites of that day were
not more humane than their descendants in the days of King
Mesha. 2 A deadly conflict with the Ammonites was provoked by
a gross insult to friendly ambassadors of Israel; 3 and this war,
of which we have pretty full details in 2 Sam. x. i-xi. 1, xii. 26-31,
assumed unexpected dimensions when the Ammonites procured
the aid of their Aramean neighbours. The defeat of Hadadezer
brought about the submission of other lesser kings. The glory of
this victory was increased by the complete subjugation of Edom
in a war conducted by Joab with characteristic severity (2 Sam.
viii. 13; 1 Kings xi. 15-17; Ps. lx., title). The fall of Rabbah
concludes David's war-like exploits; he carried off the jewelled
crown of their god (Milcom), and subjected the people, not to
torture (1 Chron. xx. 3), but to severe menial labour (xii. 26-31).

The Aramean states, Beth-rehob, Maacah, Tob, &c., lay partly to
the north of Gilead and partly in the region which was the scene of the
fight with Jabin (Josh. xi. 1-9, Judg. iv. ; see Deborah). Apparently
it was here, too, that the Danites found a settlement (Judg. xviii.
28) ; the migration has perhaps been ante-dated. (See Dan, tribe.)
The account of David's wars is remarkable for the inclusion of the
Syrians of Damascus and beyond the Euphrates; some exaggeration
has been suspected (cf. 2 Sam. viii. 5 with x. 16). Some misunder-
standing has been caused by the confusion of Edom (nut) and
Aram (mi) in viii. 13. A more moderate idea of David's power
has been found in Ps. lx. 6-12, or, preferably, in the description of
the boundaries (2 Sam. xxiv. 5 sqq.). To the east of the Jordan he
held rule from Aroer to Gad and Gilead; on its west his power
extended from Beersheba in the south to Dan and Ijon at the foot
of Hermon. Moab, Ammon and Edom would appear to have been
merely tributary, whilst in the north among his allies David could
number the king of Hamath. To the north-west Israel bordered upon
Tyre, with whom its relations were friendly. The king of Tyre, who
recognized David's newly won position (v. 11 seq.),is called Hiram;
possibly — unless the notice is an anticipation of I Kings v. — his
father Abibaal is meant. 4

As the birth of Solomon is placed before the capture of Rabbah

of Ammon (xii.), it would appear that David's wars were ended

within the first half of his reign at Jerusalem, and the

troubles, tributary nations thus do not seem to have attempted

any revolt during his lifetime (see 1 Kings xi. 14 sqq.

and 25). It was only when the nation was no longer knit

1 This un-Hebraic name, which is not unlike aron, " ark," should
possibly be corrected to Adonijah (Cheyne, Ency. Bib. s.v.).

2 David destroyed two-thirds of the Moabites — presumably of
their fighting men (2 Sam. viii. 2) ; Mesha destroys the inhabitants
of the captured cities in honour of his god Chemosh.

3 It finds a parallel in the fate of the heralds of Orchomenus (Frazer,
Pausan. v. 135) and in an Arabian story (Ibn Athlr, viii. 360;
Noldeke in Budde, Hand-Commentar, ad loc.) ; cf. also Ewald, iii.

I5 2 -

4 On the questions raised see the commentaries upon 2 Sam. viii.
and x. and the Ency. Biblica, s.vv. " David," " Merom," " Zobah."
The main problem is whether the account of David's rule has been
exaggerated, or whether the attempt has been made to throw back
to the time of the first king of all Israel later political conditions.

together by the fear of danger from without that the internal
difficulties of the new kingdom became more manifest. Such at
least is the impression which the narratives convey. 5 So, after
David had completed a series of conquests which made Palestine
the greatest of the petty states of the age, troubles arose with the
Israelites, who in times past had sought for him to be king (iii.
17, v. 1-3), with his old subjects the men of Judah, and with
the members of his own household. The northern tribes, who
appear to have submitted willingly to his rule, were not all of one
mind. There were men of stronger build than the weak Ishbaal
and the crippled son of Jonathan, the survivors of Saul's house,
and it is only to be expected that David's first care must have
been to cement the union of the north and south. The choice of
Jerusalem, standing on neutral ground, may be regarded as a
stroke of genius, and there is nothing to show that the king
exercised that rigour which was to be the cause of his grandson's
undoing. (See Rehoboam.) On the other hand, when Sheba,
probably one of Saul's clan, headed a rising and was promptly
pursued by Joab to Abel-beth-maacah on the west of Dan,
honour was satisfied by the death of the rebel, and no further
steps were taken (xx.). s This policy of leniency towards Israel
is characteristic of David, and may well have become a popular
theme in the tales of succeeding generations. This same magna-
nimity towards the survivors of Saul's house has left its mark upon
many of the narratives, and helps to a truer understanding of the
stories of his early life. Thus it was quite in keeping with the
romantic attachment between David and Saul's son Jonathan
that when he became king of Israel he took Jonathan's son
Meribbaal under his care (ix.). 7 The deed was not merely
generous, it was politic to have Saul's grandson under his eyes.
The hope of restoring the lost kingdom had not died out (cf.
xvi. 3). But from another source we gain quite a different idea
of the relations. A disastrous famine ravaged the land for three
long years, and when Yahweh was consulted the reply came that
there was " blood upon Saul and upon his house because he put
the Gibeonites to death." The unavenged blood was the cause
of divine anger, and retribution must be made. This David
recognized, and, summoning the injured clan, inquired what
expiation could be made. Bloodshed could only be atoned by
blood-money or by shedding the blood of the offender or of
his family. The Gibeonites demanded the latter, and five sons
of Merab (the text by a mistake reads Michal) and two sons of
Saul's concubine were sacrificed. The awful deed took place at
the beginning of harvest (April-May), and the bodies remained
suspended until, with the advent of the autumn rains, Yahweh
was once more, reconciled to his land (xxi. 1-14). The incident
is a valuable picture of crude ideas of Yahweh, and, if nothing
else were needed, it was sufficient to involve David in a feud
with the Benjamites. 8 Here, too, we learn of the tardy burial of
the bones of Saul and Jonathan which had remained in Jabesh-
Gilead since the battle of Gilboa;— the history of David's dealings
with the family of Saul has been obscured. That he took over
his harem is only in accordance with the Eastern policy (cf . xii. 8).

The harem, an indispensable part of Eastern state, was respons-„
ible for many fatal disorders, although it is clear from 2 Sam.
xvi. 21 that the nation at large was not very sensitive ,

to the enormities which flow from this system. David's revolt.
deep fall in the matter of Bathsheba (xi.) was too great
an iniquity to be passed over lightly, and the base murder of her

6 Viz. the present position of 2 Sam. ix.-xx. after the miscellaneous
collection of details in v.-viii. See, on the other hand, the view of
I Kings v. 3, 4.

6 The present position of this incident, immediately after Absalom's
rebellion was quelled, is almost inconceivable (Winckler, H. P.
Smith, B. Luther, Ed. Meyer). See next page.

7 He was five years of age at the battle of Gilboa (iv. 4) , and is now
grown up and with a young child (ix. 12). But the narrative loses
its point unless David's kindness " for Jonathan's sake " comes at an
early date soon after he became king, and although the youth is found
at Lo-debar (east of the Jordan) under the protection of Machir, the
independent fragment in ii. 8 sqq. implies that the Israelites had
recovered the position they had lost at the battle of Gilboa.

8 There is an unmistakable reference to the occurrence in the episode
of Shimei, who hovers in the background of Absalom's revolt with a
large body of men at his command (xvi. 7 sqq.).

8 5 8

DAVID

husband Uriah the Hittite could not go unavenged. Bathsheba's
influence added a new element of danger to the usual jealousies of
the harem, and two of David's sons perished in vain attempts to
claim the throne, which she appears to have viewed as the rightful
inheritance of her own child. This, at least, is certain in the
revolt of Adonijah (see Solomon), and it was probably believed
that the action of the impulsive Absalom arose from the suspicion
that the birth of Solomon was the death-blow to his succession.

As a piece of writing the vivid narratives are without an equal.
David's sons were estranged from one another, and acquired
all the vices of Oriental princes. The severe impartiality of the
sacred historian has concealed no feature in this dark picture, —
the brutal passion of Amnon, the shameless counsel of the wily
Jonadab, the " black scowl " 1 that rested on the face of Absalom
through two long years of meditated revenge, the panic of the
court when the blow was struck and Amnon was assassinated in
the midst of his brethren. Not until five years had elapsed was
Absalom fully reconciled with his father. Then he meditated
revolt. As heir-apparent he collected a bodyguard, and studi-
ously courting personal popularity by a pretended interest in
the administration of kingly justice, ingratiated himself with the
mass. Four years later (so read in xv. 7) he ventured to raise the
standard of revolt in Hebron, with the malcontent Judaeans as
his first supporters, and the crafty Ahithophel as his chief adviser.
Arrangements had been made for the simultaneous proclamation
of Absalom in all parts of the land. The surprise was complete,
and David was compelled to evacuate Jerusalem, where he might
have been crushed before he had time to rally his faithful subjects.
He was warmly received by the Gileadites, and the first battle
destroyed the party of Absalom, who was himself captured and
slain by Joab. Then all the people repented except the men of
Judah, who were not to be conciliated without a virtual admission
of prerogative of kinship to the king. This concession involved
important consequences. The precedence claimed by Judah was
challenged by the northern tribes even on the day of David's
victorious return to his capital, and a rupture ensued, headed by
Sheba, which but for the energy of Joab might have led to a
second and more dangerous rebellion.

Several indications suggest that the revolt was one in which the
men of Judah originally took the leading if not the only part. The
unruly clans which David knew how to control when he was at
Ziklag or Hebron were doubtless ready to support the rebellious son.
The removal of the court to Jerusalem provided a suitable oppor-
tunity, and an element of jealousy even may not have been wanting.
If Geshur be the district in Josh. xiii. 2, 1 Sam. xxvii. 8, it is sig-
nificant that the scene of Absalom's exile lay to the south, that
Ahithophel was a south Judaean, and that Amasa probably belonged
to the Jezreel 2 with which David was connected through his wife
Ahinoam. The eleven years which elapsed between the murder of
Amnon and the revolt would seem to disprove any connexion between
the two; the chronology may rest upon the tradition that Solomon
was twelve years old when he came to the throne. David's hurried
flight, attended only by his bodyguard, indicates that his position was
not a very strong one, and it is difficult to connect this with the fact
that he had already waged the wars mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. and x.
If his reason for taking refuge in Ishbaal's capital Mahanaim is not
obvious, it is even more remarkable that he should have been received
.kindly by the Ammonites whom he had previously decimated. On
the theory that the revolt of Absalom chronologically should precede
the great wars, a slight correction of the already corrupt text in xvii.
27 makes Nahash himself David's ally, and accounts for David's
eagerness to repay to Hanun, the son of Nahash, the kindness which
he had received from the father (x. 2). That the revolt of Sheba is in
an impossible position is obvious. Tradition has probably confused
Benjamite risings with Absalom's misguided enterprise; the parts
played by Shimei and Meribbaal, at all events, are extremely
suggestive. See Absalom, Ahithophel.

The Appendix ascribes to David a song of triumph and some
exceedingly obscure " last words " (xxii.-xxiii. 7) which cannot

be used as historical material. The history of his life
life-work. * s immediately continued in 1 Kings i., where his old

age and weakness are for the first time vividly empha-
sized. The events of the remaining years after 2 Sam. xx. are
left untold, but the Chronicler omits the revolt of Absalom and

1 If Ewald's brilliant interpretation of an obscure word in 2 Sam.
xiii. 32 be correct.

2 " Israelite " (2 Sam. xvii. 25) is a very unnecessary designation;
I Chron. ii. 17 would make him an Ishmaelite.

represents the king as busily occupied with schemes concerning
the future temple. The last spark of his old energy was called
forth to secure the succession of Solomon against the ambition of
Adonijah. It is noteworthy that, as in the case of Absalom, the
pretender, though supported by Joab and Abiathar, found his chief
stay among the men of Judah (1 Kings i. 9). (See Solomon.)

To estimate the work of David it is necessary to take into
account the situation before and after his period. According to
the prevailing traditions, Saul at his death had left North Israel
disunited and humiliated. From this condition David raised the
land to the highest state of prosperity and glory, and by his
conquests made the united kingdom the most powerful state of
the age. To do this other qualities than mere military capacity
were required. David was not only a great captain, he was a
national hero in whom all the noblest elements of the Hebrew
genius were combined. His talent enabled him to weld together
the mixed southern clans which became incorporated under
Judah, and to build up a monarchy which represented the
highest conception of national life possible under the circum-
stances. The structure, it is true, was not permanent. Under
his successor it began to decay, and in the next generation it fell
asunder and lived only in the hearts of the people as the proudest
memory of past history and the prophetic ideal of future glory. 3
Opinion will differ, however, as to the extent to which later ideals
have influenced the narratives upon which the student of Hebrew
history and religion is dependent, and how far the reigns of David
and Solomon altered the face of Hebrew history. The foundation
of the united monarchy was the greatest advance in the whole
course of the history of the Israelites, and around it have been
collected the hopes and fears which a varied experience of mon-
archical government aroused. Many of the narratives furnish a
vivid picture of the life of David with a minuteness of personal
detail which has suggested to some that their author was inti-
mately acquainted with the events, and, if not a contemporary,
belonged to the succeeding generation, while to others it has
seemed more probable that these reflect rather " the plastic
mould of popular tradition." It cannot be doubted that the
three types of David, represented by the books of Samuel, of
Chronicles, and the superscriptions of the Psalms, are irreconcil-
able, and that they represent successive developments of the
original traditions. That the oldest of these three does not
contain earlier attempts to idealize him is unlikely. " Political
circumstances naturally led to an ever-increasing appreciation of
his person and his work as the unifier of Israel. In the eyes of
posterity he became more and more completely the model of an
Israelitish king and the natural consequence was that he was
idealized. The hope of the regeneration of his dynasty, and, at
a later period, of its restoration to the throne — the Messianic
expectation — must have worked powerfully in the same direction.
And meanwhile the religious convictions of the highest minds in
Israel were undergoing a marked change. The conceptions of
Yahweh and of the religion which was acceptable to him were
constantly being elevated and purified. This could not but have
an influence on the current ideas concerning David. He, too,
must be remodelled as the conceptions of God were changed." 4
But what is lost as regards historical material is a distinct gain
to the study of the development of Hebrew thought and
philosophy of history.

David's character must be judged partly in the light of the
times in which he lived and partly in connexion with the great
truths which he represents, truths whose value is not impaired
should they prove to be the convictions of later ages. Accord-
ingly, David is not to be condemned for failing to subdue the
sensuality which is the chief stain on his character, but should
rather be judged by his habitual recognition of a generous
standard of conduct, by the undoubted purity and lofty justice
of an administration which was never stained by selfish considera-
tions or motives of personal rancour, 5 and finally by the calm

3 See Hebrew Religion, Messiah, Prophet.

4 Kuenen, " The Critical Method," Modern Review, 1880, p. 701
(Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Germ. ed. by Budde, p. 33).

6 His charges to Solomon in 1 Kings ii. 5-9 do not arise necessarily
from motives of revenge; a young and untried sovereign could not

DAVID, ST— DAVID I.

859

courage which enabled him to hold an even and noble course in
the face of dangers and treachery. His great sin in the matter of
Uriah would have been forgotten but for his repentance: the
things at which modern ideas are most offended are not always
those that would have given umbrage to early writers. That he
did not reform at a stroke all ancient abuses appears particularly
in relation to the practice of blood revenge; to put an end to this
deep-rooted custom would have been an impossibility. But it is
clear from 2 Sam. iii. 28 sqq., xiv. 1-10, that his sympathies
were against the barbarous usage. Nor is it just to accuse him
of cruelty in his treatment of enemies. As it was impossible to
establish a military cordon along the borders of Canaan, it was
necessary absolutely to cripple the adjoining tribes. From the
lust of conquest for its own sake David appears to have been
wholly free.

The generous elevation of David's character is seen most
clearly in those parts of his life where an inferior nature would
have been most at fault, — in his conduct towards Saul, in the
blameless reputation of himself and his band of outlaws in the
wilderness of Judah, in his repentance under the rebuke of Nathan
and in his noble bearing on the revolt of Absalom. His touching
love for his worthless son is one of the most beautiful descriptions
of paternal affection. His unfailing insight into character, and
his power of winning men's hearts and touching their better
impulses, appear in innumerable traits (e.g. 2 Sam. xiv. 18-20,
iii- 3i-37> xxiii. 15-17), and here, as elsewhere, the charm which
the life of David has upon its readers is entirely unaffected by
technical questions of literary and historical criticism.

To the later generations David was pre-eminently the Psalmist

and the founder of the Temple service. The Hebrew titles ascribe

, to him seventy-three psalms; the Septuagint adds
Growth of ,,. J j , . '. . ^ , f, T . ,

tradition. some fifteen more; and later opinion, both Jewish

and Christian, claimed for him the authorship of the

whole Psalter (so the Talmud, Augustine and others). That the

tradition of the titles requires careful sifting is rto longer doubted,

and the results of recent criticism have been to confirm the view

that " it is no longer possible to treat the psalms as a record of

David's spiritual life through all the steps of his chequered

career " (W. R. Smith, Old Test, in Jew. Church 2 , p. 224). Nor

can it be maintained that the elaborate ritual ascribed to David

by the chronicler has any historical value. See further

Chronicles, Psalms.

On the other hand, these traditions, however unhistorical in their
present form, cannot be pure imagination. The male and female
singers (if the reading be correct) whom Sennacherib carried off from
Jerusalem in Hezekiah's time, may well have belonged to an old
foundation (A. Jeremias, Alte Test, im Lichte d. Allen Orients 2 ,
p. 527), and though David's skill referred to in Amos vi. 5 may be
due to a gloss, it is a Judaean narrative which tells of the inven-
tion of music, ascribing it possibly to a Judaean legendary hero
(Gen. iv.21). And although the Levitical organization, as ascribed to
David, is manifestly post-exilic, it is at least certain that many of the
Levitical families were of southern origin. It is in David's history
that the clans of the south first attained prominence, and some of
them are known to have been staunch upholders of a purer worship
of Yahweh, or to have been associated with the introduction of
religious institutions among the Israelites. (See Levites.)

The difficulty of the historical problems increases when the nar-
ratives of David are more closely studied: (a) 2 Sam. iii. 18, xix. 9
show that according to one view David delivered Israel (not Judah)
from the Philistines. This is in contradiction to ii. 8 sqq. (from another
source), where Saul's son recovers Israelite territory, but is supported
by ix., where Mephibosheth is found at Lo-debar. This historical
view has probably left its trace upon the present traditions of Saul,
whose defeat by-the " Philistines " (here found in the north and not
as usual in the south) left Israel in much the same position as when
he was anointed king (cf. 1 Sam. xxxi. 7 with xiii. 7). Again (b) the
primitive stories of conflicts with " Philistine " giants between
Hebron and Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 17 sqq., xxi. 15 sqq. and xxiii.)
find their analogy in Caleb's overthrow of the sons of Anak (Judg.
i. 10; Josh. xv. 14), and in the allusion to the same prehistoric folk
in the account of the spies (Num. xiii. 28). From a number of points
of evidence there appears to have been a group of traditions of a
movement from the south (probably Kadesh, Num. xiii. 26) associ-

afford to continue the clemency which his father was strong enough to
extend to dangerous enemies. Apart from this, it is possible that the
words have been written to shift from Solomon's shoulders the blood-
shed incurred in establishing his throne.

ated with Caleb, David and the Levites. If the clans of Moses' kin
which moved into Judah bore the ark (Num. x. 29 sqq. ; see Kenites),
and if Abiathar carried it before David (1 Kings ii. 26), there were
traditions of the ark distinct from those which associate it with
Joshua and Shiloh (cf. 2 Sam. vii. 6). But the stories of conflicts in a
much larger area than the few cities in the immediate neighbourhood
of Jerusalem (see above) can scarcely be read with the numerous
narratives which recount or imply relations between the young David
of Bethlehem and Saul or the Israelites. It is possible, therefore,
that one early account of David was that of an entrance into the
land of Judah, and that round him have gathered traditions partly
individual and partly tribal or national. See further S. A. Cook,
Critical Notes on O.T. History, pp. 122 sqq., and art. Jews (History),
§§ 6-8.

Literature. — Robertson Smith's later views subsequent to 1877
(when he wrote the article on David for this Encyclopaedia) were
expressed partly in the Old Test, in Jewish Church (1881 and 1892),
passim, and partly in the article on the Books of Samuel in the Ency.
Brit. (9th ed.) ; on David's character see especially his criticism of
Renan, Eng. Hist. Rev., 1888, pp. 13d sqq. Mention may be made of
Stahelin's Leben Davids (Basel, 1866), still valuable for the numerous
parallels adduced from oriental history; Cheyne's Aids to Devout
Study of Criticism (1892), a criticism of David's history in its bearing
upon religion; Marcel Dieulafoy, David the King (1902), full, but
not critical; H. A. White, Hastings' Diet. art. " David "; Cheyne,
Ency. Bib. art. " David "; and (on the romantic element in the
narratives) Luther in Ed. Meyer, Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme
(1906), pp. 181 sqq. (W. R. S.; S. A. C.)

DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant), the national and tutelar saint of
Wales, whose annual festival, known as " St David's Day," falls
on the 1 st of March. Few historical facts are known regarding
the saint's life and actions, and the dates both of his birth and
death are purely conjectural, although there is reason to suppose
he was born about the year 500 and died at a great age towards
the close of the 6th century. According to his various biographers
he was the son of Sandde, a prince of the line of Cunedda, his
mother being Non, who ranks as a Cymric saint. He seems to
have taken a prominent part in the celebrated synod of
Llanddewi-Brefi (see Cardiganshire), and to have presided
at the so-called " Synod of Victory," held some years later at
Caerleon-on-Usk. At some date unknown, St David, as pen-
escoli or primate of South Wales, moved the seat of ecclesiastical
government from Caerleon to the remote headland of Mynyw,
or Menevia, which has ever since, under the name of St David's
(Ty-Dewi), remained the cathedral city of the western see. St
David founded numerous churches throughout all parts of South
Wales, of which fifty-three still recall his name, but apparently
he never penetrated farther north than the region of Powys,
although he seems to have visited Cornwall. With the passing
of time the saint's fame increased, and his shrine at St David's
became a notable place of pilgrimage, so that by the time of the
Norman conquest his importance and sanctity were fully recog-
nized, and at Henry I.'s request he was formally canonized by
Pope Calixtus II. about n 20.

Of the many biographies of St David, the earliest known is that of
Rhyddmarch, or Ricemarchus (c. 1090), one of the last British
bishops of St David's, from whose work Giraldus Cambrensis (q.v.)
chiefly compiled his extravagant life of the saint.

DAVID I. (1084-1153), king of Scotland, the youngest son
of Malcolm Canmore and (Saint) Margaret, sister of Edgar
^Etheling, was born in 1084. He married in n 13 Matilda,
daughter and heiress of Waltheof, earl of Northumbria, and thus
became possessed of the earldom of Huntingdon. On the death
of Edgar, king of Scotland, in 1 107, the territories of the Scottish
crown were divided in accordance with the terms of his will
between his two brothers, Alexander and David. Alexander,
together with the crown, received Scotland north of the Forth
and Clyde, David the southern district with the title of earl of
Cumbria. The death of Alexander I. in 1 1 24 gave David posses-
sion of the whole. In 1127, in the character of an English baron,
he swore fealty to Matilda as heiress to her father Henry I., and
when the usurper Stephen ousted her in 1135 David vindicated
her cause in arms and invaded England. But Stephen marched
north with a great army, whereupon David made peace. The
peace, however, was not kept. After threatening an invasion in
1137, David marched into England in 1138, but sustained a
crushing defeat on Cutton Moor in the engagement known as
the battle of the Standard. He returned to Carlisle, and soon

86o

DAVID II.— DAVID, FELICIEN

afterwards concluded peace. In 1 141 he joined Matilda in London
and accompanied her to Winchester, but after a narrow escape
from capture he returned to Scotland. Henceforth he remained
in his own kingdom and devoted himself to its political and
ecclesiastical reorganization. A devoted son of the church, he
/ounded five bishoprics and many monasteries. In secular
politics he energetically forwarded the process of feudalization
which had been initiated by his immediate predecessors. He died
at Carlisle on the 24th of May n 53.

DAVID II. (1324-1371), king of Scotland, son of King Robert
the Bruce by his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (d. 1327), was
born at Dunfermline on the 5th of March 1324. In accordance
with the terms of the treaty of Northampton he was married in
July 1328 to Joanna (d. 1362), daughter of the English king,
Edward II., and became king of Scotland on his father's death in
June 1329, being crowned at Scone in November 1331. Owing to
the victory of Edward III. of England and his protege, Edward
Baliol, at Halidon Hill in July 1333, David and his queen were
sent for safety into France, reaching Boulogne in May 1334, and
being received very graciously by the French king, Philip VI.
Little is known about the life of the Scottish king in France,
except that Chateau Gaillard was given to him for a residence,
and that he was present at the bloodless meeting of the English
and French armies at Vironfosse in October 1339. Meanwhile
his representatives had obtained the upper hand in Scotland, and
David was thus enabled to return to his kingdom in June 1341,
when he took the reins of government into his own hands. In
1346 he invaded England in the interests of France, but was
defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross in
October of this year, and remained in England for eleven years,
living principally in London and at Odiham in Hampshire. His
imprisonment was not a rigorous one, and negotiations for his
release were soon begun. Eventually, in October 1357, after
several interruptions, a treaty was signed at Berwick by which
the Scottish estates undertook to pay 100,000 marks as a ransom
for their king. David, who had probably recognized Edward III.
as his feudal superior, returned at once to Scotland; but owing
to the poverty of the kingdom it was found impossible to raise the
ransom. A few instalments were paid, but the king sought to
get rid of the liability by offering to make Edward III., or one of
his sons, his successor in Scotland. In 1364 the Scottish parlia-
ment indignantly rejected a proposal to make Lionel, duke of
Clarence, the next king; but David treated secretly with Edward
III. over this matter, after he had suppressed a rising of some of
his unruly nobles. The king died in Edinburgh Castle on the
22nd of February 1371. His second wife was Margaret, widow of
Sir John Logie, whom he divorced in 1369; but he left no
children, and was succeeded by his nephew, Robert II. David
was a weak and incapable ruler, without a spark of his father's
patriotic spirit.

See Andrew of Wyntoun, The orygynale cronykil of Scotland,
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun,
Chronica gentis Scotorum, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-
1872) ; J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905) ;
and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1900).

DAVID, the name of three Welsh princes.

David I. (d. 1203), a son of Prince Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169),
came into prominence as a leader of the Welsh during the
expedition of Henry II. in 1157. In n 70 he became lord of
Gwynedd (i.e. the district around Snowdon), but some regarded
him as a bastard, and Gwynedd was also claimed by other
members of his family. After fighting with varying fortunes he
sought an ally in the English king, whom he supported during
the baronial rising in n 73; then after this event he married
Henry's half-sister Emma. But his enemies increased in power,
and about 11 94 he was driven from Wales by the partisans of his
half-brother Llewelyn ab Iorwerth. The chronicler Benedictus
Abbas calls David rex, and Rhuddlan castle was probably the
centre of his vague authority.

David II. (c. 1 208-1 246) was a son of the great Welsh prince,
Llewelyn ab Iorwerth, and through his mother Joanna was a
grandson of King John. He married an English lady, Isabella

de Braose, and, having been recognized as his father's heir both
by Henry III. and by the Welsh lords, he had to face the hostility
of his half-brother Gruffydd, whom he seized and imprisoned
in 1239. When Llewelyn died in April 1240, David, who had
already taken some part in the duties of government,was acknow-
ledged as a prince of North Wales, doing homage to Henry III. at
Gloucester. However, he was soon at variance with the English
king, who appears to have espoused the cause of the captive
Gruffydd. Henry's Welsh campaign in 1241 was bloodless but
decisive. Gruffydd was surrendered to him; David went to
London and made a full submission, but two or three years later
he was warring against some English barons on the borders.
To check the English king he opened negotiations with Innocent
IV., doubtless hoping that the pope would recognize Wales as an
independent state, but here, as on the field of battle, Henry III.
was too strong for him. Just after Henry's second campaign in
Wales the prince died in March 1246.

David III. (d. 1283) was a son of Gruffydd and thus a nephew
of David II. His life was mainly spent in fighting against his
brother, the reigning prince, Llewelyn ab Gruffydd. His first
revolt took place in 1254 or 1255, and after a second about eight
years later he took refuge in England, returning to Wales when
Henry III. made peace with Llewelyn in 1 267. Then about 1274
the same process was repeated. David attended Edward I.
during the Welsh expedition of 1277, receiving from the English
king lands in North Wales; but in 1282 he made peace with
Llewelyn and suddenly attacked the English garrisons, a pro-
ceeding which led to Edward's final conquest of Wales. After
Llewelyn's death in December 1282 David maintained the last
struggle of the Welsh for independence. All his efforts, however,
were vain; in June 1283 he was betrayed to Edward, was tried
by a special court and sentenced to death, and was executed with
great barbarity at Shrewsbury in October 1283. As the last
native prince of Wales, David's praises have been sung by the
Welsh bards, but 4iis character was not attractive, and a Welsh
historian says " his life was the bane of Wales."

DAVID, FELICIEN (1810-1876), French composer, was born
on the 13th of April 1810 at Cadenet, in the department of
Vaucluse. As a child he showed unusual musical precocity, and
.being early left an orphan he was admitted into the choir of Saint
Sauveur at Aix. He was for a time employed in an attorney's
office, but quitted his service to become chef d'orcheslre in the
theatre at Aix, and chapel-master at Saint Sauveur. Then he
went to Paris, being provided with £100 a year by a rich uncle.
After having studied for a while at the Paris Conservatoire, he
joined the sect of Saint Simonians, and in 1833 travelled in the
East in order to preach the new doctrine. After three years'
absence, during which Constantinople and Smyrna were visited
and some time was spent in Egypt, he returned to France and
published a collection of Oriental Melodies. For several years he
worked in retirement, and wrote two symphonies, some chamber
music and songs. On the 8th of December 1844 he suddenly
leapt into fame through the extraordinary success obtained by his
symphonic ode LeDisert, which was produced at the Conservatoire.
In this work David had struck out a new line. He had attempted
in simple strains to evoke the majestic stillness of the desert.
Notwithstanding its title of " symphonic ode," Le Disert has little
in common with the symphonic style. What distinguishes it is a
certain naivete of expression and an effective oriental colouring.
In this last respect David may be looked upon as the precursor of
a whole army of composers. His succeeding works, Maise au
Sinai (1846), Christophe Colomb (1847), L'Eden (1848), scarcely
bore out the promise shown in Le Desert, although the second of
these compositions was successful at the time of its production.
David now turned his attention to the theatre, and produced
the following operas in succession: La Perle du BrSsil (1851),
Hercidanum (1859), Lalla-Roukh (1862), Le Saphir (1865). Of
these, Lalla-Roukh is the one which has obtained the greatest
success. In 1868 he gained the award of the French Institute for
the biennial prize given by the emperor; and in 1869 he was
made librarian at the Conservatoire instead of Berlioz, whom
subsequently he succeeded as a member of the Institute. He died

DAVID, GERARD— DAVID, J. L.

861

at Saint-Germain-en-Laye oil the 29th of August 1876. If David
can scarcely be placed in the first rank of French composers, he
nevertheless deserves the consideration due to a sincere artist,
who was undoubtedly inspired by lofty ideals. At a time when
the works of Berlioz were still unappreciated by the majority
of people, David succeeded in making the public take interest in
music of a picturesque and descriptive kind. Thus he may be
considered as one of the pioneers of modern French musical art.
DAVID, GERARD [Gheeraert Davit], (7-1523), Nether-
lands painter, born at Oudewater in Holland between 1450 and
1460, was the last great master of the Bruges school. He was
only rescued from complete oblivion in 1860-1863 by Mr W. J. H.
Weale, whose researches in the archives of Bruges brought to the
light the main facts of the master's life. We have now docu-
mentary evidence that David came to Bruges in 1483, presumably
from Haarlem, where he had formed his early style under the
tuition of Ouwater; that he joined the gild of St Luke at Bruges
in 1484 and became dean of the gild in 1501; that he married in
1496 Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the Goldsmiths'
gild; became one of the leading citizens of the town; died on the
13th of August 1523 ; and was buried in the Church of Our Lady
at Bruges. In his early work he had followed the Haarlem
tradition as represented by Dirck Bouts, Ouwater and Geertgen
of Haarlem, but already gave evidence of his superior power as
colourist. To this early period belong the " St John " of the
Kaufmann collection in Berlin, and Mr Salting's " St Jerome."
In Bruges he applied himself to the study and the copying of the
masterpieces by the Van Eycks, Van der Weyden, and Van der
Goes, and came under the direct influence of the master whom
he followed most closely, Hans Memlinc. From him he acquired
the soulful intensity of expression, the increased realism in the
rendering of the human form and the orderly architectonic
arrangement of the figures. Yet another master was to influence
him later in life when, in 151 5, he visited Antwerp and became
impressed with the life and movement of Quentin Matsys, who
had introduced a more intimate and more human conception of
sacred themes. David's " Pieta " in the National Gallery, and
the " Descent from the Cross," in the Cavallo collection, Paris
(Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are
remarkable for their dramatic movement. But the works on
which David's fame will ever rest most securely are the great
altar-pieces executed by him before his visit to Antwerp — ■
the " Marriage of St Catherine," at the National Gallery;
the triptych of the "Madonna Enthroned and Saints" of the
Brignole-Sale collection in Genoa; the " Annunciation " of
the Sigmaringen collection; and, above all, the " Madonna with
Angels and Saints " which he painted gratuitously for the
Carmelite Nuns of Sion at Bruges, and which is now in the Rouen
museum. Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges —
" The Judgment of Cambyses," " The Flaying of Sisamnes "
and the " Baptism of Christ " in the Town museum, and the
" Transfiguration " in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were
scattered all over the world, and to this may be due the oblivion
into which his very name had fallen — partly to this, and partly
to the fact that with all the beauty and soulfulness of his work
he had no new page to add to the history of the progressive
development of art, and even in his best work only gave new
variations of the tunes sung by his great precursors and contempo-
raries. That he is worthy to rank among the masters was only
revealed to the world when a considerable number of his paintings
were assembled at Bruges on the occasion of the exhibition of
early Flemish masters in 1902. At the time of his death the glory
of Bruges, and also of the Bruges school, was on the wane,
and Antwerp had taken the leadership in art as in political
and commercial importance. Of David's pupils in Bruges, only
Isenbrandt, A. Cornells and Ambrosius Benson achieved import-
ance. Among other Flemish painters Joachim Patinir and
Mabuse were to some degree influenced by him.

Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very
comprehensive monograph on Gerard David and his School (Munich,
F. Bruckmann), together with a catalogue raisonne of his works,
which, after careful sifting, are reduced to the number of forty-
three. (P. G. K.)

DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS (1748-1825), French painter, was
born in Paris on the 30th of April 1748. His father was killed in
a duel, when the boy was but nine years old. His education was
begun at the College des Quatre Nations, where he obtained a
smattering of the classics; but, his artistic talent being already
obvious, he was soon placed by his guardian in the studio of
Francois Boucher. Boucher speedily realized that his own
erotic style did not suit the lad's genius, and recommended him
to J. M. Vien, the pioneer of the classical reaction in painting.
Under him David studied for some years, and, after several
attempts to win the prix de Rome, at last succeeded in 1775, with
his " Loves of Antiochus and Stratonice." Vien, who had just
been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome,
carried the youth with him to that city. The classical reaction
was now in full tide; Winckelmann was writing, Raphael Mengs
painting; and the treasures of the Vatican galleries helped to
confirm David in a taste already moulded by so many kindred
influences. This severely classical spirit inspired his first
important painting, " Date obolum Belisario," exhibited at Paris
in 1780. The picture exactly suited the temper of the times, and
was an immense success. It was followed by others, painted on
the same principles, but with greater perfection of art: " The
Grief of Andromache" (1783), "The Oath of the Horatii "
(Salbn, 1785), "The Death of Socrates," "Love of Paris and
Helen" (1788), "Brutus" (1789). In the French drama an
unimaginative imitation of ancient models had long prevailed;
even in art Poussin and Le Sueur were successful by expressing
a bias in the same direction; and in the first years of the revolu-
tionary movement the fashion of imitating the ancients even in
dress and* manners went to the most extravagant length. At this
very time David returned to Paris; he was now painter to the
king, Louis XVI., who had been the purchaser of his principal
works, and his popularity was soon immense. At the outbreak
of the Revolution in 1789, David was carried away by the flood
of enthusiasm that made all the intellect of France believe in a
new era of equality and emancipation from all the ills of life.

The success of his sketch for the picture of the " Oath of the
Tennis Court," and his pronounced republicanism, secured
David's election to the Convention in September 1792, by the
Section du MusSum, and he quickly distinguished himself by
the defence of two French artists in Rome who had fallen into
the merciless hands of the Inquisition. As, in this matter, the
behaviour of the authorities of the French Academy in Rome
had been dictated by the tradition of subservience to authority,
he used his influence to get it suppressed. In the January follow-
ing his election into the Convention his vote was given for the
king's death. Thus the man who was so greatly indebted to the
Roman academy and to Louis XVI. assisted in the destruction
of both, no doubt in obedience to a principle, like the act of
Brutus in condemning his sons — a subject he painted with all his
powers. Cato and stoicism were the order of the day. Hitherto
the actor had walked the stage in modern dress. Brutus had
been applauded in red-heeled shoes and culottes jarreties; but
Talma, advised by David, appeared in toga and sandals before an
enthusiastic audience. At this period of his life Mademoiselle de
Noailles persuaded him to paint a sacred subject, with Christ as
the hero. When the picture was done, the Saviour was found to
be another Cato. " I told you so," he replied to the expostula-
tions of the lady, " there is no inspiration in Christianity now!"
David's revolutionary ideas, which led to his election to the
presidency of the Convention and to the committee of general
security, inspired his pictures " Last Moments of Lepelletier de
Saint-Fargeau " and " Marat Assassinated." He also arranged
the programme of the principal republican festivals. When
Napoleon rose to power David became his enthusiastic admirer.
His picture of Napoleon on horseback pointing the way to Italy
is now in Berlin. During this period he also painted the " Rape of
the Sabines" and "Leonidas at Thermopylae." Appointed painter
to the emperor, David produced the two notable pictures "The
Coronation " (of Josephine) and the " Distribution of the Eagles."

On the return of the Bourbons the painter was exiled with the
other remaining regicides, and retired to Brussels, where he again

862

DAVID, P. J.— DAVIDSON, A. B.

returned to classical subjects: " Amor quitting Psyche," " Mars
disarmed by Venus," &c. He rejected the offer, made through
Baron Humboldt, of the office of minister of fine arts at Berlin,
and remained at Brussels till his death on the 29th of December
1825. His end was true to his whole career and to his nationality.
While dying, a print of the Leonidas, one of his favourite subjects,
was submitted to him. After vaguely looking at it a long time,
" 77 n'y a que moi qui pouvais concevoir la tete de Leonidas," he
whispered, and died. His friends and his party thought to carry
the body back to his beloved Paris for burial, but the govern-
ment of the day arrested the procession at the frontier, an act
which caused some scandal, and furnished the occasion of a
terrible song of Beranger's.

It is difficult for a generation which has witnessed another
complete revolution in the standards of artistic taste to realize
the secret of David's immense popularity in his own day. His
style is severely academic, his colour lacking in richness and
warmth, his execution hard and uninteresting in its very perfec-
tion. Subjects and treatment alike are inspired by the passing
fashion of an age which had deceived itself into believing that
it was living and moving in the spirit of classical antiquity.
The inevitable reaction of the romantic movement made the
masterpieces, which had filled the men of the Revolution
with enthusiasm, seem cold and lifeless to those who had been
taught to expect in art that atmosphere of mystery which in
nature is everywhere present. Yet David was a great artist,
and exercised in his day and generation a great influence. His
pictures are magnificent in their composition and their draughts-
manship; and his keen observation and insight into character
are evident, especially in his portraits, notably of Madame
Recamier, of the Conventional Gerard and of Boissy d'Anglas.

See E. J. Delecluze, Louis David, son hole et son temps (Paris,
1855), and Le Peintre Louis David. Souvenirs et documents inedits,
by J. L. Jules David, the painter's grandson (Paris, 1880).

DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789-1856), usually called David
d' Angers, French sculptor, was born at Angers on the 1 2th of
March 1789. His father was a sculptor, or rather a carver, but
he had thrown aside the mallet and taken the musket, fighting
against the Chouans of La Vendee. He returned to his trade
at the end of the civil war, to find his customers gone, so that
young David was born into poverty. As the boy grew up his
father wished to force him into some more lucrative and certain
way of life. At last he succeeded in surmounting the opposition
to his becoming a sculptor, and in his eighteenth year left for
Paris to study the art upon a capital of eleven francs. After
struggling against want for a year and a half, he succeeded in
taking the prize at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. An annuity of
600 francs (£24) was granted by the municipality of his native
town in 1809, and in 181 1 David's " Epaminondas " gained the
prix de Rome. He spent five years in Rome, during which his
enthusiasm for the works of Canova was often excessive.

Returning from Rome about the time of the restoration of
the Bourbons, he would not remain in the neighbourhood of the
Tuileries, which swarmed with foreign conquerors and returned
royalists, and accordingly went to London. Here Flaxman and
others visited upon him the sins of David the painter, to whom
he was erroneously supposed to be related. With great difficulty
he made his way to Paris again, where a comparatively prosper-
ous career opened upon him. His medallions and busts were in
much request, and orders for monumental works also came to
him. One of the best of these was that of Gutenberg at Strass-
burg; but those he himself valued most were the statue of Barra,
a drummer boy who continued to beat his drum till the moment
of death in the war in La Vendee, and the monument to the Greek
liberator Bozzaris, consisting in a young female figure called
" Reviving Greece," of which Victor Hugo said: " It is difficult
to see anything more beautiful in the world; this statue joins
the grandeur of Pheidias to the expressive manner of Puget."
David's busts and medallions were very numerous, and among
his sitters may be found not only the illustrious men and women
of France, but many others both of England and Germany-
countries which he visited professionally in 1827 and 1829. His

medallions, it is affirmed, number 500. He died on the 4th of
January 1856. David's fame rests firmly on his pediment of the
Pantheon, his monument to General Gobert in Pere Lachaise and
his marble " Philopoemen " urthe Louvre. In the Musee David at
Angers is an almost complete collection of his works either in the
form of copies or in the original moulds. As an example of his bene-
volence of character may be mentioned his rushing off to the sick-
bed of Rouget de Lisle, the author of the " Marseillaise Hymn,"
modelling and carving him in marble without delay, making
a lottery of the work, and sending to the poet in the extremity
of need the seventy-two pounds which resulted from the sale.

See H. Jouin, David d' Angers et ses relations litteraires (1890);
Lettres de P. J. David d' Angers a Louis Dupre (Paris, 1891);
Collection de portraits des contemporains d'apres les medaillons de
P. J. David (Paris, 1838).

DAVIDISTS, a fancy name rather than a recognized designation
for three religious sects. It has been applied (1) to the followers
(if he had any) of David of Dinant, in Belgium, the teacher or
pupil of Amalric (Amaury) of Bena, both of whom taught appar-
ently a species of pantheism. David's Quaterni, or Quaternuli,
condemned and burnt at Paris (1209), is a lost book, known only
by references in Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Its
author would have been burnt had he not fled. The name has
been given (2) to the followers of David George or Joris (q.v.),
and (3) to the followers of Francis David (1510-1579), the apostle
of Transylvanian unitarianism. (See Socinus, Unitarianism.)

DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE (1831-1902), Scottish divine,
was born in 183 1 at Kirkhill in Aberdeenshire, where his father
Andrew Davidson had a farm. The Davidsons belonged to the
congregation of James Robertson (1803-1860) of Ellon, one of
the ministers of Strathbogie Presbytery, which in the contro-
versy which led to the disruption, resisted the " dangerous claims
of the established church to self-government." When the dis-
ruption came the principles at stake were keenly canvassed in
Ellon, and eventually Andrew Davidson, senior, went with the
Free Church. In 1845 the boy, who had been a " herd " on the
farm, went for six months to the grammar school at Aberdeen
and was there prepared for a university bursary, which was
sufficient to pay his fees, but no more. During his four years at
the university his mother supplied him fortnightly with pro-
visions from the farm; sometimes she walked the whole twenty
miles from Kirkhill and handed the coach fee to her son. He
graduated in 1849. At the university he had acquired a distrust
of philosophy, and found it difficult to choose between mathe-
matical and linguistic studies. A Free Church school having
been opened in Ellon, he became master there for three years.
Here he developed special aptitude for linguistic and philological
studies. Besides Hebrew he taught himself French, German,
Dutch, Italian and Spanish. In November 1852 he entered New
College, Edinburgh. There he took the four years' theological
course, and was licensed in 1856. For two years he preached
occasionally and took vacancies. In 1858 the New College
authorities appointed him assistant to the professor of Hebrew.
He taught during the winter, and in the long vacation continued
his preparation for his life work. One year he worked in Germany
under Ewald, another year he went to Syria to study Arabic.
In 1862 he published the first part of a commentary on Job. It
was never finished and deals only with one-third of the book, but
it is recognized as the first really scientific commentary on the
Old Testament in the English language. In 1863 he was appointed
by the general assembly professor of oriental languages at New
College. He was junior colleague of Dr John Duncan (Rabbi
Duncan) till 1870, and then for thirty years sole professor. He
was a member of the Old Testament revision committee, and his
work was recognized by several honorary distinctions, LL.D.
(Aberdeen), D.D. (Edinburgh), Litt.D. (Cambridge). Among
his students were Professors Elmslie, Skinner, Harper of Mel-
bourne, Walker of Belfast, George Adam Smith of Glasgow and
W. Robertson Smith. He understood it to be the first duty of an
exegete to ascertain the meaning of the writer, and he showed
that this could be done by the use of grammar and history and the
historical imagination. He supplied guidance when it was much

DAVIDSON, JOHN— DAVIDSON, R. T.

863

needed as to the methods and results of the higher criticism.
Being a master of its methods, but very cautious in accepting
assertions about its results, he secured attention early in the
Free Church for scientific criticism, and yet threw the whole
weight of his learning and his caustic wit into the argument
against critical extravagance. He had thought himself into the
ideas and points of view of the Hebrews, and hiswork in Old
Testament theology is unrivalled. He excels as an expositor of
the governing Hebrew ideas such as holiness, righteousness,
Spirit of God, Messianism. In 1897 he was chosen moderator of
the general assembly, but his health prevented his accepting the
post. He died, unmarried, on the 26th of January 1902.

Besides the commentary on Job he published a book on the
Hebrew Accents, the only Scottish performance of the kind since the
days of Thomas Boston. His Introductory Hebrew Grammar has
been widely adopted as a class-book in theological colleges. His
Hebrew Syntax has the same admirable clearness, precision and teach-
ing quality. His Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews is one of a
series of handbooks for Bible classes. These were followed by com-
mentaries on Job, Ezekiel, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah, in the
Cambridge series; and a Bible-class primer on The Exile and
Restoration. His lectures on Old Testament Prophecy were published
after his death by Professor J. A. Paterson. The Theology of the Old
Testament in the " International Theological Library " is a posthum-
ous volume edited by Professor Salmond. " Isaiah " in the Temple
Bible was finished, but not revised, when he died ; and he also had in
hand the volume on Isaiah for the International Critical Commentary ;
to which must be added a mass of articles contributed to The
Imperial Bible Dictionary, The Encyclopaedia Britannica, and
the chief religious reviews. Various articles in Dr Hastings'
Bible Dictionary were by Davidson, especially the article " God."
Two volumes of sermons, The Called of God, and Waiting upon God,
were published from MS. after Davidson's death.

DAVIDSON, JOHN (1857-1909), British poet, playwright and
novelist, son of the Rev. Alexander Davidson, a minister of the
Evangelical Union, was born at Barrhead, Renfrewshire, Scotland,
on the 1 ith of April 1857. After a schooling at the Highlanders'
Academy, Greenock, at the age of thirteen he was set to work in
that town, by helping in a sugar factory laboratory and then in
the town analyst's office; and at fifteen he went back to his old
school as a pupil-teacher. In 1876 he studied for a session at
Edinburgh University, and then went as a master to various
Scotch schools till 1890, varying his experiences in 1884 by being
a clerk in a Glasgow thread firm. He had married in 1885, and
meanwhile his literary inclinations had shown themselves, without
attracting any public success, in the publication of his poetical
and fantastic plays, Bruce (1886), Smith; a tragic farce (1888)
and Scaramouch in Naxos (1889). Determining at all costs to
follow his literary vocation, he went to London in 1890, but at
first had a hard struggle. There his prose-romance Perfervid
(1890) was published, one of the most original and fascinating
stories of "young blood " and child adventure ever written, but
for some reason it did not catch the public; and a sort of sequel
in The Great Men (1891) met no better fate. He contributed,
however, to newspapers and became known among literary
journalists, and his volume of verse In a Music-Hall (1891)
prepared the way for the genuine success two years later of his
Fleet Street Eclogues (1893), which sounded a new and vigorous
note and at once established his position among the younger
generation of poets. He subsequently produced several more
books in prose, romantic stories like Baptist Lake (1894) and
Earl Lavender (1895), and an admirable piece of descriptive
landscape writing in A Random Itinerary (1894); but his accept-
ance as a poet gave a more emphatic impulse to bis work in verse,
and most attention was given to the increasing proof of his
powers shown in his Ballads and Songs (1894), Second Series of
Fleet Street Eclogues (1895), New Ballads. (1896), The Last Ballad,
&c. ( 1 898) , all full of remarkably fresh and unconventional beauty.
In spite of the strangely neglected genius of this early Perfervid,
it is accordingly as a writer of verse rather than of prose-fiction
that he occupies a leading place, with a decided character of his
own, in recent English literature, his revival of a modernized
ballad form being a considerable achievement in itself, and his
poems being packed with fine thought, robust and masterful in
expression and imagery. Meanwhile in 1896 he produced an
English verse adaptation, in For the Crown (acted by Forbes

Robertson and Mrs Patrick Campbell), of Francois Coppee's
drama Pour la couronne, which had considerable success and
was revived in 1905; and he wrote several other literary plays,
remarkable none the less for dramatic qualities, — Godfrida (1898),
Self's the Man (1901), The Knight of the Maypole (1902) and The
Theatrocrat (1905), in the last of which a tendency to be extra-
ordinary is rather too manifest. This tendency was not absent
from his volume of Holiday and Other Poems (1906), containing
many fine things, together with an " essay on blank verse "
illustrated from his own compositions, the outspoken criticisms
of a writer of admitted originality and insight, but not devoid of
eccentric volubility. But if the identification of " eccentricity "
and " greatness " by Cosmo Mortimer in Mr Davidson's own
Perfervid sometimes obtrudes itself on the memory in considering
his more peculiarly " robust " and somewhat volcanic deliver-
ances, no such objection can detract from the genuine inspiration
of his best work, in which the true poetic afflatus is unmistakable.
This is to be found in his poems published from 1893 to 1898,
five years during which his reputation steadily and deservedly
grew, — the Fleet Street Eclogues, with their passionate modern
criticism of life combined with their breath of rural beauty, and
such intense ballads as those " Of a Nun," and " Of Heaven
and Hell." In his - ethical and didactic utterances, The Testament
of a Vivisector and The Testament of a Man Forbid (1901),
The Testament of an Empire Builder (1902), Mammon and his
Message (1908), &c, the fine quality of the verse is wedded
with a certain fervid satirical journalism of subject, less admirable
than the detachment of thought in the earlier volumes. In
later years he lived at Penzance, provided with a small Civil
List pension, but otherwise badly off, for his writings brought
in very little money. On March 23rd, 1909, he disappeared,
in circumstances pointing to suicide, and six months later his
body was found in the sea.

See an article by Filson Young on " The New Poetry," in the
Fortnightly Review, January 1909.

DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS (1848- ), archbishop of
Canterbury, son of Henry Davidson, of Muirhouse, Edinburgh,
was born in Edinburgh and educated at Harrow and Trinity
College, Oxford. He took orders in 1874 and held a curacy at
Dartford, in Kent, till 1877, when he became resident chaplain
and private secretary to Dr Tait, archbishop of Canterbury,
a position which he occupied till Dr Tait's death, and retained
for a short time (1882-1883) under his successor Dr Benson. He
married in 1878 Edith, the second daughter of Archbishop Tait,
whose Life he eventually wrote (1891). In 1882 he became
honorary chaplain and sub-almoner to Queen Victoria, and in
the following year was appointed dean of Windsor, and domestic
chaplain to the queen. His advice upon state matters was
constantly sought by the queen and greatly valued. From 1891
to 1903 he was clerk of the closet, first to Queen Victoria and
afterwards to King Edward VII. He was made bishop of
Rochester in 1891, and was translated to Winchester in 1895.
In 1903 he succeeded Temple as archbishop of Canterbury. The
new archbishop, without being one of the English divines who
have made notable contributions to theological learning, already
had a great reputation for ecclesiastical statesmanship; and in
subsequent years his diplomatic abilities found ample scope in
dealing not only with the difficulties caused in the church by
doctrinal questions, but pre-eminently with the education crisis,
and with the new problems arising in the enlarged Anglican Com-
munion. As the chief representative of the Church of England
in the House of Lords, his firmness, combined with broadminded-
ness, in regard to the attitude of the nonconformists towards
denominational education, made his influence widely felt. In
1904 he visited Canada and the United States, and was present
at the triennial general convention of the Protestant Episcopal
Church of the United States and Canada. In 1908 he presided
at the Pan-Anglican congress held in London, and at the
Lambeth conference which followed. He had edited in 1889
The Lambeth Conferences, an historical account of the con-
ferences of 1867, 1878 and 1888, giving the official reports and
resolutions, and the sermons preached on these occasions.

86 4

DAVIDSON, SAMUEL— DAVIES, SIR J.

DAVIDSON, SAMUEL (1807-1898), Irish biblical scholar,
was born near Ballymena in Ireland. He was educated at the
Royal College of Belfast, entered the Presbyterian ministry in
1835, and was appointed professor of biblical criticism at his own
college. Becoming a Congregationalist, he accepted in 1842 the
chair of biblical criticism, literature and oriental languages at the
Lancashire Independent College at Manchester; but he was
obliged to resign in 1857, being brought into collision with the
college authorities by the publication of an introduction to the
Old Testament entitled The Text of the Old Testament, and the
Interpretation of the Bible, written for a new edition of Home's
Introduction to the Sacred Scripture. Its liberal tendencies caused
him to be accused of unsound views, and a most exhaustive
report prepared by the Lancashire College committee was followed
by numerous pamphlets for and against. After his resignation
a fund of £3000 was subscribed as a testimonial by his friends.
In 1862 he removed to London to become scripture examiner in
London University, and he spent the rest of his life in literary
work. He died on the 1st of April 1898. Davidson was a
member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. Among his
principal works are: — Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied
(1843), rewritten and republished as A Treatise on Biblical
Criticism (1852), Lectures on Ecclesiastical Polity (1848), An
Introduction to the New Testament (1848-1851), The Hebrew Text
of the Old Testament Revised (1855), Introduction to the Old
Testament (1862), On a Fresh Revision of the Old Testament
(1873), The Canon of the Bible (1877) , TheDoctrine of Last Things
in the New Testament (1883), besides translations of the New
Testament from Von Tischendorf's text, Gieseler's Ecclesiastical
History (1846) and Furst's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon.

DAVIDSON, THOMAS (1817-1885), British palaeontologist,
was born in Edinburgh on the 17th of May 1817. His parents
possessed considerable landed property in Midlothian. Educated
partly in the university at Edinburgh and partly in France, Italy
and Switzerland, and early acquiring an interest in natural
history, he benefited greatly by acquaintance with foreign
languages and literature, and with men of science in different
countries. He was induced in 1837, through the influence of
Leopold von Buch, to devote his special attention to the brachio-
poda, and in course of time he became the highest authority on
this group. The great task of his life was the Monograph of
British Fossil Brachiopoda, published by the Palaeontographical
Society (1850-1886). This work, with supplements, comprises
six quarto volumes with more than 200 plates drawn on stone
by the author. He also prepared an exhaustive memoir on
" Recent Brachiopoda," published by the Linnean Society. He
was elected F.R.S. in 1857. He was awarded in 1865 the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London, and in 1870 a Royal
medal by the Royal Society; and in 1882 the degree of LL.D.
was conferred upon him by the university of St Andrews. He
died at Brighton on the 14th of October 1885, bequeathing his fine
collection of recent and fossil brachiopoda to the British Museum.
See biography with portrait and list of papers in Geol. Mag. for
1871, p. 145.

DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891), Welsh noncon-
formist divine, was born at Aberystwyth on the nth of May
1826, his father being a merchant and a pioneer of Welsh Method-
ism, his mother a niece of Thomas Charles (q.v.) of Bala. He
was educated in his native town by a noted schoolmaster, John
Evans, at Bala College, and at University College, London,
where he graduated B.A. in 1847 and M.A. (in mathematics) in
1849. He had already begun to preach, and after an evangelistic
tour in South Wales supplied the pulpit of the English presby-
terian church at Newtown for six months, and settled as pastor
of the bilingual church at Builth in 1851. He returned to this
charge after a pastorate at Liverpool (1853-1856), left it again
in 1858 for Newtown, and went in May 1859 to the Welsh church
at Jewin Crescent, London. Here he remained until 1876, and
from that date till 1882, although living at Bangor for reasons
of health, had the chief oversight pf the church. In 1888 he
accepted the principalship of the Calvinistic Methodist College at
Trevecca in Brecknockshire. His work here was successful, but

short; he died at Bangor on the 26th of September 1891, and
was buried at Aberystwyth.

Though Davies stood somewhat apart from the main currents
of thought both without and within his church, and was largely
unknown to English audiences or readers, he exercised a strong
influence on Welsh life and thought in the 19th century. He was
a serious student, especially of anti-theistic positions, a good
speaker, and a frequent contributor to Welsh theological journals.
Several of his articles have been collected and published, the
most noteworthy being expositions on The First Epistle of John
(1889), Ephesians (2 vols., 1896, 1901), Psalms (1897), Romans
(1902); and The Atonement and Intercession of Christ (1899,
English trans, by D. E. Jenkins, 1901).

DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626), English philosophical poet,
was baptized on the 16th of April 1569, at Tisbury, Wiltshire,
where his parents lived at the manor-house of Chicksgrove. He
was educated at Winchester College, and became a commoner of
Queen's College, Oxford, in 1585. In 1588 he entered the Middle
Temple, and was called to the bar in 1595. In his general
onslaught on literature in 1599 the archbishop of Canterbury
ordered to be burnt the notorious and now excessively rare
volume, All Ovid's Elegies, 3 Bookes, by C. M. Epigrams by J. D.
(Middleburgh, 1598 ?), which contained posthumous work by
Marlowe. The epigrams by Davies, although not devoid of wit,
were coarse enough to deserve their fate. It is probable that
they were earlier in date of composition than the charming
fragment entitled Orchestra (1596), written in praise of dancing.
The poet, in the person of Antinoiis, tries to induce Penelope to
dance by arguing that all harmonious natural processes partake
of the nature of a conscious and well-ordered dance. He closes
his argument by foreshadowing in a magic mirror the revels of
the court of Cynthia (Elizabeth) . Orchestra was dedicated to the
author's " very friend, Master Richard Martin," but in the next
year the friends quarrelled, and Davies was expelled from the
society for having struck Martin with a cudgel in the hall of the
Middle Temple. He spent the year after his expulsion at Oxford
in the composition of his philosophical poem on the nature of the
soul and its immortality— Nosce teipsum (1599). The style of
the work was entirely novel; and the stanza in which it was
written — the decasyllabic quatrain with alternate rhymes — had
never been so effectively handled. Its force, eloquence and
ingenuity, the orderly and lucid arrangement of its matter, place
it among the finest of English didactic poems. In 1599 he also
published a volume of twenty-six graceful acrostics on the words
Elisabetha Regina, entitled Hymns to Astraea. He produced no
more poetry except his contributions to Francis Davison's
Poetical Rhapsody (1608). These were two dialogues which had
been written as entertainments for the queen, and " Yet other
Twelve Wonders of the World," satirical epigrams on the courtier,
the divine, the maid, &c, and " A Hymn in praise of Music."
Ten sonnets to Philomel are signed J. D., and are assigned to
Davies (Poetical Rhapsody, ed. A. H. Bullen, 1890). In 1601
Davies was restored to his position at the bar, after making his
apologies to Martin, and in the same year he sat for Corfe Castle
in parliament. James I. received the author of Nosce teipsum
with great favour, and sent him (1603) to Ireland as solicitor-
general, conferring the honour of knighthood upon him in the
same year. In 1606 he was promoted to be attorney-general for
Ireland, and created serjeant-at-arms. Of the difficulties in the
way of the prosecution of his work, and his untiring industry in
overcoming them, there is abundant evidence in his letters to
Cecil preserved in the State Papers on Ireland. One of his chief
aims was to establish the Protestant religion firmly in Ireland,
and he took strict measures to enforce the law for attendance
at church. With the same end in view he took an active part
in the " plantation " of Ulster. In 161 2 he published his prose
Discoverie of the true causes why Ireland was never entirely subdued
untill the beginning of his Majestie's happie raigne. 1 In the same
year he entered the Irish parliament as member for Fermanagh,
and was elected speaker after a scene of disorder in which the

1 Edited by Henry Morley in his Ireland under Elizabeth and
James I. (1890).

DA VIES, J.— DAVIS, A. J.

865

Catholic nominee, Sir John Everard, who had been installed,
was forcibly ejected. In the capacity of speaker he delivered
an excellent address reviewing previous Irish parliaments. He
resigned his Irish offices in 1619, and sat in the English parlia-
ment of 1621 for Newcastle-under-Lyme. With Sir Robert
Cotton he was one of the founders of the Society of Antiquaries.
He was appointed lord chief justice in 1626, but died suddenly
(December. 8th) before he could enter on the office. He had
married (1609) Eleanor Touchet, daughter of George, Baron
Audley. She developed eccentricity, verging on madness, and
wrote several fanatical books on prophecy.

In 1615 Davies published at Dublin Le Primer Discours des Cases
et Matters in Ley resolues el adjudges en les Courts del Roy en cest
Realme (reprinted 1628). He issued an edition of his poems in
1622. His prose publications were mainly posthumous. The Question
concerning Impositions, Tonnage, Poundage . . . was printed in
1656, and four of the tracts relating to Ireland, with an account of
Davies and his services to that country, were edited by G. Chalmers
in 1786. His works were edited by Dr A. B. Grosart (3 vols. 1869-
1876), with a full biography, for the Fuller Worthies Library.

He is not to be confounded with another poet, John Davies of
Hereford (1565 ?-i6l8), among whose numerous volumes of verse
may be mentioned Mirum in modum (1602), Microcosmus (1603),
The Holy Roode (1609), Wittes Pilgrimage (c. 1610), The Scourge of
Folly (c. 161 1), The Muses Sacrifice (1612) and Wittes Bedlam (1607) ;
his Scourge of Folly contains verses addressed to many of his con-
temporaries, to Shakespeare among others; he also wrote A Select
Second Husband for Sir Thomas Overbury's Wife (1616), and The
Writing Schoolmaster (earliest known edition, 1633); his works
were collected by Dr A. B. Grosart (2 vols., 1873) lor the Chertsey
Worthies Library.

DAVIES (Davisius), JOHN (1679-1732), English classical
scholar and critic, was born in London on the 22nd of April
1679. He was educated at Charterhouse and Queens' College,
Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow (July 7th,
1 701). He subsequently became rector of Fen Ditton, pre-
bendary of Ely, and president of his college. He died on the
7th of March 1 731-173 2, and was buried in the college chapel.
Davies was considered one of the best commentators on Cicero,
his attention being chiefly devoted to the philosophical works
of that author. Amongst these he edited the Tusculanae dispu-
tationes (1709), De natura deorum (17 18), De divinatione and
De fato (1725), Academica (1725), De legibus (1727), De finibus
(1728). His nearly finished notes on the De officiis he be-
queathed to Dr Richard Mead, with a view to their publication.
Mead, finding himself unable to carry out the undertaking,
transferred the notes to Thomas Bentley (nephew of the famous
Richard Bentley), by whose carelessness they were burnt.
Davies's editions, which were intended to supplement those of
Graevius, show great learning and an extensive knowledge of
the history and systems of philosophy, but he allows himself too
much licence in the matter of emendation. He also edited
Maximus of Tyre's Dissertationes (1703); the works of Caesar
(1706); the Octavius of Minucius Felix (1707); the Epitome
divinarum institutionum of Lactantius (17 18). Although on
intimate terms with Richard Bentley, he found himself unable
to agree with the great scholar in regard to his dispute with
Trinity College.

DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845- ), Canadian politician
and jurist, was born in Prince Edward Island in 1845, of
Huguenot descent. From 1869 to 1879 he took part in local
politics, and was premier from 1876-1879; in 1882 he entered
the Canadian parliament as a Liberal, and from 1896 to 1901 was
minister of marine and fisheries. In the latter year he became
one of the judges of the supreme court of Canada. In 1877 he
was counsel for Great Britain before the Anglo-American
fisheries arbitration at Halifax; in 1897 he was a joint delegate
to Washington with Sir Wilfrid Laurier on the Bering Sea seal
question; and in 1 898-1 899 a member of the Anglo-American
joint high commission at Quebec.

DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505-1581), Welsh bishop and scholar,
was born in North Wales, and was educated at New Inn Hall,
Oxford, becoming vicar of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, in 1550.
Being a reformer he took refuge at Geneva during the reign of
Mary, returning to England and to parochial work after the

vii. 28

accession of Elizabeth in 1558. His connexion with Wales was
renewed almost at once; for, after serving on a commission which
visited the Welsh dioceses, he was, in January 1560, conse-
crated bishop of St Asaph, whence he was translated, early in
1 56 1, to the bishopric of St Davids. As a bishop Davies was
an earnest reformer, very industrious, active and liberal, but not
very scrupulous with regard to the property of the church. He
was a member of the council of Wales, was very friendly with
Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, and was regarded
both by Parker and by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, as a trust-
worthy adviser on Welsh concerns. Another of the bishop's
friends was Walter Devereux, first earl of Essex. Assisting
William Salisbury, Davies took part in translating the New
Testament into Welsh, and also did some work on the Welsh
translation of the Book of Common Prayer. He helped to revise
the " Bishops' Bible " of 1568, being himself responsible for the
book of Deuteronomy, and the second book of Samuel. He died on
the 7th of November 1581, and was buried in Abergwili church.

DAVILA, ENRICO CATERINO (1576-1631), Italian historian,
was descended from a Spanish noble family. His immediate
ancestors had been constables of the kingdom of Cyprus for the
Venetian republic since 1464. But in 1570 the island was taken
by the Turks; and Antonio Davila, the father of the historian,
had to leave it, despoiled of all he possessed. He travelled into
Spain and France, and finally returned to Padua, and at Sacco
on the 30th of October 1576 his youngest son, Enrico Caterino,
was born. About 1 583 Antonio took this son to France, where
he became a page in the service of Catherine de' Medici, wife of
King Henry II. In due time he entered the military service, and
fought through the civil wars until the peace in 1598. He then
returned to Padua, where, and subsequently at Parma, he led
a studious life until, when war broke out, he entered the service
of the republic of Venice and served with distinction in the field.
But during the whole of this active life, many details of which
are very interesting as illustrative of the life and manners of the
time, he never lost sight of a design which he had formed at a
very early period, of writing the history of those civil wars in
France in which he had borne a part, and during which he had
had so many opportunities of closely observing the leading person-
ages and events. This work was completed about 1630, and was
offered in vain by the author to all the publishers in Venice. At
last one Tommaso Baglioni, who had no work for his presses,
undertook to print the manuscript, on condition that he should
be free to leave off if more promising work offered itself. The
printing of the Istoria delle guerre civili di Francia was, however,
completed, and the success and sale of the work were immediate
and enormous. Over two hundred editions followed, of which
perhaps the best is the one published in Paris in 1644. Davila
was murdered, while on his way to take possession of the govern-
ment of Cremona for Venice in July i63i,bya ruffian, with whom
some dispute seems to have arisen concerning the furnishing of the
relays of horses ordered for his use by the Venetian government.

The Istoria was translated into French by G. Baudouin (Paris,
1642) ; into Spanish by Varen de Soto (Madrid, 1651, and Antwerp,
1686); into English by W. Aylesbury (London, 1647), and by
Charles Cotterel (London, 1666), and into Latin by Pietro Francesco
Cornazzano (Rome, 1745). The best account of the life of Davila is
that by Apostolo Zeno, prefixed to an edition of the history printed
at Venice in 2 vols, in 1733. Peter Bayle is severe on certain
historical inaccuracies of Davila, and it is true that Davila must
be read with due remembrance of the fact that he was not only a
Catholic but the especial protege of Catherine de' Medici, but it
is not to be forgotten that Bayle was as strongly Protestant.

DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826-1910), American spiritual-
ist, was born at Blooming Grove, Orange county, New York, on
the nth of August 1826. He had little education, though
probably much more than he and his friends pretended. In 1843
he heard lectures in Poughkeepsie on " animal magnetism," as
the phenomena of hypnotism was then termed, and found that
he had remarkable clairvoyant powers ; and in the following year
he had, he said, spiritual messages telling him of his life work.
For the next three years (1844-1847) he practised magnetic
healing with much success; and in 1847 he published The
Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to

12

866

DAVIS, C. H.— DAVIS, H. W.

Mankind, which in 184s he had dictated while in a trance to his
" scribe," William Fishbough. He lectured with little success
and returned to writing (or " dictating ") books, publishing about
thirty in all, including The Great Harmonia (1850-1861), an
" encyclopaedia " in six volumes; The Philosophy of Special
Providences (1850), which with its evident rehash of old argu-
ments against special providences and miracles would seem to
show that Davis's inspiration was literary; The Magic Staff: an
Autobiography (1857), which was supplemented by Arabula: or the
Divine Guest, Containing a New Collection of New Gospels (1867),
the gospels being those " according to " St Confucius, St John
(G.Whittier),St Gabriel (Derzhavin), St Octavius (Frothingham),
St Gerrit (Smith), St Emma (Hardinge), St Ralph (W. Emerson),
St Selden (J. Finney), St Theodore (Parker), &c; and A Stellar
Key to the Summer Land (1868) and Views of Our Heavenly Home
( 1 8 78) . each with illustrative diagrams. Davis was much influenced
by Swedenborg and by the Shakers, who reprinted his panegyric
of Ann Lee in an official Sketch of Shakers and Shakerism (1884).

DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- ), American land-
scape painter, was born at East Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the
and of February 1857. A pupil of the schools of the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts, he was sent to Paris in 1880. Having
studied at the Academy Julian under Lefebvre and Boulanger,
he went to Barbizon and painted much in the forest of Fontaine-
bleau under the traditions of the " men of thirty." He became
a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1906, and
received many awards, including a silver medal at the Paris
Exhibition of 1889. He is represented by important works in
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; the Corcoran Art
Gallery, Washington; the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia,
and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.

DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900), American political
leader and lawyer, was born in Henderson, New York, on the 16th
of June 1838. He was taken by his parents to Wisconsin
Territory in the year of his birth, and was educated at Carroll
College, Waukesha. Wisconsin, and at the university of
Michigan , from w hich he graduated in 1 8 5 7 . After studying law
in the office of Alexander W. Randall, he was admitted to the bar
in i860. During the Civil War, as a first lieutenant of Federal
volunteers, he served in the western campaigns of 1862 and 1863,
and in 1864 was an aide to General Willis A. Gorman (1814-
1876). Resigning his commission (1864) on account of ill-health,
he soon settled in St Paul, Minnesota, where he practised law
in partnership with General Gorman, and soon became prominent
both at the bar and, as a Republican, in politics. He served in the
State House of Representatives in 1867, 1868-1873 was United
States district attorney for Minnesota. In 1874-1876 he was
governor of the state, and from 1887 until his death was a
member of the United States Senate. In the Senate he was one
of the acknowledged leaders of his party, an able and frequent
speaker and a committee worker of great industry. In March
1897 he became chairman of the committee on foreign relations
at a time when its work was peculiarly influential in shaping
American foreign policy. His extensive knowledge of inter-
national law, and his tact and diplomacy, enabled him to
render services of the utmost importance in connexion with the
Spanish-American War, and he was one of the peace com-
missioners who negotiated and signed the treaty of Paris by
which the war was terminated. He died at St Paul on the 27th
of November 1900. Few public men in the United States since
the Civil War have combined skill in diplomacy, constructive
statesmanship, talent for political organization, oratorical
ability and broad culture to such a degree as Senator Davis.
In addition to various speeches and public addresses, he
published an essay entitled The Law of Shakespeare (1899).

DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- ), English
painter, received his art training in the Royal Academy schools,
where he was awarded two silver medals. He was elected an
associate of the Academy in 1873, and academician in 1877. He
made a considerable reputation as an accomplished painter of
quiet pastoral subjects and carefully elaborated landscapes with
cattle. His pictures, " Returning to the Fold " (1880), and

" Approaching Night " (1899), bought for the Chantrey Fund
Collection, are now in the National Gallery of British Art
(Tate Gallery).

DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865), American political
leader, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 16th of August
1817. His father, Rev Henry Lyon Davis (1775-1836), was a
prominent Protestant Episcopal clergyman of Maryland, and for
some years president of St John's College at Annapolis. The son
graduated at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, in 1837, and from
the law department of the university of Virginia in 1841, and
began the practice of law in Alexandria, Virginia, but in 1850
removed to Baltimore, Maryland, where he won a high position
at the bar. Early becoming imbued with strong anti-slavery
views, though by inheritance he was himself a slave holder, he
began political life as a Whig, but when the Whig party dis-
integrated, he became an "American" or "Know-Nothing,"
and as such served in the national House of Representatives from
1855 to 1861. By his independent course in Congress he won the
respect and esteem of all political groups. In the contest over the
speakership at the opening of the Thirty-Sixth Congress (1859) he
voted with the Republicans, thereby incurring a vote of censure
from the Maryland legislature, which called upon him to resign.
In i860, not being quite ready to ally himself wholly with the
Republican party, he declined to be a candidate for the Republican
nomination for the vice-presidency, and supported the Bell and
Everett ticket. He was himself defeated in this year for re-
election to Congress. In the winter of 1860-1861 he was active
on behalf of compromise measures. Finally, after President
Lincoln's election, he became a Republican, and as such was
re-elected in 1862 to the national House of Representatives, in
which he at once became one of the most radical and aggressive
members, his views commanding especial attention owing to his
being one of the few representatives from a slave state. From
December 1863 to March 1865 he was chairman of the committee
on foreign affairs; as such, in 1864, he was unwilling to leave
the delicate questions concerning the French occupation of
Mexico entirely in the hands of the president and his secretary of
state, and brought in a report very hostile to France, which was
adopted in the House, but fortunately, as it proved later, was not
adopted by the Senate. With other radical Republicans Davis
was a bitter opponent of Lincoln's plan for the reconstruction of
the Southern States, and on the 1 5th of February 1864 he reported
from committee a bill placing the process of reconstruction under
the control of Congress, and stipulating that the Confederate
States, before resuming their former status in the Union, must
disfranchise all important civil and military officers of the
Confederacy, abolish slavery, and repudiate all debts incurred
by or with the sanction of the Confederate government. In his
speech supporting this measure Davis declared that until Congress
should " recognize a government established under its auspices,
there is no government in the rebel states save the authority of
Congress." The bill — the first formal expression by Congress
with regard to Reconstruction — did not pass both Houses until
the closing hours of the session, and failed to receive the approval
of the president, who on the 8th of July issued a proclamation
defining his position. Soon afterwards, on the 5th of August
1864, Davis joined Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio, who had piloted
the bill through the Senate, in issuing the so-called " Wade-
Davis Manifesto," which violently denounced President Lincoln
for encroaching on the domain of Congress and insinuated that
the presidential policy would leave slavery unimpaired in the
reconstructed states. In a debate in Congress some months later
he declared, " When I came into Congress ten years ago this was
a government of law. I have lived to see it a government of
personal will." He was one of the radical leaders who preferred
Fremont to Lincoln in 1864, but subsequently withdrew his oppo-
sition and supported the President for re-election. He early
favoured the enlistment of negroes, and in July 1865 publicly
advocated the extension of the suffrage to them. He was not
a candidate for re-election to Congress in 1864, and died in
Baltimore, Maryland, on the 30th of December 1865. Davis
was a man of scholarly tastes, an orator of unusual ability and

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

867

great eloquence, tireless and fearless in fighting political battles,
but impulsive to the verge of rashness, impractical, tactless and
autocratic. He wrote an elaborate political work entitled The
War of Ormuzd and Ahriman in the Ninteenth Century (1853), in
which he combated the Southern contention that slavery was a
divine institution.

See The Speeches of Henry Winter Davis (New York, 1867), to
which is prefixed an oration on his life and character delivered in the
House of Representatives by Senator J. A. J. Creswell of Maryland.

DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808-1889), American soldier and states-
man, president of the Confederate states in the American Civil
War, was born on the 3rd of June 1808 at what is now the village
of Fairview, in that part of Christian county, Kentucky, which
was later organized as Todd county. His father, Samuel Davis
(1756-1824), who served in the War of Independence, was of
Welsh, and his mother, Jane Cook, of Scotch-Irish descent;
during his infancy the family moved to Wilkinson county,
Mississippi. Jefferson Davis was educated at Transylvania
University (Lexington, Kentucky) and at the United States
Military Academy at West Point. From the latter he graduated
in July 1828, and became by brevet a second lieutenant of
infantry. He was assigned for duty to Jefferson Barracks at St
Louis, and on reaching this post was ordered to Fort Crawford,
near Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. In 1833 he took part in the
closing scenes of the Black Hawk War, was present at the capture
of Black Hawk, and was sent to Dixon, Illinois, to muster into
service some volunteers from that state. Their captain was
Abraham Lincoln, and Lieutenant Davis is said to have
administered to him his first oath of allegiance. In June 1835
he resigned from the army, married Miss Knox Taylor, daughter
of Colonel (later General) Zachary Taylor, and became a cotton
planter in Warren county, Miss. In September of the same
year, while visiting in Louisiana to escape the fever, his wife
died of it and Davis himself was dangerously ill. For the next
few months he travelled to regain his health; and in the spring
of 1836 returned to his cotton plantation, where for several years
he devoted his time largely to reading political philosophy,
political economy, public Jaw and the English classics, and by
careful management of his estate he acquired considerable wealth.
In 1843 Davis entered the field of politics as a Democrat, and
exhibited great power as a public speaker. In 1 844 he was chosen
as a presidential elector on the Polk and Dallas ticket; in
February 1845 he married Miss Varina Howell (1826-1906) of
Mississippi (a granddaughter of Governor Richard Howell of
New Jersey), and in the same year became a Democratic repre-
sentative in Congress. From the beginning of his political career
he advocated a strict construction of the Federal constitution.
He was an ardent admirer of John C. Calhoun, and eventually
became his successor as the leader of the South. In his rare
speeches in the House of Representatives he clearly defined his
position in regard to states rights, which he consistently held
ever afterwards. During his first session, war with Mexico was
declared, and he resigned his seat in June 1846 to take command
of the first regiment raised in his state — the Mississippi Rifles.
He served in the Northern Campaign under his father-in-law,
General Taylor, and was greatly distinguished for gallantry and
soldierly conduct at Monterey and particularly at Buena Vista,
where he was severely wounded early in the engagement, but
continued in command of his regiment until victory crowned the
American arms. While still in the field he was appointed (May
1847) by President Polk to be brigadier-general of volunteers;
but this appointment Davis declined, on the ground, as he after-
wards said, " that volunteers are militia and the Constitution
reserves to the state the appointment of all militia officers."
Afterwards, Davis himself, as president of the Confederate States,
was to appoint many volunteer officers.

Upon his return to his home late in 1847 he was appointed to
fill a vacancy in the United States Senate, and in 1850 he was
elected for a full term of six years. He resigned in 1851, but was
again elected in 1857, and continued as a member from that year
until the secession of his State in 1861. As a senator he stood in
the front rank in a body distinguished for ability; his purity

of character and courteous manner, together with his intellectual
gifts, won him the esteem of all parties; and he became more and
more the leader of the Southern Democrats. He was, however,
possessed of a logical rather than an intuitive mind. In his
famous speech in the Senate on the 12th of July 1848, on the
question of establishing a government for Oregon Territory, he
held that a slave should be treated by the Federal government
on the same basis as any other property, and therefore that it
was the duty of Congress to protect the owner's right to his slave
in whatever state or territory of the Union that slave might be.
In the debates on the Compromise Measures of 1850 he took
an active part, strongly opposing these measures, while Henry
Stuart Foote (1800-1880), the other Mississippi senator, was one
of their leading advocates. But although still holding to the
theory expounded in his July speech of 1848, he was now ready
with the proposal that slavery might be prohibited north of
latitude 36 30' N. provided it should not be interfered with in
any territory south of that line. He resigned from the Senate in
1851 to become a candidate of the Democratic States-Rights
party for the governorship of his state against Foote, the candi-
date of the Union Democrats. In the campaign he held, in
opposition to the wishes of the more radical members of his
party, that although secession might be resorted to as a last
alternative the circumstances were not yet such as to justify it.
A temporary loss of eyesight interfered with his canvass, and
he was defeated by a small majority (1009), the campaign having
been watched with the greatest interest throughout the country.
In 1853 he accepted the position of secretary of war in the
cabinet of President Pierce, and for four years performed the
duties of the office with great distinction and with lasting benefit
to the nation. He organized the engineer companies which
explored and reported on the several proposed routes for a rail-
way connecting the Mississippi valley with the Pacific Ocean;
he effected the enlargement of the army, and made material
changes in its equipment of arms and ammunition, utilizing
the latest improvements ; he made his appointments of sub-
ordinates on their merits, regardless of party considerations;
he revised the system of tactics, perfected the signal corps
service, and enlarged the coast and frontier defences of the
country. During all this time he was on terms of intimate
friendship with the president, over whom he undoubtedly exerted
a powerful, but probably not, as is often said, a dominating
influence; for instance he is generally supposed to have won
the president's support for the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.
After the passage of this bill, Davis, who as secretary of war
had control of the United States troops in Kansas, sympathized
strongly with the pro-slavery party there. At the end of his
service in the cabinet, he was returned to the Senate. To his
insistence in i860 that the Democratic party should support
his claim to the protection of slavery in the territories by the
Federal government, the disruption of that party was in large
measure due. At the same time he practically told the Senate
that the South would secede in the event of the election of a
radical Republican to the presidency; and on the 10th of
January 1861, not long after the election of Lincoln, he argued
before that body the constitutional right of secession and
declared that the treatment of the South had become such that
it could no longer remain in the Union without being degraded.
When his state had passed the ordinance of secession he resigned
his seat, and his speech on the 21st of January was a clear and
able statement of the position taken by his state, and a most
pathetic farewell to his associates.

On the 25th of January 1861 Davis was commissioned major-
general of the forces Mississippi was raising in view of the
threatened conflict. On the 9th of February he received the
unanimous vote of the Provisional Congress of the seceded states
as president of the " Confederate States of America." He was
inaugurated on the 18th of February, was subsequently, after
the adoption of the permanent constitution, regularly elected by
popular vote, for a term of six years, and on the 22nd of February
1862 was again inaugurated. He had not sought the office,
preferring service iri the field. His brilliant career, both as

868

DAVIS, JOHN

a civilian and as a soldier, drew all eyes to him as best fitted
to guide the fortunes of the new Confederacy, and with a deep
sense of the responsibility he obeyed the call. He heartily
approved of the peace conference, which attempted to draw up
a plan of reconciliation between the two sections, but whose
failure made war inevitable. Montgomery, in Alabama, was
the first Confederate capital, but after Virginia joined her sister
states, the seat of government was removed to Richmond, on the
29th of May 1861. How Davis — of whom W. E. Gladstone, in
the early days of English sympathy with the South, said that
he had " made a nation " — bore himself in his most responsible'
position during the gigantic conflict which ensued, cannot here
be related in detail. (See Confederate States; and American
Civil War.) In the shortest time he organized and put into the
field one of the finest bodies of soldiers of which history has record.
Factories sprang up in the South in a few months, supplying
the army with arms and munitions of war, and the energy of the
president was everywhere apparent. That he committed serious
errors, his warmest admirers will hardly deny. Unfortunately
his firmness developed into obstinacy, and exhibited itself in
continued confidence in officers who had proved to be failures,
and in dislike of some of his ablest generals. He committed the
great mistake, too, of directing the movements of distant armies
from the seat of government, though those armies were under able
generals. This naturally caused great dissatisfaction, and more
than once resulted in irreparable disaster. Moreover, he was not,
like Lincoln, a great manager of men; he often acted without
tact; he was charged with being domineering and autocratic,
and at various times he was seriously hampered by the meddling
of the Confederate Congress and the opposition of such men as
the vice-president, A. H. Stephens, Governor Joseph E. Brown
of Georgia, and Governor Zebulon Vance of North Carolina.

During the winter of 1864-1865 the resources of the govern-
ment showed such exhaustion that it was apparent that the end
would come with the opening of the spring campaign. This was
clearly stated in the reports of the heads of departments and of
General Lee. President Davis, however, acted as if he was
assured of ultimate success. He sent Duncan F. Kenner as
special commissioner to the courts of England, and France to
obtain recognition of the Confederacy on condition of the
abolition of slavery. When a conference was held in Hampton
Roads on the 3rd of February 1865 between President Lincoln
and Secretary Seward on the one side, and A. H. Stephens,
R. M. T. Hunter, and Judge James A. Campbell, representing
President Davis, on the other, he instructed his representatives
to insist on the recognition of the Confederacy as a condition to
any arrangement for the termination of the war. This defeated
the object of the conference, and deprived the South of terms
which would have been more beneficial than those imposed by
the conqueror when the end came a few weeks later. The last
days of the Confederate Congress were spent in recriminations
between that body and President Davis, and the popularity with
which he commenced his administration had almost entirely
vanished. In January 1865 the Congress proposed to supersede
the president and make General Lee dictator, — a suggestion,
however, to which the Confederate commander refused to listen.

After the surrender of the armies of Lee and Johnston in April
1865, President Davis attempted to make his way, through
Georgia, across the Mississippi, in the vain hope of continuing
the war with the forces of Generals Smith and Magruder. He was
taken prisoner on the 10th of May by Federal troops near Irwin -
ville, Irwin county, Georgia, and was brought back to Old Point,
Virginia, in order to be confined in prison at Fortress Monroe.
In prison he was chained and treated with great severity. He
was indicted for treason by a Virginia grand jury, persistent
efforts were made to connect him with the assassination of
President Lincoln, he was unjustly charged with having deliber-
ately and wilfully caused the sufferings and deaths of Union
prisoners at Andersonville and for two years he was denied trial
or bail. Such treatment aroused the sympathy of the Southern
people, who regarded him as a martyr to their cause, and in a
great measure restored him to that place in their esteem which

by the close of the war he had lost. It also aroused a general
feeling in the North, and when finally he was admitted to bail
(in May 1867), Horace Greeley, Gerrit Smith, and others in that
section who had been his political opponents, became his sureties.
Charles O'Conor, a leader of the New York bar, volunteered to
act as his counsel. With him was associated Robert Ould of
Richmond, a lawyer of great ability. They moved to quash the
indictment on which he was brought to trial. Chief Justice
Chase and Judge John C. Underwood constituted the United
States circuit court sitting for Virginia before which the case
was brought in December 1868; the court was divided, the chief
justice voting to sustain the motion and Underwood to overrule
it. The matter was thereupon certified to the Supreme Court
of the United States, but as the general amnesty of the 25th of
December 1868 included Davis, an order of nolle prosequi was
entered in February 1869, and Davis and his bondsmen were
thereupon released. After his release he visited Europe, and
spent the last years of his life in retirement, during which he
wrote his Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols.,
1881). In these volumes he attempted to vindicate his adminis-
tration, and in so doing he attacked the records of those generals
he disliked. He also wrote a Short History of the Confederate
States of America (1890). He died on the 6th of December 1889,
at New Orleans, leaving a widow and two daughters — Margaret,
who married J. A. Hayes in 1877, and Varina Anne (1864-1898),
better known as " Winnie " Davis, the "daughter of the Con-
federacy," who was the author of several books, including A
Sketch of the Life of Robert Emmet (1888), a novel, The Veiled
Doctor (1895), and A Romance of Summer Seas (1898). A monu-
ment to her, designed by George J. Zolnay, and erected by the
Daughters of the Confederacy, was unveiled in Hollywood
cemetery, Richmond, Va.,on the 9th of November 1899. Mrs
Davis, who exerted a marked influence over her husband, sur-
vived him many years, passed the last years of her life in New
York City, and died there on the 16th of October 1906.

Authorities. — Several biographies and memoirs of Davis have
been published, of which the best are : Jefferson Davis, Ex-President
of the Confederate States (2 vols., New York, 1890), by his widow;
F. H. Alfriend's Life of Jefferson Davis (Cincinnati, 1868), which
defended him from the charges of incompetence and despotism
brought against him; E. A. Pollard's Life of Jefferson Davis, with
a Secret History of the Southern Confederacy (Philadelphia, 1869), a
somewhat partisan arraignment by a prominent Southern journalist ;
and W. E. Dodd's Jefferson Davis (Philadelphia, 1907), which
embodies the results of recent historical research. The Prison Life
of Jefferson Davis (New York, 1866) by John J. Craven (d. 1893), a
Federal army surgeon who was Davis's physician at Fortress
Monroe, was long popular; it gives a vivid and sympathetic picture
of Mr Davis as a prisoner, but its authenticity and accuracy have
been questioned. (W. W. H.*; N. D. M.)

DAVIS (or Davys), JOHN (1550 ?-i6os), one of the chief
English navigators and explorers under Elizabeth, especially in
Polar regions, was born at Sandridge near Dartmouth about 1550.
From a boy he was a sailor, and early made several voyages with
Adrian Gilbert; both the Gilbert and Raleigh families were
Devonians of his own neighbourhood, and through life he seems
to have profited by their friendship. In January 1 583 he appears
to have broached his design of a north-west passage to Walsing-
ham and John Dee; various consultations followed; and in
1 585 he started on his first north-western expedition. On this he
began by striking the ice-bound east shore of Greenland, which
he followed south to Cape Farewell; thence he turned north once
more and coasted the west Greenland littoral some way, till,
finding the sea free from ice, he shaped a " course for China "
by the north-west. In 66° N., however, he fell in with Baffin
Land, and though he pushed some way up Cumberland Sound,
and professed to recognize in this the " hoped strait," he now
turned back (end of August). He tried again in 1586 and 1587;
in the last voyage he pushed through the straits still named after
him into Baffin's Bay, coasting west Greenland to 73° N., almost
to Upernavik, and thence making a last effort to find a passage
westward along the north of America. Many points in Arctic
latitudes (Cumberland Sound, Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound,
&c.) retain names given them by Davis, who ranks with Baffin
and Hudson as the greatest of early Arctic explorers and, like

DAVIS, T. O— DAVIS STRAIT

869

Frobisher, narrowly missed the discovery of Hudson's Bay via
Hudson's Straits (the " Furious Overfall " of Davis). In 1588
he seems to have commanded the " Black Dog " against the
Spanish Armada; in 1589 he joined the earl of Cumberland off
the Azores; and in 1591 he accompanied Thomas Cavendish
on his last voyage, with the special purpose, as he tells us, of
searching " that north-west discovery upon the back parts
of America." After the rest of Cavendish's expedition returned
unsuccessful, he continued to attempt on his own account the
passage of the Strait of Magellan; though defeated here by foul
weather, he discovered the Falkland Islands. The passage home
was extremely disastrous, and he brought back only fourteen of
his seventy-six men. After his return in 1593 he published
a valuable treatise on practical navigation in The Seaman's
Secrets (1594), and a more theoretical work in The World's
Hydro graphical Description (1595). His invention of back-staff
and double quadrant (called a " Davis Quadrant " after him)
held the field among English seamen till long after Hadley's
reflecting quadrant had been introduced. In 1 596-1 597 Davis
seems to have sailed with Raleigh (as master of Sir Walter's
own ship) to Cadiz and the Azores; and in 1 598-1600 he accom-
panied a Dutch expedition to the East Indies as pilot, sailing
from Flushing, returning to Middleburg, and narrowly escaping
destruction from treachery at Achin in Sumatra. In 1601-1603
he accompanied Sir James Lancaster as first pilot on his voyage
in the service of the East India Company; and in December
1604 he sailed again for the same destination & pilot to Sir
Edward Michelborne (or Michelbourn). On this journey he was
killed by Japanese pirates off Bintang near Sumatra.

A Traverse Book made by John Davis in 1587, an Account of his
Second Voyage in 1586, and a Report of Master John Davis of his
three voyages made for the Discovery of the North West Passage were
printed in Hakluyt's collection. Davis himself published The
Seaman's Secrets, divided into two Parts (London, 1594), The World's
Hydrographical Description . . . whereby appears that there is a short
and speedy Passage into the South Seas, to China, Molucca, Philip*
pina, and India, by Northerly Navigation (London, 1595). Various
references to Davis are in the Calendars of State Papers, Domestic
(1591-1594), and East Indies (1513-1616). See also Voyages and
Works of John Davis, edited by A. H. Markham (London, Hakluyt
Society, 1880), and the article " John Davys " by Sir J. K. Laughton
in the Dictionary of National Biography. (C. R. B.)

DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814-1845), Irish poet and
journalist, was born at Mallow, Co. Cork, on the 14th of October
1814. His father, James Thomas Davis, a surgeon in the royal
artillery, who died in the month of his son's birth, belonged to
an English family of Welsh extraction, and his mother, Mary
Atkins, belonged to a Protestant Anglo-Irish family. Davis
graduated B.A. at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1836, and was called
to the bar two years later. Brought up in an English and Tory
circle, he was led to adopt nationalist views by the study of Irish
history, a complicated subject in which text-books and the
ordinary guides to knowledge were then lacking. In 1840 he
made a speech appealing to Irish sentiment before the college
historical society, which had been reorganized in 1839. With a
view to indoctrinating the Irish people with the idea of nation-
ality he joined John Blake Dillon in editing the Dublin Morning
Register. The proprietor very soon dismissed him, and Davis
saw that his propaganda would be ineffective if he continued to
stand outside the national organization. He therefore announced
himself a follower of Daniel O'Connell, and became an energetic
worker (1841) on the committee of the repeal association. He
helped Dillon and Charles Gavan Duffy to found the weekly
newspaper, The Nation, the first number of which appeared on
the 1 5th of October 1842. The paper was chiefly written by these
three promoters, and its concentrated purpose and vigorous
writing soon attracted attention. Davis, who had never written
verse, was induced to attempt it for the new undertaking. The
"Lament of] Owen Roe O'Neill" was printed in the sixth
number, and was followed by a series of lyrics that take a high
place in Irish national poetry — " The Battle of Fontenoy,"
" The Geraldines," " Maire Bhan a- Stoir " and many others.
Davis contemplated a history of Ireland, an edition of the
speeches of Irish orators, one volume of which appeared, and

a life of Wolfe Tone. These projects remained incomplete, but
Davis's determination and continuous zeal made their mark on
his party. Differences arose between O'Connell and the young
writers of The Nation, and as time went on became more
pronounced. Davis was accused of being anti-Catholic, and
was systematically attacked by O'Connell's followers. But he
differed, said Sir Charles Gavan Duffy, from earlier and later
Irish tribunes, " by a perfectly genuine desire to remain un-
known, and reap neither recognition nor reward for his work."
His early death from scarlet fever (September 15th, 1845) de-
prived " Young Ireland " of its most striking personality.

His Poems and his Literary and Historical Essays were collected
in 1846. There is an edition of his prose writings (1889) in the
Camelot Classics. See the monograph on Thomas Davis by Sir
Charles Gavan Duffy (1890, abridged ed. 1896), and the same
writer's Young Ireland (revised edition, 1896).

DAVISON, WILLIAM (c. 1541-1608), secretary to Queen
Elizabeth, was of Scottish descent, and in 1566 acted as secretary
to Henry Killigrew (d. 1603), when he was sent into Scotland by
Elizabeth on a mission to Mary, queen of Scots. Remaining in
that country for about ten years, Davison then went twice to the
Netherlands on diplomatic business, returning to England in
1586 to defend the hasty conduct of his friend, Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester. In the same year he became member of parlia-
ment for Knaresborough, a privy councillor, and assistant to
Elizabeth's secretary, Thomas Walsingham; but he soon appears
to have acted rather as the colleague than the subordinate of
Walsingham. He was a member of the commission appointed
to try Mary, queen of Scots, although he took no part in its
proceedings. When sentence was passed upon Mary the warrant
for her execution was entrusted to Davison, who, after some
delay, obtained the queen's signature. On this occasion, and
also in subsequent interviews with her secretary, Elizabeth
suggested that Mary should be executed in some more secret
fashion, and her conversation afforded ample proof that she
disliked to take upon herself any responsibility for the death of
her rival. Meanwhile, the privy council having been summoned
by Lord Burghley, it was decided to carry out the sentence at
once, and Mary was beheaded on the 8th of February 1587.
When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth she was
extremely indignant, and her wrath was chiefly directed against
Davison, who, she asserted, had disobeyed her instructions not
to part with the warrant. The secretary was arrested and
thrown into prison, but, although he defended himself vigorously,
he did not say anything about the queen's wish to get rid of
Mary by assassination. Charged before the Star Chamber with
misprision and contempt, he was acquitted of evil intention, but
was sentenced to pay a fine of 10,000 marks, and to imprison-
ment during the queen's pleasure; but owing to the exertions
of several influential men he was released in 1589. The queen,
however, refused to employ him again in her service, and he
retired to Stepney, where he died in December 1608. Davison
appears to have been an industrious and outspoken man, and was
undoubtedly made the scapegoat for the queen's pusillanimous
conduct. By his wife, Catherine Spelman, he had a family of four
sons and two daughters. Two of his sons, Francis and Walter,
obtained some celebrity as poets.

Many state papers written by him, and many of his letters, are
extant in various collections of manuscripts. See Sir N. H. Nicolas,
Life of W. Davison (London, 1823) ; J. A. Froude, History of England
(London, 1881 fol.); Calendar of State Papers i^8o-i6oq; and Corre-
spondence of Leicester during his Government of the Low Countries,
edited by J. Bruce (London, 1844).

DAVIS STRAIT, the broad strait which separates Greenland
from North America, and connects Baffin Bay with the open
Atlantic. At its narrowest point, which occurs just where the
Arctic Circle crosses it, it is nearly 200 m. wide. This part is also
the shallowest, a sounding of 112 fathoms being found in the
centre, whereas the depth increases rapidly both to north and to
south. Along the western shore (Baffin Land) a cold current
passes southward; but along the east there is a warm north-
ward stream, and there are a few Danish settlements on the
Greenland coast. The strait takes its name from the explorer
John Davis.

870

DAVITT— DAVOUT

DAVITT, MICHAEL (1846-1906), Irish Nationalist politician,
son of a peasant farmer in Co. Mayo, was born on the 25th of
March 1846. His father was evicted for non-payment of rent
in 1851, and migrated to Lancashire, where at the age of ten the
boy began work in a cotton mill at Haslingden. In 1857 he lost
his right arm by a machinery accident, and he had to get employ-
ment as a newsboy and printer's " devil." He drifted into the
ranks of the Fenian brotherhood in 1865, and in 1870 he was
arrested for treason-felony in arranging for sending fire-arms
into Ireland, and was sentenced to fifteen years' penal servitude.
After seven years he was released on ticket of leave. He at once
rejoined the " Irish Republican Brotherhood," and went to the
United States, where his mother, herself of American birth, had
settled with the rest of the family, in order to concert plans
with the Fenian leaders there. Returning to Ireland he helped
C. S. Parnell to start the Land League in 1879, and his violent
speeches resulted in his re-arrest and consignment to Portland by
Sir William Harcourt, then home secretary. He was released in
1882, but was again prosecuted for seditious speeches in 1883, and
suffered three months' imprisonment. He had been elected to
parliament for Meath as a Nationalist in 1882, but being a con-
vict was disqualified to sit. He was included as one of the
respondents before the Parnell Commission (1888-1890) and
spoke for five days in his own defence, but his prominent associa-
tion with the revolutionary Irish schemes was fully established.
(See Parnell.) He took the anti-Parnellite side in 1890, and in
1892 was elected to parliament for North Meath, but was unseated
on petition. He was then returned for North-East Cork, but had
to vacate his seat through bankruptcy, caused by the costs in
the North Meath petition. In 1 895 he was elected for West Mayo,
but retired before the dissolution in 1900. He died on the 31st
of May 1906, in Dublin. A sincere but embittered Nationalist,
anti-English to the backbone, anti-clerical, and sceptical as to
the value of the purely parliamentary agitation for Home Rule,
Davitt was a notable representative of the survival of the Irish
" physical force " party, and a strong link with the extremists in
America. In later years his Socialistic Radicalism connected him
closely with the Labour party. He wrote constantly in American
and colonial journals, and published some books, always with
the strongest bias against English methods; but his force of
character earned him at least the respect of those who could make
calm allowance for an open enemy of the established order, and a
higher meed of admiration from those who sympathized with his
objects or were not in a position to be threatened by them.

DAVOS (Romonsch Tavau, a name variously explained as
meaning a sheep pasture or simply " behind "), a mountain
valley in the Swiss canton of the Grisons, lying east of Coire
(whence it is 40 m. distant by rail), and north-west of the Lower
Engadine (accessible at Siis in 18 m. by road). It contains two
main villages, 2 m. from each other, Dorfli and Platz (the chief
hamlet), which are 5015 ft. above the sea-level, and had a popu-
lation in 1900 of 8089, a figure exceeded in the Grisons only by
the capital Coire. Of the population 5391 were Protestants, 2564
Romanists, and 81 Jews; while 6048 were German-speaking
and 486 Romonsch-speaking. In i860 the population was only
1 705, rising to 2002 in 1870, to 2865 in 1880, to 3891 in 1888,
and to 8089 in 1890. This steady increase'is due to the fact that
the valley is now much frequented in winter by consumptive
patients, as its position, sheltered from cold winds and exposed
to brilliant sunshine in the daytime, has a most beneficial effect
on invalids in the first stages of that terrible disease. A local
doctor, by name Spengler, first noticed this fact about 1865,
and the valley soon became famous. It is now provided with
excellent hotels, sanatoria, &c, but as lately as i860 there was
only one inn there, housed in the 16th-century Rathhaus (town
hall), which is still adorned by the heads of wolves shot in the
neighbourhood. At the north end of the valley is the fine lake
of Davos, used for skating in the winter, while from Platz the
splendidly engineered Landwasserstrasse leads (20 m.) down to the
Alvaneubad station on the Albula- railway from Coire to the
Engadine.

We first hear of Tavaus br Tavauns in 11 60 and 12 13, as a

mountain pasture or " alp." It was then in the hands of a
Romonsch-speaking population, as is shown by many surviving
field names. But, some time between 1260 and 1282, a colony
of German-speaking persons from the Upper Valais (first
mentioned in 1289) was planted there by its lord, Walter von
Vaz, so that it has long been a Teutonic island in the midst of
a Romonsch-speaking population. Historically it is associated
with the Prattigau or Landquart valley to the north, as it was
the most important village of the region, and in 1436 became the
capital of the League of the Ten Jurisdictions. (See Grisons., v
It formerly contained many iron mines, and belonged from 1477
to 1649 to the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1779 Davos was visited
and described by Archdeacon W. Coxe. (W. A. B. C.)

DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS, duke of Auerstadt and prince of
Eckmuhl (1770-1823), marshal of France, was born at Annoux
( Yonne) on the 10th of May 1 7 70. His name is also, less correctly,
spelt Davout and Davoust. He entered the French army as a
sub-lieutenant in 1788, and on the outbreak of the Revolution he
embraced its principles. He was chef de bataillon in a volunteer
corps in the campaign of 1792, and distinguished himself at
Neerwinden in the following spring. He had just been promoted
general of brigade when he was removed from the active list
as being of noble birth. He served, however, in the campaigns
of 1794-1797 on the Rhine, and accompanied Desaix in the
Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte. On his return he took part
in the campaign of Marengo under Napoleon, who placed the
greatest confiSence in his abilities, made him a general of division
soon after Marengo, and in 1801 gave him a command in the con-
sular guard. At the accession of Napoleon as emperor, Davout
was one of the generals who were created marshals of France.
As commander of the III. corps of the Grande Armie Davout
rendered the greatest services. At Austerlitz, after a forced
march of forty-eight hours, the III. corps bore the brunt of the
allies' attack. In the Jena campaign Davout with a single corps
fought and won the brilliant victory of Auerstadt against the main
Prussian army. (See Napoleonic Campaigns.) He took part, and
added to his renown, in the campaign of Eylau and Friedland.
Napoleon left him as governor-general in the grand-duchy of
Warsaw when the treaty of Tilsit put an end to the war (1807),
and in 1808 created him duke of Auerstadt. In the war of 1809
Davout took a brilliant part in the actions which culminated in
the victory of Eckmuhl, and had an important share in the
battle of Wagram (q.v.) . He was created prince of Eckmuhl about
this time. It was Davout who was entrusted by Napoleon with
the task of organizing the " corps of observation of the Elbe,"
which was in reality the gigantic army with which the emperor
invaded Russia in 181 2. In this Davout commanded the I. corps,
over 70,000 strong, and defeated the Russians at Mohilev before
he joined the main army, with which he continued through-
out the campaign and the retreat from Moscow. In 1813
he commanded the Hamburg military district, and defended
Hamburg, a city ill fortified and provisioned, and full of dis-
affection, through a long siege, only surrendering the place on
the direct order of Louis XVIII. after the fall of Napoleon in 1814.

Davout's military character was on this, as on many other
occasions, interpreted as cruel and rapacious, and he had to
defend himself against many attacks upon his conduct at
Hamburg. He was a stern disciplinarian, almost the only one
of the marshals who exacted rigid and precise obedience from
his troops, and consequently his corps was more trustworthy
and exact in the performance of its duty than any other. Thus,
in the earlier days of the Grande Armee, it was always the
III. corps which was entrusted with the most difficult part of
the work in hand. The same criterion is to be applied to his
conduct of civil affairs. His rapacity was in reality Napoleon's, for
he gave the same undeviating obedience to superior orders which
he enforced in his own subordinates. As for his military talents,
he was admitted by his contemporaries and by later judgment
to be one of the ablest, perhaps the ablest, of all Napoleon's
marshals. On the first restoration he retired into private life,
openly displaying his hostility to the Bourbons, and when
Na'p'ol'eb'n re'turntetl fr'cta Elba, Davdut at o'nc'e joined him.

DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY

871

Appointed minister of war, he reorganized the French army as
far as the limited time available permitted, and he was so far
indispensable to the war department that Napoleon kept him at
Paris during the Waterloo campaign. To what degree his skill
and bravery would have altered the fortunes of the campaign
of 181 5 can only be surmised, but it has been made a ground of
criticism against Napoleon that he did not avail himself in the
field of the services of the best general he then possessed. Davout
directed the gallant, but hopeless, defence of Paris after Waterloo,
and was deprived of his marshalate and his titles at the second
restoration. When some of his subordinate generals were pro-
scribed, he demanded to be held responsible for their acts, as
executed under his orders, and he endeavoured to prevent
the condemnation of Ney. After a time the hostility of the
Bourbons towards Davout died away, and he was reconciled to
the monarchy. In 1817 his rank and titles were restored, and in
1819 he became a member of the chamber of peers. He died at
Paris on the 1st of June 1823.

See the marquise de Blocqueville, Le Marechal Davout raconte
par les siens et lui-mime (Paris, 1870-1880, 1887); Chenier, Davout,
due d'Auerstddt (Paris, 1866).

DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY, Bart. (1778-1829), English chemist,
was born on the 17th of December 1778 at or near Penzance
in Cornwall. During his school days at the grammar schools
of Penzance and Truro he showed few signs of a taste for
scientific pursuits or indeed of any special zeal for know-
ledge or of ability beyond a certain skill in making verse trans-
lations from the classics and in story- telling. But when in
1794 his father, Robert Davy, died, leaving a widow and five
children in embarrassed circumstances, he awoke to his responsi-
bilities as the eldest son, and becoming apprentice to a surgeon-
apothecary at Penzance set to work on a systematic and remark-
ably wide course of self-instruction which he mapped out for
himself in preparation for a career in medicine. Beginning with
metaphysics and ethics and passing on to mathematics, he
turned to chemistry at the end of 1797, and within a few months
of reading Nicholson's and Lavoisier's treatises on that science
had produced a new theory of light and heat. About the same
time he made the acquaintance of two men of scientific attain-
ments — Gregory Watt (1777-1804), a son of James Watt, and
Davies Giddy, afterwards Gilbert (1767-1839), who was president
of the Royal Society from 1827 to 1831. By the latter he was
recommended to Dr Thomas Beddoes, who was in 1798 establish-
ing his Medical Pneumatic Institution at Bristol for investigating
the medicinal properties of various gases. Here Davy, released
from his indentures, was installed as superintendent towards the
end of 1798. Early next year two papers from his pen were
published in Beddoes' West Country Contributions — one " On
Heat, Light and the Combinations of Light, with a new Theory
of Respiration and Observations on the Chemistry of Life," and
the other " On the Generation of Phosoxygen (Oxygen gas) and
the Causes of the Colours of Organic Beings." These contain
an account of the well-known experiment in which he sought to
establish the immateriality of heat by showing its generation
through the friction of two pieces of ice in an exhausted vessel,
and further attempt to prove that light is " matter of a peculiar
kind," and that oxygen gas, being a compound of this matter
with a simple substance, would more properly be termed phos-
oxygen. Founded on faulty experiments and reasoning, the
views he expressed were either ignored or ridiculed; and it was
long before he bitterly regretted the temerity with which he had
published his hasty generalizations.

One of his first discoveries at the Pneumatic Institution on
the 9th of April 1799 was that pure nitrous oxide (laughing gas)
is perfectly respirable, and he narrates that on the next day
he became " absolutely intoxicated " through breathing sixteen
quarts of it for " near seven minutes." This discovery brought
both him and the Pneumatic Institution into prominence. The
gas itself was inhaled by Southey and Coleridge among other
distinguished people, and promised to become fashionable, while
further research yielded Davy material for his Researches,
Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide,

published in 1800, which secured his reputation as a chemist.
Soon afterwards, Count Rumford, requiring a lecturer on chemistry
for the recently established Royal Institution in London, opened
negotiations with him, and on the 16th of February 1801 he was
engaged as assistant lecturer in chemistry and director of the
laboratory. Ten weeks later, having " given satisfactory proofs
of his talents " in a course of lectures on galvanism, he was
appointed lecturer, and his promotion to be professor followed
on the 31st of May 1802. One of the first tasks imposed on
him by the managers was the delivery of a course of lectures
on the chemical principles of tanning, and he was given leave
of absence for July, August and September 1801 in order to
acquaint himself practically with the subject. The main facts
he discovered from his experiments in this connexion were
described before the Royal Society in 1803. In 1802 the board
of agriculture requested him to direct his attention to agricultural
subjects; and in 1803, with the acquiescence of the Royal,
Institution, he gave his first course of lectures on agricultural
chemistry and continued them for ten successive years, ulti-
mately publishing their substance as Elements of Agricultural
Chemistry in 1813. But his chief interest at the Royal Institu-
tion was with electro-chemistry. Galvanic phenomena had
already engaged his attention before he left Bristol, but in
London he had at his disposal a large battery which gave
him much greater opportunities. His first communication to the
Royal Society, read in June 1801, related to galvanic combina-
tions formed with single metallic plates and fluids, and showed
that an electric cell might be constructed with a single metal
and two fluids, provided one of the fluids was capable of oxidizing
one surface of the metal; previous piles had consisted of two
different metals, or of one plate of metal and the other of char-
coal, with an interposed fluid. Five years later he delivered
before the Royal Society his first Bakerian lecture, " On some
Chemical Agencies of Electricity," which J. J. Berzelius described
as one of the most remarkable memoirs in the history of
chemical theory. He summed up his results in the general
statement that " hydrogen, the alkaline substances, the metals
and certain metallic oxides are attracted by negatively electrified
metallic surfaces, and repelled by positively electrified metallic
surfaces; and contrariwise, that oxygen and acid substances are
attracted by positively electrified metallic surfaces and repelled
by negatively electrified metallic surfaces; and these attractive
and repulsive forces are sufficiently energetic to destroy or suspend
the usual operation of elective affinity." He also sketched a
theory of chemical affinity on the facts he had discovered, and
concluded by suggesting that the electric decomposition of
neutral salts might in some cases admit of economical appli-
cations and lead to the isolation of the true elements of bodies.
A year after this paper, which gained him from the French
Institute the medal offered by Napoleon for the best experiment
made each year on galvanism, he described in his second
Bakerian lecture the electrolytic preparation of potassium and
sodium, effected in October 1807 by the aid of his battery.
According to his cousin, Edmund Davy, 1 then his laboratory
assistant, he was so delighted with this achievement that he
danced about the room in ecstasy. Four days after reading his
lecture his health broke down, and severe illness kept him from his
professional duties until March 1808. As soon as he was able to
work again he attempted to obtain the metals of the alkaline
earths by the same methods as he had used for those of the fixed
alkalis, but they eluded his efforts and he only succeeded in
preparing them as amalgams with mercury, by a process due to
Berzelius. His attempts to decompose " alumine, silica, zircone
and glucine " were still less fortunate. At the end of 1808 he
read his third Bakerian lecture, one of the longest of his papers
but not one of the best. In it he disproved the idea advanced by
Gay Lussac that potassium was a compound of hydrogen, not an
element; but on the other hand he cast doubts on the elementary

1 Edmund Davy (1785-1857) became professor of chemistry at
Cork Institution in 1813, and at the Royal Dublin Society in 1826.
His son, Edmund William Davy (born in 1826), was appointed
professor of medicine in the Royal College, Dublin, in 1870.

872

DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY

character of phosphorus, sulphur and carbon, though on this
point he afterwards corrected himself. He also described the
preparation of boron, for which at first he proposed the name
boracium, on the impression that it was a metal. . About this
time a voluntary subscription among the members of the Royal
Institution put him in possession of a new galvanic battery
of 2000 double plates, with a surface equal to 128,000 sq. in.,
to replace the old one, which had become unserviceable. His
fourth Bakerian lecture, in November 1809, gave further proofs
of the elementary nature of potassium, and described the
properties of telluretted hydrogen. Next year, in a paper read
in July and in his fifth Bakerian lecture in November, he
argued that oxymuriatic acid, contrary to his previous belief,
was a simple body, and proposed for it the name " chlorine."

Davy's reputation was now at its zenith. As a lecturer he
could command an audience of little less than 1000 in the theatre
of the Royal Institution, and his fame had spread far outside
London. In 1810, at the invitation of the Dublin Society, he
gave a course of lectures on electro-chemical science, and in the
following year he again lectured in Dublin, on chemistry and
geology, receiving large fees at both visits. During his second
visit Trinity College conferred upon him the honorary degree of
LL.D., the only university distinction he ever received. On the
8th of April 181 2 he was knighted by the prince regent; on
the oth he gave his farewell lecture as professor of chemistry at
the Royal Institution; and on the nth he was married to Mrs
Apreece, daughter and heiress of Charles Kerr of Kelso, and a
distant connexion of Sir Walter Scott. A few months after his
marriage he published the first and only volume of his Elements
of Chemical Philosophy, with a dedication to his wife, and was
also re-elected professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution,
though he would not pledge himself to deliver lectures, explain-
ing that he wished to be free from the routine of lecturing in
order to have more time for original work. Towards the end of
the year he began to investigate chloride of nitrogen, which had
just been discovered by P. L. Dulong, but was obliged to suspend
his inquiries during the winter on account of injury to his eye
caused by an explosion of that substance. In the spring of 18 13
he was engaged on the chemistry of fluorine, and though he
failed to isolate the element, he reached accurate conclusions
regarding its nature and properties. In October he started with
his wife for a continental tour, and with them, as " assistant
in experiments and writing," went Michael Faraday, who in the
previous March had been engaged as assistant "in the Royal
Institution laboratory. Having obtained permission from the
French emperor to travel in France, he went first to Paris, where
during his two months' stay every honour was accorded him,
including election as a corresponding member of the first class
of the Institute. He does not, however, seem to have recipro-
cated the courtesy of his French hosts, but gave offence by the
brusqueness of his manner, though his supercilious bearing,
according to his biographer, Dr Paris, was to be ascribed less to
any conscious superiority than to an " ungraceful timidity which
he could never conquer." Nor was his action in regard to iodine
calculated to conciliate. That substance, recently discovered
in Paris, was attracting the attention of French chemists when
he stepped in and, after a short examination with his portable
chemical laboratory, detected its resemblance to chlorine and
pronounced it an " undecompounded body." Towards the end
of December he left for Italy. At Genoa he investigated the
electricity of the torpedo-fish, and at Florence, by the aid of the
great burning-glass in the Accademia del Cimento, he effected
the combustion of the diamond in oxygen and decided that,
beyond containing a little hydrogen, it consisted of pure carbon.
Then he went to Rome and Naples and visited Vesuvius and
Pompeii, called on Volta at Milan, spent the summer in Geneva,
and returning to Rome occupied the winter with an inquiry into
the composition of ancient colours.

A few months after his return, through Germany, to London
in 1815, he was induced to take up the question of constructing
a miner's safety lamp. Experiments with samples of fire-damp
sent from Newcastle soon taught him that " explosive mixtures

of mine-damp will not pass through small apertures or tubes ";
and in a paper read before the Royal Society on the 9th of
November he showed that metallic tubes, being better con-
ductors of heat, were superior to glass ones, and explained that
the heat lost by contact with a large cooling surface brought
the temperature of the first portions of gas exploded below that
required for the firing of the other portions. Two further
papers read in January 1816 explained the employment of wire
gauze instead of narrow tubes, and later in the year the safety
lamps were brought into use in the mines. A large collection of
the different models made by Davy in the course of his inquiries
is in the possession of the Royal Institution. He took out no
patent for his invention, and in recognition of his disinterested-
ness the Newcastle coal-owners in September 181 7 presented him
with a dinner-service of silver plate. 1

In 1818, when he was created a baronet, he was commissioned
by the British government to examine the papyri of Herculaneum
in the Neapolitan museum, and he did not arrive back in England
till June 1820. In November of that year the Royal Society, of
which he had become a fellow in 1803, and acted as secretary
from 1807 to 1812, chose him as their president, but his personal
qualities were not such as to make him very successful in that
office, especially in comparison with the tact and firmness of
his predecessor, Sir Joseph Banks. In 1821 he was busy with
electrical experiments and in 1822 with investigations of the
fluids contained in the cavities of crystals in rocks. In 1823,
when Faraday liquefied chlorine, he read a paper which suggested
the application of liquids formed by the condensation of gases
as mechanical agents. In the same year the admiralty consulted
the Royal Society as to a means of preserving the copper sheath-
ing of ships from corrosion and keeping it smooth, and he sug-
gested that the copper would be preserved if it were rendered
negatively electrical, as would be done by fixing " protectors "
of zinc to the sheeting. This method was tried on several ships,
but it was found that the bottoms became extremely foul from
accumulations of seaweed and shellfish. For this reason the
admiralty decided against the plan, much to the inventor's
annoyance, especially as orders to remove the protectors already
fitted were issued in June 1825, immediately after he had
announced to the Royal Society the full success of his remedy.

In 1826 Davy's health, which showed signs of failure in 1823,
had so declined that he could with difficulty indulge in his
favourite sports of fishing and shooting, and early in 1827, after
a slight attack of paralysis, he was ordered abroad. After a
short stay at Ravenna he removed to Salzburg, whence, his illness
continuing, he sent in his resignation as president of the Royal
Society. In the autumn he returned to England and spent his
time in writing his Salmonia or Days of Flyfishing, an imitation
of The Compleat Angler. In the spring of 1828 he again left
England for Illyria, and in the winter fixed his residence at
Rome, whence he sent to the Royal Society his " Remarks on the
Electricity of the Torpedo, " written at Trieste in October. This,
with the exception of a posthumous work, Consolations in Travel,
or the Last Days of a Philosopher (1830), was the final production
of his pen. On the 20th of February 1829 he suffered a second
attack of paralysis which rendered his right side quite powerless,
but under the care of his brother, Dr John Davy (1791-1868),
he rallied sufficiently to be removed to Geneva, where he died on
the 29th of May.

Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy dis-
played characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits.
As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind
was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he
" had not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet

1 Davy's will directed that this service, after Lady Davy's death,
should pass to his brother, Dr John Davy, on whose decease, if he
had no heirs who could make use of it, it was to be melted and sold,
the proceeds going to the Royal Society " to found a medal to be
given annually for the most important discovery in chemistry any-
where made in Europe or Anglo-America." The silver produced
£736. and the interest on that sum is expended on the Davy medal,
which was awarded for the first time in 1877, to Bunsenand Kirchhoff
for their discovery of spectrum analysis.

DAWARI— DAWKINS

873

of his age," and Southey said that " he had all the elements of a
poet; he only wanted the art." In spite of his ungainly exterior
and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and illus-
tration won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his
experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge
went to hear him " to increase his stock of metaphors." The
dominating ambition of his life was to achieve fame, but though
that sometimes betrayed him into petty jealousy, it did not
leave him insensible to the claims on his knowledge of the
" cause of humanity," to use a phrase often employed by him
in connexion with his invention of the miners' lamp. Of the
smaller observances of etiquette he was careless, and his
frankness of disposition sometimes exposed him to annoyances
whichhe might have avoided by the exercise of ordinary tact.

See Dr J. A. Paris, The Life of Sir Humphry Davy (1831), vol. ii.
of which on pp. 450-456 gives a list of his publications. Dr John
Davy, Memoirs of Sir Humphry Davy (1836); Collected Works (with
shorter memoir, 1839) ; Fragmentary Remains, Literary and Scien-
tific (1858). T. E. Thorpe, Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher
(1896).

DAWARI, or Dauri, a Pathan tribe on the Waziri border of the
North- West Frontier Province of India. The Dawaris inhabit
the Tochi Valley (q.v.), otherwise known as Dawar or Daur, and
are a homogeneous tribe of considerable size, numbering 5200
fighting men. Though surrounded on all four sides by a Waziri
population they bear little resemblance to Waziris. They are
an agricultural and the Waziris a pastoral race, and they are
much richer than their neighbours. They thrive on a rich sedi-
mentary soil copiously irrigated in the midst of a country where
cultivable land of any kind is scarce and water in general hardly
to be obtained. But they pay a heavy tax in health and well-
being for the possession of their fertile acres. Fevers and other
ravaging diseases are bred in the wet sodden lands of the Tochi
Valley, lying at the bottom of a deep depression exposed to the
burning rays of the sun; and the effects of these ailments may be
clearly traced in the drawn or bloated features and the shrunken
or swollen limbs of nearly every Dawari that has passed middle
life. They have an evil name for indolence, drug-eating and
unnatural vices, and are morally the lowest of the Afghan races;
but in spite of these defects, and of the contempt with which they
are regarded by the other Afghan tribes, they have held their
own for centuries against the warlike and hardy Waziris. The
secret of this is that the Dawaris stand together, and the Waziris
do not, while the weaker race is gifted with infinite patience and
tenacity of purpose. With the advent of British government,
however, the Dawaris are now secured in the possession of their
ancestral lands.

See J. G. Lorimer, Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pushtu
(1902).

DAWES, HENRY LAURENS (1816-1903), American lawyer,
was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 30th of
October 1816. After graduating at Yale in 1839, he taught for a
time at Greenfield, Mass., and also edited The Greenfield Gazette.
In 1842 he was admitted to the bar and began the practice of
law at North Adams, where for a time he conducted The Tran-
script. He served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives
in 1 848-1 849 and in 1852, in the state Senate in 1850, and in the
Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853. From 1853 to
1857 he was United States district attorney for the western
district of Massachusetts; and from 1857-1875 he was a
Republican member of the national House of Representatives.
In 1875 he succeeded Charles Sumner as senator from Massa-
chusetts, serving until 1893. During this long period of
legislative activity he served in the House on the committees on
elections, ways and means, and appropriations, took a prominent
part in the anti-slavery and reconstruction measures during and
after the Civil War, in tariff legislation, and in the establishment
of a fish commission and the inauguration of daily weather
reports. In the Senate he was chairman of the committee on
Indian affairs, and gave much attention to the enactment of
laws for the benefit of the Indians. • On leaving the Senate, in
1893, he became chairman of the Commission to the Five Civil-
ized Tribes (sometimes called the Dawes Indian Commission),

and served in this capacity for ten years, negotiating with the
tribes for the extinction of the communal title to their land and
for the dissolution of the tribal governments, with the object
of making the tribes a constituent part of the United States. 1
Dawes died at Pittsfield, Mass., on the 5th of February 1903.

DAWES, RICHARD (1708-1766), English classical scholar,
was born in or near Market Bosworth. He was educated at the
town grammar school under Anthony Blackwall, and at Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow in 173 1.
His peculiar habits and outspoken language made him unpopular.
His health broke down in consequence of his sedentary life, and
it is said that he took to bell-ringing at Great St Mary's as a
restorative. He was a bitter enemy of Bentley, who he declared
knew nothing of Greek except from indexes. In 1738 Dawes was
appointed to the mastership of the grammar school, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, combined with that of St Mary's hospital. From all
accounts his mind appears to have become unhinged; his
eccentricities of conduct and continual disputes with his govern-
ing body ruined the school, and finally, in 1749, he resigned his
post and retired to Heworth, where he chiefly amused himself
with boating. He died on the 21st of March 1766. Dawes was
not a prolific writer. The book on which his fame rests is his
Miscellanea critica (1745), which gained the commendation of
such distinguished continental scholars as L. C. Valckenaer
and J. J. Reiske. The Miscellanea, which was re-edited by
T. Burgess (1781), G. C. Harles (1800) and T. Kidd (1817), for
many years enjoyed a high reputation, and although some
of the " canons " have been proved untenable and few can be
accepted universally, it will always remain an honourable and
enduring monument of English scholarship.

See J. Hodgson, An Account of the Life and Writings of Richard
Dawes (1828); H. R. Luard in Diet, of Nat. Biog.; J. E. Sandys,
Hist, of Classical Scholarship, ii. 415.

DAWISON, BOGUMIL (1818-1872), German actor, was born
at Warsaw, of Jewish parents, and at the age of nineteen went on
the stage. In 1839 he received an appointment to the theatre
at Lemberg in Galicia. In 1847 he played at Hamburg with
marked success, was from 1849 to 1854 a member of the Burg
theatre in Vienna, and then became connected with the Dresden
court theatre. In 1864 he was given a life engagement, but
resigned his appointment, and after starring through Germany
visited the United States in 1866. He died in Dresden on the 1st
of February 1872. Dawison was considered in Germany an actor
of a new type; a leading critic wrote that he and Marie Seebach
" swept like fresh gales over dusty tradition, and brushing aside
the monotony of declamation gave to their r61es more character
and vivacity than had hitherto been known on the German
stage." His chief parts were Mephistopheles, Franz Moor, Mark
Antony, Hamlet, Charles V., Richard III. and King Lear.

DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD (1838- ), English geologist
and archaeologist, was born at Buttington vicarage near
Welshpool, Montgomeryshire, on the 26th of December 1838.
Educated at Rossall School and Oxford, he joined the Geological
Survey in 1862, and in 1869 became curator of the Manchester
museum, a post which he retained till 1890. He was appointed
professor of geology and palaeontology in Owens College,
Manchester, in 1874. He paid special attention to the question
of the existence of coal in Kent, and in 1882 was selected by the
Channel tunnel committee to make a special survey of the French
and English coasts. He was also employed in the scheme of a
tunnel beneath the Humber. His chief distinctions, however,
were won in the realms of anthropology by his researches into the
lives of the cave-dwellers of prehistoric times, labours which
have borne fruit in his books Cave-hunting (1874); Early Man
in Britain (1880); British Pleistocene Mammalia (1866-1887).
He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867, and acted as
president of the anthropological section of the British Association
in 1882 and of the geological section in 1888.

1 The commission completed its labours on the 1st of July 1905,
after having allotted 20,000,000 acres of land among 90,000 Indians
and absorbed the five Indian governments into the national system.
The " five tribes " were the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek
and Seminole Indians.

8 74

DAWLISH— DAX

DAWLISH, a watering-place in the Ashburton parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, on the English Channel, near
the outflow of the Exe, 12 m. S. of Exeter by the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4003. It lies on a cove
sheltered by two projecting headlands. A small stream which
flows through the town is lined on both sides by pleasure-
grounds. Dawlish owes its prosperity to the visitors attracted,
in spring and early summer, by the warm climate and excellent
bathing. An annual pleasure fair is held on Easter Monday, and
a regatta in August or September. Until its sale in the 19th
century, the site of Dawlish belonged to Exeter cathedral, having
been given to the chapter by Leofric, bishop of Exeter, in 1050.

DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " dawing " or
" dawning," from an old verb " daw," 0. Eng. dagian, to
become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen), the time when
light appears (daws) in the sky in the morning. The dawn
colours appear in the reverse order of the sunset colours and
are due to the same cause. When the sun is lowest in both cases
the colour is deep red; this gradually changes through orange to
gold and brilliant yellow as the sun approaches the horizon.
These colours follow each other in order of refrangibility, repro-
ducing all the colours of the spectrum in order except the blue
rays which are scattered in the sky. The colours of the dawn
are purer and colder than the sunset colours since there is less
dust and moisture in the atmosphere and less consequent sifting
of light rays.

DAWSON, GEORGE (1821-1876), English nonconformist
divine, was born in London on the 24th of February 1821, and
was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and at the uni-
versity of Glasgow. In 1843 ne accepted the pastorate of the
Baptist church at Rickmansworth, and in 1844 a similar charge
at Mount Zion, Birmingham, where he attracted large congrega-
tions by his eloquence and his unconventional views. Desiring
freedom from any definite creed, he left the Baptist church and
became minister of the " Church of the Saviour," a building
erected for him by his supporters. Here he exercised a stimulat-
ing and varied ministry for nearly thirty years, gathering round
him a congregation of all types and especially of such as found the
dogmas of the age distasteful. He had much sympathy with the
Unitarian position, but was not himself a Unitarian. Indeed he
had no fixed standpoint, and discussed truths and principles
from various aspects. His sermons, though not particularly
speculative, were unconventional and quickening. He was the
friend of Carlyle and Emerson, and did much to popularize
their teachings, his influence being conspicuous, especially in
his demand for a high ethical standard in everyday life and his
insistence on the Christianization of citizenship. He was warmly
supported by Dr R. W. Dale, and by J. T. Bunce, editor of
The Birmingham Daily Post. Both Dawson and Dale were dis-
qualified as ministers from seats on the town council, but both
served on the Birmingham school board. Dawson also lectured
on English literature at the Midland Institute and helped to
found the Shakespeare Memorial library in Birmingham. He
died suddenly at King's Norton on the 30th of November 1876.
Four volumes of Sermons, two of Prayers and two of Biographical
Lectures were published after his death.

See Life by H. W. Crosskey (1876) and an article by R. W. Dale
in The Nineteenth Century (August 1877).

DAWSON, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1899), Canadian
geologist, was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, on the 30th of
October 1820. • Of Scottish descent, he went to Edinburgh to
complete his education, and graduated at the university in 1842,
having gained a knowledge of geology and natural history 'from
Robert Jameson. On his return to Nova Scotia in 1842 he
accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his first visit to that territory.
Subsequently he was appointed to the post of superintendent of
education (1850-1853); at the same time he entered zealously
into the geology of the country, making a special study of the
.fossil forests of the coal-measures. From these strata, in
company with Lyell (during his second visit) in 1852, he obtained
the first remains of an " air-breathing reptile " named Dendrer-
peton. He also described the fossil plants of the Silurian,

Devonian and Carboniferous rocks of Canada, for the Geological
Survey of that country (1871-1873). From 1855 to 1893 he
was professor of geology and principal of M'Gill University,
Montreal, an institution which under his influence attained a
high reputation. He was elected F.R.S. in 1862. When the
Royal Society of Canada was constituted he was the first to
occupy the presidential chair, and he also acted as president of
the British Association at its meeting at Birmingham in 1886,
and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Sir William Dawson's name is especially associated with the
Eozoon canadense, which in 1864 he described as an organism
having the structure of a foraminifer. It was found in the
Laurentian rocks, regarded as the oldest known geological
system. His views on the subject were contested at the time,
and have since been disproved, the so-called organism being now
regarded as a mineral structure. He was created C.M.G. in 1881,
and was knighted in 1 884. In his books on geological subjects he
maintained a distinctly theological attitude, declining to admit
the descent or evolution of man from brute ancestors, and holding
that the human species only made its appearance on this earth
within quite recent times. Besides many memoirs in the
Transactions of learned societies, he published Acadian Geology:
The geological structure, organic remains and mineral resources
of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island
(1855; ed. 3, 1878); Air-breathers of the Coal Period (1863);
The Story of the Earth and Man (1873; ed. 6, 1880); The Dawn of
Life (1875); Fossil Men and their Modem Representatives (1880);
Geological History of Plants (1888); The Canadian Ice Age
(1894). He died on the 20th of November 1899.

His son, George Mercer Dawson (1849-1901), was born at
Pictou on the 1st of August 1849, an d received his education at
M'Gill University and the Royal School of Mines, London, where
he had a brilliant career. In 1873 he was appointed geologist
and naturalist to the North American boundary commission,
and two years later he joined the staff of the geological survey
of Canada, of which he became assistant director in 1883, and
director in 1895. He was in charge of the Canadian government's
Yukon expedition in 1887, and his name is permanently written
in Dawson City, of gold-bearing fame. As one of the Bering Sea
Commissioners he spent the summer of 189 1 investigating the facts
of the seal fisheries on the northern coasts of Asia and America.
For his services there, and at the subsequent arbitration in Paris,
he was made a C.M.G. He was elected F.R.S. in 1891, and in
the same year was awarded the Bigsby medal by the Geological
Society of London. He was president of the Royal Society of
Canada in 1893. He died on the 2nd of March 1901. He was
the author of many scientific papers and reports, especially on
the surface geology and glacial phenomena of the northern and
western parts of Canada.

DAWSON CITY, or Dawson, the capital of the Yukon terri-
tory, Canada, on the right bank of the Yukon river, and in the
middle of the Klondyke gold region, of which it is the distributing
centre. It is situated in beautiful mountainous country, 1400 ft.
above the sea, and 1 500 m. from the mouth of the Yukon river.
It is reached by a fleet of river steamers, and has telegraphic
communication. Founded in 1896, its population soon reached
over 20,000 at the height of the gold rush; in 1901 it was officially
returned as 9142, and is now not more than 5000. The tempera-
ture varies from 90 F. in summer to 50° below zero in winter.
It possesses three opera-houses and numerous hotels, and is a
typical mining town, though even at first there was much less
lawlessness than is usually the case in such cities.

DAX, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Landes, 92 m. S.S.W. of Bordeaux,
on the Southern railway between that city and Bayonne. Pop.
(1906) 8585. The town lies on the left bank of the Adour, a
stone bridge uniting it to its suburb of Le Sablar on the right
bank. It has remains of ancient Gallo-Roman fortifications,
now converted into a promenade. The most remarkable building
in the town is the church of Notre-Dame, once a cathedral; it
was rebuilt from, 1656 to 1719, but still preserves a sacristy, a
porch and a fine sculptured doorway of the 13th century- The

DAY, JOHN— DAY

875

church of St Vincent, to the south-west of the town, derives its
name from the first bishop, whose tomb it contains. ' The church
of St Paul-les-Dax, a suburb on the right bank of the Adour,
belongs mainly to the 15th century, and has a Romanesque apse
adorned with curious bas-reliefs. On a hill to the west of Dax
stands a tower built in memory of the sailor and scientist Jean
Charles Borda, born there in 1733; a statue was erected to him
in the town in 1891 . Dax, which is well known as a winter resort,
owes much of its importance to its thermal waters and mud-
baths (the deposit of the Adour), which are efficacious in cases
of rheumatism, neuralgia and other disorders. The best-known
spring is the Fontaine Chaude, which issues into a basin 160 ft.
wide in the centre of the town. The principal of numerous bathing
establishments are the Grands Thermes, the Bains Sales, adjoin-
ing a casino, and the Baignots, which fringe the Adour and are
surrounded by gardens. Dax has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a communal college, a training
college and a library. It has salt workings, tanneries, saw-
mills, manufactures of soap and corks; commerce is chiefly
in the pine wood, resin and cork of the Landes, in mules,
cattle, horses and poultry.

Dax (Aquae Tarbellicae, Aquae Augustae, later D'Acqs) was
the capital of the Tarbelli under the Roman domination, when
its waters were already famous. Later it was the seat of a
viscounty, which in the nth century passed to the viscounts
of Beam, and in 1177 was annexed by Richard Cceur de Lion
to Gascony. The bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was
in 1801 attached to that of Aire.

DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?), English dramatist, was born at
Cawston, Norfolk, in 1574, and educated at Ely. He became
a sizar of Caius College, Cambridge, in 1592, but was expelled
in the next year for stealing a book. He became one of Hens-
lowe's playwrights, collaborating with Henry Chettle, William
Haughton, Thomas Dekker, Richard Hathway and Wentworth
Smith, but his almost incessant activity seems to have left him
poor enough, to judge by the small loans, of five shillings and
even two shillings, that he obtained from HensloWe. The first
play in which Day appears as part-author is The Conquest of
Brute, with the finding of the Bath (1598), which, with most of
his journeyman's work, is lost. A drama dealing with the early
years of the reign of Henry VI., The Blind Beggar of Bednal
Green (acted 1600, printed 1659), written in collaboration with
Chettle, is his earliest extant work. It bore the sub-title of The
Merry Humor of Tom Strowd, the Norfolk Yeoman, and was so
popular that second and third parts, by Day and Haughton,
were produced in the next year. The He of Guls (printed 1606),
a prose comedy founded upon Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia,
contains in its light dialogue much satire to which the key is now
lost, but Mr Swinburne notes in Manasses's burlesque of a Puritan
sermon a curious anticipation of the eloquence of Mr Chadband
in Bleak House. In 1607 Day produced, in conjunction with
William Rowley and George Wilkins, The Travailes of the Three
English Brothers, which detailed the adventures of Sir Thomas,
Sir Anthony and Robert Shirley.

The Parliament of Bees is the work on which Day's reputation
chiefly rests. This exquisite and unique drama, or rather masque,
is entirely occupied with " the doings, the births, the wars, the
wooings " of bees, expressed in a style at once most singular
and most charming. The bees hold a parliament under Prorex,
the Master Bee, and various complaints are preferred against
the humble-bee, the wasp, the drone and other offenders. This
satirical allegory of affairs ends with a royal progress of Oberon,
who distributes justice to all. The piece contains much for
which parallel passages are found in Dekker's Wonder of a
Kingdom (1636) and Samuel Rowley's (or Dekker's) Noble
Soldier (printed 1634). There is no earlier known edition of The
Parliament of Bees than that in 1641, but a persistent tradition
has assigned the piece to 1607. In 1608 Day published two
comedies, Law Trickes, or Who Would have Thought it? and
Humour out of Breath. The date of his death is unknown, but
an elegy on him by John Tatham, the city poet, was published
in 1640. The six dramas by John Day which we possess show

a delicate fancy and dainty inventiveness all his own. He pre-
served, in a great measure, the dramatic tradition of John Lyly,
and affected a kind of subdued euphuism. The Maydes Metamor-
phosis (1600), once supposed to be a posthumous work of Lyly's,
may be an early work of Day's. It possesses, at all events, many
of his marked characteristics. His prose Peregrinatic Scholastica
or Learninges Pilgrimage, dating from his later years, was printed
by Mr A. H. Bullen from a MS. of Day's. Considerations partly
based on this work have suggested that he had a share in the
anonymous Pilgrimage to Parnassus and the Return from
Parnassus. The beauty and ingenuity of The Parliament of
Bees were noted and warmly extolled by Charles Lamb; and
Day's work has since found many admirers.

His works, edited by A. H. Bullen, were printed at the Chiswick
Press in 1 88 1. The same editor included The Maydes Metamorphosis
in vol. i. of his Collection of Old Plays. The Parliament of Bees and
Humour out of Breath were printed in Nero and other Plays (Mermaid
Series, 1 888) , with an introduction by Arthur Symons. An apprecia-
tion by Mr A. C. Swinburne appeared in The Nineteenth Century
(October 1897).

DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789), British author, was born in
London on the 22nd of June 1748. He is famous as the writer
of Sandford and Merlon (1783-1789), a book for the young, which,
though quaintly didactic and often ridiculous, has had consider-
able educational value as inculcating manliness and independence.
Day was educated at the Charterhouse and at Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, and became a great admirer of J. J. Rousseau
and his doctrine of the ideal state of nature. Having independent
means he devoted himself to a life of study and philanthropy.
His views on marriage were typical of the man. He brought
up two foundlings, one of whom he hoped eventually to marry.
They were educated on the severest principles, but neither
acquired the, high quality of stoicism which he had looked for.
After several proposals of marriage to other ladies had been
rejected, he married an heiress who agreed with his ascetic
programme of life. He finally settled at Ottershaw in Surrey and
took to farming on philanthropic principles. He had many
curious and impracticable theories, among them one that all
animals could be managed by kindness, and while riding an
unbroken colt he was thrown near Wargrave and killed on the
28th of September 1789. His poem The Dying Negro, published
in 1773, struck the keynote of the anti-slavery movement.
It is also obvious from his other works, such as The Devoted
Legions (1776) and The Desolation of America (1777), that he
strongly sympathized with the Americans during their War of
Independence.

DAY (0. Eng. dmg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English
Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies "), in astronomy,
the interval of time in which a revolution of the earth on its axis
is performed. Days are distinguished as solar, sidereal or lunar,
according as the revolution is taken relatively to the sun, the
stars or the moon. The solar day is the fundamental unit of
time, not only in daily life but in astronomical practice. In the
latter case, being determined by observations of the sun, it is
taken to begin with the passage of the mean sun over the meridian
of the place, or at mean noon, while the civil day begins at mid-
night. A vigorous effort was made during the last fifteen years
of the 19th century to bring the two uses into harmony by begin-
ning the astronomical day at midnight. In some isolated cases
this has been done; but the general consensus of astronomers
has been against it, the day as used in astronomy being only a
measure of time, and having no relation to the period of daily
repose. The time when the day shall begin is purely a matter
of convenience. The present practice being the dominant one
from the time of Ptolemy until the present, it was felt that the
confusion in the combination of past and present astronomical
observations, and the doubts and difficulties in using the astro-
nomical ephemerides, formed a decisive argument against any
change.

The question of a possible variability in the length of the
day is one of fundamental importance. One necessary effect
of the tidal retardation of the earth's rotation is gradually to
increase this length. It is remarkable that the discussion of

876

DA YLESFORD— DAYTON

ancient eclipses of the moon, and their comparison with modern
observations, show only a small and rather doubtful change,
amounting perhaps to less than one-hundredth of a second
per century. As this amount seems to be markedly less than
that which would be-expected from the cause in question, it is
probable that some other cause tends to accelerate the earth's
rotation and so to shorten the day. The moon's apparent
mean motion in longitude seems also to indicate slow periodic
changes in the earth's rotation; but these are not confirmed
by transits of Mercury, which ought also to indicate them.
(See Moon and Tides.) (S. N.)

Legal Aspects. — In law, a day may be either a dies naturalis or
natural day, or a dies artificialis or artificial day. A natural day
includes all the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight.
Fractions of the day are disregarded to avoid dispute, though
sometimes the law will consider fractions, as where it is necessary
to show the first of two acts. In cases where action must be taken
for preserving or asserting a right, a day would mean the natural
day of twenty-four hours, but on the other hand, as in cases of
survivorship, for testamentary or other purposes, it would suffice
if a person survived for even the smallest portion of the last day
necessary.

When a statute directs any act to be done within so many
days, these words mean clear days, i.e. a number of perfect
intervening days, not counting the terminal days: if the statute
says nothing about Sunday, the days mentioned mean consecutive
days and include Sundays. Under some statutes {e.g. the Parlia-
mentary Elections Act 1868, the Corrupt and Illegal Practices
Prevention Act 1883) Sundays and holidays are excluded in
reckoning days, and consequently all the Sundays, &c, of a
prescribed sequence of days would be eliminated. So also, by
custom, the word " day " may be understood in some special
sense. In bills of lading and charter parties, when "days " or
" running days " are spoken of without qualification, they
usually mean consecutive days, and Sundays and holidays are
counted, but when there is some qualification, as where a charter
party required a cargo " to be discharged in fourteen days,"
" days " will mean working days. Working days, again, vary
in different ports, and the custom of the port will decide in each
case what are working days. In English charter parties, unless
the contrary is expressed, Christmas day and other recognized
holidays are included as working days. A weather working day,
a term sometimes used in charter parties, means a day when work
is not prevented by the weather, and unless so provided for, a
day on which work was rendered impossible by bad weather
would still be counted as a working day. Lay days, which are
days given to the charterer in a charter party either to load or
unload without paying for the use of the ship, are days of the
week, not periods of twenty-four hours.

Days of Grace. — When a bill of exchange is not payable at
sight or on demand, certain days (called days of grace, from
being originally a gratuitous favour) are added to the time of
payment as fixed by the bill, and the bill is then due and payable
on the last day of grace. In the United Kingdom, by the Bills of
Exchange Act 1882, three days are allowed as days of grace, but
when the last day of grace falls on Sunday, Christmas day, Good
Friday or a day appointed by royal proclamation as a public
fast or thanksgiving day, the bill is due and payable on the
preceding business day. If the lasMay of grace is a bank holiday
(other than Christmas day or Good Friday), or when the last day
of grace is a Sunday, and the second day of grace is a bank
holiday, the bill is due and payable on the succeeding business
day. Days of grace (dies non) are in existence practically among
English-speaking peoples only. They were abolished by the
French Code (Code de Commerce, Liv. i. tit. 8, art. 135), and by
most, if not all, of the European codes since framed.

Civil Days. — -An artificial or civil day is, to a certain extent,
difficult to define; it " may be regarded as a convenient term
to signify all the various kinds of ' day ' known in legal proceed-
ings other than the natural day '.' (Ency. English Law, tit.
" Day "). The Jews, Chaldeans and Babylonians began the
day at the rising of the sun; the Athenians at the fall; the

Umbri in Italy began at midday; the Egyptians and Romans
at midnight ; and in England, the United States and most of the
countries of Europe the Roman civil day still prevails, the day
usually commencing as soon as the clock begins to strike 12 p.m.
of the preceding day.

In England the period of the civil day may also vary under
different statutes. In criminal law the day formerly commenced
at sunrise and extended to sunset, but by the Larceny Act 1861
the day is that period between six in the morning and nine in
the evening. The same period of time comprises a day under the
Housing of the Working Classes Act 1885 and the Public Health
(London) Act 1891, but under the Public Health (Scotland) Act
1897 "day " is the period between 9 a.m. and 6 p.m. By an act
of 1845, regulating the labour of children in print-works, " day "
is defined as from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. Daytime, within which
distress for rent must be made, is from sunrise to sunset (Tulton
v. Darke, i860, 2 L.T. 361). An obligation to pay money on a
certain day is theoretically discharged if the money is paid before
midnight of the day on which it falls due, but custom has so far
modified this that the law requires reasonable hours to be
observed. If, for instance, payment has to be made at a bank
or place of business, it must be within business hours.

When an act of parliament is expressed to come into operation
on a certain day, it is to be construed as coming into operation
on the expiration of the previous day (Interpretation Act 1889,
§ 36; Statutes [Definition of Time] Act 1880).

Under the orders of the supreme court the word " day " has
two meanings. For purposes of personal service of writs, it
means any time of the day or night on week-days, but excludes
the time from twelve midnight on Saturday till twelve midnight
on Sunday. For purposes of service not required to be personal,
it means before six o'clock on any week-day except Saturday,
and before 2 p.m. on Saturday.

Closed Days, i.e. Sunday, Christmas day and Good Friday, are
excluded from all fixtures of time less than six days: otherwise
they are included, unless the last day of the time fixed falls on
one of those days (R.S.C., O. lxiv.).

American Practice.- — In the United States a day is the space
of time between midnight and midnight. The law pays no
regard to fractions of a day except to prevent injustice. A
" day's work " is by statute in New York fixed at eight hours
for all employees except farm and domestic servants, and for
employees on railroads at ten hours (Laws 1897, ch. 415). In
the recording acts relating to real property, fractions of a day
are of the utmost importance, and all deeds, mortgages and other
instruments affecting the property, take precedence in the order
in which they were filed for record. Days of grace are abolished
in many of the seventeen states in which the Negotiable Instru-
ments law has been enacted. Sundays and public holidays are
usually excluded in computing time if they are the last day
within which the act was to be done. General public holidays
throughout the United States are Christmas, Thanksgiving (last
Thursday in November) and Independence (July 4th) days
and Washington's birthday (February 22nd). The several
states have also certain local public holidays. (See also Month;
Time.) (T.A.I.)

DAYLESFORD, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia,
74 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 3384. It lies on
the flank of the Great Dividing Range, at an elevation of 2030 ft.
On Wombat Hill are beautiful public gardens commanding
extensive views, and a fine convent of the Presentation Order.
Much wheat is grown in the district, and gold-mining, both
quartz and alluvial, is carried on. Daylesford has an important
mining school. Near the town are the Hepburn mineral springs
and a number of beautiful waterfalls, and 6 m. from it is Mount
Franklin, an extinct volcano.

DAYTON, a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on
the S. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and adjoining
Bellevue and Newport, Ky. Pop. (1890) 4264; (1900) 6104 in-
cluding 655 foreign-born and 63 negroes; (1910) 6979. It is served
by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway at Newport, of which it is a
suburb, largely residential. It has manufactories of watch-cases

DAYTON— DEACON

877

and pianos, and whisky distilleries. In the city is the Speers
Memorial hospital. Dayton was settled and incorporated in
1840-

DAYTON, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county,
Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of Wolf Creek, Stillwater river
and Mad river with the Great Miami, 57 m. N.N.E. of Cincinnati
and about 70 m. W.S.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 61,220;
(1900) 85,333; (1910) 116,577. In 1900 there were 10,053
foreign-born and 3387 negroes ; of the foreign-born 6820 were
Germans and 1253 Irish. Dayton is served by the Erie,
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, and the Dayton & Union railways, by ten interurban
electric railways, centring here, and by the Miami & Erie Canal.
The city extends more than 5 m. from E. to W., and 35 m. from
N. to S., lies for the most part on level ground at an elevation of
about 740 ft. above sea-level, and numerous good, hard gravel
roads radiate from it in all directions through the surrounding
country, a fertile farming region which abounds in limestone, used
in the construction of public and private buildings. Among the
more prominent buildings are the court-house — the portion first
erected being designed after the Parthenon — the Steele high
school, St Mary's college, Notre Dame academy, the Memorial
Building, the Arcade Building, Reibold Building, the Algonquin
Hotel, the post office, the public library (containing about 75,000
volumes), the Young Men's Christian Association building and
several churches. At Dayton are the Union Biblical seminary,
a theological school of the United Brethren in Christ, and the
publishing house of the same denomination. By an agreement
made in 1907 the school of theology of Ursinus College (College-
ville, Pennsylvania; the theological school since 1898 had been
in Philadelphia) and the Heidelberg Theological seminary
(Tiffin, Ohio) united to form the Central Theological seminary of
the German Reformed Church, which was established in Dayton
in 1908. The boulevard and park along the river add attractive-
ness to the city. Among the charitable institutions are the Dayton
state hospital (for the insane), the Miami Valley and the St
Elizabeth hospitals, the Christian Deaconess, the Widows' and the
Children's homes, and the Door of Hope (for homeless girls);
and 1 m. W. of the city is the central branch of the National
Home for disabled volunteer soldiers, with its beautifully
ornamented grounds, about 1 sq. m. in extent. The Mad river is
made to furnish good water-power by means of a hydraulic canal
which takes its water through the city, and Dayton's manu-
factures are extensive and varied, the establishments of the
National Cash Register Company employing in 1907 about 4000
wage-earners. This company is widely known for its " welfare
work " on behalf of its operatives. Baths, lunch-rooms, rest-
rooms, clubs, lectures, schools and kindergartens have been
supplied, and the company has also cultivated domestic pride
by offering prizes for the best-kept gardens, &c. From April
to July 1 90 1 there was a strike in the already thoroughly union-
ized factories; complaint was made of the hectoring of union
men by a certain foreman, the use in toilet-rooms of towels
laundered in non-union shops (the company replied by allowing
the men to supply towels themselves) , the use on doors of springs
not union-made (these were removed by the company), and
especially the discharge of four men whom the company refused
to reinstate. The company was victorious in the strike, and the
factory became an " open shop." In addition to cash registers,
the city's manufactured products include agricultural implements,
clay-working machinery, cotton-seed and linseed oil machinery,
filters, turbines, railway cars (the large Barney-Smith car works
employed 1800 men in 1905), carriages and wagons, sewing-
machines (the Davis Sewing Machine Co.), automobiles, clothing,
flour, malt liquors, paper, furniture, tobacco and soap. The total
value of the manufactured product, under the " factory system,"
was $31,015,293 in 1900 and $39,596,773 in 1905. Dayton's
site was purchased in 1795 from John Cleves Symmes by a party
of Revolutionary soldiers, and it was. laid out as a town in 1796
by Israel Ludlow (one of the owners) , by whom it was named in
honour of Jonathan Dayton (1760-1824), a soldier in the War of

Independence, a member of Congress from New Jersey in 1791-
1799, and a United States senator in 1 790-1805. It was made
the county-seat in 1803, was incorporated as a town in 1805,
grew rapidly after the opening of the canal in 1828, and in 1841
was chartered as a city.

DEACON (Gr. Siaxovos, minister, servant), the name given
to a particular minister or officer of the Christian Church. The
status and functions of the office have varied in different ages and
in different branches of Christendom.

(a) The Ancient Church. — The office of deacon is almost as old
as Christianity itself, though it is impossible to fix the moment
at which it came into existence. Tradition connects its origin
with the appointment of " the Seven " recorded in Acts vi.
This connexion, however, is questioned by a large and increasing
number of modern scholars, on the ground that " the Seven "
are not called deacons in the New Testament and do not seem to
have been identified with them till the time of Irenaeus (a.d. 180).
The first definite reference to the diaconate occurs in St Paul's
Epistle to the Philippians (i. 1), where the officers of the Church
are described as " bishops and deacons " — though it is not
unlikely that earlier allusions are to be found in 1 Cor. xii. 28
and Romans xii. 7. In the pastoral epistles the office seems to
have become a permanent institution of the Church, and special
qualifications are laid down for those who hold it (1 Tim. iii. 8).
By the time of Ignatius (a.d. i 10) the " three orders " of the
ministry were definitely established, the deacon being the lowest
of the three and subordinate to the bishop and the presbyters.
The inclusion of deacons in the " three orders " which were
regarded as essential to the existence of a true Church sharply
distinguished them from the lower ranks of the ministry, and gave
them a status and position of importance in the ancient Church.

The functions attaching to the office varied at different times.
In the apostolic age the duties of deacons were naturally vague
and undefined. They were " helpers " or " servants " of the
Church in a general way and served in any capacity that was
required of them. With the growth of the episcopate, however,
the deacons became the immediate ministers of the bishop.
Their duties included the supervision of Church property, the
management of Church finances, the visitation of the sick, the
distribution of alms and the care of widows and orphans. They
were also required to watch over the souls of the flock and report
to the bishop the cases of those who had sinned or were in need of
spiritual help. " You deacons," says the Apostolical Constitu-
tions (4th century), " ought to keep watch over all who need
watching or are in distress, and let the bishop know." With the
growth of hospitals and other charitable institutions, however,
the functions of deacons became considerably curtailed. The
social work of the Church was transferred to others, and little by
little the deacons sank in importance until at last they came to
be regarded merely as subordinate officers of public worship,
a position which they hold in the Roman Church to-day, where
their duties are confined to such acts as the following: — censing
the officiating priest and the choir, laying the corporal on the
altar, handing the paten or cup to the priest, receiving from him
the pyx and giving it to the subdeacon, putting the mitre on
the archbishop's head (when he is present) and laying his pall
upon the altar.

(b) The Church of England. — The traditionary position of the
diaconate as one of the " three orders " is here maintained.
Deacons may conduct any of the ordinary services in the church,
but are not permitted to pronounce the absolution or consecrate
the elements for the Eucharist. In practice the office has become
a stepping-stone to the priesthood, the deacon corresponding
to the licentiate in the Presbyterian Church. Candidates for the
office must have attained the age of twenty-three and must
satisfy the bishop with regard to their intellectual, moral and
spiritual fitness. The functions of the office are defined in the
Ordinal — " to assist the priest in divine service and specially
when he ministereth the Holy Communion, to read Holy
Scriptures and Homilies in the church, to instruct the youth in
the catechism, to baptize in the absence of the priest, to preach
if he be admitted thereto by the bishop, and furthermore to search

878

DEACONESS— DEAD SEA

for the sick, poor and impotent people and intimate their estates
and names to the curate."

(c) Churches of the Congregational Order. — In these (which of
course include Baptists) the diaconate is a body of laymen
appointed by the members of the church to act as a management
committee and to assist the minister in the work of the church.
There is no general rule as to the number of deacons, though the
traditionary number of seven is often kept, nor as to the fre-
quency of election, each church making its own arrangements
in this respect. The deacons superintend the financial affairs of
the church, co-operate with the minister in the various branches
of his work, assist in the visitation of the sick, attend to the
church property and generally supervise the activities of the
church.

See Thomassinus, Vetus ac nova disciplina, pars i. lib. i. c. 51 f.
and lib. ii. c. 29 f. (Lugdunum, 1706); J. N. Seidl, Der Diakonat in
der katholischen Kirche (Regensburg, 1884) ; R. Sohm, Kirchenrecht,
i. 121-137 (Leipzig, 1892); F. J. A. Hort, The Christian Ecclesia
(London, 1897).

DEACONESS (17 Siclkovos or SiaKoviaaa, servant, minister),
the name given to a woman set apart for special service in the
Christian Church. The origin and early history of the office are
veiled in obscurity. It is quite certain that from the 3rd century
onward there existed in the Eastern Church an order of women,
known as deaconesses, who filled a position analogous to that of
deacons. They are quite distinct from the somewhat similar
orders of " virgins " and " widows," who belonged to a lower
plane in the ecclesiastical system. The order is recognized in the
canons of the councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451), and
is frequently mentioned in the writings of Chrysostom (some of
whose letters are addressed to deaconesses at Constantinople),
Epiphanius, Basil, and indeed most of the more important
Fathers of the 4th and 5th centuries. Deaconesses, upon enter-
ing their office, were ordained much in the same way as deacons,
but the ordination conveyed no sacerdotal powers or authority.
Epiphanius says quite distinctly that they were woman-elders
and not priestesses in any sense of the term, and that their
mission was not to interfere with the functions allotted to priests
but simply to perform certain offices in connexion with the care of
women. Several specimens of the ordination service for deacon-
esses have been preserved (see Cecilia Robinson, The Ministry of
Deaconesses, London, 1878, appendix B, p. 197). The functions
of the deaconess were as follows: (1) To assist at the baptism of
women, especially in connexion with the anointing of the body
which in the ancient Church always preceded immersion; (2) to
visit the women of the Church in their homes and to minister
to the needs of the sick and afflicted; (3) according to the Apos-
tolical Constitutions they acted as door-keepers in the church,
received women as they entered and conducted them to their
allotted seats. In the Western Church, on the other hand, we
hear nothing of the order till the 4th century, when an attempt
seems to have been made to introduce it into Gaul. Much
opposition, however, was encountered, and the movement was
condemned by the council of Orange in 441 and the council of
Epaone in 517. In spite of the prohibition the institution made
some headway, and traces of it are found later in Italy, but it
never became as popular in the West as it was in the East. In the
middle ages the order fell into abeyance in both divisions of the
Church, the abbess taking the place of the deaconess. Whether
deaconesses, in the later sense of the term, existed before 250
is a disputed point. The evidence is scanty and by no means
decisive. There are only three passages which bear upon the
question at all. (i) Romans xvi. 1 : Phoebe is called r\ Slolkovos,
but it is quite uncertain whether the word is used in its technical
sense, (ii) 1 Tim. iii. 1 1 : after stating the qualifications neces-
sary for deacons the writer adds, " Women in like manner must
be grave— not slanderers," &c; the Authorized Version took
the passage as referring to deacons' wives, but many scholars
think that by " women " deaconesses are meant, (iii) In Pliny's
famous letter to Trajan respecting the Christians of Bithynia
mention is made of two Christian maidservants " quae ministrae
dicebantur "; whether ministrae is equivalent to Siaicovot., as is
often supposed, is dubious. On the whole the evidence does not

seem sufficient to prove the contention that an order of deacon-
esses — in the ecclesiastical sense of the term — existed from the
apostolic age.

In modern times several attempts have been made to revive
the order of deaconesses. In 1833 Pastor Fleidner founded " an
order of deaconesses for the Rhenish provinces of Westphalia "
at Kaiserswerth. The original aim of the institution was to train
nurses for hospital work, but its scope was afterwards extended
and it trained its members for teaching and parish work as well.
Kaiserswerth became the parent of many similar institutions
in different parts of the continent. A few years later, in 1847,
Miss Sellon formed for the first time a sisterhood at Devonport
in connexion with the Church of England. Her example was
gradually followed in other parts of the country, and in 1898
there were over two thousand women living together in different
sisterhoods. The members of these institutions do not repre-
sent the ecclesiastical deaconesses, however, since they are not
ministers set apart by the Church; and the sisterhoods are merely
voluntary associations of women banded together for spiritual
fellowship and common service. In 1861 Bishop Tait set apart
Miss Elizabeth Ferard as a deaconess by the laying on of hands,
and she became the first president of the London Deaconess
Institution. Other dioceses gradually adopted the innovation.
It has received the sanction of Convocation, and the Lambeth
Conference in 1897 declared that it " recognized with thankful-
ness the revival of the office of deaconess," though at the same
time it protested against the indiscriminate use of the title and
laid it down emphatically that the name must be restricted to
those who had been definitely set apart by the bishop for the
position and were working under the direct supervision and
control of the ecclesiastical authority in the parish.

In addition to Miss Robinson's book cited above, see Church
Quarterly Review, xlvii. 302 ff., art. " On the Early History and
Modern Revival of Deaconesses " (London, 1899), and the works
there referred to; D. Latas, Xpioticu'ikt) 'ApxaioXoyia, i. 163-171
(Athens, 1883); Testamentum Domini, ed. Rahmani (Mainz, 1899);
L. Zscharnack, Der Dienst der Frau in den ersten Jahrhunderten der
chr. Kirche (1902).

DEAD SEA, a lake in Palestine occupying the deepest part of
the valley running along the line of a great " fault " that has been
traced from the Gulf of Akaba (at the head of the Red Sea) to
Hermon. This fracture was caused after the end of the Eocene
period by the earth-movement which resulted in the raising of the
whole region out of the sea. Level for level, the more ancient
rocks are on the eastward side of the lake: the cretaceous lime-
stones that surmount the older volcanic substrata come down
on the western side to the water's edge, while on the eastern side
they are raised between 3000 and 4000 feet above it. In the
Pleistocene period the whole of this depression was filled with
water forming a lake about 200 m. long north to south, whose
waters were about the same level as that of the Mediterranean
Sea. With the diminishing rainfall and increased temperature
that followed that period the effects of evaporation gradually
surpassed the precipitation, and the waters of the lake slowly
diminished to about the extent which they still display.

The length of the sea is 47 m., and its maximum breadth is
about 95 m.; its area is about 340 sq. m. It lies nearly north
and south. Its surface being 1 289-1300 ft. below the level of the
Mediterranean Sea, it has of course no outlet. It is bounded on
the north by the broad valley of the Jordan; on the east by the
rapidly rising terraces which culminate in the Moabite plateau,
3100 ft. above the level of the lake; on the south by the desert
of the Arabah, which rises to the watershed between the Dead
and the Red Sea — 655 m. from the former, 465 from the latter;
height 660 ft. — and on the west by the Judean mountains which
attain a height of 3300 ft. On the east side a peninsula, El-Lisan
(" the tongue "), of white calcareous marl with beds of salt and
gypsum, divides the sea into two unequal parts: this peninsula
is about 50 ft. high, and is connected by a narrow strip of marsh-
land with the shore. Its northern and southern extremities
have been named Cape Costigan and Cape Molyneux, in memory
of two explorers who were among the first in modern times to
navigate the sea and succumbed to the consequent fever and

DEAD SEA

879

exhaustion. North of the peninsula the lake has a maximum
depth of 1278 ft.; south of it the water is nowhere more than
12 ft., and in some places only 3 ft. The surface level of the lake
varies with the season, and recent observations taken on behalf
of the Palestine Exploration Fund seem to show that there
are probably cyclical variations also (ultimately dependent on
the rainfall), the nature and periodicity of which there are as
yet no sufficient data to determine. In 1858 there was a small
island near the north end rising 10 or 12 ft. above the surface
and connected with the shore by a causeway; this has been
submerged since 1892; and owing to the gradual rise of level
within these years the fords south of the Lisan, and the pathway
which formerly rounded the Ras Feshkhah, are now no longer
passable.

The slopes on each side of the sea are furrowed with water-
courses, some of them perennial, others winter torrents only.
The chief affluents of the sea are as follows: — on the north,
Jordan and 'Ain es-Suweimeh; on the east Wadis Ghuweir,
Zerka Ma'in (Callirrhoe), Mojib (Arnon), Ed-Dera'a, and el-
Hesi; on the west, Wadis Muhawat and Seyal, 'Ain Jidi
(En-Gedi), Wadi el Merabbah, 'Ain Ghuweir, Wadi el-Nar,
'Ain Feshkhah. The quantity of water poured daily into the
sea is not less than 6,000,000 tons, all of which has to be carried
off by evaporation. The consequence of the ancient evaporation,
by which the great Pleistocene lake was reduced to its present
modest dimensions, and of the ceaseless modern daily evapora-
tion, is the impregnation of the waters of the lake with salts and
other mineral substances to a remarkable degree. Ocean water
contains on an average 4-6% of salts: Dead Sea water contains
25%. The following analysis, by Dr Bernays, gives the contents
of the water more accurately: —

:ific gravity 1-1528 at

15-5° C.

Calcium carbonate .

70-00 grains

Calcium sulphate .

I63-39

Magnesium nitrate .

175-01

Potassium chloride .

. . .

1089-06

Sodium chloride

5106-00

Calcium chloride

594-46

Magnesium chloride

7388-21

Magnesium bromide

.

345-8o

Iron and aluminium oxides

10-50

Organic matter, water of crystalliza

tion, loss

317-57

Total residue per gallon

1526000

The density of the water averages 1-166. It increases from
north to south, and with the depth. The increase is at first rapid,
then, after reaching a certain point, becomes more uniform. At
300 metres its density is 1-253. The boiling point is 221 F.
To the quantity of solid matter suspended in its water the Dead
Sea owes, beside its saltness, its buoyancy and its poisonous
properties. The human body floats on the surface without
exertion. Owing principally to the large proportion of chloride
and bromide of magnesia no animal life can exist in its water.
Fish, which abound in the Jordan and in the brackish spring-fed
lagoons that exist in one or two places around its shores (such as
'Ain Feshkhah), die in a very short time if introduced into the
main waters of the lake. The only animal life reported from the
lake has been some tetanus and other bacilli said to have been
found in its mud; but this discovery has not been confirmed.
To the chloride of calcium is due the smooth and oily feeling of
the water, and to the chloride of magnesia its disagreeable taste.
In Roman times curative properties were ascribed to the waters:
Mukaddasi (a.d. 985) asserts that people assembled to drink it
on a feast day in August. The salt of the Dead Sea is collected
and sold in Jerusalem : smuggling of salt (which in Turkey is a
government monopoly) is a regular occupation of the Bedouin.
The bitumen which floats to shore is also collected. The origin
of this bitumen is disputed: it was supposed to be derived from
Subaqueous strata of bituminous marl and rose to the surface
when loosened by earthquakes. It is, however, now more gener-
ally believed that it exists in the breccia of some of the valleys
on the west side of the lake, which is washed into the sea and

submerged, till the small stones by which it is sunk are loosened
and fall out, when the bitumen rises to the surface.

History. — The earliest references to the sea or its basin are in
the patriarchal narratives of Lot and Abraham, the most striking
being the destruction of the neighbouring cities of Sodom and
Gomorrah. (See Sodom.) The biblical name is the Salt Sea, the
Sea of the Arabah (the south end of the Jordan valley), or the
East Sea. The name in Josephus is Asphaltites, referring to
the bituminous deposits above alluded to. The modern name is
Bahr Lut or " Sea of Lot " — a name hardly to be explained as a
survival of a vague tradition of the patriarch, but more probably
due to the literary influences of the Hebrew Scriptures and the
Koran filtering through to the modern inhabitants or their
ancestors. The name Dead Sea first appears in late Greek writers,
as Pausanias and Galen. At En-Gedi on its western bank David
for a while took refuge. South of it is the stronghold of Masada,
built by Jonathan Maccabaeus and fortified by Herod in 42 B.C.,
where the last stand of the Jews was made against the Romans
after the fall of Jerusalem, and where the garrison, when the
defences were breached, slew themselves rather than fall into
Roman hands.

The sea has been but little navigated. Tacitus and Josephus
mention boats on the lake, and boats are shown upon it in the
Madeba mosaic. The navigation dues formed part of the revenue
of the lords of Kerak under the crusaders. In modern times
navigation is practically nil. The lake, with the whole Jericho
plain, is claimed as the personal property of the sultan.

The medieval travellers brought home many strange legends
of the sea and its peculiarities — some absurd, others with a basis
of fact. The absence of sea-birds, due to the absence of fish,
probably accounts for the story that no birds could fly over it.
The absence of vegetation on its shores, due to the scanty
rainfall and general want of fresh water — except in the neigh-
bourhood of springs- like 'Ain Feshkhah and 'Ain Jidi, where
a luxuriant subtropical vegetation is found — accounts for the
story that no plant could live in the poisonous air which broods
over the sea. The mists, due to the great heat and excessive
evaporation, and the noxious miasmata, especially of the southern
region, were exaggerated into the noisome vapours that the
" black and stinking " waters ever exhaled. The judgment on
Sodom and Gomorrah (which of course they believed to be under
the waters of the lake, in accordance with the absurd theory
first found in Josephus and still often repeated) blinded these
good pilgrims to the ever-fresh beauty of this most lovely
lake, whose blue and sparkling waters lie deep between rocks
and precipices of unsurpassable grandeur. The play of brilliant
colours and of ever-changing contrasts of light and shade on
those rugged mountain-sides and on the surface of the sea itself
might have been expected to appeal to the jnost prosaic. The
surface of the sea is generally smooth (seldom "however, absolutely
inert as the pilgrims represented it), but is frequently raised by
the north winds into waves, which, owing to the weight and
density of the water, are often of great force.

The first to navigate the sea in modern times was an Irish
traveller, Costigan by name, in August and September 1835.
Owing largely to the folly of his Greek servant, who, without
his master's knowledge, threw overboard the drinking-water to
lighten the boat, the explorer after circumnavigating the sea
reached Jericho in an exhausted condition, and was there attacked
by a severe fever. The greatest difficulty was experienced in
obtaining assistance for him, but he was ultimately conveyed
on camel -back to Jerusalem, where he died; his grave is in the
Franciscan cemetery there. His fate was shared by his successor,
a British naval officer, Lieutenant Molyneux (1847), whose party
was attacked and robbed by Bedouins. W. F. Lynch, an American
explorer (1848), equipped by the United States government, was
more successful, and he may claim to be the first who examined
its shores and sounded its depths. Since his time the due de
Luynes, Lartet, Wilson, Hull, Blanckenhorn, Gautier, Libbey,
Masterman and Schmidt, to name but a few, have made contri-
butions to our knowledge of this lake;- but still many problems
present themselves for solution. Among these may be mentioned

88o

DEADWOOD— DEAF AND DUMB

(i) the explanation of a . remarkable line of white foam that
extends along the axis of the lake amost every morning — sup-
posed by Blanckenhorn to mark the line of a fissure, thermal and
asphaltic, under the bed of the lake, but otherwise explained
as a consequence of the current of the Jordan, which is not
completely expended till it reaches the Lisan, or as a result of
the mingling of the salt water with the brackish spring water
especially along the western shore; (2) a northward current
that has been observed along the east coast; (3) various disturb-
ances of level, due possibly to differences of barometric pressure;
(4) some apparently electrical phenomena that have been ob-
served in the valley. Before we can be said to know all that
we might regarding this most interesting of lakes further exten-
sive scientific observations are necessary; but these are extremely
difficult owing to the impossibility of maintaining self-registering
instruments in a region practically closed to Europeans for
nearly half the year by the stifling heat, and inhabited only
by Bedouins, who are the worst kind of ignorant, thievish and
mischievous savages. (R. A. S. M.)

DEADWOOD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
South Dakota, U.S.A., about 180 m. W. of Pierre. Pop. (1890)
2366; (1900) 3498, of whom 707 were foreign-born; (1905) 4364;
(1910) 3653. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
and the Chicago & North- Western railways. It lies on hilly
ground in the canyon of Whitewood Creek at an elevation of about
4530 ft. Deadwood is the commercial centre of the Black Hills.
About it are several gold mines (including the well-known Home-
stake mine), characterized by the low grade of their ores (which
range from $2 to $8 per ton), by their vast quantity, and by the
ease of mining and of extracting the metal. The ore contains
free gold, which is extracted by the simple process of stamping
and amalgamation, and refractory values, extracted by the
cyaniding process. Several hundred tons of ore are treated
thus in Deadwood and its environs daily, -and its stamp mills
are exceeded in size only by those of the Tread well mine in S.E.
Alaska, and by those on the Rand in South Africa. The discovery
of gold here was made known in June 1875, and in February
1877 the United States government, after having purchased the
land from the Sioux Indians, opened the place for legal settle-
ment.

DEAF AND DUMB. 1 The term " deaf " is frequently applied
to those who are deficient in hearing power in any degree, how-
ever slight, as well as to people who are unable to detect the
loudest sounds by means of the auditory organs. It is impossible
to draw a hard and fast line between the deaf and the hearing at
any particular point. For the purposes of this article, however,
that denotation which is generally accepted by educators of the
deaf may be given to the term. This makes it refer to those who
are so far handicapped as to be incapable of instruction by the
ordinary means of wie ear in a class of those possessing normal
hearing. Paradoxical though it may seem, it is yet true to say
that " dumbness " in our sense of the word does not, strictly
speaking, exist, though the term " dumb " may, for all practical
purposes, fairly be applied to many of the deaf even after they
are supposed to have learnt how to speak. Oral teachers now
confess that it is not worth while to try to teach more than a
large percentage of the deaf to speak at all. We are not con-
cerned with aphasia, stammering or such inability to articulate
as may be due to malformation of the vocal organs. In the case
of the deaf and dumb, as these words are generally understood,
dumbness is merely the result of ignorance in the use of the voice,
this ignorance being due to the deafness. The vocal organs are
perfect. The deaf man can laugh, shout, and in fact utter any
and every sound that the normal person can. But he does not
speak English (if that happens to be his nationality) for the same
reason that a French child does not, which is that he has never
heard it. There is in fact no more a priori reason why an English

1 The two words are common to Teutonic languages, cf . Ger. taub
and dumm (only in the sense of " stupid "), Dutch doof and dom; the
original meaning seems to have been dull of perception, stupid,
obtuse, and the words may be ultimately related. The Gr. tw£X6s
blind, and tB</k>s, smoke, mist, probably show the same base.

baby, born in England, should talk English than that it should
talk any other language. English may be correctly described
as its " mother tongue," but not its natural language; the only
reason why one person speaks English and another Russian is
that each imitated that particular language which he heard
in infancy. This, imitation depends upon the ability to hear.
Hence if one has never heard, or has lost hearing in early child-
hood, he has never been able to imitate that language which his
parents and others used, and the condition of so-called dumbness
is added to his deafness. From this it follows that if the sense of
hearing be not lost till the child has learnt to speak fluently, the
ability to speak is unaffected by the calamity of deafness, except
that after many years the voice is likely to become high-pitched,
or too guttural, or peculiar in some other respect, owing to the
absence of the control usually exercised by the ear. It also
follows that, to a certain extent, the art of speech can be taught
the deaf person even though h« were born deaf. Theoretically,
he is capable of talking just as well as his hearing brother, for
the organs of speech are as perfect in one as in the other, except
that they suffer from lack of exercise in the case of the deaf man.
Practically, he can never speak perfectly, for even if he were
made to attempt articulation as soon as he is discovered to be
deaf, the fact that the ear, the natural guide of the voice, is useless,
lays upon him a handicap which can never be wiped out. He
can never hear the tone of his teacher's voice nor of his own ; he
can only see small and, in many instances, scarcely discernible
movements of the lips, tongue, nose, cheeks and throat in those
who are endeavouring to teach him to speak, and he can never
hope to succeed in speech through the instrumentality of such
unsatisfactory appeals to his eye as perfectly as the hearing child
can with the ideal adaptation of the voice to the ear. Sound
appeals to the ear, not the eye, and those who have to rely upon
the latter to imitate speech must suffer by comparison.

Deafness then, in our sense, means the incapacity to be
instructed by means of the ear in the normal way, and dumb-
ness means only that ignorance of how to speak one's mother
tongue which is the effect of the deafness.

Of such deaf people many can hear sound to some extent.
Dr Kerr Love quotes several authorities (Deaf Mutism, pp. 58 ff.)
to show that 50 or 60% are absolutely deaf, while 25 % can
detect loud sounds such as shouting close to the ear, and the rest
can distinguish vowels or even words. He himself thinks that
not more than 15 or 20% are totally deaf — sometimes only 7 or
8%; that ability to hear speech exists in about one in four,
while ten or fifteen in each hundred are only semi-deaf. He
rightly warns against the use of tuning forks or other in-
struments held on the bones of the head as tests of hearing,
because the vibration which is felt, not heard, may very often
be mistaken for sound.

Dr Edward M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbia Institution
for the Deaf in Washington, D.C., suggests the following terms
for use in dividing the whole class of the deaf into its main sections,
though it is obviously impossible to split them up into perfectly
defined subdivisions, where, as a matter of fact, you have each
degree of deafness and dumbness shading into the next: — the
speaking deaf, the semi-speaking deaf, the mute deaf (or deaf-mute),
the speaking semi-deaf, the mute semi-deaf, the hearing mute and
the hearing semi-mute. He points out that the last two classes are
usually persons of feeble mental power. We should exclude these
altogether from the list, since their hearing is, presumably, perfect,
and should add the semi-speaking semi-deaf before the mute
semi-deaf. This would give two main divisions — those who
cannot hear at all, and those who have partial hearing — with
three subsections in each main division — those who speak,
those who have partial speech and those who do not speak at all.
Where the hearing is perfect it is paradoxical to class a person
with the deaf, and the dumbness in such a case is due (where
there is no malformation of the vocal organs) to inability of the
mind to pay attention to, and imitate, what the ear really hears.
In such cases this mental weakness is generally shown in other
ways besides that of not hearing sounds. Probably no sign will
be given of recognizing persons or objects around; there will be

DEAF AND DUMB

881

in fact, a general incapacity of the whole body and senses. It
is incorrect to designate such persons as deaf and feeble-minded
or deaf and idiotic, because in many cases their organs of hearing
are as perfect as are other organs of their body, and they are no
moredeaf than blind, though they may pay no attention to what
they hear any more than to what they see. They are simply
weak in intellect, and this is shown by the disuse of any and all of
their senses; hence it is incorrect to classify them according to
one, and one only, of the evidences of this mental weakness.

Extent of Deafness. — The following table shows the number of deaf
and dumb persons in the United Kingdom at successive censuses: —

Year.

Number of Deaf and Dumb Persons.

United
Kingdom.

England
& Wales.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
' 1901

17,649
20,224

19,159
20,573
20,781

21,855

10,314
12,236
11,518

13,295
14,192

15,246

2155
2335
2087
2142
2125
2638

5i8o
5653
5554
5136
4464
3971

From this we find that the proportion of deaf and dumb to the
population has been as follows: —

Year.

Proportion of Deaf and Dumb to the Population.

United
Kingdom.

England
& Wales.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901

1 in 1550
1 in 1430
1 in 1642
1 in 1694
1 in 1814
1 in 1897

1 in 1739
1 in 1639
1 in 1972
1 in 1953
1 in 2040
1 in 2132

1 in 1340
1 in 1310
1 in 1610
1 in 1745
1 in 1893
1 in 1694

1 in 1264
1 in 1025
1 in 974
1 in 1008
1 in 1053
I in 1 122

There has, therefore, been on the whole a steady decrease of those
described as " deaf and dumb " in proportion to the population in
Great Britain and Ireland. But in the census for 1901, in addition
to the 15,246 returned as " deaf and dumb " in England and Wales,
18,507 were entered as being " deaf," 2433 of whom were described
as having been " deaf from childhood."

Mr B. H. Payne, the principal of the Royal Cambrian Institution,
Swansea, makes the following remarks upon these figures : —

" The natural conclusion, of course- is that there has been a large
increase, relative as well as absolute, of the class in which we are
interested, which we call the deaf, and which includes the deaf and
dumb. Indeed, the number, large as it is, cannot be considered as
complete, for the schedules did not require persons who were only
deaf to state their infirmity, and, though many did so, it may be
presumed that more did not.

" On the other hand, circumstances exist which may reasonably
be held to modify the conclusion that there has been a large relative
increase of the deaf. The spread of education, the development of
local government, and an improved system of registration, may have
had the effect of procuring fuller enumeration and more appro-
priate classification than heretofore, while 1368 persons described
simply as dumb, and who therefore probably belong, not to the deaf,
but to the feeble-minded and aphasic classes, are included in the
' deaf and dumb ' total. It is also to be noted that some of those
who described themselves as ' deaf ' though not born so may have
been educated in the ordinary w^iy before they lost their hearing,
and are therefore outside the sphere of the operation of schools for
the deaf.

" In connexion with the census of 1891, it has been remarked in the
report of the institution that no provision was made in the schedules
for distinguishing the congenital from the non-congenital deaf, and
that it was desirable to draw such a distinction. To ascertain the
relative increase or decrease of one or the other section of the class
would contribute to our knowledge of the incidence of known causes
of deafness or to the confirmation or discovery of other causes, and
so far indicate the appropriate measures of prevention, while such an
inquiry as that recommended has, besides, a certain bearing upon
educational views.

" The exact number of ' deaf and dumb ' and ' deaf ' children who
are of school age cannot be ascertained from the census tables, which
give the numbers in quinquennial age-groups, while the school age
is seven to sixteen. It is a pity that in this respect the functions of
the census department are not co-ordinated with those of the Board
qf Education."

Dr John Hitz.the superintendent of the VoltaBureau for thelncrease
of Knowledge Relating to the Deaf, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., gives
the number of schools for deaf children, and pupils, in different
countries in 1900 as follows: —

Africa.

Country.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

Algeria
Egypt

Cape Colony
Natal

1
1

4
1

3

2

9 1
2

37
6

77
7

7

16 >

127

Asia.

Country.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

China
India
Japan

3
3
3

10
13

24

43

73

337

9

47

453

Australasia.

Country.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

Australia .
New Zealand

6

1

41

5

282
50

7 .

46

332

Europe.

Country.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

Austria-Hungary

38

291

2440

Belgium

12

181

1265

Denmark .

5

57

348

France

7i

598

4098

Germany .

99

798

6497

Great Britain

95

462

4222

Italy

47

234

2519

Luxemburg

1

3

22

Netherlands

3

74

473

Norway

5

54

309

Portugal

2

9

64

Rumania

1

3

46

Russia, Finland,

Livonia

34

118

1719

Servia

2

2 l

26 1

Spain

11

60

462

Sweden

9

124

726

Switzerland

14 .

84

650

Turkey

1

450 .

3152

25,886

North America.

Country.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

Canada
United States
Mexico
Cuba

7

126

1

1

130

1347

13

768

10,946

46

135

1490

11,760

South America.

Country.

Argentine .
Brazil
Chile
Uruguay

Schools.

Teachers.

18
9

7

34

Pupils.

133
35
61

229

Incomplete.

882

DEAF AND DUMB

Summary.

Continent.

Schools.

Teachers.

Pupils.

Africa

7

16

127

Asia .

9

47

453

Australia .

7

46

332

Europe

450

3152

25,886

North America .

135

1490

11,760

South America

7

34

229

6i5

4785

38,787

These figures refer only to deaf children who are actually under
instruction, not to the whole deaf population.

While it is gratifying to find that so much is being done in the way
of educating this class of the community, the number of schools in
most parts of the world is still lamentably inadequate. For instance,
taking the school age as from seven to sixteen, which is now made
compulsory by Act of Parliament in Great Britain, and assuming
that 20% of the deaf population are of that age, as they are in
England, there should be 40,000 deaf pupils under instruction in
India alone, whereas there are but seventy-three. There are 200,000
deaf of all ages in India. And what an enormous total should be in
schools in China instead of forty-three! The whole of the rest of
Asia, with the exception of Japan, has apparently not a single school.
There must be many thousands of thousands of deaf (hundreds of
thousands, if not thousands of thousands of whom are of school age)
in that continent, unless indeed they are destroyed, which is not
impossible. What are we to say of Africa, where only 100 pupils are
being taught; of South America, with its paltry 200, and Australia's
300? To come to Europe itself, Russia should have many times
more pupils than her 1700. Even in Great Britain the education of
the deaf was not made compulsory till 1893, and there are many still
evading the law and growing up uneducated. Mr Payne of Swansea
estimated (Institution Report, 1903-1904) from the 1901 census, that
there must be approximately 204 deaf of school age in South Wales
and Monmouthshire, while only 144 were accounted for in all the
schools in that district according to Dr Hitz's statistics.

Dr Kerr Love (Deaf Mutism, p. 217) gives the following table,
which shows the number of deaf people, in proportion to the
population in the countries named ':— ■

Switzerland .

Austria

Hungary

Sweden

Prussia

Finland

Canada

Norway

Germany (exclusive of Prussia)

Portugal

Ireland

India .

United States

Denmark

Greece

France

Italy

Scotland

Cape Colony

England

Spain

Belgium

Australasia .

Holland

Ceylon

408

765

792

977

981

981

1003

1052

1074

1333

1398 l

1459

I5H

1538

1548

1600

1862

I8851

1904

2043 l

2178

2247

2692

2985
4328

According to a tabu'ar statement of British and Colonial schools,
Tune 1899, the proportion of those born deaf to those who lost
hearing after birth was, at that time and in those countries, 2126
to 1 25 1, as far as returns had been made. Several schools had,
however, failed to give statistics. These figures show a proportion of
nearly 59 % congenitally deaf persons to over 41 % whose deafness
is acquired. Professor Fay, whose monumental work, Marriages of
the Deaf in America, deserves particular attention; mentions (p. 38)
that of 23,931 persons who attended American schools for the deaf
up to the year 1890, 9842, or 41 %, were reported as congenitally deaf,
and 14,089, or 59 %, as adventitiously deaf, — figures which exactly
reverse those just quoted. The classification of deafness acquired
in infancy with congenital deafness by some other authorities (giving
rise to the rather absurd term " toto-congenital " to describe the
latter) is unscientific. There is reason for the opinion that the non-
congenital, even when hearing has been lost in early infancy, acquire
language better, and it is a mistake from any point of view to include
them in the born deaf.

1 The figures for England, Scotland and Ireland, according to the
1901 census, are different and have been given above.

Other statistics vary very much as to the proportion of born deaf,
some being as low as a quarter, and some as high as three-quarters,
of the whole class. We can only say, speaking of both sides of the
Atlantic, and counterbalancing one period with another, that the
general average appears to be about 50% for each. Probably the
percentage varies in different places for definite reasons, which we
shall now briefly consider.

Causes of Deafness. — These may be considered in two divisions,
pre-natal and post-natal.

1. Pre-Natal. — A small percentage of these is due,' it seems,
to malformation of some portion of the auditory apparatus.
Another percentage is known to represent the children of the
intermarriage of blood relations. Dr Kerr Love (Deaf Mutism,
p. 117) gives statistics from thirteen British institutions which
show that on a general average at least 8% of the congenitally
deaf are the offspring of such marriages. Besides this, little is
known. Beyond all doubt a much larger percentage of deaf
children are the offspring of marriages in which one or both
partners were born deaf than of ordinary marriages. But
inquiries into such phenomena have generally been directed
towards tracing deafness and not consanguinity, or at least the
inquirer has rarely troubled to make sure whether the grand-
parents or great T grandparents on either side were relations or
not. Such investigations rarely go beyond ascertaining if the
parents were related to each other, though we have proof that
a certain tendency towards any particular abnormality may not
exhibit itself in every generation of the family in question. To
give an illustration, suppose that G is a deaf man. Several
inquirers may trace back to the preceding generation F, and to
the grandparents E, and even to the great-grandparents D, in
search of an ancestor who is deaf, and such they may discover
in the third generation D." But probably not one of these
several inquirers will ask G if any of his grandparents or great-
grandparents married a cousin, for instance, though they may ask
if his father did. To continue this hypothetical case, the investi-
gators will again trace back along the family tree to generations
C, B and A in search of an original deaf ancestor, on whose
shoulders they seek to lay the blame of both D's and G's deafness.
Not finding any such, they will again content themselves with
asking if D's parents (generation C) were blood relations or not,
and, receiving an answer in the negative, desist from further
inquiry in this direction, assuming that D's deafness is the original
cause of G's deafness. They do not, we fear, inquire if any grand-
parents or great-grandparents (hearing people) were related,
with the same persistency as they ask if any were deaf. The
search for deafness is pushed through several generations, the
search for consanguinity is only extended to one generation.
Perhaps if it were carried further, it would be discovered that A
married his niece, and there lay the secret of the deafness in both
D and G. In other words, the deafness in D is not the cause of
that in G, but the deafness in both D and G are effects of the
consanguineous marriage in A. All this is, however, merely by
way of suggestion. We submit that if deafness in one generation
may be followed by deafness two or even three generations later,
while the tendency to deafness exists, but does not appear, in the
intermediate generations, it is only logical to inquire if deafness in
the first discoverable instance in a family may not be caused by
consanguinity, the effect of which is not seen for two or three
generations in a similar manner. Moreover it is probable that
consanguinity in parents or grandparents may often be denied.
An exhaustive investigation along these lines is desirable, for we
believe that congenital deafness would be proved to be due to
consanguinity in hearing people, if the search were pushed far
enough back and the truth were told, in a far greater percentage
of cases than is now suspected. This is not disproved by quoting
numbers of cases where no deafness follows consanguinity in
any generation, for resulting weakness may be shown (where it
exists) in many other ways than by deafness.

This theory receives support from the statistics quoted by
Dr Kerr Love (Deaf Mutism, p. 132), where the percentage of
defective children resulting from the consanguineous marriages
of hearing people increases in almost exact proportion to the
nearness of affinity of the parents. It is further borne out by

DEAF AND DUMB

883

statistics of the duchy of Nassau, and of Berlin, both quoted by
Dr Kerr Love (pp. 119, 120). These show 1 deaf person in 1307
Roman Catholics, 1 101 Evangelicals and 508 Jews in the former
case, and 1 in 3000 Roman Catholics, 2000 Protestants and 400
Jews in the latter.' When we are told that " Roman Catholics
prohibit marriages between persons who are near blood relations,
Protestants view such marriages as permissible, and Jews
encourage intermarriage with blood relations," these figures
become suggestive. We find the same greater tendency to deaf-
ness in thinly-populated and out-of-the-way districts and
countries where, owing to the circle of acquaintances being
limited, people are more likely to marry relations.

With regard to the question of marriages of the deaf, Professor
Edward Allen Fay's work is so complete that the results of his six
years' labour are particularly worthy of notice, for, as the introduc-
tion states, the book is a " collection of records of marriages of the
deaf far larger than all previous collections put together," and it
deals in detail with 4471 such marriages. The summary of statistics
is as follows (Marriages of the Deaf in America, p. 134) : —

Marriages of the
Deaf.

Number of
Marriages.

Number of
Children.

Percentage.

•- c

Ul'C

c a.

;es re-
1 deaf
ing.

a

Total.

3 O

CO

ai g
■0

Total.

Deaf.

Marriag

suiting ii

offspri

One or' both partners

deaf

3078

300

6782

588

9-7

8-6

Both partners deaf .

2377

220

5072

429

9-2

8-4

One partner deaf, the

other hearing

599

75

1532

151

12-5

9-8

One or both partners

congenitally deaf .

1477

194

3401

413

I3-I

I2-I

One or both partners

adventitiously deaf

2212

124

4701

199

5-6

4-2

Both partners con-

genitally deaf

335

83

779

202

24-7

25-9

One partner congenit-

ally deaf, the other

adventitiously deaf

814

66

1820

119

8-1

6-5

Both partners adven-

titiously deaf

845

30

1720

40

3-5

2-3

One partner congenit-

ally deaf, the other

hearing .

191

28

528

63

14-6

119

One partner adven-

titiously deaf, the

other hearing

310

10

713

16

3-2

2-2

Both partners had

deaf relatives

437

103

1060

222

23-5

20-9

One partner had deaf

relatives, the other

had not

541

36

1210

78

6-6

6-4

Neither partner had

deaf relatives

471

11

1044

13

2-3

1-2

Both partners con-

genitally deaf; both

had deaf relatives

172

49

429

130

28-4

30-3

Both partners con-

genitally deaf; one
had deaf relatives,

the other had not .

49

8

105

21

16-3

20-0

Both partners congen-

itally deaf; neither

had deaf relatives

14

I

24

1

7-i

4-1

Both partners ad-

ventitiously deaf ;

both had deaf re-

latives .

57

10

114

11

17-5

96

Both partners adven-

titiously deaf ; one

had deaf relatives,
the other had not .

167

7

357

10

4-1

2-8

Both partners ad-

ventitiously deaf;

neither had deaf

relatives

284

2

550

2

0-7

0-3

Partners consanguine-

■

ous

31

14

100

30

45-1

3O'0

One point deserves special attention in the above list. It is that
where there are no deaf relatives (i.e. where there has not been a
history of deafness in the family) only one child out of twenty-four
is deaf, even when the parents were both born deaf themselves.
Where there were deaf relatives already in the family on both sides,
and the parents were born deaf, the percentage of deaf children is
seven and a half times as great. This seems to show that there are
causes of congenital deafness which are, comparatively speaking,
unlikely to be transmitted to future generations, while other causes
of congenital deafness are so liable to be perpetuated that one child
in every three is deaf. We conjecture that one original cause of con-
genital deafness which reappears in a family is consanguinity — for
instance, the intermarriage of first or second cousins (hearing people)
in some previous generation. Out of the 2245 deaf persons who were
born deaf, 269 had parents who were blood relations, according to
Fay. And perhaps many more refrained from acknowledging the
fact. Eleven had grandparents who were cousins. This theory
calls for investigation, and while the marriage of deaf people is not
encouraged, it is fair to ask those who so strenuously oppose such
unions whether they may not be spending their energies on trying to
check an effect instead of a cause, and if that cause may not really
be consanguinity,' — witness the percentage of deaf people among
Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews before noticed. On the
principle that prevention is better than cure it is the intermarriage
of cousins and other relations which should be discouraged. The
marriage of deaf people is inadvisable where there has been deafness
in the family in former generations, but the same warning applies
to all the other members of that family, for the hearing members are
as likely to transmit the defect of which deafness is a symptom as the
deaf members are. We are more concerned to discover the primary
cause of the defect, and take steps to prevent the latter from occurring
at all. Those who have no dissuasions for hearing people, who might
perhaps cause the misery, and only give counsel to those among the
transmitters of it who happen to be deaf, are acting in a manner
which is hardly logical.

2. Post-Natal. — We have collected and grouped the stated
causes of deafness in those partners of the marriages in America
noticed by Fay. About a hundred and thirty did not mention
how they lost hearing. Any errors in this calculation must be
less than 1 % at most, and can make no material difference.
In some cases two or more diseases are given as the cause of
deafness. In such cases where one is a very common cause
of deafness, and the other is unusual, the former is credited
with being the reason for the defect. Where both are common,
we have divided the cases between them in a rough pro-
portion.

Scarlet fever 973 ; scarlatina 3 ; scarlet rash 2 978

Spotted fever 260; meningitis 92; spinal meningitis 76;
cerebro-spinal meningitis 70 ; spinal fever 28 ; spinal
disease 8 ; congestion of spine 2 . . . . . 536

Brain fever 309; inflammation of brain 62 ; congestion of brain

30 ; disease in brain 3 . . . . . . . 404

Typhoid 127; " fever " (unspecified) 117; typhus 17; inter-
mittent fever 14; bilious fever 11 ; other fevers 14 . 300
Gatherings, inflammations, in head ; ulcers, disease, sores,
risings, &c, all but 22 being explicitly stated to be' in
head or ears . . . . . . . . 276

" Sickness " 167; " illness " 49; " disease " 8; no definite

specification 12 ....... 236

Measles . . . . . . . . . .191

Colds 101 ; colds in head, &c. 35; catarrh 19; catarrhal fevers

10; chills, &c. 17 ....... 182

Whooping cough 77 ; diphtheria 34 ; lung fever, and various

diseases of lungs and throat 60 . . . . . 171

Falls . . . . . . . . . . 143

Fits and convulsions 58; spasms 18; teething 16 . . . "92
Scrofula 35 ; mumps 25 ; swellings on neck 2 . . .62

Many various and unusual causes ..... 60

Smallpox 8; chickenpox 6r, cholera, &c. 7; canker, &c. 11;

erysipelas 13 . . . . . . . 45

Paralysis, &c. 12; nerve diseases 12; fright 8; palsy 3 . -35

Hydrocephalus 14; dropsy on brain or in head 17; dropsy 2 33

Various accidents, blows, kicks, &c. . . . . 31

Quinine 22 ; other medicines 7 ...... 29

Total 3804

We have counted a hundred and thirty of those who were
returned as having lost hearing who were also stated to be the
offspring of consanguineous marriages.

884

DEAF AND DUMB

Dr Kerr Love {Deaf Mutism, p. 150) gives the following list com
piled from the registers of British institutions
Scarlet fever
Miscellaneous causes

Teething, convulsions, &c. .
Meningitis, brain fever, &c.
Measles ....
Falls and accidents .
Enteric and other fevers .
Disease, illness, &c. .
Whooping cough
Suppurative ear diseases .
Syphilis ....

331
175
171
166

138

122

119

37

33

18

2

131 2

Unknown causes ........ 98

The same writer quotes Hartmann's table, compiled in 1880 from
continental statistics, as follows : —
Cerebral affections, inflammations, convulsions
Cerebro-spinal meningitis
Typhus .
Scarlatina

Measles .
Ear disease, proper
Lesions of the head
Other diseases .

644

295

260

205

84

77
70

354
1989

There appears to be no cure for deafness that is other than
partial; but with the advance of science preventive treatment
is expected to be efficacious in scarlet fever, measles, &c.

Condition of the Deaf.

1. In Childhood.— -It is difficult to impress people with two
facts in connexion with teaching language to the average child
who was born deaf, or lost hearing in early infancy. One is the
necessity of the undertaking, and the other is that this necessity
is not due to mental deficiency in the pupil. To the born
deaf-mute in an English-speaking country English is a foreign
language. His inability to speak is due to his never having heard
that tongue which his mother uses. The same reason holds good
for his entire ignorance of that language. The hearing child does
not know a word of English when he is born, and never would
learn it if taken away from where it is spoken. He learns English
unconsciously by imitating what he hears. The deaf child never
hears English, and so he never learns it till he goes to school.
Here he has to start learning English — or whatever is the
language of his native land — in the same way as a hearing boy
learns a foreign language.

But another reason exists which renders his task'much more
difficult than that of a normal English schoolboy learning, say,
German. The latter has two channels of information, the eye
and the ear • the deaf boy has only one, the eye. The hearing boy
learns German by what he hears of it in class as well as by reading
it; the deaf boy can only learn by what he sees. It is as if you
tried to fill two cisterns of the same capacity with two inlets to
one and only one inlet to the other; supposing the inlets to be
the same size, the former will fill twice as fast. So it is in the
case of the hearing boy as compared with his deaf brother. The
cerebral capacity and quality are the same, but in one case one
of the avenues to the brain is closed, and consequently the
development is less rapid. Moreover, the thoughts are precisely
those which would be expected in people who form them only
from what they see. We were often asked by our deaf playmates
in our childhood such questions (in signs) as " What does the cat
say?"—" The dog talks, does he not ? "—"Is the rainbow very
hot on the roof of that house? " They have often told us such
things as that they used to think someone went to the end of the
earth and climbed up the sky to light the stars, and to pour down
rain through a sieve.

But there is yet a third disadvantage for the already handi-
capped deaf boy. He has no other language to build upon, while
the other has his mother tongue with which to compare the
foreign language he is learning. The latter already has a general
idea of sentences and clauses, of tense and mood, of gender,

number and case, of substantives, verbs and prepositions; and
he knows that one language must form some sort of parallel
to another. He is already prepared to find a subject, predicate
and object, in the sentence of a foreign language, even when he
knows not a word of any but his own mother tongue. If he is
told that a certain word in German is an adjective, he understands
what its function is, even when he has yet to learn the meaning
of the word. All this goes for nothing in the case of the deaf
pupil. The very elementary fact that certain words denote
certain objects — that there is such a class of word as substan-
tives — comes as a revelation to most deaf children.' They have
to begin at seven laboriously and artificially to learn what an
ordinary baby has unconsciously and naturally discovered at the
age of two. English, spoken, written, printed or finger-spelled,
is no more natural, comprehensible or easy of acquirement to the
deaf than is Chinese. The manual alphabet is simply one way of
expressing the vernacular on the fingers; it is no more the deaf-
mute's " riatural " language than speech or writing, and if he
cannot express himself by the latter modes of communicating,
he cannot by spelling on the fingers. The last is simply a case of
vicaria linguae manus. None of these are languages in them-
selves; whether you use pen or type, hand or voice, you are but
adopting one or other method of expressing one and the same
tongue — English or whatever it may be, that of a " people of a :
strange speech and of a hard language, whose words they cannot
understand." The deaf child's natural mode of communication
— more natural to him than any verbal language is to hearing
people — is the world-wide, natural language of signs.

2. Natural Language of the Deaf. — We have just called signs a
natural language. While a purist might properly object to this
adjective being applied to all signs, yet it is not an unfair term to'
use as regards this method of conversing as a whole, even .in the
United States, where signs, being to a great extent the French
signs invented by de l'Epee, are more artificial than in England.
The old story, by the way, of the pupil of de l'Epee failing to
write more than " hand, breast," as describing what an incredu-
lous investigator did when he laid his hand on his breast, proves
nothing. In all probability he had no idea that he was expected
to describe an action, and thought that he was being asked the
names of certain parts of the body. The hand was held out to
him and he wrote " hand." Then the breast was indicated by
placing the hand on it, and he wrote " breast." Moreover, the
artificial element is much less pronounced than is supposed by
most of those who are loudest in their condemnation of signs,
there being almost invariably an obvious connexion between the
sign and idea. : These critics are generally people whose acquaint-
ance with the subject is rather limited, and the thermometer of
Whose zeal in waging war against gestures generally falls in pro-
portion as the photometer of their knowledge about them shows
an increasing light. We may go still further and point out that
to object to any sign on the ground of artificiality per se, is to
strain at the gnat and to swallow the camel, for English itself
is one of the most artificial languages in existence, and certainly
is more open to such an objection than signs. If we apply. the
same test to English that is applied to signs by those who would
rule out any which they suppose cannot come under the head of
natural gesture or pantomime, what fraction of our so-called
natural language should we have left? For a spoken word to be
" natural " in this sense it must be onomatopoetic, and what
infinitesimal percentage of English words are such ? A foreigner,
unacquainted with the language, could not glean the drift of a
conversation in English, except perhaps a trifle from the tone of
the voices and more from the natural signs used — the smiles and
frowns, the expressions of the faces, the play of eyes, lips, hands
and whole body. The only words he could possibly understand
without such aids are some such onomatopoetic words as the cries
of animals — " mew," " chirrup," &c, and a few more like
"bang" or "swish."

The reason why we insist emphatically upon the importance
of teaching English in schools for the deaf in English-speaking
countries, is, firstly, because that is the language which the pupil
will be called upon to use in his intercourse with his fellow-men

DEAF AND DUMB

885

after he leaves school, and secondly, because, if his grasp of that
tongue only be sufficient and his interest in books be properly
aroused, he can go on educating himself in after-life by means
of reading. Time tables are overcrowded with kindergarten,
clay modelling, wood-carving, carpentry, and other things which
are excellent in themselves. But there is not time for everything,
and these are not as important in the case of the deaf pupil as
language. Putting aside the question of religion and moral
training, we consider the flooding of their minds with general
knowledge, and the teaching of English to enable them to express
their thoughts to their neighbours, to be of paramount importance,
so paramount that all other branches of education in their turn
pale into insignificance by comparison with these, while the
question of methods of instruction should be subservient to these
main ends. Too many make speech in itself an end. This is a
mistake. Speech is not in itself English; it is only one way of
expressing that language. And we are little concerned to inquire
by what means the deaf pupil expresses himself in English so long

" Observations. — People speak of ' manual signs.' Of course there
are signs which are made with the hands only, as there are others
which are labial, &c. But the sign language is comprehensive, and at
times the whole frame is engaged in its use. A late American teacher
could and did ' sign ' a story to his pupils with his hands behind him.
Facial expression plays an important part in the language. Sympa-
thetic gestures are individualistic and spontaneous, and are some-
times unconsciously made. The speaker, feeling that words are
inadequate, reinforces them with gesture. Arbitrary signs are, e.g.,
drumming with three separated fingers on the chin for ' uncle.'
Grammatical signs are those which are used for inflections, parts of
speech, or letters as in the manual alphabet, and some numerical
signs, though other numerals may be classed as natural ; also signs
for sounds, and even labial signs. Signs, whether natural or arbi-
trary, which gain acceptance, especially if they are shortened, are
' conventional.' ' Mimic action ' refers, e.g., to the sign for sawing,
the side of one hand being passed to and fro over the side or back of
the other._ ' Pantomime ' means, e.g., when the signer pretends to
hang up his hat and coat, roll up his sleeves, kneel on his board, guide
the saw with his thumb, saw through, wipe his forehead, &c."

Illustrations of one style of numerical signs are given below.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 80

90

100

1

Fig. 1

as he does so express himself, whether by speech or writing, or
finger-spelling — for if he can finger-spell he can write. It is not
the mere fact that he can make certain sounds or write certain
letters or form the alphabet on his hands that should signify. It
is the actual language that he uses, whatever be the means,
and the thoughts that are enshrined in the language, that should
be our criterion when judging of his education.

The importance of English is insisted upon because to place the
deaf child in touch with his English-speaking fellow-men we must
teach him their language, and also because he can thereby edu-
cate himself by means of books if, and when, he has a sufficient
command of that language. The reason is not because the
vernacular is actually superior to signs as a means of conversation.
. The sign language is quite equal to the vernacular as a means of ex-
pression. The former is as much our mother tongue, if we may say
so, as the latter; we used one language as soon as the other, in
our earliest infancy; and, after a lifelong experience of both, we
affirm that signs are a more beautiful language than English, and
provide possibilities of a wealth of expression which English does
not possess, and which probably no other language possesses.

That others whose knowledge of signs is lifelong hold similar
opinions is shown by the following extract from The Deaf and
their Possibilities, by Dr Gallaudet: —

" Thinking that the question may arise in the minds of some,
' Does the sign language give the deaf, when used in public ad-
dresses, all that speech affords to the hearing? ' I will say that my
experience and observation lead me to answer with a decided affirm-
ative. On occasions almost without number it has been my privilege
to interpret, through signs to the deaf, addresses given in speech;
I have addressed hundreds of assemblages of deaf persons in the
college, in schools I have visited, and elsewhere, using signs for the
original expression of thought ; I have seen many more lectures and
public debates given originally in signs; I have seen conventions of
deaf-mutes in which no word was spoken, and yet all the forms of
parliamentary proceedings were observed, and the most earnest, and
even excited, discussions were carried on. I have seen the ordinances
of religion administered, and the full service of the Church rendered
in signs ; and all this with the assurance growing out of my complete
understanding of the language — a knowledge which dates from my
earliest childhood— that for all the purposes enumerated gestural
expression is in no respect inferior, and is in many respects superior,
to oral, verbal utterance as a means of communicating ideas."

The following is an analysis of the sign language given by Mr
Payne of the Swansea Institution, together with his explanatory

" Analysis of the Sign Language.
I. Facial expression.

[1. Sympathetic ~) ^ *.- 1

H. Gestured 2. Representative ( = Natural signs) I Conventional
V Systematic (a) Arbitrary signs f u^ a V (
. \b) Grammatical signsj shortened form -

III. Mimic action.

IV. Pantomime.

Units are signified with the palm turned inwards; tens with the
palm turned outwards; hundreds with the fingers downwards;
thousands with the left hand to the right shoulder; millions with
the hand near the forehead. For 12, sign 10 outwards and 2
inwards, and so on up to 19. 21 = 2 outwards, I inwards, and so
on up to 30. 146=1 downwards, 4 outwards, 6 inwards.
207,837 = 2 downwards, 7 inwards (both at shoulder), 8 down-
wards, 3 outwards, 7 inwards. 599,126,345 = 5 downwards,
9 outwards, 9 inwards (all near forehead) ; 1 downwards, 2
outwards, 6 inwards (all at shoulder) ; 3 downwards, 4 outwards,
5 inwards (in front of chest).

Only the third, and a few of the second, subdivision of the
second section of the above classes of signs can be excluded when
talking of signs as being the deaf-mute's natural language. In
fact we hesitate to call representative gesture — e.g. the horns and
action of milking for " cow," the smelling at something grasped
in the hand for " flower," &c. — conventional at all, except when
shortened as the usual sign for " cat " is, for instance, from the
sign for whiskers plus stroking the fur on back and tail plus the
action of a cat licking its paw and washing its face, to the sign for
whiskers only.

The deaf child expresses himself in the sign language of his
own accord. The supposition that in manual or combined schools
generally they "teach them signs" is incorrect, except that
perhaps occasionally a few pupils may be drilled and their signs
polished for a dramatic rendering of a poem at a prize distribu-
tion or public meeting, which is no more " teaching them signs "
than training hearing children to recite the same poem orally and
polishing their rendering of it is teaching them English. If the
deaf boy meets with some one who will use gesture to him, a
new sign will be invented as occasion requires by one or other to
express a new idea, and if it be a good one is tacitly adopted
to express that idea, and so an entire language is built up. It
follows that in different localities signs will differ to a great
extent, but one who is accustomed to signing can readily see the
connexion and understand what is meant even when the signs
are partly novel to him. We are sometimes asked if we can
make a deaf child understand abstract ideas by this language.
Our answer is that we can, if a hearing child of no greater age
and intelligence can understand the same ideas in English. Signs
are particularly the best means of conveying religious truths to
the deaf. If you wish to appeal to him, to impress him, to reach
his heart and his sympathies (and, incidentally, to offer the best
possible substitute for music), use his own eloquent language of
signs. We have conversed by signs with deaf people from all
parts of the British Isles, from France, Norway and Sweden,
Poland, Finland, Italy, Russia, Turkey, the United States, and
found that they are indeed a world-wide means of communication,

886

DEAF AND DUMB

even when we wandered on to most unusual and abstract sub-
jects. Deaf people in America converse with Red Indians with
ease thereby, which shows how natural the generality of even
de l'Epee signs are. The sign language is everybody's natural
language, not only the deaf-mute's.

Addison {Deaf Mutism, p. 283) quotes John Bulwer as follows: —
" What though you (the deaf and dumb) cannot express your minds
in those verbal contrivances of man's invention : yet you want not
speech who have your whole body for a tongue, having a language
which is more natural and significant, which is common to you with
us, to wit, gesture, the general and universal language Of human
nature." The same writer says further on (p. 297) : " The same
process of growth goes on alike with the signs of the deaf and dumb
as with the spoken words of the hearing. Arnold, than whom no
stronger advocate of the oral method exists, recognizes this in his
comment on this principle of the German school, for he writes: 'It
is much to be regretted that teachers should indulge in unqualified
assertions of the impossibility of deaf-mutes attaining to clear con-
ceptions and abstract thinking by signs or mimic gestures. Facts
are against them.' Again, Graham Bell, who is generally considered
an opponent of the sign system, says: ' I think that if we have the
mental condition of the child alone in view without reference to
language, no language will reach the mind like the language of signs;
it is the method of reaching the mind of the deaf child.' "

The opinions of the deaf themselves, from all parts of the world, '
are practically unanimous on this question. In the words of Dr
Smith, president of the World's Congress of the Deaf held at St
Louis, Missouri, in 1904, under the auspices of the National Associa-
tion of the Deaf, U.S.A., " the educated deaf have a right to be heard
in these matters, and they must and shall be heard." A portion
may be quoted of the resolutions passed at that congress of 570 of
the best-informed deaf the world has ever seen, at least scores, if not
hundreds, of them holding degrees, and being as well educated as the
vast majority of teachers of the deaf in England: " Resolved, that
the oral method, which withholds from the congenitally and quasi-
congenitally deaf the use of the language of signs outside the school-
room, robs the children of their birthright; that those champions of
the oral method, who have been carrying on a warfare, both overt
and covert, against the use of the language of signs by the adult deaf,
are not friends of the deaf ; and that, in our opinion, it is the duty
of every teacher of the deaf, no matter what method he or she uses,
to have a working command of the sign language.' '

It is often urged as an objection to the use of signs that those
who use them think in them, and that their English (or other
vernacular language) suffers in consequence. There is, however,
no more objection to thinking in signs than to thinking in any
other language, and as to the second objection, facts are against
such a statement. The best-educated deaf in the world, as a class,
are in America, and the American deaf sign almost to a man.
It is true that at first a beginner in school may, when at a loss how
to express himself in words, render his thoughts in sign-English,
if we may use the expression, just as a schoolboy will sometimes
put Latin words in the English order. That is, the deaf pupil
puts the word in the natural order of the signs, which is really the
logical order, and is much nearer the Latin sequence of words
than the English. But, firstly, if he had always been forbidden
to use signs he would not express himself in English any better
in that particular instance; he would simply not attempt to
express himself at all, — so he loses nothing, at least; and
secondly, it is perfectly easy to teach him in a very short time
that each language has its own idiom and that the thought is
expressed in a different order in each.

Of the deaf child's moral condition nothing more need be said
than that it is at first exactly that of his hearing brother, and his
development therein depends entirely upon whether he is trained
to the same degree. The need of this is great. He is quite as
capable of religious and moral instruction, and benefits as much
by what he receives of it. Happiness is a noticeable feature of the
character of the deaf when they are allowed to mix with each
other. The charge of bad temper can usually be sustained only
when the fault is on the side of those with whom they live. For
instance, the latter often talk in the presence of the deaf person
without saying a word to him, and if he then shows irritation,
which is not often in any case, it is no more to be wondered at
than if a hearing person resents whispering or other secret com-
munication in his presence.

3. Social Status, &c. — From -the 1901 census " Summary
Tables " we gather the following facts concerning the occupations
of the deaf, aged ten and upwards, in England and Wales.

About half of the total number, taking males and females
together (13,450), are engaged in occupations— 6665. The rest
— 6785 — are retired or unoccupied. Of the former, the follow-
ing table given below shows the distribution: —

In general or local government work (clerks, messengers,

&c.) 11

In professional occupations and subordinate services . 87

In domestic offices or services. ..... 788

In commercial occupations. . . . . .12

In work connected with conveyance of men, goods or

messages ......... 144

In agriculture ........ 568

In fishing . . . . . . . . .3

In and about mines and quarries, &c. . . . -151

In work connected with metals, machines, implements, &c. 503
In work connected with precious metals, jewels, games, &c. 46
In building and works of construction . . . .485

In work connected with wood, furniture, fittings and

decorations . . . . . . . .470

In work connected with brick, cement, pottery and glass . 153
In work connected with chemicals, oil, soap, &c. . . 46
In work connected with skins, hair and feathers . . I37

In work connected with paper, prints, books, &c. . . 238

In work connected with textile fabrics . . . . 407

In work connected with dress ..... 1829

In work connected with food, tobacco, drink and lodging . 194
In work connected with gas, water and electric supply, and

sanitary service . . . . . . .22

Other general and undefined workers and dealers . . 371

Total 6665

Among those in professional occupations are a clergyman, five
law clerks, ten schoolmasters, teachers, &c, thirty-seven painters,
engravers and sculptors, and seven photographers. Of those not
engaged in occupations, 235 have retired from business, and 245 are
living on their own means. Probably a very large number of the re-
mainder were out of work or engaged in odd jobs at the time of the
census; it would certainly be incorrect to take the words " Without
specified occupations or unoccupied " to mean that those classified
as such were permanently unable to support themselves.

The commonest occupations of men are bootmaking (555), tailor-
ing (429), farm-labouring (287), general labouring (257), carpentry
(195), cabinet-making (142), painting, decorating and glazing (95),
French-polishing (88), harness-making, &c. (80).

The commonest occupations of women are dressmaking (484),
domestic service (367), laundry and washing service (230), tailoring
(170), shirtmaking, &c. (81), charing (79).

In Munich there are about sixty deaf artists, especially painters and
sculptors. In Germany and Austria generally, deaf lithographers,
xylographers and photographers are well employed, as are book-
binders in Leipzig in particular, and labourers in the provinces.

In France there are several deaf writers, journalists, &c, two
principals of schools, an architect, a score or so of painters, several of
whom are ladies, nine sculptors, and a few engravers, photographers,
proof-readers, &c.

Italy boasts deaf wood-carvers, sculptors, painters, and architects
graduating from the universities and academies of fine arts with
prizes and medals; also type-setters, pressmen, carvers of coral,
ivory and precious stones.

Two gentlemen in the office of the Norwegian government are deaf,
as are four in the engraving department of the land survey ; one is a
master-lithographer, another a master-printer, a third a civil engineer,
and the rest are engaged in the usual trades, as are those in Sweden.

The deaf form societies of their own to guard their interests,
for social intercourse and other purposes. In England there
is the British Deaf and Dumb Association; in America the
National Association of the Deaf and many lesser societies;
Germany has no fewer than 150 such associations, some of
which are athletic clubs, benefit societies, dramatic clubs, and so
forth. The central Federation is the largest German association.
France has the National Union of Deaf-Mutes and others, many
being benefit clubs. Italy has some societies; Sweden has eight.

In the United States there are no fewer than fifty-three publi^
cations devoted to the interests of the deaf, most of them being
school magazines published in the institutions themselves.
Great Britain and Ireland have six, four of them being school
magazines. France, Germany, Sweden, Hungary have several,

DEAF AND DUMB

887

and Finland, Russia, Norway, Denmark and Austria are repre-
sented. Canada has three.

There are many Church and other missions to the deaf in
England and abroad, which are much needed owing to the
difficulty the average deaf person has in understanding the
archaic language of both Bible and Prayer-book. Until they
have this explained to them it is useless to place these books
in their hands, and even where they are well-educated and can
follow the se'vices, they fail to get the sermon. Chaplains and
missioners engage in all branches of pastoral work among them,
and also try to find them employment, interpret for them where
necessary, and interview people on their behalf.

The difficulty of obtaining employment for the deaf has been
increased in Great Britain by the Employers' Liability and
Workmen's Compensation Acts, for masters are afraid — need-
lessly, as facts show — to employ them, under the impression that
they are more liable to accidents owing to their affliction.

The new After-Care Committees of the London County Council
are a late confession of a need which other bodies have long
endeavoured to supply. Education should be a development of
the whole nature of the child. The board of education in England
provides for intellectual, industrial and physical training, but
does not take cognizance of those parts of education which
are far more important — the social, moral and spiritual. Some
teachers, both oral and manual, do an incalculable amount of
good at the cost of great self-sacrifice and in face of much dis-
couragement. They deserve the highest praise for so doing, and
such work needs to be carried on after their pupils leave school.

Education.

History. 1 — " Who hath made man's mouth ? or who maketh
a man dumb, or deaf, or seeing, or blind ? Is it not I the Lord ? "
(Ex. iv. n). Such is the first known reference to the deaf. But
the significance of this statement was not realized by the ancients,
who mercilessly destroyed all the defective, the deaf among the
rest. Greek and Roman custom demanded their death, and they
were thrown into the river, or otherwise killed, without causing
any comment but that so many encumbrances had been removed.
They were regarded as being on a mental level with idiots and
utterly incapable of helping themselves. In later times Roman
law forbade those who were deaf and dumb from birth to make
a will or bequest, placing them under the care of guardians who
were responsible for them to the state; though if a deaf person
had lost hearing after having been educated, and could either
speak or write, he retained his rights. Herodotus refers to a
deaf son of Croesus, whom he declares to have suddenly recovered
his speech upon seeing his father about to be killed. Gellius
makes a similar statement with reference to a certain athlete.
Hippocrates was in advance of Aristotle when he realized that
deaf-mutes did not speak simply because they did not know how
to; for the last-named seems to have considered that some defect
of the intellect was the cause of their inability to utter articulate
sounds. Pliny the elder and Messalla Corvinus mention deaf-
mutes who could paint.

The true mental condition of the deaf was realized, however,
by few, if any, before the time of Christ. He, as He opened the
ears of the deaf man and loosened his tongue, talked to him in his
own language, the language of signs.

St Augustine erred amazingly when he declared that the deaf
could have no faith, since "faith comes by hearing only." The
Talmud, on the other hand, recognized that they could be taught,
and were therefore not idiotic.

It is, however, with those who attempted to educate the deaf
that we are here chiefly concerned. The first to call for notice
is St John of Beverley. The Venerable Bede tells how this bishop
made a mute speak and was credited with having performed a
miracle in so doing. Probably it was nothing more than the first
attempt to teach by the oral method, and the greatest credit is due
to him for being so far in advance of his times as to try to instruct

1 For our resume of the history we are indebted solely to Arnold
(Education of Deaf Mutes, Teachers' Manual) as far as the date of the
founding of the Old Kent Road Institution.

his pupil at all. Bede himself invented a system of counting on
the hands; and also a " manual speech," as he called it, — using
his numerals to indicate the number of the letter of the alphabet;
thus, the sign for " seven " would also signify the letter ■" g," and
so forth. But we do not know that he intended this alphabet
for the use of the deaf.

It is not until the 16th century that we hear much of anybody
else who was interested in the deaf, but at this date we find
Girolamo Cardan stating that they can be instructed by writing,
after they have been shown the signification of words, since their
mental power is unaffected by their inability to hear.

Pedro Ponce de Leon (c. 1520-1584), a Spanish Benedictine
monk, is more worthy of notice, as he, to use his own words,
taught the deaf " to speak, read, write, reckon, pray, serve at
the altar, know Christian doctrine, and confess with a loud voice."
Some he taught languages and science. That he was successful
was proved by other witness than his own, for Panduro, Valles
and de Morales all give details of his work, the last-named giving
an account by one of Ponce's pupils of his education. De
Morales says further that Ponce de Leon addressed his scholars
either by signs or writing, and that the reply came by speech.
It appears that this master committed his methods to writing.
Though this work is lost it is probable that his system was put
into practice by Juan Pablo Bonet. This Spaniard successfully
instructed a brother of his master the constable of Castile, who
had lost hearing at the age of two. His method corresponded in
a great measure to that which is now called the combined system,
for, in the work which he wrote, he shows how the deaf can be
taught to speak by reducing the letters to their phonetic value,
and also urges that finger-spelling and writing should be used.
The connexion between all three, he goes on to say, should be
shown the pupils, but the manual alphabet should be mastered
first. Nouns he taught by pointing to the objects they repre-
sented; verbs he expressed by pantomime; while the value of
prepositions, adverbs and interjections, as well as the tenses of
verbs, he believed could be learnt by repeated use. The pupil
should be educated by interrogation, conversation, and care-
fully graduated reading. The success of Bonet's endeavours are
borne witness to by Sir Kenelm Digby, who met the teacher at
Madrid.

Bonifacio's work on signs, in which he uses every part of
the body for conversational purposes, may be mentioned before
passing to John Bulwer, the first Englishman to treat of teaching
the deaf. In his three works, Philocophus, Chirologia and
Chironomia, he enlarges upon Sir Kenelm Digby's account, and
argues about the possibility of teaching the deaf by speech.
But he seems to have had no practical experience of the art.

Dr John Wallls is more important, though it has been disputed
whether he was not indebted to his predecessors for some ideas.
He taught by writing and articulation. He took the trouble to
classify to a certain extent the various sounds, dividing both
vowels and "open" consonants into gutturals, palatals and
labials. The " closed " consonants he subdivided into mutes,
semi-mutes and semi-vowels. Language, Wallis maintained,
should be taught when the pupil had first learned to write, and
the written characters should be associated with some sort of
manual alphabet. Names of things should be given first, and
then the parts of those things, e.g. " body " first, and then, under
that, " head," " arm," " foot," &c. Then the singular and plural
should be given, then possessives and possessive pronouns,
followed by particles, other pronouns and adjectives. These
should be followed by the copulative verb; after which should
come the intransitive verb and its nominative in the different
tenses, and the transitive with its object in the same way.
Lastly, prepositions and conjunctions should be taught. All
this, Wallis held, ought to be done by writing as well as signing,
for he did not lose sight of the fact that " we must learn the
pupil's language in order to teach him ours."

Dr William Holder, who read an essay before the Royal
Society in 1668-1660 on the "Elements of Speech," added an
appendix concerning the deaf and dumb. He describes the
organs of speech and their positions in articulation, suggesting

888

DEAF AND DUMB

teaching the pupil the sounds in order of simplicity, though he
held that he must learn to write first. Afterwards the pupil
must associate the letters with a manual alphabet. Holder
notices that dumbness is due to the want of hearing, and there-
fore speech can be acquired through watching the lips, though he
admits the task is a laborious one. He also urges the teacher to
be patient and to make the work as interesting to the pupil as
possible. Command of language, he maintains, will enable the
deaf person to read a sentence from the lips if he gets most of the
words; for he will be able to supply those he did not see, from
his knowledge of English.

Johan Baptist van Helmont treated of the work of the vocal
organs. Amman says that Van Helmont had discovered a
manual alphabet and used it to instruct the deaf, but had not
attained very good results.

George Sibscota published a work in 1670 called the Deaf
and Dumb Man's Discourse, in which he contradicts Aristotle's
opinion that people are dumb because of defects in the vocal
organs; for they are, he believed, dumb because never taught
to speak. They can gain knowledge by sight, he maintained;
can write, converse by signs, speak and lip-read. Ramirez
de Carrion also taught the deaf to speak and write, as did
P. Lana Terzi.

About George Dalgarno more is known. He wrote, in 1680,
his Didascalocophus, or Deaf-Mute's Preceptor, in which he makes
the mistake of saying that the deaf have the advantage over the
blind in opportunities for learning language. The deaf can, in
his opinion, be taught to speak, and also to read the lips if the
letters are very distinct. They ought to read, write arid spell on
the fingers constantly, but use no signs. Substantives are to
be taught by associating them with the things they represent;
then adjectives should be joined to them. Verbs should be
taught by suiting the action to the words, and associating the
pronouns with them. Other parts of speech should be given as
opportunities of explaining them present themselves. Dalgarno
invented an alphabet, the letters being on the joints of the
fingers and palm of the left hand.

John Conrad Amman published his Dissertatio de Loquela in
1700. In the first chapter he treats, among other things, of the
nature of the breath and voice and the organs of speech. In
the second chapter he classifies sounds into vowels, semi-vowels
and consonants, and a detailed description of each sound is given.
The third chapter is devoted to showing how to produce and
control the voice, to utter each sound from writing or from the
lips, and to combine them into syllables and words. It was only
after the pupil had attained to considerable success in articulation
and lip-reading that Amman taught the meaning of words and
language; but the name of this teacher will long stand as that
of one of the most successful the world has known.

Passing over Camerarius, Schott, Kerger (who began teaching
language sooner than Amman did, and depended more on writing
and signs), Raphel (who instructed three deaf daughters), Lasius,
Arnoldi, Lucas, Vanin, de Fay (himself deaf) and many others,
we come to Giacobbo Rodriguez Pereira, the pioneer of deaf-mute
education in France, if we except de Fay. Beginning his experi-
ence by instructing his deaf sister, he soon attained to consider-
able success with two other pupils; his chief aim being, as he
said, to make them comprehend the meaning of, and express their
thoughts in, language. A commission of the French Academy
of Sciences, before whom he appeared, testified to the genuine-
ness of his achievements, noticing that he wrote and signed to his
pupils, and stating that he hoped to proceed to the instruction
of lip-reading. Pereira soon after came under the notice of the
due de Chaulnes, whose deaf godson, Saboureaux de Fontenay,
became his pupil; and in five years this boy was well able
to speak and read the lips. Pereira had several other pupils.
Probably kindness and affection were two of the secrets of his
success, for the love his scholars showed for him was unbounded.
His method is only partly known, but he used a manual alphabet
which indicated the pronunciation of the letters and some
combinations. He used reading and writing; but signs were
only called to his aid when absolutely necessary. Language he

taught by founding it on action where possible, abstract ideas
being gradually developed in 'later stages of the education.

We now come to the abbe de l'Epee (q.v.). The all-important
features in this teacher's character and method were his intense
devotion to his scholars and their class, and the fact that he
lived among them and talked to them as one of themselves.
Meeting with two girls who were deaf, he started upon the task
of instructing them, and soon had a school of sixty pupils, sup-
ported entirely by himself. He spared himself no expense and
no trouble in doing his utmost to benefit the deaf, learning
Spanish for the sole purpose of reading Bonet's work, and making
this book and Amman's Dissertatio de Loquela his guiding lights.
But de l'Epee was the first to attach great importance to signs;
and he used them, along with writing, until the pupil had some
knowledge of language before he passed on to articulation and
lip-reading. To the latter method, however, he never paid as
much attention as he did to instructing by signs and writing,
and finally he abandoned it altogether through lack of time and
means. He laboured long on a dictionary of signs, but never
completed it. He was attacked by Pereira, who condemned his
method as being detrimental, and this was the beginning of the
disputes as to the merits of the different methods which have
lasted to the present day; but whatever opinions we may hold
as to the best means of instructing the deaf we cannot but admire
the devoted teacher who spent his life and his all in benefiting
this class of the community.

Samuel Heinicke first began his work in 1754 at Dresden, but
in 1778 he removed to Leipzig and started on the instruction of
nine pupils. His methods he kept secret; but we know that he
taught orally, using signs only when he considered them helpful,
and spelling only to combine ideas. He wrote two books and
several articles on the subject of educating the deaf, but it is
from Walther and Fornari that we learn most about his system.
At first Heinicke laid stress on written language, starting with the
concrete and going on co the abstract; and he only passed to oral
instruction when the pupils could express themselves in fairly cor-
rect language. Subsequently, however, he expressed the opinion
that speech should be the sole method of instruction, and, strange
to say, that by speech alone could thoughts be fully expressed.

Henry Baker became tutor to a deaf girl in 1 7 20, and his success
led to the establishment of a private school in London. He also
kept his system a secret, but recently his Work on lessons for
the deaf was discovered, from which we gather that he adopted
writing, drawing, speech and lip-reading as his course of instruc-
tion. The point to notice is that after the primary stages Baker
turned events of every-day life to use in his teaching. His pupils
went about with him, and he taught by conversation upon what
they saw in the streets, — an excellent method; but it is a pity
that such a good teacher had not the philanthropy to make his
methods known and to give the poorer deaf the benefit of them,
as de l'Epee did.

A school was established in Edinburgh in 1760 by Thomas
Braidwood, who taught by the oral method. He taught the sounds
first, then syllables, and finally words, teaching their meaning.
In 1783 Braidwood came to Hackney, whence he moved to Old
Kent Road, and in 1809 there were seventy pupils in what was
lately the Old Kent Road Institution. Braidwood's method was
practically a development of Wallis's. We must regard him as
the founder of the first public school for the deaf in England.

It was only at the beginning of the roth century that a brighter
day dawned on the deaf as a class. With the sole exception of
de l'Epee no teacher had yet undertaken the instruction of a deaf
child who could not pay for it. Now things began to be different.
Institutions were founded, and their doors were opened to nearly
all.

Dr Watson, the first principal of the Old Kent Road " Asylum,"
taught' by articulation and lip-reading, reading and writing,
explaining by signs to some extent, but using pictures much
more, according to Addison, and composing a book of these for
the use of his pupils. From Addison {Deaf Mutism, pp. 248 ff.)
we learn what developments followed. In Vienna, Prague and
Berlin, schools had been founded in rapid succession before

DEAF AND DUMB

889

the 19th century dawned, and in 1810 the Edinburgh institution
opened its doors. Nine years later the Glasgow school was
established and, under the able guidance of Mr Duncan
Anderson (after several other headmasters had been tried) from
183 1, taught pupils whose grasp of English was equal to that of
the very best educated deaf in England to-day, as has been
proved by conversation with the survivors. Mr Anderson's great
aim was to teach his pupils language, and we might look almost
in vain for a teacher in England to succeed as well with a whole
class in the beginning of the 20th century as he did in the
middle of the 19th. He wrote a dictionary, used pictures
and signs to explain English, and apparently paid little or
no attention to most of the numerous subjects attempted
to-day in schools for the deaf, which, while excellent in them-
selves, generally exclude what is far more important from the
curriculum.

Addison further mentions Mr Baker of Doncaster, a con-
temporary of Anderson, as having compiled many lesson books
for deaf children which came to be used in ordinary schools
also, and Mr Scott of Exeter as having, together with Baker,
" exercised a profound influence on the course of deaf-mute
education in this country." " Written language," explained by
signs where necessary, was the watchword of these teachers.

Moritz Hill is credited with being principally responsible for
having evolved the German, or " pure," oral method out of the
experimental stage to that at which it has arrived at the present
day. Arnold of Riehen is also honourably mentioned.

The great " oral revival " now swept all before it. The
German method was enthusiastically welcomed in all parts of
Europe, and at the Milan conference in 1880 was almost unani-
mously adopted by teachers from all countries. Those in high
places countenanced it; educational authorities awoke to the
fact that the deaf needed special teaching, and came to the
conclusion that the " pure " oral method was the panacea that
would restore all the deaf to a complete equality with the hearing
in any conversation upon any subject that might be broached;
many governments suddenly took the deaf under the shelter
of their own ample wings, and the " bottomless pocket of the
ratepayer," instead of the purse of the charitable, became in
many cases the fount of supply for what has been a costly and by
no means entirely satisfactory experiment in the history of their
education. The " pure " oral method has had a long and unique
trial in England in circumstances which other methods have
never enjoyed.

Meanwhile in the United States Dr Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet
was elected in 181 5 to go to Europe to inquire into the methods
of educating the deaf in vogue there. This was at a meeting
held in the house of a physician named Cogswell, in Hartford,
Connecticut, and was the result of the latter's discovery that
eighty-four persons in the state besides his own little girl were
deaf. Henry Winter Syle, himself deaf, tells how " four months
were spent in learning that the doors of the British schools were
' barred with gold, and opened but to golden keys,' " and how,
disappointed in England, Gallaudet met with a ready response
to his inquiries in Paris. With Laurent Clerc, a deaf teacher,
he returned to the United States in 1816, and the " Connecticut
Asylum " was founded a year after with seven pupils. The name
was changed to " The American Asylum " later, when it was
enlarged. This was followed by the Pennsylvania, New York and
Kentucky institutions, with the second of which the Peet family
were connected. Dr Gallaudet married one of his deaf pupils,
Sophia Fowler, and, after a very happy married life, Mrs Gall-
audet accompanied her youngest son, Edward Miner Gallaudet,
to the Columbia institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Washington,
D. C, founded in 1857 by Congress and largely supported by
Amos Kendall, and to the National Deaf Mute College, which
was founded in 1864, was renamed the Gallaudet College, in
honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet, in 1893, and with the Kendall
School (secondary), now forms the Columbia Institution. This
college is supported by Congress.

The following account of the work done at the National Deaf-
Mute College at Washington is worth attention, as the results are
unique, and are often strangely ignored.

Here is a statement of the course for the B.A. degree: —

First year: Algebra, grammar, punctuation, history of England,
composition, Latin grammar, Caesar.

Second year: Algebra (from quadratics), geometry, composition,
Caesar (Gallic War), Cicero (Orations), Allen and Greenough's
Latin Grammar, Myer's General History, Goodwin's Greek Grammar
(optional), Xenophon's A nabasis (optional).

Third year: Olney's or Loomis s Plane and Spherical Trigo-
nometry, Loomis's Analytical Geometry (optional), Orton's Zoology,
Gray's Botany, Remsen's Chemistry, laboratory practice, Virgil's
Aeneid, Homer's Iliad (optional), Meiklejohn's History of English
Literature and Language (two books), Maertz's English Literature,
Hadley's History, original composition.

Fourth year: Loomis's Calculus (optional), Dana's Mechanics,
Gage's Natural Philosophy, Young's Astronomy, laboratory practice,
qualitative analysis, Steel's Hygienic Physiology, Edgren's French
Grammar, Super's French Reader, Demosthenes on the Crown
(optional), Hart's Composition and Rhetoric, original composition,
Hill's-Jevon's Elementary Logic.

Fifth year: Arnold's Manual of English Literature, Maertz's
English Literature, original composition, Guizot's History of Civiliza-
tion, Sheldon's German Grammar, Joynes's German Reader, LeConte's
Geology, Guyot's Earth and Man, Hill's Elements of Psychology,
Haven's Moral Philosophy, Butler's Analogy, Bascom s Elements of
Beauty, Perry's Political Economy, Gallaudet's International Law.

Even in 1893 we were told that of the graduates of the college
" fifty-seven have been engaged in teaching, four have entered the
ministry; three have become editors and publishers of newspapers;
three others have taken positions connected with journalism ; fifteen
have entered the civil service of the government, — one of these, who
had risen rapidly to a high and responsible position, resigned to enter
upon the practice of law in patent cases, in Cincinnati and Chicago,
and has been admitted to practise in the Supreme Court of the
United States ; one is the official botanist of a state, who has corre-
spondents in several countries of Europe who have repeatedly
purchased his collections, and he has written papers upon seed tests
and related subjects which have been published and circulated by
the agricultural department ; one, while filling a position as instructor
in a western institution, has rendered important service to the coast
survey as a microscopist, and one is engaged as an engraver in the
chief office of the survey; of three who became draughtsmen in
architects' offices, one is in successful practice as an architect on his
own account, which is also true of another, who completed his pre-
paration by a course of study in Europe; one has been repeatedly
elected recorder of deeds in a southern city, and two others are
recorders' clerks in the west; one was elected and still sits as a city
councilman; another has been elected city treasurer and is at present
cashier of a national bank; one has become eminent as a practical
chemist and assayer; two are members of the faculty of the college,
and two others are rendering valuable service as instructors therein ;
some have gone into mercantile and other offices; some have under-
taken business on their own account; while not a few have chosen
agricultural and mechanical pursuits, in which the advantages of
thorough mental training will give them a superiority over those not
so well educated. Of those alluded to as having engaged in teaching,
one has been the principal of a flourishing institution in Pennsylvania ;
one is now in his second year as principal of the Ohio institution ; one
has been at the head of a day school in Cincinnati, and later of the
Colorado institution; a third has had charge of the Oregon insti-
tution; a fourth is at the head of a day school in St Louis; three
others have respectively founded and are now at the head of schools
in New Mexico, North Dakota, and Evansville, Indiana, and others
have done pioneer work in establishing schools in Florida and in
Utah."

Later years would unfold a similar tale of subsequent students; in
1907 there were 134 in the college and 59 in the Kendall School.

There is a normal department attached to the college, to which are
admitted six hearing young men and women for one year who are
recommended as being anxious to study methods of teaching the deaf
and likely to profit thereby. Their course of study for 1898-1899
included careful training in the oral method, instruction in Bell's
Visible Speech, instruction in the anatomy of the vocal organs,
lectures on sound, observation of methods, oral and manual, in
Kendall School, lectures on various subjects connected with the deaf
and their education, lectures on pedagogy, lessons in the language of
signs, practical work with classes in Kendall School under the direc-
tion of the teachers, correction of essays of the introductory class,
&c. But the greatest advantage of the year's course is that the half-
dozen hearing students live in the college, have their meals with the
hundred deaf, and mix with them all day long — if they wish it-^-in
social intercourse and recreation. We are very far indeed from
saying that one such year is sufficient to make a hearing man a
qualified teacher of the deaf, but the arrangement is based on the
right principle, and it sets his feet on the right path to learn how to
teach — so far as this art can be learned. The recent regulation of
the board of education in England, prohibiting hearing pupil teachers
in schools for the deaf, is deplorable, retrograde and inimical to the
best interests of the deaf. It shows a complete ignorance of their
needs. The younger a teacher begins to mix with that class the Better
he will teach them.

8go

DEAF AND DUMB

In 1886 a royal commission investigated the condition and
education of the deaf in Great Britain, and in 1889 issued its
report. Some of the recommendations most worthy of notice
were that deaf children from seven to sixteen years of age should
be compelled to attend a day school or institution, part, or the
whole, of the expense being borne by the local school authority;
that technical instruction should be given, and that all the
children should be taught to speak and lip-read on the " pure "
oral method unless physically or mentally disqualified, those who
had partial hearing or remains of speech being entirely educated
by that method. To the last mentioned recommendation —
concerning the method to be adopted — two of the commissioners
took exception, and another stated his recognition of some
advantage in the manual method.

As a result of the report of the royal' commission a bill was
passed in 1893 making it compulsory for all deaf children to be
educated. This was to be done by the local education authority,
either by providing day classes or an institution for them, or by
sending them to an already existing institution, parents having
the choice, within reasonable limits, of the school to which the
child should go. School-board classes came into existence in
almost every large town where there was no institution, and
sometimes where one existed. Those who uphold the day-school
system advance the arguments that the pupils are not, under it,
cut off from the influence of home life as they are in institutions;
that such influences are of great advantage; that this system
permits the deaf to mix freely with their hearing brethren, &c.
The objections, however, to this arrangement outweigh its
possible advantages. The latter, indeed, amount to little; for
home influences in iriany cases, especially in the poorer parts of
the large cities, are not the best, and communication with the
hearing children who attend some of the day schools may not
be an unmixed blessing, nor is freedom to run wild on the streets
between school hours. But it may be urged further that it is
difficult, except in very large towns, to obtain a sufficient
number of deaf children attending a day school to classify them
according to their status, while it is more than one teacher can do
to give sufficient attention to several children, each at a different
stage of instruction from any other. Moreover, the deaf need
more than mere school work; they need training in morals and
manners, and receive much less of it from their parents than their
hearing brothers and sisters. This can only be given in an institu-
tion wherein they board and lodge as well as attend classes. The
existing institutions were from 1893 placed, by the act of that
date, either partly or wholly under the control of the school
board. They were put under the inspection of the government,
and as long as they fulfilled the requirements of the inspectors
as regards education, manual and physical training, outdoor re-
creation and suitable class-room and dormitory accommodation,
they might remain in the hands of a committee who collected,
or otherwise provided, one-third of the total expenditure, and
received two-thirds from public sources. Or else, the institution
might be surrendered entirely to the management of the public
school authority, and then the whole of the expenditure was to
be borne by that body. Extra government grants of five guineas
per pupil are nOw given for class work and manual or technical
training. Such is the state of things at the present day, except,
of course, that the school board has given place to the county
council as local authority.

Some teachers have asked for the children to be sent to school at
the age of five instead of seven. This savours of another confession
that the "pure " oral method had not done what was expected of
it at first. First, the demand was for the method itself ; then came re-
quests for more teachers, so that, the classes being smaller, each pupil
should receive more attention ; this meant more money, and so this
was asked for ; then day schools would remedy the failure by giving
the pupils opportunities of talking with the public in general ; then
we were told the teachers were unskilful; finally, more time is
needed. And yet the language of the pupils is no better to-day than
it was in 1881, even though they were at school only four or five
years then as opposed to nine or ten now.

To Addison's Report on a Visit to some Continental Schools for the
Deaf (1904-1905) we are indebted for the following information.
The new school at Frankfort-on-Maine, accommodating forty or fifty
children at a cost of £40 to £50 per head, is modelled on the plan of

a family home. The main objects are to obtain good speech and lip-
reading and to use these colloquially; the work is very „ .
thorough and the teaching very skilful. At Munich those roregn
of the hundred pupils who have some hearing are separated sc °° s '
from the others and taught by ear as well as eye. At Vienna (Royal
Institution) a small proportion of the pupils are day scholars, as they
are at Munich, and the teaching is, of course, carried on by the oral
method, as it is all over Germany. Here, however, the teachers
" think it impossible to educate fully all deaf-mutes by the oral
method only." In the Jews' Home at Vienna the semi-deaf are
taught by the acoustic method, and are not allowed to see the
teacher's lips at all. At Dresden, a large school of 240 pupils, the
director favours smaller institutions than his own, considers the oral
method possible for all but the " weak-minded deaf, ' ' and divides his
pupils into A, B and C divisions, according to intellect. In the first
division good speech is obtained. Saxony boasts a home for deaf
homeless women, grants premiums for deaf apprentices, and trains
its teachers of the deaf in the institution itself — a good record and
plan. In the royal institution at Berlin Addison saw good lip-reading
and thorough work, though the deaf in the city — as in most of the
schools — signed* The men in Berlin " like the adult deaf generally,
were all in favour of a combination of methods, and condemned the
pure oral theory as impracticable." At Hamburg, again, "hand
signs " were used at least for Sunday service. Schleswig has two
schools. Pupils are admitted first to the residential institution,
where they are instructed for a year, and are then divided into A, B and
C classes, " according to intellect." The lowest class (C) remain at
this institution for the rest of the eight years, and a " certain amount
of signing " is allowed in their instruction. A and B classes are
boarded out in the town and attend classes at a day school specially
built for them, being taught orally exclusively.

In Denmark Addison saw what impressed him most. All the
children of school age go to Fredericia and remain for a year in the
boarding institution. They are then examined and the semi-deaf —
29% of the whole — are sent to Nyborg. The rest — all the totally
deaf — remain another year at Fredericia and are then divided into
the A, B and C divisions before mentioned, and on the same criterion
— intellect. Those in C — the lowest class, 28 % of the totally deaf —
are sent to Copenhagen, where they are taught by the manual
method, no oral work being attempted. Those in B class, numbering
19% of the deaf, remain in the residential institution in Fredericia
and are taught orally, while the best pupils — A class — are boarded
out in the town and attend a special day school. These form 26 %
of the deaf, and those with whom they live encourage them to speak
when out of as well as when in school. The buildings and equipment
generally are excellent. " Hand signs " are used at Nyborg, indicat-
ing the position of the vocal organs when speaking, and, as might
be expected, the " lip "-reading is 90% more correct when these
symbols — infinitely more visible than most of the movements of the
vocal organs and face when speaking — -are used at the same time.
The idea of these hand signs, by the v/ay, corresponds to that of
Graham Bell's Visible Speech, in which a written symbol is used to
indicate the position of the vocal organs when uttering each sound ;
it is a kind of phonetic writing which is to a slight extent illustrative
at the same time. We find natural signs of the utmost value when
teaching articulation, to describe the position of the vocal organs.
We give these details from Mr Addison's notes because it is to
Germany that so many look for guidance to-day, and it is the home
of the so-called " pure " oral method; while the system of classifica-
tion in Denmark into the four schools which are controlled by one
authority, struck him very favourably and so is given rather fully.

In France most of the schools are supported by charity, and the
only three government institutions are those at Paris for boys, with
263 pupils lately, at Bordeaux for girls, having 225 inmates, and at
Chambery with 86 boys and 38 girls. In the great majority the
method of instruction is professedly pure oral. " But," said Henri
Gaillard (Report, World's Congress of the Deaf , Missouri, 1904), " this
is only in appearance. In reality all of the schools use the combined
method ; only they are not willing to admit it, because the oral method
is the official method, imposed by the inspectors of the minister of
the interior."

In Italy, again, we are told that the teachers sign in most of the
schools, which are professedly pure oral.

In Sweden, schools for the deaf have ceased to depend, as they
did up to 1 89 1, upon private benevolence. The system is generally
the combined, and in schools where the oral method is adopted the

Supils are divided into A, B and C divisions, as in Denmark and
•resden, in the two latter divisions of which signs are allowed. In
Norway the method is the oral.

Methods of Teaching. — There have always been two principal
methods of teaching the deaf, and all education at the present
time is carried on by means of one or other or both of these.
Where there is sufficient hearing to be utilized, instruction is
sometimes given thereby as well, though this auricular method
does not seem to make much headway, and experience is not in
favour of believing that the sense of hearing, where a little
exists, can be " cultivated " to any marked degree. It is really

DEAF AND DUMB

891

impossible to draw hard and fast lines between these means of
instruction. One merges into another, and this other into the
next; and no two teachers will, or can, adopt exactly the same
lines. It is not desirable that they should, for much must be left
to individuality. Orders, rules, methods, should not be absolute
laws. Observe them generally, but dispense with them as cir-
cumstances, the pupil and opportunity may require. Strong
individuality, sympathy, enthusiasm, long intercourse with the
deaf, are needed in the teacher, and it is surely obvious that
every teacher should have a full command of all the primary
means of instruction to begin with, and not of one only. *
Where deafness is absolute, or practically so, we have to seek

130 words a minute can be attained when spelling on the fingers.
Words are quite readable at this speed.

Although reading and writing are common to both methods,
the manual and oral, as a matter of fact they seem to be used
considerably more in the former than in the latter.

In the oral method articulation and lip-reading are chiefly
relied upon; reading and writing are also adopted. The phonetic
values of the letters are taught, not the names of the
letters; for instance, the sound of the letter & in " hat " ™

is taught instead of the name of the letter (long a), though of
course the latter is taught where such is the proper pronuncia-
tion, as in " hate."

M

N 0~ „ P , Q R

<^2

The Manual Alphabet. (One-handed.)

Fig. 2. — The Manual Alphabet. (Two-handed.)

for means that will appeal to the eye instead of the ear. Of these,
we have the sign language, writing and printing, pictures, manual
alphabets and lip-reading. We have to choose which of these is
to be used, if not all, and which must be rejected, if any. More-
over, we have to decide how much or how little one or another is
to be adopted if we employ more than one. Hence it is obvious
that there may be many different systems and subdivisions of
systems. But the two main methods are the manual, which
generally depends upon all the above-mentioned means of
appealing to the eye except lip-reading, and the oral, which
adopts what the manual method rejects, uses writing and
printing and perhaps pictures, but excludes finger-spelling and
(theoretically) signs. To these two we must add a third means
of instruction — the combined system — which rejects no means of
teaching, but uses all in most cases. The dual method need hardly
be called a separate method or system, for it implies simply the
use of the manual method for some pupils and of the oral for
others. Nor need we call the mother's ( = intuitive or natural)
a separate method in the sense in which we are using the word
here, for it is rather a mode of procedure which can be applied
manually or orally indifferently. The same may be said of the
grammatical " method "; also of the " word method," which is
really the " mother's." The " eclectic method " is practically
the combined system, or something between that and the dual
method, and hardly needs separate classification.

Let us notice the manual method, the oral method, and the
combined system, considering with the last the " dual method."

The chief elements of the manual method are finger-spelling,
reading and writing and signing. These are used, that is to say,
as means of teaching English and imparting ideas.
Signs are used to awaken the child's thoughts, finger-
spelling and writing are used to express these thoughts in the
vernacular. The latter are used to express English, the former
to explain English.

We give two manual alphabets, the one-handed being used in
America, on the continent of Europe with some variations and
additions, in Ireland, and also to some extent in England; the
two-handed in Great Britain, Ireland and Australia. A speed of

Manual.

Here is a chart which was lately in use:
Articulation Sheets.

Analysis of the Vowel Sounds.

Long.

Middle.

Short.

Broad.

Diacritic Phonetic
mark. spelling.

Diacritic Phonetic
mark. spelling.

Diacritic Phonetic
mark. spelling.

Diacritic Phonetic
mark. spelling.

fat(e) =feit

S mee
me = ] mi
pin(e) =pain
no =nou
tiib(e) =tiub

far = far

move = muv
btill = bul

fat = fat

met = met
pin = pin
not = not
tub = tub

AK-jisr 1 -

Order in which the Vowel Sounds are to be taught.

Diacritic
Mark

a
wall

Phonetic ) ,
Spelling f wo1

Diacritic
Mark

raou eeo 1 a u 6e

path hot blu(e) set see ton(e) pi(e) lat(e) mul(e) boy

e 1 ou
ee

Phonetic ) path hot blu set si toun pai leit miul boi
Spelling 5

(a u i

hat hut hit

II II I.I

The consonants are as follows, though the order of teaching
them varies: —

p; f; s; h; sh; v=/; th (thin; moth); th (then; smooth);
f; r; t; k; b; d; g (go; egg); z — s; m; n; ch = tsh; j=dzh = g;
ph=f; kc = k; cs = s; q=kw; x = ks; ng; w = oo; wh = hw; y=e.

8 9 2

DEAF AND DUMB

The following mode of writing the sounds is now preferred by
some as it renders the diacritic marks unnecessary: —
Middle, Broad and Long Vowel Sounds.

or

oo

ee er oa igh ai

ew

oi

ou

aw

ea ir o-e i-e a-e

u-e

oy

ow

au

ur ay

a—

Short Vowel Sounds.

oo

e i u

Consonants.
h p j p f h f t s th sh ch i k k j 1 t. m n ng w

b v d z th zhj^j g

• These charts are given as examples of those used, but they
vary in different schools, as does the order of teaching the vowel
and consonant sounds and the combinations. The exact order
is not important. Words are made up by combining vowels and
consonants as soon as the pupil can say each sound separately.
Here are extracts from the directions on articulation written
by a principal to the teacher of the lowest class, which show the
method of procedure: —

" (i) Produce the sound of a letter. Each pupil to reproduce,
and write it on the tablet.

(2) Point to the letter on the tablet, and make each pupil say it.

(3) The same with combinations of vowels and consonants.

(4) Instead of tablet, each pupil to use rough exercise-book.

(5) Write on tablet and make each pupil articulate from

teacher's writing.

(6) When a combination is made of which a word may be made

make all write it in their books, thus : — ' te— tea,' ' sho —
show,' ' 6v — of,' ' nalz— nails,' &c.

(7) When one pupil produces a combination correctly make

the others lip-read it from him. In this way make them
exercise each other.

(8) When they have a good many sounds and combinations

written in their books make them sit down and say them
off their books as hearing children do.

(9) Make them say the sounds off the cards, and form combina-

tions on the cards for them to say.

(10) Take each vowel separately and make each pupil use it

before and after each consonant.

(11) Take each consonant and put it before and after each vowel.
" The above will suggest other exercises to the teacher.

" Give breathing exercises. Incite emulation as to deep breathing
and slow expiration. Never force the voice. Make the pupil speak
out, but do not let him strain either the voice or vocal organs. Do
not force the tongue, lips, or any organ into position more than you
can help. Do all as gently as possible. Register their progress.
' A ' (as in ' path ' ; ' father '). As ' A ' is the basis of all the vowels,
being most like all, it is taken first. It is an open vowel. Do not
make grimaces, or exaggerate. If false sound be produced do not let
the pupil speak loudly; make him speak quietly. If nasal sound be

Eroduced do not pinch the nose, but first take the back of the child's
and, warmly breathe on it, or get a piece of glass, and let the child
breathe on it, or press the back of the tongue down. Show the child
that when you are saying ' a ' your tongue lies flat or nearly so, and
you do not raise the back of the tongue. Prefix ' h ' to ' a ' and
make the pupil say ' ha ' first, then ' a ' alone.

" 'P.' If the child does not imitate at the first the teacher should
take the back of the hand and let the child feel the puff of air as ' p '
is formed on the lips.

" ' P ' is produced by the volume of air brought into the cavity of
the mouth being checked by the perfect closure of the lips, which are
then opened, and the accumulated air is propelled. The outburst of
this propelled air creates the sound of ' p.' Take the pupil to see
porridge boiling. Pretend to smoke. ' P ' is taken first because it
has no vibration and is the most simple. The consonants should
first be joined to each vowel separately, and to prevent the pupils
making an after-sound the letters should be said with a pause
between, viz. 'A . . p,' a"nd as they become more familiar with them,
lessen the pause until it is pronounced properly: — ' ap.' "

These directions, which are only brief examples of those given
for one particular subject in one particular class, will give an
idea of the mode of beginning to teach articulation and lip-
reading.

The combined system, as before mentioned, makes use of both
the manual and oral method, as well as the auricular, without
_ .. . any hard and fast rule as regards the amount of instruc-
metbod. tion to be given by means of each, but using more of
one and less of another, or vice versa, according to the
aptitude of the child. It thus follows the sensible, obvious plan

of fitting the method to the child and not the unnatural one of
forcing the child to try to fit the method.

The following is the way the same principal would teach
language to beginners by the combined system: —

"The letters p, q, b and d of the Roman text are to be taught first.
The pupils are to do them 9 in. long on the blackboard or tablet first ;
then trace them on the frames; then on slips of paper with pen and
ink, or in rough exercise-book with pen and ink.

" The whole of the Roman text is then to be taught in the same
manner, also the small and capital script.

" When the English alphabet has been mastered in the above four
forms the pupil may proceed to the printing and writing of his own
name. Then his teacher's and class-mates' names. Then the names
of other persons and the places, things and actions with which he
has to do in his daily life. Every direction the teacher has to give in
school and out of school should be expressed in speech, writing or
finger-spelling, or- by any two or all three means. Repetition of such
directions by the pupil enables him to learn words before he has
finished the alphabet.

" All words to be spelled on one hand first ; then two. When a few
words have been memorized, they should be written on slips of paper,
then in the exercise-books and dated. After this there should be
further repetition and exercising. The same course should be taken
with phrases and short sentences. Names of persons should be written
on cards and slips of paper and pinned to the chest. Names of things
to be affixed to them, or written on them. Names of apartments on
cards laid in the rooms. Where the object is not available use a
picture, or draw the outline and make pupil do the same. Never
nod, or point, or jerk the finger, or use any other gesture, without
previously giving the word, and when the latter is understood drop
the gesture altogether.

' ' Never allow a single mistake to pass uncorrected , and make pupils
always learn the corrections.

" Language should be a translation of life. It should proceed all day
long, out of school as well as in it. If spoken so much the better, but
finger-spelling is not a hindrance but a valuable help to its ac-
quisition.

" In most language lessons, especially those exemplifying a parti-
cular form of sentence, the pupils should :

" (1) Correct each other's mistakes. Correct 'mistakes' designedly
made by the teacher.

" (2) Teacher rubs out a word here and there on the blackboard or
tablet ; pupils to supply them.

" (3) Pupils to answer questions, giving the subject, predicate and
object of the sentence as required, e.g. ' A farmer ploughs the ground.'
' Who ploughs the ground? ' ' What does a farmer do? ' ' What
does he plough? ' Also additional and illustrative questions; e.g.
' Does the ground plough the farmer? ' ' Does a farmer plough the
sea? ' ' Does he eat the ground? ' &c.

" The pupils should learn meanings or synonyms of unfamiliar
words before such words are signed.

" (4) Teacher gives a word, and requires pupils to exemplify it in
a sentence, e.g. ' sows,' ' He sows the seed.'

" (5) Let them give as many sentences as they can think of in the
same form.

" Occurrences, incidents, objects, pictures, reading-books, news-
paper cuttings and correspondence should all be used."

The " pure " oral method, as before noticed, came with a
bound into popularity in the early seventies. Since then it has
had everything in its favour, but the results have been
by no means entirely satisfactory, arid there is a marked
tendency among advocates of this method to with-
draw from the extreme position formerly held. Opinion has
gradually veered round till they have come to seek for some sort
of via media that shall embrace the good points of both methods.
Some now suggest the " dual method " — that those pupils who
show no aptitude for oral training shall be taught exclusively
by the manual method and the rest by the oral' only. While this
is a concession which is positively amazing when compared with
the title of the booklet containing utterances of the Abbe Tarra,
president of the Milan conference in 1880 — " The Pure Oral
Method the Best for All Deaf Children "! — yet we believe that in
no case should the instruction be given by the oral method alone,
and that the best system is the " combined." That the combined
system is detrimental to lip-reading has not much more than a
fraction of truth in it, for if the command of language is better
the pupils can supply the lacunae in their lip-reading from their
better knowledge of English. It is found that they have con-
stantly to guess words and letters from the context. Teach all
by and through finger-spelling, reading, writing and signing
where necessary to explain the English, and teach those in whose
case it is worth it by articulation and lip-reading as well. Signs

The best
system.

DEAF AND DUMB

893

should be used less and less in class work, and English mofe and
more exclusively as the pupil progresses — English in any and
every form. A proportion of teachers should be themselves deaf,
as in America. They are in perfect understanding and sympathy
with their pupils, which is not always the case with hearing
teachers. Statistics which we collected in London showed the
following results of the education of 403 deaf pupils after they
had left school: —

Manual. Combined. Oral.
Quite satisfactory result . 65% 51% 20%

Moderate success . . 29 % 41 % 35 %

Unsatisfactory result • 5 % 7 % 44 %

That the combined system should show to slightly less advan-
tage than the exclusively manual method is what we might
perhaps expect, for the time given to oral instruction means
time taken from teaching language speedily, the manual method
being, we believe, the best of all for this. But it may be worth
while to lose a little in command of language for the sake of
gaining another means of expressing that language. Hence we
advocate the combined system, regarding speech as merely a
means of expressing English, as writing and finger-spelling are,
and a good sentence written or finger-spelled as being preferable
to a poorer one which is spoken, no matter how distinct the
speech may be. It is no answer to point to a few isolated cases
where the oral method is considered to have succeeded, for one
success does not counterbalance a failure if by another method
you would have had two successes; and, moreover, these oral
successes would have been still greater successes — we are taking
language in any form as our criterion — had the teacher fully
known and judiciously used the manual method as well as the
oral.

The exclusive use of the oral method leads, generally speaking, to
comparative failure, for the following, among other, reasons: — (1) It
is a slow way of teaching English, the learning to speak the elements
of sound taking months at least, and seldom being fully mastered for
years. The " word method," by the way, starts at once with words
without taking their component phonetic elements separately; but
it has yet to be proved that any quicker progress is made by this
means of teaching speech than by the other. (2) Lip-reading is, to the
deaf, sign-reading with the disadvantage of being both microscopic
and partially hidden. The deaf hear nothing, they only partly see
tiny movements of the vocal organs. Finger-spelling, writing, sign-
ing, are incomparably more visible, while 130 words a minute can be
attained by finger-spelling, and read at that speed. (3) The signs —
as they are to the deaf — made by the vocal organs are entirely
arbitrary, and have not even a fraction of the redeeming feature of
naturalness which oralists demand in ordinary gestures. (4) Circum-
stances, such as light, position of the speaker, &c, must be favour-
able for the lip-reading to approach certainty. (5) Styles of speech
vary, and it is a constant experience that even pupils who compara-
tively easily read their teacher's lips, to whose style of utterance they
are accustomed, fail to read other people's lips. (6) There is a great
similarity between certain sounds as seen on the lips, e.g. between t
and d, f and v, p and b, s and z, k and g. Which is meant has usually
to be guessed from the context, and this requires a certain amount of
knowledge of language, which is the very thing that is needed to be
imparted. (7) The deliberate avoidance by the teacher of the pupil's
own language — signs — as an aid to teaching him English. If a hear-
ing boy does not understand the meaning of a French word he looks
it up in the dictionary and finds its English equivalent. If the deaf
boy does not understand a word in English, the simplest, quickest,
best way to explain it is, in most cases, to sign it. (8) The distaste
of the pupil for the method. This is common. (9) The mechanical
nature of the method. There is nothing to rouse his interest nor to
appeal to his imagination in it. (10) The temptation to the teacher
to use very simple phrases, owing to the difficulty the pupil has in
reading others from his lips. Consequently the pupil comparatively
seldom learns advanced language.

Other means of educating the deaf in addition to the oral should
have a fair trial in modern conditions for the same length of time that
the oral method has been in operation. To consider pupils taught
manually in oral schools fair criteria of what can be done by the
manual method or combined system, when those pupils have con-
fessedly been relegated to the manual class because of " dulness "
(as in the case of the C divisions in Denmark and Dresden), is obvi-
ously unfair. This division, moreover, assumes that the " pure "
oral method is the best for the brightest pupils. The comparing of
oral pupils privately taught by a tutor to themselves with manual
pupils from an institution crippled and hampered by need of funds,
where they had to take their chance in a class of twelve, and the com-
parison of oral pupils of twelve years' standing with combined system
pupils of four years', are also obviously unfair. Reference may be

made on this subject to Heidsiek's remarkable articles on the question
of education, which appeared in the American Annals of the Deaf
from April 1899 to January 1900.

The opinions of the deaf themselves as to the relative merits of the
methods of teaching also demand particular attention. The ignoring
of their expressed sentiments by those in authority is remarkable.
In the case of school children it might fairly be argued that they are
too young to know what is good for them, but with the adult deaf
who have had to learn the value of their education by bitter experi-
ence in the battle of life it is otherwise. In Germany, the home of
the " pure " oral method, 800 deaf petitioned the emperor against
that method. In 1903 no fewer than 2671 of the adult deaf of Great
Britain and Ireland who had passed through the schools signed
a petition in favour of the combined system. The figures are re-
markable, for children under sixteen were excluded , those who had
not been educated in schools for the deaf were excluded, and the
education of the deaf has only lately been made compulsory, while
many thousands who live scattered about the country in isolation
probably never even heard of the petition, and so could not sign it.
In America an overwhelming majority favour the combined system,
and it is in America that by far the best results of education are to be
seen. At the World's Congress of the Deaf at St Louis in 1904 the
combined system was upheld, as it was at Liege. From France,
Germany, Norway and Sweden, Finland, Italy, Russia, everywhere
in fact where they are educated, the deaf crowd upon us with ex-
pressions of their emphatic conviction, repeated again and again,
that the combined system is what meets their needs best and brings
most happiness into their lives. The majority of deaf in every known
country which is in favour of this means of education is so great that
we venture to say that in no other section of the community could
there be shown such an overwhelming preponderance of opinion on
one side of any question which affects its well-being. In the case of
the rare exceptions, the pupil has almost always been brought up in
the strictest ignorance of the manual method, which he has been
sedulously taught to regard as clumsy and objectionable.

The Blind Deaf.
In the summary tables (p. 283) of the 1901 British census
the following numbers are given of those suffering from other
afflictions besides deafness: —

1. Blind and deaf and dumb

2. Blind and deaf ....

3. Blind, deaf and dumb and lunatic .

4. Blind, deaf and lunatic .

5. Deaf and dumb and lunatic

6. Deaf and lunatic ....

7. Blind, deaf and dumb and feeble-minded

8. Blind, deaf and feeble-minded

9. Deaf and dumb and feeble-minded .
10. Deaf and feeble-minded .

58

389

S

5

136

Si

5

8

221

100

In. addition to these, 2 are said to be blind, dumb and
lunatic; 20 dumb and lunatic; 3 blind, dumb and feeble-
minded, and 222 dumb and feeble-minded. These are certainly
outside our province, which is the deaf. The " dumbness " in
these four classes is aphasia, due to some brain defect.

Of those in the list, classes J, 8, 9 and 10 are (we are strongly
of opinion) incorrectly described, being, as we think, composed of
those who are simply feeble-minded as well as, in classes 7 and 8,
blind. Their so-called " deafness " is merely inability of the
brain to notice what the ear does actually hear and to govern the
vocal organs to produce articulate sound. Many of classes 9 and
10, however, may not be " feeble-minded " at all, but only rather
dull pupils whom their teachers have failed to educate.

It is safe to say that in some instanoes in classes 3, 4, 5 and 6
the persons were only assumed to be deaf. Again, cases of deaf
people who to all appearance could not fairly be called insane
but who may have had violent temper or some slight eccentricity
being relegated to an asylum have come to our notice. A good
teacher might accomplish much with some of these described
as lunatic in classes 5 and 6. Finally, classes 3 and 4 may have
become lunatic owing to the loneliness and brooding inseparable
to a great extent from such terrible afflictions as blindness and
deafness combined. Probably the isolation became intolerable,
and if only they had had some one who understood them to
educate them their reason might have been saved.

We are most concerned with the first two classes, and in
considering them have to take individual cases separately, as
there is no regular institution for them in Great Britain.

894

DEAF AND DUMB

Mr W. H. Illingworth, head master of the Blind School at Old
Trafford, Manchester, tells how David Maclean, a blind and deaf
boy, was taught, in the 1903 report of the conference of teachers
of the deaf. The boy lost both sight and hearing, but not
before six years of age, which was an advantage, and could still
speak or whisper to some extent when admitted to school. His
teacher began with kindergarten and attempts at proper voice-
production. He gave the sound of " ah " and made David feel
his larynx. Then he tickled the boy under his arms, and when
he laughed made him feel his own larynx, so that the boy should
notice the similarity of the vibration. Then, acting on the
theory that brain-waves are to some extent transmittable, Mr
Illingworth procured a hearing boy as companion, and, ordering
him to keep his mind fixed on the work and to place one hand
on David's shoulder, made him repeat what was articulated.
The blind-deaf boy's right hand was placed on Mr Illingworth's
larynx and the left on the companion's lips. Thus the pupil felt
the sound and the companion's imitation of it, and soon repro-
duced it himself. From this syllables and words were formed
by degrees. The pupil knew the forms of some letters of the
alphabet in the Roman type before he lost sight and hearing, and
the connexion between them and the Braille characters and
manual alphabet was the next step achieved. This, and all the
steps, were aided to a great extent by the hearing and seeing boy
companion's sympathetic influence and concentration of mind,
in Mr Illingworth's opinion. After this stage his progress was
comparatively quick and easy; he read from easy books in
Braille, and people spelled to him in the ordinary way by forming
the letters with their right hand on his left.

From Mr B. H. Payne of Swansea comes the following account
of how four blind-deaf pupils were taught:—

" We have received four pupils who were deaf-njute and blind, one
of them being also without the sense of smell. One was born deaf, the
others having lost hearing in childhood. There was no essential
difference between the methods employed in their education and
those of ' sighted ' deaf children. Free-arm writing of ordinary
script was taught on the blackboard, the teacher guiding the pupil's
hand, or another pupil guiding it over the teacher's pencilling. The
script alphabet was cut on a slate, and the pupil's pencil made to run
in the grooves. The one-hand alphabet, used with the left hand, was
employed to distinguish the letters so written. The script alphabet
was also formed in wire for him. The object was to enable the pupil
when he had gained language to write to friends and others who were
unacquainted with Braille, but the latter notation was taught to
enable the pupil to profit by the literature provided for the blind.
Both one- and two-hand alphabets were taught, the teacher forming
the letters with one of his own hands upon the pupil's hand. The
name of the object presented to the pupil was spelled and written
repeatedly until he had memorized it. Qualities were taught by
comparison, and actions by performance. The words ' Come with me'
were spelled before he was guided to any place, and other sentences
were spelled as they would be spoken to a ' hearing ' child in appro-
priate associations. The blind pupil followed with his hands the
signs made by junior pupils who were unacquainted with language,
and in this way readily learned to sign himself, the art being of
advantage in stimulating and in forming the mind, and explaining
language to him. One of the pupils was confirmed, and in preparation
for the rite over 800 questions were put to him by finger-spelling.
His education was continued in Braille. The deaf-born boy developed
a fair voice, and could imitate sounds by placing his hand on a
speaker's mouth. Two of them had a keen sense of humour, and
would slyly move the finger to the muscles of their companion's face
to feel the smile with which a bit of pleasantry was responded to.
In connexion with the pupil who was confirmed, the vicar who ex-
amined him declared that none of his questions had been answered
better even by candidates possessed of all their faculties than they
v/ere by this blind-deaf boy."

Mr W. M. Stone, principal of the Royal Blind School at West
Craigmillar, Edinburgh, gives this very interesting information*

" We have five blind-deaf children at this institution, and all are
wonderfully clever and intelligent. I n all cases the children possessed
hearing for a time and had some knowledge — very slight in some
cases — of language. The method of teaching is, first to teach them
the names of common objects on their fingers. A well-known object
is put in the child's hand and then the word is spelled on the hand, —
the child's hand of course. The child learns to associate these signs
— he does not know ;hev are letters — with the object, and so he learns
a name. Other names are then given and similar names are associ-
ated together, and by noticing-the difference in the names the child

gradually grasps the idea of an alphabet. For instance, if he learns
the words cat, bat and mat, he will quickly distinguish that the words
are alike except in their initial letters. When in this way language
has been acquired he is taught the Braille system of reading for the
blind and his progress is now very rapid. This method may appear
very complicated and difficult, but in reality it is not so. There are
no institutions in Great Britain specially for the blind-deaf, nor are
there any in America. I do not know of any on the continent. Our
own blind children here are receiving the same education as our
other children, and in some ways are more advanced than seeing
and hearing children of their own ages. They not only read, write
and do arithmetic, but they do typewriting and much manual work."

Mr Addison mentions two deaf and blind pupils who were
taught by the late Mr Paterson of Manchester, and a third in the
same school later on. Another was taught in the asylum for the
blind in Glasgow, though she only lost hearing and became deaf
at ten.

Mr William Wade has written a monograph on the blind-deaf
of America, in the preface to which he points out, rightly, that
the education of the blind-deaf is not such a stupendous task as
people imagine it to be.

" It may not be amiss," he says, " to state the methods of teach-
ing the first steps to a deaf-blind pupil, that the public may see how
exceedingly simple the fundamental principles are, and it should be
remembered that those principles are exactly the same in the cases
of the deaf and of the deaf-blind, the only difference being in the
application — the deaf see, the deaf-blind feel. Some familiar,
tangible object — a doll, a cup, or what not — is given to the pupil,
and at the same time the name of the object is spelled into its hand
by the manual alphabet." (The one-hand alphabet is in vogue in
America.) " By patient persistence, the pupil comes to recognize
the manual spelling as a name for a familiar object, when the next
step is taken — associating familiar acts with the corresponding
manual spelling. A continuation of this simple process gradually
leads the pupils to the comprehension of language as a means for
communication of thoughts." Mr Wade is right. Given a sympa-
thetic, resourceful teacher with strong individuality, common-sense,
patience, and the necessary amount of time, anything and every-
thing in the way of teaching them is not only possible but certain to
be achieved. Language, — give the deaf and the blind-deaf a working
command of that and everything else is easy.

In the New York Institution for the Deaf ten blind-deaf pupils
were educated, up to the year 1 90 1 . Nearly all of these lost one or
both senses after they had been able to acquire some knowledge
with their aid. In the Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston,
five were taught. It was here that Laura Bridgman was edu-
cated by Dr Samuel G. Howe (g.v.); all honour is due to him
for being the pioneer in attempting to teach this class of the
community, for she was the first blind-deaf person to be taught.
Many other schools for the deaf or blind have admitted one or
two pupils suffering from both afflictions. In all, seventy cases
are mentioned by Mr Wade of those who are quite blind and
deaf, and others of people who are partially so. The most
interesting, of course, of all these is Helen Keller, if we
except Laura Bridgman, in whose case the initial attempt to
teach the blind-deaf was made. Helen Keller was taught
primarily by finger-spelling into her hand, and signing (which she,
of course, felt with her hands) where necessary. Her first teacher
was Miss Sullivan. The pupil " acquired language by practice
and habit rather than by study of rules and definitions." Finger-
spelling and books were the two great means of educating her at
all times. After her grasp of language had been brought to a
high standard, Miss Fuller gave her her first lessons in speech, and
Miss Sullivan continued them, the method being that of making
the pupil feel the vocal organs of the teacher. She learnt to
speak well, and to tell (with some assistance from finger-spelling)
what some people say by feeling their mouth. Her literary style
became excellent; her studies included French, German, Latin,
Greek, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, ancient and
modern, and poetry and literature of every description. Of
course she had many tutors, but Miss Sullivan was " eyes and
ears " at all times, by acting as interpreter, and this patient
teacher had the satisfaction of seeing her pupil pass the
entrance examination of Harvard University. To all time the
success attained in educating Helen Keller will be a monu-
ment of what can be accomplished in the most favourable
conditions. (A. H. P.) ,

DEAK, FRANCIS

895

DEAK, FRANCIS (Ferencz), (1803-1876), Hungarian states-
man, was born at Sojtor in the county of Zala, on the 17 th of
October 1803. He came of an ancient and distinguished noble
family, and was educated for the law at Nagy-Kanizsa,, Papa,
Raab and Pest, and practised first as an advocate and ultimately
as a notary. His first case was the defence of a notorious robber
and murderer. His reputation in his own county was quickly
established, and when in 1833 his elder brother Antal, also a
man of extraordinary force of character, was obliged by ill-health
to relinquish his seat in the Hungarian parliament, the electors
chose Ferencz in his stead. He took an active part in the pro-
ceedings of the diet at Pressburg and made the acquaintance
of Odon Bebthy and the other Liberal leaders. No man
owed less to external advantages. He was to all appearance a
simple country squire. His true greatness was never exhibited
in debate. It was in friendly talk, generally with a pipe in his
mouth and an anecdote on the tip of his tongue, that he exercised
his extraordinary influence over his fellows. Convinced from the
first of his disinterestedness and sincerity, and impressed by his
penetrating shrewdness and his instinctive faculty of always
seizing the main point and sticking to it, his hearers soon felt
an absolute confidence in the deputy from Zala county. Perhaps
there is not another instance in history in which a man who was
neither a soldier, nor a diplomatist, nor a writer, who appealed to
no passion but patriotism, and who avoided power with almost
oriental indolence instead of seeking it, became, in the course of a
long life, the leader of a great party by sheer force of intellect and
moral superiority.

During the diet of 1830-1840 Deak succeeded in bringing about
an understanding between a reactionary government, sadly in
want of money, and a Liberal opposition determined that the
nation should have its political privileges respected. " Let us
put all jealousy on one side and allow him the pre-eminence,"
wrote Szechenyi of Deak (April 30th, 1840). Deak would not
go to the diet of 1843-1844, though he had received a mandate,
because his election was the occasion of bloodshed in the struggle
between the Clericals who would have ousted him and the
Liberals who brought him in. In 1848, however, he accepted
the post of minister of justice offered to him by Louis Batthyany.
He never ceased to urge moderation in those stormy days, hold-
ing rather with Eotvos and Batthyany than with Kossuth,
and he went more than once to Vienna to endeavour to effect a
compromise between the Radicals and the court. But when the
ill-will of the Vienna government became patent, and the senti-
ments of the king doubtful, he resigned together with Batthyany,
but without ceasing to be a member of the diet. He it was who
drew up the resolution of the Lower House in reply to the rescript
of the Austrian ministry demanding the repeal of the Hungarian
constitution. It was he who urged the Hungarian cabinet not to
depart a hair's-breadth from their legitimate position. He was
one of the parliamentary deputation which waited in vain upon
Prince Windischgratz in his camp. (See Hungary: History.)
He then retired to his estate at Kehida. After the war of in-
dependence he was tried by court-martial, but acquitted.

During the years of repression he lived in complete retirement.
He rejected Schmerling's proposal that he should take part in
the project of judicial reform, but on the other hand he held
completely aloof from the widespread, secret revolutionary move-
ments. After 1854 he spent the greater part of his time at Pest,
and his little room at the " Queen of England " inn became the
meeting-place for those patriots who in those dark days looked to
the wisdom of Deak for guidance. He used every opportunity of
stimulating the moral strength of the nation and keeping its
hopes alive. He invited the nation to contribute to the support
of the orphans of Vbrosmarty when that great poet died. He
drew up the petition of the academy to the government, in which
he defended the maintenance of this asylum of the national
language against Austrian intervention. He trusted that, as had
so often happened in the course of Hungarian history, the weak-
ness and blindness of the court would .help Hungary back to her
constitutional rights. Armed resistance he considered dangerous,
but he was an immutable defender of the continuity of the

Hungarian constitution on the basis of the reforms of 1848.
His principles alienated him from the Kossuth faction, which
looked for salvation to a second war with Austria, engineered
from abroad; but he was equally opposed to the attitude of
resignation taken up by the followers of Szechenyi, who, accord-
ing to Deak, always regarded the world from a purely provincial
point of view.

The war of 1859 convinced the Austrian government, at
last, of the necessity of a reconciliation with Hungary; but
the ensuing negotiations were conducted not through Deak, but
through the Magyar Conservatives. In i860 Deak rejected the
October diploma (see Hungary: .History), which was simply
a cast-back to the Maria Theresa system of 1747; but, at
the request of the government, he went to Vienna to set forth
the national demands. On this occasion he insisted on the
re-establishment of the constitution in its integrity as a sine qua
non. Meanwhile, it became more and more evident that the
Conservative party had no standing in the country. The
majority of the deputies returned to the diet of 1861 were in
favour of asserting their rights by a resolution of the House,
instead of petitioning for them by an address to the crown;
hence arose the two parties of the Addressers and the Resolu-
tioners. The Patent of the 20th of February 1861 increased the
uneasiness and suspicion of the nation; but Deak, now one of the
deputies for Pest, was in favour of an address rather than of a
resolution, and his great speech on the subject (May 13th, 1861)
converted the majority hostile to an address into a majority for it.
The object of the Addressers was to make the responsibility for a
rupture rest on the Austrian government. Nevertheless, the court
found the address so voted inadmissible; whereupon, on Deak's
motion, the Hungarian diet drew up a second address vigorously
defending the rights of the nation, and solemnly protesting
against the usurpations of the Austrian government. The speech
which Deak made on this occasion was his finest effort. Hence-
forth all Europe identified his name with the cause of Hungary.
The Magyar Conservatives hereupon entered into negotiations
with Deak, and the' Austrian government, more than ever
convinced of the necessity of a reconciliation, was ready to take
the first step, if Hungary would take the second and third.
Deak now proposed that the sovereign himself should break away
from counsellors who had sought to oppress Hungary, and should
restore the constitution as a personal act. The worthy response
to this loyal invitation was the dismissal of the Schmerling
administration, the suspension of the February constitution
and the summoning of the coronation diet. Of that diet Deak
was the indispensable leader. Under his direction the Addressers
and the ResolutioneTS coalesced, and he was entrusted with the
difficult and delicate negotiations with the crown, which aimed
at effecting a compromise between the Pragmatic Sanction
of 1719, which established the indivisibility of the Habsburg
monarchy, and the March decrees of 1848. The committee of
which he was president had completed its work, when the war
of 1866 broke out and all again became uncertain.

After Koniggratz the extreme parties in Hungary hoped to
extort still more favourable terms from the emperor; but Deak
remained true to himself and to the constitutional principle.
On the 1 8th of July he went to Vienna, to urge the necessity
of forming a responsible Magyar ministry without delay. He
offered the post of premier to Count Julius Andrassy, but would
not himself take any part in the administration. ■ The diet was
resummoned on the 17th of November 1866 and, chiefly through
the efforts of Deak, the responsible ministry was formed (February
17th, 1867). There was still one fierce parliamentary struggle, in
which Deak defended the Composition (Ausgleich) of 1867, both
against the Kossuthites and against the Left-centre, which had
detached itself from his own party under the leadership of Kalman
Tisza (q.v.). He, a simple citizen, from pure patriotism, thus
mediated between the crown and the people, as the Hungarian
palatines were wont to do in years gone by, and it was the wish
of the diet that Deak should exercise the functions of a palatine
at the solemn ceremony of the coronation. This honour he
refused, as he had refused every other reward and distinction.

896

OEAL^DEAN

" It was beyond the king's power to give him anything but
a clasp of the hand." His real recompense was the assurance of
the prosperity and the tranquillity of his country in the future,
and the reconciliation of the nation and its sovereign. The
consciousness of these great services even reconciled him to the
loss of much of his popularity; for there can be no doubt that a
large part of the Hungarian nation regarded the Composition of
1867 as a sort of surrender and blamed Deak as the author of it.
The Composition was the culminating point of Deak's political
activity; but as a party-leader he still exercised considerable
influence. He died at midnight of the 28th-2oth of July 1876,
after long and painful sufferings. His funeral was celebrated
with royal pomp on the 3rd of February, and representatives
from every part of Hungary followed the " Sage " to the grave.
A mausoleum was erected by national subscription, and in 1887
a statue, overlooking the Danube, was erected to his memory.

See Speeches (Hung.) ed. by Mano Konyi (Budapest, 1882);
Z. Ferenczi, Life of Deak (Hung., Budapest, 1894); Memorials
of Ferencz Deak (Hung., Budapest, 1889-1890) ; Ferencz Pulszky,
Charakterskizze (Leipzig, 1876). (R. N. B.)

DEAL, a market town, seaport and municipal borough in
the St Augustine's parliamentary division of Kent, England, 8 m.
N.E. by N. of Dover on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901) 10,581. It consists of three divisions— Lower Deal,
on the coast; Middle Deal; and, about a mile inland, though
formerly on the coast, Upper Deal, which is the oldest part.
Though frequented as a seaside resort, the town derives its
importance mainly from its vicinity to the Downs, a fine
anchorage, between the shore and the Goodwin Sands, about
8 m. long and 6 m. wide, in which large fleets of windbound
vessels may he in safety. The trade consequently consists largely
in the supply of provisions and naval stores, which are conveyed
to the ships in need of them by " hovellers," as the boatmen
are called all along the Kentish coast; the name is probably
a corruption of hobeler, anciently applied to light-horsemen
from the hobby or small horse which they rode. The Deal
hovellers and pilots are famous for their skill. Boat-building and
a few other industries are carried on. Among buildings the most
remarkable are St Leonard's church in Upper Deal, which dates
from the Norman period; the Baptist chapel in Lower Deal,
founded by Captain Taverner, governor of Deal Castle, in 1663;
the military and naval hospital; and the barracks, founded in
1795. The site of the old navy yard is occupied by villas; and
the esplanade, nearly four miles long, is provided with a
promenade pier. The golf-links is well known. At the south
end of the town is Deal Castle, erected by Henry VIII. in 1539,
together with the castles of Sandown, Walmer and Sandgate.
They were built alike, and consisted of a central keep surrounded
by four lunettes. Sandown Castle, which stood about a mile
to the east of Deal Castle, was of interest as the prison in which
Colonel Hutchinson, the Puritan soldier, was confined, and is
said to have died, September 1664. It was removed on becoming
endangered by encroachments of the sea. The " captain " of
Deal Castle is appointed by the lord warden of the Cinque Ports.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, mi acres.

Deal is one of the possible sites of the landing-place of Julius
Caesar in Britain. Later in the period of Roman occupation
the site was inhabited, but apparently was not a port. In the
Domesday Survey, Deal (Dola, Dale, Dele) is mentioned among
the possessions of the canons of St Martin, Dover, as part of the
hundreds of Bewsborough and Cornilo; it seems, however, from
early times to have been within the liberty of the Cinque Ports
as a member of Sandwich, but was not continuously reckoned
as a member until Henry VI., on the occasion of a dispute as
to its assessment, finally annexed it to their jurisdiction.

In the time of Henry VIII. Deal was merely a fishing village
standing half-a-mile from the sea, but the growth of the English
navy and the increase of trade brought men-of-war and merchant
ships in increased numbers to the Downs. Deal began to grow
in importance, and Lower or New Deal was built along the shore.
The yrosperity of the town has ever since depended almost

entirely on its shipping trade. In 1699 the inhabitants petitioned
for incorporation, since previously the town had been under the
jurisdiction of Sandwich and governed by a deputy appointed by
the mayor of that town; William III. by his charter incorpor-
ated the town under the title of mayor, jurats and commonalty
of Deal, and he also granted a market to be held on Tuesday
and Saturday, and fairs on the 25th and 26th of March, and on the
30th of September and 1st of October, with a court of Pie Powder.
The Cinque Ports were first represented in the parliament of
1265; the two members returned by Sandwich represented
Sandwich, Deal and Walmer, until they were disenfranchized by
the act of 1885.

DEAL. (1) (A common Teutonic word for a part or portion,
cf. Ger. Teil, and the Eng. variant " dole "), a division or part,
obsolete except in such phrases as " a great deal " or " a good
deal," where it equals quantity or lot. From the verb '<■ to deal,"
meaning primarily to divide into parts, come such uses as for
the giving out of cards to the players in a game, or for a business
transaction. (2) (Also a Teutonic word, meaning a plank or
board, cf. Ger. Diele, Dutch deel), strictly a term in carpentry and
joinery for a sawn plank, usually of pine or fir, 9 in. wide and 2 to
4j in. thick. (See Joinery.) The word is also used more loosely
of the timber from which such deals are cut, thus " white deal "
is used of the wood of the Norway spruce, and " red deal " of the
Scotch pine.

DEAN (Lat; decanus, derived from the Gr. bena, ten), the style
of a certain functionary, primarily ecclesiastical. Whether the
term was first used among the secular clergy to signify the
priest who had a charge of inspection and superintendence over
two parishes, or among the regular clergy to signify the monk
who in a monastery had authority over ten other monks, appears
doubtful. " Decurius " may be found in early writers used to
signify the same thing as " decanus," which shows that the word
and the idea signified by it were originally borrowed from the
old Roman military system.

The earliest mention which occurs of an " archipresbyter "
seems to be in the fourth epistle of St Jerome to Rusticus, in
which he says that a cathedral church should possess one bishop,
one archipresbyter and one archdeacon. Libera tus also ( Breviar.
c. xiv.) speaks of the office Of archipresbyter in a manner which,
as J. Bingham says, enables one to understand what the nature
of his duties and position was. And he thinks that those are-
right who hold that the archipresbyters were the same as the
deans of English cathedral churches. E. Stillingfleet (Irenic.
part ii. c. 7) says of the archipresbyters that " the memory
of them is preserved still in cathedral churches, in the chapters
there, where the: dean was nothing else but the archipresbyter;
and both dean and prebendaries were to be assistant to the
bishop in the regulating the church affairs belonging to the city,
while the churches were contained therein." Bingham, however,
following Liberatus, describes the office of the archipresbyter to
have been next to that of the bishop, the head of the presbyteral
college, and the functions to have consisted in administering all
matters pertaining to the church in the absence of the bishop.
But this does not describe accurately the office of dean in an
English cathedral church. The dean is indeed second to the
bishop in rank and dignity, and he is the head of the presbyteral
college or chapter; but his functions in no wise consist in
administering any affairs in the absence of the bishop. There
may be some matters connected with the ordering of the internal
arrangements of cathedral. churches, respecting which it may be
considered a doubtful point whether the authority of the bishop
or that of the dean is supreme. But the consideration of any
such question leads at once to the due theoretical distinction
between the two. With regard to matters spiritual, properly and
strictly so called, the bishop is supreme in the cathedral as far as
— and no further than — he is supreme in his diocese generally.
With regard to matters material and temporal, as concerning
the fabric of the cathedral, the arrangement and conduct of the
services, and the management of the property of the chapter, &c,
the dean (not excluding the due authority of the other members
of the chapter, but speaking with reference to the bishop) is

DEAN, FOREST OF

897

supreme. And the cases in which a doubt might arise are
those in which the material arrangements of the fabric or of the
services may be thought to involve doctrinal considerations.

The Roman Catholic writers on the subject say that there are
two sorts of deans in the church — the deans of cathedral churches,
and the rural deans — as has continued to be the case in the
English Church. And the probability would seem to be that the
former were the successors and representatives of the monastic
decurions, the latter of the inspectors of " ten " parishes in the
primitive secular church. It is thought by some that the rural
dean is the lineal successor of the chorepiscopus, who in the early
church was the assistant of the bishop, discharging most, if not all,
episcopal functions in the rural districts of the diocese. But upon
the whole the probability is otherwise. W. Beveridge, W. Cave,
Bingham and Basnage all hold that the chorepiscopi were true
bishops, though Romanist theologians for the most part have
maintained that they were simple priests. But if the chorepis-
copus has any representative in the church of the present day,
it seems more likely that the archdeacon is such rather than the
dean.

The ordinary use of the term dean, as regards secular bodies
of persons, would lead to the belief that the oldest member of a
chapter had, as a matter of right, or at least of usage, become
the dean thereof. But Bingham (lib. ii. chap. 18) very con-
clusively shows that such was at no time the case; as is also
further indicated by the maxim to the effect that the dean must
be selected from the body of the chapter — " Unus de gremio
tantum potest eligi et promoveri ad decanatus dignitatem." The
duties of the dean in a Roman Catholic cathedral are to preside
over the chapter, to declare the decisions to which the chapter
may have in its debates arrived by plurality of voices, to exercise
inspection over the choir, over the conduct of the capitular body,
and over the discipline and regulations of the church; and to
celebrate divine service on occasion of the greater festivals of
the church in the absence or inability of the bishop. With the
exception of the last clause the same statement may be made
as to the duties and functions of the deans of Church of England
cathedral churches.

Deans had also a place in the judicial system of the Lombard
kings in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries. But the office indicated
by that term, so used, seems to have been a very subordinate one;
and the name was in all probability adopted with immediate
reference to the etymological meaning of the word, — a person
having authority over ten (in this case apparently) families.
L. A. Muratori, in his Italian Antiquities, speaks of the resem-
blance between the saltarii or sylvani and the decani, and shows
that the former had authority in the rural districts, and the
latter in towns, or at least in places where the population was
sufficiently close for them to have authority over ten families.
Nevertheless, a document cited by Muratori from the archives
of the canons of Modena, and dated in the year 813, recites the
names of several " deaneries" (decania), and thus shows that the
authority of the dean extended over a certain circumscription
of territory.

In the case of the " dean of the sacred college," the connexion
between the application of the term and the etymology of it is not
so evident as in the foregoing instances of its use ; nor is it by any
means clear how and when the idea of seniority was first attached
to the word. This office is held by the oldest cardinal — i.e.
he who has been longest in the enjoyment of the purple, not he
who is oldest in years,— who is usually, but not necessarily or
always, the bishop of Ostia and Velletri. Perhaps the use of the
word " dean," as signifying simply the eldest member of any
corporation or body of men, may have been first adopted
from its application to that high dignitary. The dean of the
sacred college is in the ecclesiastical hierarchy second to the pope
alone. His privileges and special functions are very many; a
compendious account of the principal of them may be found in
the work of G. Moroni, vol. xix. p. 168.

There are four sorts of deans of whom the law of England takes
notice. (1) The dean and chapter are a council subordinate to the
bishop, assistant to him in matters spiritual relating to religion,
vii. 29

and in matters temporal relating to the temporalities of the
bishopric. The dean and chapter are a corporation, and the
dean himself is a corporation sole. Deans are said to be either of
the old or of the new foundation — the latter being those created
and regulated after the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry
VIII. The deans of the old foundation before the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners Act 1841 were elected by the chapter on the king's
conge d'elire; and the deans of the new foundation (and, since the
act, of the old foundation also) are appointed by the king's letters
patent. It was at one time held that a layman might be dean;
but since 1662 priest's orders are a necessary qualification.
Deaneries are sinecures in the old sense, i.e. they are without
cure of souls. The chapter formerly consisted of canons and
prebendaries, the dean being the head and an integral part of the
corporation. By the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 184,1, it is
enacted that " all the members of the chapter except the dean,
in every collegiate and cathedral church in England, and in the
cathedral churches of St David and Llandaff, shall be styled
canons." By the same act the dean is required to be in residence
eight months, and the canons three months, in every year. The
bishop is visitor of the dean and chapter. (2) A dean of peculiars
is the chief of certain peculiar churches or chapels. He " hath
no chapter, yet is presentative, and hath cure of souls; he hath
a peculiar, and is not subject to the visitation of the bishop of
the diocese." The only instances of such deaneries are Battle
(Sussex), Bocking (Essex) and Stamford (Rutland). The deans
of Jersey and Guernsey have similar status. (3) The third dean
" hath no cure of souls, but hath a court and a peculiar, in which
he holdeth plea and jurisdiction of all such ecclesiastical matters
as come within his peculiar. Such is the dean of the arches, who
is the judge of the court of the arches, the chief court and con-
sistory of the archbishop of Canterbury, so called of Bow Church,
where this court was ever wont to be held." (See Arches, Court
of.) The parish of Bow and twelve others were within the
peculiar jurisdiction of the archbishop in spiritual causes, and
exempted out of the bishop of London's jurisdiction. They were
in 1845 made part of the diocese of London. (4) Rural deans
are clergymen whose duty is described as being " to execute the
bishop's processes and to inspect the lives and manners of the
clergy and people within their jurisdiction." (See Phillimore's
Ecclesiastical Law.)

In the colleges of the English universities one of the fellows
usually holds the office of " dean," and is specially charged
with the discipline, as distinguished from the teaching functions
of the tutors. In some universities the head of a faculty is
called " dean," and in each of these cases the word is used in a
non-ecclesiastical and purely titular sense.

DEAN, FOREST OF, a district in the west of Gloucestershire,
England, between the Severn and the Wye. It extends north-
ward in an oval form from the junction of these rivers, for a
distance of 20 m., with an extreme breadth of 10 m., and still
retains its true forest character. The surface is agreeably undu-
lating, its elevation ranging from 120 to nearly 1000 ft., and its
sandy peat soil renders it most suitable for the growth of timber,
which is the cause of its having been a royal forest from time
immemorial. It is recorded that the commanders of the Armada
had orders not to leave in it a tree standing. In the reign of
Charles I." the forest contained 105,537 trees, and, straitened for
money, the king granted it to Sir John Wyntour for £10,000,
and a fee farm rent of £2000. The grant was cancelled by
Cromwell; but at the Restoration only 30,000 trees were left,
and Wyntour, the Royalist commander, having got another grant,
destroyed all but 200 trees fit for navy timber. In 1680 an act
was passed to enclose 1 1 ,000 acres and plant with oak and beech
for supply of the dockyards; and the present forest, though not
containing, very many gigantic oaks, has six " walks " covered
with timber in various stages of growth.

The forest is locally governed by two crown-appointed deputy
gavellers to superintend the woods and mines, and four verderers
elected by the freeholders, whose office, since the extermination
of the deer in 1850, is almost purely honorary. From time
immemorial all persons born in the hundred of St Briavel's, who

8 9 8

DEANE— DEATH

have worked a year and a day in a coal mine, become " free
miners," and may work coal in any part of the forest not previ-
ously occupied. The forest laws were administered at the Speech-
House, a building of the 17th century in the heart of the forest,
where the verderers' court is still held. The district contains
coal and iron mines, and quarries of building-stone, which fortun-
ately hardly minimize its natural beauty. Near Coleford and
Westbury pit workings of the Roman period have been discovered,
and the Romans drew large supplies of iron from this district.
The scenery is especially fine in the high ground bordering the
Wye (<?•">.), opposite to Symond's Yat above Monmouth, and
Tintern above Chepstow. St Briavel's Castle, above Tintern,
was the headquarters of the forest officials from an early date and
was frequented by King John. It is a moated castle, of which
the north-west front remains, standing in a magnificent position
high above the Wye.

See H. G. Nicholls, Forest of Dean (London, 1858).

DEANE, RICHARD (1610-1653), British general-at-sea, major-
general and regicide, was a younger son of Edward Deane of
Temple Guiting or Guyting in Gloucestershire, where he was born,
his baptism taking place on the 8th of July 1610. His family
seems to have been strongly Puritan and was related to many
of those Buckinghamshire families who were prominent in the
parliamentary party. His uncle or great-uncle was Sir Richard
Deane, lord mayor of London, 1628-1629. Of Deane's early life
nothing is accurately known, but he seems to have had some
sea training, possibly on a ship-of-war. At the outbreak of the
Civil War he joined the parliamentary army as a volunteer in the
artillery, a branch of the service with which he was constantly
and honourably associated. In 1644 he held a command in the
artillery under Essex in Cornwall and took part in the surrender
after Lostwithiel. Essex {Letter to Sir Philip Stapleton, Rush-
worth Collection) calls him " an honest, judicious and stout
man," an estimate of Deane borne out by Clarendon's " bold and
excellent officer " (book xiv. cap. 27), and he was one of the few
officers concerned in the surrender who were retained at the
remodelling of the army. Appointed comptroller of the ordnance,
he commanded the artillery at Naseby and during Fairfax's
campaign in the west of England in 1645. In 1647 he was
promoted colonel and given a regiment. In May of that year
Cromwell was made lord-general of the forces in Ireland by
the parliament, and Deane, as a supporter of Cromwell who had
to be reckoned with, was appointed his lieutenant of artillery.
Cromwell refused to be thus put out of the way, and Deane
followed his example. When the war broke out afresh in 1648
Deane went with Cromwell to Wales. As brigadier-general his
leading of the right wing at Preston contributed greatly to the
victory. On the entry of the army into London in 1648, Deane
superintended the seizure of treasure at the Guildhall and
Weavers' Hall the day after Pride " purged " the House of
Commons, and accompanied Cromwell to the consultations as to
the " settlement of the Kingdom " with Lenthall and Sir Thomas
Widdrington, the keeper of the great seal. He is rightly called by
Sir J. K. Laugh ton (in the Did. of Nat. Biog.) Cromwell's " trusted
partisan," a character which he maintained in the active and
responsible part taken by him in the events which led up to the
trial and execution of the king. He was one of the commissioners
for the trial, and a member of the committee which 'examined
the witnesses. He signed the death warrant.

Deane's capacities and activities were now required for the
navy. In 1649 the office of lord high admiral was put into
commission. The first commissioners were Edward Popham,
Robert Blake and Deane, with the title of generals-at-sea.
His command at sea was interrupted in 1651, when as major-
general he was brought back to the army and took part in
the battle of Worcester. Later he was made president of the
commission for the settlement of Scotland, with supreme com-
mand of the military and naval forces. At the end of 1652
Deane returned to his command as general-at-sea, where Monck
had succeeded Popham, who had died in 1651. In 1653 Deane
was with Blake in command at the battle off Portland and
later took the most prominent and active part in the refitting

of the fleet on the reorganization of the naval service. At the
outset of the three days' battle off the North Foreland, the 1st,
2nd and 3rd of June 1653, Deane was killed. His body lay in
state at Greenwich and after a public funeral was buried in
Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster Abbey, to be disinterred at
the Restoration.
See J. Bathurst Deane, The Life of Richard Deane (1870).

DEANE, SILAS (1737-1789), American diplomat, was born in
Groton, Connecticut, on the 24th of December 1737. He gradu-
ated at Yale in 1758 and in 1761 was admitted to the bar, but
instead of practising became a merchant at Wethersfield, Conn.
He took an active part in the movements in Connecticut
preceding the War of Independence, and from 1774 to 1776 was
a delegate from Connecticut to the Continental Congress. Early
in 1776 he was sent to France by Congress, in a semi-official
capacity, as a secret agent to induce the French government to
lend its financial aid to the colonies. Subsequently he became,
with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, one of the regularly
accredited commissioners to France from Congress. On arriving
in Paris, Deane at once opened negotiations with Vergennes and
Beaumarchais, securing through the latter the shipment of many
vessel loads of arms and munitions of war to America. He also
enlisted the services of a number of Continental soldiers of
fortune, among whom were Lafayette, Baron Johann De Kalb
and Thomas Conway. His carelessness in keeping account of his
receipts and expenditures, and the differences between himself
and Arthur Lee regarding the contracts with Beaumarchais,
eventually led, in November 1777, to his recall to face charges,
of which Lee's complaints formed the basis. Before returning
to America, however, he signed on the 6th of February 1778 the
treaties of amity and commerce and of alliance which he and
the other commissioners had successfully negotiated. In America
he was defended by John Jay and John Adams, and after stating
his case to Congress was allowed to return to Paris (1 781) to settle
his affairs. Differences with various French officials led to his
retirement to Holland, where he remained until after the treaty
of peace had been signed, when he settled in England. The
publication of some " intercepted " letters in Rivington's Royal
Gazette in New York (1781), in which Deane declared his belief
that the struggle for independence was hopeless and counselled
a return to British allegiance, aroused such animosity against
him in America that for some years he remained in England.
He died on shipboard in Deal harbour, England, on the 23rd of
September 1789 after having embarked for America on a Boston
packet. No evidence of his dishonesty was ever discovered, and
Congress recognized the validity of his claims by voting $37,000
to his heirs in 1842. He published his defence in An Address to
the Free and Independent Citizens of the United States of North
America (Hartford, Conn., and London, 1784).

The Correspondence of Silas Deane was published in the Connecticut
Historical Society's Collections, vol. ii. ; and The Deane Papers, in
5 vols., in the New York Historical Society's Collections (1887-
1890). See also Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, vol. vii.
chap, i., and Wharton's Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of
the United States (6 vols., Washington, 1889).

DEATH, the permanent cessation of the vital functions in
the bodies of animals and plants, the end of life or act of dying.
The word is the English representative of the substantive common
to Teutonic languages, as " dead " is of the adjective, and " die "
of the verb; the ultimate origin is the pre-Teu tonic verbal stem
dau-; cf. Ger Tod, Dutch dood, Swed. and Dan. dod.

For the scientific aspects of the processes involved in life and
its cessation see Biology, Physiology, Pathology, and allied
articles; and for the consideration of the prolongation of life
see Longevity. Here it is only necessary to deal with the more
primitive views of death and with certain legal aspects.

Ethnology. — To the savage, death from natural causes is
inexplicable. At all times and in all lands, if he reflects upon
death at all, he fails to understand it as a natural phenomenon;
nor in its presence is he awed or curious. Man in a primitive
state has for his dead an almost animal indifference. The
researches of archaeologists prove that Quaternary Man cared
little what became of his fellow-creature's* body. And this lack

DEATH

8 99

of interest is found to-day as a general characteristic of savages.
The Goajiros of Venezuela bury their dead, they confess, simply
to get rid of them. The Galibis of Guiana, when asked the
meaning of their curious funeral ceremony, which consists in
dancing on the grave, replied that they did it to stamp down
the earth. Fuegians, Bushmen, Veddahs, show the same lack of
concern and interest in the memory of the dead. Even the
Eskimos, conspicuous as they are for their intelligence and
sociability, save themselves the trouble of caring for their sick
and old by walling them up and leaving them to die in a lonely
hut; the Chukches stone or strangle them to death; some
Indian tribes give them over to tigers, and the Battas of Sumatra
eat them. This indifference is not dictated by any realization
that death means annihilation of the personality. The savage
conception of a future state is one that involves no real break in
the continuity of life as he leads it. If a man dies without being
wounded he is considered to be the victim of the sorcerers and
the evil spirits with which they consort. Throughout Africa
the death of anyone is ascribed to the magicians of some hostile
tribe or to the malicious act of a neighbour. A culprit is easily
discovered either by an appeal to a local diviner or in torturing
some one into confession. In Australia it is the same. Mr
Andrew Lang says that " whenever a native dies, no matter
how evident it may be that death has been the result of natural
causes, it is at once set down that the defunct was bewitched."
The Bechuanas and all Kaffir tribes believe that death, even at an
advanced age, if not from hunger or violence, is due to witchcraft,
and blood is required to expiate or avenge it. Similar beliefs
are found among the Papuans, and among the Indians of both
Americas. The history of witchcraft in Europe and its attendant
horrors, so vividly painted in Lecky's Rise of Rationalism, are but
echoes of this universal refusal of savage man to accept death as
the natural end of life. Even to-day the ignorant peasantry of
many European countries, Russia, Galicia and elsewhere, believe
that all disease is the work of demons, and that medicinal herbs
owe their curative properties to their being the materialized forms
of benevolent spirits.

This animistic tendency is a marked characteristic of primitive
Man in every land. The savage explains the processes of inani-
mate nature by assuming that living beings or spirits, possessed
of capacities similar to his own, are within the inanimate object.
The growth of a tree, the spark struck from a flint, the devastat-
ing floods of a river, mean to him the natural actions of beings
within the tree, stone or water. And thus too he explains to
himself the phenomena of human life, believing that each man has
within him a mannikin or animal which dictates his actions in life.
This miniature man is the savage's conception of the soul; sleep
and trance being regarded as the temporary, death as the
permanent, absence of the soul. Each individual is thus deemed
to have a dual existence. This " subliminal " self (in modern
terminology) has many forms. The Hurons thought that it
possessed head, body, arms and legs, in fact that it was an exact
miniature of a man. The Nootkas of British Columbia regard
it as a tiny man, living in the crown of the head. So long as it
stands erect, its possessor is well, but if it falls from its position
the misfortunes of ill-health and madness at once assail him.
The ancient Egyptian believed in the soul or " double." The
inhabitants of Nias, an island to the west of Sumatra, have the
strange belief that to everyone before birth is given the choice of
a long and heavy or short and light soul (a parallel belief may be
found in early Greek philosophy), and his choice determines the
length of life. Sometimes the soul is conceived as a bird. The
Bororos of Brazil fancy that in that shape the soul of a sleeper
passes out of the body during night-time, returning to him at his
awakening. The Bella Coola Indians say the soul is a bird
enclosed in an egg and lives in the nape of the neck. If the shell
bursts and the soul flies away, the man must die. If however
the bird flies away, egg and all, then he faints or loses his reason.
A popular superstition in Bohemia assumes that the soul in the
shape of a white bird leaves the body by way of the mouth.
Among the Battas of Sumatra rice or grain is sprinkled on the
head of a man who returns from a dangerous enterprise, and in

the latter case the grains are called padiruma tondi, " means to
make the soul (tondi) stay at home," In Java the new-bom
babe is placed in a hen-coop, and the mother makes a clucking
noise, as if she were a hen, to attract the child's soul. It is
regarded by many savage peoples as highly dangerous to arouse
a sleeper suddenly, as his soul may not have time to return.
Still more dangerous is it to move a sleeper, for the soul on its
return might not be able to find the body. Flies and butterflies
are forms which the souls are believed by some races to take,
and the Esthonians of the island of Oesel think that the gusts of
wind which whirl tornado-like through the roads are the souls of
old women seeking what they can find.

But more widespread perhaps than any belief, from its sim-
plicity doubtless, is the idea that the body's shadow or reflexion
is the soul. The Basutos think that crocodiles can devour the
shadow of a man cast on the surface of water. In many parts of
the world sorcerers are credited with supernatural powers over
a man by an attack on his shadow. The sick man is considered
to have lost his shadow or a part of it. Dante refers to the
shadowless spectre of Virgil, and the folklore of many European
countries affords examples of the prevalence of the superstition
that a man must be as careful of his shadow as of his body. In
the same way the reflexion-soul is thought to be subject to a
malice of enemies or attacks of beasts and has been the cause of
superstitions which in one form or another exist to-day. From
the Fijian and Andaman islander who exhibits abject terror at
seeing himself in a glass or in water, to the English or European
peasant who covers up the mirrors or turns them, to the wall,
upon a death occurring, lest an inmate of the house should see his
own face and have his own speedy demise thus prognosticated,
the idea holds its ground. It was probably the origin of the
story of Narcissus, and there is scarcely a race which is free from
the haunting dread. Lastly the soul is pictured as being a man's
breath (anima), and this again has come down to us in literature,
evidenced by the fact that the word " breath " has become a
synonym for life itself. The " last breath " has meant more than
a mere metaphor. It expresses the savage belief that there
departs from the dying in the final expiration a something
tangible, capable of separate existence — the soul. Among the
Romans custom imposed a sacred duty on the nearest relative,
usually the heir, to inhale the " last breath " of the dying.
Moreover the classics bear evidence to the sanctity with which
sentiment surrounded the last kiss; Cicero, in his speech against
Verres, saying " Matres ab extremo complexu liberum exclusae:
quae nihil aliud orabant nisi ut filiorum extremum spiritum ore
excipere sibi liceret." Virgil, too, refers in the Aeneid, iv. 684,
to the custom, which survives to-day as a ceremonial practice
among many savage and semi-civilized people.

From the inability of the savage in all ages and in all lands
to comprehend death as a natural phenomenon, there results a
tendency to personify death, and myths are invented to account
for its origin. Sometimes it is a " taboo " which has been
broken and gives Death power over man. In New Zealand
Maui, the divine hero of Polynesia, was not properly baptized.
In Australia a woman was told not to go near a tree where a bat
lived: she infringed the prohibition, the bat fluttered out, and
death resulted. The Ningphoos were dismissed from Paradise
and became mortal because one of them bathed in water which
had been " tabooed " (Dalton, p. 13). Other versions of the
Death-myth in Polynesia relate that Maui stole a march on Night
as she slept, and would have passed right through her to destroy
her, but a little bird which sings at sunset woke her, she destroyed
Maui, and men lost immortality. In India Yama, the god of
Death, is assumed, like Maui, to have been the first to " spy out
the path to the other world," In the Solomon Islands (Jour.
Anth. Inst., February 1881) " Koevari was the author of death,
by resuming her cast-off skin." The same story is told in the
Banks Islands. The Greek myth (Hesio'd, Works and Days, 90)
alleged that mortals lived " without ill diseases that give death
to men " till the cover was lifted from the box of Pandora.
This personification of Death has had as a consequence the
introduction into the folklore of many lands of stories, oftep

goo

DEATH-WARNING

humorous, of the tricks played on the Enemy of Mankind.
Thus Sisyphus fettered Death, keeping him prisoner till rescued
by Ares; in Venetian folklore Beppo ties him up in a bag for
eighteen months; while in Sicily an innkeeper corks him up in
a bottle, and a monk keeps him in his pouch for forty years.
The German parallel is Gambling Hansel, who kept Death up
a tree for seven years. Such examples might be multiplied
unendingly, but enough has been said to show that the attitude
of civilized man towards the sphinx-riddle of his end has been
in part dictated and is even still influenced by the savage belief
that to die is unnatural.

Law — Registration. — The registration of burials in England
goes back to the time of Thomas Cromwell, who in 1 538 instituted
the keeping of parish registers. Statutory measures were taken
from time to time to ensure the preservation of registers of
burials, but it was not until 1836 (the Births and Deaths Registra-
tion Act) that the registration of deaths became a national
concern. Other acts dealing with death registration were subse-
quently passed, and the whole law for England consolidated by
the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1874. By that act, the
registration of every death and the cause of the death is com-
pulsory. When a person dies in a house information of the
death and the particulars required to be registered must be given
within five days of the death to the registrar to the best of the
person's knowledge and belief by one of the following persons: —
(1) The nearest relative of the deceased present at the death, or
in attendance during the last illness of the deceased. If they fail,
then (2) some other relative of the deceased in the same sub-
district (registrar's) as the deceased. In default of relatives, (3)
some person present at the death, or the occupier of the house in
which, to his knowledge, the death took place. If all the above
fail, (4) some inmate of the house, or the person causing the body
of the deceased to be buried. The person giving the information
must sign the register. Similarly, also, information must be
given concerning death where the deceased dies not in a house.

Where written notice of the death, accompanied by a medical
certificate of the cause of death, is sent to the registrar, informa-
tion must nevertheless be given and the register signed within
fourteen days after the death by the person giving the notice
or some other person as required by the act. Failure to give
information of death, or to comply with the registrar's requisi-
tions, entails a penalty not exceeding forty shillings, and making
false statements or certificates, or forging or falsifying them, is
punishable either summarily within six months, or on indict-
ment within three years of the offence. Before burial takes place
the clergyman or other person conducting the funeral or religious
service must have the registrar's certificate that the death of the
deceased person has been duly registered, or else a coroner's
order or warrant. Failing the certificate, the clergyman cannot
refuse to bury, but he must forthwith give notice in writing to the
registrar. Failure to do so within seven days involves a penalty
not exceeding ten pounds. Children must not be registered
as still-born without a medical certificate or a signed declaration
from some one who would have been required, if the child had
been born alive, to give information concerning the birth, that
the child was still-born and that no medical man was present at
the birth, or a coroner's order. The registration of deaths at
sea is regulated by the act of 1874 together with the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894. See further Birth and Burial and Burial
Acts. Registers of death are, in law, evidence of the fact of
death, and the entry, or a certified copy of it, will be sufficient
evidence without a certificate of burial, although it is desirable
that it should also be produced.

Presumption of Death. — The fact of death may, in English law,
be proved not only by direct but by presumptive evidence.
When a person disappears, so that no direct proof of his where-
abouts or death is obtainable, death may be presumed at the
expiration of seven years from the period when the person was last
heard of. It is always, however, a matter of fact for the jury, and
the onus of proving the death lies on the party who asserts it.
In Scotland, by the Presumption of "Life (Scotland) Act 1891, the
presumption is statutory. In those cases where people disappear

under circumstances which create a strong probability of death,
the court may, for the purpose of probate or administration;
presume the death before the lapse of seven years. The question
of survivorship, where two or more persons are shown to have
perished by the same catastrophe, as in cases of shipwreck, has
been much discussed. It was at one time thought that there
might be a presumption of survivorship in favour of the younger
as against the older, of the male as against the female, &c.
But it is now clear that there is no such presumption {In re
Alston, 1892, P. 142). This is also the rule in most states of the
American Union. The doctrine of survivorship originated in the
Roman Law, which had recourse to certain artificial presump-
tions, where the particular circumstances connected with deaths
were unknown. Some of the systems founded on the civil law,
as the French code, have adopted certain rules of survivorship.

Civil Death is an expression used, in law, in contradistinction
to natural death. Formerly, a man was said to be dead in law

( 1 ) when he en tered a monastery and became professed in religion ;

(2) when he abjured the realm; (3) when he was attainted of
treason or felony. Since the suppression of the monasteries
there has been no legal establishment for professed persons in
England, and the first distinction has therefore disappeared,
though for long after the original reason had ceased to make it
necessary grants of life estates were usually made for the terms
of a man's natural life. The act abolishing sanctuaries (1623)
did away with civil death by abjuration ; and the Forfeiture Act
1870, that on attainder for treason or felony.

For the tax levied on the estate of deceased persons, and some-
times called " death duty," see Succession Duty.

For the statistics of the death-rate of the United Kingdom as com-
pared with that of the various European countries see United
Kingdom. See also the articles Annuity; Capital Punishment;
Cremation; Insurance; Medical Jurisprudence, &c.

DEATH-WARNING, a term used in psychical research for an
intimation of the death of another person received by other than
the ordinary sensory channels, i.e. by (1) a sensory hallucination
or (2) a massive sensation, both being of telepathic origin. (See
Telepathy.) Both among civilized and uncivilized peoples
there is a widespread belief that the apparition of a living person
is an omen of death; but until the Society of Psychical Research
undertook the statistical examination of the question, there were
no data for estimating the value of the belief. In 1885 a collec-
tion of spontaneous cases and a discussion of the evidence was
published under the title Phantasms of the Living, and though
the standard of evidence was lower than at the present time, a
substantial body of testimony, including many striking cases,
was there put forward. In 1889 a further inquiry was under-
taken, known as the " Census of Hallucinations," which provided
information as to the percentage of individuals in the general
population who, at some period of their lives, while they were in a
normal state of health, had had " a vivid impression of seeing
or being touched by a living being or inanimate object, or of
hearing a voice; which impression, so far as they could discover,
was not due to any external cause." To the census question
about 17,000 answers were received, and after making all deduc-
tions it appeared that death coincidences numbered about 30 in
1300 cases of recognized apparitions; or about 1 in 43, whereas
if chance alone operated the coincidences would have been
in the proportion of 1 to 19,000. As a result of the inquiry
the committee held it to be proved that " between deaths and
apparitions of the dying person a connexion exists which is
not due to chance alone." From an evidential point of view
the apparition is the most valuable class of death-warning,
inasmuch as recognition is more difficult in the case of an
auditory hallucination, even where it takes the form of spoken
words; moreover, auditory hallucinations coinciding with deaths
may be mere knocks, ringing of bells, &c. ; tactile hallucinations
are still more difficult of recognition; and the hallucinations
of smell which are sometimes found as death-warnings rarely
have anything to associate them specially with the dead person.
Occasionally the death-warning is in the form Of an apparition
of some other person; it may also take the form of a temporary
feeling of intense depression or other massive sensation.

DEATH- WATCH^-DEBENTURES

go i

Bibliography. — Podmore, Gurney and Myers, Phantasms of the
Living (1885); for the Census Report see Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research, part xxvi. ; see also F. Podmore, Apparitions
and Thought Transference. For a criticism of the results of the
Census see E. Parish, Hallucinations and Illusions and Zur Kritik
des telepathischen Beweismaterials, and Mrs Sidgwick's refutation
in Proc. S.P.R. part xxxiii. 589-601. The Journal of the S.P.R.
contains the most striking spontaneous cases received from time to
time by the society. (N. W. T.)

DEATH-WATCH, a popular name applied to insects of two
distinct families, which burrow and live in old furniture and
produce the mysterious " ticking "■ vulgarly supposed to foretell
the death of some inmate of the house. The best known, because
the largest, is a small beetle, Anobium striattum, belonging to the
family Ptinidae. The " ticking," in reality a sexual call, like the
chirp of a grasshopper, is produced by the beetle rapidly striking
its head against the hard and dry woodwork. In the case of
the smaller death-watches, some of the so-called book-lice of the
family Psocidae, the exact way in which the sound is caused has
not been satisfactorily explained. Indeed the ability of such
small and soft insects to give rise to audible sounds has been
seriously doubted ; but it is impossible to ignore the positive
evidence on the point. The names Atropos divinatoria and
Clothilla pulsatoria, given to two of the commoner forms, bear
witness both to a belief in a causal connexion between these
insects and the ticking, and to the superstition regarding the
fateful significance of the sound.

DE BARY, HEINRICH ANTON (1831-1888), German botanist,
was of Belgian extraction, though his family had long been
settled in Germany, and was born on the 26th of January 1831,
at Frankfort-on-Main. From 1849 to 1853 he studied medicine
at Heidelberg, Marburg and Berlin. In 1853 he settled at Frank-
fort as a surgeon. In 1854 he became privat-docent for botany
in Tubingen, and professor of botany at Freiburg in 1855. In
1867 he migrated to Halle, and in 1872 to Strassburg, where he
was the first rector of the newly constituted university, and
where he died on the 19th of January 1888.

Although one of his largest and most important works was
on the Comparative Anatomy of Ferns and Phanerogams (1877),
and notwithstanding his admirable acquaintance with systematic
and field botany generally, de Bary will always be remembered
as the founder of modern mycology. This branch of botany
he completely revolutionized in 1866 by the publication of his
celebrated Morphologie und Physiologie d. Pilze, &c, a classic
which he rewrote in 1884, and which has had a world-wide
influence on biology. His clear appreciation of the real signifi-
cance of symbiosis and the dual nature of lichens is one of his
most striking achievements, and in many ways he showed powers
of generalizing in regard to the evolution of organisms, which
alone would have made him a distinguished man. It was as
an investigator of the then mysterious Fungi, however, that
de Bary stands out first and foremost among the biologists of
the 19th century. He not only laid bare the complex facts of the
life-history of many forms, — e.g. the Ustilagineae, Peronosporeae,
Uredineae and many Ascomycetes, — treating them from the
developmental point of view, in opposition to the then prevailing
anatomical method, but he insisted on the necessity of tracing
the evolution of each organism from spore to spore, and by his
methods of culture and accurate observation brought to light
numerous facts previously undreamt of. These his keen percep-
tion and insight continually employed as the basis for hypotheses,
which in turn he tested with an experimental skill and critical
faculty rarely equalled and probably never surpassed. One of
his most fruitful discoveries was the true meaning of infection as
a morphological and physiological process. He traced this step
by step in Phytophthora, Cystopus, Puccinia, and other Fungi,
and so placed before the world in a clear light the significance
of parasitism. He then showed by numerous examples wherein
lay the essential differences between a parasite and a saprophyte;
these were by no means clear in 1860-1870, though he himself
had recognized them as early as 1853, as is shown by his work,
Die Brandpilze.

These researches led to the explanation of epidemic diseases,

and de Bary's contributions, to this subject were fundamental,
as witness his classical work on the potato disease in 1861. They
also led to his striking discovery of heteroecism (or metoecism)
in the Uredineae, the truth of which he demonstrated in wheat
rust experimentally, and so clearly that his classical example
(1863) has always been confirmed by subsequent observers,
though much more has been discovered as to details. It is
difficult to estimate the relative importance of de Bary's astound-
ingly accurate work on the sexuality of the Fungi. He not
only described the phenomena of sexuality in Peronosporeae
and Ascomycetes— Eurotium, Erysiphe, Peziza, &c. — but also
established the existence of parthenogenesis and apogamy on so
firm a basis that it is doubtful if all the combined workers who
have succeeded him, and who have brought forward contending
hypotheses in opposition to his views, have succeeded in shaking
the doctrine he established before modern cytological methods
existed. In one case, at least (Pyronema confluens), the most
skilful investigations, with every modern appliance, have shown
that de Bary described the sexual organs and process accurately.
It is impossible here to mention all the discoveries made by
de Bary. He did much work on the Chytridieae, Ustilagineae,
Exoasceae and Phalloideae, as well as on that remarkable group
the Myxomycetes, or, as he himself termed them, Mycetozoa,
almost every step of which was of permanent value, and started
lines of investigation which have proved fruitful in the hands of
his pupils. Nor must we overlook the important contributions to
algology contained in his earlier monograph on the Conjugatae
(1858), and investigations on Nostocaceae (1863), Chara (1871),
Acetabularia (1869), &c. De Bary seems to have held aloof from
the Bacteria" for many years, but it was characteristic of the
man that, after working at them in order to include an account
of the group in the second edition of his book in 1884, he found
opportunity to bring the whole subject of bacteriology under the
influence of his genius, the outcome being his brilliant Lectures
on Bacteria in 1885. De Bary's personal influence was immense.
Every one of his numerous pupils was enthusiastic in admiration
of his kind nature and genial criticism, his humorous sarcasm,
and his profound insight, knowledge and originality.

Memoirs of de Bary's life will be found in Bot. Centralbl. (1888),
xxxiv. 93, by Wilhelm; Ber. d. d. bot. Ges. vol. vi. (1888) p. viii.,
by Reess, each" with a list of his works; Bot. Zeitung (1889), vol. xlvii.
No. 3, by Graf zu Soems-Laubach. (H.M.W.)

DEBENTURES and DEBENTURE STOCK. One of the

many advantages incident to incorporation under the English
Companies Acts is found in the facilities which such incorporation
affords a trading concern for borrowing on debentures or debenture
stock. More than five hundred millions of money are now in-
vested in these forms of security. Borrowing was not specifically
dealt with by the Companies Acts prior to the act of 1900* but
that it was contemplated by the legislature is evident from the
provision in § 43 of the act of 1862 for a company keeping a
register of mortgages and charges. The policy of the legislature
in this, as in other matters connected with trading companies,
was apparently to leave the company to determine whether
borrowing should or should not form one of its objects.

The first principle to be borne in mind is that a company
cannot borrow unless it is expressly or impliedly authorized to do
so by its memorandum of association. In the case of a trading
company borrowing is impliedly authorized as a necessary
incident of carrying on the company's business. Thus a company
established for the conveyance of passengers and luggage by
omnibuses, a company formed to buy and run vessels between
England and Australia, and a company whose objects included
discounting approved commercial bills, have all been held to
be trading companies with an incidental power of borrowing as
such to a reasonable amount. A building society, on the other
hand, has no inherent power of borrowing (though a limited
statutory power was conferred on such societies by the Building
Societies Act 1874); nor has a society formed not for gain but
to promote art, science, religion, charity or any other useful
object. Public companies formed to carry out some undertaking
of public utility, such as docks, water works, or gas works, and

9° 2

DEBENTURES

governed by the Companies Clauses Acts, have only limited
powers of borrowing.

An implied power of borrowing, even when it attaches, is too
inconvenient to be relied on in practice, and an express power is
always now inserted in a joint stock company's memorandum
of association. This power is in the most general terms. It is
left to the articles to define the amount to be borrowed, the nature
of the security, and the conditions, if any, — such as the sanction
of a general meeting of shareholders, — on which the power is
to be exercised. Under the Companies Act 1908, § 87, a com-
pany cannot exercise any borrowing power until it has fulfilled
the conditions prescribed by the act entitling it to commence
business : one of which is that the company must have obtained
its " minimum subscription." A person who is proposing to lend
money to a company must be careful to acquaint himself with
any statutory regulations of this kind, and also to see (1) that
the memorandum and articles of association authorize borrow-
ing, and (2) that the borrowing limit is not being exceeded, for if
it should turn out that the borrowing was in excess of the
company's powers and ultra vires, the company cannot be bound,
and the borrower's only remedy is against the directors for breach
of warranty of authority, or to be surrogated to the rights of any
creditors who may have been paid out of the borrowed moneys.

A company proposing to borrow usually issues a prospectus,
similar to the ordinary share prospectus, stating the amount of
the issue, the dates for payment, the particulars of the property
to be comprised in the security, the terms as to redemption, and
so on, and inviting the public to subscribe. Underwriting is also
resorted to, as in the case of shares, to ensure that the issue is
taken up. There is no objection to a company issuing debentures
or debenture stock at a discount, as there is to its issuing its
shares at a discount . It must borrow on the best terms its credit
will enable it to obtain. A prospectus inviting subscriptions for
debentures or debenture stock comes within the terms of the
Directors' Liability Act 1890 (re-enacted in Companies Act
1908, § 84), and persons who are parties to it have the
onus cast upon them, should the prospectus contain any
misstatements, of showing that, at the time when they issued
the prospectus, they had reasonable grounds to believe, and
did in fact believe, that the statements in question were
true ; otherwise they will be liable to pay compensation to any
person injured by the misstatements. A debenture prospectus
is also within the terms of the Companies Act 1908. It must
be filed with the registrar of joint stock companies (§ 80) and
must contain all the particulars specified in § 81 of the act.
(See Company.)

The usual mode of borrowing by a company is either on
debentures or debenture stock. Etymologically, debenture is
merely the Latin word debentur, — The first word in a document
in common use by the crown in early times admitting indebted-
ness to its servants or soldiers. This was the germ of a security
which has now, with the expansion of joint stock company
enterprise, grown into an instrument of considerable complexity.

Debentures may be classified in various ways. From the
point of view of the security they are either (1) debentures
(simply) ; (2) mortgage debentures; (3) debenture bonds. In
the debenture the security is a floating charge. In the mortgage
debenture there is also a floating charge, but the property forming
the principal part of the security is conveyed by the company to
trustees under a trust deed for the benefit of the debenture-
holders. In the debenture bond there is no security proper :
only the covenant for payment by the company. For purposes
of title and transfer, debentures are either " registered " or " to
bearer." For purposes of payment they are either " terminable "
or " perpetual " (see Companies Act 1908, § 103).

The Floating Debenture. — The form of debenture chiefly in use
at the present day is that secured by a floating charge. By it the
company covenants to pay to the holder thereof the sum secured
by the debenture on a specified day (usually ten or fifteen years
after the date of issue), or at such earlier date as the principal
moneys become due under the provisions of the security, and
in the meantime the company covenants to pay interest on the

principal moneys until payment, or until the security becomes
enforceable under the conditions ; and the company further
charges its undertaking and all its property, including its uncalled
capital, with the payment of the amount secured by the deben-
tures. Uncalled capital if included must be expressly mentioned,
because the word " property " by itself will not cover uncalled
capital which is only property potentially, i.e. when called up.
This is the body of the instrument; on its back is endorsed a
series of conditions, constituting the terms on which the deben-
ture is issued. Thus the debenture-holders are to rank pari passu
with one another against the security ; the debenture is to be
transferable free from equities between the company and the
original holder ; the charge is to be a floating charge, and the
debenture-holders' moneys are to become immediately repayable
and the charges enforceable in certain events: for instance, if the
interest is in arrear for (say) two or three months, or if a winding-
up order is made against the company, or a resolution for winding
up is passed. Other events indicative of insolvency are some-
times added in which payment is to be accelerated. The con-
ditions also provide for the mode and form of transfer of the
debentures, the death or bankruptcy of the holder, the place of
payment, &c. The most characteristic feature of the security —
thefloating charge — grew naturally out of a charge on a company's
undertaking as a going concern. Such a charge could only be
made practicable by leaving the company free to deal with and
dispose of its property in the ordinary course of its business— to
sell, mortgage, lease, and exchange it as if no charge existed: and
this is how the security works. The debenture-holders give the
directors an implied licence to deal with and dispose of the
property comprised in the security until the happening of any of
the events upon which the debenture-holders' money becomes
under the debenture conditions immediately repayable. Pend-
ing this the charge is dormant. The licence extends, however,
only to dealings in the ordinary course of business. Payment by
a company of its just debts is always in the ordinary course of
business, but satisfaction by execution levied in invitum is not.
This floating form of security is found very convenient both to
the borrowing company and to the lender. The company is not
embarrassed by the charge, while the lender has a security
covering the whole assets for the time being, and can intervene
at any moment by obtaining a receiver if his security is imperilled,
even though none of the events in which the principal moneys
are made payable have happened. If any of them has happened,
for instance default in payment of interest, or a resolution by the
company to wind up, the payment of the principal moneys is
accelerated, and a debenture-holder can at once commence an
action to obtain payment and to realize his security. At times
a proviso is inserted in the conditions endorsed on the debenture,
that the company is not to create any mortgage or charge rank-
ing in priority to or pari passu with that contained in the deben-
tures. Very nice questions of priority have arisen under such
a clause. A floating charge created by a company within three
months of its being wound up will now be invalid under § 1 2 of
the Companies Act 1908 unless the company is shown to have
been solvent at the time, but there is a saving clause for cash paid
under the security and interest at 5 %.

Trust Deeds. — When the amount borrowed by a company is
large, the company commonly executes a trust deed by way of
further security. The object of such a trust deed is twofold:
(1) it conveys specific property to the trustees of the deed by
way of legal mortgage (the charge contained in the debentures is
only an equitable security) , and it further charges all the remain-
ing assets in favour of the debenture-holders, with appropriate
provisions for enabling them, in certain events similar to those
expressed in the debenture conditions, to enforce the security,
and for that purpose to enter into possession and carry on the
business, or to sell it and distribute the proceeds; (2) it organizes
the debenture-holders and constitutes in the trustees of the
deed a body of experienced business men who can watch over
the interests of the debenture-holders and take steps for their
protection if necessary. In particular it provides machinery
for the calling of meetings of debenture-holders by the trustees,

DEBENTURES

9° 3

and empowers a majority of (say) two-thirds or three-fourths
in number and value at such meeting to bind the rest to any
compromise or arrangement with the company which such
majorities may deem beneficial. This is found a very useful
power, and may save recourse to a scheme or arrangement first
sanctioned under the machinery of the Joint Stock Companies
Arrangement Act 1870 (Companies Act 1908, § 120).

Registration of Mortgages and Charges. — A company is bound,
under the Companies Act 1862, to keep a register of mortgages and
charges, but the register is only open for the inspection of persons
who have actually become creditors of the company, not of
persons who may be thinking of giving it credit, and the legis-
lature recognizing its inadequacy provided in the Companies Act
1900 (§ 4 of act of 1908) for a public register at Somerset House of
all mortgages and charges of certain specified classes by a com-
pany. If not registered within twenty-one days from their creation
such mortgages and charges are made void — so far as they are
securities — against the liquidator and any creditor of the com-
pany, but the debenture-holders retain the rights of unsecured
creditors. An extension of the time for registering may be
granted by the court, but it will only be without prejudice to
the rights of third persons acquired before actual registration.
These provisions for registration as amended are contained in
the Companies Act 1908 (§ 93).

Debentures Registered and to Bearer. — Debentures are, for
purposes of title and transfer, of two kinds — (1) registered deben-
tures, and (2) debentures to bearer. Registered debentures are
transferable only in the books of the company. Debentures to
bearer are negotiable instruments and pass by delivery. Coupons
for interest are attached. Sometimes debentures to bearer are
made exchangeable for registered debentures and vice versa.

Redemption. — A company generally reserves to itself a right of
redeeming the security before the date fixed by the debenture
for repayment; and accordingly a power for that purpose is
commonly inserted in the conditions. But as debenture-holders,
who have got a satisfactory security, do not wish to be paid off,
the right of redemption is often qualified so as not to arise till
(say) five years after issue, and a premium of 5 % is made
payable by way of bonus to the redeemed debenture-holder.
Sometimes the number of debentures to be redeemed each year is
limited. The selection is made by drawings held in the presence
of the directors. A sinking fund is a convenient means frequently
resorted to for redemption of a debenture debt, and is especially
suitable where the security is of a wasting character, leaseholds,
mining property or a patent. Such a fund is formed by the
company setting apart a certain sum each year out of the profits
of the company after payment of interest on the debentures.
Redeemed debentures may in certain cases be reissued; see
Companies Act 1908 (§ 104).

Debenture Stock. — Debenture stock bears the same relation
to debentures that stock does to shares. " Debenture stock,"
as Lord Lindley states (Companies, 5th ed., 195), " is merely
borrowed capital consolidated into one mass for the sake of
convenience. Instead of each lender having a separate bond or
mortgage, he has a certificate entitling him to a certain sum,
being a portion of one large loan." This sum is not uniform, as in
the case of debentures, but variable. One debenture-stockholder,
for instance, may hold £20 of the debenture stock, another
£20,000. Debenture stock is usually issued in multiples of £10
or sometimes of £1, and is made transferable in sums of any
amount not involving a fraction of £1. It is this divisibility of
stock, whether debenture or ordinary stock, into quantities of any
amount, which constitutes in fact its chief characteristic, and its
convenience from a business point of view. It facilitates dealing
with the stock, and also enables investors with only a small
amount to invest to become stockholders. The property com-
prised in this security is generally the same as in the case of
debentures. Debenture stock created by trading companies
differs in various particulars from debenture stock created by
public companies governed by the Companies Clauses Act. The
debenture stock of trading companies is created by a contract
made between the company and trustees for the debenture-

stockholders. This contract is known as a debenture-stock-
holders' trust deed, and is analogous in its provisions to the trust
deed above described as used to secure debentures. By such a
deed the company acknowledges its indebtedness to the trustees,
as representing the debenture-stockholders, to the amount of the
sum advanced, covenants to pay it, and conveys the property
by way of security to the trustees with all the requisite powers
and provisions for enabling them to enforce the security on
default in payment of interest by the company or on the hap-
pening of certain specified events evidencing insolvency. The
company further, in pursuance of the contract, enters the names
of the subsisting stockholders in a register, and issues certificates
for the amount of their respective holdings. These certificates
have, like debentures, the conditions of the security indorsed on
their back. Debenture stock is also issued to bearer. A deed
securing debenture stock requires an ad valorem stamp.

Debenture Scrip. — Debentures and debenture stock are usually
made payable in instalments, for example 10 % on application,
10% on allotment and the remainder at intervals of a few
months. Until these payments are complete the securities are
not issued, but to enable the subscriber to deal with his security
pending completion the company issues to him an interim scrip
certificate acknowledging his title and exchangeable on payment
of the remaining instalments for debentures or debenture stock
certificates. If a subscriber for debentures made default in
payment the company could not compel him specifically to
perform his contract, the theory of law being that the company
could get the loan elsewhere, but this inconvenience is now
removed (see % 105 of the Companies Act 1908).

Remedies. — When debenture-holders' security becomes
enforceable there are a variety of remedies open to them. These
fall into two classes — (1) remedies available without the aid
of the court; (2) remedies available only with the aid of the
court.

1. If there is a trust deed, the trustees may appoint a receiver
of the property comprised in the security, and they may also sell
under the powers contained in the deed, or under § 25 of the
Conveyancing Act 1881. Sometimes, where there is no trust
deed, similar powers— to appoint a receiver and to sell — are
inserted in the conditions indorsed on the debentures.

2. The remedies with the aid of the court are — (a) an action by
one or more debenture-holders on behalf of all for a receiver and
to realize the security, (b) an originating summons for sale or
other relief, under Rules of Supreme Court, 1883, O. lv. r. 5A;

(c) an action for foreclosure where the security is deficient
(all the debenture-holders must be parties to this proceeding) ;

(d) a winding-up petition. Of these modes of proceeding, the
first is by far the most common and most convenient. Immedi-
ately on the issue of 'the writ in the action the plaintiff applies for
the appointment of a receiver to protect the security, or if the
security comprises a going business, a receiver and manager.
In due course the action comes on for judgment, usually on
agreed minutes, when the court directs accounts and inquiries
as to who are the holders of the debentures, what is due to them,
what property is comprised in the security, and gives leave to any
of the parties to apply in chambers for a sale. If the company
has gone into liquidation, leave must be obtained to commence
or continue the action, but such leave in the case of debenture-
holders is ex debito justitiae. A debenture-holder action when
the company is in winding up is always now transferred to the
judge having the control of the winding-up proceedings. The
administration of a company's assets insuchactionsby debenture-
holders (debenture-holders' liquidations, as they are called) has
of late encroached very much on the ordinary administration of
winding up, and it cannot be denied that great hardship is often
inflicted by the floating security on the company's unsecured
creditors, who find that everything belonging to the company,
uncalled capital included, has been pledged to the debenture-
holders. The conventional answer is that such creditors might
and ought to have inspected the company's register of mortgages
and charges. The matter was fully considered by the depart-
mental board of trade committee which reported in July 1966,

9°4

DEBORAH

but the committee, looking at the business convenience of the
floating charge, saw no reason for recommending an alteration
in the law.

Reconstruction. — When a company reconstructs, as it often
does in these days, the rights of debenture-holders have to be
provided for. Reconstructions are mainly of two kinds- — (j) by
arrangement, under the Joint Stock Companies Arrangement Act
1870, amended in 1900 and 1907, incorporated in act o£ 1908
(§ 120), and (2) by sale and transfer of assets, either under § 192
of the act of 1908, or under a power in the company's
memorandum of association. By the procedure provided under
(1) a petition for the sanction of the court to a scheme
is presented, and the court thereupon directs meetings of
creditors, including debenture-holders, to be held. A three-
fourths majority in value of debenture-holders present at the
meeting in person or by proxy binds the rest. Debenture-
holders claiming to vote must produce their debentures at or
before the meeting. Under the other mode of reconstruction
— sale and transfer of assets — there is usually a novation, and
the debenture-holders accept the security of the new company
in the shape of debentures of equivalent value or — occasionally
— of fully paid preference shares.

■ A point in this connexion, which involves some hardship
to debenture-holders, may here be adverted to. It is a not
uncommon practice for a solvent company to pass a resolution
to wind up voluntarily for the purpose of reconstructing. The
effect of this is to accelerate payment of the security, and the
debenture-holders have to accept their principal and interest
only, parting with a good security and perhaps a premium which
would have accrued to them in a year or two. The company is
thus enabled by its own act to redeem the reluctant debenture-
holder on terms most advantageous to itself. To obviate this
hardship, it is now a usual thing in a debenture-holders' trust
deed to provide — the committee of the London Stock Exchange
indeed require it — that a premium shall be paid to the debenture-
holders in the event of the security becoming enforceable by a
voluntary winding up with a view to reconstruction.

Public Companies. — Public companies, i.e. companies incorpor-
ated by special act of parliament for carrying on undertakings
of public utility, form a class distinct from trading companies.
The borrowing powers of these companies, the form of their
debenture or debenture stock, and the rights of the debenture-
holders or debenture-stockholders, depend on the conjoint
operation of the companies' own special act and the Companies
Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869. The provisions of these acts
as to borrowing, being express, exclude any implicit power of
borrowing. The first two of the above acts relate to mortgages
and bonds, the last to debenture stock. The policy of the legis-
lature in all these acts is the same, namely, to give the greatest
facilities for borrowing, and at the same time to take care that
undertakings of public utility which have received legislative
sanction shall not be broken up or destroyed, as they would be
if the mortgagees or debenture-holders were allowed the ordinary
rights of mortgagees for realizing their security by seizure and
sale. Hence the legislature has given them only " the fruit of
the tree," as Lord Cairns expressed it. The debenture-holders
or the debenture-stockholders may take the earnings of the
company's undertaking by obtaining the appointment of a
receiver, but that is all they can do. They cannot sell the under-
taking or disorganize it by levying execution, so long as the
company is a going concern; but this protecting principle of
public policy will not be a bar to a debenture-holder, in his
character of creditor, presenting a petition to wind up the
company, if it is no longer able to fulfil its statutory objects.
Railway companies have further special legislation, which will
be found in the Railway Companies Powers Act 1864, the
Railways Construction Facilities Act 1864 and the Railway
Securities Act 1866.

Municipal Corporations and County Councils. — These bodies
are authorized to borrow for their proper purposes on debentures
and debenture stock with the sanction of the Local Government
Board. See the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, the Local

Authorities' Loans Act 1875, and the Local Government (England
and Wales) Act 1888.

United States. — In the United States there are two meanings
of debenture — (1) a bond hot secured by mortgage; (2) a certifi-
cate that the United States is indebted to a certain person or his
assigns in a certain sum on an audited account, or that it will
refund a certain sum paid for duties on imported goods, in case
they are subsequently exported.

Authorities. — E. Manson, Debentures and Debenture Stock
(London, 2nd ed., 1908); Simonson, Debentures and Debenture Stock
(London, 2nd ed., 1902) ; Palmer, Company Precedents {Debentures)
(3rd ed., London, 1907). (E. Ma.)

DEBORAH (Heb. for "bee"), the Israelite heroine in the
Bible through whose encouragement the Hebrews defeated the
Canaanites under Sisera. The account is preserved in Judges
iv.-v., and the ode Of victory (chap, v.), known as the " Song
of Deborah," is held to be one of the oldest surviving specimens
of Hebrew literature. Although the text of this Te Deum has
suffered (especially in vv. 8-15) its value is without an equal
for its historical contents. It is not certain that the poem was
actually composed by Deborah (v. 1) ; ver. 7,which can be rendered
" until thou didst arise, O Deborah," is indecisive. The poem
consists of a series of rapidly shifting scenes; the words are
often obscure, but the general drift of the whole can be easily
followed. After the exordium, the writer describes the approach
of Yahweh from his seats in Seir and Edom in the south to the
help of his people — the language is reminiscent of Ps. lxviii. 7 sqq.,
Hab. iii. 3 seq. 1 2 seq. In the days of Shamgar the son of Anath
the land had been insecure, the people were disarmed, and neither
shield nor spear was to be seen among their forty thousand
(cf. 1 Sam. xiii. 19-22, and for the number Josh. iv. 13). Then
follows, apparently, a summons to magnify Yahweh. After an
apostrophe to Deborah and Barak, the son of Abinoam, the meet-
ing of the clans is vividly portrayed. Ephraim, with Benjamin
behind him (for the wording, cf. Hos. v. 8), Machir (here the
tribe of Manasseh) and Zebulun, Issachar and Naphtali, pour
down into the valley of the Kishon. Not all the tribes were
represented. Reuben was wavering, Gilead (i.e. Gad) remained
beyond the Jordan, and Dan's interests were apparently with the
sea-going Phoenicians (see Dan); their conduct is contrasted
with the reckless bravery of Zebulun and Naphtali. Judah is
nowhere mentioned; it lay outside the confederation. The
Canaanite kings unite at Taanach by Megiddo, an ancient battle-
field probably to be identifiediwfah Lejjun. The heavens joined
the fight against Sisera (cf. the appeal in Josh. x. 12 seq.), a storm
rages, and the enemy are swept away in the flood. Meroz,
presumably on the line of flight, is bitterly cursed for its inaction:
" they came not to the help of Yahweh." In vivid contrast to
this is the conduct of one of the Kenites: " blessed of all women
is Jael, of all the nomad women is she blessed." The poem
recounts how the fleeing king craves water, she gives him
milk, and (as he drinks) she fells him (perhaps with a tent-peg) ;
" at her feet he sank down, he fell, he lay, where he sank he
lay overcome." The last scene paints the mother of Sisera
impatiently awaiting the king. Her attendants confidently
picture him dividing the booty — a maiden or two for each man,
and richly embroidered cloth for himself. With inimitable
strength the poet suddenly drops the curtain — " so perish thine
enemies, all of them, Yahweh! But let them that love him be
as the sun when it rises in its might."

The historical background of this great event is unknown.
The Israelite confederation consists of central Palestine with the
(east-Jordanic) Machir, and the northern tribes with the excep-
tion of Dan and Asher. This has suggested to some an invasion
from the coast, or from the north by way of. the coast, since had
Dan and Asher fallen into the hands of the enemy, this would
probably have been referred to in some way. Sisera is scarcely a
Semitic name ; a " Hittite " origin has been suggested. 1 Shamgar
son of Anath seems equally foreign; the latter is the name of a
Syrian goddess and the former recalls Sangara, a Hittite chief
of Carchemish in the 9th century. The context suggests that

.'The term "Hittite" is here used as a loose but convenient
designation for closely related groups of N. Syria; see Hittites.

DEBRECZEN--DEBT

90S

Shamgar is a foreign oppressor (ver. 6), but he appears to have
been converted subsequently into one of the " judges " of Israel
(iii. 31), perhaps with the idea of bringing their total up to twelve.
The prose version (iv.) contains new and conflicting details.
Deborah, whose home is placed under " Deborah's palm "
between Ramah and Bethel, summons Barak from Kadesh-
Naphtali to collect Naphtali and Zebulun, 10,000 strong, and to
meet Sisera (who is here the general of a certain Jabin, king
of Hazor) at Mt. Tabor. But Sisera marches south to Kishon',
and after his defeat flees north through Israelite territory; past
Hazor to the neighbourhood of Kadesh. His death, moreover,
is differently described (iv. 21, v. 25-27), and Jael " who with
inhospitable guile smote Sisera sleeping " (Milton) is guilty of an
act which has possibly originated from a misunderstanding of
the poem. In the prose narrative Jabin has nothing to do with
the fight, whereas in Josh. xi. he is at the head of an alliance of
north Canaanite kings who were defeated by Joshua at the
waters of Merom. It would seem that certain elements which
are inconsistent with the representation in Judg. v. belonged
originally to the other battle. Kadesh, for example, might be a
natural meeting-place for an attack upon Hazor, and the designa-
tion " Jabin's general," applied to Sisera, is probably due to the
attempt to harmonize the two distinct stories. Moreover,
Deborah, who is associated with the tribe of Issachar (v. 15),
appears to have been confused with Rebekah's nurse, whose
tomb lay near Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 5). Some more northerly
place seems to be required, and it has been pointed out that
the name corresponds with Daberath (modern Dabiirlyeh) at
the foot of Tabor, on the border of Zebulun and Issachar. At all
events, to represent her as a prophetess, judging the people of
Israel (iv. 4 seq.), ill accords with both the older account (v.)
and the general situation reflected in the earlier narratives in
the book of Judges.

For fuller details see G. A. Oooke, History and Song of Deborah
(1892), the commentaries on Judges and the histories of Israel.
Cheyne, Critica Biblica, pp. 446-464, offers many new textualemenda-
tions. Paton {Syria and Palestine, p.158 sqq. ^suggests that the battle
was against the Hittites (Sisera, a successor of Shamgar). See also
L. W. Batten, Journ. Bibl. Lit. (1905) pp. 31-40 (who regards
Judg. v. and Josh. xi. as duplicates) ; Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii.
i 2 5- I 35; Keilinschr. u. d. Alte Test. ( 3 ) p. 218; and Ed. Meyer,
Israeliten, pp. 272 sqq., 487 sqq. (S. A. C.)

DEBRECZEN, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of
Hajdu, 138 m. E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 72,351. It
is the principal Protestant centre in Hungary, and bears the
name of " Calvinistic Rome." Debreczen is one of the largest
towns of Hungary, and is situated in the midst of a sandy but
fertile plain. It consists of the inner old town, and several
suburbs, which stretch out irregularly into the plain. The walls
of the old town have given place to a broad boulevard and several
open commons, beautifully laid out. The most prominent of its
public buildings is the principal Protestant church, built at
the beginning of the 19th century, which ranks as the largest
in the country, but has no great architectural pretensions. In
its immediate neighbourhood is the Protestant Collegium, for
theology and law, which is one of the most frequented institu-
tions of its kind in Hungary, being attended by over two
thousand students. This, college was founded in 1531, and
possesses a rich library and other scientific collections. The town
hall, the Franciscan church, the Piarist monastery and college,
and the theatre are also worthy of mention. Amongst its
educational establishments it includes an agricultural academy.
The industries of the town are various, but none is of importance
enough to give it the character of a manufacturing centre. Its
tobacco-pipes, sausages and soap are widely known. It carries
on an active trade in cattle, horses, corn and honey, while four
well-attended fairs are held annually. The municipality of
Debreczen owns between three hundred and four hundred
square miles of the adjoining country, which possesses all the
characteristics of the Hungarian puszta, and on which roam
large herds of cattle. . '

The town is of considerable antiquity, but owes its develop-
ment to the refugees who flocked from the villages plundered

by the Turks in the 15th century. In 1552 it adopted the
Protestant faith, and it had to suffer in consequence, especially
when it was captured in 1686 by the imperial forces. In 1693 it
was made a royal free city. In 1848-1849 it formed a refuge for
the national government and legislature when Budapest fell into
the hands of the Austrians; and it was in the great Calvinist
church that, on Kossuth's motion (April 14th, 1849) the resolu-
tion was passed declaring the house of Habsburg to have forfeited
the crown of St Stephen. On the 3rd of July the town was
captured by the Russians.

DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed), a definite sum due by one
person to another. It may be created by contract, by statute
or by judgment!. Putting aside those created by statute, re-
coverable by civil process, debts may be divided into three
classes, (1) judgment debts; (2) specialty debts, and (3) simple
contract debts. As to judgment debts, it is sufficient to say that,
when by the judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction an
order is made that a sum of money be paid by one of two parties
to another, such' a debt is not only enforceable by process of
court, but it can be sued upon as if it were an ordinary debt.
A specialty debt is created by deed or instrument under seal.
Until 1869 specialty debts had preference under English law
over simple contract debts in the event of the bankruptcy or
death of the debtor, but this was abolished by the Administra-
tion of Estates Act of that year. The main difference now is
that a specialty debt may, in general, be created without con-
sideration, as for example by a bond (a gratuitous promise under
seal), and that a right of action arising out of a specialty debt is
not barred if exercised any time within twenty years, whereas
a right of action arising out of a simple contract debt is barred
unless exercised within six years. (See Limitation, Statutes or. )
Any other debt than a judgment or specialty debt, whether
evidenced by writing or not, is a simple contract debt. There
are also certain liabilities or debts which, for the convenience of
the remedy, have been made to appear as though they sprang
from contract, and are sometimes termed quasi-contracts. Such
would' be an admission by one who is in account with another
that there is a balance due from him. Such an admission
implies a promise to pay when requested and creates an action-
able 'liability ex contractu. Or, when one person is compelled by
law to discharge the legal liabilities of another, he becomes the
creditor of the person for the money so paid. Again, where a
person has received money under circumstances which disentitle
him to retain it, such as receiving payment of an account twice
over, it can generally be recovered as a debt.

At English common law debts and other choses in action were
not assignable (see Chose), but by the Judicature Act 1873 any
absolute assignment of any debt or other legal chose in action,
of which express notice in writing is given to the debtor, trustee
or other person from whom the assignor would have been entitled
to receive or claim such debt, is effectual in law. Debts do not,
as a general rule, carry interest, but such an obligation may arise
either by agreement or by mercantile usage or by statute. The
discharge of a debt may take place either by payment of the
amount due, by accord and satisfaction, i.e. acceptance of
something else in discharge of the liability, by set-off {q.v.), by
release or under the law of bankruptcy (q.v.). It is the duty of
a debtor to pay a debt without waiting for any demand, and,
unless there is a place fixed on either by custom or agreement,
he must seek out his creditor for the purpose of paying him
unless he is " beyond the seas." Payment by a third person to
the creditor is no discharge of a debt, as a general rule, unless
the debtor subsequently ratifies the payment. When a debtor
tenders the amount due to his creditor and the creditor refuses
to accept, the debt is not discharged, but if the debtor is. subse-
quently sued for the debt and continues willing and ready to pay,
and pays the amount tendered into court, he can recover his costs
in the action. A creditor is not bound to give change to the
debtor, whose duty it is to make tender in lawful money the whole
amount due, or more, without asking for change. (See Payment.)
A debtor takes the risk if he makes payment through the post,
unless the creditor has requested or authorized that mode of

go6

DEBUSSY

payment. The payment of a debt is sometimes secured by one
person, called a surety, who makes himself collaterally liable
for the debt of the principal. (See Guarantee.) The ordinary
method of enforcing a debt is by action. Where the debt does
not exceed £100 the simplest procedure for its recovery is that of
the county court, but if the debt exceeds £100 the creditor must
proceed in the high court, unless the cause of action has arisen
within the jurisdiction of certain inferior courts, such as the
mayor's court of London, the Liverpool court of passage, &c.
When judgment has been obtained it may be enforced either
by process (under certain conditions) against the person of the
debtor, by an execution against the debtor's property, or, with
the assistance of the court, by attaching any debt owed to the
debtor by a third person. Where a debtor has committed any
act of bankruptcy a creditor or creditors whose aggregate claims
are not less than £50 may proceed against him in bankruptcy
(q.v.). Where the debtor is a company or corporation registered
under the companies acts, the creditor may petition to have it
wound up. (See Company.)

Imprisonment for debt, the evils of which have been so
graphically described by Dickens, was abolished in England by
the Debtors Act 1869, except in cases of default of payment
of penalties, default by trustees or solicitors and certain other
cases. But in cases where a debt or instalment is in arrear and
it is proved to the satisfaction of the court that the person making
default either has or has had since the date of the order or judg-
ment the means to pay the sum in respect of which he has made
default and has refused or neglected to pay, he may be com-
mitted to prison at the discretion of the judge for a period of not
more than forty-two days. In practice, a period of twenty-one
days is usually the maximum period ordered. Such an imprison-
ment does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of the
debt, and no second order of commitment can be made against
him for the same debt, although where the court has made an
order or judgment for the payment of the debt by instalments
a power of committal arises on default of payment of each instal-
ment. In Ireland imprisonment for debt was abolished by the
Debtors Act (Ireland) 1872, and in Scotland by the Debtors
(Scotland) Act 1880. In France it was abolished in 1867, in
Belgium in 1871, in Switzerland and Norway in 1874, and in
Italy in 1877. In the United States imprisonment for debt was
universal under the common law, but it has been abolished in
every state, except in certain cases, as where there is any suspicion
of fraud or where the debtor has an intention of removing out of
the state to avoid his debts. (See also Contract ; Bankruptcy.)

DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLE (1862- ), French composer,
was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 22nd of August 1862, and
educated at the Paris Conservatoire under Marmontel, Lavignac,
Massenet and Guiraud. There between 1874 and 1884 he gained
many prizes for solfege, pianoforte playing, accompanying,
counterpoint and fugue, and, in the last-named year, the coveted
Grand Prix de Rome by means of his cantata L' Enfant prodigue.
In this composition already were thought to be noticeable the
germs of unusual and " new " talent, though in the light of
later developments it is not very easy to discern them, for
then Debussy had not come under the influence which ultimately
turned his mind to the system he afterwards used, not only with
peculiar distinction but also with particular individual and
complete success. Nevertheless, the mind had clearly been
prepared by nature for the reception of this influence when it
should arise; for, in order to fulfil that condition of the Prix de
Rome which entails the submitting periodically of compositions
to the judges, Debussy sent to them his symphonic suite
Printemps, to which the judges took exception on the ground
of its formlessness. Following in the wake of Printemps came
La damoiselle Slue for solo, female voice and orchestra — a setting
of a French version of Rossetti's " The Blessed Damosel "—which
in the eyes of the judges was even more unorthodox than its
predecessor, though, be it said, fault was found as much with the
libretto as with the music. Both works were denied the custom-
ary public performance.

The Rome period Over, Debussy returned to Paris, whence

shortly he went to Russia, where he came directly under the
influence referred to above. In Russia he absorbed the native
music, especially that of Moussorgsky, who, recently dead, had
left behind him the reputation of a " musical nihilist," and on
his return to Paris Debussy devoted himself to composition, the
stream of his muse being even in 1908 as fluent as twenty
years before. To him public recognition was slow in coming,
but in 1893 the Societe Nationale de Musique performed his
Damoiselle Slue, in 1894 the Ysaye Quartet introduced the
string. quartet, while in the same year the Prelude & I'apres-
midi d'un Faune was heard, and brought Debussy's name
into some prominence. As time passed the prominence grew,
until the climax of Debussy's creative career was reached by
the production at the Opera Comique on the 30th of April 1902
of his masterpiece PellSas et Melisande. Herein lay the whole
strength of Debussy's system, the perfection of his appeal to
the mind and imagination as well as to the emotions and
senses. Since its production the world has been enriched by
La Mer, and by the Ariettes oubliSes, but the lyric drama remains
on its own lofty pedestal, a monument of elusive and subtle
beauty, of emphatic originality and of charm. In an Apologia
Debussy has declared that in composing PellSas he " wanted to
dispense with parasitic musical phrases. Melody is, if I may
say so, almost anti-lyric, and powerless to express the constant
change of emotion or life. Melody is suitable only for the
chanson, which confirms a fixed sentiment. I have never
been willing that my music should hinder, through technical
exigencies, the change of sentiment and passion felt by my
characters. It is effaced as soon as it is necessary that these
should have perfect liberty in their gestures or in their cries,
in their joy, or in their sorrow."

The list of Debussy's works is a lengthy one. Several of
them have been referred to already. Among the others, of which
the complete list is too long to print here, are the dances for
chromatic harp or pianoforte; Images; incidental music to
King Lear; the Petite Suite; Trois Nocturnes; innumerable
songs, as Proses Lyriques (text by Debussy); two series of
Verlaine's Fltes galantes; Cinq Poemes de Baudelaire; many
pianoforte pieces.

In 1 89 1 Debussy was appointed critic of the Revue Blanche.
In his first notice he expressed his faith thus: " I shall endeavour
to trace in a musical work the many different emotions which
have helped to give it birth, also to demonstrate its inner life.
This, surely, will be accounted of greater interest than the game
which consists in dissecting it as if it were a curious timepiece."

As to the theories, so much debated, of this remarkable
musician — probably in the whole range of musical history there
has not appeared a more difficult theorist to " place." Un-
questionably Debussy has introduced a new system of colour into
music, which has begun already to exert widespread influence.
Roughly, Debussy's system may be summarized thus:

His scale basis is of six whole tones (enharmonic), as (1) middle
C,D,E,Gb,Ab,Bb, which are of excellent sound when super-
imposed in the form of two augmented unrelated triads.
[Bb [A#

\ Gb or enharmonically \ F#

Id [d

[Ab fGft

is . i?

used frequently incomplete {i.e. by the omission of one note) by
Debussy.

Now, upon the basis of an augmented triad a tune may be
played above it provided that it be based upon the six-tone scale,
and a fugue may be written, the re-entry of the subject of which
may be made upon any note of the scale, and the harmony will be
E I complete. To associate this scale with the ordinary diatonic
C scale let a major 9th be taken, e.g. : one may conventionally
A f flatten or sharpen the fifth of this (A becoming # or b as
F# desired) : if both the flattened and sharpened fifths be taken
D J in the one chord this chord is arrived at:

DECADE— DECALOGUE

907

E'
C

Bb

Ab

n

D

(A# enharmonically altered to Bb)

which is composed of the notes of the aforesaid scale (1), and
Debussy thereby proves his case to belong to the " primitifs."
It will be noticed that chords of the 9th in sequence and in all
forms occur in Debussy's music as well as the augmented triad
harmonics, where the melodic line is based on the tonal scale.
This, in all likelihood, is the outcome of Debussy's instinctive
feeling for the association of his so-called discovery with the
ordinary scale. The " secret," it may be added, comes not
from Annamese music as has been frequently stated, but prob-
ably from Russia, where certainly it was used before Debussy's
rise. (R. H. L.)

DECADE (from Gr. dkKa, ten), a group or series containing ten
members, particularly a period of ten years. In the new calendar
made at the time of the French Revolution in 1793, a decade of
ten days took the place of the week. The word is also used of the
divisions containing ten books or parts into which the history of
Livy was divided.

DECAEN, CHARLES MATHIEU ISIDORE, Count (1769-
1832), French soldier, was born at Caen on the 13th of April
1769. He was educated for the bar, but soon showed a strong
preference for the military career, in which he quickly made his
way during the wars of the French Revolution under Kleber,
Marceau and Jourdan, in the Rhenish campaigns. In 1799 he
became general of division, and contributed to the success of
the famous attack by General Richepanse on the Austrian flank,
and rear at Hohenlinden (December 1800). Becoming known for
his Anglophobe tendencies, he was selected by Napoleon early in
the year 1802 for the command of the French possessions in the
East Indies. The secret instructions issued to him bade him
prepare the way, so that in due course (September 1804 was
hinted at as the suitable time) everything might be ready for an
attack on the British power in India. Napoleon held out to him
the hope of acquiring lasting glory in that enterprise. Decaen
set sail with Admiral Linois early in March 1803 with a small
expeditionary force, touched at the Cape of Good Hope (then in
Dutch hands), and noted the condition of the fortifications there.
On arriving at Pondicherry he found matters in a very critical
condition. Though the outbreak of war in Europe had not yet
been heard of, the hostile preparations adopted by the Marquis
Wellesley caused Decaen to withdraw promptly to the Isle of
France (Mauritius), where, during eight years, he sought to harass
British trade and prepare.for plans of alliance with the Mahratta
princes of India. They all came to naught. Linois was captured
by a British squadron, and ultimately, in 181 1, Mauritius itself
fell to the Union Jack. Returning to France on honourable
terms, Decaen received the command of the French troops in
Catalonia. The rest of his career calls for no special mention.
He died of the cholera in 1832.

See M. L. E. Gautier, Biographic du genSral Decaen (Caen,
1850). G- Hl. R.)

DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. r\ SenaXoyos, sc. /3t/3\os or
vofiodtcria) , another name for the biblical Ten Commandments,
in Hebrew the Ten Words (Deut. iv. 13, x. 4; Ex. xxxiv. 28),
written by God on the two tables of stone (Ex. xxiv. 12, xxxii.
16), the so-called Tables of the Revelation (E.V. " tables of testi-
mony," Ex. xxxiv. 29), or Tables of the Covenant (Deut. ix. 9, 11,
1 5). These tables were broken by Moses (Ex. xxxii. 19), and two
new ones were hewn (xxxiv. 1), and upon them were written the
words of the covenant by Moses (xxxiv. 27 sqq.) or, according to
another view, by God himself (Deut. iv. 13, ix. 10). They were
deposited in the Ark (Ex. xxv. 21; 1 Kings viii. 9). In Deuter-
onomy the inscription on these tables, which is briefly called the
covenant (iv. 13), is expressly identified with the words spoken by
Jehovah (Yahweh) out of the midst of the fire at Mt. Sinai or
Horeb (according to the Deuteronomic tradition), in the ears of
the whole people on the " day of the assembly," and rehearsed

in v. 6-21. In the narrative of Exodus the relation of the "ten
words " of xxxiv. to the words spoken from Sinai, xx. 2-17, is
not so clearly indicated, and it is generally agreed that the
Pentateuch presents divergent and irreconcilable views of the
Sinaitic covenant.

As regards the Decalogue, as usually understood, and embodied
in the parallel passages in Ex. xx. and Deut. v., certain pre-
liminary points of detail have to be noticed. The variations
in the parallel texts are partly verbal, partly stylistic (e.g.
"Remember the Sabbath day," Ex.; but "observe," &c,
Deut.), and partly consist of amplifications or divergent explana-
tions. Thus the reason assigned for the institution of the Sabbath
in Exodus is drawn from the creation, and agrees with Gen. ii. 3.
In Deuteronomy the command is based on the duty of humanity
to servants and the memory of Egyptian bondage. Again, in the
tenth commandment, as given in Exodus, " house " means house
and household, including the wife and all the particulars which are
enumerated in ver. 17. In Deuteronomy, " Thou shalt not covet
thy neighbour's wife," comes first, and " house " following in
association with field is to be taken in the literal restricted sense,
and another verb (" thou shalt not desire ") is used.

The construction of the second commandment in the Hebrew
text is disputed, but the most natural sense seems to be, •" Thou
shalt not make unto thee a graven image; (and) to no visible
shape in heaven, &c, shalt thou bow down, &c." The third
commandment might be rendered, " Thou shalt not utter the
name of the Lord thy God vainly," but it is possible that the
meaning is that Yahweh's name is not to be used for purposes
of sorcery.

The order of the commandments relating to murder, adultery and
stealing varies in the Vatican text of the Septuagint, viz. adultery,
stealing, murder, in Ex. ; adultery, murder, stealing, in Deut. The
latter is supported by several passages in the New Testament (Rom.
xiii. 9 ; Mark x. 19, A.V. ; Luke xviii. 20; contrast Matt. xix. 18), and
by the " Nash Papyrus." ' It may be added that the double system
of accentuation of the Decalogue in the Hebrew Bible seems to
preserve traces of the ancient uncertainty concerning the numeration.

Divisions of the Decalogue.— The division current in England
and Scotland, and generally among the Reformed (Calvinistic)
churches and in the Orthodox Eastern Church, is known as the
Philonic division (Philo, de Decalogo, §12). It is sometimes called
by the name of Origen, who adopts it in his Homilies on Exodus.
On this scheme the preface, Ex. xx. 2, has been usually taken
as part of the first commandment. The Church of Rome and
the Lutherans adopt the Augustinian division (Aug., Quaest. super
Exod., Ixxi.), combining into one the first and second command^
ments of Philo, and splitting his tenth commandment into two.
To gain a clear distinction between the ninth and tenth command-
ments On this scheme it has usually been felt to be necessary to
follow the Deuteronomic text, and make the ninth commandment,
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife. 2 As few scholars will
now claim priority for the text of Deuteronomy, this division may
be viewed as exploded. But there is a third scheme (the Talmudic)
still current among the Jews, and not unknown to early Christian
writers, which is still a rival of the Philonic view, though less
satisfactory. Here the preface, Ex. xx. 2, is taken as the first
" word," and the second embraces verses 3-6.

See further Nestle, Expository Times (1897), p. 427. The decision
between Philo and the Talmud must turn on two questions. Can
we take the preface as a separate " word "? And can we regard
the prohibition of polytheism and the prohibition of idolatry as one
commandment? Now, though the Hebrew certainly speaks of ten
" words," not of ten " precepts," it is most unlikely that the first
word can be different in character from those that follow. But the
statement " I am the Lord thy God " is either no precept at all, or
only enjoins by implication what is expressly commanded in the

1 A Hebrew fragment probably of the 2nd century A.D., in the
University Library, Cambridge, containing the Decalogue with
several variant readings; see S. A. Cook, Proceed. Soc. Bibl. Archae-
ology (1903), pp. 34-56 ; F. C. Burkitt, Jewish Quarterly Review (1903),
pp. 392-408; N. Peters, D. alteste Abschrift d. zehn Gebote (1005).

2 So, for example, Augustine, I.e., Thomas, Summa {Prima
Secundae, qu. c. art. 4), and recently Sonntag and Kurtz. Purely
arbitrary is the idea of Lutheran writers (Gerhard, Loc. xiii. § 46)
that the ninth commandment forbids concupiscentia actualis, the
tenth cone, originalis.

■go8

DECALOGUE

words " Thou shalt have no other gods before me." Thus to take
the preface as a distinct word is not reasonable unless there are cogent
grounds for uniting the commandments against polytheism and
idolatry. But that is far from being the Case. The first precept of
the Philonic scheme enjoins monolatry, the second expresses God's
spiritual and transcendental nature. Accordingly Kuenen does not
deny that the prohibition of images contains an element additional
to the precept of monolatry, but, following De Goeje, regards the
words from " thou shalt not make unto thyself "down to " the
waters under the earth " as a later insertion in the original Decalogue.
Unless this can be made out, the Philonic scheme is clearly best, and
as such it is now accepted by most scholars.

How were the ten words disposed on the two tables ? The
natural arrangement (which is assumed by Philo and Josephus)
would be five and five. And this, as Philo recognized, is a division
appropriate to the sense of the precepts; for antiquity did not
look on piety towards parents as a mere precept of probity, part
of one's duty towards one's neighbour. The authority of parents
and rulers is viewed in the Old Testament as a delegated
divine authority, and the violation of it is akin to blasphemy
(cf. Ex. xxi. 17 and Lev. xx. 9 with Lev. xxiv. 15, 16, and note
the formula of treason, 1 Kings xxi. 13).

We have thus five precepts of piety on the first table, and five
of probity, in negative form, on the second, an arrangement
which is accepted by the best recent writers. But the current
view of the Western Church since Augustine has been that the
precept to honour parents heads the second table. The only
argument of weight in favour of this view is that it makes the
amount of writing on the two tables less unequal, while we
know that the second table as well as the first was written on
both sides (Ex. xxxii. 15). But we shall presently see that there
may be another way out of this difficulty.

Date. — It is much disputed what the original compass of
the Decalogue was. Did the whole text of Ex. xx. 2-17 stand on
the tables of stone ? The answer to this question must start
from the reason annexed to the fourth commandment, which is
different in Deuteronomy. But the express words " and he
added no more," in Deut. v. 22, show that there is no conscious
omission by the Deuteronomic speaker of part of the original
Decalogue, which cannot therefore have included the reason
annexed in Exodus. On the other hand the reason annexed in
Deuteronomy is rather a parenetic addition than an original
element dropped in Exodus. Thus the original fourth com-
mandment was simply " Remember the Sabbath day to keep
it holy." x When this is granted it must appear not improbable
that the elucidations of other commandments may not have
stood on the tables, and that Nos. 6-9 have survived in their
original form. Thus in the second commandment, " Thou shalt
not bow down to any visible form," &c, is a sort of explanatory
addition to the precept " Thou shalt not make unto thee a
graven image." And so the promise attached to the fifth
commandment was probably not on the tables, and the tenth
commandment may have simply been, "Thou shalt not. covet
thy neighbour's house," which includes all that is expressed in
the following clauses. Such a view gets over the difficulty
arising from the unequal length of the two halves of the
Decalogue.

It is quite another question whether there is any idea in the
Decalogue which can be as old as Moses. It is urged by many
critics that Moses cannot have prohibited the worship of Yahweh
by images; for the subsequent history shows us a descendant
of Moses as priest in the idolatrous sanctuary of Dan. There were
teraphim in David's house, and the worship of Yahweh under the
image of a calf was the state religion of the kingdom of Ephraim.
Even Moses himself is said to have made a brazen serpent which,
down to Hezekiah's time, continued to be worshipped at
Jerusalem. It is argued from these facts that image-worship
went on unchallenged, and that this would not have been possible
had Moses forbidden it. The argument is supported by others
of great cogency. Although the literary problems of the chapters
which narrate the law-giving on Mt. Sinai are extremely intricate,
it is generally agreed that Ex. xx. cannot be ascribed to the

1 It is generally assumed that the_ addition in Exodus is from a
hand akin to Gen. ii. 2 sqq. ; Ex. xxxi. 17 (P.).

oldest source, and if, in accordance with ; many critics, this
chapter is ascribed to the Elohist or Ephraimite school, its
incorporation can scarcely be older than the middle of the 8th
century, and is probably later. With this, the condemnation
of adultery in Gen. xx. 1-17 (contrast xii. 10-20, xxvi. 6-n) is in
harmony, and the prohibition of the worship of the heavenly
bodies is aimed at a form of idolatry which is frequently alluded
to in the times of the later kings. The lofty ethics (e.g. tenth
commandment) is in itself no sound criterion, whilst the external
form of the laws, though characteristic of later codes, need not
be taken as evidence of importance. But the general result of a
study of the Decalogue as a whole, in connexion with Israelite
political history and religion, strongly supports, in fact demands,
a post-Mosaic origin, and modern criticism is chiefly divided only
as to the approximate date to which it is to be ascribed. The
time of Manasseh (cf. especially its contact with Micah vi. 6-8)
has found many adherents, but an earlier period, about 750 B.C.
(time of Amos and Hosea), is often held to satisfy the main
conditions; the former, however, is probably nearer the mark.

The Decalogue of Exodus xxxiv. — In the book of Exodus the
words written on the tables of stone are nowhere expressly
identified with the ten commandments of chap. xx. In xxv. 16,
xxxi. 18, xxxii. 15, we simply read of " the testimony " inscribed
on the tables, and it seems to be assumed that its contents must
be already known to the reader. The expression " ten words "
first occurs in xxxiv. 28, in a passage which relates the restoration
of the tables after they had been broken. But these " ten words "
are called " the words of the covenant," and so can hardly be
different from the words mentioned in the preceding verse as
those in accordance wherewith the covenant was made with
Israel. And again, the words of ver. 27 are necessarily the com-
mandments which immediately precede in w. 12-26. Accord-
ingly many recent critics have sought to show that Ex. xxxiv.
12-26 contains just ten precepts forming a second decalogue. 2

These consist not of precepts of social morality, but of several
laws of religious observance closely corresponding to the religious
and ritual precepts of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. The number ten is not
clearly made out, and the individual precepts are somewhat
variously assigned. They prohibit (1) the worship of other gods,
(2) the making of molten images; they ordain (3) the observance
of the feast of unleavened bread, (4) the feast of weeks, (5) the
feast of ingathering at the end of the year, and (6) the seventh-
day rest; to Yahweh belong (7) the firstlings, and (8) the first-
fruits of the land; they forbid also (9) the offering of the blood
of sacrifice with leaven, (10) the leaving-over of the fat of a feast
until the morning, and (n) the seething of a kid in its mother's
milk. This scheme ignores the command to appear thrice in the
year before Yahweh which recapitulates Nos. 3-5, and the decade
is obtained by omitting No. 6, which some hold to be out of place.
Others include " none shall appear before me empty-handed "
(xxxiv. 20), and unite Nos. 4-5, 9 and 10. C. F. Kent (Beginnings
of Heb. Hist. pp. 183 sqq.) obtains a decalogue from scattered
precepts in Ex. xx.-xxiii., which corresponds with Nos. 2, 7, 6, 3
and 5 (in one), 9 and 10 (in one), n above, and adds (a) the
building of an altar of earth (xx. 24), (b) offering from -the harvest
and wine-press (xxii. 29), (c) firstlings of animals (xxii. 29 sqq.;
cf. No. 7, and xxxiv. 19); (d) prohibition against eating torn
flesh (xxii. 31). 3 The so-called Yahwist Decalogue in xxxiv.
presupposes a rather more primitive stage in society, partly
nomadic and partly agricultural; No. 6 is suitable only for
agriculturists and cannot have originated among nomads. The
whole may be summed up in a sentence: — " Worship Yahweh
and Yahweh alone, without images, let the worship be simple and
in accord with the old usage; forbear to introduce the practices
of your Canaanitish neighbours" (Harper). It would seem to
represent more precisely a Judaean standpoint (cf. the simpler
customs of the Rechabites, q.v.).

2 So Hitzig (Ostern und Pfingsten im zweiten Dekalog, Heidelberg,
1838), independently of a previous suggestion of Goethe in 1783, who
in turn appears to have been anticipated by an early Greek writer
(Nestle, Zeit. fur alt-test. Wissenschaft (1904), pp. J34 sqq.).

3 See also W. E. Barnes, Journ Theol. Stud. (1905), pp. 557-563.

DE CAMP— DECAPOLIS

909

If such a system of precepts was ever viewed as the basis of
the covenant with Israel, it must belong to a far earlier stage of
religious development than that of Ex. xx. This is recognized
by Wellhausen, who says that our decalogue stands to that of
Ex. xxxiv. as Amos stood to his contemporaries, whose whole
religion lay in the observance of sacred feasts. To those
accustomed to look on the Ten Words written on the tables of
stone as the very foundation of the Mosaic law, it is hard to realize
that in ancient Israel there were two opinions as to what these
" Words " were. The hypothesis that Ex. xxxiv. 10-26 origin-
ally stood in a different connexion, and was misplaced at some
stage in the redaction of the Hexateuch, does not help us, since it
would still have to be admitted that the editor to whom we owed
the present form of the chapter identified this little code of
religious observances with the Ten Words. Were this the case
the editor, to quote Wellhausen, " introduced the most serious
internal contradiction found in the Old Testament." 1

The Decalogue in Christian Theology. — Following the New
Testament, in which the " commandments " summed up in the
law of love are identified with the precepts of the Decalogue
(Mark x. 10; Rom. xiii. 9; cf. Mark xii. 28 ff.), the ancient
Church emphasized the permanent obligation of the ten com-
mandments as a summary of natural in contradistinction to
ceremonial precepts, though the observance of .the Sabbath was
to be taken in a spiritual sense (Augustine, De spiritu et litera,
xiv.; Jerome, De celebratione Paschae). The medieval theo-
logians followed in the same line, recognizing all the precepts of
the Decalogue as moral precepts de lege naturae, though the law of
the Sabbath is not of the law of nature, in so far as it prescribes
a determinate day of rest (Thomas, summa, I ma II dBe , qu. c.
art. 3; Duns, Super sententias, lib. iii. dist. 37). The most
important medieval exposition of the Decalogue is that of Nicolaus
de Lyra; and the 15th century, in which the Decalogue acquired
special importance in the confessional, was prolific in treatises
on the subject (Antoninus of Florence, Gerson, &c).

Important theological controversies on the Decalogue begin
with the Reformation. The question between the Lutheran
(Augustiman) and Reformed (Philonic) division of the ten
commandments was mixed up with controversy as to the legiti-
macy of sacred images not designed to be worshipped. The
Reformed theologians took the stricter view. The identity of
the Decalogue with the eternal law of nature was maintained in
both churches, but it was an open question whether the Decalogue,
as such (that is, as a law given by Moses to the Israelites), is of
perpetual obligation. The Socinians, on the other hand, regarded
the Decalogue as abrogated by the more perfect law of Christ;
and this view, especially in the shape that the Decalogue is a
civil and not a moral law (J. D. Michaelis), was the current one
in the period of 18th-century rationalism. The distinction of a
permanent and a transitory element in the law of the Sabbath is
found, not only in Luther and Melanchthon, but in Calvin and
other theologians of the Reformed church. The main contro-
versy which arose on the basis of this distinction was whether
the prescription of one day in seven is of permanent obligation.
It was admitted that such obligation must be not natural but
positive; but it was argued by the stricter Calvinistic divines
that the proportion of one in seven is agreeable to nature, based
on the order of creation in six days, and in no way specially
connected with anything Jewish. Hence it was regarded as a
universal positive law of God. But those who maintained the
opposite view were not excluded from the number of the orthodox.
The laxer conception found. a place in the Cocceian school.

Literature. — Geftcken, Tiber die verschiedenen Eintheilungen des
Dekalogs und den Einfluss derselben auf den Cultus; W. Robertson
Smith, Old Test. Jew. Church, pp. 331-345, where his earlier views
(1877) in the Ency. Brit, are largely modified (cf. also Eng. Hist. Rev.
(1888) p. 352); Montefiore, Hibbert Lectures (1892), Appendix 1;
W. R. Harper, Internat. Crit. Comm. on Amos and Hosea, pp. 58-64
(on the position of the Decalogue in early pre-prophetic religion of
Israel); C. A. Briggs, Higher Criticism of Hexat. 2 pp. 189-210;
see also the references under Exodus. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)

1 The last three sentences of this" paragraph are taken almost
bodily from Robertson Smith's later views {Old Testament in the
Jewish Church*, pp. 335 seq.).

DE CAMP, JOSEPH (1858- ), American portrait and figure
painter, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1858. He was a pupil
of Frank Duveneck and of the Royal Academy of Munich;
became a member of the society of Ten American Painters, and
a teacher in the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine
Arts, Philadelphia, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; and
painted important mural decorations in the Philadelphia city
hall.

DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE GABRIEL (1803-1860), French
painter, was born in Paris on the 3rd of March 1 803 . In his youth
he travelled in the East, and reproduced Oriental life and scenery
with a bold fidelity to nature that made his works the puzzle
of conventional critics. His powers, however, soon came to be
recognized, and he was ranked along with Delacroix and Vernet
as one of the leaders of the French school. At the Paris Exhibition
of 1855 he received the grand or council medal. Most of his life
was passed in the neighbourhood of Paris. He was passionately
fond of animals, especially dogs, and indulged in all kinds of field
sports. He died on the 22nd of August i860 in consequence of
being thrown from a vicious horse while hunting at Fontainebleau.
The style of Decamps was characteristically and intensely French.
It was marked by vivid dramatic conception, by a manipulation
bold and rapid, sometimes even to roughness, and especially by
original and startling use of decided contrasts of colour and of
light and shade. His subjects embraced an unusually wide range.
He availed himself of his travels in the East in dealing with
scenes from Scripture history, which he was probably the first
of European painters to represent with their true and natural
local background. Of this class were his " Joseph sold by his
Brethren," " Moses taken from the Nile," and his scenes from the
life of Samson, nine vigorous sketches in charcoal and white.
Perhaps the most impressive of his historical pictures is his
" Defeat of the Cimbri," representing with wonderful skill the
conflict between a horde of barbarians and a disciplined army.
Decamps produced a number of genre pictures, chiefly of scenes
from French and Algerine domestic life, the most marked feature
of which is humour. The same characteristic attaches to most
of his numerous animal paintings. He painted dogs, horses, &c,
with great fidelity and sympathy; but his favourite subject was
monkeys, which he depicted in various studies and sketches with
a grotesque humour that could scarcely be surpassed. Probably
the best known of all his works is " The Monkey Connoisseurs,"
a clever satire of the jury of the French Academy of Painting,
which had rejected several of his earlier works on account of their
divergence from any known standard. The pictures and sketches
of Decamps were first made familiar to the English public
through the lithographs of Eugene le Rou*.
See Moreau's Decamps et son ceuvre (Paris, 1869).
DECAPOLIS, a league of ten cities (Siica iroXets) with their
surrounding district, situated with one exception on the eastern
side of the upper Jordan and the Sea of Tiberias. Being
essentially a confederation of cities it is impossible precisely to
fix Decapolis as a region with definite boundaries. The names
of the original ten cities are given by Pliny; these are as follows:
Damascus, Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis ( = Beth-Shan,
now Beisan, west of Jordan), Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella,
Gerasa and Kanatha. Of these Damascus alone retains its
importance. Scythopolis (as represented by the village of Beisan)
is still inhabited; the ruins of Pella, Gerasa and Kanatha
survive, but the other sites are unknown or disputed. Scytho-
polis, being in command of the communications with the sea and
the Greek cities on the coast, was the most important member of
the league. The league subsequently received additions and some
of the original ten dropped out. In Ptolemy's enumeration
Raphana has no place, and nine, such as Kapitolias, Edrei,
Bosra, &c, are added. The purpose of the league was no doubt
mutual defence against' the marauding Bedouin tribes that
surrounded them. These were hardly if at all checked by the
Semitic kinglings to whom the Romans delegated the govern-
ment of eastern Palestine. '
It was probably soon after Pompey's campaign in 64-63 B.C.
that the Decapolis league took shape. The cities comprising it

910

DECASTYLE— DECAZES

were united by the main roads on which they lay, their respective
spheres of influence touching, if not overlapping, one another.
A constant communication was maintained with the Mediter-
ranean ports and with Greece, and there was a vigorous municipal
life which found expression in literature, in athletic contests, and
in a thriving commerce, thus carrying a, truly Hellenic influence
into Perea and Galilee. From Josephus we learn that the cities
were severally subject to the governor of Syria and taxed for
imperial purposes; some of them afterwards came under Herod's
jurisdiction, but reserved the substantial rights granted them
by Pompey.

The best account is in G. A. Smith's Historical Geography of the
Holy Land, chap, xxviii. (R. A. S. M.)

DECASTYLE (Gr. 5kna, ten, and otDXoj, column), the archi-
tectural term given to a temple where the front portico has ten
columns; as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus, and
the portico of University College, London. (See Temple.)

DECATUR, STEPHEN (1779-1820), American naval com-
mander, was born at Sinnepuxent, Maryland, on the 5th of
January 1779, and entered the United States navy as a mid-
shipman in 1798. He was promoted lieutenant a year later, and
in that rank saw some service in the short war with France. In
1803 he was in command of the " Enterprise," which formed
part of Commodore Preble's squadron in the Mediterranean, and
in February 1804 led a daring expedition into the harbour of
Tripoli for the purpose of burning the U.S. frigate " Philadelphia "
which had fallen into Tripolitan hands. He succeeded in his
purpose and made his escape under the fire of the batteries with
a loss of only one man wounded. This brilliant exploit earned
him his captain's commission and a sword of honour from
Congress. Decatur was subsequently engaged in all the attacks
on Tripoli between 1804 and 1805. In the War of 1812 his ship
the " United States " captured H.M.S. " Macedonian " after a
desperate fight, and in 1813 he was appointed commodore to
command a squadron in New York harbour, which was soon
blockaded by the British. In an attempt to break out in February
1815 Decatur's flagship the " President " was cut off and after
a spirited fight forced to surrender to a superior force. Subse-
quently he commanded in the Mediterranean against the corsairs
of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli with great success. On his return
he was made a navy commissioner (November 1815), an office
which he held until his death, which took place in a duel with
Commodore James Barron at Bladensburg, Md., on the 22nd
of March 1820.

See Mackenzie, Life of Decatur (Boston, 1846).

DECATUR, a city and the county-seat of Macon county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the* central part of the state, near the Sangamon
river, about 39 m. E. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 16,841; (1900)
20,754, of whom 1939 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
31,140. Decatur is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Illinois Central, the Wabash (which maintains car
shops here), and the Vandalia railways, and is connected with
Danville, Saint Louis, Springfield, Peoria, Bloomington and
Champaign by the Illinois Traction System (electric). Decatur
has three large parks and a public library; and S.E. of Fairview
Park, with a campus of 35 acres, is the James Millikin University
(co-educational; Cumberland Presbyterian), founded in 1901
by James Millikin, and opened in 1903. The university com-
prises schools of liberal arts, engineering (mechanical, electrical,
and civil), domestic economy, fine and applied arts, commerce
and finance, library science, pedagogy, music, and a preparatory
school; in 1907-1908 it had 936 students, 440 being in the school
of music. Among the city's manufactures are iron, brass castings,
agricultural implements, flour, Indian corn products, soda
fountains, plumbers' supplies, coffins and caskets, bar and store
fixtures, gas and electric light fixtures, street cars, and car trucks.
The value of the city's factory products'increased from $5,133,677
in 1900 to $8,667,302 in 1905, or 68.8 %. The city is also an
important shipping point for agricultural products (especially
grain), and for coal taken from the two mines in the city and from
mines in the surrounding country. The first settlement in Decatur
was made in 1829, and the place was incorporated in 1836. On

the 22nd of February 1856 a convention of Illinois editors met
at Decatur to determine upon a policy of opposition to the
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. They called a state convention, which
met at Bloomington, and which is considered to have taken the
first step toward founding the Republican party in Illinois.

DECAZES, El.IE,Duc (1780-1860), French statesman, was born
at Saint Martin de Laye in the Gironde. He studied law, became
a judge in the tribunal of the Seine in 1806, was attached to the
cabinet of Louis Bonaparte in 1807, and was counsel to the court
of appeal at Paris in 181 1. Immediately upon the fall of the
empire he declared himself a Royalist, and remained faithful to
the Bourbons through the Hundred Days. He made the personal
acquaintance of Louis XVIII. during that period through Baron
Louis, and the king rewarded his energy and tact by appointing
him prefect of police at Paris on the 7th of July 1815. His
marked success in that difficult position won for him the ministry
of police, in succession to Fouche, on the 24th of September. In
the interval he had been elected deputy for the Seine (August
181 5) and both as deputy and as minister he led the moderate
Royalists. His formula was " to royalize France and to national-
ize the monarchy." The Moderates were in a minority in the
chamber ofi8i5,but Decazes persuaded Louis XVIII. to dissolve
the house, and the elections of October 18 16 gave them a majority.
During the next four years Decazes was called upon to play the
leading r61e in the government. At first, as minister of police
he had to suppress the insurrections provoked by the ultra-
Royalists (the White Terror) ; then, after the resignation of the
due de Richelieu, he took the actual direction of the ministry,
although the nominal president was General J. J. P. A. Dessolle
(1767-1828). He held at the same time the portfolio of the
interior. The cabinet, in which Baron Louis was minister of
finance, and Marshal Gouvion Saint Cyr remained minister of
war, was entirely Liberal; and its first act was to suppress the
ministry of police, as Decazes held that it was incompatible with
the regime of liberty. His reforms met with the strong hostility
of the Chamber of Peers, where the ultra-Royalists were in a
majority, and to overcome it he got the king to create sixty new
Liberal peers. He then passed the laws on the press, suppressing
the censorship. By reorganization of the finances, the protection
of industry and the carrying out of great public works, France
regained its economic prosperity, and the ministry became
popular. But the powers of the Grand Alliance had been watch-
ing the growth of Liberalism in France with increasing anxiety.
Metternich especially ascribed this mainly to the " weakness "
of the ministry, and when in 1819 the political elections still
further illustrated this trend, notably by the election of the
celebrated Abb6 Gregoire, it began to be debated whether the
time had not come to put in force the terms of the secret treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was this threat of foreign intervention,
rather than the clamour of the " Ultras," that forced Louis
XVIII. to urge a change in the electoral law that should render
such a " scandal " as Gregoire's election impossible for the
future. Dessolle and Louis, refusing to embark on this policy,
now resigned; and Decazes became head of the new ministry,
as president of the council (November 1819). But the exclusion
of Gregoire from the chamber and the changes in the franchise
embittered the Radicals without conciliating the " Ultras."
The news of the revolution in Spain in January 1820 added fuel
to their fury; it was the foolish and criminal policy of the royal
favourite that had once more unchained the demon of revolution.
Decazes was denounced as the new Sejanus, the modern Catiline;
and when, on the 13th of February, the duke of Berry was
murdered, clamorous tongues loudly accused him of being an
accomplice in the crime. Decazes, indeed, foreseeing the storm,
at once placed his resignation in the king's hands. Louis at first
refused. " They will attack," he' exclaimed, " not your system,
my dear son, but mine." But in the end he was forced to yield
to the importunity of his family (February 17th); and Decazes,
raised to the rank of duke, passed into honourable exile as
ambassador to Great Britain.

This ended Decazes's meteoric career of greatness. In
December 182 1 he returned to sit in the House of Peers, when

DECAZEVILLE— DECEMBER

911

Le continued to maintain his Liberal opinions. After 1830 he
adhered to the monarchy of July, but after 1848 he remained in
retirement. He had organized in 1826 a society to develop the
coal and iron of the Aveyron, and the name of Decazeville was
given in 1829 to the principal centre of the industry. He died
on the 24th of October i860.

His son, Louis Charles Elie Decazes, due de Glucksberg
(1819-1886), was born at Paris, and entered the diplomatic
career. He became minister plenipotentiary at Madrid and at
Lisbon, but the revolution of 1848 caused him to withdraw into
private life, from which he did not emerge until in 1871 he was
elected deputy to the National Assembly by the Gironde. There
he sat in the right centre among the Orleanists, and was chosen
by the due de Broglie as minister of foreign affairs in November
1873. He voted with the Orleanists the " Constitutional Laws "
of 1875, and approved of MacMahon's parliamentary coup d' etat
on the 1 6th of May 1877. He was re-elected deputy in October
1877 by the arrondissement of Puget-Theniers, but his election
was annulled by the chamber, and he was not re-elected. He
died on the 16th of September 1886.

On the Due Decazes see E. Daudet, Louis X VIII. et le due Decazes
(1 899) , and his ' ' L'ambassade du due Decazes ' ' in the Revue des deux
mondes for 1899.

DECAZEVILLE, a town of south-central France, in the
department of Aveyron, 34 m. N.W. of Rodez by the Orleans
railway. Pop. (1906) 9749. It possesses iron mines and is the
centre of the coal-fields of the Aveyron, which supply the iron-
works established by the Due Decazes, minister of Louis XVIII.
A statue commemorates the founder.

DECCAN (Sans. Dakshina, " the South "), a name applied,
according to Hindu geographers, to the whole of the territories in
India situated to the south of the river Nerbudda., In its more
modern acceptation, however, it is sometimes understood as
comprising only the country lying between that river and the
Kistna, the latter having for a long period formed the southern
boundary of the Mahommedan empire of Delhi. Assigning it the
more extended of these limits, it comprehends the whole of the
Indian peninsula, and in this view the mountainous system,
consisting of the Eastern and Western Ghats, constitutes the
most striking feature of the Deccan. These two mountain
ranges unite at their northern extremities with the Vindhya
chain of mountains, and thus is formed a vast triangle supporting
at a considerable elevation the expanse of table-land which
stretches from Cape Comorin to the valley of the Nerbudda.
The surface of this table-land slopes from west to east, as
indicated by the direction of the drainage of the country, — the
great rivers, the Cauvery, Godavari, Kistna and Pennar, though
deriving their sources from the base of the Western Ghats, all
finding their way into the Bay of Bengal through fissures in the
Eastern Ghats.

History. — The detailed and authentic history of the Deccan
only begins with the 13th century a.d. Of the early history
the main facts established are the Aryan invasion (c. 700 B.C.),
the growth of the Maurya empire (250 B.C.) and the invasion
(a.d. 100) of the Scythic tribes known as the Sakas, Pahlavas
and Yavanas, which led to the establishment of the power
of the Kshaharata satraps in western India. In addition
to this, modern study of monuments and inscriptions has
recovered the names, and to a certain extent the records, of a
succession of dynasties ruling in the Deccan ; of these the most
conspicuous are. the Cholas, the Andhras or Satavahanas, the
Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas of Devagiri
(Deogiri). (See India: History; Bombay Presidency:
History; Inscriptions: Indian.) In 1294 Ala-ud-Din Khilji,
emperor of Delhi, invaded the Deccan, stormed Devagiri, and
reduced the Yadava rajas of Maharashtra to the position of
tributary princes (see Daulatabad), then proceeding southward
overran Telingana and Carnata (1294-1300). With this event
the continuous history of the Deccan begins. In 1307, owing to
non-payment of tribute, a fresh series of Mussulman incursions
began, under Malik Kafur, issuing in the final ruin of the Yadava
power; and in 1338 the reduction of the Deccan was completed

by Mahommed ben Tughlak. The imperial sway was, however,
of brief duration. Telingana and Carnata speedily reverted
to their former masters ; and this defection on the part of the
Hindu states was followed by a general revolt of the Mussulman
governors, resulting in the establishment in 1347 of the independ-
ent Mahommedan dynasty of Bahmani, and the consequent
withdrawal of the power of Delhi from the territory south of the
Nerbudda. In the struggles which ensued, the Hindu kingdom of
Telingana fell bit by bit to the Bahmani dynasty, who advanced
their frontier to Golconda in 1373, to Warangal in 1421, and to
the Bay of Bengal in 1472. On the dissolution of the Bahmani
empire (1482), its dominions were distributed into the five
Mahommedan states of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Bidar
and Berar. To the south of these the great Hindu state of Car-
nata or Vijayanagar still survived; but this, too, was destroyed,
at the battle of Talikota (1565), by a league of the Mahommedan
powers. These latter in their turn soon disappeared. Berar
had already been annexed by Ahmednagar in 1572, and Bidar
was absorbed by Bijapur in 1609. The victories of the Delhi
emperors, Akbar, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, crushed the
rest. Ahmednagar was incorporated in the Mogul empire in
1598, Bijapur in 1686, and Golconda in 1688. The rule of the
Delhi emperors in the Deccan did not, however, long survive.
In 1706 the Mahrattas acquired the right of levying tribute in
southern India, and their principal chief, the Peshwa of Poona,
became a practically independent sovereign. A few years later
the emperor's viceroy in Ahmednagar, the nizam-al-mulk, threw
off his allegiance and established the seat of an independent
government at Hyderabad (1724). The remainder of the imperial
possessions in the peninsula were held by chieftains acknowledging
the supremacy of one or other of these two potentates. In the
sequel, Mysore became the prize of the Mahommedan usurper
Hyder AH. During the contests for power which ensued about
the middle of the 18th century between the native chiefs, the
French and the English took opposite sides. After a brief course
of triumph, the interests of France declined, and a new empire in
India was established by the British. Mysore formed one of their
earliest conquests in the Deccan. Tanjore and the Carnatic
were shortly after annexed to their dominions. In 1818 the
forfeited possessions of the Peshwa added to their extent ; and
these acquisitions, with others which have more recently fallen
to the paramount power by cession, conquest or failure of heirs,
form a continuous territory stretching from the Nerbudda to
Cape Comorin. Its length is upwards of 1000 m., and its extreme
breadth exceeds 800. This vast tract comprehends the chief
provinces now distributed between the presidencies of Madras
and Bombay, together with the native states of Hyderabad
and Mysore, and those of Kolhapur, Sawantwari, Travancore,
Cochin and the petty possessions of France and Portugal.

See J. D. B. Gribble, History of the Deccan (1896); Prof. Bhand-
arkar, " Early History of the Dekkan " (Bombay Gazetteer) ; Vincent
A. Smith, Early History of India (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), chap. xv.
" The Kingdoms of the Deccan."

DECELEA (Gr. AtKeXda), an Attic deme, on the pass which
led over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropns and Chalcis.
From its position it has a commanding view over the Athenian
plain. Its eponymous "i<jro, Decelus, was said to have indicated
to the Tyndaridae, Castor and Pollux, the place where Theseus
had hidden their sister Helen at Aphidnae; and hence there was
a traditional friendship between the Deceleans and the Spartans
(Herodotus ix. 73). This tradition, together with the advice of
Alcibiades, led the Spartans to fortify Decelea as a basis for
permanent occupation in Attica during the later years of the
Peloponnesian War, from 413-404 B.C. Its position enabled
them to harass the Athenians constantly, and to form a centre
for fugitive slaves and other deserters. The royal palace of Tatoi
has been built on the site.

See Peloponnesian War ; also Judeich in Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopddie.

DECEMBER (Lat. decern, ten) , the last month of the year. In
the Roman calendar, traditionally ascribed to Romulus, the year
was divided into ten months, the last of which was called Decem-
ber, or the tenth month, and this name, though etymologically

9 1 2

DECEMVIRI—DECIMAL COINAGE

incorrect, was retained for the last or twelfth month of the
year as now divided. In the Romulian calendar December had
thirty days ; Numa reduced the number to twenty-nine ; Julius
Caesar added two days to this, giving the month its present
length. The Saturnalia occurred in December, which is therefore
styled " acceptus geniis " by Ovid {Fasti, iii. 58) ; and this also
explains the phrase of Horace " libertate Decembri utere "
(Sat. ii. 7). Martial applies to the month the epithet canus
(hoary), and Ovid styles it gelidus (frosty) and fumosus (smoky).
In the reign of Commodus it was temporarily styled Amazonius,
in honour of the emperor's mistress, whom he had had painted as
an Amazon. The Saxons called it winter-monath, winter month,
and heligh-monath, holy month, from the fact that Christmas
fell within it. Thus the modern Germans call it Christmonat.
The 22nd of December is the date of the winter solstice, when the
sun reaches the tropic of Capricorn.

DECEMVIRI (" the ten men "), the name applied by the
Romans to any official commision of ten. The title was often
followed by a statement of the purpose for which the commission
was appointed, e.g. Xviri legibus scribundis , stlitibus judicandis,
sacris faciundis.

I. Apart from such qualification, it signified chiefly the tempo-
rary commission which superseded all the ordinary magistrates
of the Republic from 451 to 449 B.C., for the purpose of drawing
up a code of flaws. In 462 B.C. a tribune proposed that the
appointment of a commission to draw up a code expressing the
legal 'principles of the administration was necessary to secure
for the plebs a hold over magisterial caprice. Continued agitation
to this effect resulted in an agreement in 452 B.C. between
patricians and plebeians that decemvirs should be appointed
to draw up a code, that during their tenure of office all other
magistracies should be in abeyance, that they should not be
subject to appeal, but that they should be bound to maintain
the laws which guaranteed by religious sanctions the rights of
the plebs. The first board of decemvirs (apparently consisting
wholly of patricians) was appointed to hold office during 451 B.C. ;
and the chief man among them was Appius Claudius. Livy
(iii. 32) says that only patricians were eligible. Mommsen,
however, held that plebeians were legally eligible, though none
were actually appointed for 451. The decemvirs ruled with
singular moderation, and submitted to the Comitia Centuriata a
code of laws in ten headings, which was passed. So popular were
the decemvirs that another board of ten was appointed for the
following year, some of whom, if the extant list of names is
correct, were certainly plebeians. These added two more to the
ten laws of their predecessors, thus completing the Laws of the
Twelve Tables (see Roman Law). But their rule then became
violent and tyrannical, and they fell before the fury of the plebs,
though for some reason, not easily understood, they continued
to have the support of the patricians. They were forced to
abdicate (449 B.C.), and the ordinary magistrates were restored.

II. The judicial board of decemvirs (stlitibus judicandis)
formed a civil court of ancient origin concerned mainly with
questions bearing on the status of individuals. They were
originally a body of jurors which gave a verdict under the
presidency of the praetor (q.v.), but eventually became annual
minor magistrates of the Republic, elected by the Comitia
Tributa.

III. The priestly board of decemvirs (sacris faciundis) was an
outcome of the claim of the plebs to a share in the administration
pf the state religion. Five of the decemvirs were patricians, and
five plebeians. They were first appointed in 367 B.C. instead of
the patrician duumviri who had hitherto performed these duties.
The board was increased to fifteen in the last century of the
Republic Its chief function was the care of the Sibylline books,
and the celebration of the games of Apollo (Livy x. 8) and the
Secular -Games (Tac. Ann. xi. 11).

IV. Decemvirs were also appointed from time to time to
control the distribution of the public land (agris dandis adsi-
gnandis; see Agrarian Laws).

' BibLiography. — B. G. Niebuhr, History of Rome (Eng. trans.),
& $og»et seq. (Cambridge, 1832) ; Tb. Mommsen, History of Rome ,

bk. ii. c. 2, vol. i. pp. 361 et seq. (Eng. trans., new ed., 1894);
Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. 605 et seq., 714 (Leipzig, 1887); A. H. J.
Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, p. 40 et seq., 263
(Oxford, 1901); J. Muirhead, Private Law of Rome, p. 73 et seq.
(London, 1899); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, iv. 2256 et seq.
(Kubler). (A. M. Cl.)

DECHEN, ERNST HEINRICH KARL VON(i8oo-i889), German
geologist, was born in Berlin on the 25th of March 1800, and was
educated in the university in that city. He subsequently studied
mining in Bochum and Essen, and was in 1820 placed in the
mining department of the Prussian state, serving on the staff
until 1864, and becoming director in 1841 when he was stationed
at Bonn. In early years he made journeys to study the mining
systems of other countries, and with this object he visited England
and Scotland in company with Karl von Oeynhausen (1797-
1865). In the course of his work he paid special attention to the
coal-formation of Westphalia and northern Europe generally,
and he greatly furthered the progress made in mining and
metallurgical works in Rhenish Prussia. He made numerous
contributions to geological literature; notably the following: —
Geognostische Umrisse der Rheinlander zwischen Basel und Mainz
mit besonderer Rucksicht auf das Vorkommen des Steinsahes
(with von Oeynhausen and La Roche), 2 vols. (Berlin, 1825).;
Geognostische Fiihrer in das Siebengebirge am Rhein (Bonn, 1861);
Die nutzbaren Miner alien und Gebirgsarten im deutschen Reiche
(1873). But his main work was a geological map of Rhenish
Prussia and Westphalia in 35 sheets on the scale of 1: 80,000,
issued with two volumes of explanatory text (1855-1882). He
published also a small geological map of Germany (1869). He
died at Bonn on the 15th of February 1889. (H. B. W.)

DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decider e, to fall down), a botanical
and zoological term for " falling in season," as of petals after
flowering, leaves in autumn, the teeth or horns of animals, or the
wings of insects.

DECIMAL COINAGE. 1 Any currency in which the various
denominations of coin are arranged in multiples or submultiples
of ten (Lat. decern), with reference to a standard unit, is a decimal
system. Thus if the standard unit be 1 the higher coins will be
10, 100, 1000, &c, the lower -i, -oi, -ooi, &c. In a perfect
system there would be no breaks or interpolations, but the actual
currencies described as " decimal " do not show this rigid
symmetry. In France the standard unit — the franc — has the
10 franc and the 100 franc pieces above it; the 10 centime below
it; there are also, however, 50 franc, 20 franc, 5 franc, 2 franc
pieces as well as 50 and 20 centime ones. Similar irregularities
occur in the German and United States coinages, and indeed
in all countries in which a decimal system has been established.
Popular convenience has compelled this departure from the
strict decimal form.

Subject to these practical modifications the leading countries
of the world (Great Britain and India are the chief exceptions)
have adopted decimal coinage. The United States led the way
(1786 and 1792) with the dollar as the unit, and France soon
followed (1799 and 1803), her system being extended to the
countries of the Latin Union (1865). The German empire (1873),
the Scandinavian States(i875),Austria-Hungary (i87o,developed
in 1892) and Russia (1839 and 1897) are further adherents to the
decimal system. The Latin- American countries and Japan (1871)
have also adopted it.

In England proposals for decimalizing the coinage have long
been under discussion at intervals. Besides the inconvenience
of altering the established currency, the difficulty of choosing
between the different schemes propounded has been a consider-
able obstacle. One plan took the farthing as a base: then 10
farthings=i doit (2§d.), 10 doits=i florin (2s. id.), 10 florins =
1 pound (20s. iod.). The advantages claimed for this scheme
were (1) the preservation of the smaller coins (the penny =
4 farthings); and (2) the avoidance of interference with the
smaller retail prices. Its great disadvantage was the destruction
of the existing unit of value — the pound — and the consequent
disturbance of all accounts. A second proposal would retain the
pound as unit and the florin, but would subdivide the latter into
1 For " decimal " in general see Arithmetic.

DECIUS— DECLARATION

9i3

100 " units " (or farthings reduced 4 %) and introduce a new coin
= 10 units (2.4d.). By it the unit of account would remain as at
present, and the shilling (as 50 units) would continue in use.
The alteration of the bronze and several silver coins, and the need
of readjusting all values and prices expressed in pence, formed
the principal difficulties. A third scheme, which was connected
with the assimilation of English to French and American money,
proposed the establishment of an 8s. gold coin as unit, with the
tenpenny or franc and the penny (reduced by 4 %) as sub-
divisions. The new coin would be equivalent to 10 francs or
(by an anticipated reduction of the dollar) 2 dollars. None of
these plans has gained any great amount of popular support.

For the general question of monetary scales see Money, and for
the decimal system in reference to weights and measures see Metric
System and Weights and Measures. (C. F. B.)

DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS (201.-251),
Roman emperor, the first of the long succession of distinguished
men from the Illyrian provinces, was born at Budalia near
Sirmium in lower Pannonia in a.d. 201. About 245 the emperor
Philip the Arabian entrusted him with an important command
on the Danube, and in 249 (or end of 248), having been sent to
put down a revolt of the troops in Moesia and Pannonia, he was
forced to assume the imperial dignity. He still protested his
loyalty to Philip, but the latter advanced against him and was
slain near Verona. During his brief reign Decius was engaged in
important operations against the Goths, who crossed the Danube
and overran the districts of Moesia and Thrace. The details are
obscure, and there is considerable doubt as to the part taken in
the campaign by Decius and his son (of the same name) respect-
ively. • The Goths were surprised by the emperor while besieging
Nicopolis on the Danube; at his approach they crossed the
Balkans, and attacked Philippopolis. Decius followed them,
but a severe defeat near Beroe made it impossible to save
Philippopolis, which fell into the hands of the Goths, who treated
the conquered with frightful cruelty. Its commander, Priscus,
declared himself emperor under Gothic protection. The siege
of Philippopolis had so exhausted the numbers and resources
of the Goths, that they offered to surrender their booty and
prisoners on condition of being allowed to retire unmolested.
But Decius, who had succeeded in surrounding them and hoped
to cut off their retreat, refused to entertain their proposals.
The final engagement, in which the Goths fought with the
courage of despair, took place on swampy ground in the Dobrudja
near Abritum (Abrittus) or Forum Trebonii and ended in the
defeat and death of Decius and his son. Decius was an excellent
soldier, a man of amiable disposition, and a capable adminis-
trator, worthy of being classed with the best Romans of the
ancient type. The chief blot on his reign was the systematic
and authorized persecution of the Christians, which had for its
object the restoration of the religion and institutions of ancient
Rome. Either as a concession to the senate, or perhaps with the
idea of improving public morality, Decius endeavoured to revive
the separate office and authority of the censor. The choice was
left to the senate, who unanimously selected Valerian (afterwards
emperor) . But Valerian, well aware of the dangers and difficulties
attaching to the office at such a time, declined the responsibility.
The invasion of the Goths and the death of Decius put an end to
the abortive attempt.

See Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 29, Epit. 29; Jordanes, De
rebus Geticis, 18; fragments of Dexippus, in C. W. Miiller, Frag.
Hist. Graec. iii. (1849); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 10;
H. Schiller, Geschichte der rbmischen Kaiserzeit, i. (pt. 2), 1883.

DECIZE, a town of central France, in the department of Nievre,
on an island in the Loire, 24 m. S.E. of Nevers by the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1906) 3813. The most important,of its buildings
is the church of Saint Are, which dates in part from the nth and
12th centuries; there are also ruins of. a castle of the counts of
Nevers. The town has a statue of Guy Coquille, the lawyer and
historian, who was born there in 1523. Decize is situated at the
starting-point of the Nivernais canal. The coal mine of La
Machine, which belongs to the Schneider Company of Le Creusot,
lies four miles to the north. The industries of Decize and its
suburbs on both banks of the Loire include the working of gypsum

and lime, and. the manufacture of ceramic products and glass.
Trade is in horses from the Morvan, cattle, coal, iron, wood and
stone.

Under the name of Decetia the place is mentioned by Julius
Caesar as a stronghold of the Aedui, and in 52 B.C. was the scene
of a meeting of the senate held by him to settle the leadership
of the tribe and to reply to his demand for aid against Vercinge-
torix. In later times it belonged to the counts of Nevers, from
whom it obtained a charter of franchise in 1226.

DECKER, SIR MATTHEW, Bart. (1679-1749), English
merchant and writer on trade, was born in Amsterdam in 1679.
He came to London in 1702 and established himself there as a
merchant. He was remarkably successful in his business life,
gaining great wealth and having many honours conferred upon
him. He was a director of the East India Company, sat in
parliament for' four years as member for Bishops Castle, and
was high sheriff of Surrey in 1729. He was created a baronet by
George I. in 1716. Decker's fame as a writer on trade rests on
two tracts. The first, Serious considerations on the several high
duties which the Nation in general, as well as Trade in particular,
labours under, with a proposal for preventing the removal of goods,
discharging the trader from any search, and raising all the Publick
Supplies by one single Tax (1743; name affixed to 7 th edition,
1756), proposed to do away with customs duties and substitute
a tax upon houses. He also suggested taking the duty off
tea and putting instead a licence duty on households wishing
to consume it. The second, an Essay on the Causes of the
Decline of the Foreign Trade, consequently of the value of
the lands in Britain, and on the means to restore both (1744),
has been attributed to W. Richardson, but internal evidence
is strongly in favour of Decker's authorship. He advocates
the licence plan in an extended form; urges the repeal of
import duties and the abolition of bounties, and, in general,
shows himself such a strong supporter of the doctrine of
free trade as to rank as one of the most important forerunners
of Adam Smith. Decker died on the 18th of March 1749.

DECKER, PIERRE DE (1812-1891), Belgian statesman and
author, was educated at a Jesuit school, studied law at Paris,
and became a journalist on the staff of the Revue de Bruxelles.
In 1839 he was elected to the Belgian lower chamber, where
he gained a great reputation for oratory. In 1855 he became
minister of the interior and prime minister, and attempted,
by a combination of the moderate elements of the Catholic and
Liberal parties, the impossible task of effecting a settlement
of the educational and other questions by which Belgium was
distracted. In 1866 he retired from politics and went into
business, with disastrous results. He became involved in
financial speculations which lost him his good name as well as the
greater part of his fortune ; and, though he was never proved to
have been more than the victim of clever operators, when in 187 1
he was appointed by the Catholic cabinet governor of Limburg,
the outcry was so great that he resigned the appointment and
retired definitively into private life. He died on the 4th of
January 1891. Decker, who was a member of the Belgian
academy, wrote several historical and other works of value, of
which the most notable are Etudes historiques et critiques sur lei
monts-de-piiti en Belgique (Brussels, 1844); De I'influence du
libre arbitre de I'homme sur les faits sociaux (1848); L' Esprit de
parti et V esprit national (1852); Etude politique sur le vicomteCh.
Vilain XIIII (1879); Episodes de I'hist. de I'art en Belgique
(1883); Biographic -de H. Conscience (1885).

DECLARATION (from La't. declarare, to make fully clear,
clarus), formerly, in an action at English law, the first step in
pleading— the precise statement of the matter in respect of which
the plaintiff sued. It was divided into counts, in each of which
a specific cause of action was alleged, in wide and gentral terms,
and the same acts or omissions might be stated in several counts
as different causes of actions. Under the system of pleading
established by the Judicature Act 1875, the declaration has been
superseded by a statement of claim setting forth the facts on
which the plaintiff relies. Declarations are now in use only in
the mayor's court of London and certain local courts of record,

914

DECLARATION OF PARIS— DECOLOURIZING

and in those of the United States and the British colonies in
which the Common Law system of pleading survives. In the
United States a declaration is termed a " complaint," which is
the first pleading in an action. It is divided into parts, — the
title of the court and term; the venue or county in which the
facts are alleged to have occurred; the commencement, which
contains a statement of the names of the parties and the char-
acter in which they appear; the statement of the cause of action;
and the conclusion or claim for relief. (See Pleading.)

The term is also used in other English legal connexions; e.g.
the Declaration of Insolvency which, when filed in the Bankruptcy
Court by any person unable to pay his debts, amounts to an act
of bankruptcy (see Bankruptcy) ; the Declaration of Title, for
which, when a person apprehends an invasion of his title to land,
he may, by the Declaration of Title Act 1862, petition the Court
of Chancery (see Land Registration) ; or the Declaration of
Trust, whereby a person acknowledges that property, the title of
which he holds, belongs to another, for whose use he holds it;
by the Statute of Frauds, declarations of trust of land must be
evidenced in writing and signed by the party declaring the trust.
(See Trusts.) By the Statutory Declarations Act 1835 (which
was an act to make provision for the abolition of unnecessary
oaths, and to repeal a previous act of the same session on the
same subject), various cases were specified in which a solemn
declaration was, or might be, substituted for an affidavit. In
nearly all civilized countries an affirmation is now permitted to
those who object to take an oath or upon whose conscience an
oath is not binding. (See Affidavit; Oath.)

An exceptional position in law is accorded to a Dying or Death-
bed Declaration. As a general rule, hearsay evidence is excluded
on a criminal charge, but where the charge is one of homicide
it is the practice to admit dying declarations of the deceased
with respect to the cause of his death. But before such declara-
tions can be admitted in evidence against a prisoner, it must be
proved that the deceased when making the declaration had given
up all hope of recovery. Unsworn declarations as to family
matters, e.g. as to pedigree, may also be admitted as evidence, as
well as declarations made by deceased persons in the course of
their duty. (See Evidence.)

DECLARATION OF PARIS, a statement of principles of
international law adopted at the conclusion (16th of April 1856)
of the negotiations for the treaty of Paris at the suggestion of
Count Walewski, the French plenipotentiary. The declaration
set out that maritime law in time of war had long been the
subject of deplorable disputes, that the uncertainty of the rights
and duties in respect of it gave rise to differences of opinion
between neutrals and belligerents which might occasion serious
difficulties and even conflicts, and that it was consequently
desirable to agree upon some fixed uniform rules. The pleni-
potentiaries therefore adopted the four following principles: —

I. Privateering is and remains abolished; 2. The neutral flag
covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war;
3. Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not
liable to capture under the enemy's flag; 4. Blockades, in order to
be binding, must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force
sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.

They also undertook to bring the declaration to the knowledge
of the states which had not taken part in the congress of Paris
and to invite them to accede to it. The text of the declaration
concluded as follows: — " Convinced that the maxims which
they now proclaim cannot but be received with gratitude by
the whole world, the undersigned plenipotentiaries doubt not that
the efforts of their governments to obtain the general adoption
thereof will be crowned with full success."

The declaration is of course binding only on the powers which
adopted it or have acceded to it. The majority which adopted
it consisted of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia,
Sardinia and Turkey. The United States government declined
to sign the declaration on the ground that, not possessing a great
navy, they would be obliged in time of war to rely largely upon
merchant ships commissioned as war vessels, and that therefore
the abolition of privateering would be entirely in favour of
European powers, whose large navies rendered them practically

independent of such aid. All other maritime states acceded to
the declaration except Spain, Mexico 1 and Venezuela.

Although the United States and Spain were not parties to the
declaration, both, during the Spanish-American War, observed
its principles. The Spanish government, however, expressly
gave notice that it reserved its right to issue letters of marque.
At the same time both belligerents organized services of auxiliary
cruisers composed of merchant ships under the command of naval
officers. In how far this might operate as a veiled revival of the
forbidden practice has now ceased to be a matter of much
importance, the Hague Conference having adopted a series of
rules on the subject which may be said to interpret the first of
the four principles of the declaration with such precision as to take
its place.

The New Convention on the subject (October 18th, 1907) sets
out that, in view of the incorporation in time of war of merchant
vessels in combatant fleets, it is desirable to define the conditions
under which this can be effected, that, nevertheless, the con-
tracting powers, not having been able to come to an understand-
ing on the question whether the transformation of a merchant
ship into a war vessel may take place on the high sea, 2 are agreed
that the question of the place of transformation is in no way
affected by the rules adopted, which are as follows : —

Art. i. No merchant ship transformed into a war vessel can
have the rights and obligations attaching to this condition unless it
is placed under the direct authority, the immediate control and the
responsibility of the power whose flag it carries.

Art. ii. Merchant ships transformed into war vessels must bear
the distinctive external signs of war vessels of their nationality.

Art. iii. The officer commanding must be in the service of the state,
and properly commissioned by the competent authorities. His name
must appear in the list of officers of the combatant fleet.

Art. iv. The crew must be subject to the rules of military discipline.

Art. v. Every merchant ship transformed into a war vessel is bound
to conform, in its operation, to the laws and customs of war.

Art. vi. The belligerent who transforms a merchant ship into a
war vessel must, as soon as possible, mention this transformation
on the list of vessels belonging to its combatant fleet.

Art. vii. The provisions of the present convention are only applic-
able as among the contracting powers and provided the belligerents
are all parties to the convention.

See T. Gibson Bowles, Declaration of Paris (London, 1900) ; Sir T.
Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy (London,
1907), chap. xv. 2 . (T. Ba.)

DECLARATOR, in Scots law, a form of action by which some
right of property, or of servitude, or of status, or some inferior
right or interest, is sought to be judicially declared.

DECLINATION (from Lat. declinare, to decline), in magnetism
the angle between true north and magnetic north, i.e. the
variation between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian.
In 1596 at London the angle of declination was 11° E. of N., in
1652 magnetic north was true north, in 1815 the magneti'
needle pointed 24!° W. of N., in 1891 18° W., in 1896 17 56' W.
and in 1906 17 45'. The angle is gradually diminishing and the
declination will in time again be o°, when it will slowly increase in
an easterly direction, the north magnetic pole oscillating slowly
around the North Pole. Regular daily changes of declination
also occur. Magnetic storms cause irregular variations sometimes
of one or two degrees. (See Magnetism, Terrestrial.)

In astronomy the declination is the angular distance, as seen
from the earth, of a heavenly body from the celestial equator,
thus corresponding with terrestrial latitude.

DECOLOURIZING, in practical chemistry and chemical
technology, the removal of coloured impurities from a substance.
The agent most frequently used is charcoal, preferably prepared
from blood, which when shaken with a coloured solution fre-
quently precipitates the coloured substances' leaving the solution
clear. Thus the red colour of wines may be removed by filtering
the wine through charcoal; the removal of the dark-coloured

'At the 7th plenary sitting of the second Hague Conference
(September 7th, 1907) the chiefs of the Spanish and Mexican dele-
gations, M. de Villa Urratia and M. de la Barra, announced the
determination of their respective governments to accede to the
Declaration of Paris.

2 This relates to the incident in the Russo-Japanese War of the
transformation of Russian vessels which had passed through the
Dardanelles unarmed.

DECORATED PERIOD— DECRETALS

9 r 5

imparities which arise in the manufacture of sugar may be
similarly effected. Other " decolourizers " are sulphurous acid,
permanganates and manganates, all of which have received
application in the sugar industry.

DECORATED PERIOD, in architecture, the term given by
Richman to the second pointed or Gothic style, 1307-1377. It
is characterized by its window tracery, geometrical at first and
flowing in the later period, owing to the omission of the circles
in the tracery of windows, which led to the juxtaposition of the
foliations and their pronounced curves of contre-flexure. This
flowing or flamboyant tracery was introduced in the first quarter
of the century and lasted about fifty years. The arches are
generally equilateral, and the mouldings bolder than in the Early
English, with less depth in the hollows and with the fillet largely
used. The ball flower and a four-leaved flower take the place of
the dog-tooth, and the foliage in the capitals is less conventional
than in Early English and more flowing, and the diaper patterns
in walls are more varied. The principal examples are those of the
east end of Lincoln and Carlisle cathedral; the west fronts of
York and Lichfield; the crossing of Ely cathedral, including the
lantern and three west bays of choir and the Lady Chapel; and
Melrose Abbey. ( R. P. S.)

DE COSTA, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1831-1004), American
clergyman and historical writer, was born in Charlestown,
Massachusetts, on the 10th of July 1851. He graduated in 1856
at the Biblical Institute at Concord, New Hampshire (now a
part of Boston University), became a minister in the Episcopal
Church in 1857, and during the next three years was a rector
first at North Adams, and then at Newton Lower Falls, Mass.
After serving as chaplain in two Massachusetts regiments during
the first two years of the Civil War, he became editor (1863) of
The Christian Times in New York, and subsequently edited The
Episcopalian and The Magazine of American History. He was
rector of the church of St John the Evangelist in New York city
from 1 88 1 to 1899, when he resigned in consequence of being
converted to Roman Catholicism. He was one of the organizers
and long the secretary of the Church Temperance Society, and
founded and was the first president (1884-1899) of the American
branch of the White Cross Society. He became a high authority
on early American cartography and the history of the period of
exploration. He died in New York city on the 4th of November
1904. In addition to numerous monographs and valuable
contributions to Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of
America, he published The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America
by the Northmen (1868); The Northmen in Maine (1870); The
Moabite Stone (187 1); The Rector of Roxburgh (1871), a novel
under the nom de plume of " William Hickling "; and Verrazano
the Explorer; being a Vindication of his Letter and Voyage (1880).
DE COSTER, CHARLES THEODORE HENRI (1827-1879),
Belgian writer, was born at Munich on the 20th of August 1827.
His father, Augustin de Coster, was a native of Liege, who was
attached to the household of the papal nuncio at Munich, but
soon returned to Belgium. Charles was placed in a Brussels bank,
but in 1850 he entered the university of Brussels, where he
completed his studies in 1855. He was one of the founders of the
Sociele des Joyeux, a small literary club, more than one member
of which was to achieve literary distinction. De Coster made
his debut as a poet in the Revue trimestrielle, founded in 1854,
and his first efforts in prose were contributed to a periodical
entitled Uylenspiegel (founded T856). A correspondence cover-
ing the years 1850-1858, his Leltres d Elisa, were edited by
Ch. Potvin in 1894. He was a keen student of Rabelais and
Montaigne, and familiarized himself with 16th-century French.
He said that Flemish manners and speech could not be rendered
faithfully in modern French, and accordingly wrote his best
works in the old tongue. The success of his Legendcs flamandes
(1857) was increased by the illustrations of Felicien Rops and
other friends. In 1861 he published his Conies brabanqons, in
modern French. His masterpiece is his Legende de Thyl Uylen-
spiegel et de Lamme Goedzak (1867), a. 16th-century romance, in
which Belgian patriotism found its fullest expression. In the
preparation for this prose epic of the gueux he spent some ten

years. Uylenspiegel (Eulenspiegel) has been compared to Don
Quixote, and even to Panurge. He is the type of the 16th-century
Fleming, and the history of his resurrection from the grave itself
was accepted as an allegory of the destiny of the race. The
exploits of himself and his friend form the thread of a semi-
historical narrative, full of racy humour, in spite of the barbar-
ities that find a place in it. This book also was illustrated by
Rops and others. In 1870 De Coster became professor of general
history and of French literature at the military school. His
works however were not financially profitable ; in spite of his
government employment he was always in difficulties; and he
died in much discouragement on the 7th of May 1879 at Ixelles,
Brussels. The expensive form in which Uylenspiegel was pro-
duced made it open only to a limited class of readers, and when
a new and cheap edition in modern French appeared in 1893 it
was received practically as a new book in France and Belgium.

DECOY, a contrivance for the capture or enticing of duck
and other wild fowl within range of a gun, hence any trap
or enticement into a place or situation of danger. Decoys are
usually made on the following plan: long tunnels leading from
the sea, channel or estuary into a pool or pond are covered
with an arched net, which gradually narrows in width; the
ducks are enticed into this by a tame trained bird, also known
as a " decoy " or " decoy-duck." In America the " decoy "
is an artificial bird, placed in the water as if it were feeding,
which attracts the wild fowl within range of the concealed
sportsman. The word " decoy " has, etymologically, a compli-
cated history. It appears in English first in the 17th century
in these senses as " coy " and " coy-duck," from the Dutch kooi,
a word which is ultimately connected with Latin cavea, hollow
place, " cage." 1 The de-, with which the word begins, is either
a corruption of " duck-coy," the Dutch article de, or a corrup-
tion of the Dutch eende-kooi, eende, duck. The New English
Dictionary points out that the word " decoy " is found in
the particular sense of a sharper or swindler as a slang term
slightly earlier than " coy " or " decoy " in the ordinary sense,
and, as the name of a game of cards, as early as 1550, apparently
with no connexion in meaning. It is suggested that " coy " may
have been adapted to this word.

DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere),
in earlier form Decreet, an authoritative decision having the force
of law; the judgment of a court of justice. In Roman law, a
decree (decretum) was the decision of the emperor, as the supreme
judicial officer, settling a case which had been referred to him.
In ecclesiastical law the term was given to a decision of an ecclesi-
astical council settling a doubtful point of doctrine or discipline
(cf. also Decretals). In English law decree was more particu-
larly the judgment of a court of equity, but since the Judicature
Acts the expression " judgment " (q.v.) is employed in reference
to the decisions of all the divisions of the supreme court. A
" decree nisi " is the conditional order for a dissolution of marriage
made by the divorce court, and it is made " absolute " after six
months (which period may, however, be shortened) in the absence
of sufficient cause shown to the contrary. (See Divorce.) Decreet
arbitral is a Scottish phrase for the award of an arbitrator.

DECRETALS (Epistolae decretales) , the name (see Decree
above) , which is given in Canon Law to those letters of the pope
which formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law; they are generally
given in answer to consultations, but are sometimes due to the
initiative of the popes. These furnish, with the canons of the
councils, the chief source of the legislation of the church, and form
the greater part of the Corpus Juris. In this connexion they are
dealt with in the article on Canon Law (q.v.).

The False Decretals. A special interest, however, attaches to
the celebrated collection known by this name. This collection,
indeed, comprises at least as many canons of councils as decretals,
and the decretals contained in it are not all forgeries. It is an
amplification and interpolation, by means of spurious decretals,
of the canonical collection in use in the Church of Spain in the 8th
century, all the documents in which are perfectly authentic.

1 Distinguish " coy," affectedly shy or modest, from O. Fr. coi,
Lat. quietus, quiet.

916

DEGRETALS, FALSE

With these amplifications, the collection dates from the middle
of the 9th century. We shall give a brief account of its contents,
its history and its influence on canon law.

The author assumes the name of Isidore, evidently the arch-
bishop of Seville, who was credited with a preponderating part
in the compilation of the Hispana; he takes in addition the
surname of Mercator, perhaps because he has made use of two
passages of Marius Mercator. Hence the custom of alluding to
the author of the collection under the name of the pseudo-
Isidore.

The collection itself is divided into three parts. The first,
which is entirely spurious, contains, after the preface and various
introductory sections, seventy letters attributed to the popes of
the first three centuries, up to the council of Nicaea, i.e. up to but
not including St Silvester; all these letters are a fabrication of
the pseudo-Isidore, except two spurious letters of Clement, which
were already known. The second part is the collection of
councils, classified according to their regions, as it figures in the
Hispana; the few spurious pieces which are added, and notably
the famous Donation of Constantine, were already in existence.
In the third part the author continues the series of decretals which
he had interrupted at the council of Nicaea. But as the collection
of authentic decretals does not begin till Siricius (385), the
pseudo-Isidore first forges thirty letters, which he attributes to
the popes from Silvester to Damasus; after this he includes
the authentic decretals, with the intermixture of thirty-five
apocryphal ones, generally given under the name of those popes
who were not represented in the authentic collection, but some-
times also under the names of the others, for example, Damasus,
St Leo, Vigilius and St Gregory; with one or two exceptions he
does not interpolate genuine decretals. The series stops at St
Gregory the Great (d. 604), except for one letter of Gregory II.
(715-731). The forged letters are not, for the most part, entirely
composed of fresh material; the author draws his inspiration
from the notices on each of the popes given in the Liber Pontific-
alis; he inserts whole passages from ecclesiastical writers; and
he antedates the evidences of a discipline which actually existed;
so it is by no means all invented.

Thus the authentic elements were calculated to serve as a
passport for the forgeries, which were, moreover, quite skilfully
composed. In fact, the collection thus blended was passed from
hand to hand without meeting with any opposition. At most all
that was asked was whether those decretals which did not appear
in the Liber canonum (the collection of Dionysius Exiguus,
accepted in France) had the force of law, but Pope Nicholas
having answered that all the pontifical letters had the same
authority (see Deer. Gra. Dist. xix. c. 1), they were henceforward
accepted, and passed in turn into the later canonical collections.
No doubts found an expression until the 15th century, when
Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (d. 1464) and Juan Torquemada
(d. 1468) freely expressed their suspicions. More than one
scholar of the 16th century, George Cassander, Erasmus, and the
two editors of the Decretum of Gratian, Dumoulin (d. 1568) and
Le Conte (d. 1577), decisively rejected the False Decretals.
This contention was again upheld, in the form of a violent polemic
against the papacy, by the Centuriators of Magdeburg (Ecclesia-
stica historia, Basel, 1 559-1 574) J the attempt at refutation by
the Jesuit Torres (Adversus Centur. Magdeburg, libri quinque,
Florence, 1572) provoked a violent rejoinder from the Protestant
minister David Blondel (Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus rapulantes,
Geneva, 1620). Since then, the conclusion has been accepted,
and all researches have been of an almost exclusively historical
character. One by one the details are being precisely determined,
and the question may now almost be said to be settled.

In the first place, an exact determination of the date of the
collection has been arrived at. On the one hand, it cannot go
back further than 847, the date of the False Capitularies,
with which the author of the ; False Decretals was
acquainted. 1 On the other hand, in a letter of Lupus, abbot of

1 The False Capitularies are for civil legislation what the False
Decretals are for ecclesiastical legislation : three books of Capitu-
laries of the Frankish kings, more of which are spurious than authen-

Date.

Ferrieires, written in 858, and in the syriodical letter of the council
of Quierzy in 857 are to be found quotations which are certainly
from these false decretals; and further, an undoubted allusion
in the statutes given by Hincmar to his diocese on the 1st of
November 852. The composition of the collection must then be
dated approximately at 850.

The object which the forger had in view is clearly stated in
his preface; the reform of the canon laW, : or rather its better
application. But, again, in what particular respects
he wishes it to be reformed can be best deduced from

Aim of the
author.

certain preponderant ideas which make themselves
felt in the apocryphal documents. He constantly harps upon
accusations brought against bishops and the way they were
judged; his wish is to prevent them from being unjustly accused,
deposed or deprived of their sees; to this end he multiplies the
safeguards of procedure, and secures the right of appeal to the
pope and the possibility of restoring bishops to their sees. His
object, too, was to protect the property, as well as the persons,
of the clergy against the encroachments of the temporal power.
In the second place, Isidore wishes to increase the strength and
cohesion of the churches; he tries to give absolute stability to
the diocese and the ecclesiastical province; he reinforces the
rights of the bishop and his comprovincials, while he initiates
a determined campaign against the chorepiscopi; finally, as the
keystone of the arch he places the papacy. These aims are most
laudable, and in no way subversive; but the author must have
had some particular reasons for emphasizing these questions
rather than others; and the examination of these reasons may
help us to determine the nationality of this collection.

The name of Isidore usurped by the author at first led to the
supposition that the False Decretals originated in Spain; this
opinion no longer meets with any support; it is enough n a ti on .
to point out that there is no Spanish manuscript of the ailty of
collection, at least until the 13th century. In the 16th ihe <*>**>
century the Protestants, who wished to represent the on '
forgeries in the light of an attempt in favour of the papacy,
ascribed the origin of the False Decretals to Rome, but neither
the manuscript tradition nor the facts confirm this view, which
is nowadays entirely abandoned. Everybody is agreed in placing
the origin of the False Decretals within the Frankish empire.
Within these limits, three different theories have successively
arisen: "At first it was thought that Isidore's domicile could be
fixed in the province of Mainz, it is now about fifty years ago that
the balance of opinion was turned in favour of the province of
Reims; and now, after the lapse of about twenty years, several
authors have suggested the province of Tours " (P. Fournier,
Etude sur les Fausses DScrStales) . In favour of Mainz, especial
stress was laid on the fact that it was the country of Benedictus
Levita, the compiler of the False Capitularies, to which the False
Decretals are closely related. But Benedict, the deacon of Otgar
of Mainz, is as much of a hypothetical personage as Isidorus
Mercator; moreover, in the middle of the 9th century the
condition of the province of Mainz was not disturbed, nor were
the chorepiscopi menaced. In favour of Reims, it has been
pointed out that it was there that the first judicial use of the
False Decretals is recorded, in the trials of Rothad, bishop of
Soissons (d. 869), and of Hincmar the younger, bishop of Laon
(d. c. 882); and an ppplication of the axiom has been attempted:
Is fecit cui prodest. But both these trials took place later than
852, at which date the existence of the collection is an established
fact; the texts of it were used, but they were in existence before.
Between 847 and 852, the province of Reims was disturbed by
another affair, that of the clergy ordained by Ebbo at the time
of his short restoration to the see of Reims, in 840-841; these
clerics, Vulfadus (afterwards archbishop of Bourges), and a few
others, had been suspended by Hincmar on his election in 845.
But the affair of Ebbo's clergy did not become critical till the
council of Soissons in 853 ; up till then these clergy had, so far

tic. The author gives himself out as a certain Benedict, a deacon
of the church of Mainz ; hence the name by which he is usually
known, Benedictus Levita. The two false collections are closely
akin, and are doubtless the fabrication of the same hands.

DEGURIQ— DED&AGATCH

917

as we know, produced no documents, and the citations from the
False Decretals made in their later writings do not prove that
they had forged them. Moreover, Hincmar would not have cited
the forged letters of the popes in 852 ; above all, this theory would
not explain the chief preoccupation of the forger, which is to
protect bishops against unjust judgments and depositions. We
must, then, look for conditions in which the bishops were con-
cerned. It is precisely this which has suggested the province of
Tours. Brittany, which was dependent on the province of Tours,
had just for a time recovered its independence, thanks to its
duke Nominoe. The struggle between the two nationalities, the
Celt and the Frank, found a reflexion in the sphere of religion.
The Breton bishops were for the most part abbots of monasteries,
who had but little consideration for the territorial limits of the
civitates; and many of the religious usages of the Bretons differed
profoundly from those of the Franks. Charlemagne had divided
up the Breton dioceses and established in them Frankish bishops.
Nominoe hastened to depose the four Frankish bishops, after
wringing from them by force confessions of simony; he then
established a metropolitan see at Dol. Hence arose incessant
complaints on the part of the dispossessed bishops, of the
metropolitan of Tours, and his suffragans, notably those of Angers
and Le Mans, which were more exposed than the others to the
incursions of the Bretons; and this gave rise to numerous papal
letters, and all this throughout a period of thirty years. There
were requests that the bishops should be judged according to
the rules, protests against the interlopers, demands for the re-
storation of the bishops to their sees. These circumstances
fall in perfectly with the questions about which, as we have
pointed out, the pseudo-Isidore was mainly concerned : the
judgment of bishops, and the stability of the ecclesiastical
organizations.

In the province of Tours, attempts have been made to define
more clearly the centre of the forgeries, and the most recent
authorities fix upon Le Mans. The sole argument, though a very
weighty one, is found in the undeniable relation, revealed in
an astonishing similarity both in expressions and composition,
which exists between these forgeries and some other documents
certainly fabricated at Le Mans, under the episcopate of Aldric
(832-856), notably the Actus Pontificum Cenomanis in urbe
degentium, in which there is no lack of forged documents. These
certainly bear the mark of the same hand.

Though we cannot admit that the False Decretals were com-
posed in order to enforce the rights of the papacy, we may at
least consider whether the popes did not make use of
influence. tne False Decretals to support their rights. It is
certain that in 864 Rothad of Soissons took with him
to Rome, if not the collection, at least important extracts
from the pseudo-Isidore; M. Fournier has pointed out in the
letters of the pope of that time, " a literary influence, which
is shown in the choice of expressions and metaphors," not-
ably in those passages relating to the restitutio spolii; but he
concludes by affirming that the ideas and acts of Nicholas
were not modified by the new collection: even before 864 he
acted in affairs concerning bishops, e.g. in the case of the
Breton bishops or the adversaries of Photius, patriarch of
Constantinople, exactly as he acted later; all that can be
said is that the False Decretals, though not expressly cited
by the pope, " led him to accentuate still further the arguments
which he drew from the decrees of his predecessors," notably
with regard to the exceptio- spolii. In the papal letters of the
end of the 9th and the whole of the 10th century, only two
or three insignificant citations of the pseudo-Isidore have been
pointed out; the use of the pseudo-Isidorian forged documents
did not become prevalent at Rome till about the middle of the
nth century, in consequence of the circulation of the canonical
collections in which they figured; but nobody then thought of
casting any doubts on the authenticity of those documents.
One thing only is established, and this may be said to have been
the real effect of the False Decretals, namely, the powerful
impulse which they gave in the Frankish territories to the move-
ment towards centralization round the see of Rome, and the legal

obstacles which they opposed to unjust proceedings against the
bishops. • . ;

Bibliography. — The best edition is that of P. Hinschius,
Decretales pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni (Leipzig, 1863).
In it the authentic texts are printed in two columns, the forgeries
across the whole width of the page; an important preface of
ccxxviii. pages contains, besides the classification of the MSS., a
profound study of the sources and other questions bearing on the
collection. After the works cited above, the following dissertations
should be noted. Placing the origin of the False Decretals at Rome
is: A. Theiner, De pseudo-Isidoriana canonum collectione (Breslau,
1827); at Mainz, the brothers Ballerini, De antiquis collectionibus et
collectoribus canonum, iii. (S. Leonis opera, t. iii.; Migne, Patro-
logia Lat. t. 56) ; Blascus, De coll. canonum Isidori Mercatoris
(Naples, 1760); Wasserschleben, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der falschen
Dekretalen (Breslau, 1844); in the province of Reims: Weizsacker,
" Die pseudoisidorianische Frage," in the Histor. Zeitschrift of Sybel
(i860) ; Hinschius, Preface, p. ccviii. ; A. Tardif, Histoire des sources
du droit canonique (Paris, 1887); Schneider, Die Lehre der Kirchen-
rechtsquellen (Regensburg, 1892). An excellent resume of the
question; seems more favourable to Le Mans in the article of the
Kirchenlexicon of Wetzer and Vvelte (2nd ed.) ; F. Lot, Htudes sur le
regne de Hugues Capet (Paris, 1903) ; Lesne, La Hierarchie episcopate
en Gaule et Gennanie (Paris, 1905) ; for the province of Tours and
Le Mans: B. Simson, Die Entstehung der pseudoisidor. Fatschungen
in Le Mans (Leipzig, 1886. It is he who pointed out the con-
nexion with the forgeries of Le Mans) ; especially Paul Fournier,
" La Question des fausses decretales," in the Nowoelle Revue histo-
rique de droit francais et etranger (1887, 1888) ; in the Congres internat.
des savants cathol. t. ii. ; "Etude sur les fausses decretales," in
Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique de Louvain (1906, 1907), to which the
above article is greatly indebted. (A. Bo. *)

DECURIO, a Roman official title, used in three connexions.
(1) A member of the senatorial order in the Italian towns under
the administration of Rome, and later in provincial towns
organized on the Italian model (see Curia 4). The number of
decuriones varied in different towns, but was usually 100. The
qualifications for the office were fixed in each town by a special law
for that community (lex municipalis) . Cicero (in Verr. 2 . 49, 1 20)
alludes to an age limit (originally thirty years, until lowered
by Augustus to twenty-five), to a property qualification (cf . Pliny,
Ep. i. 19. 2), and to certain conditions of rank. The method of
appointment varied in different towns and at different periods.
In the early municipal constitution ex-magistrates passed auto-
matically into the senate of their town; but at a later date this
order was reversed, and membership of the senate became a
qualification for the magistracy. Cicero (I.e.) speaks of the senate
in the Sicilian towns as appointed by a vote of the township.
But in most towns it was the duty of the chief magistrate to
draw up a list (album) of the senators every five years. The
decuriones held office for life. They were convened by the
magistrate, who presided as in the Roman senate. Their powers
were extensive. In all matters the magistrates were obliged
to act according to their direction, and in some towns they heard
cases of appeal against judicial sentences passed by the
magistrate. By the time of the municipal law of Julius Caesar
(45 B.C.) special privileges were conferred on the decuriones,
including the right to appeal to Rome for trial in criminal cases.
Under the principate their status underwent a marked decline.
The office was no longer coveted, and documents of the 3rd and
4th centuries show that means were devised to compel members
of the towns to undertake it. By the time of the jurists it had
become hereditary and compulsory. This change was largely
due to the heavy financial burdens which the Roman govern-
ment laid on the municipal senates. (2) The president of a
decuria, a subdivision of the curia (q.v.). (3) An officer in the
Roman cavalry, commanding a troop of ten men (decuria).

Bibliography. — C. G Bruns, Pontes juris Romani, c. 3, No. 18,
c. 4, Nos. 27, 29, 30 (leges m"' licipales); J.C. Orelli, Inscr. Latinae,
No. 3721 (Album of Canusium); Godefroy, Paratitl. ad cod. Theo-
dosianam, xii. 1 (vol. iv. pp. 352 et seq., ed. Ritter) ; J. Marquardt,
Romische Staatsverwaltung, i. pp. 183 et seq. (Leipzig, 1881);
P. Willems, Droit public romain, pp. 535 et seq. (Paris, 1884) ; Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, IV. ii. pp. 2319 foil. (Stuttgart, 1901);
W. Liebenam, Stadteverwaltung im romischen Kaiserreiche (Leipzig,
1900). (A. M. Cl.)

D^D^AGATCH, a seaport of European Turkey, in the vilayet
of Adrianople, 10 m. N.W. of the Maritza estuary, on the Gulf of
Enos, an inlet of the Aegean Sea. Pop, (1905) about 3006,

9i8

DEDHAM— DEDICATION

mostly Greeks. Until 1871 D6d6agatch was a mere cluster of
fishermen's huts. A new town then began to spring up, settlers
being attracted by the prospect of opening up a trade in the
products of a vast forest of valonia oaks which grew near. In
1873 it was made the chief town of a Kaza, to which it gave its
name, and a Kaimakam was appointed to it. In 1884 it was
raised in administrative rank from a Kaza to a Sanjak, and the
governor became a Mutessarif. In 1889 the Greek archbishopric
of Enos was transferred to Dedeagatch. On the opening, early in
1896, of the Constantinople-Salonica railway, which has a station
here, a large proportion of the extensive transit trade which
Enos, situated at the mouth of the Maritza, had acquired, was
immediately diverted to Dedeagatch, and an era of unpre-
cedented prosperity began; but when the railway connecting
Burgas on the Black Sea with the interior was opened, in 1898,
Dedeagatch lost all it had won from Enos. Owing to the lack of
shelter in its open roadstead, the port has not become the great
commercial centre which its position otherwise qualifies it to be.
It is, however, one of the chief outlets for the grain trade of the
Adrianople, Demotica and Xanthi districts. The valonia trade
has also steadily developed, and is supplemented by the export
of timber, tobacco and almonds. In 1871, while digging out
the foundations of their houses, the settlers found many ancient
tombs. Probably these are relics, not of the necropolis of the
ancient Zone, but of a monastic community of Dervishes, of
the Dede sect, which was established here in the 15th century,
shortly after the Turkish conquest, and gave to the place its
name.

DEDHAM, a township and the county seat of Norfolk county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., with an area of 23 sq. m. of comparatively
level country. Pop. (1890) 7123; (1900) 7457, of whom 2186 were
foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 9284. The township is
traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and
by interurban electric lines. It contains three villages, Dedham,
East Dedham and Oakdale. Dedham has a public library
(1854; incorporated 1871). The Dedham historical society was
organized in 1859 and was incorporated in 1862. The Fairbanks
house was erected in part as early as 1654. Carpets, handker-
chiefs and woollen goods are manufactured, and a pottery here
is reputed to make the only true crackleware outside the East.
Dedham was " planted " in 1635 and was incorporated in 1636.
It was one of the first two inland settlements of the colony, being
coeval with Concord. The original plantation, about 20 m. long
and 10 m. wide, extended from Roxbury and Dorchester to the
present state line of Rhode Island: from this territory several
townships were created, including Westwood (pop. in 1910, 1266),
in 1897. A free public school, one of the first in America to be
supported by direct taxation, was established in Dedham in
1645. In the Woodward tavern, the birthplace of Fisher Ames,
a convention met in September 1774 and adjourned to Milton
(q.v.), where it passed the Suffolk Resolves.

DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicate, to proclaim, to
announce), properly the setting apart of anything by solemn
proclamation. It is thus in Latin the term particularly applied
to the consecration of altars, temples and other sacred buildings,
and also to the inscription prefixed to a book, &c, and addressed
to some particular person. This latter practice, which formerly
had the purpose of gaining the patronage and support of the
person so addressed, is now only a mark of affection or regard.
In law, the word is used of the setting apart by a private owner
of a road to public use. (See Highway.)

The Fcasl of Dedication (n^un; to, iynaivia) was a Jewish
festival observed for eight days from the 25th of Kislev
(i.e. about December 12) in commemoration of the reconse-
cration (165 B.C.) of the temple and especially of the altar of
burnt offering, after they had been desecrated in the persecution
under Antiochus Epiphanes (168 B.C.). The distinguishing
features of the festival were the illumination of houses and
synagogues, a custom probably taken over from the feast of
tabernacles, and the recitation of Psalm xxx. The biblical
references are 1 Mace. i. 41-64, iv. 36-39; 2 Mace. vi. i-n;
John x. 22. See also 2 Mace. i. 9, 18; ii. 16; and Josephus,

Antiq. xii. v. 4. J. Wellhausen suggests that the feast was
originally connected with the winter solstice, and only afterwards
with the events narrated in Maccabees.

Dedication of Churches. — The custom of solemnly dedicating
or consecrating buildings as churches or chapels set apart for
Christian worship must be almost as old as Christianity itself.
If we find no reference to it in the New Testament or in the very
earliest apostolic or post-apostolic writings, it is merely due to the
fact that Christian churches had not as yet begun to be built.
Throughout the ante-Nicene period, until the reign of Constantine,
Christian churches were few in number, and any public dedication
of them would have been attended with danger in those days of
heathen persecution. This is why we are ignorant as to what
liturgical forms and what consecration ritual were employed in
those primitive times. But when we come to the earlier part of
the 4th century allusions to and descriptions of the consecration
of churches become plentiful.

Like so much else in the worship and ritual of the Christian
church this service is probably of Jewish origin. The hallowing
of the tabernacle and of its furniture and ornaments (Exodus
xl.); the dedication of Solomon's temple (1 Kings viii.) and of
the second temple by Zerubbabel (Ezra vi.), and its rededication
by Judas Maccabaeus (see above), and the dedication of the
temple of Herod the Great (Josephus, Antiq. of the Jews, bk.
xv. c. xi. § 6), and our Lord's recognition of the Feast of Dedi-
cation' (St John xi. 22, 23) — all these point to the probability
of the Christians deriving their custom from a Jewish origin,
quite apart from the intrinsic appropriateness of such a custom
in itself.

Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. lib. x. cap. 3) speaks of the dedication
of churches rebuilt after the Diocletian persecution, including the
church at Tyre in a.d. 314. The consecrations of the church of
the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem in a.d. 335, which had been
built by Constantine, and of other churches after his time, are
described both by Eusebius and by other ecclesiastical historians.
From them we gather that every consecration was accompanied
by a celebration of the Holy Eucharist and a sermon, and special
prayers of a dedicatory character, but there is no trace of the
elaborate ritual, to be described presently, of the medieval
pontificals dating from the 8th century onwards.

The separate consecration of altars is provided for by canon 14
of the council of Agde in 506, and by canon 26 of the council of
Epaone in 517, the latter containing the first known reference to
the usage of anointing the altar with chrism. The use of both
holy water and of unction is attributed to St Columbanus, who
died in 615 (Walafsid Strabo, Vita S. Galli, cap. 6).

There was an annual commemoration of the original dedi-
cation of the church, a feast with its octave extending over eight
days, during which Gregory the Great encouraged the erection
of booths and general feasting on the part of the populace,
to compensate them for, and in some way to take the place of,
abolished heathen festivities (Sozomen, Hist. Eccles. lib. ii.
cap. 26; Bede, Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap, 30).

At an early date the right to consecrate churches was reserved
to bishops, as by canon 37 of the first council of Bracara in 563,
and by the 23rd of the Irish collections of canons, once attributed
to St Patrick, but hardly to be put earlier than the 8th century
(Haddon and Stubbs, Councils, 6Vc, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 329).

When we come to examine the MS. and printed service-books
of the medieval church, we find a lengthy and elaborate service
provided for the consecration of churches. It is contained in the
pontifical. The earliest pontifical which has come down to us is
that of Egbert, archbishop of York (732-766), which, however,
only survives in a 10th-century MS. copy. Later pontificals are
numerous; we cannot describe all their variations. A good idea,
however, of the general character of the service will be obtained
from a skeleton of it as performed in this country before the
Reformation according to the use of Sarum. The service in
question is taken from an early 15th-century pontifical in the
Cambridge University Library as printed by W. Makell in
Monumenta ritualia ecclesiae Anglicanae, and ed., vol. i. pp.
195-239-

DEDICATION

919

There is a preliminary office for laying a foundation-stone.
On the day of consecration the bishop is to vest in a tent outside
the church, thence to proceed to the door of the church on the
outside, a single deacon being inside the church, and there to bless
holy water, twelve lighted candles being placed outside, and
twelve inside the church. He is then to sprinkle the walls all
round outside, and to knock at the door ; then to sprinkle the
walls all round outside a second time and to knock at the door
again ; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a third time,
and a third time to knock at the door, by which he will then enter,
all laity being excluded. The bishop is then to fix a cross in the
centre of the church, after which the litany is said, including a
special clause for the consecration of the church and altar.
Next the bishop inscribes the alphabet in Greek letters on one of
the limbs of St Andrew's cross from the left east corner to the
right west corner on the pavement cindered for the purpose, and
the alphabet in Latin on the other limb from the right east corner
to the left west corner. Then he is to genuflect before the altar
or cross. Then he blesses water, mingled with salt, ashes and
wine, and sprinkles therewith all the walls of the church inside
thrice, beginning at the altar; then he sprinkles the centre of the
church longwise and crosswise on the pavement, and then goes
round the outside of the church sprinkling it thrice. Next re-
entering the church and taking up a central position he sprinkles
holy water to the four points of the compass, and toward the roof.
Next he anoints with chrism the twelve internal and twelve
external wall-crosses, afterwards perambulating the church
thrice inside and outside, censing it.

Then there follows the consecration of the altar. First, holy
water is blessed and mixed with chrism, and with the mixture
the bishop makes a cross in the middle of the altar, then on the
right and the left, then on the four horns of the altar. Then the
altar is sprinkled seven times or three times with water not mixed
with chrism, and the altar-table is washed therewith and censed
and wiped with a linen cloth. The centre of the altar is next
anointed with the oil of the catechumens in the form of a cross;
and the altar-stone is next anointed with chrism; and then the
whole altar is rubbed over with oil of the catechumens and with
chrism. Incense is next blessed, and the altar censed, five grains
of incense being placed crosswise in the centre and at the four
corners, and upon the grains five slender candle crosses, which are
to be lit. Afterwards the altar is scraped and cleansed ; then the
altar-cloths and ornaments having been sprinkled with holy water
are placed upon the altar, which is then to be censed.

All this is subsidiary to the celebration of mass, with which
the whole service is concluded. The transcription and descrip-
tion of the various collects, psalms, anthems, benedictions, &c,
which make up the order of dedication have been omitted for
the sake of brevity.

The Sarum order of dedication described above is substantially
identical with the Roman order, but it would be superfluous to
tabulate and describe the lesser variations of language or ritual.
There is, however, one very important and significant piece of
ritual, not found in the above-described English church order,
but always found in the Roman service, and not infrequently
found in the earlier and later English uses, in connexion with
the presence and use of relics at the consecration of an altar.
According to the Roman ritual, after the priest has sprinkled
the walls of the church inside thrice all round and then sprinkled
the pavement from the altar to the porch, and sideways from wall
to wall, and then to the four quarters of the compass, he prepares
some cement at the altar. He then goes to the place where the
relics are kept, and starts a solemn procession with the relics
round the outside of the church. There a sermon is preached,
and two decrees of the council of Trent are read, and the founder's
deed of gift or endowment. Then the bishop, anointing the door
with chrism, enters the church with the relics and deposits them
in the cavity or confession in the altar. Having been enclosed
they are censed and covered in, and the cover is anointed. Then
follows the censing and wiping of. the altar as in the Sarum
order.

This use of relics is very ancient and can be traced back to the

time of St Ambrose. There was also a custom, now obsolete, of
enclosing a portion of the consecrated Eucharist if relics were not
obtainable. This was ordered by cap. 2 of the council of Celchyth
(Chelsea) in 816. But though ancient the custom of enclosing
relics was not universal, and where found in English church
orders, as it frequently is found from the pontifical of Egbert
onwards, it is called the " Mos Romanus " as distinguished from
the "Mos Anglicanus " {Archaeologia, liv. 416). It is absent
from the description of the early Irish form of consecration
preserved in the Leabkar Breac, translated and annotated by
Rev. T. Olden in the Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesiolog.
Soc. vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 98.

The curious ritual act, technically known as the abecedarium,
i.e. the tracing of the alphabet, sometimes in Latin characters,
sometimes in Latin and Greek, sometimes, according to Menard,
in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, along the limbs of St Andrew's
cross on the floor of the church, can be traced back to the 8th
century and may be earlier. Its origin and meaning are unknown.
Of all explanations we like best the recent one suggested by Rossi
and adopted by the bishop of Salisbury. This interprets the St
Andrew's cross as the initial Greek letter of Christus, and the
whole act as significant of taking possession of the site to be
consecrated in the name of Christ, who is the Alpha and Omega,
the word of God, combining in himself all letters that lie between
them, every element of human speech. The three languages
may then have been suggested by the Latin, Greek and Hebrew,
in which his title was written on the cross.

The disentangling the Gallican from the Roman elements in
the early Western forms of service is a delicate and difficult task,
undertaken by Monsignor Louis Duchesne, who shows how the
former partook of a funerary and the latter of a baptismal
character (Christian Worship (London, 1904), cap. xii.).

The dedication service of the Greek Church is likewise long and
elaborate. Relics are to be prepared and guarded on the day
previous in some neighbouring sacred building. On the morning
following, all ornaments and requisites having been got ready, the
laity being excluded, the bishop and clergy vested proceed to fix
in its place and consecrate the altar, a long prayer of dedication
being said, followed by a litany. The altar is then sprinkled
with warm water, then with wine, then anointed with chrism in
the form of a cross. The altar, the book of the gospels, and all
cloths are then censed, every pillar is crossed with chrism, while
various collects are said and psalms recited. One lamp is then
filled with oil and lit, and placed on the altar, while clergy bring
in other lamps and other ornaments of the church. On the next
day — if the service cannot be concluded in one day — the bishop
and clergy go to the building where the relics have been kept and
guarded. A procession is formed and advances thence with the
relics, which are borne by a priest in a holy vessel (discus) on his
head; the church having been entered, the relics are placed by
him with much ceremonial in the " confession," the recess pre-
pared in or about the altar for their reception, which is then
anointed and sealed up. After this the liturgy is celebrated both
on the feast of dedication and on seven days afterwards.

There is no authorized form for the dedication of a church in
the reformed Church of England. A form was drawn up and
approved by both houses of the convocation of Canterbury under
Archbishop Tenison in 171 2, and an almost identical form was
submitted to convocation in 17 15, but its consideration was not
completed by the Lower House, and neither form ever received
royal sanction. The consequence has been that Anglican bishops
have fallen back on their undefined jus liturgicum, and have
drawn up and promulgated forms for use in their various dioceses,
some of them being content to borrow from other dioceses for this
purpose. There is a general similarity, with a certain amount of
difference in detail, in these various forms. In the diocese of
London the bishop, attended by clergy and churchwardens,
receives at the west door, outside, a petition for consecration;
the procession then moves round the whole church outside, while
certain psalms are chanted. On again reaching the west door
the bishop knocks thrice for admission, and the door being
opened the procession advances to the east end of the church.

920

He there lays the keys on the table " which is to be hallowed."
The Veni Creator is then sung kneeling, followed by the litany
with special suffrages. The bishop then proceeds to various
parts of the church and blesses the font, the chancel, with special
references to confirmation and holy matrimony, the lectern,
the pulpit, the clergy stalls, the choir seats, the holy table. The
deed of consecration is then read and signed, and the celebration
of Holy Communion follows with special collects, epistle and
gospel.

The Church of Ireland and the episcopal Church of, Scotland
are likewise without any completely authorized form of dedi.-
cation, and their archbishops or bishops have at various times
issued forms of service on their own authority. (F. E. W.)

DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS, a chapter of the statute of
Westminster the Second (1285) which originated the law of
entail. Strictly speaking, a form of entail was known before
the Norman feudal law had been domesticated in England. The
common form was a grant " to the feoffee and the heirs of his
body," by which limitation it was sought to prevent alienation
from the lineage of the first purchaser. These grants were also
known as fetida conditionata, because if the donee had no heirs
of his body the estate reverted to the donor. This right of
reversion was evaded by the interpretation that such a gift was
a conditional fee, which enabled the donee, if he had an heir of
the body born alive, to alienate the land, and consequently
disinherit the issue and defeat the right of the donor. To remedy
this the statute De Donis Conditionalibus was passed, which
enacted that, in grants to a man and the heirs of his body, the
will of the donor according to the form in the deed of gift mani-
festly expressed, should be from thenceforth observed; so that
they to whom the land was given under such condition, should
have no power to alienate the land so given, but that it should
remain unto the issue of those to whom it was given after their
death, or unto the giver or his heirs, if issue fail. Since the
passing of the statute an estate given to a man and the heirs of
his body has been known as an estate tail, or an estate in fee tail
(feudum talliatum), the word tail being derived from the French
tailler, to cut, the inheritance being by the statute cut down and
confined to the heirs of the body. The operation of the statute
soon produced innumerable evils : " children, it is said, grew
disobedient when they knew they could not be set aside ; farmers
were deprived of their leases; creditors were defrauded of their
debts; innumerable latent entails were produced to deprive
purchasers of the land they had fairly bought; treasons also were
encouraged, as estates tail were not liable to forfeiture longer
than for the tenant's life " (Williams, Real Property). Accord-
ingly, the power of alienation was reintroduced by the judges in
Taltarum's case (Year Book, 12 Edward IV., 1472) by means of
a fictitious suit or recovery which had originally been devised
by the regular clergy for evading the statutes of mortmain. This
was abolished by an act passed in 1833. (See Fine.)

DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out
of, derive), a term used in common parlance for the process
of taking away from, or subtracting (as in mathematics), and
specially for the argumentative process of arriving at a con-
clusion from evidence, i.e. for any kind of inference. 1 In this
sense it includes both arguments from particular facts and those
from general laws to particular cases. In logic it is generally '<
used in contradiction to " induction " for a kind of mediate
inference, in which a conclusion (often itself called the deduction)
is regarded as. folio wing necessarily under certain fixed . laws
from premises. This, the most common, form of deduction is
the syllogism (q.v. ; see also Logic), which consists in taking a
general principle and deriving from it facts which are necessarily ;
involved in it. This use of deduction is of comparatively modern
origin; it was originally used as the equivalent of Aristotle's
kwayuiyi] (see Prior Analytics, B xxv.). The modern use of
deduction is practically identical with the Aristotelian
<n>XXoyutyi6s.

'Two forms of the verb are used,- " deduce " and "deduct";
originally synonymous, they are now distinguished, " deduce "being
confined to arguments, " deduct " to quantities.

DE DONIS^DEE, J.

DEE, JOHN (1527-1608), English mathematician and
astrologer,, was born on the i3thsof July 1527, in London, where
his father was, according to Wood, a wealthy vintner. In 1542
he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge. After five years
Spent in mathematical and astronomical studies, he went to
Holland, in order to visit several eminent continental mathe-
maticians. Having remained abroad nearly a year, he returned
to Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of Trinity College, then
first erected by King Henry VIII. In 1548 he took the degree
of master of arts; but in the same year he found it necessary
to leave England on account of the suspicions entertained of
his being a conjurer; these were first excited by a piece of
machinery, which, in the Pax of Aristophanes, he exhibited to the
university, representing the scarabaeus flying up to Jupiter, with
a man and a basket of victuals on its back. He went first to the
university of Lduvain, where he resided about two years, and then
to the college of Rfoeims ; where he had extraordinary success in
his public lectures on Euclid's Elements. On his return to England
in 155 j King Edward assigned him a pension of ioo crowns,
which he afterwards exchanged for the rectory of Upton-upon-
Severn, Worcestershire. Soon after the accession of Mary he was
accused of using enchantments against the queen's life; but
after a tedious .confinement he obtained his liberty in 1555,
by an order of council.

When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dee was asked by Lord
Dudley to name a propitious day for the coronation. On this
occasion he was introduced to the queen, who took lessons in
the mystical interpretation of his writings, and made him great
promises, which, however, were never fulfilled. In 1564 he again
visited the continent, in order to present his Monas hieroglyphica
to the emperor Maximilian, to whom, he had dedicated it. He
returned to England in the same year ; but in 157 1 he was in
Lorraine, whither two physicians, were sent by the queen to his
relief in a dangerous illness. Returning to his home at Mortlake,
in Surrey, he continued his studies, and made a collection of
curious books and manuscripts, and a variety of instruments.
In 1578 Dee was sent abroad to consult with German physicians
Eind astrologers. in regard to the illness of the queen. On his
return to England, he was employed in investigating the title of
the crown to the countries recently discovered by British subjects,
and in furnishing geographical descriptions. Two large rolls
containing the desired information, which he presented to the
queen, are still preserved in the Cottonian Library. A learned
treatise on the reformation of the calendar, written by him about
the same time, is also preserved in the Ashmolean Library at
Oxford.

From this period the philosophical researches of Dee were
concerned entirely with necromancy. In 1581 he became
acquainted with Edward Kelly, an apothecary, who had been
convicted of forgery and had lost both ears in the pillory at
Lancaster. He professed to have discovered the philosopher's
stone, and by his assistance Dee performed various incantations,
and /maintained a frequent imaginary intercourse with spirits.
Shortly 1 afterwards Kelly, and Dee were introduced by the earl
of Leicester to a Polish nobleman, Albert Laski, palatine of Siradz>
devoted to the same pursuits, who persuaded them to accompany
him to his native country. They embarked for Holland in
September 1583, and arrived at Laski's residence in February
following. Upon Dee's departure the mob, believing him a
wizard, broke into his house, and destroyed a quantity of
furniture and books and his chemical apparatus. Dee and
Kelly lived for some years in Poland and Bohemia in alternate
wealth and poverty, according to the credulity or scepticism of
those before :whom they exhibited, , They professed to raise
spirits by incantation; and Kelly dictated the utterances to Dee,
who wrote them down and interpreted, them.

Dee at length quarrelled with hjs companion, and returned to
England in 1589. He was helped over his financial difficulties by
the queen and his friends. In May of 1595 he became warden of
Manchester College. In November 1604 he returned to Mortlake,
where he died in December 1608, at the age of eighty-one, in
the greatest poverty. Aubrey describes him as " of a very fair,

DEE^DEEMS

921

clear sanguine complexion, with a long beard as white as milk —
a very handsome man— tall and slender. He wore a goune like
an artist's- goune with hanging sleeves." Dee's Speculum or
mirror, a piece of solid pink-tinted glass about the size of an
orange, is preserved in the British Museum.

His principal works are — Propaedeumata aphoristica (London,
1558); Monas hieroglyphica (Antwerp, 1564); Epistola ad Frederi-
cum Commandinum (Pesaro, 1570) ; Preface Mathematical to the
English Euclid (1570); Divers Annotations and Inventions' added
after the tenth book of English Euclid (1570); Epistola praefixa
Ephemeridibus Joannis Feldi, a. 1557; Parallaticae commentationis
praxeosque nucleus quidam (London, 1573). The catalogue of his
printed and published works is to be found in his Compendious
Rehearsal, as well as in his letter to Archbishop Whitgift. A manu-
script of Dee's, relating what passed for many years between him
and some spirits, was edited by Meric Casaubon and published in
1659. The Private Diary of Dr John Dee, and the Catalogue of his
Library of Manuscripts, edited by J. O. Halliwell, was published
by the Camden Society in 1842. There is a life of Dee in Thomas
Smith's Vitae illustrium virorum. (1707) ; English translation by W.
A. Ayton, the Life of John Dee (1909).

DEE (Welsh, Dyfrdwy; Lat., and in Milton, Deva), a river of
Wales and England. It rises in Bala Lake, Merionethshire, which
is fed by a number of small streams. Leaving the lake near the
town of Bala it follows a north-easterly course to Corwen, turns
thence E. by S. past Llangollen to a point near Overton, and then
bends nearly north to Chester, and thereafter north-west through
a great estuary opening into the Irish Sea. In the Llangollen
district the Dee crosses Denbighshire, and thereafter forms the
boundary of that county with Shropshire, a detached part of
Flint, and Cheshire. From Bala nearly down to Overton, a
distance of 35 m., during which the river falls about 330 ft., its
course lies through a narrow and beautiful valley, enclosed on the
south by the steep lower slopes of the Berwyn Mountains and on
the north by a succession of lesser ranges. The portion known
as the Vale of Llangollen is especially famous. Here an aqueduct
carrying the Pontcysyllte branch of the Shropshire Union canal
bestrides the valley; it is a remarkable engineering work
completed by Thomas Telford in 1805. The Dee has a total
length of about 70 m. and a fall of 530 ft. Below Overton it
debouches upon its plain track. Below Chester it follows a
straight artificial channel to the estuary, and this is the only
navigable portion. ' The estuary, which is 14 m. long, and si in-
wide at its mouth, between Hilbre Point on the English and
Point of Air on the Welsh side, is not a commercial highway like
the neighbouring mouth of the Mersey, for though in appearance
a fine natural harbour at high tide, it becomes at low tide a vast
expanse of sand, through which the river meanders in a narrow
channel. The navigation, however, is capable of improvement,
and schemes have been set on foot to this end. The tide rushes
in with great speed over the sands, and their danger is illustrated
in the well-known ballad " The Sands of Dee " by Charles
Kingsley. The Dee drains an area of 813 sq. m.

DEE, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, pursuing
a generally easterly direction from its source in the extreme west
of the county till it reaches the North Sea at the city of Aberdeen.
It rises in the Wells of Dee, a spring on Ben Braeriach, one of the
Cairngorms, at a height of 4061 ft. above the sea. It descends
rapidly from this altitude, and by the time that it receives the
Geusachan, on its right bank, about 6 m. from its source, it has
fallen 2421 ft. From the mountains flanking its upper reaches
it is fed by numerous burns named and unnamed. With its
tributaries the river drains an area of 1000 sq. m. Rapid and
turbulent during the first half of its course of 90 m., it broadens
appreciably below Aboyne and the rate of flow is diminished.
The channel towards its mouth was artificially altered in order
to provide increased dock accommodation at Aberdeen, but,
above, the stream is navigable for only barges and small craft
for a few miles. It runs through scenery of transcendent beauty,
especially in Braemar. About two miles above Inverey it enters
a narrow rocky gorge, 300 yds. long and only a few feet wide at
one part, and forms the rapids and cascades of the famous Linn
of Dee. One of the finest of Scottish salmon streams, it retains
its purity almost to the very end of its run. The principal

places on the Dee, apart from private residences, are Castleton
of Braemar, Ballater, Aboyne, Kincardine O'Neil, Banchory,
Culter and Cults.

DEED (in 0. Eng. dedd, from the stem of the verb " to do"),
that which is done, an act, doing; particularly, in law, a contract
in writing, sealed and delivered by the party bound to the party
intended' to benefit. Contracts or obligations under seal are called
in English law specialties, and down to 1869 they took precedence
in payment over simple contracts, whether written or not.
Writing, sealing and delivery are all essential to a deed. The
signature of the party charged is not material, and the deed is
not void for want of a date. Delivery, it is held, may be complete
without the actual handing over of the deed; it is sufficient if the
act of sealing were accompanied by words or acts signifying that
the deed was intended to be presently binding; and delivery to
a thirdperson for the use of the party benefited will be sufficient.
On the other hand, the deed may be handed over to a third person
as an escrow, 1 in which case it will not take effect as a deed until
certain , conditions are performed. Such conditional delivery
may be inferred from the circumstances attending the transac-
tion, although the conditions be not expressed in words. A deed
indented, or indenture (so called because written in counterparts
on the same sheet of parchment, separated by cutting a wavy
line between them so as to be identified by fitting the parts
together), is between two or more parties who contract mutually.
The actual indentation is not now necessary to an indenture.
The deed-poll (with a polled or smooth-cut edge, not indented)
is a deed in which one party binds himself without reference
to any corresponding obligations undertaken by another party.
See Contract. . . .

DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE (1820-1893),
American clergyman, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the
4th of December 1820. He was a precocious child and delivered
lectures on temperance and on Sunday schools before he was
fpurteert years old. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1839,
taught and preached in New York city for a few months, in 1840
took charge of the Methodist Episcopal church at Asbury, New
Jersey, and removed in the next year to North Carolina, where
he was general agent for the American Bible Society. He was
professor of logic and rhetoric at the University of North Carolina
in 1842-1847, and professor of natural sciences at Randolph-
Macon College (then at Boydton, Virginia) in 184 7-1848, and
after two years of preaching at Newbern, N. C, he held for
four years (1850-1854) the presidency of Greensboro (N.C.)
Female College. He continued as a Methodist Episcopal clergy-
man at various pastorates in North Carolina from 1854 to 1865,
for the last seven years being a presiding elder and in 1859 to 1863
being the proprietor of St Austin's Institute, Wilson. In 1865
he settled in New York City, where in 1866 he began preaching in
the chapel of New York University, and in 1868 he established
and became the pastor of the undenominational Church of the
Strangers, which in 1870 occupied the former Mercer Street
Presbyterian church, purchased and given to Dr Deems by
Cornelius Vanderbilt; there he remained until his death in
New York city on the 18th of November 1893. He was one of
the founders (1881) and president of the American Institute of
Christian Philosophy and for ten years was editor of its organ,
Christian Thought. Dr Deems was an earnest temperance advo-
cate, as early as 1852 worked (unsuccessfully) for a general prohi-
bition law in North Carolina, and in his later years allied himself
with the Prohibition party. He was influential in securing frorh
Cornelius' Vanderbilt the endowment of Vanderbilt University,
in Nashville, Tennessee. He was a man of rare personal and
literary charm; he edited The Southern Methodist Episcopal
Pulpit (1846-1852) and The Annals of Southern Methodism
(1855- 1.857); he compiled Devotional Melodies (1842), and, with
the assistance of Phoebe Cary, one of his parishioners, Hymns
for all Christians (1869; revised, 1881); and he published many
books, among which were: The Life of Dr Adam Clarke (1840);

1 An Anglo-French law term meaning a " scroll " or strip of parch-
ment, cognate with the English "shred." The modern French
Scroue is used for the entry of a name on a prison register.

922

DEER

The Triumph of Peace and other Poems (1840); The Home Altar
(1850); Jesus (1872), which ran through many editions and
several revisions, the title being changed in 1880 to The Light
of the Nations; Sermons (1885); The Gospel of Common Sense
(1888); The Gospel of Spiritual Insight (1891) and My Septuagint
(1892). The Charles F. Deems Lectureship in Philosophy was
founded in his honour in 1895 at New York University by the
American Institute of Christian Philosophy.

His Autobiography (New York, 1897) ' s autobiographical only to
1847, the memoir being completed by his two sons.

DEER (O. E. dior, dlor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a
wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c, probably from a root
dhus-, to breathe), originally the name of one of two British
species, the red-deer or the fallow-deer, but now extended to all
the members of the family Cervidae, in the section Pecora of the
suborder Artiodactyla of the order Ungulata. (See Pecora;
Artiodactyla and Ungulata.) Briefly, deer may be defined as
Pecora presenting the following characteristics: — either antlers
present in the male, or when these are absent, the upper canines
large and sabre-like, and the lateral metacarpal bones represented
only by their lower extremities. This definition will include the
living and also most of the extinct forms, although in some of
the latter the lateral metacarpal bones not only retain their lower
ends, but are complete in their entire length.

The leading characters of antlers are described under Pecora,
but these structures may be defined somewhat more fully in the
following passage from the present writer's Deer of all Lands: —

" Antlers are supported on a pair of solid bony processes, or
pedicles, arising from the frontal bones of the skull, of which they
form an inseparable portion ; and if in a fully adult deer these pedicles
be sawn through, they will generally be found to consist of solid,
ivory-like bone, devoid of perceptible channels for the passage of
blood-vessels. The pedicles are always covered with skin well
supplied with blood-vessels; and in young deer, or those in which
the antlers have been comparatively recently shed, the covering of
skin extends over their summits, when they appear as longer or
shorter projections on the forehead, according to the species. When
the first or a new antler is about to be formed, the summits of these
pedicles become tender, and bear small velvet-like knobs, which have
a high temperature, and are supplied by an extra quantity of blood,
which commences to deposit bony matter. This deposition of bony
matter progresses very rapidly, and although in young deer and the
adults of some species the resulting antler merely forms a simple
spike, or a single fork, in full-grown individuals of the majority it
assumes a more or less complexly branched structure. All this time
the growing antler is invested with a skin clothed with exceedingly
fine short hairs, and is most liberally supplied with blood-vessels;
this sensitive skin being called the velvet. Towards the completion
of its growth a more or less prominent ring of bone, termed the burr
or coronet, is deposited at its base just above the junction with the
pedicle; this ring tending to constrict the blood-vessels, and thus
cut off the supply of blood from the antlers. . . .

" When the antlers are freed from the velvet — a process usually
assisted by the animal rubbing them against tree stems or boughs
— they have a more or less rugose surface, owing to the grooves
formed in them by the nutrient blood-vessels. Although a few
living species have the antlers in the form of simple spikes in the
adult male, in the great majority of species they are more or less
branched ; while in some, like the elk and fallow-deer, they expand
into broad palmated plates, with tines, or snags, on one or both
margins. In the antlers of the red-deer group, which form the type
of the whole series, the following names have been applied to their
different component parts and branches. The main shaft is termed
the beam; the first or lowest tine the brow-tine; the second the
bez-tine ; the third the trez-tine, or royal ; and the branched portion
forming the summit the crown, or surroyals. , But the antlers of all
deer by no means conform to this type ; and in certain groups other
names have to be adopted for the branches.

" The antlers of young deer are in the form of simple spikes; and
this form is retained in the South American brockets, although the
simple antlers of these deer appear due to degeneration, and are not
primitive types. Indeed, no living deer shows such primitive spike-
like antlers in the adult, and it is doubtful whether such a type is dis-
played by any known extinct form, although many have a simple
fork. In the deer of the sambar group, where the antlers never
advance beyond a three-tined type, the shedding is frequently, if
not invariably, very irregular; but in the majority at least of the
species with complex antlers the replacement is annual, the new
appendages attaining their full development immediately before the
pairing^season. In such species there -is a more or less regular annual
increase in the complexity of the antlers up to a certain period of life,
after which they begin to degenerate."

The Cervidae are distributed all over Europe, Asia, Northern
Africa and America, but are unknown in Africa south of the
Sahara. They are undoubtedly a group of European -or Asiatic
origin, and obtained an entrance into America at a time when
that continent was connected with Asia by way of Bering Strait.

The existing members of the family are classified in the writer's
Deer of all Lands as follows: —

A. Subfamily Cervinae. — Antlers, with one exception, present
in the male; liver without a gall-bladder; a face-gland, and a
gland-pit in the skull.

I. Reindeer, Genus Rangifer. — Lateral metacarpal bones repre-
sented only by their lower extremities ; antlers present in both sexes,
complex. Northern part of both hemispheres.

II. Elk, Genus Alces. — Lateral metacarpals as in preceding; antlers
(as in the following genera) present only in the male, arising at right
angles to the median longitudinal line of the skull, and extending at
first in the plane of the forehead, after which, when in their fullest
development, they expand into a broad palmation margined with
snags. Northern portion of both hemispheres.

III. True Deer, Genus Cervus. — Lateral metacarpals represented
only by their upper ends. Antlers arising at acute angles to the
median line of the skull (as in the following genera), at first project-
ing from the plane of the forehead, and then continued upwards
nearly in that plane, supported on short pedicles, and furnished with
a brow-tine, never regularly forked at first division, but generally of
large size, and with not less than three tines; the skull without
ridges on the frontals forming the bases of the pedicles of the antlers.
Upper canine teeth small, or wanting. Europe, Asia and N. America.

1. Red-deer Group, Subgenus Cervus. — Antlers rounded, usually
with five or more tines, generally including a bez (second) , and always
a trez (third) ; coat of adult generally unspotted, with a large light-
coloured disk surrounding the tail; young, spotted. Europe,
Northern and Central Asia and North America.

2. Sika Deer, Subgenus Pseudaxis. — Antlers smaller and simpler,
four-tined, with a trez (third), but no bez (second); coat of adult
spotted, at least in summer, with a white area bordered by black in
the region of the tail, which is also black and white. North-Eastern
Asia.

3. Fallow-deer, Subgenus Dama. — Antlers without a bez, but
with a trez-tine, above which the beam is more or less palmated, and
generally furnished with numerous snags; coat of adult spotted
in summer, uniform in winter, with black and white markings in
the region of the tail similar to those of Pseudaxis; young, spotted.
Mediterranean region, but more widely spread in Europe during
the Pleistocene epoch, and also introduced into many European
countries.

4. Sambar Group, Subgenus Rusa. — Antlers rounded, three-
tined, with the bez- and trez-tines wanting, and the beam simply
forked at the summit ; coat either uniform or spotted at all seasons.
Indo-Malay countries and part of China.

5. Barasingha Group, Subgenus Rucervus. — Antlers flattened or
rounded, without bez- or trez-tine, the beam dichotomously forking,
and one or both branches again forked, so that the number of tines
is at least four; brow-tine forming a right angle or a continuous
curve with the beam ; coat of adult generally more or less uniform,
of young spotted. Indo-Malay countries.

IV. Muntjacs, Genus Cervulus.— Lateral metacarpals as in
Cervus; antlers small, with a brow-tine and an unbranched beam,
supported on long bony pedicles, continued downwards as con-
vergent ridges on the forehead ; upper canines of male large and
tusk-like. Indo-Malay countries and China.

V. Tufted. Muntjacs, Genus Elaphodus. — Nearly related to the
last, but the antlers still smaller, with shorter pedicles and divergent
frontal ridges ; upper canines of male not everted at the tips. Tibet
and China.

VI. Water-deer, Genus Hydrelaphus. — Lateral metacarpals as
in Rangifer; antlers wanting; upper canines of males tusk-like
and growing from semi-persistent pulps; cheek-teeth tall-crowned
(hypsodont) ; tail moderate. China.

VII. Roe-deer, Genus Capreolus. — Lateral metacarpals as in
Rangifer; antlers rather small, without a brow-tine or sub-basal
snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper or posterior prong
again forking; tail rudimentary; vomer not dividing posterior
nasal aperture of skull. Europe and Northern Asia.

VIII. Pere David's Deer, Genus Elaphurus. — Lateral meta-
carpals as in Cervus; antlers large, without a brow-tine or sub-basal
snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper prong of the fork
curving forwards and dividing, and the lower prong long, simple,
and projected backwards, the beam making a very marked angle
with the plane of the face; tail very long; vomer as in Capreolus.
North-East Asia.

IX. American Deer, Genus Mazama. — Lateral metacarpals as in
Rangifer ; antlers very variable in size, forming a marked angle with
the plane of the face, without a brow-tine ; when consisting of more
than a simple prong, dichotomously forked, frequently with a sub-
basal snag, and always with the lower prong of the fork projected
from the front edge of the beam, in some cases the lower, in others

DEER

923

the upper, and in others both prongs again dividing; tail long;
tarsal gland generally present ; metatarsal gland very variable, both
as regards presence and position ; vomer dividing the inner aperture
of the nostrils in the skull into two distinct chambers. America.

1. White-tailed Group, Subgenus Dorcelaphus or Odocoileus. —
Antlers large and complex, with a sub-basal snag, and the lower
prong more or less developed at the expense of the upper one;
metatarsal gland usually present; tail long or moderate, and hairy
below; face very long and narrow; the face-gland small, and the
gland-pit in the skull of moderate extent; no upper canines; size
generally large. North America to Northern South America.

2. Marsh-deer Group, Subgenus Blastoceros. — Antlers large and
complex, without a sub-basal snag, and the upper prong more
developed than the lower one; metatarsal gland absent; tail
short; face moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well
developed; upper canines usually present in male. Size large or
rather small. South America.

3. Guemals, Subgenus Xenelaphus. — Antlers small and simple,
forming a single dichotomous fork; metatarsal gland absent; tail
short; face moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well
developed; upper canines present in both sexes. Size medium.
South America.

a. Brockets, Subgenus Mazama. — Antlers in the form of simple
unbranched spikes; metatarsal, and in one case also the tarsal
gland absent; tail very short; face elongated; face-gland small
and gland-pit deep and triangular; hair of face radiating from two
whorls; upper canines sometimes present in old males. Size small.
Central and South America.

X. Genus Pudua. — Skull and metacarpals generally as in
Mazama; size very small; hair coarse and brittle; antlers in the
form of short, simple spikes; cannon-bones very short; tail very
short or wanting; no whorls in the hair of the face; face-gland
moderately large, and gland-pit deep and oval; tarsal and meta-
tarsal glands wanting; ectocuneiform bone of tarsus united with
the naviculocuboid. South America.

B. Subfamily Moschinae. — Antlers wanting in both sexes; liver
furnished with a gall-bladder; no face-gland or gland-pit.

XI. Musk-deer, Genus Moschus. — Hair coarse and brittle; upper
canines of male very long; no tarsal or metatarsal glands or
tufts; lateral metacarpals represented by their lower extremities;
lateral hoofs very large; tail very short; naked portion of muzzle
extensive ; male with a large abdominal gland. Central Asia.

Of the above, Reindeer and Elk are dealt with in separate
articles (qq.v.).

The first or typical group of the genus Cervus includes the red-
deer (Cervus elaphus) of Europe and western Asia, of which there
are several local races, such as the large C. elaphus maral of
eastern Europe and Persia, which is often partially spotted above
and dark-coloured below, the smaller C. e. barbarus of Tunisia
and Morocco, and the still smaller C. e. corsicanus of Corsica.
The Scandinavian red-deer is the typical form of the species. In
all red-deer the antlers are rounded, and show a more or less
marked tendency to form a cup at the summit. Wapiti, on the
other hand, show a marked tendency to the flattening of the
antlers, with a great development of the fourth tine, which is
larger than all the others, and the whole of the tines above this in
the same plane, or nearly so, this plane being the same as the long
axis of the animal. Normally no cup is developed at the summit
of the antler. The tail, too, is shorter than in the red-deer;
while in winter the under parts become very dark, and the upper
surface often bleaches almost white. The cry of the stags in the
breeding season is also different. The typical representative of
the group is the North American wapiti C. canadensis, but there
are several closely allied races in Central Asia, such as C. cana-
densis songaricus and C. c. bactrianus, while in Manchuria the
subgroup is represented by C. c. xanthopygus, in which the
summer coat is reddish instead of grey. The hangul (C. cash-
mirianus) of Kashmir is a distinct dark-coloured species, in which
the antlers tend to turn in at the summit; while C. yarcandensis,
of the Tarim Valley, Turkestan, is a redder animal, with a wholly
rufous tail, and antlers usually terminating in a simple fork placed
in a transverse plane. Another Asiatic species is the great shou
(C. affinis) of the Chumbi Valley, in which the antlers curve
forwards in a remarkable manner. Lastly C. albirostris, of Tibet,
is easily recognized by its white muzzle, and smooth, whitish,
flattened antlers, which have fewer tines than those of the other
members of the group, all placed in one plane.

The second group of the genus Cervus, forming the subgenus
Pseudaxis, is typified by the handsome little Japanese deer, or
sika, C. (P.) sika, in which the antlers are four-tined, and covered

with red " velvet " when first grown, while the coat is fully
spotted in summer, but more or less uniformly brown in winter.
The most distinctive feature of the deer of this group is, however,
the patch of long erectile white hairs on the buttocks, which,
although inconspicuous when the animals are quiescent, is
expanded into a large chrysanthemum-like bunch when they
start to run or are otherwise excited. The patch then forms a
guiding signal for the members of the herd when in flight. On
the mainland of Manchuria both the typical sika, and a larger
-race (C. sika manchuricus) , occur. A still larger and finer animal
is the Pekin sika (C. hortulorum) , of northern Manchuria, which
is as large as a small red-deer; it is represented in the Yang-tse
valley by a local race, C. h. kopschi. Formosa possesses a species
of its own (C. taevanus), which, in correlation with the perpetual
verdure of that island, is spotted at all seasons.

For the fallow-deer, Cervus [Dama] dama, see Fallow-deer.

The rusine or sambar group of Cervus, of which the character-
istics are given above, comprises a considerable number of long-
tailed species with three-tined antlers from the Indo-Malay
countries and some parts of China. The largest and handsomest
is the sambar of India {Cervus [Rusa] unicolor), characterized by
its massive and rugged antlers. It is represented by a number
of local races, mostly of smaller size, such as the Burmese and
Malay C. u. equinus, the Formosan C. u. swinhoei, and the
Philippine C. u. philippinus and C. u. nigricans, of which the
latter is not larger than a roe-buck, while the sambar itself is
as large as a red-deer. Whether these local phases of a single
variable type are best denominated races or species, must be
largely a matter of individual opinion. The rusa, or Javan
sambar, C. (R.) hippelaphus, is a lighter-coloured and smaller
deer than the Indian sambar, with longer, slenderer and less
rugged antlers. Typically from Java, this deer is also represented
in the Moluccas and Timor, and has thus the most easterly range
of the whole tribe. A black coat with white spots distinguishes
the Philippine spotted deer, C. aljredi, which is about the size
of a roe-buck; while other members of this group are the
Calamianes deer of the Philippines (C culionensis) , the Bavian
deer (C. kuhli) from a small island near Java, and the well-known
Indian hog-deer or para (C. porcinus), all these three last being
small, more or less uniformly coloured, and closely allied species.
On the other hand, the larger and handsomer chital, or spotted
deer (C. axis), stands apart by its white-spotted fawn-red coat
and differently formed antlers.

Nearly allied to the preceding is the barasingha or rucervine
group (subgenus Rucervus), in which the antlers are of a different
and generally more complex character. The typical species is
the Indian barasingha or swamp-deer, Cervus (Rucervus) duvau-
celi, a uniformly red animal, widely distributed in the forest
districts of India. In Siam it is replaced by C. (R.) schomburgki,
in which the antlers are of a still more complex type. Finally,
we have the thamin, or Eld's deer, C. (R.) eldi, ranging from
Burma to Siam, and characterized by the continuous curve
formed by the beam and the brow-tine of the antlers.

For the small eastern deer, respectively known as muntjacs
(Cervulus) and tufted muntjacs or tufted deer (Elaphodus), see
Muntjac; while unSer Water-deer will be found a notice of
the Chinese representative of the genus Hydrelaphus (or Hydro-
potes). The roe-deer, or roe-buck (Capreolus) , likewise form the
subject of a separate article (see Roe-buck), as is also the case
with Pere David's deer, the sole representative of the genus
Elaphurus.

The American deer include such New World species as are
generically distinct from Old World types. All these differ from
the members of the genus Cervus in having no brow-tine to the
antlers, which, in common with those of the roe-deer, belong to
what is called the forked type. Including all these deer except
one in the genus Mazama (of which the typical representatives
are the South American brockets), the North American species
constitute the subgenus Dorcelaphus (also known as Cariacus and
Odocoileus). One of the best known of these is the white-tailed
deer Mazama {Dorcelaphus) americana, often known as the Vir-
ginian deer. It is typically an animal of the size of a fallow-deer,

9^4

DEERFIELD— -DEER PARK

reddish in summer and greyish in winter, with a long tail, which
is coloured like the back above but white below, and is Carried
elevated when the animal is running, so as to form with the white
of the inner sides of the buttocks a conspicuous " blaze." A
white fetlock-gland with a black centre is also distinctive of this
species. The antlers are large and curve forwards, giving off an
upright snag near the base, and several vertical tines from the
upper surface of the horizontal portion. As we proceed south-
wards from the northern United States, deer of the white-tailed
type decrease steadily in size, till in Central America, Peru and
Guiana they are represented by animals not larger that a roe-
buck. The most convenient plan appears to be to regard all
these degenerate forms as local races of the white-tail, although
here again there is room for difference of opinion, and many
naturalists prefer to call them species. The large ears, brown-
and-white face, short, black-tipped tail, and antlers without
large basal snag serve to distinguish the mule-deer M. (D.)
hemionus, of western North America; while the black tail,
M . (D.) columbiana, ranging from British Columbia to California,
is a smaller animal, recognizable by the larger and longer tail,
which is black above and white below.

South America is the home of the. marsh-deer or guazu,
M. (Blastoceros) dichotoma, representing a subgenus in which the
complex antlers lack a basal snag, while the hair of the back is
reversed. This species is about the size of a red-deer, with a foxy
red coat with black legs. The pampas-deer, M. (B.) bezoartica,
of the Argentine pampas is a much smaller animal, of paler
colour, with three-tined antlers. The Chilean and Peruvian
Andes and Patagonia are the homes of two peculiar deer locally
known as guemals (huemals), and constituting the subgenus:
Xenelaphus, or Hippocamelus. They are about the size of fallow-
deer, and have simply forked antlers. The Chilian species is
M. (B.) bisulca and the Peruvian M . (B.) antisiensis. Brockets,
of which there are numerous species, such as if. rufa and
M . nemorivaga, are Central and South American deer of the size
of roe-bucks or smaller, with simple spike-like antlers, tufted
heads and the hair of the face radiating from two whorls on the
forehead so that on the nose the direction is downwards. The
smallest of all deer is the Chilian pudu (Pudua pudu), a creature
not much larger than a hare, with almost rudimentary antlers.

The musk-deer forms the subject of a separate article;

For deer in general, see R. Lydekker, The Deer of all Lands
(London, 1898, 1908). (R. L.*)

DEERFIELD, a township of Franklin county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut and Deerfield rivers, about 33 m. N.
of Springfield. Pop. (1900) 1969; (1910 U.S. census) 2209.
Deerfield is served by the Boston & Maine and the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railways. The natural beauty and the
historic interest of Deerfield attract many visitors. There are
several villages and hamlets in the township, the oldest and
most interesting of which is that known as " The Street " or
" Old Street." This extends along one wide thoroughfare over a
hill and across a plateau or valley that is hemmed in on the E. by
a range of highlands known as East Mountain and on the W. by
the foothills of Hoosac Mountain. Many of the houses in this
village are very old. In Memorial Hall, a building erected in 1797-
1798 for the Deerfield academy, the Pocumtuck Valley memorial
association (incorporated in 1870) has gathered an interesting
collection of colonial and Indian relics. Deerfield was one of the
first places in the United States to enter into the modern " arts
and crafts movement "; in 1896 many of the old household
industries were revived and placed upon a business basis. Most of
the work is done by women in the homes. The products, includ-
ing needlework and embroidery, textiles, rag rugs, netting^
wrought iron, furniture, and metal- work in gold and silver
embellished with precious and semi-precious stones, are annually
exhibited in an old-fashioned house built in 17 10, and a large
portion of them are sold to tourists. There is an arts and crafts
society, but the profits from the sales go entirely to the workers.

The territory which originally constituted the township of
Deerfield (known as Pocumtuck until 1674) was a tract of 8000
acres granted in 1654 to the town of Dedham in lieu of 2000 acres

previously taken from that town and granted to Rev. John Eliot
to ftfrther his mission among the Natick Indians. The rights of
the Pocumtuck Indians to the Deerfield tract were purchased
at about fourpence per acre, settlement was begun upon it in
1669, and the township was incorporated in 1673. For many
yearsDeerfield was the N.W. frontier settlement of New England.
It was slightly fortified at the beginning of King Philip's War, and
after an attack by the Indians on the 1st of September 1675 it
was garrisoned by a small force under Captain Samuel Appleton.
A second attack was made on the 12th of September, and six
days later, as Captain Thomas Lothrop and his company were
guarding teams that were hauling wheat from Deerfield to the
English headquarters at Hadley, they were surprised by Indians
in ambush at what has since been known as Bloody Brook (in
the village of South Deerfield), and Lothrop and more than sixty
of his men were slain. From this time until the end of the war
Deerfield was abandoned. In the spring of 1677 a few of the old
settlers returned, but on the 19th of September some were killed
and the others were captured by a party of Indians from Canada.
Resettlement was undertaken again in 1682. On the 15th of
September 1694 Deerfield narrowly escaped capture by a force of
, French and Indians from Canada. In the early morning of the
29th of February 1 703-1 704, Deerfield was surprised by a force
of French and Indians (under Hertel de Rouville) , who murdered
49 men, women and children, captured in; burned the town,
and on the way back to Canada murdered 20 of the captured.
Among the captives was the Rev. John Williams (1664-1729),
the first minister of Deerfield, who (with the other captives) was
redeemed in 1706 and continued as pastor here until his death;
in 1707 he published an account of his experiences as a prisoner
The Redeemed Captive Returning to' Zion, which has frequently
been reprinted. From the original township of Deerfield the
territory of the following townships has been taken: Greenfield
(1753 and 1896), Conway (1767, 1791 and 1811), Shelburne
(1768) and a part of Whately (1810).

See George Sheldon, A History of Deerfield (Deerfield, 1895) ; the
History and Proceedings of the Pocttmtu-ck Valley Memorial Associa-
tion (Deerfield, _ 1890 et seq.); and Pauline C. Bouve, " The Deerfield
Renaissance," in The New England Magazine for October 1905.

DEER PARK, an enclosure of rough wooded pastureland for
the accommodation of red- or fallow-deer. The distinction
between a deer " park " and a deer " forest " is that the former
is always enclosed either by a wall or fence, and is relatively
small, whereas the forest covers a much larger area, and is not
only open but sometimes contains practically no trees at all.
Originally, the possession of a deer park in England was a royal
prerogative, and no subject could enclose one without a direct
grant from the crown— a licence to impark, like a licence to
embattle a house, was always necessary. When Domesday Book
was compiled, there were already thirty-one deer parks in Eng-
land, some of which may have existed in Saxon times; about
one-fourth of them belonged to the king. After the Conquest they
increased rapidly in number, but from about the middle of the
nth century this tendency was reversed. In the middle of the
1 6th century it was conjectured that one-twentieth of England
and Wales was given up to deer and rabbits. Upon Saxton's
maps, which were made between 1575 and 1580, over 700 parks
are marked, and it is not improbable that the number was
understated. Mr Evelyn Philip Shirley enumerated only 334 in
his book on English Deer. Parks published in 1867. To these
Mr Joseph Whitaker, in A Descriptive List of the Deer Parks of
England (1892), has added another fifty, and the total is believed
to be ;now about 400. It is a curious circumstance that despite
the rather minute detail of Domesday none of the parks there
enumerated can now be identified. There is, however, a plausible
case for Bridge Park in Sussex as the Reredf elle of Domesday.
The state and consequence of the great barons of the middle ages
depended in some measure upon the number of deer parks which
they possessed. Most bishops and abbots had one or two, and at
one time more than twenty were attached to the archbishopric
of Canterbury. When the power of the barons was finally broken
and a more settled period began with the accession of the house

DEFAMATION— DEFENDER OF THE FAITH

925

of Tudor, the deer park began to fall into decay. By Queen
Elizabeth's time a considerable proportion of the ancestral
acres of the great houses had passed into the possession of rich
merchants and wealthy wool-staplers, and it had become more
profitable to breed bullocks than to find pasture for deer, and
even where the new men retained, and even in some cases created,
deer parks, they reduced their area in order that more land might
be available for grazing or for corn. Thus began that decadence
of the deer park which has continued down to the present time.
More than anything, however, the strife between Charles I. and
parliament contributed to reduce both the number and size of
English parks containing deer. By the Restoration the majority
of the parks in England had for the time being been destroyed,
the palings pulled down, the trees felled, and the deer stolen.
Of the duke of Newcastle's eight parks seven were ruined,
that at Welbeck alone remaining intact. Not a tree was left in
Clipston Park, although the timber had been valued at £20,000.
One of the results of the Restoration was to empty the parks of
the Roundhead squires to replenish those of the Royalists, but
this measure helped little, and great numbers of deer had to
be brought from Germany to replenish the depleted stocks. A
gentleman of the Isle of Ely was indeed given a baronetcy in
return for a large present of deer which he made to Charles II.
The largest existing deer park in England is that at Savernake
(4000 acres), next comes Windsor, which contains about 2600
acres in addition to the 1450 acres of Windsor Forest. Lord
Egerton of Tatton's park at Tatton in Cheshire, and Lord
Abergavenny's at Eridge, each contain about 2500 acres. Other
parks which are much about the same size are those of Blenheim,
Richmond, Eastwell, Duncombe, Grimsthorpe, Thoresby and
Knowsley. All these parks are famous either for their size, their
beauty, or the number and long descent of the deer which inhabit
them. The size of English parks devoted to deer varies from that
of these historic examples down to a very few acres. A small
proportion of the older enclosures contains red- as well as fallow-
deer. In some of the larger ones many hundreds of head browse,
whereas those of the smallest size may have only a dozen or two.
Although many enclosures were disparked in very recent times,
the 19th century saw the making of a considerable number of
new ones, usually of small dimensions. The tendency, however,
is still towards diminution both in number and extent, cattle
taking the place of deer.

DEFAMATION (from the classical Lat. diffamare, to spread
abroad an evil report — the English form in de is taken from the
Late Lat. defamare), the saying or writing something of another,
calculated to injure his reputation or expose him to public hatred,
contempt and ridicule. (See Libel and Slander.)

DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from difailler, to fail, Lat. fallere), in
English law, a failure to do some act required by law either as a
regular step in procedure or as being a duty imposed. Parties
in an action may be in default as to procedure by failure to appear
to the writ, or to take some other step, within the prescribed time.
In such cases the opposing party gains some advantage by being
allowed to sign judgment or otherwise. But as a rule, unless the
party is much in default and is under a peremptory order to
proceed, the penalty for default is by order to pay the costs
occasioned.' When there is default in complying with the terms
of a judgment the remedy is by executing it by one of the
processes admitted by the law. (See Execution.) In the case
of judgments in criminal or quasi-criminal cases, where a fine
is imposed, it is in most cases legal and usual to order im-
prisonment if the fine is not paid or if the property of the
defendant is insufficient to realize its amount. Default in
compliance with a statute renders the defaulter liable to action
by the person aggrieved or to indictment if the matter of
command is of public concern, subject in either case to the
qualification that the statute may limit the remedy for the
default to some particular proceeding specifically indicated;
and in some instances, e.g. in the case of local authorities,
default in the execution of their public duties is dealt with
administratively by a department of the government, and only
in the last resort, if at all, by recourse to judicial tribunals.

DEFEASANCE, or Defeazance (Fr. defaire, to undo), in law,
an instrument which defeats the force or operation of some other
deed or estate; as distinguished from condition, that which in the
same deed is called a condition is a defeasance in another deed.
A defeasance should recite the deed to be defeated and its date,
and it must be made between the same parties as are interested
in the deed to which it is collateral. It must be of a thing
defeasible, and all the conditions must be strictly carried out
before the defeasance can be consummated. Defeasance in a
bill of sale is the putting an end to the security by realizing
the goods for the benefit of the mortgagee. It is not strictly a
defeasance, because the stipulation is in the same deed; it is
really a condition in the nature of a defeasance.

DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend), in general, a keeping
off or defending, a justification, protection or guard. Physical
defence of self is the right of every man, even to the employment
of force, in warding off an attack. A person attacked may use
such force. as he believes to be necessary for the warding off an
attack, even to the extent of killing an assailant. The same right
of reciprocal defence extends not only to defence of one's own
person, but also to the defence of a husband or wife, parent or
child, master or servant. (See Assault; Homicide.) As a legal
term in English pleading, " defence " means the denial by the
party proceeded against of the validity of a charge, or the steps
taken by an accused person or his legal advisers for defending
himself. In civil actions, a statement of defence is the second
step in proceedings, being the answer of the defendant to the
plaintiff's statement of claim. In the statement of defence must
be set out every material fact upon which the defendant intends
to rely at the trial. Every fact alleged in the statement of claim
must be dealt with, and either admitted or denied; further facts
may be pleaded in answer to those admitted; the whole pleading
of the plaintiff may be objected to as insufficient in law, or a set-
off or counter-claim may be advanced. A statement of defence
must be delivered within ten days from the delivery of the
statement of claim, or appearance if no statement of claim be
delivered.

By the Poor Prisoners' Defence Act 1903, where it appears,
having regard to the nature of the defence set up by any poor
prisoner, as disclosed in the evidence given or statement made
by him before the committing justices, that it is desirable in tht
interests of justice that he should have legal aid in the prepara-
tion and conduct of his defence, and that his means are insuffi-
cient to enable him to obtain such aid, it may be ordered either
(1) on committal for trial by the committing justices, or (2) after
reading the depositions by the judge or quarter sessions chairman.
The defence includes the services of solicitor and counsel and the
expenses of witnesses, the cost being payable in the same manner
as the expenses of a prosecution for felony. Briefly, the object
of the act is, not to give a prisoner legal assistance to find out if he
has got a defence, but in order that a prisoner who has a defence
may have every inducement to tell the truth about it at the
earliest opportunity. Legal assistance under the act is only
given where both (1) the nature of the defence as disclosed is
such that in the interests of justice the prisoner should have
legal aid to make his defence clear, and (2) where also his
means are insufficient for that end (Lord Alverstone, C.J., at
Warwick Summer Assizes, The Times, July 26, 1904).

DEFENDANT, in law, a person against whom proceedings
are instituted or directed; one who is called upon to answer in
any suit. At one time the term " defendant " had a narrower
meaning, that of a person sued in a personal action only, the
corresponding term in a real action being " tenant," but the
distinction is now practically disregarded, except in a few states
of the United States.

DEFENDER OF THE FAITH (Fidei Defensor), a title belonging
to the sovereign of England in the same way as Christianissimus
belonged to the king of France, and Catholicus belongs to the ruler
of Spain. It seems to have been suggested in 1516, and although
certain charters have been appealed to in proof of an earlier use
of the title, it was first conferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII.
The Bull granting the title is dated the nth of October 1521,

926

DEFERENT— DEFINITION

and was a reward for the king's treatise, Assertio, septem sacra-
mentorum, against Luther. When Henry broke with the papacy,
Pope Paul III. deprived him of this designation, but in 1544 the
title of " Defender of the Faith " was confirmed to Henry by
parliament, and has since been used by all his successors on the
English throne.

DEFERENT (Lat. deferens, bearing down), in ancient
astronomy, the mean orbit of a planet, which carried the epicycle
in which the planet revolved. It is now known to correspond to
the actual orbit of the planet round the sun.

DEFFAND, MARIE ANNE DE VICHY-CHAMROND, Marquise
du (1697-1780), a celebrated Frenchwoman, was born at the
chateau of Chamrond near Charolles (department of Saone-et-
Loire) of a noble family in 1697. Educated at a convent in Paris,
she showed, along with great intelligence, a sceptical and cynical
turn of mind. The abbess, alarmed at the freedom of her views,
arranged that Massillon should visit and reason with her, but he
accomplished nothing. Her parents married her at twenty-one
years of age to her kinsman, Jean Baptiste de la Lande, marquis
du Deffand, without consulting her inclination. The union
proved an unhappy one, and resulted in a separation as early
as 1722. Madame du Deffand, young and beautiful, is said by
Horace Walpole to have been for a short time the mistress of the
regent, the duke of Orleans (Walpole to Gray, January 25, 1766).
She appeared in her earlier days to be incapable of any strong
attachment, but her intelligence, her cynicism and her esprit
made her the centre of attraction of a brilliant circle. In 17 21
began her friendship with Voltaire, but their regular correspond-
ence dates only from 1736. She spent much time at Sceaux,
at the court of the duchesse du Maine, where she contracted
a close friendship with the president Henault. In Paris she
was in a sense the rival of Madame Geoffrin, but the members
of her salon were drawn from aristocratic society more than from
literary cliques. There were, however, exceptions. Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Fontenelle and Madame de Staal-Delaunay were
among the habitues. When Henault introduced D'Alembert,
Madame du Deffand was at once captivated by him. With the
encyclopaedists she was never in sympathy, and appears to have
tolerated them only for his sake. In 1752 she retired from Paris,
intending to spend the rest of her days in the country, but she
was persuaded by her friends to return. She had taken up her
abode in 1747 in apartments in the convent of St Joseph in the
rue St Dominique, which had a separate entrance from the street.
When she lost her sight in 1754 she engaged Mademoiselle de
Lespinasse to help her in entertaining. This lady's wit made
some of the guests, D'Alembert among others, prefer her society
to that of Madame du Deffand, and she arranged to receive her
friends for an hour before the appearance of her patron. When
this state of things was discovered Mademoiselle de Lespinasse
was dismissed (1764), but the salon was broken up, for she took
with her D'Alembert, Turgot and the literary clique generally.
From this time Madame du Deffand very rarely received any
literary men. The principal friendships of her later years were
with the duchesse de Choiseul and with Horace Walpole. Her
affection for the latter, which dated from 1765, was the strongest
and most durable of all her attachments, tinder the stress of
this tardy passion she developed qualities of style and eloquence
of which her earlier writings had given little promise. In the
opinion of Sainte-Beuve the prose of her letters ranks with that
of Voltaire as the best of that classical epoch without excepting
any even of. the great writers. Walpole refused at first to ac-
knowledge the closeness of their intimacy from an exaggerated
fear of the ridicule attaching to her age, but he paid several
visits to Paris expressly for the purpose of enjoying her society,
and maintained a close and most interesting correspondence
with her for fifteen years. She died on the 23rd of September
1780, leaving her dog Ton ton to the care of Walpole, who
was also entrusted with her papers. Of her innumerable witty
sayings the best known is her remark on the cardinal de
Polignac's account of St Denis's miraculous walk of two miles
with his head in his hands, — II n'y a que le premier pas qui
coHte.

The Correspondance inedite of Madame du Deffand with D'Alem-
bert, Henault, Montesquieu, and others was published in Paris (2
vols.) in 1809. Letters of the marquise du Deffand to the Hon. Horace
Walpole, afterwards earl of Orford, from the year 1766 to the year 1780
(4vols.),edited, with a biographical sketch, by Miss Mary Berry, were
published in London from the originals at Strawberry Hill in 1810.

The standard edition of her letters is the Correspondance complete de
la marquise du Deffand . . . by M. de Lescure (1865) ; the Correspon-
dance inSdite with M. and Mme de Choiseul and others was edited
in 1859 and again in 1866 by the marquis de Ste-Aulaire. Other
papers of Madame du Deffand obtained at the breaking up of
Walpole's collection are in private hands. Madame du Deffand
returned many of Walpole's letters at his request, and subsequently
destroyed those which she received from him. Those in his posses-
sion appear to have been destroyed after his death by Miss Berry,
who printed fragments from them as footnotes to the edition of 1810.
The correspondence between Walpole and Madame du Deffand thus
remains one-sided, but seven of Walpole's letters to her are printed
for the first time in the edition (1903) of his correspondence by Mrs
Paget Toynbee, who discovered a quantity of her unedited letters.
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vols. i. and xiv. ; and the
notice by M. de Lescure in his edition of the correspondence.

DEFIANCE, a city and the county seat of Defiance county,
Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Auglaize and Tiffin rivers
with the Maumee, about 50 m. S.W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890)
7694; (1900) 7579 (960 foreign-born); (1910) 7327. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Wabash railways, and by the
Ohio Electric railway to Lima (42 m.) . The city commands a fine
view of the rivers and the surrounding country, which is well
adapted to agriculture; and has large machine shops and several
flour mills, besides manufactories of agricultural implements,
waggons, sashes and blinds, and wood-working machinery for the
manufacture of artillery wheels. Here, too, is Defiance College,
an institution of the Christian Denomination, opened in 1885.
Defiance was long the site of an Indian village. In 1794 General
Anthony Wayne built a fort here and named it Defiance. In 1 8 2 2
Defiance was laid out as a town; in 1845 it was made the county
seat of the newly erected county; and in 188 1 it became a city of
the second class.

DEFILE, a military expression for a passage, to march through
which troops are compelled to "defile," or narrow their front
(from the Fr. defiler, to march in a line, or by " files ") . The word
is usually applied to a ravine or gorge in a range of hills, but a
causeway over a river, a bridge and even a village may equally
be called a defile. The term is also used to express, without any
special reference to military operations, a gorge in mountains.
The verb " to defile " is used of troops marching on a narrow
front, or narrowing their front, under all circumstances, and in
this sense is the contrary of " deploy."

"Defile," in the sense of "pollute," is another form of
"defoul"; though spelt alike, the two words are pronounced
differently, the accent being on the first syllable for the former
and on the second for the latter.

DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to,
describe) , a logical term used popularly for the process of explain-
ing, or giving the meaning of, a word, and also in the concrete
for the proposition or statement in which that explanation
is expressed. In logic, definition consists in determining the
qualities which belong to given concepts or universals; it is not
concerned with individuals, which are marked by an infinity
of peculiarities, any one or all of which might be predicated of
another individual. Individuals can be defined only in so far as
they belong to a single kind. According to Aristotle, definition is
the statement of the essence of a concept (6p«r/x6s iih> yap tov
ri kcm nod ovclas, Posterior Analytics, B iii. 90 b 30); that is,
it consists of the genus and the differentia. In other words,
" man " is defined as " animal plus rationality," or " rational
animal," 1 i.e. the concept is (1) referred to the next higher genus,
and (2) distinguished from other modes in which that genus
exists, i.e. from other species. It is sometimes argued that, there
being no definition of individuals as such, definition is of names
(see J. S. Mill, Logic, i. viii. 5), not of things; it is generally,
however, maintained that definition is of things, regarded as, or

1 " Rational animal " is thus the predicate of the statement
constituting the definition. Sometimes the word " definition " is
used to signify merely the predicate.

DEFOE

927

in so far as they are, of a kind. Definition of words can be
nothing more than the explanation of terms such as is given in a
dictionary.

The following rules are generally given as governing accurate
definition. (1) The definition must be equivalent or commensurate
with that which is defined; it must be applicable to all the
individuals included in the concept and to nothing else. Every
man, and nothing else, is a rational animal. " Man is mortal "
is not a definition, for mortality is predicable of irrational
animals. (2) The definition must state the essential attributes;
a concept cannot be defined by its accidental attributes; those
attributes must be given which are essential and primary.
(3) The definition must be per genus et differentiam (or diffe-
rentias), as we have already seen. These are the important
rules. Three minor rules are: (4) The definition must not
contain the name of the concept to be defined ; if it does, no
information is given. Such a proposition as "an archdeacon
is one who performs archidiaconal functions " is not a defini-
tion. Concepts cannot be defined by their correlatives. Such
a definition is known as a circulus in definiendo. (5) Obscure
and figurative language must be avoided, and (6) Definitions must
not be in the negative when they can be in the affirmative.

DEFOE, DANIEL (c. 1650-1731), English author, was born in
the parish of St Giles, Cripplegate, London, in the latter part of
1659 or early in 1660, of a nonconformist family. His grand-
father, Daniel Foe, lived at Etton, Northamptonshire, appar-
ently in comfortable circumstances, for he is said to have kept a
pack of hounds. As to the variation of name, Defoe or Foe, its
owner signed either indifferently till late in life, and where his
initials occur they are sometimes D. F. and sometimes D. D. F.
Three autograph letters of his are extant, all addressed in 1705
to the same person, and signed respectively D. Foe, de Foe and
Daniel Defoe. His father, James Foe, was, a butcher and a
citizen of London.

Daniel was well educated at a famous dissenting academy,
Mr Charles Morton's of Stoke Newington, where many of the best-
known nonconformists of the time were his schoolfellows. With
few exceptions all the known events of Defoe's life are connected
with authorship. In the older catalogues of his works two
pamphlets, Speculum Crapegownorum, a satire on the clergy, and
A Treatise against the Turks, are attributed to him before the
accession of James II., but there seems to be no publication of his
which is certainly genuine before The Character of Dr Annesley
(1697). He had, however, before this, taken up arms in
Monmouth's expedition, and is supposed to have owed his lucky
escape from the clutches of the king's troops and the law, to his
being a Londoner, and therefore a stranger in the west country.
On the 26th of January 1688 he was admitted a liveryman of the
city of London, having claimed his freedom by birth. Before his
western escapade he had taken up the business of hosiery factor.
At the entry of William and Mary into London he is said to have
served as a volunteer trooper " gallantly mounted and richly
accoutred." In these days he lived at Tooting, and was instru-
mental in forming a dissenting congregation there. His business
operations at this period appear to have been extensive and
various. He seems to have been a sort of commission merchant,
especially in Spanish and Portuguese goods, and at some time to
have visited Spain on business. In 1692 he failed for £17,000.
His misfortunes made him write both feelingly and forcibly on
the bankruptcy laws; and although his creditors accepted a
composition, he afterwards honourably paid them in full, a
fact attested by independent and not very friendly witnesses.
Subsequently, he undertook first the secretaryship and then the
management and chief ownership of some tile-works at Tilbury,
but here also he was unfortunate, and his imprisonment in 1703
brought the works to a standstill, and he lost £3000. From
this time forward we hear of no settled business in which he
engaged.

The course of Defoe's life was determined about the middle of
the reign of William III. by his introduction to that monarch
and other influential persons. He frequently boasts of his
personal intimacy with the " glorious and immortal " king, and

in 1695 he was appointed accountant to the commissioners of
the glass duty, an office which he held for four years. During
this time he produced his Essay on Projects (1698), containing
suggestions on banks, road-management, friendly and insurance
societies of various kinds, idiot asylums, bankruptcy, academies,
military colleges, high schools for women, &c. It displays
Defoe's lively and lucid style in full vigour, and abounds with
ingenious thoughts and apt illustrations, though it illustrates also
the unsystematic character of his mind. In the same year Defoe
wrote the first of a long series of pamphlets on the then burning
question of occasional conformity. In this, for the first time,
he showed the unlucky independence which, in so many other
instances, united all parties against him. While he pointed out
to the dissenters the scandalous inconsistency of their playing fast
and loose with sacred things, yet he denounced the impropriety
of requiring tests at all. In support of the government he pub-
lished, in 1698, An Argument for a Standing Army, followed in
1700 by a defence of William's war policy called The Two Great
Questions considered, and a set of pamphlets on the Partition
Treaty. Thus in political matters he had the same fate as in
ecclesiastical; for the Whigs were no more prepared than the
Tories to support William through thick and thin. He also dealt
with the questions of stock-jobbing and of electioneering corrup-
tion. But his most remarkable publication at this time was The
True-Born Englishman (1701), a satire in rough but extremely
vigorous verse on the national objection to William as a foreigner,
and on the claim of purity of blood for a nation which Defoe
chooses to represent as crossed'and dashed with all the strains and
races in Europe. He also took a prominent part in the proceed-
ings which followed the Kentish petition, and was the author,
some say the presenter, of the Legion Memorial, which asserted
in the strongest terms the supremacy of the electors over the
elected, and of which even an irate House of Commons did not
dare to take much notice. The theory of the indefeasible supre-
macy of the freeholders of England, whose delegates merely,
according to this theory, the Commons were, was one of Defoe's
favourite political tenets, and he returned to it in a powerfully
written tract entitled The Original Power of the Collective Body
of the People of England examined and asserted (1701).

At the same time he was occupied in a controversy on the
conformity question with John How (or Howe) on the practice
of " occasional conformity." Defoe maintained that the dis-
senters who attended the services of the English Church on
particular occasions to qualify themselves for office were guilty
of inconsistency. At the same time he did not argue for the
complete abolition of the tests, but desired that they should be so
framed as to make it possible for most Protestants conscientiously
to subscribe to them. Here again his moderation pleased neither
party.

The death of William was a great misfortune to Defoe, and
he soon felt the power of his adversaries. After publishing The
Mock Mourners, intended to satirize and rebuke the outbreak
of Jacobite joy at the king's death, he turned his attention
once more to ecclesiastical subjects, and, in an evil hour for
himself, wrote the anonymous Shortest Way with the Dissenters
(1702), a statement in the most forcible terms of the extreme
" high-flying " position, which some high churchmen were un-
wary enough to endorse, without any suspicion of the writer's
ironical intention. The author was soon discovered; and, as he
absconded, an advertisement was issued offering a reward for
his apprehension, and giving the only personal description we
possess of him, as " a middle-sized spare man about forty years
old, of a brown complexion and dark brown-coloured hair, but
wears a wig; a hooked nose, a sharp chin, grey eyes, and a large
mole near his mouth." In this conjuncture Defoe had really no
friends, for the dissenters were as much alarmed at his book as
the high-flyers were irritated. He surrendered, and his defence
appears to have been injudiciously conducted; at any rate he
was fined 200 marks, and condemned to be pilloried three times,
to be imprisoned indefinitely, and to find sureties for his good
behaviour during seven years. It was in reference to this
incident that Pope, whose Catholic rearing made him detest

928

DEFOE

the abettor of the Revolution and the champion of William of
Orange, wrote in the Dunciad —

"Earless on high stands unabash'd Defoe"
— though he knew that the sentence to the pillory had long ceased
to entail the loss of ears. Defoe's exposure in the pillory (July
2 9> 3°> 3 1 ) was > however, rather a triumph than a punish-
ment, for the populace took his side ; and his Hymn to the Pillory,
which he soon after published, is one of the best of his poetical
works. Unluckily for him his condemnation had the indirect
effect of destroying his business at Tilbury.

He remained in prison until August 1704, and then owed his
release to the intercession of Robert Harley, who represented
his case to the queen, and obtained for him not only liberty but
pecuniary relief and employment, which, of one kind or another,
lasted until the termination of Anne's reign. Defoe was uni-
formly grateful to the minister, and his language respecting
him is in curious variance with that generally used. There
is no doubt that Harley, who understood the influence wielded
by Defoe, made some conditions. Defoe says he received no
pension, but his subsequent fidelity was at all events indirectly
rewarded; moreover, Harley 's moderation in a time of the
extremest party-insanity was no little recommendation to Defoe.
During his imprisonment he was by no means idle. A spurious
edition of his works having been issued, he himself produced a
collection of twenty-two treatises, to which some time afterwards
he added a second group of eighteen more. He also wrote in
prison many short pamphlets, chiefly controversial, published a
curious work on the famous storm of the 26th of November 1703,
and started in February 1704 perhaps the most remarkable of all
his projects, The Review. This was a paper which was issued
during the greater part of its life three times a week. It was
entirely written by Defoe, and extends to eight complete volumes
and some few score numbers of a second issue. He did not
confine himself to news, but wrote something very like finished
essays on questions of policy, trade and domestic concerns;
he also introduced a " Scandal Club," in which minor questions
of manners and morals were treated in a way which undoubtedly
suggested the Taller s and Spectators which followed. Only one
complete copy of the work is known to exist, and that is in the
British Museum. It is probable that if bulk, rapidity of produc-
tion, variety of matter, originality of design, and excellence
of style be taken together, hardly any author can show a work
of equal magnitude. After his release Defoe went to Bury St
Edmunds, though he did not interrupt either his Review or his
occasional pamphlets. One of these, Giving Alms no Charily,
and Employing the Poor a Grievance to the Nation (1704), is
extraordinarily far-sighted. It denounces both indiscriminate
alms-giving and the national work-shops proposed by Sir
Humphrey Mackworth.

In 1705 appeared The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry
Transactions from the World in the Moon, a political satire which
is supposed to have given some hints for Swift's Gulliver's
Travels; and at the end of the year Defoe performed a secret
mission, the first of several of the kind, for Harley. In 1706
appeared the True Relation of the Apparition of one Mrs Veal,
long supposed to have been written for a bookseller to help off an
unsaleable translation of Drelincourt,0» Death, but considerable
doubt has been cast upon this by William Lee. Defoe's next
work was Jure divino, a long poetical argument in (bad) verse;
and soon afterwards (1706) he began to be much employed in
promoting the union with Scotland. Not only did he write
pamphlets as usual on the project, and vigorously recommend it
in The Review, but in October 1706 he was sent on a political
mission to Scotland by Sidney Godolphin, to whom Harley had
recommended him. He resided in Edinburgh for nearly sixteen
months, and his services to the government were repaid by a
regular salary. He seems to have devoted himself to commercial
and literary as well as to political matters, and prepared at this
time his elaborate History of the Union, which appeared in 1709.
In this year Henry Sacheverell delivered his famous sermons,
and Defoe wrote several tracts about them and attacked the
preacher in his Review.

In 1 7 10 Harley returned to power, and Defoe was placed in a
somewhat awkward position. To Harley himself he was bound
by gratitude and by a substantial agreement in principle, but
with the rest of the Tory ministry he had no sympathy. He
seems, in fact, to have agreed with the foreign policy of the Tories
and with the home policy of the Whigs, and naturally incurred
the reproach of time-serving and the hearty abuse of both parties.
At the end of 1 7 10 he again visited Scotland. In the negotiations
concerning the Peace of Utrecht, Defoe strongly supported the
ministerial side, to the intense wrath of the Whigs, displayed in
an attempted prosecution against some pamphlets of his on the
all-important question of the succession. Again the influence of
Harley saved him. He continued, however, to take the side of
the dissenters in the questions affecting religious liberty, which
played such a prominent part towards the close of Anne's reign.
He naturally shared Harley's downfall; and, though the loss of
his salary might seem a poor reward for his constant support oi
the Hanoverian claim, it. .was little more than his ambiguous,
not to say trimming, position must have led him to expect.

Defoe declared that Lord Annesley was preparing the army in;
Ireland to join a Jacobite rebellion, and was indicted for libel;
and prior to his trial (1715) he published an apologia entitled An
Appeal to Honour and Justice? in which he defended his political
conduct. Having been convicted of the libel he was liberated
later in the year under circumstances that only became clear in
1864, when six letters were discovered in the Record Office from
Defoe to a Government official, Charles Delafaye, which, accord-
ing to William Lee, established the fact that in 1 7 18 at least Defoe
was doing not only political work, but that it was of a somewhat
equivocal kind — that he was, in fact, sub-editing the Jacobite
Mist's Journal, under a secret agreement with the government
that he should tone: down the sentiments and omit objectionable
items. He had, in fact, been released on condition of becoming
a government agent. He seems to have performed the same
not very honourable office in the case of two other journals —
Dormer's Letter and the . Mercurius Politicus; and to have
written in these and other papers until nearly the end of his
life. Before these letters were discovered it was supposed
that Defoe's political work had ended in 1715.

Up to that time Defoe had written nothing but occasional
literature, and, except the History of the Union and Jure Divino,
nothing of any great length. In 17 15 appeared the first volume
of The Family Instructor, which was very popular during the 18th
century. The first volume of his most famous work, the immortal
story — partly adventure, partly moralizing — of The Life and
Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, was published
on the 25th of April 1719. It ran through four editions in as
many months, and then in August appeared the second volume.
Twelve months afterwards the sequel Serious Reflections, now
hardly ever reprinted, appeared. Its connexion with the two
former parts is little more than nominal, Crusoe being simply
made the mouth-piece of Defoe's sentiments on various points of
morals and religion. Meanwhile the first two parts were reprinted
as a feuilleton in Heathcote's Intelligencer , perhaps the earliest
instance of the appearance of such a work in such a form. The
story was founded on Dempier's Voyage round the World (1607),
and still more on Alexander. Selkirk's adventures, as communi-
cated by Selkirk himself at a meeting with Defoe at the house
of Mrs Damaris Daniel at Bristol. Selkirk afterwards told. Mrs
Daniel that he had handed over his papers to Defoe. Robinson
Crusoe was immediately popular, and a wild story was set afloat
of its having been written by Lord Oxford in the Tower. A
curious idea, at one time revived by Henry Kingsley, is that the
adventures of Robinson are allegorical and relate to Defoe's own
life. This idea was certainly entertained to some extent at the
time, and derives some colour of justification from words of
Defoe's, but there seems to be no serious foundation for it.
Robinson Crusoe (especially the story part, with the philo-
sophical and religious moralizings largely cut out) is one of the
world's classics in fiction. Crusoe's shipwreck and adventures,
his finding the footprint in the sand, his man " Friday," — the
whole atmosphere of romance which surrounds the position of

DEFOE

929

the civilized man fending for himself on a desert island — these
have made Defoe's great work an imperishable part of English
literature. Contemporaneously appeared The Dumb Philosopher,
or Dickory Cronke, who gains the power of speech at the end of his
life and uses it to predict the course of European affairs.

In 1720 came The Life and Adventures of Mr Duncan Campbell.
This was not entirely a work of imagination, its hero, the fortune-
teller, being a real person. There are amusing passages in the
story, but it is too desultory to rank with Defoe's best. In the
same year appeared two wholly or partially fictitious histories,
each of which might have made a reputation for any man. The
first was the Memoirs of a Cavalier, which Lord Chatham believed
to be true history, and which William Lee considers the embodi-
ment at least of authentic private memoirs. The Cavalier was
declared at the time to be Andrew Newport, made Lord Newport
in 1642. His elder brother was born in 1620 and the Cavalier
gives 1608 as the date of his birth, so that the facts do not fit the
dates. It is probable that Defoe, with his extensive acquaintance
with English history, and his astonishing power of working up
details, was fully equal to the task of inventing it. As a model
of historical work of a certain kind it is hardly surpassable, and
many separate passages — accounts of battles and skirmishes —
have lever been equalled except by Carlyle. Captain Singleton,
the last work of the year, has been unjustly depreciated by most
of the commentators. The record of the journey across Africa,
with its surprising anticipations of subsequent discoveries, yields
in interest to no work of the kind known to us; and the semi-
piratical Quaker who accompanies Singleton in his buccaneering
expeditions is a most life-like character. There is also a Quaker
who plays a very creditable part in Roxana (1724), and Defoe
seems to have been well affected to the Friends. In estimating
this wonderful productiveness on the part of a man sixty years
old, it should be remembered that it was a habit of Defoe's to
keep his work in manuscript sometimes for long periods.

In 1 72 1 nothing of importance was produced, but in the next
twelvemonth three capital works appeared. These were The
Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders, The Journal of the
Plague Year, and The History of Colonel Jack. Moll Flanders
and The Fortunate Mistress (Roxana), which followed in 1724,
have subjects of a rather more than questionable character, but
both display the remarkable art with which Defoe handles such
subjects. It is not true, as is sometimes said, that the difference
between the two is that between gross and polished vice. The
real difference is much more one of morals than of manners.
Moll is by no means of the lowest class. Notwithstanding the
greater degradation into which she falls, and her originally
dependent position, she has been well educated, and has Con-
sorted with persons of gentle birth. She displays throughout
much greater real refinement of feeling than the more high-
flying Roxana, and is at any rate flesh and blood, if the flesh be
somewhat frail and the blood somewhat hot. Neither of the
heroines has any but the rudiments of a moral sense; but Roxana,
both in her original transgression and in her subsequent conduct,
is actuated merely by avarice and selfishness — vices which are
peculiarly offensive in connexion with her other failing, and
which make her thoroughly repulsive. The art of both stories
is great, and that of the episode of the daughter Susannah in
Roxana is consummate; but the transitions of the later plot
are less natural than those in Moll Flanders. It is only fair to
notice that while the latter, according to Defoe's more usual
practice, is allowed to repent and end happily, Roxana is brought
to complete misery; Defoe's morality, therefore, required more
repulsiveness in one case than in the other.

In the Journal of the Plague Year, more usually called, from the
title of the second edition, A History of the Plague, the accuracy
and apparent veracity of the details is so great that many
persons have taken it for an authentic record, while others have
contended for the existence of such a record as its basis. But
here too the genius of Mrs Veal's creator must, in the absence of
all evidence to the contrary, be allowed sufficient for the task.
The History of Colonel Jack is an unequal book. There is hardly
in Robinson Crusoe a scene equal, and there is consequently not
vii. 30

in English literature a scene superior, to that where the youthful
pickpocket first exercises his trade, and then for a time loses his
ill-gotten gains. But a great part of the book, especially the
latter portion, is dull; and in fact it may be generally remarked
of Defoe that the conclusions of his tales are not equal to the
beginning, perhaps from the restless indefatigability with which
he undertook one work almost before finishing another.

To this period belong his stories of famous criminals, of Jack
Sheppard (1724), of Jonathan Wild (1725), of the Highland Rogue
i.e. Rob Roy (1723)- The pamphlet on the first of these Defoe
maintained to be a transcript of a paper which he persuaded
Sheppard to give to a friend at his execution.

In 1724 appeared also the first volume of A Tour through the
whole Island of Great Britain, which was completed in the two
following years. Much of the information in this was derived from
personal experience, for Defoe claims to have made many more
tours and visits about England than those of which we have
record; but the major part must necessarily have been dexterous
compilation. In 1725 appeared A New Voyage round the World,
apparently entirely due to the author's own fertile imagination
and extensive reading. It is full of his peculiar verisimilitude
and has all the interest of Anson's or Dampier's voyages, with a
charm of style superior even to that of the latter.

In 1726 Defoe published a curious and amusing little pamphlet
entitled Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business, or Private
Abuses Public Grievances, exemplified in the Pride, Insolence, and
Exorbitant Wages of our Women-Servants, Footmen, &°c. This
subject was a favourite one with him, and in the pamphlet he
showed the immaturity of his political views by advocating
legislative interference in these matters. Towards the end of
this same year The Complete English Tradesman, which may be
supposed to sum up the experience of his business life, appeared,
and its second volume followed two years afterwards. This book
has been variously judged. It is generally and traditionally
praised, but those who have read it will be more disposed to
agree with Charles Lamb, who considers it " of a vile and debas-
ing tendency," and thinks it " almost impossible to suppose the
author in earnest." The intolerable meanness advocated for the
sake of the paltriest gains, the entire ignoring of any pursuit in
life except money-getting, and the representation of the whole
duty of man as consisting first in the attainment of a competent
fortune, and next, when that fortune has been attained, in spend-
ing not more than half of it, are certainly repulsive enough. But
there are no reasons for thinking the performance ironical or
insincere, and it cannot be doubted that Defoe would have been
honestly unable even to understand Lamb's indignation. To
1726 also belongs The Political History of the Devil. This is a
curious book, partly explanatory of Defoe's ideas on morality,
and partly belonging to a series of demonological works which he
wrote, and of which the chief others are A System of Magic (1726),
and An Essay on the History of Apparitions (1728), issued the
year before under another title. In all these works his treat-
ment is on the whole rational and sensible; but in The History
of the Devil he is somewhat hampered by an insufficiently
worked-out theory as to the nature and personal existence
of his hero, and the manner in which he handles the subject is
an odd and not altogether satisfactory mixture of irony and
earnestness. A Plan of English Commerce, containing very
enlightened views on export trade, appeared in 1728.

During the years from 1715 to 1728 Defoe had issued pamphlets
and minor works too numerous to mention. The only one of
them perhaps which requires notice is Religious Courtship (1722),
a curious series of dialogues displaying Defoe's unaffected
religiosity, and at the same time the rather meddling intrusive-
ness with which he applied his religious notions. This was
more flagrantly illustrated in one of his latest works, The Treatise
Concerning the Use and Abuse of the Marriage Bed (1727), which
was originally issued with a much more offensive name, and has
been called " an excellent book with an improper title." The
Memoirs of Captain Carleton (1728) were long attributed to Defoe,
but the internal evidence is strongly against his authorship.
They have been also attributed to Swift, with greater probability

19

93o

DEFOE

as far as style is concerned. The Life of Mother Ross, reprinted
in Bonn's edition, has no claim whatever to be considered
Defoe's.

There is little to be said of Defoe's private life during this
period. He must in some way or other have obtained a consider-
able income. In 1724 he had built himself a large house at Stoke
Newington, which had stables and grounds of considerable size.
From the negotiations for the marriage of his daughter Sophia
it appears that he had landed property in more than one place,
and he had obtained on lease in 1722 a considerable estate from
the corporation of Colchester, which was settled on his unmarried
daughter at his death. Other property was similarly allotted to
his widow and remaining children, though some difficulty seems
to have arisen from the misconduct of his son, to whom, for some
purpose, the property was assigned during his father's lifetime,
and who refused to pay what was due. There is a good deal of
mystery about the end of Defoe's life; it used to be said that he
died insolvent, and that he had been in jail shortly before his death.
As a matter of fact, after great suffering from gout and stone, he
died in Ropemaker's Alley, Moorfields, on Monday the 26th of
April 1 73 1, and was buried in Bunhill Fields. He left no will,
all his property having been previously assigned, and letters of
administration were taken out by a creditor. How his affairs fell
into this condition, why he did not die in his own house, and why
in the previous summer he had been in hiding, as we know he was
from a letter still extant, are points not clearly explained. He
was, however, attacked by Mist, whom he wounded, in prison in
1724. It is most likely that Mist had found out that Defoe was
a government agent and quite probable that he communicated
his knowledge to other editors, for Defoe's journalistic employ-
ment almost ceased about this time, and he began to write
anonymously, or as " Andrew Moreton." It is possible that he
had to go into hiding to avoid the danger of being accused as
a real Jacobite, when those with whom he had contracted to
assume the character were dead and could no longer justify
his attitude.

Defoe married, on New Year's Day, 1684, Mary Tuffley, who
survived until December 1732. They had seven children. His
second son, Bernard or Benjamin Norton, has, like his father, a
scandalous niche in the Dunciad. In April 1877 public attention
was called to the distress of three maiden ladies, directly descended
from Defoe, and bearing his name; and a crown pension of £75
a year was bestowed on each of them. His youngest daughter,
Sophia, who married Henry Baker, left a considerable correspond-
ence, now in the hands of her descendants. There are several
portraits of Defoe, the principal one being engraved by Vander-
gucht.

In his lifetime, Defoe, as not belonging to either of the great
parties at a time of the bitterest party strife, was subjected
to obloquy on both sides. The great Whig writers leave him
unnoticed. Swift and Gay speak slightingly of him, — the
former, it is true, at a time when he was only known as a party
pamphleteer. Pope, with less excuse, put him in the Dunciad
towards the end of his life, but he confessed to Spence in private
that Defoe had written many things and none bad. At a later
period he was unjustly described as " a scurrilous party writer,"
which he certainly was not; but, on the other hand, Johnson
spoke of his writing " so variously and so well," and put Robinson
Crusoe among the only three books that readers wish longer.
From Sir Walter Scott downwards the tendency to judge literary
work on its own merits to a great extent restored Defoe to
his proper place, or, to speak more correctly, set him there for
the first time. Lord Macaulay's description of Roxana, Moll
Flanders and Colonel Jack as " utterly nauseous and wretched "
must be set aside as a freak of criticism.

Scott justly observed that Defoe's style " is the last which
should be attempted by a writer of inferior genius; for though it
be possible to disguise mediocrity by fine writing, it appears in all
its naked inanity when it assumes the garb of simplicity." The
methods by which Defoe attains his result are not difficult to
disengage. They are the presentment of all his ideas and scenes
in the plainest and most direct language, the frequent employ-

ment of colloquial forms of speech, the constant insertion of little
material details and illustrations, often of a more or less digressive
form, and, in his historico-fictitious works, as well as in his novels,
the most rigid attention to vivacity and consistency of character.
Plot he disregards, and he is fond of throwing his dialogues into
regular dramatic form, with by-play prescribed and stage
directions interspersed. A particular trick of his is also to divide
his arguments after the manner of the preachers of his day into
heads and subheads, with actual numerical signs affixed to them.
These mannerisms undoubtedly help and emphasize the extra-
ordinary faithfulness to nature of his fictions, but it would be a
great mistake to suppose that they fully explain their charm.
Defoe possessed genius, and his secret is at the last as impalpable
as the secret of genius always is.

The character of Defoe, both mental and moral, is very clearly
indicated in his works. He, the satirist of the true-born English-
man, was himself a model, with some notable variations and
improvements, of the Englishman of his period. He saw a great
many things, and what he did see he saw clearly. But there were
also a great many things which he did not see, and there was often
no logical connexion whatever between his vision and his blind-
ness. The most curious example of this inconsistency, or rather
of this indifference to general principle, occurs in his Essay on
Projects. He there speaks very briefly and slightingly of life
insurance, probably because it was then regarded as impious
by religionists of his complexion. But on either side of this refusal
are to be found elaborate projects of friendly societies and widows'
funds, which practically cover, in a clumsy and roundabout
manner, the whole ground of life insurance. In morals it is
evident that he was, according to his lights, a strictly honest and
honourable man. But sentiment of any " high-flying " descrip-
tion — to use the cant word of his time — was quite incompre-
hensible to him, or rather never presented itself as a thing to be
comprehended. He tells us with honest and simple pride that
when his patron Harley fell out, and Godolphin came in, he for
three years held no communication with the former, and seems
quite incapable of comprehending the delicacy which would have
obliged him to follow Harley's fallen fortunes. His very anomal-
ous position in regard to Mist is also indicative of a rather blunt
moral perception. One of the most affecting things in his novels
is the heroic constancy and fidelity of the maid Amy to her
exemplary mistress Roxana. But Amy, scarcely by her own
fault, is drawn into certain breaches of definite moral laws which
Defoe did understand, and she is therefore condemned, with
hardly a word of pity, to a miserable end. Nothing heroic or
romantic was within Defoe's view; he could not understand
passionate love, ideal loyalty, aesthetic admiration or anything
of the kind; and it is probable that many of the little sordid
touches which delight us by their apparent satire were, as de-
signed, not satire at all, but merely a faithful representation
of the feelings and ideas of the classes of which he himself was a
unit.

His political and economical pamphlets are almost unmatched
as clear presentations of the views of their writer. For driving
the nail home no one but Swift excels him, and Swift perhaps
only in The Drapier's Letters. There is often a great deal to be
said against the view presented in those pamphlets, but Defoe
sees nothing of it. He was perfectly fair but perfectly one-sided,
being generally happily ignorant of everything which told against
his own view.

The same characteristics are curiously illustrated in his moral
works. The morality of these is almost amusing in its down-
right positive character. With all the Puritan eagerness to push
a clear, uncompromising, Scripture-based distinction of right
and wrong into the affairs of every-day life, he has a thoroughly
English horror of casuistry, and his clumsy canons consequently
make wild work with the infinite intricacies of human nature.
He is, in fact, an instance of the tendency, which has so often
been remarked by other nations in the English, to drag in moral
distinctions at every turn, and to confound everything which is
novel to the experience, unpleasant to the taste, and incompre-
hensible to the understanding, under the general epithets oi

DEGAS— DE GEER

93i

wrong, wicked and shocking. His works of this class therefore
are now the least valuable, though not the least curious, of his
books.

The earliest regular life and estimate of Defoe is that of Dr Towers
in the Biographia Britannica. George Chalmers's Life, however
(1786), added very considerable information. In 1830 Walter Wilson
wrote the standard Life (3 vols.) ; it is coloured by political pre-
judice, but is a model of painstaking care, and by its abundant
citations from works both of Defoe and of others, which are practic-
ally inaccessible to the general reader, is invaluable. In 1859
appeared a life of Defoe by_ William Chadwick, an extraordinary
rhapsody in a style which is half Cobbett and half Carlyle, but
amusing, and by no means devoid of acuteness. In 1864 the dis-
covery of the six letters stirred up William Lee to a new investigation,
and the results of this were published (London, 1869) in three large
volumes. The first of these (well illustrated) contains a new life and
particulars of the author's discoveries. The second and third contain
fugitive writings assigned by Lee to Defoe for the first time. For
most of these, however, we have no authority but Lee's own im-
pressions of style, &c. ; and consequently, though the best quali-
fied judges will in most cases agree that Defoe may very likely
have written them, it cannot positively be stated that he did.
There is also a Life by Thomas Wright (1894). The Earlier Life
and Chief Earlier Works of Defoe (1890) was included by Henry
Morley in the " Carisbrooke Library." Charles Lamb's criticisms
were made in three short pieces, two of which were written for
Wilson's book, and the third for The Reflector. The volume on
Defoe (1879) in the " English Men of Letters " series is by W. Minto.

There is considerable uncertainty about many of Defoe's writings;
and even if all contested works be excluded, the number is still
enormous. Besides the list in Bohn's Lowndes, which is somewhat
of an omnium gatherum, three lists drawn with more or less care were
compiled in the 19th century. Wilson's contains 210 distinct works,
three or four only of which are marked as doubtful; Hazlitt's
enumerates 183 " genuine " and 52 " attributed " pieces, with notes
on most of them; Lee's extends to 254, of which 64 claim to be new
additions. The reprint (3>ols.) edited for the " Pulteney Library "
by Hazlitt in 1840-1843 contains a good and full life mainly de-
rived from Wilson, the whole of the novels (including the Serious
Reflections now hardly ever published with Robinson Crusoe), Jure
Divino, The Use and Abuse of Marriage, and many of the more
important tracts and smaller works. There is also an edition, often
called Scott's, but really edited by Sir G. C. Lewis, in twenty
volumes (London, 1840-1841). This contains the Complete Trades-
man, Religious Courtship, The Consolidator and oth-t works not
comprised in Hazlitt's. Scott had previously in 1809 edited for
Ballantyne some of the novels, in twelve volumes. Bohn's " British
Classics " includes the novels (except the third part of Robinson
Crusoe), The History of the Devil, The Storm, and a few political
pamphlets, also the undoubtedly spurious Mother Ross. In 1870
Nimmo of Edinburgh published in one volume an admirable selection
from Defoe. It contains Chalmers's Life, annotated and completed
from Wilson and Lee, Robinson Crusoe, pts. i. and ii., Colonel Jack,
The Cavalier, Duncan Campbell, The Plague, Everybody's Business,
Mrs Veal, The Shortest Way with Dissenters, Giving Alms no Charity,
The True-Born Englishman, Hymn to the Pillory, and very copious
extracts from The Complete English Tradesman. An edition of
Defoe's Romances and Narratives in sixteen volumes by G. A. Aitken
came out in 1895.

If we turn to separate works, the bibliography of Defoe is practic-
ally confined (except as far as original editions are concerned) to
Robinson Crusoe. Mrs Veal has been to some extent popularized
by the work which it helped to sell; Religious Courtship and The
Family Instructor had a vogue among the middle class until well
into the 19th century, and The History of the Union was republished
in 1786. But the reprints and editions of Crusoe have been innumer-
able ; it has been often translated ; and the eulogy pronounced on it
by Rousseau gave it special currency in France, where imitations
(or rather adaptations) have also been common.

In addition to the principal authorities already mentioned see
John Forster, Historical and Biographical Essays (1858); G. Saints-
bury, " Introduction " to Defoe's Minor Novels; and valuable notes
by G. A. Aitken in The Contemporary Review (February 1890), and
The Athenaeum (April 30, 1889; August 31, 1890). A facsimile
reprint (1883) of Robinson Crusoe has an introduction by Mr Austin
Dobson. Dr Karl T. Biilbring edited two unpublished works of
Defoe, The Compleat English Gentleman (London, 1890) and Of
Royall Educacion (London, 1905), from British Museum Add. MS.
32,555. Further light was thrown on Defoe's work as a political
agent by the discovery (1906) of an unpublished paper of his in the
British Museum by G. F. Warner. This was printed in the English
Historical Review, and afterwards separately.

DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD (1834- ), French
painter, was born in Paris on the 19th of July 1834. Entering
in 1855 the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he early developed independ-
ence of artistic outlook, studying under Lamothe. He first
exhibited in the Salon of 1865, contributing a " War in the

middle ages," a work executed in pastel. To this medium he was
ever faithful, using it for some of his best work. In 1866 his
" Steeplechase " revealed him as a painter of the racecourse and
of all the most modern aspects of life and of Parisian society,
treated in an extremely original manner. He subsequently
exhibited in 1867 " Family Portraits," and in 1868 a portrait of
a dancer in the " Ballet of La Source." In 1869 and 1870 he
restricted himself to portraits; but thenceforward he abandoned
the Salons and attached himself to the Impressionists. With
Manet and Monet he took the lead of the new school at its first
exhibition in 1874, and repeatedly contributed to these exhibit
tions (in 1876, 1878, 1879 and 1880). In 1868 he had shown his
first study of a dancer, and in numerous pastels he proclaimed
himself the painter of the ballet, representing its figurantes in
every attitude with more constant aim at truth than grace.
Several of his works may be seen at the Luxembourg Gallery, to
which they were bequeathed, among a collection of impressionist
pictures, by M. Caillebotte. In 1880 Degas showed his powers
of observation in a set of " Portraits of Criminals," and he
attempted modelling in a " Dancer," in wax. He afterwards
returned to his studies of the sporting world, exhibiting in
December 1884 at the Petit Gallery two views of " Races " which
had a great success, proving the increasing vogue of the artist
among collectors. He is ranked with Manet as the leader of the
" impressionist school." At the eighth Impressionist Exhibition,
in 1886, Degas continued his realistic studies of modern life,
showing drawings of the nude, of workwomen, and of jockeys.
Besides his pastels and his paintings of genre and portraits —
among these, several likenesses of Manet — Degas also handled
his favourite subjects in etching and in aquatint; and executed
several lithographs of " Singers at Cafes-concert," of " Ballet-
girls," and indeed of every possible subject of night-life and
incidents behind the scenes. His work is to be seen not only at
the Luxembourg but in many of the great private collections in
Paris, in England and America. In the Centenary Exhibition
of 1900 he exhibited " The Interior of a Cotton-Broker's Office at
New Orleans " (belonging to the Museum at Pau) and " The
Rehearsal."

See also G. Moore, " Degas, the Painter of Modern Life,"
Magazine of Art (1890); J. K. Huysmans, Certains (Paris, 1889);
G. Geffroy, La Vie Artistique (3° Serie, Paris, 1894).

DE GEER, LOUIS GERHARD, Baron (1818-1896), Swedish
statesman and writer, was born on the 18th of July 1818 at
Finspang castle. He adopted the legal profession, and in 1855
became president of the Gota Hofret, or lord justice of one of the
Swedish supreme courts. From the 7th of April 1858 to the 3rd
of June 1870 he was minister of justice. As a member of the
Upper House he took part in all the Swedish Riksdags from 1851
onwards, though he seldom spoke. From 1867 to 1878 he was
the member for Stockholm in the first chamber, and introduced
and passed many useful reformatory statutes; but his greatest
achievement, as a statesman, was the reform of the Swedish
representative system, whereby he substituted a bi-cameral
elective parliament, on modern lines, for the existing cumber-
some representation by estates, a survival from the later middle
ages. This great measure was accepted by the Riksdag in
December 1865, and received the royal sanction on the 22nd
of June 1866. For some time after this De Geer was the most
popular man in Sweden. He retired from the ministry in 1870,
but took office again, as minister of justice, in 1875. In 1876
he became minister of state, which position he retained till April
1880, when the failure of his repeated efforts to settle the arma-
ments' question again induced him to resign. From 1881 to 1888
he was chancellor of the universities of Upsala and Lund. Besides
several novels and aesthetic essays, De Geer has written a few
political memoirs of supreme merit both as to style and matter,
the most notable of which are: Minnesteckning ofver A. J. v.
Hopken (Stockholm, 1881); Minnesteckning ofver Hans Jarta
(Stockholm, 1874); Minnesteckning ofver B. B. von Platen
(Stockholm, 1886); and his own Minnen (Stockholm, 1892),
an autobiography, invaluable as a historical document, in
which the political experience and the matured judgments of

932

DEGGENDORF— DEIOCES

a lifetime are recorded with singular clearness, sobriety and
charm.

See Sveriges historia (Stockholm, 1881, &c), vi. ; Carl Gustaf
Malmstrom, Historiska Studier (Stockholm, 1897). (R. N. B.)

DEGGENDORF, or Deckendorf, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, 25 m. N.W. of Passau, on the left bank of
the Danube, which is there crossed by two iron bridges. Pop.
(1905) 7154. It is situated at the lower end of the beautiful
valley of the Perlbach, and in itself it is a well-built and attractive
town. It possesses an old town hall dating from 1 566, a hospital,
a lunatic asylum, an orphanage, and a large parish church rebuilt
in 1756; but the chief interest centres in the church of the Holy
Sepulchre, built in 1337, which attracts thousands of pilgrims
to its Porta Caeli or Gnadenpforte (Gate of Mercy) opened annually
on Michaelmas eve and closed again on the 4th of October. In
1837, on the celebration of the 500th anniversary of this
solemnity, the number of pilgrims was reckoned at nearly 100,000.
Such importance as the town possesses is now rather commercial
than religious, — it being a depot for the timber trade of the
Bavarian forest, a station for the Danube steamboat company,
and the seat of several mills, breweries, potteries and other
industrial establishments. On the bank of the Danube outside
the town are the remains of the castle of Findelstein; and on
the Geiersberg (1243 ft.), in the immediate vicinity, stands
another old pilgrimage church. About 6 m. to the north is the
village of Metten, with a Benedictine monastery founded by
Charlemagne in 801, restored as an abbey in 1840 by Louis I. of
Bavaria, and well known as an educational institution. The first
mention of Deggendorf occurs in 868, and it appears as a town
in 1 21 2. Henry (d. 1290) of the Landshut branch of the ruling
family of Bavaria made it the seat of a custom-house; and in 1331
it became the residence of Henry III. of Natternberg (d. 1333),
so called from a castle in the neighbourhood. In 1337 a wholesale
massacre of the Jews, who were accused of having thrown the
sacred host of the church of the Holy Sepulchre into a well, took
place in the town; and it is probably from about this date that
the pilgrimage above mentioned came into vogue. The town
was captured by the Swedish forces in 1633, and in the war of the
Austrian Succession it was more than once laid in ashes.

See Gruber and Miiller, Der bayerische Wald (Regensburg, 1851) ;
Mittermiiller, Die heil. Hostien und die Jiiden in Deggendorf (Land-
shut, 1866) ; and Das Kloster Metten (Straubing, 1857).

DE HAAS, MAURITZ FREDERICK HENDRICK (1832-1895),
American marine painter, was born on the 12th of December 1832
in Rotterdam, Holland. He studied art in the Rotterdam
Academy and at The Hague, under Bosboom and Louis Meyer,
and in 1851-1852 in London, following the English water-
colourists of the day. In 1857 he received an artist's commission
in the Dutch navy, but in 1859, under the' patronage of August
Belmont, who had recently been minister of the United States at
The Hague, he resigned and removed to New York city. He
became an associate of the National Academy in 1863 and an
academician in 1867, and exhibited annually in the academy,
and in 1866 he was one of the founders of the American Society
of Painters in Water Colors. He died on the 23rd of November
1895. His " Farragut Passing the Forts at the Battle of New
Orleans " and " The Rapids above Niagara," which were
exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1878, were his best known
but not his most typical works, for his favourite subjects were
storm and wreck, wind and heavy surf, and less often moonlight
on the coasts of Holland, of Jersey, of New England, and of Long
Island, and on the English Channel.

His brother, William Frederick de Haas (1 830-1 880), who
emigrated to New York in 1854, was also a marine painter.

DEHRA, a town of British India, headquarters of the Dehra
Dun district in the United Provinces. Pop. (1901) 28,095. It
lies at an elevation of 2300 ft. Here the Hardwar-Dehra railway
terminates. Dehra is the headquarters of the Trigonometrical
Survey and of the Forest Department, besides being a canton-
ment for a Gurkha force. The Forest School, which trains
subordinate forest officials for all parts of India, is a fine building.
Attached to it is an institution for the scientific study of sylvi-

culture and the exploitation and administration of forests. The
town of Dehra grew up round the temple built in 1699 by the
heretical Sikh Guru, Ram Rai, the founder of the Udasi sect of
Ascetics. This temple is a remarkable building in Mahommedan
style. The central block, in imitation of the emperor Jahangir's
tomb, contains the bed on which the Guru, after dying at will
and coming back to life several times, ultimately died outright;
it is an object of great veneration. At the corners of the central
block are smaller monuments commemorating the Guru's wives.

DEHRA DUN, a district of British India, in the Meerut
division of the United Provinces. Its area is 1209 sq. m. The
district is bounded on the N. by the native state of Tehri or
Garhwal, on the E. by British Garhwal, on the S. by the Siwalik
hills, which separate it from Saharanpur district, and on the W.
by the hill states of Sirmur, Jubbal and Taroch. The valley
(the Dun) has an area of about 673 sq. m., and forms a parallelo-
gram 45 m. from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad. It is well
wooded, undulating and intersected by streams. On the N.E.
the horizon is bounded by the Mussoorie or lower range of the
Himalayas, and on the S. by the Siwalik bills. The Himalayas
in the north of the district attain a height between 7000 and 8000
ft., one peak reaching an elevation of 8565 ft.; the highest point
of the Siwalik range is 3041 ft. above sea-level. The principal
passes through the Siwalik hills are the Timli pass, leading to
the military station of Chakrata, and the Mohand pass leading to
the sanatoriums of Mussoorie and Landaur. The Ganges bounds
the Dehra valley on the E.; the Jumna bounds it on the W.
From a point about midway between the two rivers, and near
the town of Dehra, runs a ridge which forms the watershed of the
valley. To the west of this ridge the water collects to form the
Asan, a tributary of the Jumna; whilst to the east the Suswa
receives the drainage and flows into the Ganges. To the east the
valley is characterized by swamps and forests, but to the west the
natural depressions freely carry off the surface drainage. Along
the central ridge, the water-level lies at a great depth from the
surface (228 ft.), but it rises gradually as the country declines
towards the great rivers. In 1901 the population was 178,195,
showing an increase of 6 % in the decade. A railway to Dehra
from Hardwar, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand line (32 m.), was
completed in 1900. The district is served by the Dun canals.
Tea gardens cover a considerable area, and the valley contains a
colony of European tea planters.

History. — Dehra Dun only emerges from the mists of legend
into authentic history in the 17th century a.d., when it formed
part of the Garhwal kingdom. Towards the end of the century
the heretical Sikh Guru, Ram Rai, expelled from the Punjab,
sought refuge in the Dun and gathered round him a crowd of
devotees. Fateh Sah, raja of Garhwal, endowed the temple
which he built, round which grew up the town of Gurudwara or
Dehra (q.v.). In the 18th century the fertility of the valley
attracted the attention of Najib-ud-daula, governor of Saharan-
pur, who invaded it with an army of Rohillas in 1757 and annexed
it to his dominion. His rule, which lasted till 1 770, brought great
prosperity to the Dun; but on his death it became a prey to
the surrounding tribes, its desolation being completed after its
conquest by the Gurkhas in 1803. In 1814 it was taken posses-
sion of by the British, and in the following year was annexed
to Saharanpur. Under British administration the Dun rapidly
recovered its prosperity.

DEIOCES (Arjio/ojs), according to Herodotus (i. 96 ff.) the first
king of the Medes. He narrates that, when the Medes had
rebelled against the Assyrians and gained their independence
about 710 B.C., according to his chronology (cf. Diodor. ii. 32),
they lived in villages without any political organization, and
therefore the whole country was in a state of anarchy. Then
Deioces, son of Phraortes, an illustrious man of upright character,
was chosen judge in his village, and the justness of his decisions
induced the inhabitants of the other villages to throng to him.
At last the Medes resolved to make an end of the intolerable state
of their country by erecting a kingdom, and chose Deioces king.
He now caused them to build a great capital, Ecbatana, with a
royal palace, and introduced the ceremonialof oriental courts;

DEIOTARUS— DEISM

933

he surrounded himself with a guard and no longer showed himself
to the people, but gave his judgments in writing and controlled
the people by officials and spies. He united all the Median tribes,
and ruled fifty-three years (c. 699-647 B.C.), though perhaps, as
G. Rawlinson supposed, the fifty-three years of his reign are
exchanged by mistake with the twenty-two years of his son
Phraortes, under whom the Median conquests began.

The narration of Herodotus is only a popular tradition which
derives the origin of kingship from its judicial functions, con-
sidered as its principal and most beneficent aspect. We know
from the Assyrian inscriptions that just at the time which
Herodotus assigns to Deioces the Medes were divided into
numerous small principalities and subjected to the great Assyrian
conquerors. Among these petty chieftains, Sargon in 715
mentions Dayukku, " lieutenant of Man " (he probably was,
therefore, a vassal of the neighbouring king of Man in the
mountains of south-eastern Armenia), who joined the Urartians
and other enemies of Assyria, but was by Sargon transported
to Hamath in Syria " with his clan." His district is called " bit-
Dayaukki," " house of Deioces," also in 713, when Sargon
invaded these regions again. So it seems that the dynasty,
which more than half a century later succeeded in throwing off
the Assyrian yoke and founded the Median empire, was derived
from this Dayukku, and that his name was thus introduced into
the Median traditions, which contrary to history considered him
as founder of the kingdom. (Ed. M.)

DEIOTARUS, a tetrarch of Galatia (Gallo-Graecia) in Asia
Minor, and a faithful ally of the Romans. He is first heard of at
the beginning of the third Mithradatic war, when he drove out
the troops of Mithradates under Eumachus from Phrygia. His
most influential friena was Pompey, who, when settling the
affairs of Asia (63 or 62 B.C.), rewarded him with the title of king
and an increase of territory (Lesser Armenia). On the outbreak
of the civil war, Deiotarus naturally sided with his old patron
Pompey, and after the battle of Pharsalus escaped with him to
Asia. In the meantime Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, had
seized Lesser Armenia, and defeated Deiiotarus near Nicopolis.
Fortunately for Di'otarus, Caesar at that time (47) arrived in
Asia from Egypt, and was met by the tetrarch in the dress of a
suppliant. Caesar pardoned him for having sided with Pompey,
ordered him to resume his royal attire, and hastened against
Pharnaces, whom he defeated at Zela. In consequence of the
complaints of certain Galalian princes, De'iotarus was deprived
of part of his dominions, but allowed to retain the title of king.
On the death of Mithradates of Pergamum, tetrarch of the Trocnii,
Deiiotarus was a candidate for the vacancy. Other tetrarchs also
pressed their claims; and, further, Deiotarus was accused by
his grandson Castor of having attempted to assassinate Caesar
when the latter was his guest in Galatia. Cicero, who enter-
tained a high opinion of Deiotarus, whose acquaintance he had
made when governor of Cilicia, undertook his defence, the case
being heard in Caesar's own house at Rome. The matter was
allowed to drop for a time, and the assassination of Caesar
prevented any final decision being pronounced. In his speech
Cicero briefly dismisses the charge of assassination, the main
question being the distribution of the provinces, which was the
real cause of the quarrels between Deiiotarus and his relatives.
After Caesar's death, Mark Antony, for a large monetary
consideration, publicly announced that, in accordance with
instructions left by Caesar, Deiiotarus was to resume possession
of all the territory of which he had been deprived. When civil
war again broke out, Deiiotarus was persuaded to support
Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle of Philippi went over
to the triumvirs. He remained in possession of his kingdom
till his death at a very advanced age.

See Cicero, Philippica, ii. 37; Ad jam. viii. 10, ix. 12, xv. I, 2, 4;
Ad Alt. xiv. I; De divin. i. 15, ii. 36, 37; De harusp. resp. 13, and
above all Pro rege Deiotaro; Appian,- Bell. Mithrid. 75, 114;
Bellum Alexandrinum, 34-41, 65-77; Dio Cassius xli. 63, xlii. 45,
xlvii. 24, 48, xlviii. 33.

DEIR, or Deir Ez-Zor, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the
right bank of the Euphrates, 27J m. above its junction with the

Khabor, lat. 35° 20' N., long. 40 12' E. Pop. 8000 and upward,
about one- tenth Christians; except in the official classes, there
are no Turks. It is the capital and the only considerable town
of the Zor sanjak, formed in 1857, which includes Ras el-'Ainon
the north and Palmyra on the south, with a total area of 32,820
sq. m., chiefly desert, and an estimated population of 100,000,
mostly Arab nomads. Deir itself is a thrifty and rising town,
having considerable traffic; it is singularly European in appear-
ance, with macadamized streets and a public garden. The name
Deir means monastery, but there is no other trace or tradition of
the occupation of the site before the 14th century, and until it
became the capital of the sanjak it was an insignificant village.
It is an important centre for the control of the Bedouin Arabs,
and has a garrison of about 1000 troops, including a special corps
of mule-riders. It is also a road centre;, the roads from the
Mediterranean to Bagdad by way of Aleppo and Damascus
respectively meeting here. A road also leads northward, by
Sinjar, to Mosul, crossing the river on a stone bridge, built in
1897, the only permanent bridge over the Euphrates south of
Asia Minor. (J. P. Pe.)

DEIRA, the southern of the two English kingdoms afterwards
united as Northumbria. According to Simeon of Durham it
extended from the Humber to the Tyne, but the land was waste
north of the Tees. York was the capital of its kings. The date
of its first settlement is quite unknown, but the first king of whom
we have any record is Ella or ^Elle, the father of Edwin, who is
said to have been reigning about 585. After his death Deira
was subject to ^Ethelfrith, king of Northumbria, until the acces-
sion of Edwin, in 616 or 617, who ruled both kingdoms (see
Edwin) till 633. Osric the nephew of Edwin ruled Deira (633-
634), but his son Oswine was put to death by Oswio in 651. For
a few years subsequently Deira was governed by ^Ethelwald
son of Oswald.

See Bede, •Historia ecclesiastica, ii. 14, iii. 1,6, 14 (ed. C. Plummer,
Oxford, 1896) ; Nennius, Historia Brittonum, § 64 (ed. Th. Mommsen,
Berlin, 1898); Simeon of Durham, Opera, i. 339 (ed. T. Arnold,
London, 1882-1885). (F. G. M. B.)

DEISM (Lat. deus, god), strictly the belief in one supreme God.
It is however the received name for a current of rationalistic
theological thought which, though not confined to one country,
or to any well-defined period, was most conspicuous in England in
the last years of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century.
The deists, differing widely in important matters of belief, were
yet agreed in seeking above all to establish the certainty and
sufficiency of natural religion in opposition to the positive
religions, and in tacitly or expressly denying the unique
significance of the supernatural revelation in the Old and New
Testaments. They either ignored the Scriptures, endeavoured
to prove them in the main by a helpful republication of the
Evangelium aeternum, or directly impugned their divine char-
acter, their infallibility, and the validity of their evidences as a
complete manifestation of the will of God. The term " deism "
not only is used to signify the main body of the deists' teaching,
or the tendency they represent, but has come into use as a
technical term for one specific metaphysical doctrine as to the
relation of God to the universe, assumed to have been character-
istic of the deists, and to have distinguished them from atheists,
pantheists and theists, — the belief, namely, that the first cause
of the universe is a personal God, who is, however, not only
distjnet from the world but apart from it and its concerns.

The words " deism " and " deist " appear first about the
middle of the 16th century in France (cf. Bayle's Dictionnaire,
s.v. " Viret," note D), though the deistic standpoint had already
been foreshadowed to some extent by Averroists, by Italian
authors like Boccaccio and Petrarch, in More's Utopia (1515), and
by French writers like Montaigne, Charron and Bodin. The first
specific attack on deism in English was Bishop Stillingfleet's
Leiier to a Deist (1677). By the majority of those historically
known as the English deists, from Blount onwards, the name
was owned and honoured. They were also occasionally called
" rationalists." " Free-thinker " (in Germany, Freidenker) was
generally taken to be synonymous with " deist," though obviously

934

DEISM

capable of a wider signification, and as coincident with esprit fort
and with libertin in the original and theological sense of the word. 1
" Naturalists " was a name frequently used of such as recognized
no god but nature, of so-called Spinozists, atheists; but both in
England and Germany, in the 18th century, this word was more
commonly and aptly in use for those who founded their religion
on the lumen naturae alone. It was evidently in common use
in the latter half of the 16th century as it is used by De Mornay
in De la viritt de la religion chriiienne (1581) and by Montaigne.
The same men were not seldom assaulted under the name of
"theists"; the later distinction between "theist" and "deist,"
which stamped the latter word as excluding the belief in provi-
dence or in the immanence of God, was apparently formulated
in the end of the 18th century by those rationalists who were
aggrieved at being identified with the naturalists. (See also
Theism.)

The chief names amongst the deists are those of Lord Herbert
of Cherbury (1583-1648), Charles Blount (1654-1693), Matthew
Tindal (1657-1733), William Woliaston (1659-1724), Thomas
Woolston (1669-1733), Junius Janus (commonly known as John)
Toland (1670-1722), the 3rd earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713),
Viscount Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Anthony Collins (1676-1729),
Thomas Morgan (?-i743), and Thomas Chubb (1679-1747). 2
Peter Annet (1693-1769), and Henry "Dodwell (the younger;
d. 1784), who made his contribution to the controversy
in 1742, are of less importance. Of the eleven first named,
ten appear to have been born within twenty-five years of one
another; and it is noteworthy that by far the greater part of the
literary activity of the deists, as well as of their voluminous
opponents, falls within the same half century.

The impulses that promoted a vein of thought cognate to
deism were active both before and after the time of its greatest
notoriety. But there are many reasons to show why, in the 1 7th
century, men should have set themselves with a new zeal, in
politics, law and theology, to follow the light of nature alone, and
to cast aside the fetters of tradition and prescriptive right, of
positive codes, and scholastic systems, and why in England
especially there should, amongst numerous free-thinkers, have
been not a few free writers. The significance of the Copemican
system, as the total overthrow of the traditional conception of
the universe, dawned on all educated men. In physics, Descartes
had prepared the way for the final triumph of the mechanical
explanation of the world in Newton's system. In England the
new philosophy had broken with time-honoured beliefs more
completely than it had done even in France; Hobbes was more
startling than Bacon. Locke's philosophy, as well as his theology,
served as a school for the deists. Men had become weary of
Protestant scholasticism; religious wars had made peaceful
thinkers seek to take the edge off dogmatical rancour; and the
multiplicity of religious sects, coupled with the complete failure
of various attempts at any substantial reconciliation, provoked
distrust of the common basis on which all were founded. There was
a school of distinctively latitudinarian thought in the Church of
England ; others not unnaturally thought it better to extend the
realm of the adiaphora beyond the sphere of Protestant ritual or
the details of systematic divinity. Arminianism had revived the
rational side of theological method. Semi-Arians and Unitarians,
though sufficiently distinguished from the free-thinkers by
reverence for the letter of Scripture, might be held to encourage
departure from the ancient landmarks. The scholarly labours of
P. D. Huet, R. Simon, L. E. Dupin, and Jean Le Clerc (Clericus),
of the orientalists John Lightfoot, John Spencer and Humphrey
Prideaux, of John Mill, the collator of New Testament readings,
and John Fell, furnished new materials for controversy; and the

1 The right of the orthodox party to use this name was asserted
by the publication in 1715 of a journal called The Freethinker, con-
ducted by anti-deistic clergymen. The term libertin appears to have
been used first as a hostile epithet of the Brethren of the Free Spirit,
a 13th-century sect which was accused not only of free- thought but
also of licentious living.

2 See the separate biographies of these writers. The three most
significant names after Lord Herbert are those of Toland, Woliaston
and Tindal.

scope of Spinoza's Tractatus theologico-politicus had naturally
been much more fully apprehended than ever his Elhica could be.
The success of the English revolution permitted men to turn from
the active side of political and theological controversy to specu-
lation and theory; and curiosity was more powerful than faith.
Much new ferment was working. The toleration and the free press
of England gave it scope. Deism was one of the results, and is an
important link in the chain of thought from the Reformation to
our own day.

Long before England was ripe to welcome deistic thought
Lord Herbert of Cherbury earned the name " Father of Deism "
by laying down the main line of that religious philosophy which
in various forms continued ever after to be the backbone of
deistic systems. He based his theology on a comprehensive, if
insufficient, survey of the nature, foundation, limits and tests
of human knowledge. And amongst the divinely implanted,
original, indefeasible notiliae communes of the human mind, he
found as foremost his five articles: — that there is one supreme
God, that he is to be worshipped, that worship consists chiefly of
virtue and piety, that we must repent of our sins and cease from
them, and that there are rewards and punishments here and
hereafter. Thus Herbert sought to do for the religion of nature
what his friend Grotius was doing for natural law, — making a
new application of the standard of Vincent of Lerins, Quod
semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus. It is important to notice
that Herbert, as English ambassador at Paris, united in himself
the currents of French and English thought, and also that his
De Veritate, published in Latin and translated into French, did
not appear in an English version.

Herbert had hardly attempted a systematic criticism of the
Christian revelation either as a whole or in its details. Blount, a
man of a very different spirit, did both, and in so doing may be
regarded as having inaugurated the second main line of deistic
procedure, that of historico-critical examination of the Old and
New Testaments. Blount adopted and expanded Hobbes's
arguments against the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch;
and, mainly in the words of Burnet's Archeologiae philosophicae,
he asserts the total inconsistency of the Mosaic Hexaemeron with
the Copernican theory of the heavens, dwelling with emphasis
on the impossibility of admitting the view developed in Genesis,
that the earth is the most important part of the universe. He
assumes that the narrative was meant ethically, not physically,
in order to eliminate false and polytheistic notions; and he
draws attention to that double narrative in Genesis which was
elsewhere to be so fruitfully handled. The examination of the
miracles of Apollonius of Tyana, professedly founded on papers
of Lord Herbert's, is meant to suggest similar considerations
with regard to the miracles of Christ. Naturalistic explanations
of some of these are proposed, and a mythical theory is distinctly
foreshadowed when Blount dwells on the inevitable tendency of
men, especially long after the event, to discover miracles attend-
ant on the birth and death of their heroes. Blount assaults the
doctrine of a mediator as irreligious. He dwells much more
pronouncedly than Herbert on the view, afterwards regarded as
a special characteristic of all deists, that much or most error in
religion has been invented or knowingly maintained by sagacious
men for the easier maintenance of good government, or in the
interests of themselves and their class. And when he heaps
suspicion, not on Christian dogmas, but on beliefs of which the
resemblance to Christian tenets is sufficiently patent, the real aim
is so transparent that his method seems to partake rather of the
nature of literary eccentricity than of polemical artifice; yet by
this disingenuous indirectness he gave his argument that savour
of duplicity which ever after clung to the popular conception of
deism.

Shaftesbury, dealing with matters for the most part different
from those usually handled by the deists, stands almost wholly
out of their ranks. But he showed how loosely he held the views
he did not go out of his way to attack, and made it plain how
little weight the letter of Scripture had for himself; and, writing
with much greater power than any of the deists, he was held
to have done more than any one of them to forward the cause

DEISM

935

for which they wrought. Founding ethics on the native and
cultivable capacity in men to appreciate worth in men and actions,
and, like the ancient Greek thinkers whom he followed, associat-
ing the apprehension of morality with the apprehension of beauty,
he makes morality wholly independent of scriptural enactment,
and still more, of theological forecasting of future bliss or agony.
He yet insisted on religion as the crown of virtue; and, arguing
that religion is inseparable from a high and holy enthusiasm for
the divine plan of the universe, he sought the root of religion in
feeling, not in accurate beliefs or meritorious good works. He set
little store on the theology of those who in a system of dry and
barren notions " pay handsome compliments to the Deity,"
" remove providence," " explode devotion," and leave but " little
of zeal, affection, or warmth in what they call rational religion."
In the protest against the scheme of " judging truth by counting
noses," Shaftesbury recognized the danger of the standard which
seemed to satisfy many deists; and in almost every respect
he has more in common with those who afterwards, in Germany,
annihilated the pretensions of complacent rationalism than with
the rationalists themselves.

Toland, writing at first professedly without hostility to any
of the received elements of the Christian faith, insisted that
Christianity was not mysterious, and that the value of religion
could not lie in any unintelligible or self-contradictory elements ;
though we cannot know the real essence of God or of any of
his creatures, yet our beliefs about God must be thoroughly
consistent with reason. Afterwards, Toland discussed, with
considerable real learning and much show of candour, the com-
parative evidence for the canonical and apocryphal Scriptures,
and demanded a careful and complete historical examination of
the grounds on which our acceptance of the New Testament canon
rests. He contributed little to the solution of the problem, but
forced the investigation of the canon alike on theologians and the
reading public. Again, he sketched a view of early church history,
further worked out by Johann Salomo Semler (1725-1791),
and surprisingly like that which was later elaborated by the
Tubingen school. He tried to show, both from Scripture and
extra-canonical literature, that the primitive church, so far from
being an incorporate body of believers with the same creed and
customs, really consisted of two schools, each possessing its
" own gospel " — a school of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians,
and the more liberal school of Paul. These parties, consciously
but amicably differing in their whole relation to the Jewish law
and the outside world, were subsequently forced into a non-
natural uniformity. The cogency of Toland's arguments was
weakened by his manifest love of paradox. Wollaston upheld the
" intellectual " theory of morality, and all his reasoning is inde-
pendent of any authority or evidence derived from revelation.
His system was simplicity itself, all sin being reduced to the one
form of lying. He favoured the idea of a future life as being
necessary to set right the mistakes and inequalities of the
present.

Collins, who had created much excitement by his Discourse
of Free-thinking, insisting on the value and necessity of unpreju-
diced inquiry, published at a later stage of the deistic controversy
the famous argument on the evidences of Christianity. Christian-
ity is founded on Judaism ; its main prop is the argument from
the fulfilment of prophecy. Yet no interpretation or rearrange-
ment of the text of Old Testament prophecies will secure a fair
and non-allegorical correspondence between these and their
alleged fulfilment in the New Testament. The inference is not
expressly drawn, though it becomes perfectly clear from his
refutation of William Whiston's curious counter theory that there
were in the original Hebrew scriptures prophecies which were
literally fulfilled in the New Testament, but had been expunged
at an early date by Jewish scribes. Collins indicates the possible
extent to which the Jews may have been indebted to Chaldeans
and Egyptians for their theological views, especially as great
part of the Old Testament would appear to have been remodelled
by Ezra; and, after dwelling on the points in which the prophecies
attributed to Daniel differ from all other Old Testament pre-
dictions, he states the greater number of the arguments still used

to show that the book of Daniel deals with events past and
contemporaneous, and is from the pen of a writer of theMaccabean
period, a view now generally accepted. Collins resembles Blount
in "attacking specific Christian positions rather than seeking
for a foundation on which to build the edifice of Natural
Religion." Amongst those who replied to him were Richard
Bentley, Edward Chandler, bishop of Lichfield, and Thomas
Sherlock, afterwards bishop of London, who also attacked
Woolston. They refuted him easily on many specific points, but
carefully abstained from discussing the real question at issue,
namely the propriety of free inquiry.

Woolston, at first to all appearance working earnestly in behalf
of an allegorical but believing interpretation of the New Testa-
ment miracles, ended by assaulting, with a yet unknown violence
of speech, the absurdity of accepting them as actual historical
events, and did his best to overthrow the credibility of Christ's
principal miracles. The bitterness of his outspoken invective
against the clergy, against all priestcraft and priesthood, was a
new feature in deistic literature, and injured the author more than
it furthered his cause.

Tindal's aim seems to have been a sober statement of the whole
case in favour of natural religion, with copious but moderately
worded criticism of such beliefs and usages in the Christian and
other religions as he conceived to be either non-religious or
directly immoral and unwholesome. The work in which he
endeavoured to prove that true Christianity is as old as the
creation, and is really but the republication of the gospel of
nature, soon gained the name of the " Deist's Bible." It was
against Tindal that the most important of the orthodox replies
were directed, e.g. John Conybeare's Defence of Revealed Religion,
William Law's Case of Reason and, to a large extent, Butler's
Analogy.

Morgan criticized with great freedom the moral character of the
persons and events of Old Testament history, developing the
theory of conscious " accommodation " on the part of the leaders
of the Jewish church. This accommodation of truth, by altering
the form and substance of it to meet the views and secure the
favour of ignorant and bigoted contemporaries, Morgan attributes
also to the apostles and to'Jesus. He likewise expands at great
length a theory of the origin of the Catholic Church much like
that sketched by Toland, but assumes that Paul and his party,
latterly at least, were distinctly hostile to the Judaical party
of their fellow-believers in Jesus as the Messias, while the college
of the original twelve apostles and their adherents viewed Paul
and his followers with suspicion and disfavour. Persecution
from without Morgan regards as the influence which mainly
forced the antagonistic parties into the oneness of the catholic
and orthodox church. Morgan " seems to have discerned the
dawning of a truer and better method " than the others. " He
saw dimly that things require to be accounted for as well as
affirmed or denied," and he was " one of the pioneers of modern
historical science as applied to biblical criticism."

Annet made it his special work to invalidate belief in the
resurrection of Christ, and to discredit the work of Paul.

Chubb, the least learnedly educated of the deists, did more
than any of them, save Herbert, to round his system into a
logical whole. From the New Testament he sought to show that
the teaching of Christ substantially coincides with natural
religion as he understood it: But his main contention is that
Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, not the reception of a
system of truths or facts, but a pious effort to live in accordance
with God's will here, in the hope of joining him hereafter. Chubb
dwells with special emphasis on the fact that Christ preached
the gospel to the poor, and argues, as Tindal had done, that the
gospel must therefore be accessible to all men without any need
for learned study of evidences for miracles, and intelligible to the
meanest capacity. He sought to show that even in the New-
Testament there are essential contradictions, and instances the
unconditional forgiveness preached by Christ in the gospels as
compared with Paul's doctrine of forgiveness by the mediation
of Christ. Externally Chubb is interesting as representing the
deism of the people contrasted with that of Tindal the theologian.

936

DEISM

Dod well's ingenious thesis, that Christianity is not founded
on argument, was certainly not meant as an aid to faith; and,
though its starting-point is different from all other deistical works,
it may safely be reckoned amongst their number.

Though himself contemporary with the earlier deists, Boling-
broke's principal works were posthumously published after
interest in the controversy had declined. His whole strain, in
sharp contrast to that of most of his predecessors, is cynical and
satirical, and suggests that most of the matters discussed were of
small personal concern to himself. He gives fullest scope to the
ungenerous view that a vast proportion of professedly revealed
truth was ingeniously palmed off by the more cunning on the
more ignorant for the convenience of keeping the latter under.
But he writes with keenness and wit, and knows well how to use
the materials already often taken advantage of by earlier deists.

Before passing on to a summary of the deistie position, it is
necessary to say something of the views of Conyers Middleton
(q.v.), who, though he never actually severed himself from ortho-
doxy, yet advanced theories closely analogous to those of the
deists. His most important theological work was that devoted
to an exposure of patristic miracles. His attack was based
largely on arguments which could be turned with equal force
against the miracles of the New Testament, and he even went
further than previous rationalists in impugning the credibility
of statements as to alleged miracles emanating from martyrs
and the fathers of the early church. That Middleton was pre-
pared to carry this type of argument into the apostolic period
is shown by certain posthumous essays (Miscellaneous Works;
ii. pp. 255 ff.), in which he charges the New Testament writers
with inconsistency and the apostles with suppressing their
cherished beliefs on occasions of difficulty.

In the substance of what they received as natural religion, the
deists were for the most part agreed; Herbert's articles con-
tinued to contain the fundamentals of their theology. Religion,
though not identified with morality, had its most important
outcome in a faithful following of the eternal laws of morality,
regarded as the will of God. With the virtuous life, was further
to be conjoined a humble disposition to adore the Creator,
avoiding all factitious forms of worship as worse than useless.
The small value they attributed to all outward and special forms
of service, and the want of any sympathetic craving for the com-
munion of saints, saved the deists from attempting to found a
free-thinking church. They seem generally to have inclined to a
quietistic accommodation to established forms of faith, till better
times came. They steadfastly sought to eliminate the miraculous
from theological belief, and to expel from the system of religious
truth all debatable, difficult or mysterious articles. They aimed
at a rational and intelligible faith, professedly in order to make
religion, in all its width and depth, the heritage of every man.
They regarded with as much suspicion the notion of a "peculiar
people " of God, as of a unique revelation, and insisted on the
possibility of salvation for the heathen. They rejected the
doctrine of the Trinity, and protested against mediatorship,
atonement and the imputed righteousness of Christ, always
laying more stress on the teaching of Christ than on the teaching
of the church about him; but they repeatedly laid claim to the
name of Christians or of Christian deists. Against superstition,
fanaticism and priestcraft they protested unceasingly. They all
recognized the soul of man — not regarded as intellectual alone—
as the ultimate court of appeal. But they varied much in their
attitude towards the Bible. Some were content to argue their
own ideas into Scripture, and those they disliked out of it ; to
one or two it seemed a satisfaction to discover difficulties in
Scripture, to point to historical inaccuracies and moral defects.
Probably Chubb 's position on this head is most fairly character-
istic of deism. He holds that the narrative, especially of the New
Testament, is in the main accurate, but, as written after the
events narrated, has left room for misunderstandings and
mistakes. The apostles were good men, to whom, after Christ;
we are most indebted; but they were fairly entitled to their own
private opinions, and naturally introduced these into their
writings. The epistles, according to Chubb, contain errors of

fact, false interpretations of the Old Testament, and sometimes
disfigurement of religious truth.

The general tendency of the deistical writings is sufficiently
self-consistent to justify a common name. But deism is not a
compact system nor is it the outcome of any one line of philo-
sophical thought. Of matters generally regarded as pertaining
to natural religion, that on which they were least agreed was the
certainty, philosophical demonstrability and moral significance
of the immortality of the soul, so that the deists have sometimes
been grouped into " mortal " and " immortal " deists. For some
the belief in future rewards and punishments was ah essential of
religion; some seem to have questioned the doctrine as a whole;
and, while others made it a basis of morality, Shaftesbury
protested against the ordinary theological form of the belief
as immoral. No two thinkers could well be more opposed than
Shaftesbury and Hobbes; yet sometimes ideas from both were
combined by the same writer. Collins was a pronounced necessi-
tarian; Morgan regarded the denial of free will as tantamount to
atheism. And nothing can be more misleading than to assume
that the belief in a Creator, existent wholly apart from the work
of his hands, was characteristic of the deists as a body. In none of
them is any theory on the subject specially prominent, except
that in their denial of miracles, of supernatural revelation, and a
special redemptive interposition of God in history, they seem to
have thought of providence much as the mass of their opponents
did. Herbert starts his chief theological work with the design of
vindicating God's providence. Shaftesbury vigorously protests
against the notion of a wholly transcendent God. Morgan more
than once expresses a theory that would now be pronounced one
of immanence. Tolandj the inventor of the name of pantheism,
was notoriously, for a great part of his life, in some sort a
pantheist. And while as thinkers they diverged in their opinions,
so too they differed radically in character, in reverence for their
subject and in religious earnestness and moral worth.

The deists were not powerful writers; none of. them was dis-
tinguished by wide and accurate scholarship; hardly any was
either a deep or comprehensive thinker. But though they gener-
ally had the best scholarship of England against them, they were
bold, acute, well-informed men; they appreciated more fully
than their contemporaries not a few truths now all but univer-
sally accepted; and they seemed therefore entitled to leave their
mark on subsequent theological thought. Yet while the seed
they sowed was taking deep root in France and in Germany, the
English deists, the most notable men of their time, were soon
forgotten, or at least ceased to be a prominent factor in the
intellectual life of the century. The controversies they had
provoked collapsed, and deism became a by-word even amongst
those who were in no degree anxious to appear as champions of
orthodoxy.

The fault was not wholly in the subjectivism of the movement.
But the subjectivism that founded its theology on the " common
sense " of the individual was accompanied by a fatal pseudo-
universalism which, cutting away all that was peculiar, indi-
vidual and most intense in all religions, left in any one of them
but a lifeless form. A theology consisting of a few vague gener-
alities was sufficient to sustain the piety of the best of the deists;
but it had not the concreteness or intensity necessary to take a
firm hold on those whom it emancipated from the old beliefs.
The negative side of deism came to the front, and, communicated
with fatal facility, seems ultimately to have constituted the
deism that was commonly professed at the clubs of the wits
and the tea-tables of polite society. But the in tenser religious life
before which deism fell was also a revolt against the abstract and
argumentative orthodoxy of the time.

That the deists appreciated fully the scope of difficulties in
Christian theology and the sacred books is not their most
noteworthy feature; but that they made a stand, sometimes
cautiously, often with outspoken fearlessness, against the pre-
supposition that the Bible is the religion of Protestants. They
themselves gave way to another presupposition equally fatal
to true historical research, though in great measure common
to them and their opponents. It was assumed by deists in

DEISHER

937

debating against the orthodox, that the flood of error in the
hostile camp was due to the benevolent cunning or deliberate
self-seeking of unscrupulous men, supported by the ignorant with
the obstinacy of prejudice.;

Yet deism deserves to be remembered as a strenuous protest
against bibliolatry in every degree and against; all traditionalism
in theology. It sought to look not a few facts full in the face,
from a new point of view and with a thoroughly modern though
unhistorical spirit. It was not a religious movement ; and
though, as a defiance of the accepted theology, its character was
mainly theological, the deistical crusade belongs, not to the
history of the church, or of dogma, but to the history of general
culture. It was an attitude of mind, not a body of doctrine; its
nearest parallel is probably to be found in the eclectic strivings
of the Renaissance philosophy and the modernizing tendencies
of cisalpine humanism. The controversy was assumed to be
against prejudice, ignorance, obscurantism; what monks were to
Erasmus the clergy as such were to Woolston. Yet English deism
was in many ways characteristically English. The deists were, as
usually happens with the leaders of English thought, no class of
professional men, but represented every rank in the community.
They made their appeal in the mother tongue to all men who
could read and think, and sought to reduce the controversy to its
most direct practical issue. And, with but one or two exceptions,
they avoided wildness in their language as much as in the general
scheme of theology they proposed. If at times they had recourse
to ambiguity of speech and veiled polemic, this might be partly
excused when we remember the hanging of Thomas Aikenhead
in 1697 for ridiculing the Bible, and Woolston's imprisonment
in 1729.

French deism, the direct progeny of the English movement,
was equally short-lived. Voltaire during his three years'
residence in England (1 726-1 729) absorbed an enthusiasm for
freedom of thought, and provided himself with the arguments
necessary to support the deism which he had learned in his
youth; he was to the end a deist of the school of Bolingbroke.
Rousseau, though not an active assailant of Christianity, could
have claimed kindred with the nobler deists. Diderot was for a
time heartily in sympathy with deistic thought; and the Encyclo-
pidie was in its earlier portion an organ of deism. Even in the
Roman Catholic Church a large number of the leading divines were
frankly deistic, nor were they for that reason regarded as irreligi-
ous. But as Locke's philosophy became in France sensationalism,
and as Locke's pregnant question, reiterated by Collins, how we
know that the divine power might not confer thought on matter,
led the way to dogmatic materialism, so deism soon gave way to
forms of thought more directly and completely subversive of the
traditional theology. None the less it is unquestionable that, in
the period preceding the Revolution the bulk of French thinkers
were ultimately deists in various degrees, and that deism was a
most potent factor not only in speculative but also in social
and political development. Many of the leaders of the revolution-
ary movement were deists, though it is quite false to say that the
extreme methods of the movement were the result of widespread
rationalism.

In Germany there was a native free-thinking theology nearly
contemporary with that of England, whence it was greatly
developed and supplemented. Among the earliest names are
those of Georg Schade (1712-1795), J. B. Basedow (1723-1790),
the educationist, Johann August Eberhard (q.v.) ; and K. F.
Bahrdt, who regarded Christ as merely a noble teacher like Moses,
Confucius and Luther. The compact rational philosophy of
Wolff nourished a theological rationalism which in H. S. Reimarus
was wholly undistinguishable from dogmatic deism, and was
undoubtedly to a great extent adopted by Lessing; while, in the
case of the historico-critical school to which J. S. Sender belonged,,
the distinction is not always easily drawn — although these
rationalists professedly recognized in Scripture a real divine
revelation, mingled with local and temporary elements. It
deserves to be noted here that the former, the theology of the
Atifklarung, was, like that of the deists, destined to a short-lived
notoriety; whereas the solid, accurate and scholarly researches

of the rationalist critics of Germany, undertaken with no
merely polemical spirit, not only form an epoch in the history of
theology, but have taken a permanent place in the body of
theological science. Ere ralionalismus vulgaris fell before the
combined assault of Schleiermacher's subjective theology and
the deeper historical insight of the Hegelians, it had found a
refuge successively in the Kantian postulates of the practical
reason, and in the vague but earnest faith-philosophy of
Jacobi.

Outside France, Germany and England, there were no great
schools of thought distinctively deistic, though in most countries
there is to be found a rationalistic anti-clerical movement which
partakes of the character of deism. It seems probable, for
example, that in Portugal the marquis de Pombal was in reality
a deist, and both in Italy and in Spain there were signs of the
same rationalistic revolt. More certain, and also more striking,
is the fact that the leading statesmen in the American War of
Independence were emphatically deists; Benjamin Franklin
(who attributes his position to the study of Shaftesbury and
Collins), Thomas Paine, Washington and Jefferson, although they
all had the greatest admiration for the New Testament story,
denied that it was based on any supernatural revelation. For
various reasons the movement in America did not appear on
the surface to any great extent, and after the comparative
failure of Elihu Palmer's Principles of Nature it expressed itself
chiefly in the spread of Unitarianism.

In England, though the deists were forgotten, their spirit
was not wholly dead. For men like Hume and Gibbon the stand-
point of deism was long left behind ; yet Gibbon's famous two
chapters might well have been written by a deist. Even now
many undoubtedly cling to a theology nearly allied to deism.
Rejecting miracles and denying the infallibility of Scripture,
protesting against Calviriistic views of sovereign grace and having
rib interest in evangelical Arminianism, the faith of such inquirers
seems fairly to coincide with that of the deists. Even some
cultured theologians, the historical representatives of latitudina-
rianism, seem to accept the great body of what was contended
for by the deists. Moreover, the influence of the deistic writers
had an incalculable influence in the gradual progress towards
tolerance, and in the spread of a broader attitude towards
intellectual problems, and this too, though, as we have seen, the
original deists devoted themselves mainly to a crusade against
the doctrine of revelation.

The original deists displayed a singular incapacity to under-
stand the true conditions of history; yet amongst them there
were some who pointed the way to the truer, more generous
interpretation of the past. When Shaftesbury wrote that
" religion is still a discipline, and progress of the soul towards
perfection," he gave birth to the same thought that was after-
wards hailed in Lessing's Erziehung des Menschengeschlechtes as
the dawn of a fuller and a purer light on the history of religion
and on the development of the spiritual life of mankind.

Authorities. — See John Leland, A View of the Principal
Deistical Writers (2 vols., 1754-1756; ed. 1837); G. V. Lechler,
Ceschichle des englischen Deismus (2 vols., 1841); L. Noack, Die
Freidenker in der Religion (Bern, 1853-1855) ; John Hunt, Religious
Thought in England (3 vols., 1870-1872); Leslie Stephen, History
of English Thought in the 18th Century (2 vols., 1876); A. S. Farrar,
A Critical History of Free Thought (1862, Bampton Lectures);
J. H. Overton and F. Relton, The English Church from the Accession
of George I. to the end of the iSth Century (1906; especially
chap, w., "The Answer to Deism"); A. W. Benn, History of
English Rationalism in the 19th Century (1906) ; i. 1 1 1 ff . ;
J. M. Robertson, Short History of Free Thought (1906) ; G. Ch.
B. Punjer, Geschichte der christlichen Religionsphilosophie seit
der Reformation (Brunswick, 1880); M. W. Wiseman, Dynamics
of Religion (London, 1897), pt.'ii.; article " Deismus" in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopddie (vol. iv., 1898).

DEISTER, a chain of hills in Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, about 15 m. S.W. of the city of Hanover. It runs
in a north-westerly direction from Springe in the S. to Roden-
berg in the N. It has a total length of 14 m., and rises in the
Hofeler to a height of 1250 ft. The chain is well- wooded and
abounds in game. There are some coal mines and sandstone
quarries.

938

DEJAZET— DEKKER, J. DE

DEJAZET, PAULINE VIRGINIE (1798-1875), French actress,
born in Paris on the 30th of Ausust 1798, made her first appear-
ance on the stage at the age of five. It was not until 1820, when
she began her seven years' connexion with the recently founded
Gymnase, that she wonher triumphs in soubrette and " breeches "
parts, which came to be known as " Dejazets." From 1828 she
played at the Nouveautes for three years, then at the Varietes,
and finally became manager, with her son, of the Folies, which
was renamed the Theatre Dejazet. Here, even at the age of
sixty-five, she had marvellous success in youthful parts, especially
in a number of Sardou's earlier plays, previously unacted. She
retired in 1868, and died on the 1st of December 1875, leaving a
great name in the annals of the French stage.

See Duval's Virginie Dejazet (1876).

DE KALB, a city of De Kalb county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.
part of the state, about 58 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 2579;
(1900) 5904 (1520 foreign-born); (1910) 8102. De Kalb is
served by the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago & North-
Western, and the Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota railways, and by
interurban electric lines. It is the seat of the Northern Illinois
state normal school (opened in 1899). The principal manu-
factures of De Kalb are woven and barbed wire, waggons and
agricultural implements, pianos, shoes, gloves, and creamery
packages. The city has important dairy interests also. De
Kalb was first settled in 1832, was known as Buena Vista until
1840, was incorporated as a village in 1861, and in 1877 was
organized under the general state law as a city.

DE KEYSER, THOMAS (1596 or 1597-1667), Dutch painter,
was born at Amsterdam, the son of the architect and sculptor
Hendrik de Keyser. We have no definite knowledge of his
training, and but scant information as to the course of his life,
though it is known that he owned a basalt business between 1640 '
and 1654. Aert Pietersz, Corneiis vanider Voort, Werner van
Valckert and Nicolas Elias are accredited by different author-
ities with having developed his talent; and M. Karl Woermann,
who has pronounced in favour of Nicolas Elias is supported
by the fact that almost all that master's pictures were formerly
attributed to De Keyser, who, in like fashion, exercised some
influence upon Rembrandt when, he first went to Amsterdam in
' 1631. De Keyser chiefly excelled as a portrait painter, though he
also executed some historical and mythological pictures, such
as the " Theseus " and " Ariadne " in the Amsterdam town hall.
His portraiture is full of character and masterly in handling,
and often, as in the " Old Woman " of the Budapest gallery, is
distinguished by a rich golden glow of colour and Rembrandt-
esque chiaroscuro. Some of his portraits are life-size, but the
artist generally preferred to keep them on a considerably smaller
scale, like the famous " Group of Amsterdam Burgomasters "
assembled to receive Marie de' Medici in 1638, now at the Hague
museum. The sketch for this important painting, together with
three other drawings, was sold at the Gallitzin sale in 1783
for the sum of threepence. The German emperor owns an
" Equestrian Portrait of a young Dutchman," by De Keyser,
a late work which in general disposition and in the soft manner
of painting recalled the work of Cuyp. Similar pictures are in
the Dresden and Frankfort museums, in the Heyl collection at
Worms, and the Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna. The National
Gallery, London, owns a characteristic portrait group of a
" Merchant with his Clerk "; the Hague museum, besides the
group already referred to, a magnificent " Portrait of a Savant,"
and the Haarlem museum a fine portrait of " Claes Fabricius."
At the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam there are no fewer than
twelve works from his brush, and other important examples
are to be found in Brussels, Munich, Copenhagen and St
Petersburg.

DEKKER, EDWARD DOUWES (1820-1887), Dutch writer,
commonly known as Multatuli, was born at Amsterdam on the
"2nd of March 1820. His father, a ship's captain, intended his son
for trade, but this humdrum prospect disgusted him, and in 1838
he went out to Java, and obtained, a post in the Inland Revenue.
He rose from one position to another, until, in 1851, he found
himslf assistant-resident at Amboyna, in the Moluccas. In 1857

he was transferred to Lebak, in the Bantam residency of Java.
By this time, however, all the secrets of Dutch administration
were known to him, and he had begun to protest against the
abuses of the colonial system. In consequence he was threatened
with dismissal from his office for his openness of speech, and,
throwing up his appointment, he returned to Holland in a state of
fierce indignation. He determined to expose in detail the scandals
he had witnessed, and he began to do so in newspaper articles and
pamphlets. Little notice, however, was taken of his protestations
until, in i860, he published, under the pseudonym of " Multatuli,"
his romance entitled Max Havelaar. An attempt was made to
ignore this brilliant and irregular book, but in vain; it was read
all over Europe. The exposure of the abuse of free labour in the
Dutch Indies was complete, although there were not wanting
apologists who accused Dekker's terrible picture of being over-
coloured. He was now fairly launched on literature, and he lost
no time in publishing Love Letters (1861), which, in spite of their
mild title, proved to be mordant satires of the most rancorous
and unsparing kind. The literary merit of Multatuli's work was
much contested; he received an unexpected and most valuable
ally in Vosmaer. He continued to write much, and to faggot
his miscellanies in uniform volumes called Ideas, of which seven
appeared between 1862 and 1877. Douwes quitted Holland,
shaking off her dust from his feet, and went to live at Wiesbaden.
He now made several attempts to gain the stage, and one of his
pieces, The School for Princes, 1875 (published in the fourth
volume of Ideas), pleased himself so highly that he is said to have
styled it the greatest drama ever written. It is a fine poem,
written in blank verse, like an English tragedy, and not in Dutch
Alexandrines; but it is uhdramatic, and has not held the boards.
Douwes Dekker moved his residence to Nieder Ingelheim, on the
Rhine, and there he died on the 19th of February 1887.

Towards the end of his career he was the centre of a crowd
of disciples and imitators, who did his reputation no service;
he is now, again, in danger of being read too little. To under-
stand his fame, it is necessary to remember the sensational way
in which he broke into the dulness of Dutch literature fifty years
ago, like a flame out of the Far East. He was ardent, provo-
cative, perhaps a little hysterical, but he made himelf heard
all over Europe. He brought an exceedingly severe indictment
against the egotism and brutality of the administrators of Dutch
India, and he framed it in a literary form which was brilliantly
original. Not satisfied with this, he attacked, in a fury that
was sometimes blind, everything that seemed to him falsely
conventional in Dutch religion, government, society and morals.
He respected nothing, he left no institution untouched. Now
that it is possible to look back upon Multatuli without passion,
we see in him, not what Dutch enthusiasm saw, — " the second
writer of Europe in the nineteenth century " (Victor Hugo being
presumably the first), — but a great man who was a powerful
and glowing author, yet hardly an artist, a reckless enthusiast,
who was inspired by indignation and a burning sense of justice,
who cared little for his means if only he could produce his effect.
He is seen to his best and worst in Max Havelaar; his Ideas, hard,
fantastic and sardonic, seldom offer any solid satisfaction to the
foreign reader. But Multatuli deserves remembrance, if only on
account of the unequalled effect his writing had in rousing Holland
from the intellectual and moral lethargy in which she lay half a
century ago. (E. G.)

DEKKER, JEREMIAS DE (1610-1666), Dutch poet, was born
at Dort in 16 10. His father was a native of Antwerp, who,
having embraced the reformed religion, had been compelled to
take refuge in Holland. Entering his father's business at an
early age, he found leisure to cultivate his taste for literature
and especially for poetry, and to acquire without assistance a
competent knowledge of English, French, Latin and Italian.
His first poem was a paraphrase of the Lamentations of Jeremiah
{Klaagliedern van Jeremias), which was followed by translations
and imitations of Horace, Juvenal and other Latin poets. The
most important of his original poems were a collection of epigrams
(Puntdichten) and a satire in praise of avarice (Lof der Geldzucht).
The latter is his best-known work. Written in a vein of light and

DEKKER, THOMAS

939

yet effective irony, it is usually ranked by critics along with
Erasmus's Praise of Folly. Dekker died at Amsterdam in

November 1666.

A complete collection of his poems, edited by Brouerius van
Nideck, was published at Amsterdam in 1726 under the title
Exercices poHiques (2 vols. 4*0.). Selections from his poems are
included in Siegenbeck's Proeven van nederduitsche Dichtkunde (1823),
and from his epigrams in Geijsbeek's Epigrammatische Anthologie
(1827).

DEKKER (or Decker), THOMAS (c. 1570-1641), English
dramatist, was born in London. His name occurs frequently in
Henslowe's Diary during the last three years of the 16th century;
he is mentioned there as receiving loans and payments for writing
plays in conjunction with Ben Jonson, Drayton, Chettle,
Haughton, Wilson, Day and others, and he would appear to
have been then in the most active employment as a playwright.
The titles of the plays on which he was engaged from April 1599
to March 1599/1600 are Troilus and Cressida, Orestes Fures,
Agamemnon, The Gentle Craft, The Stepmother's Tragedy, Bear a
Brain, Pagge of Plymouth, Robert the Second, The Whole History of
Fortunatus, Patient Grissel, Truth's Supplication to Candlelight,
The Spanish Moor's Tragedy, The Seven Wise Masters. At that
date it is evident that Dekker's services were in great request for
the stage. He is first mentioned in the Diary under date 8th of
January 1597/1598, as having sold a book, i.e. the manuscript of
a play; the payments in 1599 are generally made in advance, in
earnest " of work to be done. In the case of three of the above
plays, Orestes Fures, Truth's Supplication and The Gentle Craft,
Dekker is paid as the sole author. Only The Gentle Craft has been
preserved; it was published anonymously in 1600 under the title
of The Shoemaker's Holiday. It would be unsafe to argue from
the classical subjects of some of these plays that Dekker was then
a young man from the university, who had come up like so many
others to make a living by writing for the stage. Classical know-
ledge was then in the air; playwrights in want of a subject were
content with translations, if they did not know the originals.
However educated, Dekker was then a young man just out of his
teens, if he spoke with any accuracy when he said that he was
threescore in 1637. And it was not in scholarly themes that he
was destined to find his true vein. The call for the publication
of The Gentle Craft, which deals with the life of the city, showed
him where his strength lay.

To give a general idea of the substance of Dekker's plays, there
is no better way than to call him the Dickens of the Elizabethan
period. The two men were as unlike as possible in their habits
of work, Dekker having apparently all the thriftlessness and
impecunious shamelessness of Micawber himself. Henslowe's
Diary contains two notes of payments made in 1597/1598 and
1 598/1 599 to release Dekker from prison, and he is supposed to
have spent the years between 1613 and 1616 in the King's Bench.
Dekker's Bohemianism appears in the slightness and hurry of his
work, a strong contrast to the thoroughness and rich completeness
of every labour to which Dickens applied himself; perhaps also in
the exquisite freshness and sweetness of his songs, and the natural
charm of stray touches of expression and description in his plays.
But he was like Dickens in the bent of his genius towards the
representation of the life around him in London, as well as in the
humorous kindliness of his way of looking at that life, his vein of
sentiment, and his eye for odd characters, though the random
pickings of Dekker, hopping here and there in search of a subject,
give less complete results than the more systematic labours of
Dickens. Dekker's Simon Eyre, the good-hearted, mad shoe-
maker, and his Orlando Friscobaldo, are touched with a kindly
humour in which Dickens would have delighted; his Infelices,
Fiamettas, Tormiellas, even his Bellafront, have a certain likeness
in type to the heroines of Dickens; and his roaring blades and
their gulls are prototypes of Sir Mulberry Hawk and Lord
Frederick Verisopht. Only there is this great difference in the
spirit of the two writers, that Dekker wrote without the smallest
apparent wish to reform the life that he saw, desiring only to
exhibit it; and that on the whole, apart from his dramatist's
necessity of finding interesting matter, he cast his eye about
rather with a liking for the discovery of good under unpromising

appearances than with any determination to detect and expose
vice. The observation must also be made that Dekker's person-
ages have much more individual character, more of that mixture
of good and evil which we find in real human beings. Hack-
writer though Dekker was, and writing often under sore pressure,
there is no dramatist whose personages have more of the breath of
life in them; drawing with easy, unconstrained hand, he was a
master of those touches by which an imaginary figure is brought
home to us as a creature with human interests. A very large part
of the motive power in his plays consists in the temporary yielding
to an evil passion. The kindly philosophy that the best of natures
may be for a time perverted by passionate desires is the chief
animating principle of his comedy. He delights in showing
women listening to temptation, and apparently yielding, but still
retaining sufficient control over themselves to be capable of
drawing back when on the verge of the precipice. The wives of
the citizens were his heroines, pursued by the unlawful addresses
of the gay young courtiers; and on the whole Dekker, from
inclination apparently as well as policy, though himself, if Ben
Jonson 's satire had any point, a bit of a dandy in his youth, took
the part of morality and the city, and either struck the rakes with
remorse or made the objects of their machinations clever enough
to outwit them. From Dekker's plays we get a very lively
impression of all that was picturesque and theatrically interesting
in the city life of the time, the interiors of the shops and the
houses, the tastes of the citizens and their wives, the tavern
and tobacco-shop manners of the youthful aristocracy and their
satellites. The social student cannot afford to overlook Dekker;
there is no other dramatist of that age, except Thomas Middleton,
from whom we can get such a vivid picture of contemporary
manners in London. He drew direct from life; in so far as he
idealized, he did so not in obedience to scholarly precepts or
dogmatic theories, but in the immediate interests of good-natured
farce and tender-hearted sentiment.

In all the serious parts of Dekker's plays there is a charming
delicacy of touch, and his smallest scraps of song are bewitching;
but his plays, as plays, owe much more to the interest of the
characters and the incidents than to any excellence of construc-
tion. We see what use could be made of his materials by a
stronger intellect in Westward Ho ! which he wrote in conjunction
with John Webster. The play, somehow, though the parts are
more firmly knit together, and it has more unity of purpose, is not
so interesting as Dekker's unaided work. Middleton formed a
more successful combination with Dekker than Webster; there
is some evidence that in The Honest Whore, or The Converted
Courtesan, which is generally regarded as the best that bears
Dekker's name, he had the assistance of Middleton, although the
assistance was so immaterial as not to be worth acknowledging
in the title-page. Still that Middleton, a man of little genius but
of much practical talent and robust humour, was serviceable to
Dekker in determining the form of the play may well be believed.
The two wrote another play in concert, The Roaring Girl, for
which Middleton probably contributed a good deal of the matter,
as well as a more symmetrical form than Dekker seems to have
been capable of devising. In The Witch of Edmonton, except in
a few scenes, it is difficult to trace the hand of Dekker with
any certainty; his collaborators were John Ford and William
Rowley; to Ford probably belongs the intense brooding and
murderous wrath of the old hag, which are too direct and hard
in their energy for Dekker, while Rowley may be supposed to
be responsible for the delineation of country life. The Virgin
Martyr, one of the best constructed of his plays, was written in
conjunction with Massinger, to whom the form is no doubt due.
Dekker's plays contain, a few songs which show him to have been
possessed of very great lyrical skill, but of this he seems to have
made sadly little use. His poem of Canaans Calamitie — if indeed
it be his, which is hard to believe — is exceedingly poor stuff, and
the verse portion of his Dreame, though containing some good
lines, is, as a whole, not much better.

When Gerard Langbaine wrote his Account of the English
Dramatic Poets in 1691, he spoke of Dekker as being "more
famous for the contention he had with Ben Jonson for the bays,

94°

DE LA BECHE

than for any great reputation he had gained by his own writings."
This is an opinion that could not be professed now, when Dekker's
work is read. In the contention with Ben Jonson, one of the most
celebrated quarrels of authors, the origin of which is matter of
dispute, Dekker seems to have had very much the best of it. We
can imagine that Jonson's attack was stinging at the time, because
it seems to be full of sarcastic personalities, but it is dull enough
now when nobody knows what Dekker was like, nor what was
the character of his mother. There is nothing in the Poetaster
that has any point as applied to Dekker's powers as a dramatist,
while, on the contrary, Satiromastix, or the Untrussing of the
Humorous Poet is full of pungent ridicule of Jonson's style, and of
retorts and insults conceived in the happiest spirit of good-
natured mockery. Dekker has been accused of poverty of
invention in adopting the character of the Poetaster, but it is
of the very pith of the jest that Dekker should have set on
Jonson's own foul-mouthed Captain Tucca to abuse Horace
himself.

Works. — The Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus (1600) ; The
Shomakers Holiday. Or The gentle Craft. With the humorous life of
Simon Eyre, skoomaker, and Lord Maior of London (1600) ; Satiro-
mastix. Or The untrussing of the Humorous Poet (1602); The
Pleasant Comodie of Patient Grissill (1663), with Chettle and
Haughton; The Honest Whore. With The Humours of the Patient
Man, and the Longing Wife (1604); North-Ward Hoe (1607), with
John Webster; West-Ward Hoe (1607), with John Webster; The
Whore of Babylon (1607) ; The Famous History of Sir Thomas Wyat.,
With the Coronation of Queen Mary, and the coming in of King Philip
(1607), with John Webster; The Roaring Girle. Or Moll Cut-Purse
(161 1), with Thomas Middleton; The Virgin Martir (1622), with
Massinger; // It Be Not Good, the Divel is in it (1612); The Second
Part of the Honest Whore. With the Humors of the Patient Man, the
Impatient Wife; the Honest Whore, perswaded by strong Arguments to
turne Curtizan againe; her brave refuting those Arguments. And
lastly, the Comicall Passages of an Italian Bridewell, where the Scaene
ends (1630); A Tragi-Comedy: Called, Match mee in London (1631) ;
The Wonder of a Kingdome (1636); The Witch of Edmonton. _A
known true Story. Composed into a Tragi-Comedy (1658), with
William Rowley and John Ford. The Sun's Darling (1656) was
possibly written by Ford and Dekker, or may be perhaps more
correctly regarded as a recast by Ford of a masque by Dekker,
perhaps his lost play of Phaeton. The pageants for the Lord Mayor's
shows of 1612 and 1629 were written by Dekker, and both are
preserved. His tracts are invaluable for the light which they throw on
the London of his time, especially in their descriptions of the circum-
stances of the theatre. Their titles,. many of which are necessarily
abbreviated, are: Canaans Calamitie, Jerusalems Miserie, and
Englands Mirror (1598), in verse; The Wonderfull Yeare 1603.
Wherein is shewed the picture of London lying sicke of the Plague
(1603); The Batchelars Banquet (1603); a brilliant adaptation of
Les Quinze Joyes de mariage; the Seven Deadly Sinnes of London
(1606); Newes from Hell, Brought by the Divells Carrier (1606),.
reprinted in the next year with some interesting additions as
A Knights Conjuring; Jests to make you Merie (1607), with George
Wilkins; The Belman of London: Bringing to Light the most
notorious villanies that are now practised in the Kingdome (1608);
followed by a second part and enlarged editions under other titles;
The Dead Tearme (1608) ; The Ravens Almdnacke, foretelling of a
Plague, Famine and Civill Warre (1609), ridiculing the almanac
makers; The Guls Horne-booke (1609), the most famous of all his
tracts, providing a code of manners for the Elizabethan gallant, in
the aisle of St Paul's, at the ordinary, at the playhouse, and other
resorts; Worke for Armorours, or the Peace is Broken (1609); Foure
Birds of Noahs Ark (1609); A Strange Horse-Race (1613); Dekker
his Dreame . . . (1620), in verse and prose, illustrated with a wood-
cut of the dreamer; and A Rod for Run-awayes (1625). This long
list does not exhaust Dekker's work, much of which is lost.

Authorities. — An edition of the collected dramatic works of
Dekker by R. H. Shepherd appeared in I873; his prose tracts and
poems were included in Dr A. B. Grosart's Huth Library (1884-1886) :
both these contain memoirs of him, but by far the most complete
account of his life and writings is to be found in the article by
A. H. Bullen in the Dictionary of National Biography. See also
the elaborate discussion of his plays in Mr Fleay s Biographical
Chronicle (1891), i. 115, &c, and, for his quarrel with Ben Jonson,
Prof. J. H. Penniman's War of the Theatres (Boston, 1897) and
Mr R. A. Small's Stage Quarrel between Ben Jonson^ and the so-
called Poetasters (Breslau, 1899). A selection from his plays was
edited for the Mermaid Series (1887; new series, 1 904) by Ernest
Rhys. An essay on Dekker by A. C. Swinburne appeared in The
Nineteenth Century for January 1887. (W. M.; R. B. McK.) :

DE LA BECHE, SIR HENRY THOMAS (1796-1855), English
geologist, was born in the year 1796. His father, an officer in the
army, possessed landed property in Jamaica, but died while his

son was still young. The boy accordingly spent his youth with
his mother at Lyme Regis among the interesting and picturesque
coast cliffs of the south-west of England, where he imbibed a love
for geological pursuits and cultivated a marked artistic faculty.
When fourteen years of age, being destined, like his friend
Murchison, for the military profession, he entered the college at
Great Marlow, where he distinguished himself by the rapidity and
skill with which he executed sketches showing the salient features
of a district. The peace of 1815, however, changed his career and
he devoted himself with ever-increasing assiduity to the pursuit
of geology. When only twenty-one years of age he joined the
Geological Society of London, continuing throughout life to be
one of its most active, useful and honoured members. He was
president in 1848-1849. Possessing a fortune sufficient for the
gratification of his tastes, he visited many localities of geological
interest, not only in Britain, but also on the continent, in France
and Switzerland. His journeys seldom failed to bear fruit in
suggestive papers accompanied by sketches. Early attachment
to the south-west of England led him back to that region, where,
with enlarged experience, he began the detailed investigation of
the rocks of Cornwall and Devon. Thrown much into contact with
the mining community of that part of the country, he conceived
the idea that the nation ought to compile a geological map of the
United Kingdom, and collect and preserve specimens to illustrate,
and aid in further developing, its mineral industries. He showed
his skilful management of affairs by inducing the government of
the day to recognize his work and give him an appointment in
connexion with the Ordnance Survey. This formed the starting
point of the present Geological Survey of Great Britain, which
was officially recognized in 1835, when De la Beche was appointed
director. Year by year increasing stores of valuable specimens
were transmitted to London; and the building at Craig's Court,
where the young Museum of Economic Geology was placed,
became too small. But De la Beche, having seen how fruitful his
first idea had become, appealed to the authorities not merely to
provide a larger structure, but to widen the whole scope of the
scientific establishment of which he was the head, so as to impart
to -it the character of a great educational institution where
practical as well as theoretical instruction should be given in
every branch of science necessary for the conduct of mining work.
In this endeavour he was again successful. Parliament sanctioned
the erection of a museum in Jermyn Street, London, and the
organization of a staff of professors with laboratories and other
appliances. The establishment, in which were combined the
offices of the Geological Survey, the Museum of Practical Geology,
The Royal School of Mines and the Mining Record Office, was
opened in 1851. Many foreign countries have since formed
geological surveys avowedly based upon the organization and
experience of that of the United Kingdom. The British colonies,
also, have in many instances established similar surveys for the
development of their mineral resources, and have had recourse
to the parent survey for advice and for officers to conduct the
operations.

De la Beche published numerous memoirs on English geology
in the Transactions of the Geological Society of London, as well as in
the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, notably the Report on the
Geology of Cornwall, Devon and West Somerset (1839). He like-
wise wrote A Geological Manual (1831; 3rd ed., 1833); and a
work of singular breadth and clearness — Researches in Theoretical
Geology (1834) — in which he enunciated a philosophical treat-
ment of geological questions much in advance of his time. An
early volume, How to Observe Geology (1835 and 1836), was
rewritten and enlarged by him late in life, and published under
the title of The Geological Observer (1851; 2nd ed., 1853). It was
marked by wide practical experience, multifarious knowledge,
philosophical insight and a genius for artistic delineation of
geological phenomena. He was elected F.R.S. in 1819. He
received the honour of knighthood in 1848, and near the close of
his life was awarded the Wollaston medal — the highest honour
in the gift of the Geological Society of London. After a life of
constant activity he began to suffer from partial paralysis, but,
though becoming gradually worse, continued able to transact

DELABORDE— DE LA GARDIE

941

his official business until a few days before his death, which
took place on the 13 th of April 1855.

See Sir A. Geikie's Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay (1895), which
contains a sketch of the history of the Geological Survey, and of
the life of De la Beche (with portrait) ; also Summary of Progress of
the Geological Survey for 1897 (1898).

DELABORDE, HENRI FRANCOIS, Count (1764-1833),
French soldier, was the son of a baker of Dijon. At the out-
break of the French Revolution he joined the " Volunteers of the
Cote-d'Or," and passing rapidly through all the junior grades,
was made general of brigade after the combat of Rhein-Zabern
( 1 793) . As chief of the staff he was present at the siege of Toulon
in the same year, and, promoted general of division, he was for
a time governor of Corsica. In 1794 Delaborde served on the
Spanish frontier, distinguishing himself at the Bidassoa (July 25)
and Misquiriz (October 16). His next command was on the
Rhine. At the head of a division he took part in the cele-
brated campaigns of 1795-97, an d in 1796 covered Moreau's
right when that general invaded Bavaria. Delaborde was in
constant military employment during the Consulate and the
early Empire. Made commander of the Legion of Honour in
1804, he received the dignity of count in 1808. In that year
he was serving in Portugal under Junot. Against Sir Arthur
Wellesley's English army he fought the skilful and brilliant
^ear-guard action of Rolica. In 181 2 he was one of Mortier's
divisional leaders in the Russian War, and in the following
year was grand cross and governor of the castle of Compiegne.
Joining Napoleon in the Hundred Days, he was marked for
punishment by the returning Bourbons, sent before a court-
martial, and only escaped condemnation through a technical
flaw in the wording of the charge. The rest of his life was
spent in retirement.

DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGENE (1 798-1863),
French historical painter, leader of the Romantic movement,
was born at Charenton-St-Maurice, near Paris, on the 26th of
April 1798. His father Charles Delacroix (1741-1805) was a
partisan of the most violent faction during the time of the Revolu-
tion, and was foreign minister under the Directory. The family
affairs seem to have been conducted in the wildest manner, and
the accidents that befell the child, well authenticated as they are
said to be, make it almost a miracle that he survived. He was
first nearly burned to death in the cradle by a nurse falling asleep
over a novel and the candle dropping on the coverlet; this left
permanent marks on his arms and face. He was next dropped
into the sea by another bonne, who was climbing up a ship's side
to see her lover. He was nearly poisoned, and nearly choked,
and, to crown all, he tried to hang himself, without any thought of
suicide, in imitation of a print exhibiting a man in that position
of final ignominy. The prediction of a charlatan founded on his
horoscope has been preserved: " Cet enfant deviendra un
homme celebre, mais sa vie sera des plus laborieuses, des plus
tourmentees, et toujours livree a, la contradiction."

Delacroix the elder (also known as Delacroix de Contaut)
died at Bordeaux when Eugene was seven years of age, and his
mother returned to Paris and placed him in the Lycee Napoleon.
Afterwards, on his determining to be a painter, he entered the
atelier of Baron Guerin, who affected to treat him as an amateur.
His fellow-pupil was Ary Scheffer, who was alike by tempera-
ment and antecedents the opposite of the bizarre Delacroix, and
the two remained antagonistic to the end of life. Delacroix's
acknowledged power and yet want of success with artists and
critics — Thiers being his only advocate — perhaps mainly resulted
from his bravura and rude dash in the use of the brush, at a
time when smooth roundness of surface was general. His first
important picture, " Dante and Virgil, " was painted in his own
studio; and when Guerin went to see it he flew into a passion,
and told him his picture was absurd, detestable, exaggerated.
" Why ask me to come and see this? you knew what I must
say." Yet his work was received at the Salon, and produced an
enthusiasm of debate (1822). Some said Gericault had worked
on it, but all treated it with respect. Still in private his position,
even after the larger tragic picture, the " Massacre of Chios," had

been deposited in the Luxembourg by the government (1824), 1
became that of an Ishmaelite. The war for the freedom of Greece
then going on moved him deeply, and his next two pictures —
" Marino Faliero Decapitated on the Giant's Staircase of the
Ducal Palace " (which has always remained a European success),
and " Greece Lamenting on the Ruins of Missolonghi " — with
many smaller works, were exhibited for the benefit of the
patriots in 1826. This exhibition was much visited by the public,
and next year he produced another of his important works,
" Sardanapalus," from Byron's drama. After this, he says, " I
became the abomination of painting, I was refused water and
salt," — but, he adds with singularly happy naivete, " J'etais
enchante de moi-meme!" The patrimony he inherited, or
perhaps it should be said, what remained of it, was 10,000 limes
de rente, and with economy he lived on this, and continued the
expensive process of painting large historical pictures. In 1831
he reappeared in the Salon with six works, and immediately
after left for Morocco, where he found much congenial matter.
Delacroix never went to Italy; he refused to go on principle,
lest the old masters, either in spirit or manner, should impair
his originality and self-dependence. His greatest admiration in
literature was the poetry of Byron; Shakespeare also attracted
him for tragic inspirations; and of course classic subjects had
their turn of his easel.

He continued his work indefatigably, having his pictures very
seldom favourably received at the Salon. These were sometimes
very large, full of incidents, with many figures. " Drawing of
Lots in the Boat at Sea," from Byron's Don Juan, and the
" Taking of Constantinople by the Christians " were of that
character, and the former was one of his noblest creations. In
1845 he was employed to decorate the library of the Luxembourg,
that of the chamber of deputies in 1847, the ceiling of the gallery
of Apollo in the Louvre in 1849 and that of the Salon de la Paix
in the hotel de ville in 1853. He died on the 13th of August 1863,
and in August 1864 an exhibition of his works was opened on
the Boulevard des Italiens. It contained 174 pictures, many of
them of large dimensions, and 303 drawings, showing immense
perseverance as well as energy and versatility. As a colourist,
and a romantic painter, he now ranks among the greatest of
French artists.

See also A. Robaut, Delacroix (1885); E. Dargenty, Delacroix par
lui-m&me (1885) ; G. Moreau, Delacroix et son osuvre (1893) ; Dorothy
Bussy, Eugene Delacroix (1907).

DE LA GARDIE, MAGNUS GABRIEL, Count (1622-1686),
Swedish statesman, the best-known member of an ancient family
of French origin (the D'Escouperies of Languedoc) which had
been settled in Sweden since the 14th century. After a careful
education, completed by the usual grand tour, Magnus learned
the art of war under Gustavus Horn, and during the reign of
Christina (1644-1654), whose prime favourite he became, though
the liaison was innocent enough, he was raised to the highest
offices in the state and loaded with distinctions. In 1646 he was
sent at the head of an extraordinary mission to France, and on his
return married the queen's cousin Marie Euphrosyne of Zwei-
bnicken, who, being but a poor princess, benefited greatly by her
wedding with the richest of the Swedish magnates. Immediately
afterwards, De la Gardie was made a senator, governor-general of
Saxony during the last stages of the Thirty Years' War, and, in
1652, lord high treasurer. In 1653 he fell into disgrace and had
to withdraw from court. During the reign of Charles X. (1654-
1660) he was employed in the Baltic provinces both as a civilian
and a soldier, although in the latter capacity he gave the martial
king but little satisfaction. Charles X. nevertheless, in his last
will, appointed De la Gardie grand-chancellor and a member of
the council of regency which ruled Sweden during the minority
of CharlesXI. (1660-1672). During this period De la Gardie was
the ruling spirit of the government and represented the party of
warlike adventure as opposed to the party of peace and economy
led by Counts Bonde and Brahe (qq.v.). After a severe struggle
De la Gardie's party finally prevailed, and its triumph was
marked by that general decline of personal and political morality
which has given to this regency its unenviable reputation.

942

DELAGOA BAY— DELAMBRE

It was De la Gardie who first made Sweden the obsequious
hireling of the foreign power which had the longest purse. The
beginning of this shameful " subsidy policy " was the treaty of
Fontainebleau, 1661, by a secret paragraph of which Sweden,
in exchange for a considerable sum of money, undertook to
support the French candidate on the first vacancy of the Polish
throne. It was not, however, till the 14th of April 1672 that
Sweden, by the treaty of Stockholm, became a regular " mercen-
arius Galliae," pledging herself, in return for 400,000 'icus per
annum in peace and 600,000 in war time, to attack with 16,000
men those German, princes who might be disposed to assist
Holland. The early disasters of the unlucky war of 1675-1679
were rightly attributed to the carelessness, extravagance, pro-
crastination and general incompetence of De la Gardie and his
high aristocratic colleagues. In 1675 a special commission was
appointed to inquire into their conduct, and on the 27th of May
1682 it decided that the regents and the senate were solely
responsible for dilapidations of the realm, the compensation due
by them to the crown being assessed at 4,000,000 daler or £500,000.
De la Gardie was treated with relative leniency, but he " received
permission to retire to his estates for the rest of his life " and died
there in comparative poverty, a mere shadow of his former
magnificent self. The best sides of his character were his brilliant
social gifts and his intense devotion to literature and art.

See Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhetstid (Stockholm, 1881); Sv.
Hist. iv. ; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1905).

(R. N. B.)

DELAGOA BAY (Port, for the bay " of the lagoon "), an inlet
of the Indian Ocean on the east coast of South Africa, between
25° 40' and 26 20' S., with a length from north to south of over
70 m. and a breadth of about 20 m. The bay is the northern
termination of the series of lagoons which line the coast from
Saint Lucia Bay. The opening is toward the N.E. The southern
part of the bay is formed by a peninsula, called the Inyak
peninsula, which on its inner or western side affords safe
anchorage. At its N.W. point is Port Melville. North of the
peninsula is Inyak Island, and beyond it a smaller island
known as Elephant's Island.

In spite of a bar at the entrance and a number of shallows
within, Delagoa Bay forms a valuable harbour, accessible to
large vessels at all seasons of the year. The surrounding country
is low and very unhealthy, but the island of Inyak has a height
of 240 ft., and is used as a sanatorium. A river 12 to 18 ft. deep,
known as the Manhissa or Komati, enters the bay at its northern
end; several smaller streams, the Matolla, the Umbelozi, and
the Tembi, from the Lebombo Mountains, meet towards the
middle of the bay in the estuary called by the Portuguese the
Espirito Santo, but generally known as the English river; and
the Maputa, which has its headwaters in the Drakensberg, enters
in the south, as also does the Umfusi river. These rivers are the
haunts of the hippopotamus and the crocodile.

Tb<3 bay was discovered by the Portuguese navigator Antonio
de Campo, one of Vasco da Gama's companions, in 1502, and
the Portuguese post of Lourenco Marques was established not
long after on the north side of the English river. In 1720 the
Dutch East India Company built a fort and " factory " on the
spot where Lourenco Marques now stands; but in 1730 the
settlement was abandoned. Thereafter the Portuguese had —
intermittently — trading stations in the Espirito Santo. These
stations were protected by small forts, usually incapable, however,
of withstanding attacks by the natives. In 1823 Captain (after-
wards Vice-Admiral) W. F. W. Owen, of the British navy, finding
that the Portuguese exercised no jurisdiction south of the
settlement of Lourenco Marques, concluded treaties of cession
with native chiefs, hoisted the British flag, and appropriated the
country from the English river southwards ; but when he visited
the bay again in 1824 he found that the Portuguese, disregarding
the British treaties, had concluded others with the natives, and
had endeavoured (unsuccessfully) to take military possession of
the country. Captain Owen rehoisted the British flag, but the
sovereignty of either power was left undecided till the claims of
the Transvaal Republic rendered a solution of the question

urgent. In the meantime Great Britain had taken no steps to
exercise authority on the spot, while the ravages of Zulu hordes
confined Portuguese authority to the limits of their fort. In
1835 Boers, under a leader named Orich, had attempted to form
a settlement on the bay, which is the natural outlet for the
Transvaal; and in 1868 the Transvaal president, Marthinus
Pretorius, claimed the country on each side of the Maputa down
to the sea. In the following year, however, the Transvaal
acknowledged Portugal's sovereignty over the bay. In 1861
Captain Bickford, R.N., had declared Inyak and Elephant
islands British territory; an act protested against by the
Lisbon authorities. In 1872 the dispute between Great Britain
and Portugal was submitted to the arbitration of M. Thiers, the
French president; and on the 19th of April 1875 his successor,
Marshal MacMahon, declared in favour of the Portuguese. It
had been previously agreed by Great Britain and Portugal that
the right of pre-emption in case of sale or cession should be given
to the unsuccessful claimant to the. bay. Portuguese authority
over the interior was not established until some time after the
MacMahon award; nominally the country south of the Manhissa
river was ceded to them by the Matshangana chief Umzila in
1861. In 1889 another dispute arose between Portugal and Great
Britain in consequence of the seizure by the Portuguese of the
railway running from the bay to the Transvaal. This dispute was
referred to arbitration, and in 1900 Portugal was condemned to
pay nearly £1,000,000 in compensation to the shareholders in the
railway company. (See Lourenqo Marques and Gazalani5.)

For an account of the Delagoa Bay arbitration proceedings see Sir
E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty, iii. 991-998 (London,
1909). Consult also the British blue-book, Delagoa Bay, Correspond-
ence respecting the Claims of Her Majesty's Government (London, 1875) ;
L. van Deventer, La Hollande et la Baie Delagoa (The Hague, 1883) ;
G. McC. Theal, The Portuguese in South Africa (London, 1896), and
History of South Africa since September 1795, vol. v. (London, 1908).
The Narrative of Voyages to explore the shores of Africa . . . per-
formed . . . under direction of Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N. (London,
1833) contains much interesting information concerning the district
in the early part of the 19th century.

DELAMBRE, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1749-1822), French
astronomer, was born at Amiens on the 19th of September
1749. His college course, begun at Amiens under the abbe
Jacques Delille, was finished in Paris, where he took a scholarship
at the college of Plessis. Despite extreme penury, he then
continued to study indefatigably ancient and modern languages,
history and literature, finally turning his attention to mathe-
matics and astronomy. In 1771 he became tutor to the son of
M. d'Assy, receiver-general of finances; and while acting in this
capacity, attended the lectures of J. J. Lalande, who, struck with
his remarkable acquirements, induced M. d'Assy in 1 788 to install
an observatory for his benefit at his own residence. Here
Delambre observed and computed almost uninterruptedly, and
in 1790 obtained for his Tables of Uranus the prize offered by the
academy of sciences, of which body he was elected a member two
years later. He was admitted to the Institute on its organization
in 1795, and became, in 1803, perpetual secretary to its mathe-
matical section. He, moreover, belonged from 1795 to the
bureau of longitudes. From 1792 to 1799 he was occupied with
the measurement of the arc of the meridian extending from
Dunkirk to Barcelona, and published a detailed account of the
operations in Base du systeme metrique (3 vols., 1806, 1807, 1810),
for which he was awarded in 181 o the decennial prize of the
Institute. The first consul nominated him inspector-general of
studies; he succeeded Lalande in 1807 as professor of astronomy
at the College de France, and filled the office of treasurer to the
imperial university from 1808 until its suppression in 1815.
Delambre died at Paris on the 19th of August 1822. His last
years were devoted to researches into the history of science,
resulting in the successive publication of: Histoire de I'astronomie
ancienne (2 vols., 1817); Histoire de I'astronomie au moyen dge
(1819); Histoire de I'astronomie moderne (2 vols., 1821); and
Histoire de I'astronomie au XVIII" siecle, issued in 1827 undei
the care of C. L. Mathieu. These books show marvellous erudi-
tion; but some of the judgments expressed in them are warped
by prejudice; they are diffuse in style and overloaded with

DELAMERE— DELANY

943

computations. He wrote besides: Tables icliptiques des satellites
de Jupiter, inserted in the third edition of J. J. Lalande's Astro-
nomie (1792), and republished in an improved form by the
bureau of longitudes in 1817; Mithodes analytiques pour la
determination d'un arc du meridien (1799); Tables du soleil
(publiees par le bureau des longitudes) (1806); Rapport historique
sur les pr ogres des sciences mathematiques depuis I' an 1789 (1810) ;
Abrege d'astronomie (1813); Astronomie theorique et pratique
(1814); &c.

See J. B. J. Fourier's " filoge " in Memoires de Vacad. des sciences,
t. iv. ; Ch. Dupin, Revue encyclopedique, t. xvi. (1822); Biog. univer-
selle, t. lxii. (C. L. Mathieu) ; Max. Marie, Hist, des sciences, x. 31;
R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astr. pp. 96, 142, 165; R. Wolf,
Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 779, &c. (A. M. C.)

DELAMERE (or De la Mer), GEORGE BOOTH, 1st Baron
(1622-1684), son of William Booth, a member of an ancient
family settled at Dunham Massey in Cheshire, and of Vere,
daughter and co-heir of Sir Thomas Egerton, was born in August
1622. He took an active part in the Civil War with his grand-
father, Sir George Booth, on the parliamentary side. He was
returned for Cheshire to the Long Parliament in 1645 and to
Cromwell's parliaments of 1654 and 1656. In 1655 he was
appointed military commissioner for Cheshire and treasurer at
war. He was one of the excluded members who tried and failed
to regain their seats after the fall of Richard Cromwell in 1659.
He had for some time been regarded by the royalists as a well-
wisher to their cause, and was described to the king in May 1659
as " very considerable in his country, a presbyterian in opinion,
yet so moral a man ... I think your Majesty may safely [rely]
on him and his promises which are considerable and hearty." l
He now became one of the chief leaders of the new " royalists "
who at this time united with the cavaliers to effect the restora-
tion. A rising was arranged for the 5th of August in several
districts, and Booth took charge of operations in Cheshire,
Lancashire and North Wales. He got possession of Chester on
the 19th, issued a proclamation declaring that arms had been
taken up " in vindication of the freedom of parliament, of the
known laws, liberty and property," and marched towards York.
The plot, however, was known to Thurloe. It had entirely failed
in other parts of the country, and Lambert advancing with his
forces defeated Booth's men at Nantwich Bridge. Booth him-
self escaped disguised as a woman, but was discovered at Newport
Pagnell on the 23rd in the act of shaving, and was imprisoned
in the Tower. He was, however, soon liberated, took his seat in
the parliament of 1659-1660, and was one of the twelve members
deputed to carry the message of the Commons to Charles II. at
the Hague. In July 1660 he received a grant of £10,000, having
refused the larger sum of £20,000 at first offered to him, and on
the 20th of April 1661, on the occasion of the coronation, he was
created Baron Delamere, with a licence to create six new knights.
The same year he was appointed custos rotulorum of Cheshire.
In later years he showed himself strongly antagonistic to the
reactionary policy of the government. He died on the 8th of
August 1684, and was buried at Bowdon. He married (1) Lady
Catherine Clinton, daughter and co-heir of Theophilus, 4th earl
of Lincoln, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady
Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Henry, 1st earl of Stamford, by
whom, besides five daughters, he had seven sons, the second of
whom, Henry, succeeded him in the title and estates and was
created earl of Warrington. The earldom became extinct on the
death of the latter's son, the 2nd earl, without male issue, in 1758,
and the barony of Delamere terminated in the person of the 4th
baron in 1770; the title was revived in 1821 in the Cholmondeley
family.

DE LAND, a town and the county-seat of Volusia county,
Florida, U.S.A., 111 m. by rail S. of Jacksonville, 20 m. from the
Atlantic coast and 4 m. from the St John's river. Pop. (1900)
1449; (1910) 2812. De Land is served by the Atlantic Coast
Line and by steamboats on the St John's river. It has a fine
winter climate, with an average temperature of 6o° F., has
sulphur springs, and is a health and winter resort. There is a
1 Clarendon, State Papers, iii. 472. I

starch factory here; and the surrounding country is devoted to
fruit-growing. De Land is the seat of the John B. Stetson
University (coeducational), an undenominational institution
under Baptist control, founded in 1884, as an academy, by
Henry A. De Land, a manufacturer of Fairport, New York, and
in 1887 incorporated under the name of De Land University,
which was changed in 1889 to the present name, in honour of
John Batterson Stetson (1 830-1 906), a Philadelphia manu-
facturer of hats, who during his life gave nearly $500,000 to
the institution. The university includes a college of liberal arts,
a department of law, a school of technology, an academy, a
normal school, a model school, a business college and a school of
music. De Land was founded in 1876 by H. A. DeLand, above
mentioned, who built a public school here in 1877 and a high
school in 1883.

DELANE, JOHN THADEUS (1817-1879), editor of The Times
(London), was born on the nth of October 1817 in London. He
was the second son of Mr W. F. A. Delane, a barrister, of an
old Irish family, who about 1832 was appointed by Mr Walter
financial manager of The Times. While still a boy he attracted
Mr Walter's attention, and it was always intended that he should
find work on the paper. He received a good general education at
private schools and King's College, London, and also at Magdalen
Hall, Oxford; after taking his degree in 1840 he at once began
work on the paper, though later he read for the bar, being called
in 1847. Ln 3:841 he succeeded Thomas Barnes as editor, a post
which he occupied for thirty-six years. He from the first obtained
the best introductions into society and the chief political circles,
and had a position there such as no journalist had previously
enjoyed, us : ng his opportunities with a sure intuition for the way
in which events would move. His staff included some of the
most brilliant men of the day, who worked together with a
common ideal. The result to the paper, which in those days
had hardly any real competitor in English journalism, was an
excellence of information which gave it great power. (See News-
papers.) Delane was a man of many interests and great judg-
ment; capable of long application and concentrated attention,
with power to seize always on the main point at issue, and rapidly
master the essential facts in the most complicated affair. His
general policy was to keep the paper a national organ of opinion
above party, but with a tendency to sympathize with the Liberal
movements of the day. He admired Palmerston and respected
Lord Aberdeen, and was of considerable use to both ; and it was
Lord Aberdeen himself who, in 1845, told him of the impending
repeal of the Corn Laws, an incident round which many incorrect
stories have gathered. The history, however, of the events
during the thirteen administrations, between 1841 and 1877, in
which The Times, and therefore Delane, played an important
part cannot here be recapitulated. In 1877 his health gave way,
and he retired from the editorship; and on the 22nd of November
1879 he died at Ascot.

A biography by his nephew, Arthur Irwin Dasent, was published
in 1908.

DELANY, MARY GRANVILLE (1700-1788), an English-
woman of literary tastes, was born at Coulston, Wilts, on the
14th of May 1700. She was a niece of the 1st Lord Lansdowne.
In i7i7or 1718 she was unhappily married to Alexander
Pendarves, a rich old Cornish landowner, who died in 1724.
During a visit to Ireland she met Dean Swift and his intimate
friend, the Irish divine, Patrick Delany, whose second wife she
became in 1743. After his death in 1768 she passed all her
summers with her bosom friend the dowager duchess of Portland
— Prior's " Peggy " — and when the latter died George III. and
Queen Charlotte, whose affection for their " dearest Mrs Delany "
seems to have been most genuine, gave her a small house at
Windsor and a pension of £300 a year. Fanny Burney (Madame
D'Arblay) was introduced to her in 1783, and frequently visited
her at her London home and at Windsor, and owed to her friend-
ship her court appointment. At this time Mrs Delany was a
charming and sweet old lady, with a reputation for cutting out
and making the ingenious " paper mosaiks " now in the British
Museum; she had known every one worth knowing in her day,

944

DE LA REY— DELAROCHE

had corresponded with Swift and Young, and left an interesting
picture of the polite but commonplace English society of the
1 8th century in her six volumes of Autobiography and Letters.
Burke calls her " a real fine lady " — " the model of an accom-
plished woman of former times." She died on the 15th of April
1788.

DE LA REY, JACOBUS HERCULES (1847- ), Boer soldier,
was born in the Lichtenburg district, and in his youth and early
manhood saw much service in savage warfare. In 1893 he
entered the Volksraad of the South African Republic, and was
an active supporter of the policy of General Joubert. At the
outbreak of the war with Great Britain in 1809 De La Rey was
made a general, and he was engaged in the western campaign
against Lord Methuen and Lord Roberts. He won his first great
success at Nitral's Nek on the nth of July 1900, where he
compelled the surrender of a strong English detachment. In
the second or guerrilla stage of the war De La Rey became one of
the most conspicuously successful of the Boer leaders. He was
assistant to General Louis Botha and a member of the govern-
ment, with charge of operations in the western Transvaal. The
principal actions in which he was successful (see also Transvaal:
History) were Nooitgedacht, Vlakfontein and the defeat and
capture of Lord Methuen at Klerksdorp (March 7, 1902). The
British general was severely wounded in the action, and De La
Rey released him at once, being unable to afford him proper
medical assistance. This humanity and courtesy marked De
La Rey's conduct throughout the war, and even more than his
military skill and daring earned for him the esteem of his enemies.
After the conclusion of peace De La Rey, who had borne a
prominent part in the negotiations, Visited Europe with the
other generals, with the intention of raising funds to enable the
Boers to resettle their country. In December 1903 he went on a
mission to India, and induced the whole of the Boer prisoners of
war detained at Ahmednagar to accept the new order of things
and to take the oath of allegiance. In February 1907 General
De La Rey was returned unopposed as member for Ventersdorp
in the legislative assembly of the first Transvaal parliament under
self-government.

DE LA RIVE, AUGUSTE ARTHUR (1801-1873), Swiss
physicist, was born at Geneva on the 9th of October 1801. He
was the son of Charles Gaspard de la Rive (1770-1834), who
studied medicine at Edinburgh, and after practising for a few
years in London, became professor of pharmaceutical chemistry
at the academy of Geneva in 1802 and rector in 1823. After
a brilliant career as a student, he was appointed at the age of
twenty-two to the chair of natural philosophy in the academy
of Geneva. For some years after his appointment he devoted
himself specially, with Francois Marcet (1803-1883), to the
investigation of the specific heat of gases, and to observations
for determining the temperature of the earth's crust. Electrical
studies, however, engaged most of his attention, especially in
connexion with the theory of the voltaic cell and the electric
discharge in rarefied gases. His researches on the last-mentioned
subject led him to form a new theory of the aurora borealis.
In 1840 he described a process for the electro-gilding of silver and
brass, for which in the following year he received a prize of 3000
francs from the French Academy of Sciences. Between 1854
and 1858 he published a Traiti de I' electricity theorique et appliquie,
which was translated into several languages. De la Rive's birth
and fortune gave him considerable social and political influence.
He was distinguished for his hospitality to literary and scientific
men, and for his interest in the welfare and independence of his
native country. In i860, when the annexation of Savoy and Nice
had led the Genevese to fear French aggression, de la Rive was
sent by his fellow-citizens on a special embassy to England, and
succeeded in securing a declaration from the English government,
which was communicated privately to that of France, that any
attack upon Geneva would be regarded as a casus belli. On the
occasion of this visit the university of Oxford conferred upon de
la Rive the honorary degree of D.G.L. When on his way to pass
the winter at Cannes he died suddenly at Marseilles on the 27th
of November 1873.

His son, Lucien de la Rive, born at Geneva on the 3rd of
April 1834, published papers on various mathematical and
physical subjects, and with Edouard Sarasin carried out investi-
gations on the propagation of electric waves.

DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE, commonly known as Paul
(1 797-1856), French painter, was born in Paris on the 17th of July
1797. His father was an expert who had made a fortune, to some
extent, by negotiating and cataloguing, buying and selling. He
was proud of his son's talent, and able to forward his artistic
education. The master selected was Gros, then painting life-size
histories, and surrounded by many pupils. In no haste to make
an appearance in the Salon, his first exhibited picture was a large
one, " Josabeth saving Joas " (1822). This picture led to his ac-
quaintance with Gericault and Delacroix, with whom he remained
on the most friendly terms, the three forming the central group
of a numerous body of historical painters, such as perhaps never
before lived in one locality and at one time.

From 1822 the record of his life is to be found in the successive
works coming from his hand. He visited Italy in 1838 and 1843,
when his father-in-law, Horace Vernet, was director of the French
Academy. His studio in Paris was in the rue Mazarine, where he
never spent a day without some good result, his hand being sure
and his knowledge great. His subjects, definitely expressed and
popular in their manner of treatment, illustrating certain views
of history dear to partisans, yet romantic in their general interest,
were painted with a firm, solid, smooth surface, which gave an
appearance of the highest finish. This solidity, found also on the
canvas of Vernet, Scheffer, Leopold Robert and Ingres, was the
manner of the day. It repudiates the technical charm of texture
and variety of handling which the English school inherited as a
tradition from the time of Reynolds; but it is more easily under-
stood by the world at large, since a picture so executed depends
for its interest rather on the history, scene in nature or object
depicted, than on the executive skill, which may or may not be
critically appreciated. We may add that his point of view of
the historical characters which he treated is not always just.
" Cromwell lifting the Coffin-lid and looking at the Body of
Charles " is an incident only to be excused by an improbable
tradition; but " The King in the Guard-Room," with villainous
roundhead soldiers blowing tobacco smoke in his patient face,
is a libel on the Puritans; and " Queen Elizabeth dying on the
Ground," like a she-dragon no one dares to touch, is sensational;
while the Execution of Lady Jane Grey " is represented as taking
place in a dungeon. Nothing can be more incorrect than this last
as a reading of English history, yet we forget the inaccuracy in
admiration of the treatment which represents Lady Jane, with
bandaged sight, feeling for the block, her maids covering their
faces, and none with their eyes visible among the many figures.
On the other hand, " Strafford led to Execution," when Laud
stretches his lawn-covered arms out of the small high window
of his cell to give him a blessing as he passes along the corridor,
is perfect; and the splendid scene of Richelieu in his gorgeous
barge, preceding the boat containing Cinq-Mars and De Thou
carried to execution by their guards, is perhaps the most dramatic
semi-historical work ever done. " The Princes in the Tower "
must also be mentioned as a very complete creation; and the
" Young female Martyr floating dead on the Tiber " is so pathetic
that criticism feels hard-hearted and ashamed before it. As a
realization of a page of authentic history, again, no picture can
surpass the " Assassination of the due de Guise at Blois." The
expression of the murdered man stretched out by the side of the
bed, the conspirators all massed together towards the door and
far from the body, show exact study as well as insight into human
nature. This work was exhibited in his meridian time, 1835;
and in the same year he exhibited the " Head of an Angel," a
study from Horace Vernet's young daughter Louise, his love for
Whom was the absorbing passion of his life, and from the shock of
whose death, in 1845, it is said he never quite recovered. By far
his finest productions after her death are of the most serious
character, a sequence of small elaborate pictures of incidents in
the Passion. Two of these, the Virgin and the other Maries, with
the apostles Peter and John, within a nearly dark apartment,

DELARUE— DELATOR

945

hearing the crowd as it passes haling Christ to Calvary, and St
John conducting the Virgin home again after all is over, are
beyond all praise as exhibiting the divine story from a simply
human point of view. They are pure and elevated, and also
dramatic and painful. Delaroche was not troubled by ideals,
and had no affectation of them. His sound but hard execution
allowed no mystery to intervene between him and his motif,
which was always intelligible to the million, so that he escaped all
the waste of energy that painters who try to be poets on canvas
suffer. Thus it is that essentially the same treatment was applied
by him to the characters of distant historical times, the founders
of the Christian religion, and the real people of his own day,
such as " Napoleon at Fontainebleau," or " Napoleon at St
Helena," or " Marie Antoinette leaving the Convention " after
her sentence.

In 1 83 7 Delaroche received the commission for the great picture,
27 metres long, in the hemicycle of the lecture theatre of the Ecole
des Beaux Arts. This represents the great artists of the modern
ages assembled in groups on either hand of a Central elevation of
white marble steps, on the topmost of which are three thrones
filled by the architects and sculptors of the Parthenon. To
supply the female element in this vast composition he intro-
duced the genii or muses, who symbolize or reign over the arts,
leaning against the balustrade of the steps, beautiful and queenly
figures with a certain antique perfection of form, but not informed
by any wonderful or profound expression. The portrait figures
are nearly all unexceptionable and admirable. This great and
successful work is on the wall itself, an inner wall however, and is
executed in oil. It was finished in 184 1, and considerably injured
by a fire which occurred in 1855, which injury he immediately
set himself to remedy (finished by Robert-Fleury) ; but he died
before he had well begun, on the 4th of November 1856.

Personally Delaroche exercised even a greater influence than
by his works. Though short and not powerfully made, he im-
pressed every one as rather tall than otherwise; his physiognomy
was accentuated and firm, and his fine forehead gave him the
air of a minister of state.

See Rees, Delaroche (London, 1880). (W. B. Sc.)

DELARUE, GERVAIS (1751-1835), French historical inves-
tigator, formerly regarded as one of the chief authorities on
Norman and Anglo-Norman literature, was a native of Caen.
He received his education at the university of that town, and was
ultimately raised to the rank of professor. His first historical
enterprise was interrupted by the French Revolution, which
forced him to take refuge in England, where he took the oppor-
tunity of examining a vast mass of original documents in the
Tower and elsewhere, and received much encouragement, from
Sir Walter Scott among others. From England he passed over to
Holland, still in prosecution of his favourite task; and there he
remained till in 1708 he returned to France. The rest of his life
was spent in his native town, where he was chosen principal 'of
his university. While in England he had been elected a member
of the Royal Society of Antiquaries; and in his own country he
was made a corresponding member of the Institute, and was
enrolled in the Legion of Honour. Besides numerous articles
in the Memoirs of the Royal Society of London, the MSmoires de
VInstitut, the Memoires de la Societe d' Agriculture de Caen, and
in other periodical collections, he published separately Essais
historiques sur les Bardes, les Jongleurs, et les Trouveres normands
et anglo-normands (3 vols., 1834), and Recherches historiques sur
la Prairie de Caen (1837) ; and after his death appeared MSmoires
historiques sur le palinod de Caen (1841), Recherches sur la
tapisserie de Bayeux (1841), and Nouveaux Essais historiques
sur la ville de Caen (1842). In all his writings he displays a
strong partiality for everything Norman, and rates the Norman
influence on French and English literature as of the very highest
moment.

BE LA RUE, WARREN (1815-1880), British astronomer and
chemist, son of Thomas De la Rue, the founder of the large firm
of stationers of that name in London, was born in Guernsey on
the 18th of January 181 5. Having completed his education in
Paris, he entered his father's business, but devoted his leisure

hours to chemical and electrical researches, and between 1836 and
1848 published several papers on these subjects. Attracted to
astronomy by the influence of James Nasmyth, he constructed
in 1850 a 13-in. reflecting telescope, mounted first at Canonbury,
later at Cranford, Middlesex, and with its aid executed many
drawings of the celestial bodies of singular beauty and fidelity.
His chief title to fame, however, is his pioneering work in the
application of the art of photography to astronomical research.
In 185 1 his attention was drawn to a daguerreotype of the moon
by G. P. Bond, shown at the great exhibition of that year.
Excited to emulation and employing the more rapid wet-collodion
process, he succeeded before long in obtaining exquisitely defined
lunar pictures, which remained unsurpassed until the appearance
of the Rutherfurd photographs in 1865. In 1854 he turned his
attention to solar physics, and for the purpose of obtaining a
daily photographic representation of the state of the solar surface
he devised the photo-heliograph, described in his report to the
British Association, " On Celestial Photography in England "
(1859), and in his Bakerian Lecture (Phil. Trans, vol. clii. pp.
333-416). Regular work with this instrument, inaugurated at
Kew by De la Rue in 1858, was carried on there for fourteen years;
and was continued at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from
1873 to 1882. The results obtained in the years 1862-1866 were
discussed in two memoirs, entitled " Researches on Solar Physics,"
published by De la Rue, in conjunction with Professor Balfour
Stewart and Mr B. Loewy, in the Phil. Trans, (vol. clix. pp. 1-1 10,
and vol. clx. pp. 389-496). In i860 De la Rue took the photo-
heliograph to Spain for the purpose of photographing the total
solar eclipse which occurred on the 18th of July of that year.
This expedition formed the subject of the Bakerian Lecture
already referred to. The photographs obtained on that occasion
proved beyond doubt the solar character of the prominences or
red flames, seen around the limb of the moon during a solar
eclipse. In 1873 De la Rue gave up active work in astronomy,
and presented most of his astronomical instruments to the
university observatory, Oxford. Subsequently, in the year 1887,
he provided the same observatory with a 13-in. refractor to
enable it to take part in the International Photographic Survey
of the Heavens. With Dr Hugo Miiller as his collaborator he
published several papers of a chemical character between the
years 1856 and 1862, and investigated, 1868-1883, the discharge
of electricity through gases by means of a battery of 14,600
chloride of silver cells. He was twice president of the Chemical
Society, and also of the Royal Astronomical Society (1864-1866).
In 1862 he received the gold medal of the latter society, and in
1864 a Royal medal from the Royal Society, for his observations
on the total eclipse of the sun in i860, and for his improvements
in astronomical photography. He died in London on the 19th
of April 1889.

See Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. 1. 155; Journ. Chem. Soc.
IviL 441; Nature, xl. 26; The Times (April 22, 1889); Royal
Society, Catalogue of Scientific Papers.

DELATOR, in Roman history, properly one who gave notice
(deferre) to the treasury officials of moneys that had become due
to the imperial fisc. This special meaning was extended to those
who lodged information as to punishable offences, and further, to
those who brought a public accusation (whether true or not)
against any person (especially with the object of getting money).
Although the word delator itself, for " common informer," is
confined to imperial times, the right of public accusation had
long been in existence. When exercised from patriotic and dis-
interested motives, its effects were beneficial; but the moment
the principle of reward was introduced, this was no longer the case.
Sometimes the accuser was rewarded with the rights of citizen-
ship, a place in the senate, or a share of the property of the
accused. At the end of the republican period, Cicero (De
Officiis, ii. 14) expresses his opinion that such accusations should
be undertaken only in the interests of the state or for other urgent
reasons. Under the empire the system degenerated into an abuse,
which reached its height during the reign of Tiberius, although
the delators continued to exercise their activity till the reign
of Theodosius. They were drawn from all classes of society, —

•m. 60

946

DELAUNAY— DELAVIGNE

pa+ricians, knights, freedmen, slaves, philosophers, literary men,
and, above all, lawyers. The objects of their attacks were the
wealthy, all possible rivals of the emperor, and those whose
conduct implied a reproach against the imperial mode of life.
Special opportunities were afforded by the law of majestas,
which (originally directed against attacks on the ruler by word
or deed) came to include all kinds of accusations with which it
really had nothing to do; indeed, according to Tacitus, a charge
of treason was regularly added to all criminal charges. The
chief motive for these accusations was no doubt the desire of
amassing wealth, 1 since by the law of majestas one-fourth of the
goods of the accused, even if he committed suicide in order to
avoid confiscation (which was always carried out in the case
of those condemned to capital punishment), was assured to the
accuser (who was hence called quadruplator) . Pliny and Martial
mention instances of enormous fortunes amassed by those who
carried on this hateful calling. But it was not without its dangers.
If the delator lost his case or refused to carry it through, he was
liable to the same penalties as the accused; he was exposed to,
the risk of vengeance at the hands of the proscribed in the event
of their return, or of their relatives; while emperors like Tiberius
would have no scruples about banishing or putting out of the
way those of his creatures for whom he had no further use, and
who might have proved dangerous to himself. Under the better
emperors a reaction set in, and the severest penalties were
inflicted upon the delators. Titus drove into exile or reduced
to slavery those who had served Nero, after they had first been
flogged in the amphitheatre. The abuse naturally reappeared
under a man like Domitian; the delators, with whom Vespasian
had not interfered, although he had abolished trials for majestas,
were again banished by Trajan, and threatened with capital
punishment in an edict of Constantine; but, as has been said,
the evil, which was an almost necessary accompaniment of
autocracy, lasted till the end of the 4th century.

See Mayor's note on Juvenal iv. 48 for ancient authorities;
C. Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, chap. 44;
W. Rein, Criminalrecht der Romer (1842); T. Mommsen, Rbmisches
Strafrecht (1899) ; Kleinfeller in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie.

DELAUNAY, ELIE (1828-1891), French painter, was born at
Nantes and studied under Flandrin and at the Ecole des Beaux
Arts. He worked in the classicist manner of Ingres until, after
winning the Prix de Rome, he went to Italy in 1856, and
abandoned the ideal of Raphaelesque perfection for the sincerity
and severity of the quattrocentists. As a pure and firm
draughtsman he stands second only to Ingres. After his return
from Rome he was entrusted with many important commissions
for decorative paintings, such as the frescoes in the church of St
Nicholas at Nantes; the three panels of " Apollo," " Orpheus "
and " Amphion " at the Paris opera-house; and twelve paintings
for the great hall of the council of state in the Palais Royal. His
" Scenes from the Life of St Genevieve," which he- designed for
the Pantheon, remained unfinished at his death. The Luxem-
bourg Museum has his famous " Plague in Rome " and a nude
figure of " Diana "; and the Nantes Museum, the '.' Lesson on
the Flute." In the last decade of his life he achieved great
popularity as a portrait painter.

DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSENE (1826-1903), French actor,
was born in Paris, the son of a wine-seller. He studied at the
Conservatoire, and made his first formal appearance on the stage
in 1845, in Tartufe at the Odeon. After three years at this house
he made his debut at the Comedie Francaise as Dorante in
Corneille's Le Menteur, and began a long and brilliant career in
young lover parts. He continued to act asjeune premier until he
was sixty, his grace, marvellous diction and passion enchanting
his audiences. It was especially in the plays of Alfred de Musset
that his gifts found their happiest expression. In the thirty-seven
years during which he was a member of the Comedie Francaise,
Delaunay took or created nearly two hundred parts. He retired
in 1887, having been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour
in 1883.

1 " Delatores, genus hominum publico exitio repertum . . . per
oraeraia eliciebantur " (Tacitus, Annals, iv. 30).

DELAVIGNE, JEAN FRANCOIS CASIMIR (1793-1843), French
poet and dramatist, was born on the 4th of April 1793 at Havre.
His father sent him at an early age to Paris, there to be educated
at the Lycee Napoleon. Constitutionally of an ardent and sym-
pathetic temperament, he enlarged his outlook by extensive
miscellaneous reading. On the 20th of March 181 1 the empress
Marie Louise gave birth to a son, named in his very cradle king
of Rome. This event was celebrated by Delavigne in a Dithy-
rambe sur la naissance du roi de Rome, which secured for him a.
sinecure in the revenue office.

About this time he competed twice for an academy prize, but
without success. Delavigne, inspired by the catastrophe of 1815,
wrote two impassioned poems, the first entitled Waterloo, the
second, Devastation du musee, both written in the heat of patriotic
enthusiasm, and teeming with popular political allusions. A
third, but of inferior merit, Sur le besoin de s'unir apres le depart
des etrangers, was afterwards added. These stirring pieces,
termed by him Messgniennes, sounded a keynote which found
an echo in the hearts of all. Twenty-five thousand copies were
sold; Delavigne was famous. He was appointed to an honorary
librarianship, with no duties to discharge. In 1819 his play
Les vipres Siciliennes was performed at the Odeon, then just
rebuilt; it had previously been refused for the Theatre Francais.
On the night of the first representation, which was warmly
received, Picard, the manager, threw himself into the arms of
his elated friend, exclaiming, " You have saved us! You are
the founder of the second French Theatre." This success was
followed up by the production of the Comidiens (1820), a poor
play, with little plot, and the Paria (1821), with still less, but
containing some well-written choruses. The latter piece obtained
a longer lease of life than its intrinsic literary merits warranted,
on account of the popularity of the political opinions freely
expressed in it — so freely expressed, indeed, that the displeasure
of the king was incurred, and Delavigne lost his post. But Louis
Philippe, duke of Orleans, willing to gain the people's good
wishes by complimenting their favourite, wrote to him as follows:
" The thunder has descended on your house; I offer you an
apartment in mine." Accordingly Delavigne became librarian
at the Palais Royal, a position retained during the remainder of
his life. It was here that he wrote the Ecole des vieillards (1823),
his best comedy, which gained his election to the Academy in
1825. To this period also belong La Princesse Aurtiie (1828),
and Marino Faliero (1829), a drama in the romantic style.

For his success as a writer Delavigne was in no small measure
indebted to the stirring nature of the times in which he lived.
The Messeniennes, which first introduced him to universal
notice, had their origin in the excitement consequent on the
occupation of France by the allies in 18 15. Another crisis in his
life and in the history of his country, the revolution of 1830,
stimulated him to the production of a second masterpiece, La
Parisienne. This song, set to music by Auber, was on the lips
of every Frenchman, and rivalled in popularity the Marseillaise.
A companion piece, La Varsovienne, was written for the Poles,
by whom it was sung on the march to battle. Other works of
Delavigne followed each other in rapid succession — Louis XI
(1832), Les Enfants d'Edouard (1833), Don Juan d'Autriche
(1835), Une Famille au temps du Luther (1836), La Popularity
(1838), La Fille du Cid (1839), Le Conseiller rapporteur (1840),
and Charles VI (1843), an opera partly written by his brother.
In 1843 he quitted Paris to seek in Italy the health his labours
had cost him. At Lyons his strength altogether gave way, and
he died on the nth of December.

By many of his own time Delavigne was looked upon as
unsurpassed and unsurpassable. Every one bought and read,
his works. But the Applause of the moment was gained at the
sacrifice of lasting fame. As a writer he had many excellences.
He expressed himself in a terse and vigorous style. The poet of
reason rather than of imagination, he recognized his own province,
and was rarely tempted to flights of fancy beyond his powers.
He wrote always as he would have spoken, from sincere con-
viction. In private life he was in every way estimable, — upright,
amiable, devoid of all jealousy, and generous to a fault.

DELAWARE

947

His Poesies and his Thedlre were published in 1863. His CEuvres
completes (new edition, 1855) contains a biographical notice by his
brother, Germain Delavigne, who is best known as a librettist
in opera. See also Sainte-Beuve, Portraits litteraires, vol. v.;
A. Favrot, Etude sur Casimir Delavigne (1894) ; and F. Vuacheux,
Casimir Delavigne (1893).

DELAWARE, a South Atlantic state of the United States of
America, one of the thirteen original states, situated between
38° 27' and 39 50' N. lat. and between 75 2' and 75 47' W.
long. (For map see Maryland.) It is bounded N. and N.W.
by Pennsylvania, E. by the Delaware river and Delaware Bay,
which separate it from New Jersey, and by the Atlantic Ocean;
S. and W. by Maryland. With the exception of Rhode Island
it is the smallest state in the Union, its area being 2370 sq. m.,
of which 405 sq. m. are water surface.

Physical Features.— Delaware lies on the Atlantic coastal plain,
and is for the most part level and relatively low, its average
elevation above the sea being about 50 ft. It is situated in the
eastern part of the peninsula formed by Chesapeake Bay and the
estuary of the Delaware river. In the extreme N. the country is
rolling, with moderately high hills, moderately deep valleys and
rapid streams. West of Wilmington there rises a ridge which
crosses the state in a north-westerly direction and forms a water-
shed between Christiana and Brandywine creeks, its highest
elevation above sea-level being 280 ft. South of the Christiana
there begins another elevation, sandy and marshy, which extends
almost the entire length of the state from N.W. to S.E., and forms
a second water-parting. The streams that drain the state are
small and insignificant. Those of the N. flow into Brandywine
and Christiana creeks, whose estuary into Delaware river forms
Wilmington harbour; those of the S.W. have a common outlet
in the Nanticoke river of Maryland; those of the E. empty into
Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The principal harbours
are those of Wilmington, New Castle and Lewes. The shore of
the bay is marshy, that of the Atlantic is sandy. In Kent county
there are more than 60,000 acres of tidal marshland, some of
which has been reclaimed by means of dykes; Cypress Swamp
in the extreme S. has an area of 50,000 acres. The soils of the N.
are clays, sometimes mixed with loam; those of the central part
are mainly loams; while those of the S. are sands.

Minerals are found only in the N. part of the state. Those of
economic value are kaolin, mined chiefly in the vicinity of
Hockessin, New Castle county, the static kaolin product being
exceeded in 1903 only by that of Pennsylvania among the states
of the United States; granite, used for road-making and rough
construction work, found near Wilmington; and brick and tile
clays; but the value of their total product in 1902 was less
than $500,000. In 1906 the total mineral product was valued
at $814,126, of which $237,768 represented clay products and
$146,346 stone. In 1902 only 2-2% of the wage-earners were
engaged in mining.

The forests, which once afforded excellent timber, including
white oak for shipbuilding, have been greatly reduced by con-
stant cutting; in 1900 it was estimated that 700 sq. m. were
wooded, but practically none of this stand was of commercial
importance. The fisheries, chiefly oyster, sturgeon and shad,
yield an annual product valued at about $250,000.

The proximity of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays help to
give Delaware a mild and temperate climate. The mean annual
temperature is approximately 55° F., ranging from 52 in the S.
to 56 in the N., and the extremes of heat and cold are 103° in
the summer and — 1 7° in the winter. The annual rainfall, greater
on the coast than inland, ranges from 40 to 45 in.

Industry and Trade. — Delaware is pre-eminently an agricul-
tural state. In 1900 85% of its total land surface was enclosed
in farms — a slight decline since 1880. Seven-tenths of this was
improved land, and the expenditure per farm for fertilizers,
greater in 1890 than the average of the Atlantic states, approxi-
mated $55 per farm in 1900. In 1899 Delaware spent more per
acre for fertilizers than any of the other states except New
Jersey, Rhode Island and Maryland. The average size of farms,
as in the other states, has declined, falling from 124-6 acres in
1880 to iio-i acres in 1900. A large proportion of farms (49-7%)

were operated by the owners, and the prevailing form of tenantry
was the share system by which 42-5% of the farms were culti-
vated, while 8-24% of the farms were operated by negroes; these
represented less than 4% of the total value of farm property,
the average value of farms operated by negroes being $17 per
acre, that of farms operated by whites, $23 per acre. The total
value of farm products in 1900 was $9,190,777, an increase of
30% over that of 1890, while the cultivation of cereals suffered
on account of the competition of the western states. Indian corn
and wheat form the two largest crops, their product in 1900 being
respectively 24% and 52% greater than in 1890; but these
crops when compared with those of other states are relatively
unimportant. In 1906 the acreage of Indian corn was 196,472
acres with a yield of 5,894,160 bushels valued at $2,475,547, an d
the acreage of wheat was 121,745 acres with a yield of 1,947,920
bushels valued at $1,383,023. The value of the fruit crop, for
which Delaware has long been noted, also increased during the
same decade, but disease and frost caused a marked decline in
the production of peaches, a loss balanced by an increased
production of apples, pears and other orchard fruits. Large
quantities of small fruits, particularly of strawberries, raspberries
and blackberries, are produced, the southern portion of Sussex
county being particularly favourable for strawberry culture.
The vicissitudes of fruit raising have also caused increasing
attention to be paid to market gardening, dairying and stock
raising, particularly to market gardening, an industry which is
favoured by the proximity of large cities. The same influence
also explains, partly at least, the decrease (of 13%) in the value
of farm property between 1890 and 1900.

The development of manufacturing in Delaware has not been
so extensive as its favourable situation relative to the other
states, the facilities for water and railway transportation, and the
proximity of the coal and iron fields of Pennsylvania, would seem
to warrant. In 1905 the wage-earners engaged in manufacturing
(under the factory system) numbered 18,475, an d the total
capital invested in manufacturing was $50,925,630; the gross
value of products was $41,160,276; the net value (deducting
the value of material purchased in partly manufactured form)
was $16,276,470. The principal industry was the manufacture
of iron and steel products, which, including steel and rolling
mills, car, foundry and machine shops, and shipyards, repre-
sented more than 30% of the total capital, and approximately
2 5 % of the total gross product of the manufactures in the state.
The tanning, currying and finishing of leather ranks second in
importance, with a gross product ($10,250,842) 9% greater than
that of 1900, and constituting about one-fourth of the gross
factory product of the state in 1905; and the manufacture of
food products ranked third, the value of the products of the fruit
canning and preserving industry having more than doubled in
the decade 1 890-1 900, but falling off a little more than 7% in
1900-1905. The manufacture of paper and wood pulp snowed
an increased product in 1905 19-1% greater than in 1900; and
flour and grist mill products were valued in 1905 43-6% higher
than in 1900. In the grand total of manufactured products,
however, the state showed in 1905 a decrease of 4% from 1900.
The great manufacturing centre is Wilmington, where in 1905
almost two-thirds of the capital was invested, and nearly three-
fourths of the product was turned out. There is much manu-
facturing also at New Castle.

Delaware has good facilities for transportation. Its railway
mileage in January 1907 was 333-6 m.; the Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore
& Philadelphia (Baltimore & Ohio system), and the Wilmington
& Northern (Philadelphia & Reading system) cross the northern
part of the state, while the Delaware railway (leased by the
Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington) runs the length of
the state below Wilmington, and another line, the Maryland,
Delaware & Virginia (controlled by the Baltimore, Chesapeake &
Atlantic railway, which is related to the Pennsylvania system),
connects Lewes, Del., with Love Point, Md., on the Chesapeake
Bay. There is no state railway commission, and the farmers of
southern Delaware have suffered from excessive freight rates.

948

DELAWARE

The Delaware & Chesapeake Canal (135 m. long, 66 ft. wide
and 10 ft. deep) crosses the N. part of the state, connecting
Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay, and thus affords trans-
portation by water from Baltimore to Philadelphia. The canal
was completed in 1829; in 1907 a commission appointed by
the president to report on a route for a waterway between
Chesapeake and Delaware bays selected the route of this canal.
The states of Maryland and Delaware aided in its construction,
and in 1828 the national government also made an appropria-
tion. Wilmington is a customs district in which New Castle and
Lewes are included; but its trade is largely coastwise. Rehoboth
and Indian River bays are navigable for vessels of less than 6 ft.
draft. Opposite Lewes is the Delaware Breakwater (begun in
1818 and completed in 1869, at a cost of more than $2,000,000),
which forms a harbour 16 ft. deep. In 1897-1901 the United
States government constructed a harbour of refuge, formed by a
second breakwater 2j m. N. of the existing one; its protected
anchorage is 552 acres and the cost was more than $2,090,000.
The harbour is about equidistant from New York, Philadelphia,
and the capes of Chesapeake Bay, and is used chiefly by vessels
awaiting orders to ports for discharge or landing. The national
government also made appropriations for opening an inland
waterway from Lewes to Chincoteague Bay, Virginia, for im-
proving Wilmington harbour, and for making navigable several
of the larger streams of the sta^e.

Population. — The population in 1880 was 146,608; in 1890,
168,493, an increase of 14-9%; in 1900, 184,735, a further in-
crease of 9-6%; in 1910, 202,322. The rate of increase before 1 8 50
was considerably smaller than the rate after that date. Of the
population in 1900, 92-5% was native born and 7-$% was
foreign-born. The negro population was 30,697, or 16-6 % of the
total. In Indian River Hundred, Sussex county, there formerly
lived a community of people, — many of whom are of the fair
Caucasian type, — called " Indians " or " Moors "; they are now
quite generally dispersed throughout the state, especially in
Kent and Sussex counties. Their origin is unknown, but accord-
ing to local tradition they are the descendants of some Moorish
sailors who were cast ashore many years ago in a shipwreck;
their own tradition is that they are descended from the children
of an Irish mother and a negro father, these children having
intermarried with Indians of the Nanticoke tribe. They have,
where practicable, separate churches and schools, the latter
receiving state aid. The urban population of Delaware (i.e. of
Wilmington, the only city having more than 5000 inhabitants)
was, in 1900, 41-4% of the state's population. There were
thirty-five incorporated cities and towns. The largest of these
was the city of Wilmington, with 76,508 inhabitants. The city
next in size, New Castle, had a population of 3380, while the
largest town, Dover, the capital of the state, had 3329. The
total number of communicants of all denominations in 1906 was
71,251, — 32,402 Methodists, 24,228 Roman Catholics, 5200
Presbyterians, 3796 Protestant Episcopalians, and 2921 Baptists.

Government. — The constitution by which Delaware is governed
was adopted in 1897. Like the previous constitutions of 1776,
1792 and 1831, it was promulgated by a constitutional convention
without submission to the people for ratification, and amend-
ments may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of each house in two
consecutive legislatures. Its character is distinctly democratic.
The property qualification of state senators and the restriction
of suffrage to those who have paid county or poll taxes are
abolished; but suffrage is limited to male adults who can read
the state constitution in English, and can write their names,
unless physically disqualified, and who have registered. In 1907
an amendment to the constitution was adopted, which struck
out from the instrument the clause requiring the payment of
a registration fee of one dollar by each elector. Important in-
novations in the constitution of 1897 are the office of lieutenant-
governor, and the veto power of the governor which may extend
to parts and clauses of appropriation bills, but a bill may be
passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote of each house of
the legislature, and a bill becomes a law if not returned to the
legislature within ten days after its reception by the governor,

unless the session of the legislature shall have expired in the
meantime. The governor's regular term in office is four years,
and he is ineligible for a third term. All his appointments to
offices where the salary is more than $500 must be confirmed by
the senate; all pardons must be approved by a board of pardons.
Representation in the legislature is according to districts, members
of the lower house being chosen for two, and members of the
upper house for four years. Members of the lower house must be
at least twenty-four years of age, members of the senate at least
twenty-seven ; members of both houses must at the time of their
election have been citizens of the state for at least three years.
In November 1906 the people of the state voted (17,248 for;
2162 against) in favour of the provision of a system of advisory
initiative and advisory referendum; and in March 1907 the
general assembly passed an act providing initiative and refer-
endum in the municipal affairs in the city of Wilmington. The
organization of the judiciary is similar to that under the old
English system. Six judges — a chancellor, a chief justice, and
four associate justices — of whom there shall be at least one
resident in each of the three counties, and not more than three
shall belong to the same political party, are appointed by the
governor, with the consent of the senate, for a term of twelve
years. A certain number of them hold courts of chancery,
general sessions, oyer and terminer, and an orphans' court; the
six together constitute the supreme court, but the judge from
whose decision appeal is made may not hear the appealed case
unless the appeal is made at his own instance. Bribery may be
punished by fine, imprisonment and disfranchisement for ten
years. Corporations cannot be created by a special act of the
legislature, and no corporation may issue stock except foi an
equivalent value of money, labour or property. In order to
attract capital to the state, the legislature has reduced the taxes
on corporations, has forbidden the repeal of charters, and has
given permission for the organization of corporations with both
the power and name of trust companies. Legislative divorces are
forbidden by the constitution, and a statute of 1901 subjects
wife-beaters to corporal punishment. Although punishment by
whipping and by standing in the pillory was prohibited by an act
of Congress in 1839, in so far as the Federal government had
jurisdiction, both these forms of punishment were retained in
Delaware, and standing in the pillory was prescribed by statute
as a punishment for a number of offences, including various kinds
of larceny and forgery, highway robbery, and even pretending
" to exercise the art of witchcraft, fortune-telling or dealing with
spirits," at least until 1893. In 1905, by a law approved on the
20th of March, the pillory was abolished. The whipping-post was
in 1908 still maintained in Delaware, and whipping continued to
be prescribed as a punishment for a variety of offences, although
in 1889 a law was passed which prescribed that " hereafter no
female convicted of any crime in this state shall be whipped or
made to stand in the pillory," and a law passed in 1883 prescribed
that " in case of conviction of larceny, when the prisoner is of
tender years, or is charged for the first time (being shown to have
before had a good character), the court may in its discretion omit
from the sentence the infliction of lashes." An old law still on
the statute-books when the edition of the revised statutes was
issued in 1893, prescribes that " the punishment of whipping
shall be inflicted publicly by strokes on the bare back, well laid
on."

The unit of local government is the " hundred," which corre-
sponds to the township of Pennsylvania. The employment of
children under fourteen years of age in factories is forbidden by
statute. Divorces are granted for adultery, desertion for three
years, habitual drunkenness, impotence at the time of marriage,
fraud, lack of marriageable age (eighteen for males, sixteen for
females), and failure of husband to provide for his wife during
three consecutive years. The marriages of whites with negroes
and of insane persons are null; but the children of the married
insane are legitimate.

In 1908 the state debt was $816,785, and the assets in bonds,
railway mortgages and bank stocks exceeded the liabilities by
$7!7>779- Besides the income from interest and dividends

DELAWARE

949

on investments, the state revenues are derived from taxes on
licences, on commissions to public officers, on railway, telegraph
and telephone, express, and banking companies, and to a slight
extent from taxes on collateral inheritance.

Education. — The charitable and penal administration of
Delaware is not well developed. There is a state hospital for
the insane at Farnhurst. Other dependent citizens are cared for
in the institutions of other states at public expense. In 1899
a county workhouse was established in New Castle county, in
which persons under sentence must labour eight hours a day, pay
being allowed for extra hours, and a diminution of sentence for
good behaviour. At Wilmington is the Ferris industrial school
for boys, a private reformatory institution to which New Castle
county gives $146 for each boy; and the Delaware industrial
school for girls, also at Wilmington, receives financial support
from both county and state.

The educational system of the state has been considerably
improved within recent years. The maintenance of a system of
public schools is rendered compulsory by the state constitution,
and a new compulsory school law came into effect in 1907. The
first public school law, passed in 1829, was based largely on the
principle of " local option," each school district being left free
to determine the character of its own school or even to decide,
if it wished, against having any school at all. The system thus
established proved to be very unsatisfactory, and a new school
law in 1875 brought about a greater degree of uniformity
and centralization through its provisions for the appointment
of a state superintendent of free schools and a state board of
education. In 1888, however, the state superintendency was
abolished, and county superintendencies were created instead,
the legislature thus returning, in a measure, to the old system of
local control. Centralization was again secured, in 1898, by the
passage of a law reorganizing and increasing the powers of the
state board of education. The state school fund, ranging from
about $150,000 to $160,000 a year, is apportioned among the
school districts, according to the number of teachers employed,
and is used exclusively for teachers' salaries and the supplying
of free text-books. This fund is supplemented by local taxation.
No discrimination is allowed on account of race or colour; but
separate schools are provided for white and coloured children.
Delaware College (non-sectarian) at Newark, founded in 1833 as
Newark College and rechartered, after suspension from 1859 to
1870, under the present name, as a state institution, derives
most of its financial support from the United States Land Grant
of 1862 and the supplementary appropriation of 1890, and is
the seat of an agricultural experiment station, established in
1888 under the so-called " Hatch Bill " of 1887. In 1906-1907
Delaware College had 20 instructors and 130 students. The
college is a part of the free school system of Delaware, and tuition
is free to all students from the state. There is an agricultural
college for negroes at Dover; this college receives one-fifth of
the appropriation made by the so-called " new Morrill Bill " of
1890.

History. — Delaware river and bay were first explored on behalf
of the Dutch by Henry Hudson in 1609, and more thoroughly
in 1615-1616 by Cornelius Hendrikson, whose reports did much
to cause the incorporation of the Dutch West India Company.
The first settlement on Delaware soil was made under the auspices
of members of this company in 1631 near the site of the present
Lewes. The leaders, one of whom was Captain David P. de Vries,
wished " to plant a colony for the cultivation of grain and tobacco
as well as to carry on the whale fishery in that region." The
settlement, however, was soon completely destroyed by the
Indians. (See Lewes.) A more successful effort at colonization
was made under the auspices of the South Company of Sweden,
a corporation organized in 1624 as the " Australian Company,"
by William Usselinx, who had also been the chief organizer of
the Dutch West India Company, and now secured a charter
or manifest from Gustavus Adolphus. The privileges of the
company were, extended to Germans in 1633, and about 1640
the Dutch members were bought out. In 1638 Peter Minuit on
behalf of this company established a settlement at what is now

Wilmington, naming it, in honour of the infant queen Christina,
Christinaham, and naming the entire territory, bought by Minuit
from the Minquas Indians and extending indefinitely westward
from the Delaware river between Bombay Hook and the mouth
of the Schuylkill river, " New Sweden." This territory was
subsequently considerably enlarged. In 1642 mature plans for
colonization were adopted. A new company, officially known
as the West India, American, or New Sweden Company, but like
its predecessor popularly known as the South Company, was
chartered, and a governor, Johan Printz (c. 1600-1663) was sent
out by the crown. He arrived early in 1643 and subsequently
established settlements on the island of Tinicum, near the present
Chester, Pennsylvania, at the mouth of Salem Creek, New Jersey,
and near the mouth of the Schuylkill river. Friction had soon
arisen with New Netherland, although, owing to their common
dislike of the English, the Swedes and the Dutch had main-
tained a formal friendship. In 1651, however, Peter Stuyvesant,
governor of New Netherland, and more aggressive than his pre-
decessors, built Fort Casimir, near what is now New Castle.
In 1654 Printz's successor, Johan 'Claudius Rising, who had
arrived from Sweden with a large number of colonists, expelled
the Dutch from Fort Casimir. In retaliation, Stuyvesant, in
1655, with seven vessels and as many hundred men, recaptured
the fort and also captured Fort Christina (Wilmington). New
Sweden thus passed into the control of the Dutch, and became
a dependency of New Netherland. In 1656, however, the Dutch
West India Company sold part of what had been New Sweden to
the city of Amsterdam, which in the following year established
a settlement called " New Amstel " at Fort Casimir (New Castle).
This settlement was badly administered and made little progress.

In 1663 the whole of the Delaware country came under the
jurisdiction of the city of Amsterdam, but in the following year
this territory, with New Netherland, was seized by the English.
For a brief interval, in 1673-1674, the Dutch were again in control,
but in the latter year, by the treaty of Westminster, the " three
counties on the Delaware " again became part of the English
possessions in America held by the duke of York, later James II.
His formal grant from Charles II. was not received until March
1683. In order that no other settlements should encroach upon
his centre of government, New Castle, the northern boundary was
determined by drawing an arc of a circle, 12 m. in radius, and
with New Castle as the centre. This accounts for the present
curved boundary line between Delaware and Pennsylvania.
Previously, however, in August 1680, the duke of York had
leased this territory for 10,000 years to William Penn, to whom
he conveyed it by a deed of feoffment in August 1682; but
differences in race and religion, economic rivalry between New
Castle and the Pennsylvania towns, and petty political quarrels
over representation and office holding, similar to those in the
other American colonies, were so intense that Penn in 1691
appointed a special deputy governor for the " lower counties."
Although reunited with the " province " of Pennsylvania in
1693, the so-called " territories " or " lower counties " secured a
separate legislature in 1704, and a separate executive council in
1 7 10; the governor of Pennsylvania, however, was the chief
executive until 1776. A protracted boundary dispute with Mary-
land, which colony at first claimed the whole of Delaware under
Lord Baltimore's charter, was not settled until 1767, when the
present line separating Delaware and Maryland was adopted.
In the War of Independence Delaware furnished only one
regiment to the American army, but that was one of the best in
the service. One of its companies carried a number of game-
cocks said to have been the brood of a blue hen; hence the
soldiers, and later the people of the state, have been popularly
known as the " Blue Hen's Chickens."

In 1776 a state government was organized, representative of
the Delaware state, the term " State of Delaware " being first
adopted in the constitution of T792. One of the peculiarities of
the government was that in addition to the regular executive,
legislative and judicial departments there was a privy council
without whose approval the governor's power was little more
than nominal. In 1786 Delaware was one of the five states

95°

DELAWARE

whose delegates attended the Annapolis Convention (see Anna-
polis, Maryland), and it was the first (on the 7th of December
1787) to ratify the Federal constitution. From then until 1850
it was controlled by the Federalist or Whig parties. In 1850 the
Democrats, who had before then elected a few governors and
United States senators, secured control of the entire administra-
tion—a control unarrested, except in 1863, until the last decade
of the 19th century. Although it was a slave state, the majority
of the people of Delaware opposed secession in 1861, and the
legislature promptly answered President Lincoln's call to arms;
yet, while 14,000 of the 40,000 males between the ages of fourteen
and sixty served in the Union army, there were many sympa-
thizers with the Confederacy in the southern part of the state.

In 1866, 1867 and 1869, respectively, the legislature refused to
ratify the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to
the Federal constitution. The provision of the state constitu-
tion that restricted suffrage to those who had paid county or poll
taxes and made the tax lists the basis for the lists of qualified
voters, opened the way for the disfranchisement of many negroes
by fraudulent means. Consequently the levy court of New
Castle county was indicted in the United States circuit court
in 1872, and one of its members was convicted. Again in 1880
the circuit court, by virtue of the Federal statute of 1872 on
elections, appointed supervisors of elections in Delaware. The
negro vote has steadily increased in importance, and in 1900
was approximately one-fifth of the total vote of the state. In
1 901 the legislature ratified the three amendments rejected in
former years. Another political problem has been that of
representation. According to the constitution of 183 1 the unit
of representation in the legislature was the county; inasmuch
as the population of New Castle county has exceeded after 1870
that of both Kent and Sussex, the inequality became a cause of
discontent. This is partly eradicated by the new constitution of
1897, which reapportioned representation according to electoral
districts, so that New Castle has seven senators and fifteen
representatives, while each of the other counties has seven
senators and ten representatives.

In 1889 the Republicans for the first time since the Civil War
secured a majority in the legislature, and elected Anthony J.
Higgins to the United States Senate. In that year a capitalist
and promoter, J. Edward Addicks (b. 1841, in Pennsylvania),
became a citizen of the state, and after securing for himself the
control of the Wilmington gas supply, systematically set about
building up a personal " machine " that would secure his elec-
tion to the national Senate as a Republican. His purpose was
thwarted in 1893, when a Democratic majority chose, for a second
term, George Gray (b. 1840), who from 1879 to 1885 had been the
attorney-general of the state and subsequently was a member
of the Spanish- American Peace Commission at Paris in 1898 and
became a judge of the United States circuit court, third judicial
circuit, in 1899. Mr Addicks was an avowed candidate in 1895,
but the opposition of the Regular Republicans, Who accused
him of corruption and who held the balance of power, prevented
an election. In 1897, the legislature being again Democratic,
Richard R. Kenney (b. 1856) was chosen to fill the vacancy
for the remainder of the unexpired term. Meanwhile the two
Republican factions continued to oppose one another, and both
sent delegates to the national party convention in 1896, the
" regular " delegation being seated. The expiration of Senator
Gray's term in 1899 left a vacancy, but although the Republicans
again had a clear majority the resolution of the Regulars pre-
vented the Union Republicans, as the supporters of Addicks
called themselves, from seating their patron. Both the Regular
and Union factions sent delegations to the national party con-
vention in 1900, where the refusal of the Regulars to compromise
led to the recognition of the Union delegates. Despite this
apparent abandonment of their cause by the national organiza-
tion, the Regulars continued their opposition, the state being
wholly without representation in the Senate from the expiration
of Senator Kenney's term in 1901 until 1903, when a compromise
was effected whereby two Republicans, one of each faction,
were chosen, one condition being that Addicks should not be the

candidate of the Union Republicans. Both factions were recog-
nized by the national convention of 1904, but the legislature of
1905 adjourned without being able to fill a vacancy in the Senate
which had again occurred. The deadlock, however, was broken
at the special session of the legislature called in 1906, and in June
of that year Henry A. Du Pont was elected senator.
Governors of Delaware

I. Swedish.

Peter Minuit ..... 1638-1640

Peter Hollander . . . . 1640-1643

Johan Printz ..... 1643-1653

Johan Papegoga (acting) . . . 1653-1654

Johan Claudius Rising .... 1654-1655

II. Dutch.

(Same as for New York.)

III. English.

(Same as New York until 1682.)

(Same as Pennsylvania 1682-1776.)

Presidents of Delaware

John McKinley
Caesar Rodney .
John Dickinson
Nicholas Van Dyke
Thomas Collins .

Joshua Clayton
Gunning Bedford
Daniel Rogers 1
Richard Bassett
James Sykes 2
David Hall
Nathaniel Mitchell
George Truett
Joseph Haslett
Daniel Rodney
John Clarke
Henry Malleston 3
Jacob Stout 4 .
John Collins
Caleb Rodney 6
Joseph Haslett
Charles Thomas *
Samuel Paynter
Charles Polk .
David Hazzard
Caleb P. Bennett
Charles Polk' .
Cornelius P. Comegys
William B. Cooper
Thomas Stockton
Joseph Maul 8 .
William Temple 9
William Tharp
William H. Ross
Peter F. Causey
William Burton
William Cannon
Gove Saulsbury 10

James Ponder
ohn P. Cockran
John W. Hall .
Charles C. Stockley
Benjamin T. Biggs
Robert J. Reynolds
Joshua H. Marvil
William T. Watson"
Ebe W. Tunnell
John Hunn
Preston Lea
Simeon S. Pennewill

• 1 776-1 778

. 1778-1781

. 1781-1783

. 1 783-1 786

. 1 786-1 789

Governors

1 789-1 796 Federalist

1796-1797

1797-1799

1 799-1 801

1801-1802 ,.

1 802-1 805 Federalist

1805-1808 „

1808-1811

1811-1814 „

1814-1817

1817-1820 „

1820 ..

1820-1821 ..

1821-1822 Democratic-Republican

1822 ,,

1822-1823 Democratic-Republican

1823-1824 "

1 824-1 827 Federalist

1827-1830 „

1 830-1 833 American- Republican

1 833-1 836 Democrat

1836-1837 ..

1837-1841 Whig

1841-1845 „

1845-1846 „

1846

I 846-1 847 "

1 847-1 85 1 Democrat

1851-1855

1855-1859 Whig-Know-Nothing

1 859-1 863 Democrat

1 863-1 865 Republican

1865-1871 Democrat

1871-1875

1875-1879

1879-1883

1883-1887

1887-1891

1891-1895

1895 Republican

1 895-1 897 Democrat

1897-1901 ,,

1901-1905 Republican

1905-1909

1909

Filled unexpired term

of Gunning
Filled unexpired term of Richard Bassett,

1 Speaker of the senate.
Bedford (d. 1797).

2 Speaker of senate,
who resigned 1 801.

8 Died before he was inaugurated.

4 Speaker of the senate.

6 Speaker of the senate, John Collins dying in 1822.

6 Speaker of senate, Haslett dying in 1823.

7 Speaker of senate.

8 Speaker of senate, Stockton dying in 1846.

9 Speaker Qf senate, Maul dying in 1846.

10 As speaker of the senate filled the unexpired term of Cannon
(d. 1865), and then became governor in 1867.

11 President of senate, Marvil dying in 1895.

DELAWARE— DELAWARE WATER-GAP

95 1

Bibliography. — Information about manufactures, mining and
agriculture may be found in the reports of the Twelfth Census of the
United States, especially Bulletins 69 and 100. The Agricultural
Experiment Station, at Newark, publishes in its Annual Report a
record of temperature and rainfall. For law and administration see
Constitution of Delaware (Dover, 1899) and the Revised Code of
1852, amended 1893 (Wilmington, 1893). For education see L. B.
Powell, History of Education in Delaware (Washington, 1893), and a
sketch in the Annual Report for 1902 of the United States Commis-
sioner of Education. The most elaborate history is that of John
Thomas Scharf, History of the State of Delaware (2 vols., Philadelphia,
1888); the second volume is entirely biographical. Claes T. Odhner's
brief sketch, Kolonien Nya Sveriges Crundldggning, 1637-1642
(Stockholm, 1 876 ; English translation in the Pennsylvania Magazine
of History and Biography, vol. iii.), and Carl K. S. Sprinchorn's
Kolonien Nya Sveriges Historia (1878; English translation in the
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vols. vii. and viii.)
are based, in part, on documents in the Swedish Royal Archives
and at the universities of Upsala and Lund, which were unknown to
Benjamin Ferris (History of the Original Settlements of the Delaware,
Wilmington, 1846) and Francis Vincent {History of the State of
Delaware, Philadelphia, 1870), which ends with the English occupa-
tion in 1664. In vol. iv. of Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical
History of America (Boston, 1884) there is an excellent chapter by
Gregory B. Keen on " New Sweden, or the Swedes on the Dela-
ware," to which a bibliographical chapter is appended. The Papers
of the Historical Society of Delaware (1879 seq.) contain valuable
material. In part ii. of the Report of the Superintendent of the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1893 (Washington, 1905) there is
" A Historical Account of the Boundary Line between the States
of Pennsylvania and Delaware, by W. C. Hodgkins." The colonial
records are preserved with those of New York and Pennsylvania;
only one volume of the State Records has been published, and
Minutes of the Council of Delaware State, 1776-1792 (Dover, 1886).
For political conditions since the Civil War see vol. 141 of the
North American Review, vol. 32 of the Forum, and vol. 73 of the
Outlook — all published in New York.

DELAWARE, a city and the county-seat of Delaware county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Olentangy (or Whetstone) river, near the
centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 8224; (1900) 7940(572 being
foreign-born and 43 2 negroes); (1910)9076. Delaware is served
by the Pennsylvania, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis (New York Central system), and the Hocking Valley
railways, and by two interurban lines. The city is built on
rolling ground about 900 ft. above, sea-level. There are many
sulphur and iron springs in the vicinity. Delaware is the seat of
the Ohio Wesleyan University (co-educational), founded by the
Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1841, and
opened as a college in 1844; it includes a college of liberal arts
(1844), an academic department (1841), a school of music (1877),
a school of fine arts (1877), a school of oratory (1894), a business
school (1895), and a college of medicine (the Cleveland College
of Physicians and Surgeons, at Cleveland, Ohio; founded as the
Charity Hospital Medical College in 1863, and the medical depart-
ment of the university of Wooster until 1896, when, under its
present name, it became a part of Ohio Wesleyan University).
In 1877 the Ohio Wesleyan female college, established at Delaware
in 1853, was incorporated in the university. In 1907-1908 the
university had 122 instructors, 11 78 students and a library of
55, 395 volumes. At Delaware, also, are the state industrial
school for girls, a Carnegie library, the Edwards Young Men's
Christian Association building and a city hospital. The city
has railway shops and foundries, and manufactures furniture,
carriages, tile, cigars and gas engines. Delaware was laid out in
1808 and was first incorporated in 1815. It was the birthplace
of Rutherford B. Hayes, president of the United States from
1877 to 1881.

DELAWARE INDIANS, the English name for the Leni Lenape;
a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. When
first discovered by the whites the tribe was settled on the banks
of the Delaware river. The French called them Loups (wolves)
from their chief totemic division. Early in the 17th century the
Dutch began trading with them. Subsequently William Penn
bought large tracts of land from them, and war followed, the
Delawares alleging they had been defrauded; but, with the
assistance of the Six Nations, the whites forced them back west
of the Alleghenies. In 1789 they were placed on a reservation in
Ohio and subsequently in 1818 were moved to Missouri. Various
removals followed, until in 1866 they accepted lands in the Indian

territory (Oklahoma) and gave up the tribal relation. They
have remained there and now number some 1700.

DELAWARE RIVER, a stream of the Atlantic slope of the
United States,' meeting tide-water at Trenton, New Jersey, 130 m.
above its mouth. Its total length, from the head of the longest
branch to the capes, is 410 m., and above the head of the bay its
length is 360 m. It constitutes in part the boundary between
Pennsylvania and New York, the boundary between New
Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, for a few miles, the boundary
between Delaware and New Jersey. The main, west or Mohawk
branch rises in Schoharie county, N.Y., about 1886 ft. above
the sea, and flows tortuously through the plateau in a deep
trough until it emerges from the Catskills. Other branches rise
in Greene and Delaware counties. In the upper portion of its
course the varied scenery of its hilly and wooded banks is
exquisitely beautiful. After leaving the mountains and plateau,
the river flows down broad Appalachian valleys, skirts the
Kittatinny range, which it crosses at Delaware Water-Gap,
between nearly vertical walls of sandstone, and passes through a
quiet and charming country of farm and forest,' diversified with
plateaus and escarpments, until it crosses the Appalachian
plain and enters the hills again at Easton, Pa. From this point
it is flanked at intervals by fine hills, and in places by cliffs,
of which the finest are the Hockamixon Rocks, 3 m. long and
above 200 ft. high. At Trenton there is a fall of 8 ft. Below
Trenton the river becomes a broad, sluggish inlet of the sea, with
many marshes along its side, widening steadily into its great
estuary, Delaware Bay. Its main tributaries in New York are
Mongaup and Neversink rivers and Callicoon Creek; from Penn-
sylvania, Lackawaxen, Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers; and from
New Jersey, Rancocas Creek and Musconetcong and Maurice
rivers. Commerce was once important on the upper river, but
only before the beginning of railway competition (1857). The
Delaware division of the Pennsylvania Canal, running parallel
with the river from Easton to Bristol, was opened in 1830. A
canal from Trenton to New Brunswick unites the waters of the
Delaware and Raritan rivers; the Morris and the Delaware and
Hudson canals connect the Delaware and Hudson rivers; and
the Delaware and Chesapeake canal joins the waters of the
Delaware with those of the Chesapeake Bay. The mean tides
below Philadelphia are about 6 ft. The magnitude of the
commerce of Philadelphia has made the improvements of the
river below that port of great importance. Small improvements
were attempted by Pennsylvania as early as 177 1, but apparently
never by New Jersey. The ice floods at Easton are normally
10 to 20 ft., and in 1841 attained a height of 35 ft. These floods
constitute a serious difficulty in the improvement of the lower
river. In the " project of 1885 " the United States government
undertook systematically the formation of a 26-ft. channel
600 ft. wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay;
$1,532,688-81 was expended — about $200,000 of that amount
for maintenance — before the 1885 project was superseded by a
paragraph of the River and Harbor Act of the 3rd of March
1899, which provided for a 30-ft. channel 600 ft. wide from
Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. In 1899 the project
of 1885 had been completed except for three shoal stretches,
whose total length, measured on the range lines, was 4! m.
The project of 1899, estimated to cost $5,810,000, was not
completed at the close of the fiscal year (June 30) 1907, when
$4,936,550-63 had been expended by the Federal government
on the work; in 1905 the state of Pennsylvania appropriated
$750,000 for improvement of the river in Pennsylvania, south
of Philadelphia.

DELAWARE WATER-GAP, a borough and summer resort of
Monroe county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware river,
about 108 m. N. of Philadelphia and about 88 m. W. by N. of
New York. Pop. (1890) 467; (1900) 469. It is served directly
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and by the Belvidere
division of the Pennsylvania railways; along the river on the
opposite side (in New Jersey) runs the New York, Susquehanna
& Western railway, and the borough is connected with Strduds-
burg, Pa. (about 3 m. W. by N.\ by an electric line. The borough

952

DE LA WARR— DELBRUCK

was named from the neighbouring gorge, which is noted for the
picturesqueness of its scenery, especially in winter, when the ice
piles up in the river, sometimes to a height of 20 ft. Here the
river cuts through the Kittatinny (Blue) Ridge to its base. On
the New Jersey side is Mt. Tammany (about 1600 ft.); on
the Pennsylvania side, Mt. Minsi (about 1500 ft.); the elevation
of the river here is about 300 ft. The gap (about 2 m. long)
through the mountain is the result of erosion by the waters of a
great river which flowed northwards acting along a line of fault-
ing at right angles to the strike of the tilted rock formations.
The scenery and the delightful climate have made the place a
popular summer resort. The borough was incorporated in 1889.

See L. W. Brodhead, The Delaware Water-Gap (Philadelphia,
2nd ed., 1870).

DE LA WARR, or Delaware, an English barony, the holders
of which are descended from Roger de la Warr of Isfield, Sussex,
who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1299 and
the following years. He died about 1320; his great-grandson
Roger, to whom the French king John surrendered at the battle
of Poitiers, died'in 1370; and the male line of the family became
extinct on the death of Thomas, 5th baron, in 1426.

The 5th baron's half-sister Joan married Thomas West, 1st
Lord West (d. ^05), and in 1415 her second son Reginald
(1394-1451) succeeded his brother Thomas as 3rd Lord West.
After the death of his uncle Thomas, 5th Baron De La Warr,
whose estates he inherited, Reginald was summoned to parlia-
ment as Baron La Warr, and he is thus the second founder of the
family. His grandson was Thomas, 3rd (or 8th) baron (d. 1 52 5) ,
a courtier during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII.;
and the latter's son was Thomas, 4th (or 9th) baron (c. 1472-
1554). The younger Thomas was a very prominent person
during the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. After serving
with the English army in France in 1513 and being present at the
Field of the Cloth of Gold, he rebuilt the house at Halnaker in
Sussex, which he had obtained by marriage, and here in 1526 he
entertained Henry VIII. " with great cheer." He disliked the
ecclesiastical changes introduced by the king, and he was one of
the peers who tried Anne Boleyn; later he showed some eagerness
to stand well with Thomas Cromwell, but this did not prevent
his arrest in 1 538. He is said to have denounced " the plucking
down of abbeys," and he certainly consorted with many suspected
persons. But he was soon released and pardoned, although he
was obliged to hand over Halnaker to Henry VIII. , receiving
instead the estate of Wherwell in Hampshire. He died without
children in September 1554, when his baronies of De La Warr and
West fell into abeyance. His monument may still be seen in the
church at Broadwater, Sussex.

He had settled his estates on his nephew William West (c. 1 5 1 9-
1 595) , who then tried to bring about his uncle's death by poison ;
for this reason he was disabled by act of parliament (1549) from
succeeding to his honours. However, in 1563 he was restored,
and in 1570 was created by patent Baron De La Warr. This
was obviously a new creation, but in 1596 his son Thomas
(c. 1556-1602) claimed precedency in the baronage as the holder
of the ancient barony of De La Warr. His claim was admitted,
and accordingly his son and successor, next mentioned, is called
the 3rd or the 12th baron.

Thomas West, 3rd or 12th Baron De La Warr (1577-1618),
British soldier and colonial governor in America, was born on
the 9th of July 1577, probably at Wherwell, Hampshire, where
he was baptized. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford,
where he did not complete his course, but subsequently (1605)
received the degree of M.A. In 1597 he was elected member of
parliament for Lymington, and subsequently fought in Holland
and in Ireland under the earl of Essex, being knighted for bravery
in battle in 1599. He was imprisoned for complicity in Essex's
revolt (1600-1601), but was soon released and exonerated. In
1602 he succeeded to his father's title and estates and became
a privy councillor. Becoming interested in schemes for the
colonization of America, he was chosen a member of the council
of the Virginia Company in 1609, and in the same year was
appointed governor and captain-general pf Virginia for life.

Sailing in March 1610 with three ships, 150 settlers and supplies,
he himself bearing the greater part of the expense of the expedi-
tion, he arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of June, in time to
inter ept the colonists who had embarked for England and were
abandoning the enterprise. Lord De La Warr's rule was strict
but just; he constructed two forts near the mouth of the James
river, rebuilt Jamestown, and in general brought order out of
chaos. InMarch 1611 he returned to London, where he published
at the request of the company's council, his Relation of the
condition of affairs in Virginia (reprinted 1859 and 1868). He
remained in England until 1618, when the news of the tyrannical
rule of the deputy, Samuel Argall, led him to start again for
Virginia. He embarked in April, but died en route on the 7th of
June 1618, and was buried at sea. The Delaware river and the
state of Delaware were named in his honour.

A younger brother, Francis (1586-c. 1634), was prominent in
the affairs of Virginia, and in 1627-1628 was president of the
council, and acting-governor of the colony.

In 1 761 the 3rd or 12th baron's descendant, John, 7th or 16th
Baron De La Warr (1693-1766), was created Viscount Cantelupe
and 1st Earl De La Warr. He was a prominent figure in the
House of Lords, at first as a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole.
He also served in the British army and fought at Dettingen,
and was made governor of Guernsey in 1 7 5 2 .

George John West, 5th earl (1791-1869), married Elizabeth,
sister and heiress of George John Frederick Sackville, 4th duke
of Dorset, who was created Baroness Buckhurst in 1864; conse-
quently in 1843 he and his sons took the name of Sackville-West.
The earl was twice lord chamberlain to Queen Victoria, and he is
celebrated as " Fair Euryalus " in the Childish Recollections of
his schoolfellow, Lord Byron. His son Charles Richard (1815-
1873), 6th earl, served in the first Sikh war and in the Crimea;
and being unmarried was succeeded by his brother Reginald
(1817-1896) as 7th Earl De La Warr. Having inherited his
mother's barony of Buckhurst on her death in 1870, he retained
this title along with the barony and earldom of De La Warr,
although the patent had contained a proviso that it should be
kept separate from these dignities. In 1896 the 7th earl's son,
Gilbert George Reginald Sackville-West (b. 1869), became 8th
earl De La Warr.

See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887-1898).

DELBRUCK, HANS ( 1 848- ) , German historian, was born at
Bergen on the island of Riigen on the nth of November 1848,
and studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a
soldier he fought in the Franco-German War, after which he was
for some years tutor to one of the princes of the German imperial
family. In 1885 he became professor of modern history in the
university of Berlin, and he was a member of the German
Reichstag from 1884 to 1890. Delbruck's writings are chiefly
concerned with the history of the art of war, his most ambitious
work being his Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politi-
schen Geschichte (first section, Das Altertum, 1900; second,
Romer und Germanen, 1902; third, Das Mittelalter, 1907).
Among his other works are: Die Perserkriege und die Burgunder*
kriege (Berlin, 1887); Historische itnd politische Aufsatze (1886);
Erinnerungen, Aufsatze und Reden (1902); Die Strategie des
Perikles erldutert durch die Strategie Friedrichs des Grossen (1890) ;
Die Polenfrage (1894); and Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Graf en
Neithardt von Gneisenau (1882 and 1894). Delbrilck began in
1883 to edit the Preussische Jahrbucher, in which he has written
many articles, including one on " General Wolseley uber Napoleon,
Wellington und Gneisenau," and he has contributed to the
Europaischer Geschichtskalender of H. Schulthess.

DELBRUCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON, Prussian
statesman (1817-1903), was born at Berlin on the 16th of April
181 7. On completing his legal studies he entered the service of
the state in r837; and after holding a series of minor posts was
transferred in 1848 to the ministry of commerce, which was to
be the sphere of his real life's work. Both Germany and Austria
had realized the influence of commercial upon political union.
Delbriick in 1851 induced Hanover, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-
Lippe to join the Zollverein; and the southern states, which had

DELCASSE— DELESSERT

953

agreed to admit Austria to the union, found themselves forced in
1853 to renew the old union, from which Austria was excluded.
Delbruck now began, with the support of Bismarck, to apply
the principles of free trade to Prussian fiscal policy. In 1862 he
concluded an important commercial treaty with France. In
1867 he became the first president of the chancery of the North
German Confederation, and represented Bismarck on the federal
tariff council (Zollbundesrath), a position of political as well as
fiscal importance owing to the presence in the council of repre-
sentatives of the southern states. In 1868 he became a Prussian
minister without portfolio. In October 1870, when the union of
Germany under Prussian headship became a practical question,
Delbruck was chosen to go on a mission to the South German
states, and contributed greatly to the agreements concluded at
Versailles in November. In 1871 he became president of the
newly constituted Reichskanzleramt. Delbruck, however, began
to feel himself uneasy under Bismarck's leanings towards
protection and state control. On the introduction of Bismarck's
plan for the acquisition of the railways by the state, Delbruck
resigned office, nominally on the ground of ill-health (June 1,
1876). In i87ohe opposed in'the Reichstag the new protectionist
tariff, and on the failure of his efforts retired definitely from
public life. In 1896 he received from the emperor the order of
the Black Eagle. He died at Berlin on the 1st of February 1903.
DELCASS6, THEOPHILE (1852- ), French statesman, was
born at Pamiers, in the department of Ariege, on the 1st of March
1852. He wrote articles on foreign affairs for the Ripubliquc
fra.nc.aise and Paris, and in 1888 was elected conseiller general of
his native department, standing as " un disciple fidele de Gam-
betta." In the following year he entered the chamber as deputy
for Foix. He was appointed under-secretary for the colonies in
the second Ribot cabinet (January to April 1893), and retained
his post in the Dupuy cabinet till its fall in December 1893.
It was largely owing to his efforts that the French colonial office
was made a separate department with a minister at its head, and
to this office he was appointed in the second Dupuy cabinet (May
1894 to January 1895). He gave a great impetus to French
colonial enterprise, especially in West Africa, where he organized
the newly acquired 1 colony of Dahomey, and despatched the
Liotard mission to the Upper Ubangi. • While in opposition he
devoted special attention to naval affairs, and in speeches that
attracted much notice declared that the function of the French
navy was to secure and develop colonial enterprise, deprecated
all attempts to rival the British fleet, and advocated the construc-
tion of commerce destroyers as France's best reply to England.
On the formation of the second Brisson cabinet in June 1898 he
succeeded M. Hanotaux at the foreign office, and retained that
post under the subsequent premierships of MM. Dupuy, Waldeck-
Rousseau, Combes and Rouvier. In 1898 he had to deal with the
delicate situation caused by Captain Marchand's occupation of
Fashoda, for which, as he admitted in a speech in the chamber on
the 23rd of January 1899, he accepted full responsibility, since it
arose directly out of the Liotard expedition, which he had himself
organized while minister for the colonies; and in March 1899 he
concluded an agreement with Great Britain by .which the difficulty
was finally adjusted, and France consolidated her vast colonial
empire in North- West Africa. In the same year he acted as
mediator between the United States and Spain, and brought
the peace negotiations to a successful conclusion. He intro-
duced greater cordiality into the relations of France with Italy:
at the same time he adhered firmly to the alliance with Russia,
and in August 1899 made a visit to St Petersburg, which he
repeated in April 1901. In June 1900 he made an arrangement
with Spain, fixing the long-disputed boundaries of the French
and Spanish possessions in West Africa. Finally he concluded
with England the important Agreements of 1904 covering colonial
and other questions which had long been a matter of dispute,
especially concerning Egypt, Newfoundland and Morocco.
Suspicion of the growing entente between France and England
soon arose on the part of Germany, and.in 1905 German assertive-
ness was shown in a crisis which was forced on in the matter of
the French activity in Morocco (q.v.), in which the handling of

French policy by M. Delcasse personally was a sore point with
Germany. The situation became acute in April, and was only
relieved by M. Delcasse's resignation of office. He retired into
private life, but in 1908 was warmly welcomed on a visit to
England, where the closest relations now existed with France.

DEL CREDERE (Ital. "of belief" or "trust"). A "del
credere agent," in English law, is one who, selling goods for his
principal on credit, undertakes for an additional commission to
sell only to persons who are absolutely solvent. His position
is thus that of a surety who is liable to his principal should the
vendee make default. The agreement between him and his
principal need not be reduced to or evidenced by writing, for
his undertaking is not a guarantee within the Statute of Frauds.
See also Broker; Guarantee.

DELESCLUZE, LOUIS CHARLES (1809-1871), French
journalist, was born at Dreux on the 2nd of October 1809.
Having studied law in Paris, he early developed a strong demo-
cratic bent, and played a part in the July revolution of 1830.
He became a member of various republican societies, and in
1836 was forced to take refuge in Belgium, where he devoted
himself to republican journalism. Returning in 1840 he settled
in Valenciennes, and after the revolution of 1848 removed to
Paris, where he started a newspaper called La Revolution dSmo-
cratique et sociale. His zeal so far outran his discretion that he
was twice imprisoned and fined, his paper was suppressed and
he himself fled to England, where he continued his journalistic
work. He was arrested in Paris in 1853, and deported to French
Guiana. Released under the amnesty of 1859, he returned
to France with health shattered but energies unimpaired. His
next venture was the publication of the Reveil, a radical organ
upholding the principles of the Association internationale des
travailleurs, known as the " Internationale." This journal,
which brought him three condemnations, fine and imprisonment
in one year, shared the fate of his Paris sheet, and its founder
again fled to Belgium. In 1871 he was elected to the National
Assembly, becoming afterwards a member of the Paris commune.
At the siege of Paris he fought with reckless courage, and met
his death on the last of the barricades (May 1871). He wrote an
account of his imprisonment in Guiana, De Paris a Cayenne,
Journal d'un transports (Paris, 1869).

DELESSE, ACHILLE ERNEST OSCAR JOSEPH (1817-1881),
French geologist and mineralogist, was born at Metz on the 3rd
of February 181 7. At the age of twenty he entered the Ecole
Polytechnique, and subsequently passed through the ficole des
Mines. In 1845 he was appointed to the chair of mineralogy
and geology at Besancon; in 1850 to the chair of geology at the
Sorbonne in Paris; and in 1864 professor of agriculture at the
Ecole des Mines. In 1878 he became inspector-general of mines.
In early years as ingSnieur des mines he investigated and described
various new minerals;. he proceeded afterwards to the study of
rocks, devising new methods for their determination, and giving
particular descriptions of melaphyre, arkose, porphyry, syenite,
&c. The igneous rocks of the Vosges, and those of the Alps,
Corsica, &c, and the subject of metamorphism occupied his
attention. He also prepared in 1858 geological and hydrological
maps of Paris — with reference to the underground water, similar
maps of the departments of the Seine and Seine-et-Marne, and an
agronomic map of the Seine-et-Marne (1880), in which he showed
the relation which exists between the physical and chemical
characters of the soil and the geological structure. His annual
Revue des progres de geologie, undertaken with the assistance
(1860-1865) of Auguste Laugel and afterwards (1865-1878) of
Albert de Lapparent, was carried on from i860 to 1880. His
observations on the lithology of the deposits accumulated beneath
the sea were of special interest and importance. His separate
publications were: Recherches sur I'origine des roches (Paris,
1865); Etude sur le mUamorphisme des roches (1869); Lithologie
des mers de France et des mers principales du globe (2 vols, and
atlas, 1871). He died at Paris on the 24th of March 1881.

DELESSERT, JULES PAUL BENJAMIN ( I7 73-i847), French
banker, was born at Lyons on the 14th of February 1773, the
son of Etienne Delessert (1735-1816), the founder of the first

954

DELFICO— DELHI

fire insurance company and the first discount bank in France.
Young Delessert was travelling in England when the Revolution
broke out in France, but he hastened back to join the Paris
National Guard in 1790, becoming an officer of artillery in 1793.
His father bought him out of the army, however, in 1795 in order
to entrust him with the management of his bank. Gifted with
remarkable energy, he started many commercial enterprises,
founding the first cotton factory at Passy in 1801, and a sugar
factory in 1802, for which he was created a baron of the empire.
He sat in the chamber of deputies for many years, and was a
strong advocate for many humane measures, notably the sup-
pression of the " Tours " or revolving box at the foundling
hospital, the suppression of the death penalty, and the improve-
ment of the penitentiary system. He was made regent of the
Bank of France in 1802, and was also member of, and, indeed,
founder of many, learned and philanthropic societies. He
founded the first savings bank in France, and maintained a keen
interest in it until his death in 1847. He was also an ardent
botanist and conchologist; his botanical library embraced
30,000 volumes, of which he published a catalogue — Musee
botanique de M. Delessert (1845). He also wrote Des avantages
de la caisse d'Spargne et de prevoyance (1835), Mfmoire sur un
projet de bibliotheque royale (1836), he Guide de bonheur (1839), and
Recueil de coquilles dScrites par Lamarck (1841-1842).

DELFICO, MELCHIORRE (1744-1835), Italian economist, was
born at Teramo in the Abruzzi on the 1st of August 1744, and
was educated at Naples. He devoted himself specially to the
study of jurisprudence and political economy, and his numerous
publications exercised great practical influence in the correction
and extinction of many abuses. Under Joseph Bonaparte
Delfico was made a councillor of state, an office which he held
until the restoration of Ferdinand IV., when he was appointed
president of the commission of archives, from which he retired
in 1825. He died at Teramo on the 21 st of June 1835. His more
important works were: Saggio filosofico sul matrimonii) (1774);
Memoria sul Tribunate delta Grascia e suite leggi economiche nelle
provincie confinanti del regno (178,5), which led to the abolition
in Naples of the most vexatious and absurd restrictions on the
sale and exportation of agricultural produce; Riflessioni su la
•oendita dei feudi (1790) and Letter a a Sua Ecc. il sig. Duca di
Cantalupo (1795), which brought about the abolition of feudal
rights over landed property and their sale; Ricerche sul vero
carattere della giurisprudenza Romana e dei suoi cultori (1791);
Pensieri su la storia e su I' incertezza ed inutilitd della medesima
(1806), both on the early history of Rome.

See F. Mozzetti, Degli studii, delle opere e delle virtil di Melchiorre
Delfico; Tipaldo's Biographia degli Italiani illustri (vol. ii.).

DELFT, a town of Holland in the province of South Holland,
on the Schie, 5 m. by rail S.E. by S. of the Hague, with which
it is also connected by steam-tramway. Pop. (1900) 31,582.
It is a quiet, typically Dutch town, with its old brick houses and
tree-bordered canals. The Prinsenhof, previously a monastery,
was converted into a residence for the counts of Orange in 1575;
it was here that William the Silent was assassinated. It is now
used as a William of Orange Museum. The New Church,
formerly the church of St Ursula (14th century) , is the burial place
of the princes of Orange. It is remarkable for its fine tower and
chime of bells, and contains the splendid allegorical monument
of William the Silent, executed by Hendrik de Keyser and his
son Pieter about 1621, and the tomb of Hugo Grotius, born in
Delft in 1583, whose statue, erected in 1886, stands in the
market-place outside the church. The Old Church, founded
in the nth century, but in its present form dating from 1476,
contains the monuments of two famous admirals of the 1,7th
century, Martin van Tromp and Piet Hein, as well as the tomb
of the naturalist Leeuwenhoek, born at Delft in 1632. In
the town hall (1618) are some corporation pictures, portraits
of the counts of Orange and Nassau, including several by Michiel
van Mierevelt (1 567-1641), one of the earliest Dutch portrait
painters, and with his son Pieter (1-595-1623), a native of Delft.
There are also a Roman Catholic church (1882) and a synagogue.
Two important educational establishments are the Indian

Institute for the education of civil service students for the
colonies, to which is attached an ethnographical museum;
and the Royal Polytechnic school, which almost ranks as a
university, and teaches, among other sciences, that of diking.
A fine collection of mechanical models is connected with the
polytechnic school. Among other buildings are the modern
" Phoenix " club-house of the students; the hospital, containing
some anatomical pictures, including one by the two Mierevelts
(1617); a lunatic asylum; the Van Renswoude orphanage, the
theatre, a school of design, the powder magazine and the state
arsenal, originally a warehouse of the East India Company, and
now used as a manufactory of artillery stores.

The name of Delft is most intimately associated with the manu-
facture of the beautiful faience pottery for which it was once
famous. (See Ceramics.) This industry was imported from
Haarlem towards the end of the 16th century, and achieved an
unrivalled position in the second half of the following century;
but it did not survive the French occupation at the end of the
18th century. It has, however, been revived in modern times
under the name of " New Delft." Other branches of industry
are carpet-weaving, distilling, oil and oil-cake manufacture,
dyeing, cooperage and the manufacture of arms and bullets.
There is also an important butter and cheese market.

Delft was founded in 1075 by Godfrey III., duke of Lower
Lorraine, after his conquest of Holland, and came subsequently
into the hands of the counts of Holland. In 1246 it received
a charter from Count William II. (see C. Hegel, StMte und
Gilden, ii. 251). In 1536 it was almost totally destroyed by
fire, and in 1654 largely ruined by the explosion of a powder
magazine.

DELHI, Dehli or Dim, the ancient capital of the Mogul
empire in India, and a modern city which gives its name to a
district and division of British India. The city of Delhi is situ-
ated in 28° 38' N., 77° 13' E., very nearly due north of Cape
Comorin, and practically in a latitudinal line with the more
ancient cities of Cairo and Canton. It lies in the south-east
corner of the province of the Punjab, to which it was added in
1858, and abuts on the right bank of the river Jumna. Though
Lahore, the more ancient city, remains the official capital of the
Punjab, Delhi is historically more famous, and is now more
important as a commercial and railway centre.

Though the remains of earlier cities are scattered round Delhi
over an area estimated to cover some 45 sq. m., modern Delhi
dates only from the middle of the 17th century, when Shah
Jahan rebuilt the city on its present site, adding the title
Shah-jahanabad from his own name. It extends for nearly
2j m. along the right bank of the Jumna from the Water
bastion to the Wellesley bastion in the south-east corner, nearly
one-third of the frontage being occupied by the river wall of the
palace. The northern wall, famous in the siege of Delhi in 1857,
extends three-quarters of a mile from the Water bastion to the
Shah, commonly known as the Mori, bastion; the length of
the west wall from this bastion to the Ajmere gate is ij m.
and of the south wall to the Wellesley bastion again almost
exactly the same distance, the whole land circuit being
thus 3j m. The complete circuit of Delhi is 5J m. In the
north wall is situated the famous Kashmir gate, while the
Mori or Drain gate, which was built by a Mahratta governor,
has now been removed. In the west wall are the Farash
Khana and Ajmere gates, while the Kabul and Lahore gates
have been removed. In the south wall are the Turkman and
Delhi gates. The gates on the river side of the city included
the Khairati and Rajghat, the Calcutta and Nigambod — both
removed; the Kela gate, and the Badar Rao gate, now closed.
The great wall of Delhi, which was constructed by Shah Jahan,
was strengthened by the English by the addition of a ditch and
glacis, after Delhi was captured by Lord Lake in 1803; and its
strength was turned against the British at the time of the Mutiny.
The imperial palace (1638-1648), now known as the " Fort,"
is situated on the east of the city, and abuts directly on the river.
It consists at present of bare and ugly British barracks, among
which are scattered exquisite gems of oriental architecture. The

DELHI

955

two most famous among its buildings are the Diwan-i-Am or
Hall of Public Audience, and the Diwan-i-Khas or Hall of
Private Audience. The Diwan-i-Am is a splendid building
measuring ioo ft. by 60 ft., and was formerly plastered with
chunam and overlaid with gold. The most striking effect now
lies in its engrailed arches. It was in the recess in the back
wall of this hall that the famous Peacock Throne used to stand,
" so called from its having the figures of two peacocks standing
behind it, their tails being expanded and the whole so inlaid with
sapphires, rubies, emeralds, pearls and other precious stones of
appropriate colours as to represent life." Tavernier, the French
jeweller, who saw Delhi in 1665, describes the throne as of the
shape of a bed, 6 ft. by 4 ft., supported by four golden feet,
20 to 25 in. high, from the bars above which rose twelve columns
to support the canopy; the bars were decorated with crosses
of rubies and emeralds, and also with diamonds and pearls. In
all there were 108 large rubies on the throne, and 116 emeralds,
but many of the latter had flaws. The twelve columns support-
ing the canopy were decorated with rows of splendid pearls, and
Tavernier considered these to be the most valuable part of the
throne. The whole was valued at £6,000,000. This throne was
carried off by the Persian invader Nadir Shah in 1739, and has
been rumoured to exist still in the Treasure House of the Shah
of Persia; but Lord Curzon, who examined the thrones there,
says that nothing now exists of it, except perhaps some portions
worked up in a modern Persian throne. The Diwan-i-Khas
is smaller than the Diwan-i-Am, and consists of a pavilion of
white marble, in the interior of which the art of the Moguls
reached the perfection of its jewel-like decoration. On a marble
platform rises a marble pavilion, the flat-coned roof of which
is supported on a double row of marble pillars. The inner face
of the arches, with the spandrils and the pilasters which support
them, are covered with flowers and foliage of delicate design and
dainty execution, crusted in green serpentine, blue lapis lazuli
and red and purple porphyry. During the lapse of years many of
these stones were picked from their setting, and the silver ceiling
of flowered patterns was pillaged by the Mahrattas; but the
inlaid work was restored as far as possible by Lord Curzon. It is
in this hall that the famous inscription " If a paradise be on the
face of the earth, it is this, it is this, it is this," still exists. It is
given in Persian characters twice in the panels over the narrow
arches at the ends of the middle hall, beginning from the east on
the north side, and from the west at the south side. At the time
of the Delhi Durbar held in January 1903 to celebrate the
proclamation of Edward VII. as emperor of India these two
halls were used as a dancing-room and supper-room, and their
full beauty was brought out by the electric light shining through
their marble grille-work.

The native city of Delhi is like most other cities in India, a
huddle of mean houses in mean streets, diversified with splendid
mosques. The Chandni Chauk (" silver street "), the principal
street of Delhi, which was once supposed to be the richest street
in the world, has fallen from its high estate, though it is still a
broad and imposing avenue with a double row of trees running
down the centre. D uring the course of its history it was four times
sacked, by Nadir Shah, Timur, Ahmad Shah and the Mahrattas,
and its roadway has many times run with blood. Now it is the
abode of the jewellers and ivory-workers of Delhi, but the jewels
are seldom valuable and the carving has lost much of its old
delicacy. A short distance south of the Chandni Chauk the Jama
Masjid, or Great Mosque, rises boldly from a small rocky eminence.
It was erected in 1648-1650, two years after the royal palace,
by Shah Jahan. Its front court, 450 ft. square, and surrounded
by a cloister open on both sides, is paved with granite inlaid with
marble, and commands a fine view of the city. The mosque itself,
a splendid structure forming an oblong 261 ft. in length, is
approached by a magnificent flight of stone steps. Three domes
of white marble rise from its roof, with two tall minarets at the
front corners. The interior of the mosque is paved throughout,
and the walls and roof are lined, with white marble. Two other
mosques in Delhi itself deserve passing notice, the Kala Masjid
or Black Mosque, which was built about 1380 in the reign of

Feroz Shah, and the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, a tiny building
added to the palace by Aurangzeb, as the emperor's private
place of prayer. It is only 60 ft. square, and the domes alone
are seen above the red sandstone walls until the opening of two
small fine brass gates.

To the west and north-west of Delhi considerable suburbs
cluster beyond the walls. Here are the tombs of the imperial
family. That of Humayun, the second of the Mogul dynasty, is
a noble building of rose-coloured sandstone inlaid with white
marble. It lies about 3 m. from the city, in a terraced garden,
the whole surrounded by an embattled wall, with towers and four
gateways. In the centre stands a platform about 20 ft. high by
200 ft. square, supported by arches and ascended by four flights
of steps. Above, rises the mausoleum, also a square, with a great
dome of white marble in the centre. About a mile to the west
is another burying-ground, or collection of tombs and small
mosques, some of them very beautiful. The most remarkable
is perhaps the little chapel in honour of a celebrated Mussul-
man saint, Nizam-ud-din, near whose shrine the members of the
imperial family, up to the time of the Mutiny, lie buried, each
in a small enclosure surrounded by lattice-work of white marble.

Still farther away, some 10 m. south of the modern city, amid
the ruins of old Delhi, stands the Kutb Minar, which is supposed
to be the most perfect tower in the world, and one of the seven
architectural wonders of India. The Minar was begun by Kutb-
ud-din Aibak about a.d. i 200. The two top storeys were rebuilt
by Feroz Shah. It consists of five storeys of red sandstone and
white marble. The purplish red of the sandstone at the base is
finely modulated, through a pale pink in the second storey, to
a dark orange at the summit, which harmonizes with the blue of
an Indian sky. Dark bands of Arabic writing round the three
lower storeys contrast with the red sandstone. The height of the
column is 238 ft. The plinth is a polygon of twenty sides. The
basement storey has the same number of faces formed into convex
flutes which are alternately angular and semicircular. The next
has semicircular flutes, and in the third they are all angular.
Then rises a plain storey, and above it soars a partially fluted
storey, the shaft of which is adorned with bands of marble and
red sandstone. A bold projecting balcony, richly ornamented,
runs round each storey. After six centuries the column is almost
as fresh as on the day it was finished. It stands in the south-east
corner of the outer court of the mosque erected by Kutb-ud-din
immediately after his capture of Delhi in 1193. The design of
this mosque is Mahommedan, but. the wonderfully delicate
ornamentation of its western facade and other remaining parts
is Hindu. In the inner courtyard of the mosque stands the Iron
Pillar, which is probably the most ancient monument in the
neighbourhood of Delhi, dating from about a.d. 400. It consists
of a solid shaft of wrought iron some 16 in. in diameter and 23 ft.
■8 in. in height, with an inscription eulogizing Chandragupta
Vikramaditya. It was brought, probably from Muttra, by
Anang Pal, a Rajput chief of the Tomaras, who erected it here
in 105 2. l

Among the modern buildings of Delhi may be mentioned the
Residency, now 'occupied by a government high school, and
the Protestant church of St James, built at a coast of £10,000 by
Colonel Skinner, an officer well known in the history of the East
India Company. About half-way down the Chandni Chauk is a
high clock-tower. Near it is the town hall, with museum and
library. Behind the Chandni Chauk, to the north, lie the Queen's
Gardens; beyond them the " city lines " stretch away as far
as the well-known rocky ridge, about a mile outside the town.
From the summit of this ridge the view of the station and city
is very picturesque. The principal local institution until 1877 was
the Delhi College, founded in 1792. It was at first exclusively
an oriental school, supported by the voluntary contributions
of Mahommedan gentlemen, and managed by a committee of the
subscribers. In 1829 an English department was added to it;
and in 1855 the institution was placed under the control of
the Educational Department. In the Mutiny of 1857 the old

1 See the paper by V. A. Smith in the Journal of the Royal A static
Soc. (1897), p. 13.

95^

DELHI

college was plundered of a very valuable oriental library, and
the building completely destroyed. A new college was founded in
1858, and was affiliated to the university of Calcutta in 1864.
The old college attained to great celebrity as an educational
institution, and produced many excellent scholars, but it was
abolished in 1877, in order to concentrate the grant available for
higher-class education upon the Punjab University at Lahore.

The Ridge, famous as the British base during the siege of Delhi
during the Mutiny, in 1857, is a last outcrop of the Aravalli Hills
which rises in a steep escarpment some 60 ft. above the city. At
its nearest point on the right of the British position, where the
Mutiny Memorial now stands, the Ridge is only 1200 yds. from
the walls of Delhi; at the Flagstaff Tower in the centre of the
position it is a mile and a half away; and at the left near the
river nearly two miles and a half. It was behind the Ridge at
this point that the main portion of the British camp was pitched.
The Mutiny Memorial, which was erected by the army before
Delhi, is a rather poor specimen of a Gothic spire in red sandstone,
while the memorial tablets are of inferior marble. Next to the
Ridge the point of most interest to every English visitor to Delhi
is Nicholson's grave, which lies surrounded by an iron railing in
the Kashmir gate cemetery. The Kashmir gate itself bears a
slab recording the gallant deed of the party under Lieutenants
D. C. Home and P. Salkeld, who blew in the gate in broad day-
light on the day that Delhi was taken by assault.

The population of Delhi according to the census of 1001 was
208, S7S, of whom 88,460 were Mahommedans and 114,417 were
Hindus. The city is served by five different railways, the East
Indian, the Oudh & Rohilkhand, the Rajputana-Malwa &
Bombay-Baroda, the Southern Punjab, and the North-Western,
and occupies a central position, being 940 m. from Karachi, 950
from Calcutta, and 960 from Bombay. Owing to the advantages
it enjoys as a trade centre, Delhi is recovering much of the
prominence which it lost at the time of the Mutiny. It has
spinning-mills and other mills worked by steam. The principal
manufactures are gold and silver filigree work and embroidery,
jewelry, muslins, shawls, glazed pottery and wood-carving.

The District of Delhi has an area of 1 290 sq. m. It consists
of a strip of territory on the right or west bank of the Jumna
river, 75 m. in length, and varying from 15 to 233 m. in breadth.
Most of the district consists of hard and stony soil, depending
upon irrigation, which is supplied by the Western Jumna canal,
the Ali Mardan canal and the Agra canal. The principal crops
are wheat, barley, sugar-cane and cotton.

When Lord Lake broke the Mahratta power in 1803, and
the emperor was taken under the protection of the East India
Company, the present districts of Delhi and Hissar were assigned
for the maintenance of the royal family, and were administered
by a British resident. In 1832 the office of resident was
abolished, and the tract was annexed to the North-Western
Provinces. After the Mutiny in 1858 it was separated from
the North-Western Provinces and annexed to the Punjab. The
population in 1901 was 689,039.

The Division of Delhi stretches from Simla to Rajputana,
and is much broken up by native states. It comprises the seven
districts of Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Umballa
and Simla. Its total area is 15,393 sc l- m -> an d in 1901 the
population was 4,587,092.

History. — According to legends, which may or may not have
a substantial basis, Delhi or its immediate neighbourhood has
from time immemorial been the site of a capital city. The
neighbouring village of Indarpat preserves the name of Indra-
prashta, the semi-mythical city founded, according to the Sanscrit
epic Mahabharata, by Yudisthira and his brothers, the five
Pandavas. Whatever its dim predecessors may have been,
however, the actual history of Delhi dates no further back than
the nth century a.d., when Anangapala (Anang Pal), a chief of
the Tomara clan, built the Red Fort, in which the Kutb Minar
now stands; in 1052 the same chief removed the famous Iron
Pillar from its original position, probably at Muttra, and set it
up among a group of temples of which the materials were after-
wards used by the Mussulmans for the construction of the great

Kutb Mosque. About the middle of the 1 2th century the Tomara ;
dynasty was overthrown by Vigraha-raja (Visala-deva, Bisal
Deo), the Chauhan king of Ajmere, who from inscribed records
discovered of late years appears to have been a man of consider-
able culture (see V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India, ed. 1908,
p. 356). His nephew and successor was Prithwi-raja (Prithiraj,
or Rai Pithora), lord of Sambhar, Delhi and Ajmere, whose fame
as lover and warrior still lives in popular story. He was the last
Hindu ruler of Delhi. In 1191 came the invasion of Mahommed
of Ghor. Defeated on this occasion, Mahommed returned two
years later, overthrew the Hindus, and captured and put to<
death Prithwi-raja. Delhi became henceforth the capital of
the Mahommedan Indian empire, Kutb-ud-din (the general and
slave of Mahommed of Ghor) being left in command. His
dynasty is known as that of the slave kings, and it is to them that
old Delhi owes its grandest remains, among them Kutb Mosque
and the Kutb Minar. The slave dynasty retained the throne
till 1290, when it was subverted by Jalal-ud-din Khilji. The
most remarkable monarch of this dynasty was Ala-ud-din, during
whose reign Delhi was twice exposed to attack from invading
hordes of Moguls. On the first occasion Ala-ud-din defeated
them under the walls of his capital; on the second, after encamp-
ing for two months in the neighbourhood of the city, they retired
without a battle. The house of Khilji came to an end in 1321,
and was followed by that of Tughlak. Hitherto the Pathan kings
had been content with the ancient Hindu capital, altered and
adorned to suit their tastes. But one of the first acts of the
founder of the new dynasty, Ghias-ud-din Tughlak, was to erect
a new capital about 4 m. farther to the east, which he called
Tughlakabad. The ruins of his fort remain, and the eye can still
trace the streets and lanes of the long deserted city. Ghias-ud-
din was succeeded by his son Mahommed b. Tughlak, who reigned
from 1325 to 1351, and is described by Elphinstone as " one of.
the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that
ever adorned or disgraced human nature." Under this monarch
the Delhi of the Tughlak dynasty attained its utmost growth.
His successor Feroz Shah Tughlak transferred the capital to a
new town which he founded some miles off, on the north of the
Kutb, and to which he gave his own name, Ferozabad. In 1398,
during the reign of Mahmud Tughlak, occurred the Tatar
invasion of Timurlane, The king fled to Gujarat, his army was
defeated under the walls of Delhi, and the city surrendered. The
town, notwithstanding a promise of protection, was plundered
and burned; the citizens were massacred. The invaders at last
retired, leaving Delhi without a government, and almost without
inhabitants. At length Mahmud Tughlak regained a fragment
of his former kingdom, but on his death in 141 2 the family became
extinct. He was succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty, which held
Delhi and a few miles of surrounding territory till 1444, when it
gave way to the house of Lodi, during whose rule the capital was
removed to Agra. In 1526 Baber, sixth in descent from Timur-
lane, invaded India, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi at the battle
of Panipat, entered Delhi, was proclaimed emperor, and finally
put an end to the Afghan empire. Baber's capital was at Agra,
but his son and successor, Humayun, removed it to Delhi. In
1540 Humayun was defeated and expelled by Sher Shah, who
entirely rebuilt the city, enclosing and fortifying it with a new
wall. In his time Delhi extended from where Humayun's tomb
now is to near the southern gate of the modern city. In 1555
Humayun, with the assistance of Persia, regained the throne;
but he died within six months, and was succeeded by his son,
the illustrious Akbar.

During Akbar's reign and that of his son Jahangir, the capital
was either at Agra or at Lahore, and Delhi once more fell into
decay. Between 1638 and 1658, however, Shah Jahan rebuilt it
almost in its present form; and his city remains substantially the
Delhi of the present time. The imperial palace, the Jama Masjid
or Great Mosque, and the restoration of what is now the western
Jumna canal, are the work of Shah Jahan. The Mogul empire
rapidly expanded during the reigns of Akbar and his successors
down to Aurungzeb, when it attained its climax. After the death
of the latter monarch, in 1707, came the decline. Insurrections

DELHI

957

and civil wars on the part of the Hindu tributary chiefs,
Sikhs and Mahrattas, broke out. Aurungzeb's successors became
the helpless instruments of conflicting chiefs. His grandson,
Jahandar Shah, was, in 17 13, deposed and strangled after a reign
of one year; and Farrakhsiyyar, the next in succession, met with
the same fate in 17 19. He was succeeded by Mahommed Shah,
in whose reign the Mahratta forces first made their appearance
before the gates of Delhi, in 1736. Three years later the Persian
monarch, Nadir Shah, after defeating the Mogul army at Karnal,
entered Delhi in triumph. While engaged in levying a heavy
contribution, the Persian troops were attacked by the populace,
and many of them were killed. Nadir Shah, after vainly attempt-
ing to stay the tumult, at last gave orders for a general massacre
of the inhabitants. For fifty-eight days Nadir Shah remained in
Delhi, and when he left he carried with him a treasure in money
amounting, at the lowest computation, to eight or nine millions
sterling, besides jewels of inestimable value, and other property
to the amount of several millions more.

From this time (1740) the decline of the empire proceeded
unchecked and with increased rapidity. In 177 1 Shah Alam, the
son of Alamgir II., was nominally raised to the throne by the
Mahrattas, the real sovereignty resting with the Mahratta chief,
Sindhia. An attempt of the puppet emperor to shake himself
clear of the Mahrattas, in which he was defeated in 1788, led to a
permanent Mahratta garrison being stationed at Delhi. From
this date, the king remained a cipher in the hands of Sindhia,
who treated him with studied neglect, until the 8th of September
1803, when Lord Lake overthrew the Mahrattas under the walls
of Delhi, entered the city, and took the king under the protection
of the British. Delhi, once more attacked by a Mahratta army
under the Mahratta chief Holkar in 1804, was gallantly defended
by Colonel Ochterlony, the British resident, who held out against
overwhelming odds for eight days, until relieved by Lord Lake.
From this date a new era in the history of Delhi began. A pension
of £1 20,000 per annum was allowed to the king, with exclusive
jurisdiction over the palace, and the titular sovereignty as before;
but the city, together with the Delhi territory, passed under
British administration.

Fifty-three years of quiet prosperity for Delhi were brought to
a close by the Mutiny of 1857. Its capture by the mutineers, its
siege, and its subsequent recapture by the British have been
often told, and nothing beyond a short notice is called for here.
The outbreak at Meerut occurred on the night of the 10th of
May 1857. Immediately after the murder of their officers, the
rebel soldiery set out for Delhi, about 35 m. distant, and on
the following morning entered the city, where they were joined
by the city mob. Mr Fraser, the commissioner, Mr Hutchinson,
the collector, Captain Douglas, the commandant of the palace
guards, and the Rev. Mr Jennings, the residency chaplain, were
at once murdered, as were also most of the civil and non-official
residents whose houses were situated within the city walls. The
British troops in cantonments consisted of three regiments of
native infantry and a battery of artillery. These cast in their lot
with the mutineers, and commenced by killing their officers.
The Delhi magazine, then the largest in the north-west of India,
was in the charge of Lieutenant Willoughby, with whom were two
other officers and six non-commissioned officers. The magazine
was attacked by the mutineers, but the little band defended to
the last the enormous accumulation of munitions of war stored
there, and, when further defence was hopeless, fired the magazine.
Five of the nine- were killed by the explosion, and Lieutenant
Willoughby subsequently died of his injuries; the remaining
three succeeded in making their escape. The occupation of Delhi
by the rebels was the signal for risings in almost every military
station in North- Western India. The revolted soldiery with one
accord thronged towards Delhi, and in a short time the city was
garrisoned by a rebel army variously estimated at from 50,000 to
70,000 disciplined men. The pensioned king, Bahadur Shah, was
proclaimed emperor; his sons were appointed to various military
commands. About fifty Europeans and Eurasians, nearly all
females, who had been captured in trying to escape from the town
on the day of the outbreak, were confined in a stifling chamber

of the palace for fifteen days; they were then brought out and
massacred in the court-yard.

The siege which followed forms one of the memorable incidents
of the British history of India. On the 8th June, four weeks after
the outbreak, Sir H. Barnard, who had succeeded as commander-
in-chief on the death of General Anson, routed the mutineers with
a handful of Europeans and Sikhs, after a severe action at Badli-
ki-Serai, and encamped upon the Ridge that overlooks the city.
The force was too weak to capture the city, and he had no siege
train or heavy guns. All that could be done was to hold the
position till the arrival of reinforcements and of a siege train.
During the next three months the little British force on the Ridge
were rather the besieged than the besiegers. Almost daily sallies,
which often turned into pitched battles, were made by the rebels
upon the over- worked handful of Europeans, Sikhs and Gurkhas.
A great struggle took place on the centenary of the battle of
Plassey (June 23), and another on the 25th of August; but on
both occasions the mutineers were repulsed with heavy loss.
General Barnard died of cholera in July, and was succeeded by
General Archdale Wilson. Meanwhile reinforcements and siege
artillery gradually arrived, and early in September it was resolved
to make the assault. The first of the heavy batteries opened fire
on the 8th of September, and on the 13th a practicable breach was
reported.

On the morning of the 14th Sept. the assault was delivered,
the points of attack being the Kashmir bastion, the Water
bastion, the Kashmir gate, and the Lahore gate. The assault
was thoroughly successful, although the column which was to
enter the city by the Lahore gate sustained a temporary check.
The whole eastern part of the city was retaken, but at a cost of
66 officers and 1104 men killed and wounded, out of the total
strength of 9866. Fighting continued more or less during the
next six days, and it was not till the 20th of September that the
entire city and palace were occupied, and the reconquest of Delhi
was complete. During the siege, the British force sustained a
loss of 1012 officers and men killed, and 3837 wounded. Among
the killed was General John Nicholson, the leader of one of the
storming parties, who was shot through the body in the act of
leading his men, in the first day's fighting. He lived, however,
to learn that the whole city had been recaptured, and died on the
23rd of September. On the flight of the mutineers, the king and
several members of the royal family took refuge at Humayun's
tomb. On receiving a promise that his life would be spared,
the last of the house of Timur surrendered to Major Hodson; he
was afterwards banished to Rangoon. Delhi, thus reconquered,
remained for some months under military authority. Owing to
the murder of several European soldiers who strayed from the
lines, the native population was expelled the city. Hindus were
soon afterwards readmitted, but for some time Mahommedans
were rigorously excluded. Delhi was made over to the civil
authorities in January 1858, but it was not till 1861 that the civil
courts were regularly reopened. The shattered walls of the
Kashmir gateway, and the bastions of the northern face of the
city, still bear the marks of the cannonade of September 1857.
Since that date Delhi has settled down into a prosperous com-
mercial town, and a great railway centre. The lines which start
from it to the north, south, east and west bring into its bazaars
the trade of many districts. But the romance of antiquity still
lingers around it, and Delhi was selected for the scene of the
Imperial Proclamation on the 1st of January 1877, and for the
great Durbar held in January 1903 for the proclamation of King
Edward VII. as emperor of India.

Authorities. — The best modern account of the city is Delhi, Past
and Present (1901), by H. C. Fanshawe, a former commissioner of
Delhi. Other authoritative works are Cities of India (1903) and The
Mutiny Papers (1893), both by G. W. Forrest, and Forty-one Yearsin
India (1897), by Lord Roberts; while some impressionistic sketches
will be found in Enchanted India (1899), by Prince Bojidar Kara-
georgevitch. See also the chapter on Delhi in H. G. Keene, Hist, of
Hindustan . . . to the fall of the Mughol Empire (1885). For the
Delhi Durbar of 1903 see Stephen Wheeler, Hist, of the Delhi Corona-
tion _ Durbar, compiled from official papers by order of the viceroy of
India (London, 1904), which contains numerous portraits and other
illustrations.

95 8

DELIA— DELIAN LEAGUE

DELIA, a festival 01 Apollo held every five years at the great
panegyris in Delos (Homeric Hymn to Apollo, 147). It included
athletic and musical contests, at which the prize was a branch of
the sacred palm. This festival was said to have been established
by Theseus on his way back from Crete. Its celebration gradually
fell into abeyance and was not revived till 426 B.C., when the
Athenians purified the island and took so prominent a part in the
maintenance of the Delia that it came to be regarded almost as
an Athenian festival v Thucydides iii. 104). Ceremonial embassies
(Otcopiai) from all the Greek cities were present.

See G. Gilbert, Deliaca (1869) ; J. A. Lebegue, Recherches sur Delos
(1876); A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898); E. Pfuhl,
De Atheniensium pompis sacris (1900) ; G. F. Schomann, Griechische
Altertumer (4th ed., 1897-1902); P. Stengel, Die griechischen
Kultusaltertumer (1898); T. Homolle in Daremberg and Saglio's
Dictionnaire des antiquites.

DELIAN LEAGUE, or Confederacy of Delos, the name given
to a confederation of Greek states under the leadership of Athens,
with its headquarters at Delos, founded in 478 B.C. shortly after
the final repulse of the expedition of the Persians under Xerxes I.
This confederacy, which after many modifications and vicissi-
tudes was finally broken up by the capture of Athens by Sparta
in 404, was revived in 378-7 (the " Second Athenian Confeder-
acy ") as a protection against Spartan aggression, and lasted,
at least formally, until the victory of Philip II. of Macedon at
Chaeronea. These two confederations have an interest quite out
of proportion to the significance of the detailed events which form
their history. (See Greece: Ancient History.) They are the first
two examples of which we have detailed knowledge of a serious
attempt at united action on the part of a large number of self-
governing states at a relatively high level of conscious political
development. The first league, moreover, in its later period
affords the first example in recorded history of self-conscious
imperialism in which the subordinate units enjoyed a specified
local autonomy with an organized system, financial, military and
judicial. The second league is further interesting as the pre-
cursor of the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues.

History. — Several causes contributed to the formation of the
first Confederacy of Delos. During the 6th century B.C. Sparta
had come to be regarded as the chief power, not only in the Pelo-
ponnese, but also in Greece as a whole, including the islands of
the Aegean. The Persian invasions of Darius and Xerxes, with the
consequent importance of maritime strength and the capacity
for distant enterprise, as compared with that of purely military
superiority in the Greek peninsula, caused a considerable loss of
prestige which Sparta was unwilling to recognize. Moreover, it
chanced that at the time the Spartan leaders were not men
of strong character or general ability. Pausanias, the victor of
Plataea, soon showed himself destitute of the high qualities
which the situation demanded. Personal cupidity, discourtesy
to the allies, and a tendency to adopt the style and manners of
oriental princes, combined to alienate from him the sympathies
of the Ionian allies, who realized that, had it not been for the
Athenians, the battle of Salamis would never have been even
fought, and Greece would probably have become a Persian
satrapy. The Athenian contingent which was sent to aid
Pausanias in the task of driving the Persians finally out of the
Thraceward towns was under the command of the Athenians,
Aristides and Cimon, men of tact and probity. It is not, there-
fore, surprising that when Pausanias was recalled to Sparta on
the charge of treasonable overtures to the Persians, the Ionian
allies appealed to the Athenians on the grounds of kinship and
urgent necessity, and that when Sparta sent out Dorcis to super-
sede Pausanias he found Aristides in unquestioned command of
the allied fleet. To some extent the Spartans were undoubtedly
relieved, in that it no longer fell to them to organize distant
expeditions to Asia Minor, and this feeling was strengthened
about the same time by the treacherous conduct of their king
Leotychides (q.v.) in Thessaly. In any case the inelastic quality
of the Spartan system was unable to adapt itself to the spirit of
the new age. To Aristides was mainly due the organization of the
new league and the adjustment of the contributions of the various

allies in ships or in money. His assessment, of the details of
which we know nothing, was so fair that it remained popular long
after the league of autonomous allies had become an Athenian
empire. The general affairs of the league were managed by a
synod which met periodically in the temple of Apollo and Artemis
at Delos, the ancient centre sanctified by the common worship
of the Ionians. In this synod the allies met on an equality under
the presidency of Athens. Among its first subjects of delibera-
tion must have been the ratification of Aristides' assessment.
Thucydides lays emphasis on the fact that in these meetings
Athens as- head of the league had no more than presidential .
authority, and the other members were called ciijujuaxoi (allies),
a word, however, of ambiguous meaning and capable of including
both free and subject allies. The only other fact preserved by
Thucydides is that Athens appointed a board called the Helleno-
tamiae (ra/itas, steward) to watch over and administer the
treasury of the league, which for some twenty years was kept
at Delos, and to receive the contributions (4>6pos) of the allies
who paid in money.

The league was, therefore, specifically a free confederation of,
autonomous Ionian cities founded as a protection against the
common danger which threatened the Aegean basin, and led
by Athens in virtue of her predominant naval power as exhibited
in the war against Xerxes. Its organization, adopted by the
common synod, was the product of the new democratic ideal
embodied in the Cleisthenic reforms, as interpreted by a just
and moderate exponent. It is one of the few examples of free
corporate action on the part of the ancient Greek cities, whose
centrifugal yearning for independence so often proved fatal to
the Hellenic world. It is, therefore, a profound mistake to regard
the history of the league during the first twenty years of its
existence as that of an Athenian empire. Thucydides expressly
describes the predominance of Athens as riye/jiovia (leadership,
headship), not as apxn (empire), and the attempts made by
Athenian orators during the second period of the Peloponnesian
War to prove that the attitude of Athens had not altered since
the time of Aristides are manifestly unsuccessful.

Of the first ten years of the league's history we know practically
nothing, save that it was a period of steady, successful activity
against the few remaining Persian strongholds in Thrace and the
Aegean (Herod, i. 106-107, see Athens, Cimon). In these years
the Athenian sailors reached a high pitch of training, and by
their successes strengthened that corporate pride which had been
born at Salamis. On the other hand, it naturally came to pass
that certain of the allies became weary of incessant warfare and
looked for a period of commercial prosperity. Athens, as the
chosen leader, and supported no doubt by the synod, enforced
the contributions of ships and money according to the assess-
ment. Gradually the allies began to weary of personal service
and persuaded the synod to accept a money commutation. The
Ionians were naturally averse from prolonged warfare, and in
the prosperity which must have followed the final rout of the
Persians and the freeing of the Aegean from the pirates (a very
important feature in the league's policy) a money contribution
was only a trifling burden. The result was, however, extremely
bad for the allies, whose status in the league necessarily became
lower in relation to that of Athens, while at the same time their
military and naval resources correspondingly diminished. Athens
became more and more powerful, and could afford to disregard
the authority of the synod. Another new feature appeared
in the employment of coercion against cities which desired to
secede. Athens might fairly insist that the protection of the
Aegean would become impossible if some of the chief islands were
liable to be used as piratical strongholds, and further that it was
only right that all should contribute in some way to the security
which all enjoyed. ' The result was that, in the cases of Naxos
and Thasos, for instance, the league's resources were employed
not against the Persians but against recalcitrant Greek islands,
and that the Greek ideal of separate autonomy was outraged.
Shortly after the capture of Naxos (c. 467 b.c.) Cimon proceeded
with a fleet of 300 ships (only 100 from the allies) to the south-
western and southern coasts of Asia Minor. Ha nng driven the

DELIAN LEAGUE

959

Persians out of Greek towns in Lycia and Caria, he met and
routed the Persians on land and sea at the mouth of the Eury-
medon in Pamphylia. In 463 after a siege of more than two years
the Athenians captured Thasos, with which they had quarrelled
over mining rights in the Strymon valley. It is said (Thuc. i. 101)
that Thasos had appealed for aid to Sparta, and that the latter
was prevented from responding only by earthquake and the
Helot revolt. But this is both unproved and improbable.
Sparta had so far no quarrel with Athens. Athens thus became
mistress of the Aegean, while the synod at Delos had become
practically, if not theoretically, powerless. It was at this time
that Cimon (q.v.), who had striven to maintain a balance between
Sparta, the chief military, and Athens, the chief naval power,
was successfully attacked by Ephialtes and Pericles. During the
ensuing years, apart from a brief return to the Cimonian policy,
the resources of the league, or, as it has now become, the
Athenian empire, were directed not so much against Persia
as against Sparta, Corinth, Aegina and Boeotia. (See Athens;
Sparta, &c.) A few points only need be dealt with here. The first
years of the land war brought the Athenian empire to its zenith.
Apart from Thessaly, it included all Greece outside the Pelo-
ponnese. At the same time, however, the Athenian expedition
against the Persians in Egypt ended in a disastrous defeat, and
for a time the Athenians returned to a philo-Laconian policy,
perhaps under the direction of Cimon (see Cimon and Pericles).
Peace was made with Sparta, and, if we are to believe 4th-
century orators, a treaty, the Peace of Callias or of Cimon, was
concluded between the Great King and Athens in 449 after the
death of Cimon before the walls of Citium in Cyprus. The
meaning of this so-called Peace of Callias is doubtful. Owing to
the silence of Thucydides and other reasons, many scholars
regard it as merely a cessation of hostilities (see Cimon and
Callias, where authorities are quoted). At all events, it is
significant of the success of the main object of the Delian League,
the Athenians resigning Cyprus and Egypt, while Persia recog-
nized the freedom of the maritime Greeks of Asia Minor.

During this period the power of Athens over her allies had
increased, though we do not know anything of the process by
which this was brought about. Chios, Lesbos and Samos alone
furnished ships; all the rest had commuted for a money pay-
ment. This meant that the synod was quite powerless. More-
over in 454 (probably) the changed relations were crystallized by
the transference (proposed by the Samians) of the treasury to
Athens (Corp. Inscr. Attic, i. 260). Thus in 448 B.C. Athens was
not only mistress of a maritime empire, but ruled over Megara, :
Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Achaea and Troezen, i.e. over so-called
allies who were strangers to the old pan-Ionian assembly and
to the policy of the league, and was practically equal to Sparta
on land. An important event must be referred probably to the
year 451, — the law of Pericles, by which citizenship (including
the right to vote in the Ecclesia and to sit on paid juries) was
restricted to those who could prove themselves the children of an
Athenian father and mother (e£ a.fj.(jxnv cuttolv). This measure
must have had a detrimental effect on the allies, who thus saw
themselves excluded still further from recognition as equal
partners in a league (see Pericles). The natural result of all
these causes was that a feeling of antipathy rose against Athens
in the minds of those to whom autonomy was the breath of life,
and the fundamental tendency of the Greeks to disruption was
soon to prove more powerful than the forces at the disposal of
Athens. The first to secede were the land powers of Greece
proper, whose subordination Athens had endeavoured to
guarantee by supporting the democratic parties in the various
states. Gradually the exiled oligarchs combined ; with the defeat
of Tolmides at Coroneia, Boeotia was finally lost to the empire,
and the loss of Phocis, Locris and Megara was the immediate
sequel. Against these losses the retention of Euboea, Nisaea
and Pegae was no compensation; the land empire was irre-
trievably lost.

The next important event is the revolt of Samos, which had
quarrelled with Miletus over the city of Priene. The Samians
refused the arbitration of Athens. The island was conquered

with great difficulty by the whole force of the league, and from the
fact that the tribute of the Thracian cities and those in Helles-
pontine district was increased between 439 and 436 we must
probably infer that Athens had to deal with a widespread feeling
of discontent about this period. It is, however, equally notice-
able on the one hand that the main body of the allies was not
affected, and on the other that the Peloponnesian League on
the advice of Corinth officially recognized the right of Athens to
deal with her rebellious subject allies, and refused to give help
to the Samians.

The succeeding events which led to the Peloponnesian War and
the final disruption of the league are discussed in other articles.
(See Athens: History, and Peloponnesian War.) Two im-
portant events alone call for special notice. The first is the
raising of the allies' tribute in 425 B.C. by a certain Thudippus,
presumably a henchman of Cleon. The fact, though not
mentioned by Thucydides, was inferred from Aristophanes
(Wasps, 660), Andocides (de Pace, § 9), Plutarch (Aristides,
c. 24), and pseudo-Andocides (Alcibiad. 11); it was proved by
the discovery of the assessment list of 425-4 (Hicks and Hill,
Inscrip. 64) . The second event belongs to 41 1 , after the failure of
the Sicilian expedition. In that year the tribute of the allies
was commuted for a 5 % tax on all imports and exports by sea.
This tax, which must have tended to equalize the Athenian
merchants with those of the allied. cities, probably came into force
gradually, for beside the new collectors called iropujTO.i we still
find Hellenotamiae (C.I. A. iv. [i.] p. 34).

The Tribute. — Only a few problems can be discussed of the many
which are raised by the insufficient and conflicting evidence at
our disposal. In the first place there is the question of the
tribute. Thucydides is almost certainly wrong in saying that the
amount of the original tribute was 460 talents (about £106,000);
this figure cannot have been reached for at least twelve, probably
twenty years, when new members had been enrolled (Lycia,
Caria, Eion, Lampsacus). Similarly he is probably wrong, or at
all events includes items of which the tribute lists take no account,
when he says that it amounted to 600 talents at the beginning
of the Peloponnesian War. The moderation of the assessment is
shown not only by the fact that it was paid so long without
objection, but also by the individual items. Even in 425 Naxos
and Andros paid only 15 talents, while Athens had just raised
an eisphora (income tax) from her own citizens of 200 talents.
Moreover it would seem that a tribute which yielded less than
the 5% tax of 411 could not have been unreasonable.

The number of tributaries is given by Aristophanes as 1000,
but this is greatly in excess of those named in the tribute lists.
Some authorities give 200; others put it as high as 290. The
difficulty is increased by the fact that in some cases several towns
were grouped together in -one payment (owreXeis) . These were
grouped into five main geographical divisions (from 443 to 436;
afterwards four, Caria being merged in Ionia). Each division
was represented by two elective assessment commissioners
(tolktclL), who assisted the Boule at Athens in the quadrennial
division of the tribute. Each city sent in its own assessment
before the raxrat, who presented it to the Boule. If there was
any difference of opinion the matter was referred to the Ecclesia
for settlement. In the Ecclesia a private citizen might propose
another assessment, or the case might be referred to the law
courts. The records of the tribute are preserved in the so-called
quota lists, which give the names of the cities and the proportion,
one-sixtieth, of their several tributes, which was paid to Athens.
No tribute was paid by members of a cleruchy (q.v.), as we find
from the fact that the tribute of a city always decreased when
a cleruchy was planted in it. This highly organized financial
system must have been gradually evolved, and no doubt
reached its perfection only after the treasury was transferred
to Athens.

Government and Jurisdiction. — There is much difference of
opinion among scholars regarding the attitude of imperial Athens
towards her allies. Grote maintained that on the whole the
allies had little ground for complaint ; but in so doing he rather
seems to leave out of account the Greek's dislike of external

g6o

DELIAN LEAGUE

discipline. The very fact that the hegemony had become an
empire was enough to make the new system highly offensive to
the allies. No very strong argument can be based on the paucity
of actual revolts. The indolent Ionians had seen the result of
secession at Naxos and rebellion at Thasos; the Athenian fleet
was perpetually on guard in the Aegean. On the other hand
among the mainland cities revolt was frequent; they were
ready to rebel /cat xapd Svvafuv. Therefore, even though
Athenian domination may have been highly salutary in its
effects, there can be no doubt that the allies did not regard it
with affection.

To judge only by the negative evidence of the decree of
Aristoteles which records the terms of alliance of the second
confederacy (below), we gather that in the later period at least of
the first league's history the Athenians had interfered with the
local autonomy of the allies in various ways — an inference which
is confirmed by the terms of " alliance " which Athens imposed on
Erythrae, Chalcis and Miletus. Though it appears that Athens
made individual agreements with various states, and therefore
that we cannot regard as general rules the terms laid down in
those which we possess, it is undeniable that the Athenians
planted garrisons under permanent Athenian officers (^povpapxoi)
in some cities. Moreover the practice among Athenian settlers
of acquiring land in the allied districts must have been vexatious
to the allies, the more so as all important cases between Athenians
and citizens of allied cities were brought to Athens. Even on the
assumption that the Athenian dicasteries were scrupulously fair
in their awards, it must have been peculiarly galling to the
self-respect of the allies and inconvenient to individuals to
be compelled to carry cases to Athens and Athenian juries.
Furthermore we gather from the Aristoteles inscription and
from the 4th-century orators that Athens imposed democratic
constitutions on her allies; indeed Isocrates (Paneg., 106) takes
credit for Athens on this ground, and the charter of Erythrae
confirms the view (cf. Arist. Polit., viii., vi. 9 1307 b 20; Thuc.
viii. 21, 48, 64, 65). Even though we admit that Chios, Lesbos
and Samos (up to 440) retained their oligarchic governments
and that Selymbria, at a time (409 B.C.) when the empire was
in extremis, was permitted to choose its own constitution, there
can be no doubt that, from whatever motive and with what-
ever result, Athens did exercise over many of her allies an
authority which extended to the most intimate concerns of local
administration.

Thus the great attempt on the part of Athens to lead a harmoni-
ous league of free Greek states for the good of Hellas degenerated
into an empire which proved intolerable to the autonomous states
of Greece. Her failure was due partly to the commercial jealousy
of Corinth working on the dull antipathy of Sparta, partly to the
hatred of compromise and discipline which was fatally character-
istic of Greece and especially of Ionian Greece, and partly also to
the lack of tact and restraint shown by Athens and her repre-
sentatives in her relations with the allies.

The Second League. — The conditions which led to the second
Athenian or Delian Confederacy were fundamentally different,
not only in virtue of the fact that the allies had learned from
experience the dangers to which such a league was liable, but
because the enemy was no longer an oriental power of whose
future action there could be no certain anticipation, but Sparta,
whose ambitious projects since the fall of Athens had shown
that there could be no safety for the smaller states save in com-
bination.

There can be no reasonable doubt that as soon as the
Athenians began to recover from the paralysing effect of the
victory of Lysander and the internal troubles in which they were
involved by the government of the Thirty, their thoughts turned
to the possibility of recovering their lost empire. The first step
in the direction was the recovery of their sea-power, which was
effected by the victory of Conon at Cnidus (August 394 B.C.).
Gradually individual cities which had formed part of the Athenian
empire returned to their alliance with Athens, until the Spartans
had lost Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus, Teos, Chios, Mytilene, Ephesus,
Erythrae, Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros, Eretria, Melos, Cythera,

Carpathus and Delos. Sparta had only Sestos and Abydos of all
that she had won by the battle of Aegospotami. At the same
time no systematic constructive attempt at a renewal of empire
can as yet be detected. Athenian relations were with individual
states only, and the terms of alliance were various. Moreover,
whereas Persia had been for several years aiding Athens against
Sparta, the revolt of the Athenian ally Evagoras (q.v.) of Cyprus
set them at enmity, and with the secession of Ephesus, Cnidus and
Samos in 391 and the civil war in Rhodes, the star of Sparta
seemed again to be in the ascendant. But the whole position
was changed by the successes of Thrasybulus, who brought over
the Odrysian king Medocus and Seuthes of the Propontis to
the Athenian alliance, set up a democracy in Byzantium and
reimposed the old 10% duty on goods from the Black Sea.
Many of the island towns subsequently came over, and from
inscriptions at Clazomenae (C.I. A. ii. 14&) and Thasos (C.I. A.
iv. n&) we learn that Thrasybulus evidently was deliberately
aiming at a renewal of the empire, though the circumstances
leading to his death at Aspendus when seeking to raise money
suggest that he had no general backing in Athens.

The peace of Antalcidas or the King's Peace (see Antalcidas;
Sparta) in 386 was a blow to Athens in the interests of Persia
and Sparta. Antalcidas compelled the Athenians to give their
assent to it only by making himself master of the Hellespont by
stratagem with the aid of Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse. By
this peace all the Greek cities on the mainland of Asia with the
islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae were recognized as Persian,
all other cities except Imbros, Lemnos and Scyros as autono-
mous. Directly, this arrangement prevented an Athenian
empire; indirectly, it caused the sacrificed cities and their
kinsmen on the islands to look upon Athens as their protector.
The gross selfishness of the Spartans, herein exemplified, was
emphasized by their capture of the Theban citadel, and, after
their expulsion, by the raid upon Attica in time of peace by
the Spartan Sphodrias, and his immunity from punishment at
Sparta (summer of 378 B.C.). The Athenians at once invited their
allies to a conference, and the Second Athenian Confederacy was
formed in the archonship of Nausinicus on the basis of the
famous decree of Aristoteles. Those who attended the conference
were probably Athens, Chios, Mytilene, Methymna, Rhodes,
Byzantium, Thebes, the latter of which joined Athens soon after
the Sphodrias raid. In the spring of 377 invitations were sent
out to the maritime cities. Some time in that year Tenedos,
Chios, Chalcis in Euboea, and probably the Euboean cities
Eretria, Carystus and Arethusa gave in their adherence, followed
by Perinthus, Peparethus, Sciathus and other maritime cities.

At this point Sparta was roused to a sense of the significance of
the new confederacy, and the Athenian corn supply was threatened
by a Spartan fleet of sixty triremes. The Athenians immediately
fitted out a fleet under Chabrias, who gained a decisive victory
over the Spartans between Naxos and Paros (battle of Naxos
376 B.C.), both of which were added to the league. Proceeding
northwards in 375 Chabrias brought over a large number of the
Thraceward towns, including Abdera, Thasos and Samothrace.
It is interesting to notice that a garrison was placed in Abdera
in direct contravention of the terms of the new confederacy
(Meyer, Gesch. d. Alt., v. 394). About the same time the successes
of Timotheus in the west resulted in the addition to the league of
Corcyra and the cities of Cephallenia, and his moderation induced
the Acarnanians and Alcetas, the Molossian king, to follow their
example. Once again Sparta sent out a fleet, but Timotheus in
spite of financial embarrassment held his ground. By this time,
however, the alliance between Thebes and Athens was growing
weaker, and Athens, being short of money, concluded a peace
with Sparta (probably in July 374), by which the peace of
Antalcidas was confirmed and the two states recognized each
other as mistress of sea and land respectively. Trouble, however,
soon arose over Zacynthus, and the Spartans not only sent help
to the Zacynthian oligarchs but even besieged Corcyra (373).
Timotheus was sent to relieve the island, but shortness of
money compelled him to search for new allies, and he spent the
summer of 373 in persuading Jason of Pherae (if he had not

DELIAN LEAGUE

961

already joined), and certain towns in Thrace, the Chersonese, the
Propontis and the Aegean to enrol themselves. This delay in
sending help to Corcyra was rightly or wrongly condemned by
the Athenians, who dismissed Timotheus in favour of Iphicrates.
The expedition which followed produced negative successes, but
the absence of any positive success and the pressure of financial
difficulty, coupled with the defection of Jason (probably before
371), and the high-handed action of Thebes in destroying
Plataea (373), induced Athens to renew the peace with Sparta
which Timotheus had broken. With the support of Persia an
agreement was made by a congress at Sparta on the -basis of
the autonomy of the cities, Amphipolis and the Chersonese being
granted to Athens. The Thebans at first accepted the terms, but
on the day after, realizing that they were thus balked of their
pan-Boeotian ambition, withdrew and finally severed themselves
from the league.

The peace of 3 7 1 may be regarded as the conclusion of the first
distinct period in the league's existence. The original purpose
of the league — the protection of the allies from the ambitions of
Sparta — was achieved. Athens was recognized as mistress of the
sea; Sparta as the chief land power. The inherent weakness of
the coalition had, however, become apparent. The enthusiasm
of the allies (numbering about seventy) waned rapidly before the
financial exigencies of successive campaigns, and it is abund-
antly clear that Thebes had no interest save the extension of her
power in Boeotia. Though her secession, therefore, meant very
little loss of strength, there were not wanting signs that the
league was not destined to remain a power in the land.

The remaining history may be broken up into two periods, the
first from 371 to 357, the second from 357 to 338. Throughout
these two periods, which saw the decline and final dissolution of
the alliance, there is very little specific evidence for its existence.
The events seem to belong to the histories of the several cities,
and examples of corporate action are few and uncertain. None
the less the known facts justify a large number of inferences as to
the significance of events which are on the surface merely a part
of the individual foreign policy of Athens.

Period 371-357. — The first event in this period was the battle
of Leuctra (July 3 7 1) , in which, no doubt to the surprise'of Athens,
Thebes temporarily asserted itself as the chief land power in
Greece. To counterbalance the new power Athens very rashly
plunged into Peloponnesian politics with the ulterior object of
inducing the states which had formerly recognized the hegemony
of Sparta to transfer their allegiance to the Delian League. It
seems that all the states adopted this policy with the exception
of Sparta (probably ) and Elis. The policy of Athens was mistaken
for two reasons: (1) Sparta was not entirely humiliated, and
(2) alliance with the land powers of Peloponnese was incalculably
dangerous, inasmuch as it involved Athens in enterprises which
could not awake the enthusiasm of her maritime allies. This new
coalition naturally alarmed Sparta, which at once made overtures
to Athens on the ground of their common danger from Thebes.
The alliance was concluded in 369. About the same time
Iphicrates was sent to take possession of Amphipolis according
to the treaty of 371. Some success in Macedonia roused the
hostility of Thebes, and the subsequent attempts on Amphipolis
caused the Chalcidians to declare against the league. It would
appear that the old suspicion of the allies was now thoroughly
awakened, and we find Athens making great efforts to conciliate
Mytilene by honorific decrees (Hicks and Hill, 109). This
suspicion, which was due primarily, no doubt, to the agreement
with Sparta, would find confirmation in the subsequent exchange
of compliments with Dionysius I. of Syracuse, Sparta's ally, who
with his sons received the Athenian citizenship. It is not clear
that the allies officially approved this new friendship; it is
certain that it was actually distasteful to them. The same
dislike would be roused by the Athenian alliance with Alexander
of Pherae (368-367) . The maritime allies naturally had no desire
to be involved in the quarrels of Sicily, Thessaly and the
Peloponnese.

In 367 Athens and Thebes sent rival ambassadors to Persia,
with the result that Athens was actually ordered to abandon her

claim to Amphipolis, and to remove her navy irom the high sea&.
The claim to Amphipolis was subsequently affirmed, but the
Greek states declined to obey the order of Persia. In 366 Athens
lost Oropus, a blow which she endeavoured to repair by forming
an alliance with Arcadia and by an attack on Corinth. At the
same time certain of the Peloponnesian states made peace with
Thebes, and some hold that Athens joined this peace (Meyer,
Gesch. d. Alt. v. 449). Timotheus was sent in 366-365 to make
a demonstration against Persia. Finding Samos in the hands of
Cyprothemis, a servant of the satrap Tigranes, he laid siege to it,
captured it after a ten months' siege and established a cleruchy.
Though Samos was not apparently one of the allies, this latter
action could not but remind the allies of the very dangers which
the second confederacy had set out to avoid.

The next important event was the serious attempt on the part
of Epaminondas to challenge the Athenian naval supremacy.
Though Timotheus held his ground the confederacy was un-
doubtedly weakened. In 362 Athens joined in the opposition
to the Theban expedition which ended in the battle of Mantineia
(July) . In the next year the Athenian generals failed in the north
in their attempt to control the Hellespont. In Thessaly Alexander
of Pherae became hostile and after several successes even attacked
the Peiraeus. Chares was ordered to make reprisals, but instead
sailed to Corcyra, where he made the mistake of siding with
the oligarchs. The last event of the period was a success, the
recovery of Euboea (357), which was once more added to the
league.

During these fourteen years the policy of Athens towards her
maritime allies was, as we have seen, shortsighted and incon-
sistent. Alliances with various land powers, and an inability
to understand the true relations which alone could unite the
league, combined to alienate the allies, who could discover no
reason for the expenditure of their contributions on protecting
Sparta or Corinth against Thebes. The ~Zvve8ptov of the league
is found taking action in several instances, but there is evidence
(cf. the expedition of Epaminondas in 363) that there was ground
for suspecting disloyalty in many quarters. On the other hand,
though the Athenian fleet became stronger and several cities
were captured, the league itself did not gain any important
voluntary adherents. The generals were compelled to support
their forces by plunder or out of their private resources, and,
frequently failing, diverted their efforts from the pressing needs
of the allies to purely Athenian objects.

Period 357-338. — The latent discontent of the allies was soon
fanned into hostility by the intrigues of Mausolus, prince of
Cardia, who was anxious to extend his kingdom. Chios, Rhodes,
Cos, Byzantium, Erythrae and probably other cities were in
revolt by the spring of 356, and their attacks on loyal members
of the confederacy compelled Athens to take the offensive.
Chabrias had already been killed in an attack on Chios in the
previous autumn, and the fleet was under the command of
Timotheus, Iphicrates and Chares, who sailed against Byzantium.
The enemy sailed north from Samos and in a battle off Embata
(between Erythrae and Chios) defeated Chares, who, without the
consent of his colleagues, had ventured to engage them in a
storm. The more cautious generals were accused of corrup-
tion in not supporting Chares. Iphicrates was acquitted and
Timotheus condemned. Chares sought to replenish his resources
by aiding the Phrygian satrap Artabazus against Artaxerxes
Ochus, but a threat from the Persian court caused the Athenians
to recall him, and peace was made by which Athens recognized
the independence of the revolted towns. The league was further
weakened by the secession of Corcyra, and by 355 was reduced to
Athens, Euboea and a few islands. By this time, moreover,
Philip II. of Macedon had begun his career of conquest, and had
shattered an embryonic alliance between the league and certain
princes of Thrace (Cetriporis), Paeonia (Lyppeius) and Illyria
(Grabus). In 355 his advance temporarily ceased, but, as we
learn from Isocrates and Xenophon, the financial exhaustion of
the league was such that its destruction was only a matter of
time. Resuming operations in 354, Philip, in spite of temporary
checks at the hands of Chares, and the spasmodic opposition of a

962

DELIBES— DELILLE

few barbarian chiefs, took from the league all its Thracian and
Macedonian cities (Abdera, Maronea, Neapolis, Methone.) In
352-351 Philip actually received help from former members of
the confederacy. In 351 Charidemus, Chares and Phocion were
sent to oppose him, and we find that the contributions of the
Lesbian cities were assigned to them for supplies, but no successes
were gained. In 349 Euboea and Olynthus were lost to the league,
of which indeed nothing remained but an empty form, in spite
of the facts that the expelled Olynthians appealed to it in 348
and that Mytilene rejoined in 347. In 346 the peace of Philo-
crates was made between the league and Philip on terms which
were accepted by the Athenian Boule. It is very remarkable
that, in spite of the powerlessness of the confederacy, the last re-
corded event in its history is the steady loyalty of Tenedos, which
gave money to Athens about 340 (Hicks and Hill, 146). The
victory of Philip at Chaeronea in 338 finally destroyed the league.

In spite of the precautions taken by the allies to prevent the
domination of Athens at their expense, the policy of the league was
almost throughout directed rather in the interests of Athens.
Founded with the specific object of thwarting the ambitious
designs of Sparta, it was plunged by Athens into enterprises of an
entirely different character which exhausted the resources of the
allies without benefiting them in any respect. There is no doubt
that, with very few exceptions, the cities were held to their
allegiance solely by the superior force of the Athenian navy.
The few instances of its action show that the 'ZwkBpiov was
practically only a tool in the hands of Athens.

Authorities. — The First League. — The general histories of Greece,
especially those of A. Holm (Eng. trans., London, 1894), G. Busolt
(2nded.,Gotha, 1893), J. Beloch(Strassburg,l893 foil.), andG.Grote
(the one-vol. ed. of 1907 has some further notes on later evi-
dence). E. Meyer's Gesch. des Altertunis (Stuttgart, 1892 foil.) and
Forschungen (Halle, 1892 foil.) are of the greatest value. For in-
scriptions, G. F. Hill, Sources of Greek History, 478-431 (2nd ed.,
1907) ; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek Hist. Inscr. (Oxford, 1901).
On the tribute see also U. Kohler in Abhandlungen d. Berliner
Akademie (1869) and U. Pedroli, " I Tributi degli alleati d' Atene " in
Beloch' s Studi di storia antica. See also articles Aristides; Them-
istocles; Pericles; Cimon, &c, and Greece: History, with
works quoted. For the last years of the league see also Pelo-
ponnesian War.

The Second League. — The chief modern works are G. Busolt, " Der
zweite athenische Bund "in Neue Jahrbiicher fur classische Philologie
(supp. vol. vii., 1873-1875, pp. 641-866), and F. H. Marshall, The
Second Athenian Confederacy (1905), one of the Cambridge Historical
Essays (No. xiii.). The latter is based on Busolt's monograph and
includes subsequent epigraphic evidence, with a full list of authorities.
For inscriptions see Hicks and Hill, op. cit., and the Inscriptiones
Atticae, vol. ii. pt. 5. The meagre data given by ancient writers
are collected by Busolt and Marshall. (J. M. M.)

DELIBES, CLEMENT PHILIBERT LEO (1836-1891), French
composer, was born at Saint Germain du Val on the 21st of
February 1836. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire under
Adolphe Charles Adam, through whose influence he became
accompanist at the Theatre Lyrique. His first essay in dramatic
composition was his Deux sous de charbon (1853), and during
several years he produced a number of operettas. His cantata
Alger was heard at the Paris opera in 1865. Having become
second chorus master at the Grand Opera, he wrote the music of a
ballet entitled La Source for this theatre, in collaboration with
Minkous, a Polish composer. La Source was produced with great
success in 1866. The composer returned to the operetta style
with Malbrouk s'en va-t-en guerre, — written in collaboration with
Georges Bizet, Emile Jonas and Legouix, and given at the
Theatre de l'Athenee in 1867. Two years later came L'Ecossais
de Chatou, a one-act piece, and La Cour du roi Petaud, a three-
act opera-bouffe. The ballet Coppelia was produced at the Grand
Opera on the 25th of May 1870 with enormous success.

Delibes gave up his post as second chorus master at the Grand
Opera in 1872 when he married the daughter of Mademoiselle
Denain, formerly an actress at the Comedie Franchise. In this
year he published a collection of graceful melodies including Myrto,
Les Filles dc Cadiz, Bonjour, Suzon and others. His first important
dramatic work was Le Roi Va dit, a charming comic opera, pro-
duced on the 24th of May 1873 at" the Opera Comique. Three
years later, on the 14th of June 1876, Sylvia, a ballet in three acts,

one of the composer's most delightful works, was produced at the
Grand Opera. This was followed by La Mort d'Orphee, a grand
scena produced at the Trocadero concerts in 1878 ; by Jean de
Nivelle, a three-act opera brought out at the Opera Comique on
the 8th of March 1880; and by LaknU, an opera in three acts
produced at the same theatre on the 14th of April 1883. Lakme
has remained his most popular opera. The composer died in
Paris on the 16th of January 1891, leaving Kassya, a four-act
opera, in an unfinished state. This work was completed by
E. Guiraud, and produced at the Opera Comique on the 21st of
March 1893. In 1877 Delibes became a chevalier of the Legion
of Honour; in 1881 he became a professor of advanced com-
position at the Conservatoire; in 1884 he took the place of
Victor Masse at the Institut de France.

Leo Delibes was a typically French composer. His music is
light, graceful and refined. He excelled in ballet music, and
Sylvia may well be considered a masterpiece. His operas are
constructed on a conventional pattern. The harmonic texture,
however, is modern, and the melodic invention abundant, while
the orchestral treatment is invariably excellent.

DELILAH, in the Bible, the heroine of Samson's last love-story
and the cause of his downfall (Judg. xvi.). She was a Philistine
of Sorek (mod. Sunk), west of Zorah, and when her countrymen
offered her an enormous bribe to betray him, she set to work to
find out the source of his strength. Thrice Samson scoffingly
told her how he might be bound, and thrice he readily broke the
bonds with which she had fettered him in his sleep; seven green
bow-strings, new ropes, and even the braiding of his hair into
the frame of the loom failed to secure him. At length he disclosed
the secret of his power. Delilah put him to sleep upon her lap,
called in a man to shave off his seven locks, and this time he was
easily captured. See Samson.

DELILLE, JACQUES (1738-1813), French poet, was born on
the 22nd of June 1738 at Aigue-Perse in Auvergne. He was
an illegitimate child, and was descended by his mother from
the chancellor De l'Hopital. He was educated at the college
of Lisieux in Paris and became an elementary teacher. He
gradually acquired a reputation as a poet by his epistles, in which
things are not called by their ordinary names but are hinted at by
elaborate periphrases. Sugar becomes " le miel americain que
du sue des roseaux exprima l'Africain." The publication (1769)
of his translation of the Georgics of Virgil made him famous.
Voltaire recommended the poet for the next vacant place in the
Academy. He was at once elected a member, but was not
admitted until 1774 owing to the opposition of the king, who
alleged that he was too young. In his Jardins, ou I' art d'embeUir
les paysages (1782) he made good his pretensions as an original
poet. In 1786 he made a journey to Constantinople in the train
of the ambassador M. de Choiseul-Gouffier.

Delille had become professor of Latin poetry at the College
de France, and abbot of Saint-Severin, when the outbreak of the
Revolution reduced him to poverty. He purchased his personal
safety by professing his adherence to revolutionary doctrine, but
eventually quitted Paris, and retired to St Die, where he com-
pleted his translation of the Aeneid. He emigrated first to Basel
and then to Glairesse in Switzerland. Here he finished his Homme
des champs, and his poem on the Trois r'egnes de la nature. His
next place of refuge was in Germany, where he composed his
La Pitie; and finally, he passed some time in London, chiefly
employed in translating Paradise Lost. In 1802 he was able
to return to Paris, where, although nearly blind, he resumed
his professorship and his chair at the Academy, but lived in
retirement. He fortunately did not outlive the vogue of the
descriptive poems which were his special province, and died on
the 1st of May 1813.

Delille left behind him little prose. His preface to the trans-
lation of the Georgics is an able essay, and contains many excellent
hints on the art and difficulties of translation. He wrote the
article " La Bruyere " in the Biographie universelle. The following
is the list of his poetical works :-^-Les Georgiques de Virgile,
traduites en vers franqais (Paris, 1769, 1782, 1785, 1809); Les
Jardins, en quatre chants (1780; new edition, Paris, 1801);

DELIRIUM— DELISLE, J. N.

963

U Homme des champs, ou les Gtorgiques franqaises (Strassburg,
1802); PoSsies fugitives (1802); Dithyrambe sur I'immortalite de
I'dme, suvoi du passage du Saint Gothard, poeme traduit de
l'Anglais de Madame la duchesse de Devonshire (1802) ; La Pitie,
poeme en quatre chants (Paris, 1802); L'Eneide de Virgile,
traduite en vers franqais (4 vols., 1804); Le Paradis perdu
(3 vols., 1804); L' Imagination, poeme en huit chants (2 vols.,
1806); Les trois regnes de la nature (2 vols., 1808); La Conversa-
tion (1812). A collection given under the title of Poisies diverses
(1801) was disavowed by Delille.

His CEuvres (16 vols.) were published in 1824. See Sainte-Beuve,
Portraits litteraires, vol. ii.

DELIRIUM (a Latin medical term for madness, from delirare,
to be mad, literally to wander from the lira, or furrow), a
. temporary form of brain disorder, generally occurring in con-
nexion with some special form of bodily disease. It may vary
in intensity from slight and occasional wandering of the mind and
incoherence of expression, to fixed delusions and violent maniacal
excitement, and again it may be associated with more or less of
coma or insensibility. (See Insanity, and Neuropathology.)
Delirium is apt to occur in most diseases of an acute nature, such
as fevers or inflammatory affections, in injuries affecting the
brain, in blood diseases, in conditions of exhaustion, and as the
result of the action of certain specific poisons, such as opium,
Indian hemp, belladonna, chloroform and alcohol.

Delirium tremens is one of a train of symptoms of what is
termed in medical nomenclature acute alcoholism, or excessive
indulgence in alcohol. It must, however, be observed that this
disorder, although arising in this manner, rarely comes on as the
result of a single debauch in a person unaccustomed to the abuse
of stimulants, but generally occurs in cases where the nervous
system has been already subjected for a length of time to the
poisonous action of alcohol, so that the complaint might be more
properly regarded as acute supervening on chronic alcoholism.
It is equally to be borne in mind that many habitual drunkards
never suffer from delirium tremens.

It was long supposed, and is indeed still believed by some, that
delirium tremens only comes on when the supply of alcohol has
been suddenly cut off ; but this view is now generally rejected,
and there is abundant evidence to show that the attack comes on
while the patient is still continuing to drink. Even in those cases
where several days have elapsed between the cessation from
. drinking and the seizure, it will be found that in the interval the
premonitory symptoms of delirium tremens have shown them-
selves, one of which is aversion to drink as well as food — the
attack being in most instances preceded by marked derangement
of the digestive functions. Occasionally the attack is precipi-
tated in persons predisposed to it by the occurrence of some acute
disease, such as pneumonia, by accidents, such as burns, also by
severe mental strain, and by the deprivation of food, even where
the supply of alcohol is less than would have been likely to
produce it otherwise. Where, on the other hand, the quantity
of alcohol taken has been very large, the attack is sometimes
ushered in by fits of an epileptiform character.

One of the earliest indications of the approaching attack of
delirium tremens is sleeplessness, any rest the patient may
obtain being troubled by unpleasant or terrifying dreams.
During the day there is observed a certain restlessness and
irritability of manner, with trembling of the hands and a thick
or tremulous articulation. The skin is perspiring, the countenance
oppressed-looking and flushed, the pulse rapid and feeble, and
there is evidence of considerable bodily prostration. These
symptoms increase each day and night for a few days, and then
the characteristic delirium is superadded. The patient is in a
state of mental confusion, talks incessantly and incoherently,
has a distressed and agitated or perplexed appearance, and a
vague notion that he is pursued by some one seeking to injure
him. His delusions are usually of transient character, but he
is constantly troubled with visual hallucinations in the form of
disagreeable animals or insects which he imagines he sees all about
him. He looks suspiciously around him, turns over his pillows,
and ransacks his bedclothes for some? fancied object he supposes

to be concealed there. There is constant restlessness, a common
form of delusion being that he is not in his own house, but
imprisoned in some apartment from which he is anxious to escape
to return home. In these circumstances he is ever wishing to get
out of bed and out of doors, and, although in general he may be
persuaded to return to bed, he is soon desiring to get up again.
The trembling of the muscles from which the name of the disease
is derived is a prominent but not invariable symptom. It is
most marked in the muscles of the hands and arms and in the
tongue. The character of the delirium is seldom wild or noisy,
but is much more commonly a combination of busy restlessness
and indefinite fear. When spoken to, the patient can answer
correctly enough, but immediately thereafter relapses into his
former condition of incoherence. Occasionally maniacal symp-
toms develop themselves, the patient becoming dangerously
violent, and the case thus assuming a much graver aspect than
one of simple delirium tremens.

In most cases the symptoms undergo abatement in from three
to six days, the cessation of the attack being marked by the
occurrence of sound sleep, from which the patient awakes in his
right mind, although in a state of great physical prostration, and
in great measure if not entirely oblivious of his condition during
his illness.

Although generally the termination of an attack of delirium
tremens is in recovery, it occasionally proves fatal by the super-
vention of coma and convulsions, or acute mania, or by exhaus-
tion, more especially when any acute bodily disease is associated
with the attack. In certain instances delirium tremens is but the
beginning of serious and permanent impairment of intellect, as
is not infrequently observed in confirmed drunkards who have
suffered from frequent attacks of this disease. The theory
once widely accepted, that delirium tremens was the result of the
too sudden breaking off from indulgence in alcohol, led to its
treatment by regular and often large doses of stimulants, a
practice fraught with mischievous results, since however much
the delirium appeared to be thus calmed for the time, the con-
tinuous supply of the poison which was the original source of
the disease inflicted serious damage upon the brain, and led in
many instances to the subsequent development of insanity. The
former system of prescribing large doses of opium, with the
view of procuring sleep at all hazards, was no less pernicious.
In addition to these methods of treatment, mechanical restraint
of the patient was the common practice.

The views of the disease which now prevail, recognizing the
delirium as the effect at once of the poisonous action of alcohol
upon the brain and of the want of food, encourage reliance to be
placed for its cure upon the entire withdrawal, in most instances,
of stimulants, and the liberal administration of light nutriment,
in addition to quietness and gentle but firm control, without
mechanical restraint. In mild attacks this is frequently all that
is required. In more severe cases, where there is great restless-
ness, sedatives have to be resorted to, and many substances
have been recommended for the purpose. Opiates administered
in small quantity, and preferably by hypodermic injection, are
undoubtedly of value ; and chloral, either alone or in conjunc-
tion with bromide of potassium, often answers even better.
Such remedies, however, should be administered with great
caution, and only under medical supervision.

Stimulants may be called for where the delirium assumes the
low or adynamic form, and the patient tends to sink from exhaus-
tion, or when the attack is complicated with some other disease.
Such cases are, however, in the highest degree exceptional, and
do not affect the general principle of treatment already referred
to, which inculcates the entire withdrawal of stimulants in the
treatment of ordinary attacks of delirium tremens.

DELISLE, JOSEPH NICOLAS (1688-1768), French astronomer,
was born at Paris On the 4th of April 1688. Attracted to astro-
nomy by the solar eclipse of the 12th of May 1706, he obtained
permission in 1710 to lodge in the dome of the Luxembourg,
procured some instruments, and there observed the total eclipse
of the 22nd of May 1724. He proposed in 1715 the " diffraction-
theory " of the sun's corona, visited England and was received

9 6 4

DELISLE, L. V.— DELITZSCH

into the Royal Society in 1724, and left Paris for St Petersburg
on a summons from the empress Catherine, towards the end
of 1725. Having founded an observatory there, he returned to
Paris in 1747, was appointed geographical astronomer to the
naval department with a salary of 3000 livres, and installed
an observatory in the Hotel Cluny. Charles Messier and
J. J. Lalande were among his pupils. He died of apoplexy at
Paris on the 12th of September 1768. Delisle is chiefly remem-
bered as the author of a method for observing the transits of
Venus and Mercury by instants of contacts. First proposed by
him in a letter to J. Cassini in 1743, it was afterwards perfected,
and has been extensively employed. As a preliminary to the
transit of Mercury in 1743, which he personally observed, he
issued a map of the world showing the varied circumstances of its
occurrence. Besides many papers communicated to the academy
of sciences, of which he became a member in 17 14, he published
MSmoires pour servir d I'histoire et au progres de I'astronomie (St
Petersburg, 1 738), in which he gave the first methodfor determin-
ing the heliocentric co-ordinates of sun-spots; MSmoire sur les
nouvelles decouverles au nord de la mer du sud (Paris, i75 2 )j & c -

See MSmoires de Vacad. des sciences (Paris, 1768), Histoire, p. 167
(G. de Fouchy) ; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de V astronomic au XVIII"
Steele, pp. 319, 533 ; Max. Marie, Hist, des sciences, vii. 254; Lalande,
Bibl. astr. p. 385; and Le Necrologe des hommes celebres de France
(1770). The records of Delisle's observations at St Petersburg are
preserved in manuscript at the Pulkowa observatory. A report upon
them was presented to the St Petersburg academy of sciences by
O. Struve in 1848, and those relating to occultations of the Pleiades
were discussed by Carl Linsser in 1864. See also S. Newcomb,
Washington Observations for 1875, app. ii. pp. 176-189. (A. M. C.)

DELISLE, LEOPOLD VICTOR (1826- ), French bibliophile
and historian, was born at Valognes (Manche) on the 24th of
October 1826. At the Ecole des Chartes, where his career was
remarkably brilliant, his valedictory thesis was an Essai sur les
revenus publics en Normandie au XII" siecle (1849), and it was
to the history of his native province that he devoted his early
works. Of these the £tudes sur la condition de la classe agricole et
I' Stat de V agriculture en Normandie au moyen Age (1851), condens-
ing an enormous mass of facts drawn from the local archives, was
reprinted in 1905 without change, and remains authoritative.
In November 1852 he entered the manuscript department of the
Bibliotheque Imperiale (Nationale), of which in 1874 he became
the official head in succession to Jules Taschereau. He was
already known as the compiler of several invaluable inventories
of its manuscripts. When the French government decided on
printing a general catalogue of the printed books in the Biblio-
theque, Delisle became responsible for this great undertaking
and took an active part in the work; in the preface to the first
volume (1897) he gave a detailed history of the library and its
management. Under his administration the library was enriched
with numerous gifts, legacies and acquisitions, notably by the
purchase of a part of the Ashburnham MSS. Delisle proved that
the bulk of the MSS. of French origin which Lord Ashburnham
had bought in France, particularly those bought from the book-
seller Barrois, had been purloined by Count Libri, inspector-
general of libraries under King Louis Philippe, and he procured
the repurchase of the MSS. for the library, afterwards preparing
a catalogue of them entitled Catalogue des MSS. des fonds Libri
et Barrois (1888), the preface of which gives the history of the
whole transaction. He was elected member of the Academie des
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres in 1859, and became a member of
the staff of the Recueil des historiens de la France, collaborating in
vols. xxii. (1865) and xxiii. (1876) and editing vol. xxiv. (1904),
which is valuable for the social history of France in the 13th
century. The jubilee of his fifty years' association with the
Bibliotheque Nationale was celebrated on the 8th of March 1903.
After his retirement (February 21, 1905) he brought out in two
volumes a catalogue and description of the printed books and
MSS. in the Musee Conde at Chantilly, left by the due d'Aumale
to the French Institute. He produced many valuable official
reports and catalogues and a great number of memoirs and mono-
graphs on points connected with palaeography and the study of
history and archaeology (see his Melanges de palSographie et de

bibliographic (1880) with atlas; and his articles in the Album
paUographique (1887). Of his purely historical works special
mention must be made of his MSmoire sur les actes d' Innocent III
(1857), and his MSmoire sur les operations financier es des Templlers
(1889), a collection of documents of the highest value for economic
history. The thirty-second volume of the Histoire litteraire de la
France, which was partly his work, is of great importance for the
study of 13th and 14th century Latin chronicles. Delisle was
undoubtedly the most learned man in Europe with regard to the
middle ages; and his knowledge of diplomatics, palaeography
and printing was profound. His output of work, in catalogues,
&c, was enormous, and his services to the Bibliotheque Nationale
in this respect cannot be overestimated. His wife, a daughter
of Eugene Burnouf, was for many years his collaborator.

The Bibliographic des travaux de L.Delisle (1902), by Paul Lacombe,
may be consulted for a full list of his numerous works.

DELITZSCH, FRANZ (1813-1890), German Lutheran theo-
logian and orientalist, of Jewish descent, was born at Leipzig on
the 23rd of February 1813. He studied theology and- oriental
languages in the university of his native town, and in 1850 was
appointed professor ordinarius of theology at Erlangen, where
the school of theologians became almost as famous as that of
Tubingen. In 1867 he accepted a call to Leipzig, where he died
on the 4th of March 1890. Delitzsch was a strict Lutheran.
" By the banner of our Lutheran confession let us stand," he said
in 1888; " folding ourselves in it, let us die " (T. K. Cheyne,
Founders, p. 160). Greatly interested in the Jews, he longed
ardently for their conversion to Christianity; and with a view
to this he edited the periodical Saat auf Hqffnung from 1863,
revived the " Institutum Judaicum " in 1880, founded a Jewish
missionary college for the training of theologians, and translated
the New Testament into Hebrew. He acquired such a mastery
of post-biblical, rabbinic and talmudic literature that he has
been called the " Christian Talmudist." Though never an
advanced critic, his article on Daniel in the second edition of
Herzog's Realencyklopadie, his New Commentary on Genesis and
the fourth edition of his Isaiah show that as years went on his
sympathy with higher criticism increased — so much so indeed
that Prof. Cheyne has included him among its founders.

He wrote a number of very valuable commentaries on
Habakkuk (1843), Genesis (1852, 4th ed. 1872), Neuer Kom-
mentqr iiber die Genesis (1887, Eng. trans. 1888, &c), Psalms
(4th ed. 1883, Eng. trans. 1886, &c), Job (2nd ed., 1876),
Isaiah (4th ed. 1889, Eng. trans. 1890, &c), Proverbs (1873),
Epistle to the Hebrews (1857, Eng. trans. 1865, &c), Song
of Songs and Ecclesiastes (4th ed., 1875). Other works are
Geschichte der jtid. Poesie (1836); Jesus und Hillel (1867, 3rd ed.
1879); Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu (1868, 3rd ed. 1878, Eng.
trans, in the " Unit Library," 1902); Ein Tag in Kapernaum
(1871, 3rd ed. 1886); Poesieen aus vormuhammedanischer Zeit
(1874); Iris, Farbenstudien und Blumensliicke (1888, Eng.
trans. 1889); Messianische Weissagungen in geschichtlicher Folge
(1890, 2nd ed. 1898). His Hebrew New Testament reached its
eleventh edition in 1891, and his popular devotional work Das
Sakrament des wahren Leibes und Blutes Jesu Christi its seventh
edition in 1886.

His son, Friedrich Delitzsch (b. 1850), became well known
as professor of Assyriology in Berlin, and the author of many
books of great research and learning, especially on oriental
philology. Among other works of importance he wrote Wo lag
das Parodies? (1881), and Babel und Bibel (1902, 1903, Eng.
trans. 1903).

DELITZSCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Saxony, on the Lober, an affluent of the Mulde, 12 m. north of
Leipzig at the junction of the railways, Bitterfeld-Leipzig
and Halle-Cottbus. Pop. (1905) 10,479. Its public buildings
comprise an old castle of the 14th century now used as a female
penitentiary, a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches,
a normal college {Schullehrer seminar) established in 1873 and
several other educational institutions. Besides Kuhschwanz, a
peculiar kind of beer, it manufactures tobacco, cigars, shoes and
hosiery; and coal-mining is carried on in the neighbourhood,

DELIUS— DELLA GHERARDESCA

9 6 5

It was the birthplace of the naturalist Christian Gottfried
Ehrenberg (1795-1876), and the political economist Hermann
Schulze-Delitzsch (1808-1883), to the latter of whom a statue
has been erected. Originally a settlement of the Sorbian Wends,
and in the 12 th century part of the possessions of the bishops
of Merseburg, Delitzsch ultimately passed to the Saxe-Merseburg
family, and, on their extinction in 1738, was incorporated with
Electoral Saxony.

DELIUS, NIKOLAUS (1813-1888), German philologist and
Shakespearean scholar, was born at Bremen on the 19th of
September 1813. He was educated at Bonn and Berlin, and took
the degree of doctor in philosophy in 1838. After travelling for
some time in England, France and Germany, he returned to Bonn
in 1846, where in 1855 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit,
Provencal and English literature, a post he held until his death,
which took place at Bonn on the 18th of November 1888. His
greatest literary achievement was his scholarly edition of
Shakespeare (1854-1861). He also edited Wace's St Nicholas
(1850), a volume of Provencal songs (1853), and published a
Shakspere-Lexikon (1852). His original works include: Tiber
das englische Theaterwesen zu Shaksperes Zeit (1853), Gedichte
(1853) ,Der sardinische Dialekt des dreizehnten Jahrhunderis (1868),
and Abhandlungen zu Shakspere (two series, 1878 and 1888). As
a critic of Shakespeare's text he stands in the first rank.

See the biographical notice by J. Schipper in Englische Studien,
vol. 14.

DELLA BELLA, STEFANO (1610-1664), Italian engraver, was
born at Florence. He was apprenticed to a goldsmith; but some
prints of Callot having fallen into his hands, he began to turn his
attention entirely towards engraving, and studied the art under
Canta Gallina, who had also been the instructor of Callot. By
the liberality of Lorenzo de' Medici he was enabled to spend
three years in study at Rome. In 1642 he went to Paris, where
Cardinal Richelieu engaged him to go to Arras and make drawings
of the siege and taking of that town by the royal army. After
residing a considerable time at Paris he returned to Florence,
where he obtained a pension from the grand duke, whose son,
Cosmo, he instructed in drawing. His productions were very
numerous, amounting to over 1400 separate pieces.

DELLA CASA, GIOVANNI (1503-1556), Italian poet, was born
at Mugillo, in Tuscany, in 1 503. He studied at Bologna, Florence
and Rome, and by his learning attracted the patronage of
Alexander Farnese, who, as Pope Paul III., made him nuncio
to Florence, where he received the honour of being elected a
member of the celebrated academy, and then to Naples, where his
oratorical ability brought him considerable success. His reward
was the archbishopric of Benevento, and it was believed that it
was only his openly licentious poem, Capitoli del forno, and the
fact that the French court seemed to desire his elevation, which
prevented him from being raised to a still higher dignity. He
died in 1 5 56 . Casa is chiefly remarkable as the leader of a reaction
in lyric poetry against the universal imitation of Petrarch, and
as the originator of a style, which, if less soft and elegant, was
more nervous and majestic than that which it replaced. His
prose writings gained great reputation in their own day, and long
afterwards, but are disfigured by apparent straining after effect,
and by frequent puerility and circumlocution. The principal
are — in Italian, the famous // Galateo (1558), a treatise of
manners, which has been translated into several languages, and
in Latin, De officiis, and translations from Thucydides, Plato
and Aristotle.

A complete edition of his works was published at Florence in. 1707,
to which is prefixed a life by Casotti. The best edition is that of
Venice, 1752. .

DELLA COLLE, RAFFAELLINO, Italian painter, was born at
Colle, near Borgo San Sepolcro, in Tuscany, about 1490. A pupil
of Raphael, whom he is held to have assisted in the Farnesina
and the Vatican, Delia Colle, after his master's death, was the
assistant of his chief scholar, Giulio Romano, at Rome and
afterwards at Mantua. In 1536, on the occasion of the entry of
Charles V. into Florence, he took service in that city under
Vasari. In his later years Delia Colle resided at Borgo San

vn. 32.

Sepolcro, where he kept a school of design ; among his many
pupils of note may be mentioned Gherardi and Vecchi. His
works, which are to be found at Urbino, at Perugia, at Pesaro
and at Gubbio, are fine examples of the Roman school of
Raphael. The best are a painting of the Almighty supported
by angels, a Resurrection and an Assumption, all preserved
in churches at Borgo San Sepolcro.

DELLA GHERARDESCA, UGOLINO (c. 1220-1289), count of
Donoratico, was the head of the powerful family of Gherardesca,
the chief Ghibelline house of Pisa. His alliance with the Visconti,
the leaders of the Guelph faction, through the marriage of his
sister with Giovanni Visconti, judge of Gallura, aroused the
suspicions of his party, and the Ghibellines being then predomin-
ant in Pisa, the disorders in the city caused by Ugolino and
Visconti in 1271-1274 led to the arrest of the former and the
banishment of the latter. Visconti died soon afterwards, and
Ugolino, no longer regarded as dangerous, was liberated and
banished. But he immediately began to intrigue with the Guelph
towns opposed to Pisa, and with the help of Charles I. of Anjou
(q.v.) attacked his native city and forced it to make peace on
humiliating terms, pardoning him and all the other Guelph
exiles. He lived quietly in Pisa for some years, although working
all the time to extend his influence. War having broken out
between Pisa and Genoa in 1284, Count Ugolino was given the
command of a division of the Pisan fleet. It was by his flight
— usually attributed to treachery — that the fortunes of the day
were decided and the Pisans totally defeated at La Meloria
(October 1284). But the political ability which he afterwards
displayed led to his being appointed podestd for a year and
capitano del popolo for ten years. Florence and Lucca took
advantage of the Pisan defeat to attack the republic, but
Ugolino succeeded in pacifying them by ceding certain castles.
He was however less anxious to make peace with Genoa, for
the return of the Pisan prisoners, including most of the leading
Ghibellines, would have diminished his power. He was now the
most influential man in Pisa, and was preparing to establish his
absolute sovereignty, when for some reason not clearly understood
he was forced to share his power with his nephew Nino Visconti,
son of Giovanni. The duumvirate did not last, and the count
and Nino soon quarrelled. Then Ugolino tried to consolidate
his position by entering into negotiations with the archbishop,
Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, the leader of the Ghibellines. But that
party having revived once more, the archbishop obliged both
Nino and Ugolino to leave the city, and had himself elected
podestd, and capitano del popolo. However, he allowed Ugolino
to return soon afterwards, and was even ready to divide the
government of the city with him, although he refused to admit
his armed followers. The count, determined to be sole master,
attempted to get his followers into the city by way of the Arno,
and Ruggieri, realizing the danger, aroused the citizens, accusing
Ugolino of treachery for having ceded the castles, and after a
day's street fighting (July 1, 1288), Gherardesca was captured
and immured together with his sons Gaddo and Uguccione, and
his grandsons Nino (surnamed il Brigata) and Anselmuccio, in
the Muda, a tower belonging to the Gualandi family; here they
were detained for nine months, and then starved to death.

The historic details of the episode are still involved in some
obscurity, and although mentioned by Villani and other writers,
it owes its fame entirely to Dante, who placed Ugolino and
Ruggieri in the second ring (Antenora) of the lowest circle of the
Inferno (canto xxxii. 124-140 and xxxiii. 1-90). This terrible
but magnificent passage, which includes " thirty lines unequalled
by any other thirty lines in the whole dominion of poetry "
(Landor), has been paraphrased by Chaucer in the " Monk's
Tale " and more recently by Shelley. But the reason why Dante
placed Ugolino among the traitors is not by any means clear, as
the flight from La Meloria was not regarded as treachery by any
writer earlier than the 16th century, although G. del Noce, in
II Conte U . delta Gherardesca (Citta di Castello, 1894), states that
that was the only motive; Bartoli, in vol. vi. of his Storia delta
Letteratura italidna, suggests Ugolino's alliance with the Ghibel-
lines as the motive. The cession of the castles was not treachery

10

9 66

DELLA PORTA— DELLA ROBBIA

but an act of necessity, owing to the desperate conditions of
Pisa.

Bibliography. — Besides the above-quoted works see P. Tronci,
Annali Pisani (2 vols., Pisa, 1868-1871); S. de Sismondi, Histoire
des ripubliques italiennes (Brussels, 1838) ; also the various annotated
editions of Dante, especially W. W. Vernon's Readings from the
Inferno, vol. ii. (2nd ed., London, 1905). (L. V.*)

DELLA PORTA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (c. 1538-1615),
Italian natural philosopher, was born of a noble and ancient
family at Naples about the year 1 538. He travelled extensively
not only in Italy but also in France and Spain, and he was still a
youth when he published Magia naturalis, sive de miraculis rerum
naturalium lib. IV. (1558), the first draft of his Magia naturalis,
in twenty books, published in 1589. He founded in Naples the
Academia Secretorum Naturae, otherwise known as the Accademia
dei Oziosi; and in 16 10 he became a member of the Accademia
dei Lincei at Rome. He died at Naples on the 4th of February
1615.

The following is a list of his principal writings: — De miraculis
rerum naturalium, in four books (1558); De furtivis litterarum
notis, in five books (1563, and frequently afterwards, entitling
him to high rank among the early writers on cryptography) ;
Phytognomonica (1583, a bulky treatise on the physiology of
plants as then understood); Magia naturalis (1589, and often
reprinted); De humana physio gnomonia, in six books (1591);
Villa, in twelve books (1592, an interesting practical treatise on
farming, gardening and arboriculture, based upon his own obser-
vations at his country-seat near Naples); De refractione, optices
parte, in nine books (1593); Pneumatica, in three books (1601);
De coelesti physio gnomonia, in six books (1601); Elementa
curvilinea (1601); De distillatione, in nine books (1604); De
munitione, in three books (1608) ; and De aeris transmutationibus,
in four books (1609). He also wrote several Italian comedies
Olimpia (1589) ; La Fantesca (1592); La Trappolaria (1597);
I'Due Fratelli rivali (1601); La Sorella (1607); La Chiappinaria
(1609); La Carbonaria (1628); La Cintia (1628). Among all
the above-mentioned works the chief interest attaches to the
Magia naturalis, in which a strange medley of subjects is dis-
cussed, including the reproduction of animals, the transmutation
of metals, pyrotechny, domestic economy, statics, hunting, the
preparation of perfumes. In book xvii. he describes a number
of optical experiments, including a description of the camera
obscura (q.v.).

DELLA QUERCIA, or Deixa Fonte, JACOPO (1374-1438),
Italian sculptor, was born at Siena. He was the son of a gold-
smith of repute, Pietro d'Agnolo, to whom he doubtless owed
much of his training. There are no records of his early life until
the year 1394, when he made an equestrian statue of Gian
Tedesco. He is next heard of at Florence in 1402, when he was
one of six artists who submitted designs for the great gates of the
baptistery, in which competition Ghiberti was the victor. From
Florence he seems to have gone to Lucca, where in 1406 he
executed one of his finest works, the monument of Ilaria del
Caretto, wife of Paolo Guinigi. It is uncertain if he visited
Ferrara in 1408; but at the end of that year he was engaged
in negotiations which resulted in his acceptance of the com-
mission for the famous Fonte Gaia, at Siena, early in 1409. This
work was not seriously begun by him until 1414, and was only
finished in 1419. In 1858 the remains of the fountain were
removed to the Opera del Duomo, where they are now preserved;
a copy of the original by Sarrocchi being erected on the site.
After another visit to Lucca in 1422, he returned to Siena, and
in March 1425 undertook the contract for the doors of S. Petronio,
Bologna. He is known, in following years, to have been to Milan,
Verona, Ferrara and Venice; but the rest of his life was chiefly
divided between his native city and Bologna. In 1430 he finished
the great font of S. Giovanni at Siena, which he had begun in
1417, contributing himself only one of the bas-reliefs, " Zacharias
;n the Temple," the others being by Ghiberti, Donatello and
other sculptors. Among the work" known to have been done by
Jacopo, may be mentioned also the reliefs of the predella of the
altar of S. Frediano at Lucca (1422); and the Bentivoglio monu-

ment which was unfinished at the time of his death on the 20th
of October 1438. Jacopo della Quercia's work exercised a power-
ful influence on that of the artists of the later Italian Renaissance.
He himself reflects not a little of the Gothic spirit, admirably
intermixed with some of the best qualities of neo-classicism.
He was an artist whose powers have hardly yet received the
recognition they undoubtedly deserve.

See C. Cornelius, Jacopo della Quercia: eine Kunsthistorische
Studie (1896), and works relating generally to the arts in Siena.

(E. F. S.)

DELLA ROBBIA, the name of a family of great distinction in
the annals of Florentirx art. Its members are enumerated in
chronological order below. 1

I. Luca della Robbia (1399 or i40o 2 -i482) was the son of a
Florentine named Simone di Marco della Robbia. According to
Vasari, whose account of Luca's early life is little to be trusted,
he was apprenticed to the silversmith Leonardo di Ser Giovanni,
who from 1355 to 1371 was working on the grand silver altar
frontal for the cathedral at Pistoia {q.v.) ; this, however, appears
doubtful from the great age which it would give to Leonardo, and
it is more probable that Luca was thepupil of Ghiberti. During
the early part of his life Luca executed many important and
exceedingly beautiful pieces of sculpture in marble and bronze.
In technical skill he was quite the equal of Ghiberti, and, while
possessing all Donatello 's vigour, dramatic power and originality,
he very frequently excelled him in grace of attitude and soft
beauty of expression. No sculptured work of the great 15th
century ever surpassed the singing gallery which Luca made for
the cathedral at Florence between 1431 and 1440, with its ten
magnificent panels of singing angels and dancing boys, far exceed-
ing in beauty those which Donatello in 1433 sculptured for the
opposite gallery in the same choir. This splendid work is now
to be found in the Museo del Duomo. The general effect of the
whole can also be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum, where
a complete cast is fixed to the wall. The same museum possesses
a study in gesso duro for one of the panels, which appears to be
the original sketch by Luca's own hand.

In May 1437 Luca received a commission from the signoria of
Florence to execute five reliefs for the north side of the campanile,
to complete the series begun by Giotto and Andrea Pisano . These
panels are so much in the earlier style of Giotto that we must
conclude that he had left drawings from which Luca worked.
They have representative figures chosen to typify grammar,
logic, philosophy, music, and science, — the last represented by
Euclid and Ptolemy. 3 In 1438 Luca in association with Donatello
received an order for two marble altars for chapels in the
cathedral. The reliefs from one of them — St Peter's Deliverance
from Prison and his Crucifixion — are now in the Bargello. It
is probable that these altars were never finished. A tabernacle
for the host, made by Luca in 1442, is now at Peretola, near
Florence, in the church of S. Maria. A document in the archives
of S. Maria Nuova at Florence shows that he received for this 700
florins 1 lira 16 soldi (about £1400 of modern money). In 1437
Donatello received a commission to cast a bronze door for one of
the sacristies of the cathedral; but, as he delayed to execute this

1 Genealogical tree of Delia Robbia sculptors : —
Simone di Marco.

Marco.

Andrea.
(1435-1525).

!

Luca

(1400-1482).

Girolamo Luca Paolo Giovanni Marco

(1488-1566), (1475-1550?), (1470- ?), (1469-1529?), (1468- ?),

worked mostly worked in Dominican worked Dominican

in France. Florence monk. mainly in monk.

and Rome. Florence.

2 Not 1388, as Vasari says. See a document printed by Gaye,
Carteggio inedito, i. pp. 182-186.

3 Vasari is not quite right in his account of these reliefs : he speaks
of Euclid and Ptolemy as being in different panels.

DELLA ROBBIA

967

order, the work was handed over to Luca on the 28th of February
1446, with Michelozzo and Maso di Bartolomeo as his assistants.
Part of this wonderful door was cast in 1448, and the last two
panels were finished by Luca in 1467, with bronze which was
supplied to him by Verrocchio. 1 The door is divided into ten
square panels, with small heads in the style of Ghiberti projecting
from the framing. The two top subjects are the Madonna and
Child and the Baptist, next come the four Evangelists, and below
are the four Latin Doctors, each subject with attendant angels.
The whole is modelled with perfect grace and dignified simplicity;
the heads throughout are full of life, and the treatment of the

Fig. I. — Bronze Relief of one of the Latin Doctors, from the
sacristy door in the cathedral of Florence, by Luca.

drapery in broad simple folds is worthy of a Greek sculptor of the
best period of Hellenic art. These exquisite reliefs are perfect
models of plastic art, and are quite free from the over-elaboration
and too pictorial style of Ghiberti. Fig. 1 shows one of the panels.

The most important existing work in marble by Luca (executed
in 1454-1456) is the tomb of Benozzo Federighi, bishop of
Fiesole, originally placed in the church of S. Pancrazio at Florence,
but removed to S. Francesco di Paola on the Bellosguardo road
outside the city in 1783. In 1898 it was again removed to the
church of SS. Trinita in Florence. A very beautiful effigy of the
bishop in a restful pose lies on a sarcophagus sculptured with
graceful reliefs of angels holding a wreath which contains the
inscription. Above are three-quarter length figures of Christ
between St John and the Virgin, of conventional type. The
whole is surrounded by a rectangular frame formed of painted
tiles of exquisite beauty, but out of keeping with the memorial.
On each tile is painted, with enamel pigments, a bunch of flowers
and fruit in brilliant realistic colours, the loveliness of which
is very hard to describe. Though the bunch of flowers on each is
painted on one slab, the ground of each tile is formed of separate
pieces, fitted together like a kind of mosaic, probably because the
pigment of the ground required a different degree of heat in firing
from that needed for the enamel painting of the centre. The few
other works of this class which exist do not approach the beauty
of this early essay in tile painting, on which Luca evidently put
forth his utmost skill and patience.

In the latter part of his life Luca was mainly occupied with the
production of terra-cotta reliefs covered with enamel, a process
which tie improved upon, but did not invent, as Vasari asserts.
The rationale of this process was to cover the clay relief with an
enamel formed of the ordinary ingredients of glass (marzacotto) ,
made white and opaque by oxide of tin. (See Ceramics: Italian
Majolica.) Though Luca was not the inventor of the process,
1 See Cavallucci, 5. Maria del Fiore, pt. ii. p. 137.

yet he extended its application to fine sculptured work in terra-
cotta, so that it is not unnaturally known now as Delia Robbia
ware; it must, however, be remembered that by far the majority
of these reliefs which in Italy and elsewhere are ascribed to Luca
are really the work of some of the younger members of the family
or of the atelier which they founded. Comparatively few exist
which can with certainty be ascribed to Luca himself. Among
the earliest of these are medallions of the four Evangelists in the
vault of Brunelleschi's Pazzi chapel in S. Croce. These fine reliefs
are coloured with various metallic oxides in different shades of
blue, green, purple, yellow and black. It has often been asserted
that the very polychromatic reliefs belong to Andrea or his sons,
and that Luca's were all in pure white, or in white and blue; this,
however, is not the case; colours were used as freely by Luca as
by his successors. A relief in the Victoria and Albert Museum
furnishes a striking example of this and is of especial value from
its great size, and also because its date is known. This is an
enormous medallion containing the arms of Rene of Anjou and
other heraldic devices; it is surrounded by a splendidly modelled
wreath of fruit and flowers, especially apples, lemons, oranges
and fir cones, all of which are brilliantly coloured. This medallion
was set up on the facade of the Pazzi Palace to commemorate
Rene's visit to Florence in 1442. Other reliefs by Luca, also in
glazed terra-cotta, are those of the Ascension and Resurrection
in the tympani of the doors of the sacristies in the cathedral,
executed in 1443 and 1446. Other existing works of Luca in
Florence are the tympanum reliefs of the Madonna between two
Angels in the Via dell' Agnolo, a work of exquisite beauty, and
another formerly over the door of S. Pierino del Mercato Vecchio,
but now removed to the Bargello (No. 29). The only existing
statues by Luca are two lovely enamelled figures of kneeling
angels holding candlesticks, now in the canons' sacristy. 2 A
very fine work by Luca, executed between 1449 and 1452, is the
tympanum relief of the Madonna and four Monastic Saints over
the door of S. Domenico at Urbino. 3 Luca also made the four
coloured medallions of the Virtues set in the vault over the tomb
of the young cardinal-prince of Portugal in a side chapel of
S. Miniato in Florence (see Rosseixino). By Luca also are
various polychromatic medallions outside Or San Michele. 4 One
of his chief decorative works which no longer exists was a small
library or study for Piero de' Medici, wholly lined with enamelled
plaques and reliefs. 6 The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses
twelve circular plaques of majolica ware painted in blue and white
with the Occupations of the Months; these have been attributed
to Luca, under the idea that they formed part of the decoration of
this room, but their real origin is doubtful.

In 1471 Luca was elected president of the Florentine Gild of
Sculptors, but he refused this great honour on account of his age
and infirmity. It shows, however, the very high estimation in
which he was held by his contemporaries. He died on the 20th
of February 1482, leaving his property to his nephews Andrea and
Simone. 6 His chief pupil was his nephew Andrea, and Agostino
di Duccio, who executed many pieces of sculpture at Rimini, and
the graceful but mannered marble reliefs of angels on the facade
of S. Bernardino at Perugia, may have been one of his assistants. 7
Vasari calls this Agostino Luca's brother, but he was not related
to him at all.

' II. Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525), the nephew and pupil
of Luca, carried on the production of the enamelled reliefs on a
much larger scale than his uncle had ever done; he also extended

2 The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses what seem to be fine
replicas of these statues.

3 The document in which the order for this and the price paid for
it are recorded is published by Yriarte, Gaz. d. beaux arts, xxiv.
P- H3-

4 One of these medallions, that of the Physicians, is now removed
to the inside of the church.

1 It is_ fully described by Filarete in his Trattato dell' architectura,
written in 1464, and therefore was finished before that date; see also
Vasari, ed. Milanesi (Florence, 1880), ii. p. 174.

6 His will, dated 19th February 1471, is published by Gaye, Cart,
ined. i. p. 185.

7 In the works of Perkins and others on Italian sculpture these
Perugian reliefs are wrongly stated to be of enamelled clay.

9 68

D£LLA ROBBIA

its application to various architectural uses, such as friezes and to
the making of lavabos (lavatories), fountains and large retables.
The result of this was that, though the finest reliefs from the
workshop of Andrea were but little if at all inferior to those from
the hand of Luca, yet some of them, turned out by pupils and
assistants, reached only a lower standard of merit. Only one
work in marble by Andrea is known, namely, an altar in S. Maria
delle Grazie near Arezzo, mentioned by Vasari (ed. Milanesi, ii.
p. 170), and still well preserved.

One variety of method was introduced by Andrea in his
enamelled work; sometimes he omitted the enamel on the face
and hands (nude parts) of his figures, especially in those cases
where he had treated the heads in a realistic manner; as, for
example, in the noble tympanum relief of the meeting of St
Domenic and St Francis in the loggia of the Florentine hospital of
S. Paolo, — a design suggested by a fresco of Fra Angelico's in the
cloister of St Mark's. One of the most remarkable works by
Andrea is the series of medallions with reliefs of Infants in white
on a blue ground set on the front of the foundling hospital at
Florence. These lovely child-figures are modelled with wonder-
ful skill and variety, no two being alike. Andrea produced, for
gilds and private persons, a large number of reliefs of the
Madonna and Child varied with much invention, and all of
extreme beauty of pose and sweetness of expression. These are
frequently framed with realistic yet decorative garlands of fruit

Fig. 2. — Enamelled Clay Relief of Virgin and Child, by Andrea.

and flowers painted with coloured enamels, while the main relief
is left white. Fig. 2 shows a good example of these smaller
works. The hospital of S. Paolo, near S. Maria Novella, has also
a number of fine medallions with reliefs of saints, two of Christ
Healing the Sick, and two fine portraits, under which are white
plaques inscribed — " dall anno 1451 all anno 1495 "*; the
first of these dates is the year when the hospital was rebuilt
owing to a papal brief sent to the archbishop of Florence. Arezzo
possesses a number of fine enamelled works by Andrea and his

1 Professor Marquand has discovered, beneath 1451, the inscription
Prete Benino, and, under 1495, De Benini; probably the names of
the governors of the hospital at these dates.

sons — a retable in the cathedral with God holding the Crucified
Christ, surrounded by angels, and below, kneeling figures of
S. Donato and S. Bernardino; also in the chapel of the Campo
Santo is a fine relief of the Madonna and Child with four saints
at the sides. In S. Maria in Grado is a very noble retable with
angels holding a crown over a standing figure of the Madonna;
a number of small figures of worshippers take refuge in the folds
of the Virgin's mantle, a favourite motive for sculpture dedicated
by gilds or other corporate bodies. Perhaps the finest collection
of works of this class is at La Verna, not far from Arezzo (see
Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 179). The best of these, three large
retables with representations of the Annunciation, the Crucifixion,
and the Madonna giving her Girdle to St Thomas, are probably
the work of Andrea himself, the others being by his sons. In
1489 Andrea made a beautiful relief of the Virgin and two Angels,
now over the archive-room door in the Florentine Opera del
Duomo; for this he was paid twenty gold florins (see Cavallucci,
S. Maria del Fiore). In the same year he modelled the fine
tympanum relief over a door of Prato cathedral, with a half-
length figure of the Madonna between St Stephen and St
Lawrence, surrounded by a frame of angels' heads.

In 1491 he was still working at Prato, where many of his
best reliefs still exist. A fine bust of S. Lino exists over the side
door of the cathedral at Volterra, which is attributed to Andrea.
Other late works of known date are a magnificent bust of the
Protonotary Almadiano, made in 1510 for the church of S.
Giovanni de' Fiorentini at Viterbo, now preserved in the Palazzo
Communale there, and a medallion of the Virgin in Glory, sur-
rounded by angels, made in 1505 for Pistoia cathedral. 2 The
latest work attributed to Andrea, though apparently only a
workshop production of 1515, is a relief representing the Adora-
tion of the Magi, made for a little church, St Maria, in Pian di
Mugnone, near Florence. 3 Portions of this work are still in the
church, but some fragments of it are at Oxford.

III., IV. Five of Andrea's seven sons worked with their father,
and after his death carried on the Robbia fabrique; the dates
of their birth are shown in the table on p. 838 ante. Early in
life two of them came under the influence of Savonarola, and took
monastic orders at his Dominican convent; these were Marco,
who adopted the name of Fra Luca, and Paolo, called Fra
Ambrogio. One relief by the latter, a Nativity with four life-
sized figures of rather poor work, is in the Cappella degli Spagnuolf
in the Sienese convent, of S. Spirito; a MS. in the convent
archives records that it was made in 1 504.

V. The chief existing work known to be by the second Luca 4
is the very rich and beautiful tile pavement in the uppermost
story of Raphael's loggie at the Vatican, finely designed and
painted in harmonious majolica colours. This was made by Luca
at Raphael's request and under his supervision in 1518. 6 It is
still in very fine preservation.

VI. Giovanni della Robbia (1469-1529?) during a great
part of his life worked as assistant to his father, Andrea, and in
many cases the enamelled sculpture of the two cannot be dis-
tinguished. Some of Giovanni's independent works are of great
merit, especially the earlier ones; during the latter part of his
life his reliefs deteriorated in style, owing mainly to the universal
decadence of the time. A very large number of pieces of Robbia
ware which are attributed to Andrea, and even to the elder Luca,
were really by the hand of Giovanni. One of his finest works is a
large retable at Volterra in the church of S. Girolamo, dated 1501 ;
it represents the Last Judgment, and is remarkable for the fine
modelling of the figures, especially that of the archangel Michael,
and a nude kneeling figure of a youth who has just risen from his
tomb. Quite equal in beauty to anything of his father's, from

2 See Gualandi, Memorie risguardanti le belle arti (Bologna, 1845),
vi. pp. 33-35, where original documents are printed recording the
dates and prices paid for these and other works of Andrea.

3 See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. p. 180.

4 It appears certain that this Luca was a layman and not the Fra
Luca referred to above.

6 It is illustrated by Gruner, Fresco Decorations of Italy (London,
1854), pi. iv. ; see also Miintz, Raphael, sa vie, &c. (Paris, 1881),
p. 452, note i., and Vasari, ed. Milanesi, ii. p. 182.

DELMEDIGO

969

whom the design of the figures was probably taken, is the washing-
fountain in the sacristy of S. Maria Novella at Florence, made in
1497. ' It is a large arched recess with a view of the seashore,
not very decorative in style, painted on majolica tiles at the back.
There are also two very beautiful painted majolica panels of fruit-
trees let into the lower part. In the tympanum of the arch is a
very lovely white relief of the Madonna between two Adoring
Angels (see fig. 3). Long coloured garlands of fruit and flowers
are held by nude boys reclining on the top of the arch and others

Fig. 3. — Relief of Madonna and Angels in the tympanum of the
lavabo (S. Maria Novella, Florence), by Giovanni.

standing on the cornice. All this part is of enamelled clay, but
the basin of the fountain is of white marble. Neither Luca nor
Andrea was in the habit of signing his work, but Giovanni often
did so, usually adding the date, probably because other potters
had begun to imitate the Robbia ware. 2

Giovanni lacked the original talent of Luca and Andrea, and
so he not only copied their work but even reproduced in clay the
marble sculpture of Pollaiuolo, Da Settignano, Verrocchio and
others. A relief by him, evidently taken from Mino da Fiesole,
exists in the Palazzo Castracane Staccoli. Among the very
numerous other works of Giovanni are a relief in the wall of a
suppressed convent in the Via Nazionale at Florence, and two
reliefs in the Bargello dated 1521 and 1522. That dated 1 521 is
a many-coloured relief of the Nativity, and was taken from the
church of S. Girolamo in Florence; it is a too pictorial work,
marred by the use of many different planes. Its predella has a
small relief of the Adoration of the Magi, and is inscribed " Hoc
opus fecit Ioaes Andee de Robia, ac a posuit hoc in tempore die
ultima lulli ano. dni. m.d. xxi." At Pisa in the Campo Santo is a
relief in Giovanni's later and poorer manner dated 1520; it is a
Madonna surrounded by angels, with saints below — the whole
overcrowded with figures and ornaments. Giovanni's largest and
perhaps finest work is the polychromatic frieze on the outside of
the Del Ceppo hospital at Pistoia, for which he received various
sums of money between 1525 and 1 5 29, as is recorded in documents
which still exist among the archives of the hospital. 3 The subjects
of this frieze are the Seven Work: of Mercy, forming a continuous
band of sculpture in high relief, well modelled and designed in a
very broad sculpturesque way, but disfigured by the crudeness
of some of its colouring. Six of these reliefs are by Giovanni,
namely, Clothing the Naked, Washing the Feet of Pilgrims,

1 See a document printed by Milanesi in his Vasari, ii. 193.

s Examples of these imitations are a retable in S. Lucchese near
Poggibonsi dated 1514, another of the Madonna and Saints at Monte
San Savino of 1525, and a third in the Capuchin church of Arceria
near Sinigaglia ; they are all inferior to the best works of the Robbia
family, though some of them may have been made by assistants
trained in the Robbia workshops.

3 The hospital itself was begun in 1514.

Visiting the Sick, Visiting Prisoners, Burying the Dead, and
Feeding the Hungry. The seventh, Giving drink to the Thirsty,
was made by Filippo Paladini of Pistoia in 1585; this last is
simply made of painted stucco. The large figures of the virtues
placed between the scenes, and the medallions between the
pillars, are the work of assistants or imitators.

A large octagonal font of enamelled clay, with pilasters at the
angles and panels between them with scenes from the life of the
Baptist, in the church of S. Leonardo at Cerreto Guidi, is a work
of the school of Giovanni; the reliefs are pictorial in style and
coarse in execution. Giovanni's chief pupil was a man named
Benedetto Bugliorii (1461-1521), and a pupil of his, one Santi
Buglioni (b. 1494), entered the Robbia workshops in 1521, and
assisted in the later works of Giovanni.

VII. Girolamo della Robbia (1488-1566), another of
Andrea's sons, was an architect and a sculptor in marble and
bronze as well as in enamelled clay. During the first part of his
life he, like his brothers, worked with his father, but in 1528 he
went to France and spent nearly forty years in the service of the
French Royal family. Francis I. employed him to build a palace
in the Bois de Boulogne called the Chateau de Madrid. This was
a large well-designed building, four storeys high, two of them
having open loggie in the Italian fashion. Girolamo decorated
it richly with terra-cotta medallions, friezes and other architec-
tural features. 4 For this purpose he set up kilns at Suresnes.
Though the palace itself has been destroyed, drawings of it
exist. 6

The best .collections of Robbia ware are in the Florentine
Bargello, Accademia and Museo del Duomo; the Victoria and
Albert Museum (the finest out of Italy); the Louvre, the
Cluny and the Berlin Museums; while fine examples are to be
found in New York, Boston, St Petersburg and Vienna. Many
fine specimens exist in private collections in England, France,
Germany and the United States. The greater part of the Robbia
work still remains in the churches and other buildings of Italy,
especially in Florence, Fiesole, Arezzo, La Verna, Volterra,
Barga, Montepulciano, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato and Siena.

Literature. — H. Barbet de Jouy, Les della Robbia (Paris, 1855);
W. Bode, Die Kiinstlerfamilie della Robbia (Leipzig, 1878); " Luca
della Robbia ed i suoi precursori in Firenze," Arch. stor. dell' arte
(1899); " t)ber Luca della Robbia," Sitzungsbericht von der Berliner
kunstgeschichtlichen Gesellschaft (1896); Florentiner Bildhauer der
Renaissance (Berlin, 1902) ; G. Carocci, / Dintorni de Firenze
(Florence, 1881); " II Monumento di Benozzo Federighi," Arte e
Storia (1894); " Opere Robbiane poco noti," Arte e storia (1898,
1899); Cavallucci et Molinier, Les della Robbia (Paris, 1884);
Maud Crutwell, Luca and Andrea della Robbia and their Successors
(London, 1902) ; A. du Cerceau, Les plus exCellents bastiments
de France (Paris, 1586); G. Milanesi, Le Vile scritte da Vasari
(Florence, 1878); M. Reymond, Les della Robbia (Florence, 1897);
La Sculpture Florentine (Florence, 1898); I. B. Supino, Catalogo
del R. Museo di Firenze (Rome 1898); Vasari (see Milanesi's
edition). (J. H. M.;W. B.*)

DELMEDIGO, a Cretan Jewish family, of whom the following
are the most important:

Elijah Delmedigo (1460-1497), philosopher, taught in several
Italian centres of learning. He translated some of Averroes'
commentaries into Latin at the instigation of Pico di Mirandola.
In the sphere of religion, Delmedigo represents the tendency
to depart from the scholastic attitude in which religion and
philosophy were identified. His most important work was
devoted to this end; it was entitled Behinath ha-Dath (Investi-
gation of Religion).

Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591-1655), pupil of Galileo,
wrote many books on science and philosophy, and bore a con-
siderable part in initiating the critical movement in Judaism.
He belonged to the sceptical school, and though his positive
contributions to literature were not of lasting worth, Graetz
includes him among the important formative influences within
the synagogue of the 17th century. (I. A.)

4 The Sevres Museum possesses some fragments of these de-
corations.

6 See Laborde, Chateau de Madrid (Paris, 1853), and Comptes des
bdtiments du roi (Paris, 1877-1880), in which a full account is given
of Girolamo's work in connexion with this palace. .

97°

DELMENHORST— DE L'ORME

DELMENHORST, a town of Germany, grand duchy of Olden-
burg, on the Delme, 8 m. by rail W. from Bremen, at the junction
of a line to Vechta. Pop. (1905) 20,147. It has a Protestant
and a Roman Catholic church, and is the seat of considerable
industries; notably wool-combing, weaving, jute-spinning and
the manufacture of linoleum. Delmenhorst was founded in 1 230,
and from 1247 to 1679, when it was destroyed by the French, was
protected by a strong castle.

DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS (1 740-1 806), Swiss jurist and con-
stitutional writer, was born at Geneva in 1 740. He studied for
the bar, and had begun to practise when he was obliged to
emigrate on account of a pamphlet entitled Examen de trois parts
de droit, which gave offence to the authorities of the town. He
took refuge in England, where he lived for several years on the
meagre and precarious income derived from occasional contribu-
tions to various journals. In 1775 he found himself compelled
to accept aid from a charitable society to enable him to return
home. He died at Sewen, a village in the canton of Schwyz,
on the 1 6th of July 1806.

During his protracted exile in England Delolme made a care-
ful study of the English constitution, the results of which he
published in his Constitution de V Angleterre (Amsterdam, 177 1),
of which an enlarged and improved edition in English appeared in
1772, and was several times reprinted. The work excited much
interest as containing many acute observations on the causes
of the excellence of the English constitution as compared with
that of other countries. It is, however, wanting in breadth of
view, being written before the period when constitutional
questions were treated in a scientific manner. Along with a
translation of Hume's History of England it supplied the
philosophes with most of their ideas about the English con-
stitution. It thus was used somewhat as a political pamphlet.
Several editions were published after the author's death.
Delolme also wrote in English Parallel oetween the EngUsh
Government and the former Government of Sweden (1772); A
History of the Flagellants (1782), based upon a work of Boileau's;
An Essay on the Union of Scotland with England (1787), and one
or two smaller works.

DELONEY (or Delone), THOMAS, English ballad- writer and
pamphleteer, produced his earliest indisputable work in 1586,
and died about 1600. In 1596 Thomas Nashe, in his Have with
you to Saffron Walden, wrote: " Thomas Deloney, the ballating
silk-weaver, hath rime enough for all myracles, and wit to make
a Garland of Good Will more than the premisses . . . and this
deare yeare, together with the silencing of his looms, scarce that,
he being constrained to betake himself to carded ale; whence it
proceedeth that since Candlemas, or his jigge, John for the king,
not one merrie dittie will come from him, but, the Thunderbolt
against Swearers, — Repent, England, Repent — and, the strange
Judgements of God." In 1588 the coming of the Armada
inspired him for three broadsides, which were reprinted (i860)
by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps. They are entitled " The Queenes
visiting of the Campe at Tilsburie with her entertainment there,"
" A Joyful new Ballad, declaring the happie obtaining of the
great Galleazzo . . . ," and " A new Ballet of the straunge and
Most cruell Whippes which the Spaniards had prepared." A
collection of Strange Histories (1607) consists of historical ballads
by Deloney, with some poems from other hands. This collection,
known in later and enlarged editions as The Royal Garland of
Love and Delight and The Garland of Delight, contains the ballad
of Fair Rosamond. J. H. Dixon in his preface to The Garland of
Good Will (Percy Society, 1851) ascribes to Deloney The Blind
Beggar of Bednall Green, and The Pleasant and sweet History of
Patient Grissel, in prose, with the whole of the Garland of Good
Will, including some poems such as " The Spanish Lady's Love "
generally supposed to be by other hands. His other works include
The Gentle Craft (1597) in praise of shoemakers, The Pleasant
Historie of John Winchecombe (8th ed., 1619), and Thomas of
Reading or the Sixe Worthie Yeomen of the West (earliest extant
edition, 1612). Kempe, the actor, jeers at these histories in his
Nine Dales Wonder, but they were very popular, being reprinted
as penny chap-books.

DE LONG, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844-1881), American
explorer, was born in New York city on the 22nd of August 1844.
He graduated at the U.S. Naval Academy in 1865, and spent the
next fourteen years in naval service in various parts of the world,
attaining the rank of lieutenant in 1869, and lieutenant-com-
mander in 1879. - In 1873 he took part in the voyage of the
" Juniata," sent to search for and relieve the American Arctic
expedition under Hall in the " Polaris," commanding a steam
launch which was sent out from Upernivik, Greenland, to make
a thorough search of Melville Bay. On his return to New York
the same year he proposed to James Gordon Bennett, of The New
York Herald, that the latter should fit out a Polar expedition.
It was not until 1879 that the final arrangements were made,
the " Pandora," a yacht which had already made two Arctic
voyages under Sir Allen Young, being purchased and rechristened
the " Jeannette " for this voyage. The story of this expedition
(see Polar Regions) is chiefly remarkable on account of the long
and helpless drifting of the " Jeannette " with the polar ice-pack
in which she was caught (September 5, 1879) and by which
she was finally crushed and sunk on the 13th of June 1881. The
members of the expedition set out in three boats, one of which
was lost in a gale, while another boat-load under De Long died
from starvation after reaching the mouth of the Lena river. He
was the last survivor of his party. His journal, in which he made
regular entries up to the day on which he died (October 30,
1881) was edited by his wife and published in 1883 under the
title Voyage of the " Jeannette "• and an account of the search
which was made for him and his comrades by his heroic com-
panion George W. Melville, who was chief engineer of the expedi-
tion and commanded the third of the retreating parties, was
published a year later under the title of In the Lena Delta. The
fate of the " Jeannette " was still more remarkable in its sequel.
Three years after she had sunk several articles belonging to her
crew were found on an ice-floe near Julianshaab on the south-
west coast of Greenland; thus adding fresh evidence to the
theory of a continuous ocean current passing across the unknown
Polar regions, which was to be finally demonstrated by Nansen's
voyage in the " Fram." By direction of the United States
government, the remains of De Long and his companions were
brought home and interred with honour in his native city.

DELORME, MARION (c. 1613-1650), French courtesan, was
the daughter of Jean de Lou, sieur de l'Orme, president of the
treasurers of France in Champagne, and of Marie Chastelain.
She was born at her father's chateau near Champaubert. Initi-
ated into the philosophy of pleasure by the epicurean and atheist
Jacques Vallee, sieur Desbarreaux, she soon left him for Cinq
Mars, at that time at the height of his popularity, and succeeded,
it is said, in marrying him in secret. From this time Marion
Delorme's salon became one of the most brilliant centres of
elegant Parisian society. After the execution of Cinq Mars she
is said to have numbered among herlovers Charles de St Evremond
(1610-1703) the wit and litterateur, Buckingham (Villiers), the
great Conde, and even Cardinal Richelieu. Under the Fronde
her salon became a meeting place for the disaffected, and Mazarin
is said to have sent to arrest her when she suddenly died. Her
last years have been adorned with considerable legend (cf . Mere-
court, Confessions de Marie Delorme, Paris, 1856). It seems
established that she died in 1650. But she was believed to have
lived until 1706 or even 17 41, after having had the most
fantastic adventures, including marriage with an English lord,
and an old age spent in poverty in Paris. Her name has been
popularized by various authors, especially by Alfred de Vigny
in his novel Cinq Mars, by Victor Hugo in the drama Marion
Delorme, and by G. Bottesini in an opera of the same title.

See P. J. Jacob, Marion Delorme et Ninon Lenclos (Paris, 1859);
J. Peladan, Histoire et legende de Marion de Lorme (Paris, 1882).

DE L'ORME, PHILIBERT (c. 1510-1570), French architect, one
of the great masters of the Renaissance, was born at Lyons, the
son of Jehan de L'Orme, who practised the same art and brought
his son up to it. At an early age Philibert was sent to Italy to
study (1533-1536) and was employed there by Pope Paul III.
Returning to France he was patronized by Cardinal du Bellay

DELOS

971

at Lyons, and was sent by him about 1 540 to Paris,where he began
the Chateau de St Maur, and enjoyed royal favour; in 1545 he
was made architect to Francis I. and given the charge of works
in Brittany. In 1548 Henry II. gave him the supervision of
Fontainebleau, Saint-Germain and the other royal buildings;
but on his death (1559) Philibert fell into disgrace. Under
Charles IX., however, he returned to favour, and was employed
to construct the Tuileries, in collaboration with Jean Brillant.
He died in Paris on the 8th of January 1570. Much of his work
has disappeared, but his fame remains. An ardent humanist and
student of the antique, he yet vindicated resolutely the French
tradition in opposition to Italian tendencies; he was a man
of independent mind and
a vigorous originality. His
masterpiece was the Chateau
d' Anet (1552-1559), built for
Diane de Poitiers, the plans
of which are preserved in Du
Cerceau's Plus excellens basti-
mens de France, though part
of the building alone remains;
and his designs for the Tui-
leries (also given by Du
Cerceau), begun by Catherine
de' Medici in 1565, were
magnificent. His work is also
seen at Chenonceaux and
other famous chateaux; and
his tomb of Francis I. at St
Denis remains a perfect speci-
men of his art. He wrote two
books on architecture (1561
and 1567).

See Marius Vachon, Philibert
de L'Orme (1887) ; Chevalier,
Lettres et devis relatifs a la con-
struction de Chenonceaux (1864) ;
Pfror, Monographic du chateau
a" Anet (1867); Herbet, Travaux
de P. de L'Orme a Fontainebleau
(1890).

DELOS (mod. Mikra Dili,
or Little Delos, to distinguish
it from Megali Dili, or Great
Delos), an island in the
Aegean, the smallest but most
famous of the Cyclades, and,
according to the ancient be-
lief, the spot round which the group arranged itself in a nearly
circular form. It is a rugged mass of granite, about 3 m. long
and 1 m. to 5 m. broad, about J m. E. of Megali Dili or
Rheneia, and 2 m. W. of Myconus. Towards the centre it rises
to its greatest height of 350 ft. in the steep and rocky peak of
Mount Cynthus, which, though overtopped by several eminences
in the neighbouring islands, is very conspicuous from the sur-
rounding sea. It is now completely destitute of trees, but it
abounds with brushwood of lentisk and cistus, and here and there
affords a patch of corn-land to the occasional sower from Myconus.

I. Archaeology. — Excavations have been made by the French
School at Athens upon the island of Delos since 1877, chiefly
by Th. Homolle. They have proceeded slowly but systematic-
ally, and the method adopted, though scientific and economical,
left the site in some apparent confusion, but the debris have more
recently been cleared away to a considerable extent. The com-
plete plan of the sacred precinct of Apollo has been recovered, as
well as those of a considerable portion of the commerical quarter
of Hellenistic and Roman times, of the theatre, of the temples
of the foreign gods, of the temples on the top of Mount Cynthus,
and of several very interesting private houses. Numerous works
of sculpture of all periods have been found, and also a very
extensive series of inscriptions, some of them throwing much
light upon the subject of temple administration in Greece.

The most convenient place for landing is protected by an ancient

mole; it faces the channel between Delos and Rheneia, and is
about opposite the most northerly of the two little islands now
called '7evfj.aTi6.pl. From this side the sacred precinct of Apollo
is approached by an avenue flanked by porticoes, that upon the
seaside bearing the name of Philip V. of Macedon, who dedicated
it about 200 B.C. This avenue must have formed the usual
approach for sacred embassies and processions; but it is probable
that the space to the south was not convenient for marshalling
them, since Nicias, on the occasion of his famous embassy, built
a bridge from the island of Hecate (the Greater Rhevmatiari)
to Delos, in order that the imposing Athenian procession might
not miss its full effect. Facing the avenue were the propylaea

that formed the chief entrance of the precinct 'of Apollo. They
consisted of a gate faced on the outside with a projecting portico of
four columns, on the inside with two columns in anlis. Through
this one entered a large open space, filled with votive offerings
and containing a large exedra. The sacred road continued its
course to the north-east corner of this open space, with the
precinct of Artemis on its west side, and, on its east side, a terrace
on which stood three temples. The southernmost of these was
the temple of Apollo, but only its back was visible from this side.
Though there is no evidence to show to whom the other two were
dedicated, the fact that they faced west seems to imply that they
were either dedicated to heroes or minor deities, or that they were
treasuries. Beyond them a road branches to the right, sweeping
round in a broad curve to the space in front of the temple of
Apollo. The outer side of this curve is bounded by a row of
treasuries, similar to those found at Delphi and Olympia, and
serving to house the more costly offerings of various islands or
cities. The space to the east and south of the temple of Apollo
could also be approached directly from the propylaea of entrance,
by turning to the right through a passage-like building with a
porch at either end. Just to the north of this may be seen the
basis of the colossal statue of Apollo dedicated by the Naxians,
with its well-known archaic inscription; two large fragments of
the statue itself may still be seen a little farther to the north.
The temple of Apollo forms the centre of the whole precinct.

972

DELOS

which it dominates by the height of its steps as well as of the
terrace already mentioned; its position must have been more
commanding in ancient times than it is now that heaps of earth
and debris cover so much of the level. The temple was of Doric
style, with six columns at the front and back and thirteen at the
sides; it was built early in the 4th century B.C.; little if any
traces have been found of the earlier building which it super-
seded. Its sculptural decoration appears to have been but
scanty; the metopes were plain. The groups which ornamented,
as acroteria, the two gables of the temple have been in part
recovered, and may now be seen in the national museum at
Athens; at the one end was Boreas carrying off Oreithyia, at the
other Eos and Cephalus, the centre in each case being occupied
by the winged figure that stood out against the sky — a variation
on the winged Victories that often occupy the same position on
temples.

To the east of the space in front of the temple was an oblong
building of two chambers, with a colonnade on each side but not
in front; this may have been the Prytaneum or some other
official building; beyond it is the most interesting and character-
istic of all the monuments of Delphi. This is a long narrow hall,
running from north to south, and entered by a portico at its
south end. At the north end was the famous altar, built out of
the horns of the victims, which was sometimes reckoned among
the seven wonders of the world. The rest of the room is taken
up by a paved space, surrounded by a narrow gangway; and on
this it is supposed that the ykpavos or stork-dance took place.
The most remarkable architectural feature of the building is the
partition that separated the altar from this long gallery; it
consists of two columns between antae, with capitals of a very
peculiar form, consisting of the fore parts of bulls set back to
back ; from these the whole building is sometimes called the
sanctuary of the bulls. Beyond it, on the east, was a sacred
wood filling the space up to the wall of the precinct; and at the
south end of this was a small open space with the altar of Zeus
Polieus.

At the north of the precinct was a broad road, flanked with
votive offerings and exedrae, and along the boundary were
porticoes and chambers intended for the reception of the dtiapiai
or sacred embassies; there are two entrances on this side, each
of them through extensive propylaea.

At the north-west corner of the precinct is a building of lime-
stone, the irwpivos olkos often mentioned in the inventories of
the treasures of the Delian shrine. South of it is the precinct of
Artemis, containing within it the old temple of the goddess;
her more recent temple was to the south of her precinct, opening
not into it but intp the open space entered through the southern
propylaea of the precinct of Apollo. The older temple is
mentioned in some of the inventories as " the temple in which
were the seven statues "; and close beside it was found a series of
archaic draped female statues, which was the most important
of its kind until the discovery of the finer and better preserved set
from the Athenian Acropolis.

Within the precinct there were found many statues and other
works of art, and a very large number of inscriptions, some of
them giving inventories of the votive offerings and accounts of the
administration of the temple and its property. The latter are
of considerable interest, and give full information as to the
sources of the revenue and its financial administration.

Outside the precinct of Apollo, on the south, was an open
place; between this and the precinct was a house for the priests,
and within it, in a kind of court, a set of small structures that may
perhaps be identified as the tombs of the Hyperborean maidens.
Just to the east was the temple of Dionysus, which is of peculiar
plan, and faces the open place; on the other side of it is a large
rectangular court, surrounded by colonnades and chambers which
served as offices, the whole forming a sort of commercial
exchange; in the middle of it was a temple dedicated to
Aphrodite and Hermes.

To the north of the precinct of Apollo, between it and the
sacred lake, there are very extensive ruins of the commercial
town of Delos; these have been only partially cleared, but have

yielded a good many inscriptions and other antiquities. The
most extensive building is a very large court surrounded by
chambers, a sort of club or exchange. Beyond this, on the way
to the east coast, are the remains of the new and the old palaestra,
also partially excavated.

The shore of the channel facing Rheneia is lined with docks and
warehouses, and behind them, as well as elsewhere in the island,
there have been found several private houses of the 2nd or 3rd
century B.C. Each of these consists of a singlecourt surrounded
by columns and often paved with mosaic; various chambers
open out of the court, including usually one of large proportions,
the avdpuv or dining-room for guests.

The theatre, which is set in the lower slope of Mount Cynthus,
has the wings of the auditorium supported by massive sub-
structures. The most interesting feature is the scena, which is
unique in plan; it consisted of an oblong building of two storeys,
surrounded on all sides by a low portico or terrace reaching to the
level of the first floor. This was supported by pillars, set closer
together along the front than at the sides and back. An inscrip-
tion found in the theatre showed that this portico, or at least the
front portion of it, was called the proscenium or logeum, two
terms of which the identity was previously disputed.

On the summit of Mount Cynthus, above the primitive cave-
temple which has always been visible, there have been found
the remains of a small precinct dedicated to Zeus Cynthius and
Athena Cynthia. Some way down the slope of the hill, between
the cave-temple and the ravine of the Inopus, is a terrace with
the temples of the foreign gods, Isis and Serapis, and a small
odeum.

II. History. — Many alternative names for Delos are given by
tradition; one of these, Ortygia, is elsewhere also assigned to an
island sacred to Artemis. Of the various traditions that were
current among the ancient Greeks regarding the origin of Delos,
the most popular describes it as drifting through the Aegean till
moored by Zeus as a refuge for the wandering Leto. It supplied
a birthplace to Apollo and Artemis, who were born beneath a
palm tree beside its sacred lake, and became for ever sacred to
these twin deities. The island first appears in history as the seat
of a great Ionic festival to which the various Ionic states, includ-
ing Athens, were accustomed annually to despatch a sacred
embassy, or Theoria, at the anniversary of the birth of the god
on the 7th of Thargelion (about May). In the 6th century B.C.
the influence of the Delian Apollo was at its height; Poly crates
of Samos dedicated the neighbouring island of Rheneia to his
service and Peisistratus of Athens caused all the area within sight
of the temple to be cleared of the tombs by which its sanctity was
impaired. After the Persian wars, the predominance of Athens
led to the transformation of the Delian amphictyony into the
Athenian empire. (See Delian League.) In 426 B.C., in con-
nexion with a reorganization of the festival, which henceforth was
celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad, the Athenians
instituted a more elaborate lustration, caused every tomb to be
removed from the island, and established a law that ever after
any one who was about to die or to give birth to a child should
be at once conveyed from its shores. And even this was not
accounted sufficient, for in 422 they expelled all its secular
inhabitants, who were, however, permitted to return in the
following year. At the close of the Peloponnesian War the
Spartans gave to the people of Delos the management of their
own affairs; but the Athenian predominance was soon after
restored, and survived an appeal to the amphictyony of Delphi in
345 B.C. During Macedonian times, from 322 to 166 B.C., Delos
again became independent; during this period the shrine was
enriched by offerings from all quarters, and the temple and
its possessions were administered by officials called Uporoioi.
After 166 B.C. the Romans restored the control of Delian wor-
ship to Athens, but granted to the island various commercial
privileges which brought it great prosperity. In 87 B.C. Meno-
phanes, the general of Mithradates VI. of Pontus, sacked the
island, which had remained faithful to Rome. From this blow
it never recovered; the Athenian control was resumed in 42 B.C.,
but Pausanias (viii. 33. 2) mentions Delos as deserted but for a

DE LOUTHERBOURG— DELPHI

973

few Athenian officials; and several epigrams of the ist or 2nd
century a.D. attest the same fact, though the temple and worship
were probably kept up until the official extinction of the ancient
religion . A museum has now been built to contain the antiquities
found in the excavations; otherwise Delos is now uninhabited,
though during the summer months a few shepherds cross over
with their flocks from Myconus or Rheneia. As a religious centre
it is replaced by Tenos and as a commercial centre by the
flourishing port of Syra.

See Lebegue, Recherches sur Delos (Paris, 1876). Numerous
articles in the Bulletin de correspondance hellenique record the various
discoveries at Delos as they were made. See al?o Th. Homolle, Les
Archives de V intendance sacree d, Delos (with plan). The best con-
secutive account is given in the Guide Joanne, Grece, ii. 443-
464. For history, see Sir R. C. Jebb, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
i. (1889), pp. 7-62. For works of art found at Delos see Greek
Art. (E. Gr.)

DE LOUTHERBOURG, PHILIP JAMES (1740-1812), English
artist, was born at Strassburg on the 31st of October 1740, where
his father, the representative of a Polish family, practised
miniature painting; but he spent the greater part of his life in
London, where he was naturalized, and exerted a considerable
influence on the scenery of the English stage, as well as on the
artists of the following generation. De Loutherbourg was
intended for the Lutheran ministry, and was educated, at the
university of Strassburg. As the calling, however, was foreign
to his nature, he insisted on being a painter, and placed him-
self under Vanloo in Paris. The result was an immediate and
precocious development of his powers, and he became a figure in
the fashionable society of that day. In 1767 he was elected into
the French Academy below the age required by the law of the
institution, and painted landscapes, sea storms, battles, all of
which had a celebrity above those of the specialists then working
in Paris. His debut was made by the exhibition of twelve
pictures, including " Storm at Sunset," " Night," " Morning after
Rain." He is next found travelling in Switzerland, Germany and
Italy, distinguishing himself as much by mechanical inventions
as by painting. One of these, showing quite new effects produced
in a model theatre, was the wonder of the day. The exhibition
of lights behind canvas representing the moon and stars, the
illusory appearance of running water produced by clear blue
sheets of metal and gauze, with loose threads of silver, and so on,
were his devices. In 1 7 7 1 he came to London, and was employed
by Garrick, who offered him £500 a year to apply his inventions
to Drury Lane, and to superintend the scene-painting, which he
did with complete success, making a new era in the adjuncts of
the stage. Garrick's own piece, the Christmas Tale, and the
pantomime, 1781-1782, introduced the novelties to the public,
and the delight not only of the masses, but of Reynolds and the
artists, was unbounded. The green trees gradually became
russet, the moon rose and lit the edges of passing clouds, and all
the world was captivated by effects we now take little notice of.
A still greater triumph awaited him on his opening an entertain-
ment called the " Eidophusicon," which showed the rise, progress
and result of a storm at sea — that which destroyed the great
Indiaman, the " Halsewell," — and the Fallen Angels raising the
Palace of Pandemonium. De Loutherbourg has been called the
inventor of the panorama, but this honour does not belong to
him, although it first appeared about the same time as the
eidophusicon. The first panorama was painted and exhibited
by Robert Barker.

All this mechanism did not prevent De Loutherbourg from
painting. " Lord Howe's Victory off Ushant " (1 794) , and other
large naval pictures were commissioned for Greenwich Hospital
Gallery, where they still remain. His finest work was the
" Destruction of the Armada." He painted also the Great Fire
of London, and several historical works, one of these being the
" Attack of the Combined Armies on Valenciennes " (1793). He
was made R.A., in addition to other distinctions, in 1781, shortly
after which date we find an entirely new mental impulse taking
possession of him. He joined Balsamo, comte de Cagliostro, and
travelled about with this extraordinary person — leaving him,
however, before his condemnation to death. We do not hear

that Mesmer had attracted De Loutherbourg, nor do we find
an exact record of his connexion with Cagliostro. A pamphlet
published in 1789, A List of a few Cures performed by Mr and Mrs
De Loutherbourg without Medicine, shows that he had taken up
faith-healing, and there is a story that a successful projection of
the philosopher's stone was only spoiled by the breaking of
the crucible by a relative. He died on the nth of March 181 2.
His publications are few — some sets of etchings, and English
Scenery (1805)

DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian
inscriptions BeX#o£, on coins AaX^oQ, a place in ancient Greece in
the territory of Phocis, famous as the seat of the most important
temple and oracle of Apollo.' It was situated about 6 m. inland
from the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, in a rugged and romantic
glen, closed on the N. by the steep wall-like under-clifis of Mount
Parnassus known as the Phaedriades or Shining Rocks, on the E.
and W. by two minor ridges or spurs, and on the S. by the
irregular heights of Mount Cirphis. Between the two mountains
the Pleistus flowed from east to west, and opposite the town
received the brooklet of the Castalian fountain, which rose in a
deep gorge in the centre of the Parnassian cliff. About 7 m. to
the north, on the side of Mount Parnassus, was the famous
Corycian cave, a large grotto in the limestone rock, which afforded
the people of Delphi a refuge during the Persian invasion. It is
now called in the district the Sarant' Aulai or Forty Courts, and
is said to be capable of holding 3000 people.

I. The Site. — The site of Delphi was occupied by the modern
village of Castri until it was bought by the French government
in 1891, and the peasant proprietors expropriated and transferred
to the new village of Castri, a little farther to the west. Excava-
tions had been made previously in some parts of the precinct;
. for example, the portico of the Athenians was laid bare in i860.
The systematic clearing of the site began in the spring of 1892,
and it was rapidly cleared of earth by means of a light railway.
The plan of the precinct is now easily traced, and with the help of
Pausanias many of the buildings have been identified.

The ancient wall running east and west, commonly known as
the Hellenico, has been found extant in its whole length, and the
two boundary walls running up the hill at each end of it, traced.
In the eastern of these was the main entrance by which Pausanias
went in along the Sacred Way. This paved road is easily
recognized as it zigzags up the hill, with treasuries and the bases
of various offerings facing it on both sides. It mounts first west-
wards to an open space, then turns eastwards till it reaches the
eastern end of the terrace wall that supports the temple, and then:
turns again and curves up north and then west towards the
temple. Above this, approached by a stair, are the Lesche and
the theatre, occupying respectively the north-east and north-
west corner of the precinct. On a higher level still, a little to
the west, is the stadium. There are several narrow paths and
stairs that cut off the zigzags of the Sacred Way.

In describing the monuments discovered by the French
excavators, the simplest plan is to follow the route of Pausanias.
Outside the entrance is a large paved court of Roman date,
flanked by a colonnade. On the north side of the Sacred Way,
close to the main entrance, stood the offering dedicated by the
Lacedaemonians after the battle of Aegospotami. It was a large
quadrangular building of conglomerate, with a back wall faced
with stucco, and stood open to the road. On a stepped pedestal
facing the open stood the statues of the gods and the admirals,
perhaps in rows above one another.

The statues of the Epigoni stood on a semicircular basis on the
south side of the way. Opposite them stood another semi-
circular basis which carried the statues of the Argive kings,
whose names are cut on the pedestal in archaic characters,
reading from right to left. Farther west was the Sicyonian
treasury on the south of the way. It was in the form of a small
Doric temple in antis, and had its entrance on the east. The
present foundations are built of architectural fragments, probably
from an earlier building of circular form on the same site. The
sculptures from this treasury are in the museum, as are the other
sculptures found on the site. These sculptures, which are in

974

DELPHI

rough limestone, most likely belong to the earlier building, as
their surface is in a better state of preservation than could be
possible if they had been long exposed to the air. The earlier
treasury was probably destroyed either by earthquake or by the
percolation of water through the terracing.

The Cnidian treasury stands on the south side of the way
farther west. This building was originally surmised by the
excavators to be the treasury of Siphnos, but further evidence
led them to change their opinion. The treasury was raised on
a quadrangular structure, supported on its south side by the
Hellenico, and built of tufa. The lower courses are left rough and
were most likely hidden. A small Ionic temple of marble with

PRECINCT OF APOLLO AT

}y perm

two caryatids between antae stood on this substructure. The
sculpture from this treasury, which ornamented its frieze and
pediment, is of great interest in the history of the development of
the art, and the fragments of architectural mouldings are of great
delicacy and beauty. The whole work is perhaps the most
perfect example we possess of the transitional style of the early
5th century. Standing back somewhat from the path just as it
bends round up the hill is the Theban treasury. Farther north,
where the path turns again, is the Athenian treasury. This
structure, which was in the form of a small Doric temple in antis,
appears to have suffered from the building above it having been
shaken down by an earthquake. It has now been rebuilt with
the original blocks. There can be no doubt about the identity of
the building, for the basis on which it stands bears the remains
of the dedicatory inscription, stating that it was erected from
the spoils of Marathon. Almost all the sculptured metopes are
in the museum, and are of the highest interest to the student
of archaic art. The famous inscriptions with hymns to Apollo
accompanied by musical notation were found on stones belonging
to this treasury.

Above the Athenian treasury is an open space, in which is a
rock which has been identified as the Sybil's rock. It has steps
hewn in it, and has a cleft. The ground round it has been left
rough like the space on the Acropolis at Athens identified as the

ancient altar of Athena. Here too was placed the curious column,
with many flutes and an Ionic capital, on which stood the colossal
sphinx, dedicated by the Naxians, that has been pieced together
and placed in the museum.

A little farther on, but below the Sacred Way, is another open
space, of circular form, which is perhaps the aXws or sacred
threshing-floor on which the drama of the slaying of the Python
by Apollo was periodically performed. Opposite this space, and
backed against the beautifully jointed polygonal wall which
has for some time been known, and which supports the terrace
on which the temple stands, is the colonnade of the Athenians.
A dedicatory inscription runs along the face of the top step, and

has been the subject

DELPHI. of much dispute.

Both the forms of
the letters and the
style of the architec-
ture show that the
colonnade cannot
date, as Pausanias
says, from the time
of the Peloponne-
sian War; Th.
Homolle now as-
signs it to the end
of the 6th century.
The polygonal ter-
race wall at the
back, on being
cleared, proves to
be covered with
inscriptions, most
of them. concerning
the manumission of
slaves.

After rounding
the east end of the
terrace wall, the
Sacred Way turns
northward, leaving
the Great Altar,
dedicated by the
Chians, on the left.
After passing the
altar, it turns to the
left again at right
angles, and so enters
the space in front
of the temple. Remains of offerings found in this region include
those dedicated by the Cyrenians and by the Corinthians. The
site of the temple itself carries the remains of successive struc-
tures. Of that built by the Alcmaeonids in the 6th century B.C.
considerable remains have been found, some in the foundations
of the later temple and some lying where they were thrown by
the earthquake. The sculptures found have been assigned to this
building, probably to the gables, as they are archaic in character,
and show a remarkable resemblance to the sculptures from the
pediment of the early temple of Athena at Athens. The existing
foundations are these of the temple built in the 4th century.
They give no certain information as to the sacred cleft and other
matters relating to the oracle. Though there are great hollow
spaces in the structure of the foundations, these appear merely
to have been intended to save material, and not to have been put
to any religious or other use. Up in the north-eastern corner of
the precinct, standing at the foot of the cliffs, are the remains
of the interesting Cnidian Lesche or Clubhouse. It was a long
narrow building accessible only from the south, and the famous
paintings were probably disposed around the walls so as to meet
in the middle of the north side. Some scanty fragments of the
lower part of the frescoed walls have survived ; but they are not
enough to give any information as to the work of Polygnotus.
At the north-western comer of the precinct- is the theatre, one

Wo!ksr&g*EltsreUK,.

DELPHINIA— DELUC

975

of the best preserved in Greece. The foundations of the stage are
extant, as well as the orchestra, and the walls and seats of the
auditorium. There are thirty-three tiers of seats in seven sets,
and a paved diazoma. The sculptures from the stage front, now
in the museum, have the labours of Heracles as their subject.
The date of the theatre is probably early 2nd century B.C.

The stadium lies, as Pausanias says, in the highest part of the
city to the north-west. It stands on a narrow plateau of ground
supported on the south-east by a terrace waJl. The seats have
been cleared, and are in a state of extraordinary preservation.
A few of those at the east end are hewn in the rock. No trace of
the marble seats mentioned by Pausanias has been found, but
they have probably been carried off for lime or building, as they
could easily be removed. An immense number of inscriptions
have been found in the excavations, and many works of art,
including a bronze charioteer, which is one of the most admirable
statues preserved from ancient times.

II. History. — Our information as to the oracle at Delphi and
the manner in which it was consulted is somewhat confused;
there probably was considerable variation at different periods.
The tale of a hole from which intoxicating " mephitic " vapour
arose has no early authority, nor is it scientifically probable
(see A. P. Oppe in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxiv. 214). The
questions had to be given in writing, and the responses were
uttered by the Pythian priestess, in early times a maiden, later
a woman over fifty attired as a maiden. After chewing the sacred
bay and drinking of the spring Cassotis, which was conducted
into the temple by artificial channels, she took her seat on the
sacred tripod in the inner shrine. Her utterances were reduced
to verse and edited by the prophets and the " holy men " (ocioi).
For the influence and history of the oracle see Oracle.

Delphi also contained the " Omphalos," a sacred stone bound
with fillets, supposed to mark the centre of the earth. It was
said Zeus had started two eagles from the opposite extremities
and they met there. Other tales said the stone was the one given
by Rhea to Cronus as a substitute for Zeus.

For the history of the Delphic Amphictyony see under Amphic-
tyony. The oracle at Delphi was asserted by tradition to have
existed before the introduction of the Apolline worship and to
have belonged to the goddess Earth (Ge or Gaia). The Homeric
Hymn to Apollo evidently combines two different versions, one
of the approach of Apollo from the north by land, and the
other of the introduction of his votaries from Crete. The
earliest stone temple was said to have been built by Trophonius
and Agamedes. This was destroyed by fire in 548 B.C., and
the contract for rebuilding was undertaken by the exiled
Alcmaeonidae from Athens, who generously substituted marble
on the eastern front for the poros specified (see Cleisthenes,
ad init.). Portions of the pediments of this temple have been
found in the excavations; but no sign has been found of the
pediments mentioned by Pausanias, representing on the east
Apollo and the Muses, and on the west Dionysus and the
Thyiades (Bacchantes), and designed by Praxias, the pupil of
Calanias. The temple which was seen by Pausanias, and of
which the foundations were found by the excavators, was the
one of which the building is recorded in inscriptions of the 4th
century. A raid on Delphi attempted by the Persians in 480 B.C.
was said to have been frustrated by the god himself, by means of
a storm or earthquake which hurled rocks down on the invaders;
a similar tale is told of the raid of the Gauls in 279 B.C. But the
sacrilege thus escaped at the hands of foreign invaders was
inflicted by the Phocian defenders of Delphi during the Sacred
War, 356-346 B.C., when many of the precious votive offerings
were melted down. The Phocians were condemned to replace
their value to the amount of 10,000 talents, which they paid in
instalments. In 86 B.C. the sanctuary and its treasures were put
under contribution by L. Cornelius Sulla for the payment of his
soldiers; Nero removed no fewer than 500 bronz° statues from
the sacred precincts; Constantine the Great enriched his new
city by the sacred tripod and its support of intertwined snakes
dedicated by the Greek cities after the battle of Plataea. This
still exists, with its inscription, in the Hippodrome at Constanti-

nople. Julian afterwards sent Oribasius to restore the temple;
but the oracle responded to the emperor's enthusiasm with
nothing but a wail over the glory that had departed.

Provisional accounts of the excavations have appeared during the
excavations in the Bulletin de correspondance hellenique. A summary
is given in J. G. Frazer, Pausanias, vol. v. The official account
is entitled Fouittes de Delphes. For history see Hiller von Gartringen
in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, s.v. " Delphi." For cult see
L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv. 179-218. For the works
of art discovered see Greek Art. (E. Gr.)

DELPHINIA, a festival of Apollo Delphinius held annually on
the 6th (or 7th) of the month Munychion (April) at Athens.
All that is known of the ceremonies is that a number of girls
proceeded to his temple (Delphinium) carrying suppliants'
branches and seeking to propitiate Apollo, probably as a god
having influence on the sea. It was at this time of year that
navigation began again after the storms of winter. According
to the story in Plutarch (Theseus, 18), Theseus, before setting out
to Crete to slay the Minotaur, repaired to the Delphinium and
deposited, on his own behalf and that of his companions on whom
the lot had fallen, an offering to Apollo, consisting of a branch of
consecrated olive, bound about with white wool; after which
he prayed to the god and set sail. The sending of the maidens
to propitiate the god during the Delphinia commemorates this
event in the life of Theseus.

See A. Mommsen, Festeder Stadt Athen (1898) ; L. Preller, Griechische
Mythologie (4th ed., 1887); P. Stengel, Die griechische Kultus-
altertiimer (1898) ; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites;
G. F. Schomann, Griechische Altertiimer (4th ed., 1897-1902).

DELPHINUS (" The Dolphin "), in astronomy, a constellation
of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); and catalogued by Ptolemy
(10 stars), Tycho Brahe (10 stars), and Hevelius (14 stars).
y Delphini is a double star: a yellowish of magnitude 4, and a
bluish of magnitude 5.

DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally
used of the mouth of the Nile), a tract of land enclosed by the
diverging branches of a river's mouth and the seacoast, and
traversed by other branches of the stream. This triangular tract
is formed from the fine silt brought down in suspension by
a muddy river and deposited when the river reaches the sea.
When tidal currents are feeble, the delta frequently advances
some distance seawards, forming a local prolongation of the
coast.

DELUC, JEAN ANDRE" (1727-1817), Swiss geologist and
meteorologist, born at Geneva on the 8th of February 1727, was
descended from a family which had emigrated from Lucca and
settled at Geneva in the 15th century. His father, Francois
Deluc, was the author of some publications in refutation of
Mandeville and other rationalistic writers, which are best known
through Rousseau's humorous account of his ennui in reading
them; and he gave his son an excellent education, chiefly in
mathematics and natural science. On completing it he engaged
in commerce, which principally occupied the first forty-six years
of his life, without any other interruption than that which was
occasioned by some journeys of business into the neighbouring
countries, and a few scientific excursions among the Alps.
During these, however, he collected by degrees, in conjunction
with his brother Guillaume Antoine, a splendid museum of miner-
alogy and of natural history in general, which was afterwards
increased by his nephew J.Andre Deluc (1763-1847), who was
also a writer on geology. He at the same time took a prominent
part in politics. In 1768 he was sent to Paris on an embassy
to the due de Choiseul, whose friendship he succeeded in gaining.
In 1770 he was nominated one of the Council of Two Hundred.
Three years later unexpected reverses in business made it advis-
able for him to quit his native town, which he only revisited
once for a few days. The change was welcome in so far as it
set him entirely free for scientific pursuits, and it was with
little regret that he removed to England in 1773. He was made
a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year, and received the
appointment of reader to Queen Charlotte, which he continued

97 6

DELUGE

to hold for forty-four years, and which afforded him both leisure
and a competent income. In the latter part of his life he obtained
leave to make several tours in Switzerland, France, Holland and
Germany. In Germany he passed the six years from 1798 to
1804; and after his return he undertook a geological tour
through England. When he was at Gbttingen, in the begin-
ning of his German tour, he received the compliment of being
appointed honorary professor of philosophy and geology in that
university; but he never entered upon the active duties of a
professorship. He was also a correspondent of the Academy
of Sciences at Paris, and a member of several other scientific
associations. He died at Windsor on the 7th of November 18 17.

His favourite studies were geology and meteorology. The
situation of his native country had naturally led him to contem-
plate the peculiarities of the earth's structure, and the properties
of the atmosphere, as particularly displayed in mountainous
countries, and as subservient to the measurement of heights.
According to Cuvier, he ranked among the first geologists of his
age. His principal geological work, Lettres physiques et morales
sur les montagnes et sur I'histoire de la terre et de I'homme, first
published in 1778, and in a more complete form in 1779, was
dedicated to Queen Charlotte. It dealt with the appearance of
mountains and the antiquity of the human race, explained the
six days of the Mosaic creation as so many epochs preceding the
actual state of the globe, and attributed the deluge to the filling
up of cavities supposed to have been left void in the interior of
the earth. He published later an important series of volumes
on geological travels in the north of Europe (18 10), in England
(1811), and in France, Switzerland and Germany (1813). These
were translated into English.

Deluc's original experiments relating to meteorology were
valuable to the natural philosopher; and he discovered many
facts of considerable importance relating to heat and moisture.
He noticed the disappearance of heat in the thawing of ice about
the same time that J. Black founded on it his ingenious hypothesis
of latent heat. He ascertained that water was more dense about
40 F. (4° C.) than at the temperature of freezing, expanding
equally on each side of the maximum; and he was the originator
of the theory, afterward readvanced by John Dalton, that the
quantity of aqueous vapour contained in any space is inde-
pendent of the presence" or density of the air, or of any other
elastic fluid.

His Recherches sur les modifications de I' atmosphere (2 vols.
4to, Geneva, 1772; 2nd ed., 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1784) contains
many accurate and ingenious experiments upon moisture,
evaporation and the indications of hygrometers and thermo-
meters, applied to the barometer employed in determining
heights. In the Phil. Trans., 1773, appeared his account of a
new hygrometer, which resembled a mercurial thermometer,
with an ivory bulb, which expanded by moisture, and caused the
mercury to descend. The first correct rules ever published for
measuring heights by the barometer were those he gave in the
Phil. Trans., 1771, p. 158. His Lettres suri'histoire physique de
la terre (8vo, Paris, 1798), addressed to Professor Blumenbach,
contains an essay on the existence of a General Principle of
Morality. It also gives an interesting account of some conver-
sations of the author with Voltaire and Rousseau. Deluc was
an ardent admirer of Bacon, on whose writings he published two
works — Bacon tel qu'il est (8vo, Berlin, 1800), showing the bad
faith of the French translator, who had omitted many passages
favourable to revealed religion, and Precis de la philosophic de
Bacon (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1802), giving an interesting view of the
progress of natural science. Lettres sur le Christianisme (Berlin
and Hanover, 1801, 1803) was a controversial correspondence
with Dr Teller of Berlin in regard to the Mosaic cosmogony.
His Traiti Mimentairede geologic (8vo, Paris, 1809, also in English,
by de la Fite, the same year) was principally intended as a
refutation of the Vulcanian system of Hutton and Playfair, who
deduced the changes of the earth's structure from the operation
of fire, and attributed a higher antiquity to the present state of
the continents than is required in the Neptunian system adopted
by Deluc after D. Dolomieu. He sent to the Royal Society, in I

1809, a long paper on separating the chemical from the electrical
effect of the pile, with a description of the electric column and
aerial electroscope, in which he advanced opinions so little in
unison with the latest discoveries of the day, that the council
deemed it inexpedient to admit them into the Transactions.
The paper was afterwards published in Nicholson's Journal
(xxvi.), and the dry column described in it was constructed by
various experimental philosophers. This dry pile or electric
column has been regarded as his chief discovery.

Many other of his papers on subjects kindred to those already
mentioned are to be found in the Transactions and in the Philo-
sophical Magazine. See Philosophical Magazine (November 1817).

DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood,
diluere, to wash away) , a great flood or submersion of the earth (so
far as the earth was known to the narrators), or of heaven and
earth, or simply of heaven, by which, according to primitive and
semi -primitive races, chaos was restored. It is, of course, not
meant that all the current flood stories, as they stand, answer to
this description. There are flood stories which, at first sight,
may plausibly be held to be only exaggerated accounts of some
ancient historical occurrences. The probability of such traditions
being handed down is, however, extremely slight. If some flood
stories are apparently local, and almost or quite without mythical
colouring, it may be because the original myth-makers had a
very narrow conception of the earth, and because in the lapse of
time the original mythic elements had dwindled or even dis-
appeared. The relics of the traditional story may then have been
adapted by scribes and priests to a new theory. Many deluge
stories may in this way have degenerated. It is at any rate
undeniable that flood stories of the type described above, and
even with similar minor details, are fairly common. A con-
spectus of illustrative flood stories from different parts of the
world would throw great light ori the problems before us; see
the article Cosmogony, especially for the North American tales,
which show clearly enough that the deluge is properly a second
creation, and that the serpent is as truly connected with the
second chaos as with the first. One of them, too, gives a striking
parallel to the Babylonian name Hasis-andra (the Very Wise),
whence comes the corrupt form Xisuthrus; the deluge hero
of the Hare Indians is called Kunyan, " the intelligent."
Polynesia also gives us most welcome assistance, for its flood
stories still present clear traces of the primitive imagination that
the sky was a great blue sea, on which the sun, moon and stars
(or constellations) were voyagers. Greece too supplies some
stimulus to thought, nor are Iran and Egypt as unproductive
as some have supposed. But the only pauses that we can allow
ourselves are in Hindustan, Babylonia and Canaan. The
peoples of these three countries, which are religiously so pro-
minent in antiquity, have naturally connected their name equally
with thoughts about earth production and earth destruction.

The Indian tradition exists in several forms. 1 The earliest is
preserved in the Satapatha Brahmana. It is there related that
Manu, the first man, the son of the sun-god Vivasvat,
found, in bathing, a small fish, which asked to be frarf/tfon
tended, and in reward promised to save him in the
coming flood. The fish grew, and at last had to be carried to the
sea, where it revealed to Manu the time of the flood, and bade
him construct a ship for his deliverance. When the time came,
Manu, unaccompanied, went on board; the grateful fish towed
the ship through the water to the summit of the northern
mountain, where it bade Manu bind the vessel to a tree. Gradu-
ally, as the waters fell, Manu descended the mountain; he then
sacrificed and prayed. In a year's time his prayer was granted.
A woman appeared, who called herself his daughter Ida (goddess
of fertility). It is neither stated, nor even hinted, that sin was
the cause of the flood. - . . ■

Another version occurs in the great epic, the Mahabharata.
The lacunae of the earlier story are here supplied. Manu, for
instance, embarks with the seven " rishis " or wise men, and
takes with him all kinds of seed. The fish announces himself as
the God Brahman, and enables Manu to create both gods and
1 See Muir, Sanscrit Texts, i. 182, 206 ff.

DELUGE

977

men. A third .account is given, in the Bhagavata Purana. It
contains the details of the announcement of the flood seven
days beforehand (cf. Gen. vii. 4) and of the taking of pairs of
all kinds of animals (cf. Gen. vi. 19), besides the seeds of. plants
(as the epic; cf. Gen. vi. 21). This story, however, is a late
composition, not earlier than the 12th century A.D, A first
glance at these stories is somewhat bewildering. We shall
return, however, to this problem later with a good hope- of
mastering it.

The Israelite (Biblical) and the, Babylonian deluge-stories
remain to be considered. Neither need be described here in
Israelite detail; for the former see Gen. vi. 5-ix. 17, and for the
and latter Gilgamesh. As most students are aware, the

Baby- Biblical deluge-story is composite, being made up of
two narratives, the few lacunae in which are due to the
ancient redactor who worked them together. 1 The narrators
are conventionally known as J. ( = the Yahwist, from the divine
name Yahweh) and P. ( = the Priestly Writer) respectively. It
is important to notice that P., though chronologically later than
J., reproduces certain elements which must be archaic. For
instance, while J. speaks only of a rain-storm, P. states that " all
the fountains of the great ocean were broken up, and the windows
of heaven opened " (Gen. vii. n), i.e. the lower and the upper
waters met together and produced the deluge. It is also P. who
tells the story of the appointment of the rainbow (Genax. 12-17),
which is evidently ancient, though only paralleled in a Lithuanian
flood-story, and near it we find the divine declaration (Gen. ix.
2-6) that the golden age of universal peace (cf. Gen. i. 29 ■, 30),
already sadly tarnished, is over. 2 Surely this too has a touch of
the archaic; nor can we err in connecting it with the tradition
of man's first home in Paradise, where no enemy could come,
because, in the original form of the tradition, Paradise was the
abode of God. (See Paradise.)

The Babylonian tradition exists in two main forms, 3 nor can
we affirm that the shorter form, due to Berossus, is superseded
by the larger one in the Gilgamesh epic, for it communi-
/oor SS " S ' cates f° ur important points: (1) Xisuthrus, the hero
points. of the deluge, was also the tenth Babylonian king; cf.
Noah, in P., the tenth patriarch as well as the survivor
from the deluge; (2) the destination of Xisuthrus is said to be
" to the gods," a statement which virtually records his divine
character. In accordance with this, the final reward of the hero
is declared to be " living with the gods." This suggests that
Noah (?) may originally have been represented as a supernatural
man, a demigod. True, Gen. ix. 20, 21 is not consistent with
this, but it is very possible that Noah was substituted by a
scribe's error for Enoch, 4 who, like Xisuthrus, " walked with
God (learning the heavenly wisdom) and disappeared, for God
had taken him " (Gen. v. 22, 24); (3) the birds, when sent out
by Xisuthrus the second time, return with mud on their feet.
This detail reminds us of points in some archaic North American
myths which probably supply the key to its meaning; 5 (4) in
the time of Berossus the mountain on which the ark grounded
was considered to be in Armenia.

We pass on to the relation of J. and P. to the Babylonian story.
(1) The polytheistic colouring of the latter contrasts strongly with
D t 11 n t ^ le ^ ar s i m P^ er religious views of J. and P. Note the
relation of capricious character of the god Bel who sends the
Israelite deluge, while at the end of the story the catastrophe
s S°9 rto is represented as a judgment upon human sins. It is the
Ionian. latter view which is adopted by J. and P. We cannot,
however, infer from this that the narratives which
doubtless underlie J. and P. were directly taken from some such

1 Cf. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, ii. 9,
where the documents are printed separately in a tabular form.

2 Isa. xi. 6-8 prophesies that one day this idyllic state shall be
restored.

3 For a discussion of the Babylonian version of the Deluge Legend,
recently discovered among the tablets from Nippur, see Nippur.

4 The genealogy in Gen. v. is hardly in its original form. Enoch is
probably misplaced, and Noah inserted in error.

6 Cf. Cosmogony, and Cheyne's Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient
Israel (on deluge-story).

story as that in the Gilgamesh epic. The theory of an indirect
and unconscious borrowing on the part of the Israelitish compilers
will satisfy .all the conditions of the case. (2) In the general
scheme the three accounts very nearly agree, for J. must origin-
ally have contained directions as to the building of the vessel,
and a notice that the ark grounded on a certain mountain.
P.'s omission of the sacrifice at the close seems to be arbitrary.
His theory of religious history forbade a reference to an altar
so early, but his document must have contained it. J. expressly
mentions it (Gen. viii. 20, 21), though not in such an original
way as the cuneiform text. (3) As to the directions for building
the ship (epic) or chest (J. and P.). Here the Babylonian story
and P. have a strong general resemblance ; note, e.g., the mention
of bitumen in both. Whether the Hebrew reference to a chest
(tebqh) is, or is not, more archaic than the Babylonian reference
to a ship (elippu) is a question which admits of different answers.
(4) As to the material cause of the deluge. According to P. (see
above) the water came both from above and from below; J.
only speaks of continuous rain. The Gilgamesh epic, however,
mentions besides thunder, lightning and rain, a hurricane which
drove the sea upon the land. We can hardly regard this as more
original than P.'s representation. (5) As to the extent of the flood.
From the opening of the story in the epic we should naturally
infer that only a single S. Babylonian city was affected. The
sequel, however, implies that the flood extended all over Baby-
lonia and the region of Nisir. More than this can hardly be
claimed. Similarly the earlier story which underlies J. and P.
need only have referred to the region of the myth-framers, i.e.
either Canaan or N. Arabia. (6) As to the duration of the flood
the traditions differ. P. reckons it at 365 days, i.e. a solar year,
which is parallel to the 365 years of the life of Enoch (who, as
we have seen, may have been the original hero of the flood). It
is probable (see below) that P.'s ultimate authority, far back in
the centuries, represented the deluge as a celestial occurrence.
The origin of J.'s story is not quite so clear, owing to the lacunae
in the narrative. If the text may be followed, this narrator made
the flood last forty days and nights, after which two periods of
seven days elapse, and then the patriarch leaves the ark. The
epic shortens the duration of the flood to seven days, after which
the ship remains another seven days (more strictly six full days)
on the mountain of the land of Nisir (P., the mountains of Ararat ;
J., unrecorded). (7) As to the despatch of the birds. J. begins,
the epic closes, with the raven. Clearly the epic is more original.
Besides, one of the two missions of the dove is evidently
superfluous. Dove, swallow, raven, as in the epic, must be
more primitive than raven, dove, dove.

That the Hebrew deluge-story in both its forms has been at
least indirectly influenced by the Babylonian is obvious. We
cannot indeed reconstruct the form either of the Canaanitish
(or N. Arabian) story, which was recast partly at least under the
influence of a recast Babylonian myth, nor can we conjecture
where the sanctuary was, the priests of which, yielding to a
popular impulse, adopted and modified the fascinating story.
But the fact of the ultimate Babylonian origin of the Israelitish
narratives cannot seriously be questioned. The Canaanites or the
N. Arabians handed on at least a portion of their myths to the
Israelites, and the creation and deluge stories were among these.
That the Israelitish priests gradually recast them is an easy and
altogether satisfactory conjecture.

It remains to ask, What is the history and significance of the
deluge-myth? The question carries us into far-off times. We
have no version of the Babylonian myth which goes Hlstory
back to about 2100 B.C., while its text was apparently an a signi-
derived from a still older tablet. But even this is not ticance of
primitive; behind it there must have been a much -tzfu'
shorter and simpler myth. The recast represented by
the existing versions of the myth must have been produced partly
by the insertion, partly by the omission or modification, of mythic
details, and by the application to the story thus produced of a
particular mythic theory respecting the celestial world. The
shorter myth referred to may — if we take hints from the very
primitive myths of N. America — have run somewhat thus,

978

DELUGE

omitting minor details: " The earth (a small enough earth,
doubtless) arid its inhabitants proved so imperfect that the
beneficent superhuman Being, who had created it, or perhaps
another such Being, determined to remake it. He, therefore,
summoned the serpent or dragon who controlled the cosmic
ocean, and had been subjugated at creation, to overwhelm the
earth, after which the creator remade it better, 1 and the survivor
and his family became the ancestors of a new human race."

This, however, is only one possible representation. It may
have been said that the serpent of his own accord, not having
been killed by the creator, maliciously flooded the earth (ef. the
Algonquian myth), but was again overcome in battle, or that the
serpent, after filling the earth with violence and wrong, was at
length slain by the Good Being, and that his blood, streaming,
out, produced a deluge. 2 In any case it is unnatural to hold that
the first flood (that which preceded creation) had a dragon, but
not the second. An old cuneiform text, recopied late, how-
ever, appears to call the year of the deluge (i.e. of what we here
call the second flood) " the year of the raging (or red-shining)
serpent," 3 and certainly the N. American myths distinctly
connect serpents with the deluges.

Among the probable minor details (omitted above) of the
presumed shorter and older myth we may include: (i) the
warning of " Very- Wise," 4 either by friendly animals or by a
dream; (2) the construction of a chest to contain " Very- Wise,"
his wife and his sons, together with animals; 6 (3) the despatch of
three birds with a special object (see below) ; (4) the landing of
the survivors on a mountain. As to (1), Berossus suggests that the
notice came to Xisuthrus in a dream; in the Indian myth it is the
sacred fish which warns Manu. In the archaic N. American
myths, however, it is some animal which gives the notice — an
eagle or a coyote (a kind of wolf). As to (2), nothing is more
common than the story of a divine child cast into the sea in a
box. 6 The ship-motive is also found, 7 but it is not too rash to
assume that the box-motive is the earlier, and, in accordance with
the parallels, that the hero of the deluge was originally a god or a
demigod. The translation of the hero to be with the gods is a
transparent modification of the original tradition. As to (3) , the
original object of sending out the birds was probably not to find
out where dry land was, but to use them as helpers in the work
of re-creation. Take the story of the Tlatlasik Indians, where
the diving-bird (one of three sent out) comes back with a branch
of a fir-tree, out of which O'meatl made mountains, earth and
heaven; 8 so, too, the Caingangs relate 9 that those who escaped
from the flood, as they tarried on a mountain, heard the song of
the saracura birds, who came carrying earth in baskets, and
threw it into the waters, which slowly subsided. As to (4), the
mountain would naturally be thought of as a place of refuge
even in the old, simple flood-story. But when Babylonian
mythology effected an entrance, the mountain would receive a
new and much grander significance. It would then come to re-
present the summit of that great and most holy mountain, which,
save by the special favour of the gods, no human eye has seen.

That a didactic element entered the deluge^tradition but slowly,
may be surmised, not only from the genuinely old N. American
stories, but from the inconsistent statements, to which Jastrow
has already referred, in the Babylonian story. We may imagine
that between the creation and the deluge some great and wise
Being had initiated the early men, not only in the necessary arts
of life, but iri the " ways " that were pleasing to the heavenly
powers. The B abylonians apparently think of neglected sacrifices,
the Australians of a desecrated mystery as the cause of the flood.
Some such violation of a sacred rule is the origin that naturally
occurs to an adapter or expander of primitive myths.

1 Cf. the myths of the Pawnees and the Quiches of Guatemala.

2 See the cuneiform text described in KA T z , pp. 498-499.

3 Zimmern, KA T 3 , p. 554.

4 i.e. Atrahasis (Xisuthrus).

6 To have omitted the animals would have been an offence against
primitive views of kinship.

' Userter, Die Sintflutsagen, pp. 80-108, 1 15-127.

7 lb. p. 254.

8 Stucken, Astralmythen, pp. 233-234.

• Amer. Journ. of Folklore, xviii. 223 ff.

And now as to the application of the celestial mythic theory to
the early deluge-story. In the agricultural stage it was natural
that men should take a deeper interest than before in
the appearance of the sky, and especially of the sun Cebgtial
and moon, and of the constellations, even though an theory.
astrological science or quasi-science would very slowly,
if at all, grow up. That the Polynesian myths (which show no
vestige of science) originally referred to. the supposed celestial
ocean, seems to be plain. Schirren 10 regarded the New Zealand
cosmogonies as myths of sunrise, and the deluge-stories as myths
of sunset. We may at any rate plausibly hold, with the article
"Deluge" (byCheyne) in the ninth edition of this work u (1877),
that the deluge-stories of Polynesia and early Babylonia (we may
now probably add India) were accommodated to an imaginative
conception of the sun and moon as voyagers on the celestial
ocean. " When this story had been told and retold a long time,
rationalism suggested that the sea was not in heaven but on
earth, and observation of the damage wrought in winter by
excessive rains and the inundations of great rivers suggested the
introduction of corresponding details into the new earthly deluge-
myth." " This accounts for the strongly mythological character
of Par-napishti (Ut-napishti) in Babylonia and Maui in New
Zealand, who are in fact solar personages. Enoch, too, must
be classed in this category, his perfect righteousness and super-
human wisdom now first become intelligible. Moreover, we now
comprehend how the goddess Sabitu (the guardian of the entrance
to the sea) can say to Gilgamesh (himself a solar personage),
'Shamash the mighty (i.e. the sun-god) has crossed the sea;
besides (?) Shamash, who can cross it?' For though the sea
in the epic is no doubt the earth-circling ocean, it was hardly this
in the myth from which the words were taken." 12 And, what is
still more important, we can understand better how, in the
Gilgamesh epic (lines 115-116), the gods, after cowering like dogs,
go up to the " heaven of Ana." They, too, fear the deluge, and
only in the highest heaven can they feel themselves secure.

Such an explanation seems indispensable if the wide influence
of the Babylonian form of the deluge-myth is to be accounted for.
As Gunkel well remarks, 13 neither the tenacity and self -propagat-
ing character of this myth, nor the solemn utterance of Yahweh
(who corresponds to the Babylonian Marduk) in Gen. viii. 216 (J.)
andix. 8-17 (P.) can be Understood, if the deluge-story is nothing
more than an exaggerated account of a historical, earthly occur-
rence. We, therefore, venture to hold that it is an insufficient
account to give of the story in the Gilgamesh epic that it is a
combination of a local tradition of the destruction of a single city
with a myth of the destruction of mankind — a myth exaggerated
in its present form, but based on accurate knowledge of the yearly
recurring phenomenon of the overflow of the Euphrates. 14 There
are no doubt points in the story as it now stands which indicate a
composite origin, but it is probable that even the tradition which
apparently limits the destruction to a single city, equally with
many other local flood-stories, has a basis in what we may fairly
call a celestial myth.

We can now return with some confidence to the Indian deluge-
story. It is unlikely that so richly gifted a race as the Aryans of
India should not have produced their own flood-story Indian
out of the same primeval germs which grew up into the myth
earliest Babylonian flood-story, 16 and almost inconceiv-
able that in its second form the Indian story should not
have become adapted to what may be called the celestial mythic

10 Schirren, Wandersagen der Neuseelander (1856), p. 193.

11 Referring for Polynesia to Gerland in Waitz-Gerland, Anthro-
pologie der Naturvblker, vi. 270-273 (1872). After a long interval,
this theory has been taken up by Zimmern, KAT Z , p. 355, and by
Jensen, Das Gilgamesch-Epos (1906), p. 120; Winckler (AOF, 3rd
series, i. 96) also speaks of the deluge as a " celestial occurrence."
For other forms of this view see Jeremias, ATAO, pp. 134-136;
Usener, p. 239.

12 Cheyne, Ency. Bib. cols. 1063-1064.

13 Genesis, p. 67.

14 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 502, 506.

15 The view here adopted is that of Lindner and Usener. , On the
opposite side are Zimmern, Tiele, Jensen, Oldenberg, Noldeke,
Stucken, Lenormant.

recon-
siaered.

DELYANNI— DEMARATUS

979

theory. The phrase " the northern mountain " for the place
where the ship grounded may quite well be the name of an earthly
substitute (the epic has " the highest summit of the Himalaya ")
for the mythic mountain of heaven. Nor is it unimportant that
Manu is the son of the sun-god, and that the phrase " the seven
rishis " in classical Sanskrit is a designation of the seven stars of
the Great Bear. For such problems all that we can hope for is
a probable solution. The opposite view 1 that the deluge is a
historical occurrence implies a self-propagating power in early
tradition which is not justified by critical research, and leaves
out of sight many important facts revealed by comparative study.
For a conspectus of deluge-stories see Andree, Die Flutsagen,
elhnographisch betrachtet (1891), by a competent anthropologist;
E. Suess, Face of the Earth, i. 17 (190,1) ; also Elwood Worcester,
Genesis in the Light of Modern Knowledge (New York, 1 901), Appendix
ii., in tabular form, from Schwarz's Sintfluth und V blkerwanderungen.
Dr Worcester's work is popular, but based on well-chosen authorities.
The article " Flood " in Hastings' D. B. is comprehensive; it repre-
sents the difficult view that flood-stories, &c, are generally highly-
coloured traditions of genuine facts. (T. K. C.)

DELYANNI, THEODOROS (1826-1905), Greek statesman, was
born at Kalavryta, Peloponnesus, in 1826. He studied law at
Athens, and in 1843 entered the ministry of the interior, of which
department he became permanent secretary in 1859. In 1862,
on the deposition of King Otho, he became minister for foreign
affairs in the provisional government. In 1867 he was minister at
Paris. On his return to Athens he became a member of successive
cabinets in various capacities, and rapidly collected a party
around him consisting of those who opposed his great rival,
Tricoupi. In the so-called " Oecumenical Ministry " of 1877 he
voted for war with Turkey, and on its fall he entered the cabinet
of Koumoundoros as minister for foreign affairs. He was a
representative of Greece at the Berlin Congress in 1878. From
this time forward, and particularly after 1882, when Tricoupi
again came into power at the head of a strong party, the duel
between these two statesmen was the leading feature of Greek
politics. (See Greece: History.) Delyanni first formed a cabinet
in 1885 ; but his warlike policy, the aim of which was, by threaten-
ing Turkey, to force the powers to make concessions in order
to avoid the risk of a European war, ended in failure. For the
powers, in order to stop his excessive armaments, eventually
blockaded the Peiraeus and other ports, and this brought about
his downfall. He returned to power in 1890, with a radical
programme, but his failure to deal with the financial crisis pro-
duced a conflict between him and the king, and his disrespectful
attitude resulted in his summary dismissal in 1892. Delyanni,
by his demagogic behaviour, evidently expected the public to
side with him; but at the elections he was badly beaten. In
1895, however, he again became prime minister, and was at the
head of affairs during the Cretan crisis and the opening of the
war with Turkey in 1897. The humiliating defeat which ensued
— though Delyanni himself had been led into the disastrous war
policy to some extent against his will — caused his fall in April
1897, the king again dismissing him from office when he declined
to resign. Delyanni kept his own seat at the election of 1899,
but his following dwindled to small dimensions. He quickly
recovered his influence, however, and he was again president of
the council and minister of the interior when, on the 13th of
June 1905, he was murdered in revenge for the rigorous measures
taken by him against gambling houses.

The main fault of Delyanni as a statesman was that he was
unable to grasp the truth that the prosperity of a state depends
on its adapting its ambitions to its means. Yet, in his vast
projects, which the powers were never likely to endorse, and
without their endorsement were vain, he represented the real
wishes and aspirations of his countrymen, and his death was the
occasion for an extraordinary demonstration of popular grief.
He died in extreme poverty, and a pension was voted to the two
nieces who lived with him.

DEMADES (c. 380-318 B.C.), Athenian orator and demagogue.
He was originally of humble position, and was employed at one
time as a common sailor, but he rose partly by his eloquence and
1 Held by Franz Delitzsch, Dillmann and Lenormant.

partly by his unscrupulous character to a prominent position
at Athens. He espoused the cause of Philip in the war against
Olynthus, and was thus brought into bitter and life- long enmity
with Demosthenes,whom he at first supported. He fought against
the Macedonians in the battle of Chaeroneia, and was taken
prisoner. Having made a favourable impression upon Philip,
he was released together with his fellow-captives, and was instru-
mental in bringing about a treaty of peace between Macedonia
and Athens. He continued to be a favourite of Alexander, and,
prompted by a bribe, saved Demosthenes and the other obnoxious
Athenian orators from his vengeance. It was also chiefly owing
to him that Alexander, after the destruction of Thebes, treated
Athens so leniently. His conduct in supporting the Macedonian
cause, yet receiving any bribes that were offered by the opposite
party, caused him to be heavily fined more than once ; and
he was finally deprived of his civil rights. He was reinstated
(322) on the approach of Antipater, to whom he was sent as
ambassador. Before setting out he persuaded the citizens to
pass sentence of death upon Demosthenes and his followers, who
had fled from Athens. The result of his embassy was the con-
clusion of a peace greatly to the disadvantage of the Athenians.
In 318 (or earlier), having been detected in an intrigue with
Perdiccas, Antipater's opponent, he was put to death by Antipater
at Pella, when entrusted with another mission by the Athenians.
Demades was avaricious and unscrupulous; but he was a highly
gifted and practised orator.

A fragment of a speech (ITepl SaSeKaerias), bearing his name, in
which he defends his conduct, is to be found in C. Muller's Oratores
Attici, ii. 438, but its genuineness is exceedingly doubtful.

DEMAGOGUE (Gr. Srinayuyos, from &ytiv, to lead, and Srjfws,
the people), a leader of the popular as opposed to any other
party. Being particularly used with an invidious sense of a
mob leader or orator, one who for his own political ends panders
to the passions and prejudices of the people, the word has come
to mean an unprincipled agitator.

DEMANTOID, the name given by Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold
to a green garnet, found in the Urals and used as a gem stone.
As it possesses high refractive and dispersive power, it presents
when properly cut great brilliancy and " fire," and the name has
reference to its diamond-like appearance. It is sometimes known
as " Uralian emerald," a rather unfortunate name inasmuch as
true emerald is found in the Urals, whilst it not infrequently
passes in trade as olivine. Demantoid is regarded as a lime-iron
garnet, coloured probably by a small proportion of chromium.
The colour varies in different specimens from a vivid green to a
dull yellowish-green, or even to a brown. The specific gravity
of an emerald-green demantoid was found to be 3-849, and that
of a greenish-yellow specimen 3-854 (A. H. Church). The hard-
ness is only 6-5, or lower even than that of quartz — a character
rather adverse to the use of demantoid as a gem. This mineral
was originally discovered as pebbles in the gold-washings at
Nizhne Tagilsk in the Ural Mountains, and was afterwards
found in the stream called Bobrovka, in the Sysertsk dis-
trict on the western slope of the Urals. It occurs not only as
pebbles but in the form of granular nodules in a serpentine
rock, and occasionally, though very rarely, shows traces of
crystal faces. (F. W. R.*)

DEMARATUS (Doric Aa/xdparos, Ionic A^apr/ros) , king of
Sparta of the Eurypontid line, successor of his father Ariston. He
is known chiefly for his opposition to his colleague Cleomenes I.
(q.v.) in his attempts to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens and
afterwards to punish Aegina for medizing. He did his utmost to
bring Cleomenes into disfavour at home. Thereupon Cleomenes
urged Leotychides, a relative and personal enemy of Demaratus,
to claim the throne on the ground that the latter was not really
the son of Ariston but of Agetus, his mother's first husband. The
Delphic oracle, under the influence of Cleomenes' bribes, pro-
nounced in favour of Leotychides, who became king (491 B.C.).
Soon afterwards Demaratus fled to Darius, who gave him the
cities of Pergamum, Teuthrania and Halisarna, where his de-
scendants were still ruling at the beginning of the 4th century
(Xen. Anabasis, ii. 1. 3, vii. 8. 17; Hellenica, iii. 1. 6); to these

980

DEMERARA— DEMETER^

Gambreum should perhaps be added (Athenaeus i. 29 f). He
accompanied Xerxes on his expedition to Greece, but the stories
told of the warning and advice which on several occasions he
addressed to the king are scarcely historical.

See Herodotus v. 75, vi. 50-70, vii.; later writers either repro-
duce or embellish his narrative (Pausanias iii. 4, 3^5, 7, 7-8;
Diodorus xi. 6; Polyaenus ii. 20; Seneca, De beneficiis, vi. 31, 4-12).
The story that he took part in the attack on Argos which was
repulsed by Telesilla, the poetess, and the Argive women, can
hardly be true (Plutarch, Mul. virt. 4; Polyaenus, Strat. viii. 33;
G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, ii. 2 563, note 4). (M. N.T.)

DEMERARA, one of the three settlements of British Guiana,
taking its name from the river Demerara. See Guiana.

DEMESNE (Demeine, Demain, Domain, &C.), 1 that portion of
the lands of a manor not granted out in freehold tenancy, but
(a) retained by the lord of the manor for his own use and occupa-
tion or (b) let out as tenemental land to his retainers or " villani."
This demesne land, originally held at the will of the lord, in course
of time came to acquire fixity of tenure, and developed into the
modern copyhold (see Manor). It is from demesne as used
in sense (a) that the modern restricted use of the word comes,
i.e. land immediately surrounding the mansion or dwelling-house,
the park or chase. Demesne of the crown, or royal demesne, was
that part of the crown lands not granted out to feudal tenants,
but which remained under the management of stewards ap-
pointed by the crown. These crown lands, since the accession
of George III., have been appropriated by parliament, the
sovereign receiving in return a fixed annual sum (see Civil
List). Ancient demesne signified lands or manors vested in the
king at the time of the Norman Conquest. There were special
privileges surrounding tenancies of these lands, such as freedom
from tolls and duties, exemption from danegeld and amercement,
from sitting on juries, &c. Hence, the phrase " ancient
demesne " came to be applied to the tenure by which the lands
were held. Land held in ancient demesne is sometimes also
called customary freehold. (See Copyhold.)

DEMETER, in Greek mythology, daughter of. Cronus and
Rhea and sister of Zeus, goddess of agriculture and civilized life.
Her name has been explained as (1) " grain-mother," from Srjtu,
the Cretan form of f e«u, " barley," or (2) " earth-mother," or
rather " mother earth," da being regarded as the Doric form of \ij.
She is rarely mentioned in Homer, nor is she included amongst
the Olympian gods.

The central fact of her cult was the story of her daughter
Persephone (Proserpine), a favourite subject in classical poetry.
According to the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Persephone, while
gathering flowers on the Nysian plain (probably here a purely
mythical locality), was carried off by Hades (Pluto), the god
of the lower world, with the connivance of Zeus (see also
Proserpine). The incident has been assigned to various other
localities— Crete, Eleusis, and Enna in Sicily, the last being most
generally adopted. This rape is supposed to point to an original
Upds \afws, an annual holy marriage of a god and goddess of
vegetation. Wandering over the earth in search of her daughter,
Demeter learns from Helios the truth about her disappearance.
In the form of an old woman named Deo ( = the " seeker," or
simply a diminutive form), she comes to the house of Celeus
at Eleusis, where she is hospitably received. Having revealed
herself to the Eleusinians, she departs, in her wrath having
visited the earth with a great dearth. At last Zeus appeases
her by allowing her daughter to spend two-thirds of the year with
her in the upper, world. Demeter then returns to Olympus, but
before her final departure from earth, in token of her gratitude,
she instructs the rulers of Eleusis in the art of agriculture and
in the solemnities and rites whereby she desires in future to
be honoured.

1 The form " demesne " is an Anglo-French spelling of the Old Fr.
demeine or demaine, belonging to a lord, from Med. Lat, domifiicus,
dominus, lord; dontinicum in Med. Lat. meant proprietas (see Du
Cange). From the later Fr. domaine, which approaches more nearly
the original Lat., comes the other Eng. form " domain," Which_ is
chiefly used in a non-legal sense of any tract of country or district
under the rule of any specific sovereign state, &c. _ " Domain " is,
however, the form kept in the legal phrase " Eminent Domain "
(8-f.).

Those who were initiated into the mysteries of Eleusis found a
d«ep meaning in the myth, which was held to teach the principle
of a future life, founded on the return of Persephone to the upper
world, or rather on the process of nature by which seed sown in
the ground must first die and rot before it . can yield new life
(see Mystery). At Eleusis, Demeter was venerated as the
introducer of all the blessings which agriculture brings in its
train — fixed dwelling-places, civil order, marriage and a peaceful
life; hence her name Thesmophoros, " the bringer of law and
order," and the festival Thesmophoria (q.v.). J. G. Frazer takes
the epithet to mean " bearer of the sacred objects deposited on
the altar "; L. R. Farnell (Cults of the Greek States, iii. 106)
suggests " the bringer of treasure or riches," as appropriate to the
goddess of corn and of the lower world; others refer the name
to " the law of wedlock " (0ecr/i6s Xkrpoto, Odyssey, xxiii. 296,
where, however, D. B. Monro translates " place, situation ").
At Eleusis also, Triptolemus (q.v.), the son of Celeus, who was
said to have invented the plough and to have been sent by
Demeter round the world to diffuse the knowledge of agriculture,
had a temple and threshing-floor.

In the agrarian legends of Iasion and Erysichthon, Demeter
also plays an important part. Iasion (or Iasius), a beautiful
youth, inspired her with love for him in a thrice-ploughed field
in Crete, the fruit of their union being Plutus (wealth). Accord-
ing to Homer (Odyssey, v. 128) he was slain by Zeus with a
thunderbolt. The story is compared by Frazer (Golden Bough,
2nd ed., ii. 217) with the west Prussian custom of the mock
birth of a child on the harvest-field, the object being to ensure
a plentiful crop for the coming year. It seems to point to the
supersession of a primitive local Cretan divinity by Demeter, and
the adoption of agriculture by the inhabitants, bringing wealth
in its train in the form of the fruits of the earth, both vegetable
and mineral. Some scholars, identifying Iasion with Jason (q.v.),
regard Thessaly as the original home of the legend, and the union
with Demeter as the hpos yafXos of mother earth with a health
god. Erysichthon (" tearer up of the earth "), son of Triopas or
Myrmidon, having cut down the trees in a grove sacred to
the goddess, was punished by her with terrible hunger
(Callimachus, Hymn to Demeter; Ovid, Metam. viii. 738-878).
Perhaps Erysichthon may be explained as the personification of
the labourer, who by the systematic cultivation and tilling of the
soil endeavours to force the crops, instead of allowing them to
mature unmolested as in the good old times. Tearing up the
soil with the plough is regarded as an invasion of the domain
of the earth-mother, punished by the all-devouring hunger for
wealth, that increases with increasing produce. According to
another view, Erysichthon is the destroyer of trees, who wastes
away as the plant itself loses its vigour. It is possible that the
story may originally have been connected with tree- worship.
Here again, as in the case of Iasion, a conflict between an older
and a younger cult seems to be alluded to (for the numerous
interpretations see O. Crusius s.v. in Roscher's Lexikon).

It is as a corn-goddess that Demeter appears in Homer and
Hegibd, and numerous epithets from various sources (see
Bruchmann, Epitheta Deorum, supplement to Roscher's Lexikon,
i. 2) attest her character as such. The name 'IouXoi (? at Delos),
from ToiAos, " corn-sheaf," has been regarded as identifying the
goddess with the sheaf, and as proving that the cult of Demeter
originated in the worship of the corn-mother or corn-spirit, the
last sheaf having a more or less divine character for the primitive
husbandman. A ccor ding to this view, the prototypes of Demeter
and Persephone are the corn-mother and harvest maiden of
northern Europe, the corri-fetishes of the field (Frazer, Golden
Bough, 2nd ed., ii. 217, 222; but see Farnell, Cults, iii. 35).
The influence of Demeter^ however, was not limited to corn, but
extended to vegetation generally and all the fruits of the earth,
with the curious exception of the bean, the use of which was
forbidden at Eleusis, and for the protection of which a special
patron was invented. In this wider sense Demeter is akin to Ge,
with whom she has several epithets in common, and is sometimes
identified with Rhea-Cybele; thus Pindar speaks of Demeter
X<&kokp6tos (" brass-rattling "), an epithet obviously more

DEMETER

981

suitable to the Asiatic than to the Greek earth-goddess. Although
the goddess of agriculture is naturally inclined to peace and
averse from war, the memory of the time when her land was won
and kept by the sword still lingers in the epithets xpvaaopos and
^Kjnjcjmpos and in the name Triptolemus, which probably means
'•' thrice fighter " rather than " thrice plougher."

Another important aspect of Demeter was that of a divinity
of the under- world; as such she is x8°via at Sparta and especi-
ally at Hermione in Argolis, where she had a celebrated temple,
said to have been founded by Clymenus (one of the names of
Hades-Pluto) and his sister Chthonia, the children of Phoroneus,
an Argive hero. Here there was said to be a descent into the
lower world, and local tradition made it the scene of the rape
of Persephone. At the festival Chthonia, a cow (representing,
according to Mannhardt, the spirit of vegetation), which volun-
tarily presented itself, was sacrificed by three old women. Those
joining in the procession wore garlands of hyacinth, which seems
to attribute a chthonian character to the ceremony, although it
may also have been connected with agriculture (see S. Wide,
De Sacris Troezeniorum, Hermionensinm,Epidauriorum, Upsala,
The striking use of the term S^ijrpetot in the sense of

" the dead " may be noted in this connexion.

The remarkable epithets, 'Epiviis and MeAcura, as applied
to Demeter, were both localized in Arcadia, the first at Thelpusa
(or rather Onkeion close by), the second at Phigalia (see
W. Immerwahr, Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens, i. 1891).
According to theThelpusan story, Demeter, during her wanderings
in search of Persephone, changed herself into a mare to avoid the
persecution of Poseidon. The god, however, assumed the form
of a stallion, and the fruit of the union was a daughter of mystic
name and the horse Areion (or Erion) . Demeter, at first enraged,
afterwards calmed down, and washed herself in the river Ladon
by way of purification. Demeter " the angry " (kpiviis) became
Demeter " the bather " (Kovala). An almost identical story was
current in the neighbourhood of Tilphossa, a Boeotian spring.
In the Phigalian legend, no mention is made of the horse Areion,
but only of the daughter, who is called Despoina (mistress),
a title common to all divinities connected with the under-world.
Demeter, clad in black (hence ixthaxva) in token of mourning
for her daughter and wrath with Poseidon, retired into a cave.
During that time the earth bore no fruit, and the inhabitants of
the world were threatened with starvation. At last Pan, the old
god of Arcadia, discovered her hiding-place, and informed Zeus,
who sent the Moirae (Fates) to fetch her out. The cave, still
called Mavrospelya ("black cave"), was ever afterwards regarded
as sacred to Demeter, and in it, according to information given to
Pausanias, there had been set up an image of the goddess, a
female form seated on a rock, but with a horse's head and mane,
to which were attached snakes and other wild animals. It was
clothed in a black garment reaching to the feet, and held in one
hand a dolphin, in the other a dove. The image was destroyed
by fire, replaced by the sculptor Onatas from inspiration in a
dream, but disappeared again before the time of Pausanias.

Both fiekaiva and tpivvs, according to Farnell, are epithets of
Demeter as an earth-goddess of the under-world. The first has
been explained as referring to the gloom of her abode, or the
blackness of the withered corn. The second, according to Max
Miiller and A. Kuhn, is the etymological equivalent of the
Sanskrit Saranyu, who, having turned herself into a mare, is
pursued by Vivasvat, and becomes the mother of the two Asvins,
the Indian Dioscuri, the Indian and Greek myths being regarded
as identical. According to Farnell, the meaning of the epithet
is to be looked for in the original conception of Erinys, which was
that of an earth-goddess akin to Ge, thus naturally associated
with Demeter, rather than that of a wrathful avenging deity.

Various interpretations have been given of the horse-headed
form of the Black Demeter: (1) that the horse was one of the
forms of the corn-spirit in ancient Greece; (2) that it was an
animal " devoted " to the chthonian goddess; (3) that it is
totemistic; (4) that the form was adopted from Poseidon
Hippios, who is frequently associated with the earth-goddess and
is said to have received the name Hippios first at Thelpusa, in

order that Demeter might figure as the mother of Areion (for a
discussion of the whole subject see Farnell, Cults, hi. pp. 50-62).
The union of Poseidon and Demeter is thus explained by Mann-
hardt. As the waves of the sea are fancifully compared to horses,
so a field of corn, waving in the breeze, may be said to represent
the wedding of the sea-god and the corn-goddess. In any case
the association of Poseidon, representing the fertilizing element
of moisture, with Demeter, who causes the plants and seeds to
grow, is quite natural, and seems to have been widespread.

Demeter also appears as a goddess of health, of birth and of
marriage; and a certain number of political and ethnic titles
is assigned to her. Of the latter the most noteworthy are:
Havaxaia at Aegium in Achaea, pointing to some connexion with
the Achaean league; 'Axala, 1 " the Achaean goddess," unless it
refers to the" sorrow " of the goddess for the loss of her daughter
(cf. 'Axea in Boeotia); and, most important of all, 'A)j.4>iktvovLs,
at Anthela near Thermopylae, as patron-goddess of the Amphic-
tyonic league, subsequently so well known in connexion with the
temple at Delphi.

The Eleusinia and Thesmophoria are discussed elsewhere, but
brief mention may here be made of certain agrarian festivals held
in honour of Demeter.

1. Haloa, obviously connected with dXcos (" threshing-floor ");
begun at Athens and finished at Eleusis, where there was a
threshing-floor of Triptolemus, in the month Poseideon
(December). This date, which is confirmed by historical and
epigraphical evidence, seems inappropriate, and it is suggested
(A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen, p. 365 foil.) that the festival,
originally held in autumn, was subsequently placed later, so as
to synchronize with the winter Dionysia. Dionysus, as the god
of vines, and (in a special procession) Poseidon (j>vTa\p.Los (" god
of vegetation ") were associated with Demeter. In addition to
being a harvest festival, marked by the ordinary popular rejoic-
ings, the Haloa had a religious character. The airapxa-i (" first
fruits ") were conveyed to Eleusis, where sacrifice was offered
by a priestess, men being prohibited from undertaking the duty.
A TeXeri7 (" initiatory ceremony ") of women by a woman also
took place at Eleusis, characterized by obscene jests and the
use of phallic emblems. The sacramental meal on this occasion
consisted of the produce of land and sea, certain things (pome-
granates, honey, eggs) being forbidden for mystical reasons.
Although the offerings at the festival were bloodless, the ceremony
of the presentation of the airapxa-l was probably accompanied
by animal sacrifice (Farnell, Foucart); Mommsen, however,
considers the offerings to have been pastry imitations. Certain
games (varptos aycov), of which nothing is known, terminated the
proceedings. In Roman imperial times the ephebi had to deliver
a speech at the Haloa.

2. Chloeia or Chloia, the -festival of the corn beginning to
sprout, held at Eleusis in the early spring (Anthesterion) in
honour of Demeter Chloe, " the green," the goddess of growing
vegetation. This is to be distinguished from the later sacrifice
of a ram to the same goddess on the 6th of the month Thargelion,
probably intended as an act of propitiation. It has been identified
with the Procharisteria (sometimes called Proschaireleria),
another spring festival, but this is doubtful. The scholiast on
Pindar (01. ix. 150) mentions an Athenian harvest festival
Eucharisteria.

3. Proerosia, at which prayers were offered for an abundant
harvest, before the land was ploughed for sowing. It was also
called Proarcturia, an indication that it was held before the rising
of Arcturus. According to the traditional account, when Greece
was threatened with famine, the Delphic oracle ordered first-
fruits to be brought to Athens from all parts of the country,
which were to be offered by the Athenians to the goddess Deo on
behalf of all the contributors. The most important-part of the
festival was the three sacred ploughings — the Athenian inr6
Tiokw,: the Eleusinian on the Rharian plain, the Scirian (a
compromise between Athens and Eleusis). The festival itself

1 O. Gruppe (Grieckische Mylhologie, ii. 1177, note 1) considers it
" certain " that 'Axala = 'k\t\aia, although he is unable to explain
the form.

982

DEMETRIA— DEMETRIUS

took plice, probably some time in September, at Eleusis. In
later times the ephebi also took part in the Proerosia.

4. Thalysia, a thanksgiving festival, held in autumn after the
harvest in the island of Cos (see Theocritus vii.).

5. The name of Demeter is also associated with the
Scirophoria (see Athena). It is considered probable that
the festival was originally held in honour of Athena, but that
the growing importance of the Eleusinia caused it to be attached
to Demeter and Kore.

The attributes of Demeter are chiefly connected with her
character as goddess of agriculture and vegetation — ears of corn,
the poppy, the mystic basket {calathus) filled with flowers, corn
and fruit of all kinds, the pomegranate being especially common.
Of animals, the cow and the pig are her favourites, the latter
owing to its productivity ancl the cathartic properties of its
blood. The crane is associated with her as an indicator of the
weather. As a chthonian divinity she is accompanied by a
snake; the myrtle, asphodel and narcissus (which Persephone
was gathering when carried off by Hades) also are sacred to her.

In Greek art, Demeter is made to resemble Hera, only more
matronly and of milder expression; her form is broader and
fuller. She is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by horses or
dragons, sometimes walking, sometimes seated upon a throne,
alone or with her daughter. The Demeter of Cnidus in the
British Museum, of the school of Praxiteles, apparently shows her
mourning for the loss of her daughter. The article Greek Art,
fig. 67 (pi. iv.), gives a probable representation of Demeter (or
her priestess) from the stone of a vault in a Crimean grave.

The Romans identified Demeter with their own Ceres (q.v.).

See L. Preller, Demeter und Persephone (1837); P. R. Forster,
Der Raub und die Ruckkehr der Persephone (1874), in which consider-
able space is devoted to the representations of the myth in art;
W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (1884); J. E. Harrison,
Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903) ; L. Dyer, The
Gods in Greece (1891); J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (2nd ed.),
ii. 168-222 ; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., by C. Robert) ;
O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, iv. pt. 2 (1901) ;
L. Bloch in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie ; O. Gruppe, Griechische
Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte, ii. (1907) ; L. R. Farnell, Cults
of the Greek States, iii. (1907) ; article " Ceres " by F. Lenormant in
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites. (J. H. F.)

DEMETRIA, a Greek festival in honour of Demeter, held at
seed-time, and lasting ten days. Nothing is known of it beyond
the fact that the men who took part in it lashed one another with
whips of bark (ixoporrov), while the women made obscene jests.
It is even doubtful whether it was a particular festival at all or
only another name for the Eleusinia or Thesmophoria. The
Dionysia also were called Demetria in honour of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, upon whom divine honours were conferred by the
Athenians.

Hesychius, s.v. hopottov; Poiiux i. 37; Diod. Sic. v. 4; Plutarch,
Demetrius, 12 ; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites.

DEMETRIUS, king of Bactria, was the son of the Graeco-
Bactrian king Euthydemus, for whom he negotiated a peace with
Antiochus the Great in 206 (Polyb. xi. 34). Soon afterwards he
crossed the Hindu Kush and began the invasion of India (Strabo
xi. 516); he conquered the Punjab and the valley of the Indus
down to the sea and to Gujerat. The town Sangala, a town of the
Kathaeans in the Punjab (Arrian v. 22, 2 ff.), he named after his
father Euthydemia (Ptol. vii. 1, 46). That his power extended
into Arachosia (Afghanistan) is proved by the name of a town
Demetrias near Kandahar (Isidor. Charac. 19, cf. Strabo xi. 516).
On his coins he wears an elephant's skin with trunk and teeth on
his head; on bronze coins, which have also an Indian legend in
Kharoshti letters (see Bactrja), he calls himself the unvanquished
king (Bcun.X«tos avixrirov Aijjurjrptou) . One of his coins has
already the square form used in India instead of the circular.
Eventually he was defeated by the usurper Eucratides (q.v.), who
meanwhile had risen to great power in Bactria. About his death
we know nothing; his young son Euthydemus II. (known only
from coins) can have ruled only a short time. (Ed. M.) .

DEMETRIUS, the name of two kings of Macedonia.

1. Demetrius I. (337-283 bx.), surnamed Poliorcetes
(" Besieger "), son of Antigonus Cyclops and Stratonice. At

the age of twenty-two he was left by his father to defend Syria
against Ptolemy the son of Lagus; he was totally defeated near
Gaza (3 1 2) , but soon partially repaired his loss by a victory in the
neighbourhood of Myus. After an unsuccessful expedition against
Babylon, and several campaigns against Ptolemy on the coasts of
Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to
Athens. He freed the city from the power of Cassander and
Ptolemy, expelled the garrison which had been stationed there
under Demetrius of Phalerum, and besieged and took Munychia
(307) . After these victories he was worshipped by the Athenians
as a tutelary deity under the title of Soter (" Preserver "). In
the campaign of 306 against Ptolemy he defeated Menelaus
(the brother of Ptolemy) in Cyprus, and completely destroyed the
naval power of Egypt. In 305 he endeavoured to punish the
Rhodians for having deserted his cause; and his ingenuity in
devising new instruments of siege, in his unsuccessful attempt
to reduce the capital, gained him the appellation of Poliorcetes.
He returned a second time to Greece as liberator. But his
licentiousness and extravagance made the Athenians regret the
government of Cassander. He soon, however, roused the jealous]
of the successors of Alexander; and Seleucus, Cassander and
Lysimachus united to destroy Antigonus and his son. The hostile
armies met at Ipsus in Phrygia (301). Antigonus was killed ir
the battle, and Demetrius, after sustaining a severe loss, retired
to Ephesus. This reverse of fortune raised up many enemies
against him; and the Athenians refused even to admit him intc
their city. But he soon afterwards ravaged the territory of
Lysimachus, and effected a reconciliation with Seleucus, to whom
he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens was at this
time oppressed by the tyranny of Lachares; but Demetrius,
after a protracted blockade, gained possession of the city (294)
and pardoned the inhabitants their former misconduct. In the
same year he established himself on the throne of Macedonia by,
the murder of Alexander, the son of Cassander. But here he was
continually threatened by Pyrrhus, who took advantage of his
occasional absence to ravage the defenceless part of his kingdom
(Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 7 ff.) ; and at length the combined forces of
Pyrrhus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, assisted by the disaffected
among his own subjects, obliged him to leave Macedonia after he
had sat on the throne for six years (294-288). He passed into
Asia, and attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with
varying success; but famine and pestilence destroyed the greater
part of his army, and he solicited Seleucus for support and assist-
ance. But before he reached Syria hostilities broke out; and
after he had gained some advantages over his son-in-law,
Demetrius was totally forsaken by his troops on the field of battle,
and surrendered his person to Seleucus. His son Antigonus
offered all his possessions, and even his person, in order to procure
his father's liberty; but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius
died in the fifty-fourth year of his age, after a confinement of
three years (283). His remains were given to Antigonus,
honoured with a splendid funeral at Corinth, and thence conveyed
to Demetrias. His posterity remained in possession of the
Macedonian throne till the time of Perseus, who was conquered
by the Romans.

See Life by Plutarch; Diod. Sic. xix. xx.; Wilamowitz-Moellen-
dorff, Antigonos von Karystos; De Sanctis, Contributi alia storia
Ateniese in Beloch's Studi di storia antica (1893); Fergusson in
Lehmann's Beitrage z. alt. Gesch. (Klio) vol. v. (1905) ; also authori-
ties under Macedonian Empire.

2. Demetrius II., son' of Antigonus Gonatas, reigned from
239 to 229 b.c. He had already during his father's lifetime
distinguished himself by defeating Alexander of Epirus at Derdia
and so saving Macedonia (about 260 ?). On his accession he had
to face a coalition which the two great leagues, usually rivals,
the Aetolian and Achaean, formed against the Macedonian
power. He succeeded in dealing this coalition severe blows,
wresting Boeotia from their alliance. The revolution in Epirus,
which substituted a republican league for the monarchy, gravely
weakened his position. Demetrius had also to defend Macedonia
against the wild peoples of the north. A battle with the Dar-
danians turned out disastrously, and he died shortly afterwards,

DEMETRIUS

983

leaving Philip, his son by Chryseis, still a child. Former wives
of Demetrius were Stratonice, the daughter of the Seleucid king
Antiochus I., Phthia the daughter of Alexander of Epirus, and
Nicaea, the widow of his cousin Alexander. The chronology of
these marriages is a matter of dispute.

See Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. viii. (1847) ; Ad. Holm, Griech.
Gesch. vol.iv. (1894); B. Niese, Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten,
vol.ii. (1899) ; J.Beloch,Gn'ecA.Geic^.vol.iii. (1904). (E. R. B.)

DEMETRIUS, the name of three kings of Syria.

Demetrius I. (d. 150 B.C.), surnamed Soter, was sent to Rome
as a hostage during the reign of his father, Seleucus IV. Philopator,
but after his father's death in 175 B.C. he escaped from confine-
ment, and established himself on the Syrian throne (162 B.C.)
after overthrowing and murdering King Antiochus V. Eupator.
He acquired his surname of Soter, or Saviour, from the
Babylonians, whom he delivered from the tyranny of the Median
satrap, Timarchus, and is famous in Jewish history for his contests
with the Maccabees. Hated for his vices, Demetrius fell in battle
against the usurper, Alexander Balas, in 150 B.C.

Demetrius II. (d. 125 B.C.), surnamed Nicator, son of
Demetrius I., fled to Crete after the death of his father, but about
147 B.C. he returned to Syria, and with the help of Ptolemy VII.
Philometor, king of Egypt, regained his father's throne. In
140 B.C. he marched against Mithradates, king of Parthia, but
was taken prisoner by treachery, and remained in captivity for
ten years, regaining his throne about 129 B.C. on the death of his
brother, Antiochus VII., who had usurped it. His cruelties and
vices, however, caused him to be greatly detested, and during
another civil war he was defeated in a battle at Damascus, and
killed near Tyre, possibly at the instigation of his wife, a daughter
of Ptolemy VII., who was indignant at his subsequent marriage
with a daughter of the Parthian king, Mithradates. His successor
was his son, Antiochus VIII. Grypus.

Demetrius III. (d. 88 B.C.), called Euergetes and Philometor,
was the son of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. By the assistance of
Ptolemy X. Lathyrus, king of Egypt, he recovered part of his
Syrian dominions from Antiochus X. Eusebes, and held his court
at Damascus. In attempting to dethrone his brother, Philip
Epiphanes, he was defeated by the Arabs and Parthians, was
taken prisoner, and kept in confinement in Parthia by King
Mithradates until his death in 88 B.C.

DEMETRIUS, a Greek sculptor of the early part of the 4th
century B.C., who is said by ancient critics to have been notable
for the life-like realism of his statues. His portrait of Pellichus,
a Corinthian general, " with fat paunch and bald head, wearing
a cloak which leaves him half exposed, with some of the hairs of
his head flowing in the wind, and prominent veins," was admired
by Lucian. He was contrasted with Cresilas (q.v.),a.a idealizing
sculptor of the generation before. Since however the peculiari-
ties mentioned by Lucian do not appear in Greek portraits before
the 3rd century B.C., and since the Greek art of the 4th century
consistently idealizes, there would seem to be a difficulty to
explain. The date of Demetrius above given is confirmed by
inscriptions found on the Athenian Acropolis. (P. G. )

DEMETRIUS, a Cynic philosopher, born at Sunium, who lived
partly at Corinth and later in Rome during the reigns of Caligula,
Nero and Vespasian. He was an intimate friend of Thrasea
Paetus and Seneca, and was held in the highest estimation for his
consistent disregard of creature comfort in the pursuit of virtue.
His contempt for worldly prosperity is shown by his reply to
Caligula who, wishing to gain his friendship, sent him a large
present. He replied, " If Caligula had intended to bribe me, he
should have offered me his crown." Vespasian banished him,
but Demetrius laughed at the punishment and mocked the
emperor's anger. He reached the logical conclusion of Cynicism
in attaching no real importance to scientific data.

DEMETRIUS DONSKOI 1 (1350-1389), grand duke of Vladimir
and Moscow, son of the grand duke Ivan Ivanovich by his second
consort Aleksandra, was placed on the grand-ducal throne of
Vladimir by the Tatar khan in 1362, and married the princess
Eudoxia of Nizhniy Novgorod in 1364. It was now that Moscow
1 Of the Don.

was first fortified by a strong wall, or kreml (citadel), and the
grand duke began " to bring all the other princes under his will."
Michael, prince of Tver, appealed however for help to Olgierd,
grand duke of Lithuania, who appeared before Moscow with his
army and compelled Demetrius to make restitution to the prince
of Tver (1369). The war between Tver and Vladimir continued
intermittently for some years, and both the Tatars and the
Lithuanians took an active part in it. Demetrius was generally
successful in what was really a contention for the supremacy.
In 137 1 he won over the khan by a personal visit to the Horde,
add in 1372 he defeated the Lithuanians at Lyubutsk. Demetrius
then formed a league of all the Russian princes against the Tatars
and in 1380 encountered them on the plain of Kulikovo, between
the rivers Nepryadvaya and Don, where he completely routed
them, the grand khan Mamai perishing in his flight from the field.
But now Toktamish, the deputy of Tamerlane, suddenly appeared
in the Horde and organized a punitive expedition against
Demetrius. Moscow was taken by treachery, and the Russian
lands were again subdued by the Tatars (1381). Nevertheless,
while compelled to submit to the Horde, Demetrius maintained
his hegemony over Tver, Novgorod and the other recalcitrant
Russian principalities, and even held his own against the Lithu-
anian grand dukes, so that by his last testament he was able to
leave not only his ancestral possessions but his grand-dukedom
also to his son Basil. Demetrius was one of the greatest of the
north Russian grand dukes. He was not merely a cautious and
tactful statesman, but also a valiant and capable captain, in
striking contrast to most of the princes of his house.

See Sergyei Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vols, i.-ii. (St
Petersburg, 1857), &c. ; Nikolai Savelev, Demetrius Ivanovich
Donskoi (Rus.), (Moscow, 1837). (R. N. B.)

DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS (c. 345-283 B.C.), Attic orator,
statesman and philosopher, born at Phalerum, was a pupil of
Theophrastus and an adherent of the Peripatetic school. He
governed the city of Athens as representative of Cassander (q.v.)
for ten years from 317. It is said that he so won the hearts of
the people that 360 statues were erected in his honour; but
opinions are divided as to the character of his rule. On the
restoration of the old democracy by Demetrius Poliorcetes, he
was condemned to death by the fickle Athenians and obliged to
leave the city. He escaped to Egypt, where he was protected by
Ptolemy Lagus, to whom he is said to have suggested the founda-
tion of the Alexandrian library. Having incurred the displeasure
of Lagus's successor Philadelphus, Demetrius was banished to
Upper Egypt, where he died (according to some, voluntarily)
from the bite of an asp. Demetrius composed a large number of
works on poetry, history, politics, rhetoric and accounts of
embassies, all of which are lost.

The treatise ITepJ 'Ep/njjceitts (on rhetorical expression), which is
often ascribed to him, is probably the work of a later Alexandrian
(1st century a.d.) of the same name; it has been edited by
L. Radermacher (1901) and W. Rhys Roberts (1902), the last-named
providing English translation, introduction, notes, glossary and
complete bibliography. Fragments in C. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Graec.
ii. p. 362. See A. Holm, History of Greece (Eng. trans.), iv. 60.

DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO-(or False), the name by which three
Muscovite princes and pretenders, who claimed to be Demetrius,
son of Ivan the Terrible, are known in history. The real
Demetrius had been murdered, while still a child, in 1591, at
Uglich, his widowed mother's appanage.

1. In the reign of Tsar Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the first
of these pretenders, whose origin is still obscure, emigrated to
Lithuania and persuaded many of the magnates there of his
tsarish birth, and consequently of his right to the Muscovite
throne. His real name seems to have been Yury or Gregory, and
he was the grandson of Bogdan Otrepev, a Galician boyar, and
a tool in the hands of Tsar Boris Godunov's enemies. He first
appears in history circa 1600, when his learning and assurance
seem to have greatly impressed the Muscovite patriarch Job.
Tsar Boris, however, ordered him to be seized and examined,
whereupon he fled to Prince Constantine Ostrogsky at Ostrog,
and subsequently entered the service of another Lithuanian,
Prince Wisniwiecki, who accepted him for what he pretended

9 8 4

DEMIDOV

to be and tried to enlist the sympathy of the Polish king,
Sigismund III., in his favour. The king refused to support him
officially, but his cause was taken up, as a speculation, by the
Polish magnate YuryMniszek, whose daughter Marina he after-
wards wedded and crowned as his tsaritsa. The Jesuits also seem
to have believed in the man, who was evidently an unconscious
impostor brought up from his youth to believe that he was the
real Demetrius; numerous fugitives from Moscow also acknow-
ledged him, and finally he set out, at the head of an army of Polish
and Lithuanian volunteers, Cossacks and Muscovite fugitives,
to drive out the Godunovs, after being received into the Church
of Rome. At the beginning of 1604 he was invited to Cracow,
where Sigismund presented him to the papal nuncio Rangoni.
His public conversion took place on the 1 7th of April. In October
the false Demetrius crossed the Russian frontier, and shortly
afterwards routed a large Muscovite army beneath the walls of
Novgorod-Syeversk. The sudden death of Tsar Boris (April 13,
1605) removed the last barrier to the further progress of the
pretender. The principal Russian army, under P. F. Basmanov,
at once went over to him (May 7) ; on the 20th of June he made
his triumphal entry into Moscow, and on the 21st of July he was
crowned tsar by a new patriarch of his own choosing, the Greek
Isidore. He at once proceeded to introduce a whole series of
political and economical reforms. From all accounts, he must
have been a man of original genius and extraordinary resource.
He did his best to relieve the burdens of the peasantry; he formed
the project of a grand alliance between the emperor, the pope,
Venice, Poland and Muscovy against the Turk; he displayed an
amazing toleration in religious matters which made people suspect
that he was a crypto- Arian; and far from being, as was expected,
the tool of Poland and the pope, he maintained from the first a
dignified and independent attitude. But his extravagant opinion
of his own authority (he lost no time in styling himself emperor) ,
and his predilection for Western civilization, alarmed the ultra-
conservative boyars (the people were always on his side), and a
conspiracy was formed against him, headed by Basil Shuisky,
whose life he had saved a few months previously. A favourable
opportunity for the conspirators presented itself on the 8th of
May 1 606, when Demetrius was married to Marina Mniszek.
Taking advantage of the hostility of the Muscovites towards the
Polish regiments which had escorted Marina to Moscow and there
committed some excesses, the boyars urged the citizens to rise
against the Poles, while they themselves attacked and slew
Demetrius in the Kreml on the night of the 1 7th of May.

See Sergyei Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. viii. (St Peters-
burg, 1857, &c.) ; Nikolai Kostomarov, Historical Monographs (Rus.)
vols, iv.-vi. (St Petersburg, 1863, &c); Orest Levitsky, The First
False Demetrius as the Propagandist of Catholicism in Russia (Rus.)
(St Petersburg, 1886); Paul Pierling, Rome et Demetrius (Paris,
1878) ; R. N. Bain, Poland and Russia, cap. 10 (Cambridge, 1907).

2. The second pretender, called " the thief of Tushino," first
appeared on the scene circa 1607 at Starodub. He is supposed to
have been either a priest's son or a converted Jew, and was highly
educated, relatively to the times he lived in, knowing as he did
the Russian and Polish languages and being somewhat of an
expert in liturgical matters. He pretended at first to be the
Muscovite boyarin Nagi; but confessed, under torture, that he
was Demetrius Ivanovich, whereupon he was taken at his word
and joined by thousands of Cossacks, Poles and Muscovites. He

speedily captured Karachev, Bryansk and other towns; was
reinforced by the Poles; and in the spring of 1608 advanced
upon Moscow, routing the army of Tsar Basil Shuisky, at Bolkhov,
on his way. Liberal promises of the wholesale confiscation of
the estates of the boyars drew the common people to him, and he
entrenched himself at the village of Tushino, twelve versts from
the capital, which he converted into an armed camp, collecting
therein 7000 Polish soldiers, 10,000 Cossacks and 10,000 of the
rabble. In the course of the year he captured Marina Mniszek,
who acknowledged him to be her husband (subsequently quieting
her conscience by privately marrying this impostor, who in no
way resembled her first husband), and brought him the support
of the Lithuanian magnates Mniszek and Sapieha so that his
forces soon exceeded 100,000 men. He raised to the rank of
patriarch another illustrious captive, Philaret Romanov, and
won over the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Kashin
and other places to his allegiance. But a series of subsequent
disasters, and the arrival of King Sigismund III. at Sinolensk,
induced him to fly his camp disguised as a peasant and go to
Kostroma, where Marina joined him and he lived once more in
regal state. He also made another but unsuccessful attack o\
Moscow, and, supported by the Don Cossacks, recovered a hold
over all south-eastern Russia. He was killed, while half drunk,
on the nth of December 1610, by a Tatar whom he had flogged.
See Sergyei Solovev, History of Russia (Rus..^ vd. viii. (St Peters-
burg, 1657, &c).

3. The third, a still more enigmatical person than his pre.
decessors, supposed to have been a deacon called Siderka,
appeared suddenly, " from, behind the river Yanza," in the
Ingrian town of Ivangorod (Narva), proclaiming himself the
tsarevich Demetrius Ivanovich, on the 28th of March 1611.
The Cossacks, ravaging the environs of Moscow, acknowledged
him as tsar on the 2nd of March 161 2, and under threat of
vengeance in case of non-compliance, the gentry of Pskov also
kissed the cross to "the thief of Pskov," as he was usually nick-
named. On the 18th of May 1612 he fled from Pskov, was
seized and delivered up to the authorities at Moscow, and there
executed.

See Sergyei Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. viii. (St Peters-
burg, 1857, &c). (R. N. B.)

DEMIDOV, the name of a famous Russian family, founded by
Nikita Demidov (b. c. 1665), who was originally a blacksmith
serf. He made his fortune by his skill in the manufacture of
weapons, and established an iron foundry for the government.
Peter the Great, with whom he was a favourite, ennobled him
in 1720. His son, Akinfiy Demidov (d. c. 1740), increased his
inherited wealth by the discovery and working of gold, silver and
copper mines. The latter's nephew, Paul Grigoryevich Demidov
(1738-1821), was a great traveller who was a benefactor of
Russian scientific education; he founded an annual prize for
Russian literature, awarded by the Academy of Sciences.
Paul's nephew, Nikolay Nikitich Demidov (1774-1828), raised
and commanded a regiment to oppose Napoleon's invasion, and
carried on the accumulation of the family wealth from mining;
he contributed liberally to the erection of four bridges in St
Petersburg, and to the propagation of scientific culture in Moscow.
Paul's son, Anatoli Demidov (181 2-1870), was a well-known
traveller and patron of art; he married Princess Mathilde.
daughter of Jerome Bonaparte.

PKINTED IN U.S.A.